NEW AMERICAN ENCYCLOP EDI A OF A PRACTICAL AND EDUCATIONAL COMPENDIUM SUITED TO THE NEEDS OF EVERY-DAY LIFE Including exhaustive practical treatises especially adapted for self-instruction in English Grammar, Rhetoric and Literature, Modern Languages, the Plastic and Decorative Arts, Music Vocal and Instrumental; the Theoretical and Practical Sciences ; Health, Food, Exercises, Amusements, Games and Pastimes; the Principles of Law, Business and Etiquette; Agriculture, Horticulture and Domestic Economy; History, Politics and Mathematics; together with a multitude of interesting Facts and useful Recipes suited to every-day needs NEW EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED BY JAMES E. ROMANS, A.M. Author of "Self -Propelled Vehicles," "A B C of the Telephone" etc. NEW YORK P. F. COLLIER & SON COPYRIGHT 1908 By P. F. COLLIES & SON PREFACE A PRACTICAL education is the greatest wealth that man or woman may possess. It is a property that can not be alienated, yet one that may be shared with others without loss. Education is the legacy that all good parents must bequeath to their children. It is an investment that all young people must be persuaded to seek. Some part of every day should be devoted to the acquire- ment of a little more useful knowledge. Yet so many kinds of information are required nowadays that no school or college supplies enough. "Self-made* * means more than ever, and much of the most useful knowledge is that which is acquired in painstaking home-study to which is devoted from a few minutes to an hour daily. It is this need that this book is intended to supply. It is a practical book, to which men and women liberally in- formed on their own special topics have contributed their treasures of knowledge in compressed and intelligible form. It is both a manual of study and a work of reference for the whole family, and, while so simple in style that a child may understand it, is a source of power to readers of all ages. Though the primary object of the publishers has been to supply the information of greatest value in business and professional pursuits, a great deal of attention has also been paid to methods of securing that perfect bodily devel- opment without which the young man and young woman find themselves outstripped at the beginning of life's race. No less essential to success is a thorough understanding of the social graces and attainments, which have been ex- haustively discussed in these pages. The chapters on Mer- cantile Law, with forms for all manner of legal documents, iv PREFACE be found indispensable. The art of writing shorthand, so useful in mercantile or professional life, is fully treated and copiously illustrated. Book-keeping is so exhaustively explained that a teacher is unnecessary, while a "lightning calculator" has been introduced that will save many hours of time in every month. The Complete Letter Writer puts in the possession of every reader the great art of polite correspondence. The systems herewith presented for the self-teaching of French, German, and Spanish are the simplest and most complete ever published. While much that is included in these volumes is not dis- tinctly educational, the end of imparting useful and constantly needed information is never overlooked. The several trea- tises on the English language, including that on words of foreign origin, must prove invaluable. History and govern- mental theory are treated with sufficient fulness to give a groundwork for future elaboration. The fine arts, including music, have received the space they require. It will be found that the treatises on music contain all that is essen- tial to the beginner, furnishing rules that may be implicitly followed, in order to obtain mastery of the several instru- ments described. Technical science is fully represented by the treatises on steam and gas engines and the first principles of electricity. The last-named will be found a particularly complete intro- duction to the study of this vast subject, about which whole libraries of abstruse works have already been written. As far as possible, related subjects have been classified together, both for convenience in reference and to enable ready comparison in reading. In short, neither pains nor time has been spared in the effort to render these volumes handy reference books and a ready means for self-education in such practical branches a* affect every-day life. CONTENTS ENGLISH GRAMMAR I ON WRITING GOOD ENGLISH 27 How TO WRITE FICTION > 34 THE WRITING OF POETRY 39 ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN 48 LANGUAGES 63 FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT 67 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 98 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 139 PENMANSHIP 172 THE METRIC SYSTEM 186 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 194 OPERATION OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT 213 OPERATION OF THE ENGLISH GOVERNMENT 219 OPERATION OF THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT 224 OPERATION OF THE GERMAN GOVERNMENT 227 DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY 230 OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY 238 PRINCIPLES OF PERSPECTIVE , 246 THE ANATOMY OF ART 250 PAINTING 255 SCULPTURE MODELING 260 BRASS WORK . . . . 264 WOOD CARVING 268 PYROGRAPHY 271 RUDIMENTS OF Music 274 DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS 292 THE PIANO SELF-TAUGHT 298 THE VIOLIN SELF-TAUGHT 308 THE MANDOLIN SELF-TAUGHT ; 317 THE GUITAR SELF-TAUGHT , 322 THE VIOLONCELLO SELF-TAUGHT 330 THE CORNET SELF-TAUGHT 337 THE STUDY OF VOCAL Music r 344 INSTRUMENTAL SIGHT-READING 353 VOCAL SIGHT-READING , 355 (v) CONTENTS PHOTOGRAPHY 3f>3 ARCHITECTURE 371 STEAM ENGINES 381 GAS ENGINES 395 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY 402 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY 424 AUTOMOBILES 429 GAMES OK CARDS 435 GAMES OF SKILL 459 PARLOR MAGIC 478 ETIQUETTE 494 How TO PRESERVE YOUR HEALTH 511 GYMNASTICS 520 RIDING 534 SWIMMING 541 OUTDOOR GAMES 546 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 569 BOXING 574 WRESTLING 582 FENCING 588 JIU-JITSU 595 AGRICULTURE 600 THE HORSE 630 CATTLE 655 POULTRY 660 INDOOR GARDENING 679 HEALTH HINTS FOR WOMEN 684 THE NURSERY 706 COMMON-SENSE TALK ABOUT FOOD 719 A FEW LESSONS IN DANCING 723 PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE , 733 THE LETTER WRITER 74^ ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS 754 OUTLINES OF LAW , 763 FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS 781 CIVIL SERVICE RULES 702 COMMERCE AND MONEY 800 BOOKKEEPING 812 THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR 828 PHONOGRAPHY OR SHORTHAND 836 WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY 850 NOTED EVENTS IN THE WORLD'S HISTORY 864 HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS.. . 868 GRAMMAR GRAMMAR is the science of language, and its principal use is to show the methods of expressing thoughts with correctness and propriety, avoiding the commonest cause of misunderstanding the incorrect use of words. It must always be remembered that grammars can only define, but can not determine, the correct use of language. This depends, in every instance, upon the forms of thought and meaning to be conveyed; and in all languages was settled and employed long before the studies of gram- marians commenced. The importance of a correct use of language can not be overestimated. Laws and treaties have failed and irretrievable blunders have been made because of men who had not taken pains to so express themselves as to make their meaning unmistakable. In the present treatise the formation and derivation of words are not treated under Etymology, but are added, by way of illustration, in the succeeding article on the derivation of words from foreign roots. By this arrangement, not only do we avoid some repetition, but the subject is more conveniently presented for the student. THE TWO DEPARTMENTS OF GRAMMAR ETYMOLOGY (Greek, the "science of true uses and derivations"), which treats of the classification, formation, der- ivation, and inflection of words by them- selves ; SYNTAX (Greek, a "setting-together"), which treats of the combination of words into sentences, to the end of conveying defi- nite ideas ; making statements of fact, infer- ence or supposition, and asking questions. The grammar of each particular language differs from that of every other, principally in the different methods of forming words and sentences to convey ideas, and in the use of certain peculiar expressions known as idioms (Greek, "private or particular con- structions"). Comparative grammar seeks, 'by compar- ing the grammars of several languages, to reach the laws of inflection and construction common to them, and finally to all lan- guages. General or historic grammar at- tempts to explain the growth of language within a specified group. E T Y M O L O GY LETTERS. There are twenty-six letters in the English Alphabet: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L 1, M m, N n, O o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z. The number of sounds to be represented by these letters is estimated at about forty; and, in consequence, several of them stand for more sounds than one. It is somewhat remarkable that since this is the case, the letters c, q, and x should be superfluous ; the two sounds of c being represented by s and k, as in cell (sell), calends (kalends) ; q, being always followed by u, with the sound expressible by kw; and the sounds of x dif- fering in no respect from those of ks, gz, and z, in some words borrowed from other languages; as Xerxes (Zerxes) and Xeno- phon (Zenophon). It would be of consid- erable advantage, if symbols for the sounds represented now by the combinations of let- ters, ch, sh, th, ng, etc., could be devised and GRAMMAR introduced; but this is a matter of such great difficu'ty as to be almost impossible. THE VOWELS are a, e, i, \ , and some- times w and y. The latter are used as vowels when occurring with other vowels, as diphthongs, as in how, hay y being used for i in many proper names, as Whyte, etc. although both are consonants at the be- ginning of words, as in well, yell. The word, vowel, comes from the Latin stem, vocal, and indicates such a sound as can be made with the vocal organs open, and in a resting position. Thus, a simple vowel may be sounded for a long period, as may be found by experiment: a, as in ah, or as in at; e, as in beet, or as in get; i, as in bit; o, as in boat; u, as oo in boot. The sound of i, as in bite, is really com- pound or diphthongal, as is that of a, as in hate: hence, in attempting to sound either for a prolonged period, the voice automatically separates the two sounds, giving the latter, as may be found by ex- periment. The sounds of r, I, m and n may also be given vocally; whence in some lan- guages, like the Sanskrit, an r- vowel and an /-vowel are recognized in the alphabet; theoretically, also, an m-vowel and an n- vowel. The English sounds of th, as in the and in thin, made with the tip of the tongue against the upper and lower front teeth, together with 3, z, ch, sh, v, t, ph, gh, may also be sounded for a prolonged period, although not properly to be classed with vowels. THE ENGLISH VOWEL SOUNDS differ from those of all other languages of Europe. Thus, the sound which we express by a, they express by e; where we write e, they write i; where we use i, they employ ei; and our u corresponds with their eu. We must not forget, however, that the names of the vowels in English do not represent their natural, but only their modified, sounds the modification being evidently due to the influence of another vowel in he word, particularly silent e. This is in 4 sense analogous to the vowel modifica- tions met with in other languages. Thus, we have: SHORT. hat met bit not cut MODIFIED. hate mete bite note "cute** The English modified u, pronounced yoo, as in unit (yoonit) or lute (lyoot), is also peculiar to our language. The sound of i is modified by certain consonant combinations, such as gh and nd. Thus: nig and nigh, big and bight; bin and bind, grin and grind. The combinations of vowel sounds, called diphthongs and triphthongs, such as ae, ai, au, ei, ie, oe, oi, ou, eau, etc., express the intermediate sounds of this series, but they also do not correspond with those of the other European languages. CONSONANTS (Latin, "a sounding-to- gether") represent the sounds produced when the voice is interrupted by the vol- untary action of the throat, tongue, palate, nose, teeth, and lips, and, as the word indi- cates, may be sounded only with some other to wit, a vowel. Thus, b is produced by an opening of the lips, when the tongue is in a particular position in relation to the teeth, and may not be sounded except with a vowel sound either before or after, as ab or ba, eb or be, etc. THE THREE ORDERS of consonants are Mutes, Sibilants and Liquids; and these are further subdivided according to the organs employed in giving utterance to them. Thus the mutes are classified first as Smooth or Aspirated, and next in the following manner; the sounds for which we have no symbols being inserted in their proper places : SMOOTH. ASPIRATED. SuJi/fi. Gradual. SuJden. Gradual. Guttural t, e,f g th (not English) t* ( not English) Dental / d M(in) M(ine) Labial ft /,fh v The ch here is the terminal sound of the Scotch word "loch"; and the gh, that of the Irish word "lough." The letter h finds no place in this scheme, because it is, in fact, nothing but a sign of the trans- mission of the breath called "aspiration," and not of a sound at all. The sibilants may be classified thus: SuJJtn. Gradual. Dental i,e i Dental and Palatal tk <-/i(eSl) Dental and Guttural (a)s(ure) / And the liquids may be arranged in this manner : a_-.,. 1 Guttural ro P' e } Palatal / I Guttural (")*{ Nasal \ Dental it ( Labial * The letter x represents the sounds of ks, ge, and sometimes of z. Of the sounds expressed by the composi- tion of various letters, both vowels and GRAMMAR s consonants, nothing more can be said, than Roots. Prim. Deriv. Second. Deri-^. that some of them are identical with sounds Shake shock shocking treated of above; and others are com- Sing ong singer, songster Sit set, seat settle, settler pounded of such sounds. Thus the sound Speak speech speaker, bespeak of the word buoy is identical with that of Stick stake, stitch boy; and in "adhesive," the sound d is pro- Strike stroke nounced distinctly, and followed by the Strong strength aspirate, or hard breathing h. Tell tale Trow truth truthfulness Wake watch waken, watchful DERIVATION AND FORMATION OF Weave woof, web weaver, webster Win winsome WORDS Work wright RADICAL WORDS (called by etymologists Wring wrench, wrong" wrongful "roots," simply) are either nouns, verbs, ry wri e, adjectives, or pronouns; expressive of com- Derivative words are also formed by mon things, conditions, actions, etc., etc. composition; that is, by the construction Primary Derivatives are constructed by of a single word out of two or more words, slight changes in the vowel sounds, or in each capable of being used independently. the consonants, or in both; and are some- These compounds differ entirely from the times designated "stems." Secondary De- secondary derivatives, and are found in rivatives are formed by means of prefixes every class of English words. They are and affixes, from both roots and primary not, however, so numerous in our tongue derivatives. Example : as in the German; and in that they are less common than in the Greek language. Roots. Prim. Deriv. Second. Deriv. Ex. Sunshine, fairhaired, thunderstorm, Bake batch baker, baxter harvestman, daybreak, nevertheless, there- Bear bier, birth barrow, forbear Bind band, bond, bandage, bondage, bound bundle fore, into, everlasting, midnight, noontime, elsewhere, however, undersell, overturn, be- Bite bit biter cause, hedgerow, warehouseman, earth- Bless bliss blessing quake, steamengine, railroad. Blood bleed bloody Brood breed Child childish CLASSES OF WORDS Choose choice Chop chip THE CLASSIFICATION of words depends Deal dole upon their signification as parts of sen- Die dead, death deadly tences or as they have the nature of Sub- Drive ' drove drover jects and Predicates, Attributives and Ob- Duck duckling jects, with the various means of expressing Fall fell, foal (De)file foul, filth filthy, fulsome the relations between ideas in a sentence. Find foundling NOUNS. Names of things, persons, and Flee fleet, fly, flight of whatever exists, even in imagination, Flow flood Forth further, further- ance are called Nouns, and sometimes Substan- tives. Ex. Tree, stone; man, boy; Caesar, Gape gap Wellington; virtue, hope. Gird girder, girdle VERBS. Words expressing an assertion Gold gild, gilt golden, gilding Good God goodness, godly, respecting an action or condition, or the godliness reception of the consequences of an action, Guile guilt guilty or simply respecting existence, are called Heal (to cover hell, hole, hale, hellish, hollow, Verbs. Ex. To run; to strike; to sleep, or hide) health healer to be ' to be beaten. Lead lode leader, mislead Lend loan ADJECTIVES. Attributives which can only Lie lay, law lien, lawyer, in figurative language be used without a layer noun (which they qualify in some way) Lose loss, loose loser, unloose ^Tan mannikin man* are called Adjectives. Ex. Good, bad, hood green, high, everlasting. Milk milch These are the three principal classes of Pin pen, pound words, which represent distinct notions of Pride proud (Be) reave raven ravenous things, persons, actions, qualities, etc, Rise raise, rouse arise, arouse formed in the mind. Other words ex- See sight sightly press not so much the notions we have 4 GRAMMAR formed as the connection of those notions with each other, or their relations to us, or some of the infinitely various associa- tions of thoughts. PRONOUNS serve not only to prevent the too frequent repetition of the same nouns, but yet more to indicate the relation of the persons or things spoken of to the speaker. Such are the Personal Pronouns. Others are used as attributives, but they also show the relations of the subjects they character- ize to the speaker. Ex. /, thou, he, they; mine, thine; this, those; whom, what. ADVERBS. Whatever exists, or acts, or is acted upon, is regarded as being, or acting, or being acted on, in some particular time, place, manner, etc., and these modifications of the simple notions indicated by the verb are expressed by a class of words called Adverbs. Ex. Now, where, so, seldom, perhaps. PREPOSITIONS. Many of the relations of notions one to another, also, are those of place, time, manner, means, etc. ; and these are expressed by words called Prepositions, which serve to connect nouns and pro- nouns with other nouns and pronouns, and with verbs. Ex. From, by, of, to, after. CONJUNCTIONS. The connection of things, etc., with each other, and of thoughts with other thoughts, is shown by means of Conjunctions. Ex. And, or, but, though, for. NUMERALS are in part names, and in part attributives and adverbs; and therefore do not properly form a class by themselves. Ex. Two, four, six; first, tenth, hundredth; firstly, secondly, lastly. INTERJECTIONS, which are expressions of emotion, such as fear, joy, pain, wonder, etc., and not of thought, and the greater number of which are rather sounds than words, can not be noticed in a grammar; although it is convenient to have such a class to which certain expressions which occur in the Dictionary may be referred. Ex. Ah! O! Hat NOUNS. The Gender of Nouns is deter- mined by the sex of the persons or beings they represent, being called Masculine or Feminine as they are the names of males or females. Beings without natural sex, things without life, and abstractions are called Neuter. Figuratively, sex is attributed to many beings naturally having no such distinction, and also to abstractions. Ex. The sun, he is setting; the moon, she is rising; Charity, she is the child of heaven. Very smaV be- ings, of whatever sex they may be, and those whose sex is not important in the sentence, are spoken of as neuter. Ex. The ant, it is a patron of foresight and pru- dence; the child, it knows not what it does. Very few words, in English, have termi- nations, or other special forms indicative of gender. The following are a few ex- amples : Arbiter, arbitress; prosecutor, prosecutrix; margrave, margravine; he- bear, she-bear; man-servant, maid-servant. In other instances different words are ap- propriated to the two sexes, without pecu- liarity of termination. Ex. Brother, sister; horse, mare; king, queen. NUMBER. The only distinction of Num- ber is between one and more than one; the former being called Singular; and the lat- ter Plural. Most commonly, s or (when it ends in a sibilant or x) es is added to the singular. Ex. Sword, swords; fish, fishes. Words ending in f or fe generally make their plu- rals in ves. Ex. Calf, calves; life, lives. But all words ending in ft, except staff, staves, and several words in f or fe, add s without any change of letters for the plural. Ex. Whiff, whiffs; grief, griefs; fife, fifes. Those ending in o, preceded by a vowel, add s only; but if a consonant precede the o, S or es is added. Ex. Cameo, cameos; ratio, ratios; cargo, cargoes; volcano, vol- canoes; portico, porticoes; solo, solos. Words ending in y after a consonant have ies in the plural. Ex. fiy, Hies; history, histories. A very few change the vowel sound of the singular. Ex. Foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; woman, women (pronounced wimmen). One adds en to the singular ox, oxen. One both changes the vowel and adds en brother, brethren. Besides these, the following must be noted: Child makes children in the plural. Mouse has mice, and louse, lice; but it is the spelling only which is peculiar. Penny has two plurals; when coins are meant, pennies, but when money is spoken of, pence. In like manner die, signifying a stamp for coining, has dies; but when it means a cube used in play, dice. Pea has peas and pease, the latter signifying peas collectively, or used for food. Kine is some- times used as a plural to cow. Deer, sheep, swine, are used in both numbers; and (when spoken of as food) fish, cod, salmon, etc. The names of metals are made plural only when employed to signify some particular things composed of them. Ex. Irons, coppers, brasses. Ar- GRAMMAR tides of trade and commerce which, in Singular. Plural. ordinary language, are never used in the Basis, bases. plural form, have plural forms in the Basso-relievo, bassi-relievi. market. Ex. Cloths, oils, sugars, teas, etc. Words signifying abstract qualities sel- Beau, Bonvivant, Calculus, beaux, bonsvivans. calculi. dom take the plural form, because they Calx, calces. can not have a plural meaning, except when used figuratively, that is, to express Candelabrum, Catachresis, Chateau, candelabra, catachreses. chateaux. concrete ideas. Ex. The honors of the Cherub, cherubim, cherubs. world; the decencies of life. Names of Cheval-de-friaOfc chevaux-de-frise. measures, weights, of some numbers, and of terms employed numerically, are in some Chrysalis, Cicerone, Cilium, chrysalides, chrysalises, ciceroni, cilia. instances used in the singular form, with Colossus, colossi. a plural meaning. Ex. A ten-dollar note, Convolvulus, convolvuli. eighteen hundred and fifty-eight, an army Corps, Crisis corps, crises. of eighty thousand men, twelve dozen of Criterion, criteria. wine, three brace of dogs, a fleet of twenty Datum, data. sail, twelve thousand foot and three thou- Desideratum^ desiderata. sand horse, fifteen thousand stand of arms, Diaeresis, Dictum, diaereses, dicta. a hundred head of cattle, each weighing Dilettante, dilettanti. thirty stone. Effluvium, effluvia. Alms, means, news, pains, and riches, which are plural in form, are used both as Ellipsis, Emporium, Encomium, ellipses, emporia, emporiums, encomia, encomiums. singulars and as plurals. Ashes, bellows, Ephemeris, ephemerides. breeches, cates, dregs, gallows, pincers, scis- sors, and tongs, have no singulars, either Erratum, Eulogium, Fasciculus, errata, eulogia, eulogiums. fasciculi. in form or meaning. The names of some Flambeau, flambeaux. sciences, derived from the Greek language, Focus, foci, focuses. are plural in form, but in meaning singular. Such are ethics, hydrostatics, mathematics, mechanics, politics. And so is the term Foramen, . Formula, Fungus, Fulcrum, foramina, formulae, formulas, fungi, funguses, fulcra. morals. Suds, and wages, plural in form, are singular in signification; and pulse (le- Genius, i geniuses,persons of genius 1 genii, aerial beings. guminous seeds), also plural in form, is Oenus, Gymnasium, genera, gymnasia. simply collective in its meaning. Hiatus (M short). hiatus (u long). FOREIGN WORDS. Almost all nouns, which have been simply adopted from foreign Hippopotamus, Hypothesis, Ignis-fatuus, hippopotami, hypotheses. ignes-fatuL languages, retain their original plurals; but Improvisator^ improvisator!. some have also plurals formed in the En- Inamorato, inamorati. glish fashion, and in a few instances with a different meaning. The following is Incubus, incubi. (indices, algebraic expo- nents. nearly a complete list of these words: Index, indexes, pointers, tables of contents. Singular. Plural. Jeu-d'esprik juex-d'esprit. Abacus, abaci. Lamina, laminae. Addendum, addenda. Larva, larvae. Alluvion, alluvium, alluvia. Macula, maculae. Alto-relievo, alti-relievi. Madame, mesdames. Alumnus, alumni. Magus, magi. Amanuensis, amanuenses. Mausoleum, man sol ea. Amphibium (not used), amphibia. Medium, media. Amphora, amphorae. Analysis, analyses. Memorandum, 1 memoranda, memoran- dums. Animalculum (not used), animalcula. Memorabile (not used), memorabilia. Antenna, antennse. Menstruum, menstrua. Antithesis, antitheses. Mephitis, mephites. Apex, apices. Metamorphosis, metamorphoses. Aphelion, aphelia. Miasma, miasmata. Aphis, aphides. Millennium, millennia. Apparatus, apparatus. Minutia (not used). minutiae. Appendix, appendices, appendixes. Momentum, momenta. Aquarium, aquaria, aquariums. Morceau, morceaux. Arcanum, arcana. Monsieur, messieurs. Automaton automata, automatons. Narcissus, narcissi. Axis, axes. Nautilus, nautili. Bandit, banditti. Nebula, nebulae. GRAMMAR Singular. Nidus. Nimbus, Nostrum, Novus homo, Nucleus, Oasis, Ovum, 1'arenthesis, Parhelion, Perihelion, I'hasis, Phenomenon, Polypus, Premium, Proboscis, Prima donna, Radius, Ranunculus, Regale (not used), Rhombus, Sarcophagus, Savant, Scholium, Scoria, Seraph, Series, Species, Spectrum, Speculum, Sphinx, Spicula, Stadium, Stamen, Stigma, Stimulus, Stratum, Stria, Symposium, Synopsis, Synthesis, Tableau, Terminus. Thesis, Triumvir, Tumulus, Vertebra, Vertex, Virtuoso, Viscus (rare), Vortex, Plural. nidi, nimbi, nostra. novi homines, nuclei, oases, ova. parentheses, parhelia, perihelia, phases, phenomena, polypi. premia, premiums, proboscides. prime donne. radii. ranunculi, ranunculuses, regalia. rhombi. sarcophagi, savans. scholia, scoriz. seraphim, seraphs, series, species, spectra, specula. j sphinges, hawk-moths. \ sphinxes, in mythology. spiculz. stadia. stamens, parts of flow- ers. stamina, the solids of the human body. f stigmata, in botany and surgery. 1 stigmas, marks of rt- t proach. stimuli. strata. striae. symposia. synopses. syntheses. tableaux. termini. theses. triumviri, triumvirs. tumuli. vertebr*. vertices. virtuosi. viscera. vortices. THE CASES OF NOUNS. When a noun is the subject of a sentence it is said to be in the nominative case, and when it imme- diately follows a verb or a preposition it is said to be in the objective case, but its form is precisely the same in both cases. Ex Nom. The man walks; trees grow. Obj I pity the man; he fells the trees; with th< man; under the trees. When one noun, in either the singular o plural number, is used along with anothe attributively, and indicating its possesso or origin, 's (with an apostrophe before it which shows that a vo""*l sound has been Iropped) is added to the former, except when it ends in a sibilant, when most fre- uently only the apostrophe is added. The >ame rule holds for plurals made with s. x. A soldier's life; the soldiers' friend; he jury's verdict; the judges' sentence; Thomas's horse (read "Thomases") ; the ox' (read "foxes") brush; "He that de- pised Moses' law, died ;" "If ye suffer for righteousness 1 sake, happy are ye." Declension of a Noun. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nominative Case, \ v . v . Objective Case, \ Kmg> Klngs - Possessive Case. King's, Kings'. THE ARTICLES. In order to individualize the application of common nouns, two words usually designated articles, one an adjective, the, the other a numeral, on (or, as abbreviated before a consonant sound, a), almost universally precede them. The former, which is called the definite article, is used before nouns of both numbers. Ex. The man, the men; the horse, the horses. The latter is called the indefinite article, and is used before nouns in the singular number only. Ex. A man, an hour, a tree, an enemy. PROPER NAMES, abstract nouns, names of materials, and some other classes of nouns, take the articles only when they are used as common nouns. Ex. Solon. Brutus, hope, fear, -water, wood; the Solon of his country; he is a Brutus; the hopes and fears of youth ; the water's edge ; the wood of the ark. USES OF VERBS. When the action signi- fied by a verb immediately affects any per- son or thing as its object, the verb is called transitive or active; but when the action i? completely described by the verb itself, ot when the verb signifies a condition, it is called intransitive or neuter. Ex. Transi- tive: We suspect deceit, he loves truth. In- transitive: I walk or run, they sleep, you stand. Many verbs are both active and neuter. Ex. To abate a nuisance, the storm abated; to account a man wise, to account for one's conduct. TRANSITIVE VERBS are conjugated in two ways : one form, called active, is used when the agent is the subject of the verb. Ex. 7 esteem him; they speak both French and German ; the Allies defeated the Russians. The other is used when the agent is the immediate object of the verb, and is called passive. Ex. He is esteemed by me; both French and German are spoken by them; the Russians were defeated by the Allies. GRAMMAR THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. In the conjugation of verbs, four moods are dis- tinguished the indicative, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the infinitive and an- other class of forms, called participles. The indicative is used when the speaker asserts something as actually existing or acting. Ex. He reads, we walked, they will con- sent, thou art punished, I was exalted. The subjunctive is used when some possible or probable action or state of being is spoken of, and generally occurs with, if, though, or some other word expressing contingency. Ex. "If I be a. father, where is mine hon- or?" "Though thou detain me, I will not eat;" "If he were a prophet, he would have known who touched him;" "Though these three men were in it, they should deliver neither son nor daughter." When a com- mand is given, the imperative is employed. Ex. "Honor all men. Love the brother- hood. Fear God. Honor the king." The infinitive mood consists of the substantive forms, and the participles of the attributive forms, of the verb to which they belong. The preposition to is prefixed to all infini- tives, except those which follow auxiliary verbs, and such verbs as see, hear, etc., in the active voice. Ex. "To err is human; to forgive, divine;" to have praised, to have been blamed; I saw him weep, he was seen to weep. THE THREE TENSES OF VERBS, or the times in which an action or event may be said to take place, are the present, the past, and the future; and in each of them, it may be considered as indefinitely, or imper- fectly, or perfectly accomplished. Ex. (Indef. pres.) / read, (imperf. pres.) 7 am reading, (perf. pres.) / have read; (indef. past) / read, (imperf. past) / was reading, (perf. past) / had read; (indef. fut.) / shall read, (imperf. fut.) 7 shall be reading, (perf. fut.) 7 shall have read. In the sub- junctive mood, the tense forms express the probability or improbability of the event or action spoken of. Ex. (Prob.) "What mat- ter where, if I be still the same ?" "Though thou detain me, I will not eat." (Improb.) "If ye were of the world, the world would love his own." "If ye loved me, ye would rejoice." The imperative mood admits of no dis- tinctions of time, but only of the complete- ness or incompleteness of the action com- manded. Ex. (Imperf.) Read thou, (perf.) Have done! In the infinitive mood the only tense is the present. Ex. (Indef. pres.) to read, (imperf. pres.) to be reading, (perf. pres.) to have read. And the participles admit only of the distinctions of completeness and incompleteness of the action spoken of. Ex. (Imperf.) reading, (perf.) read. AUXILIARY VERBS. By means of a class of verbs, called auxiliary verbs, the capabil- ity of expressing the several relations of mood, tense, etc., is greatly extended and refined. Those tenses which are formed without the assistance of auxiliaries are* called simple tenses, and the others, com- pound. The auxiliary verbs of mood are such as may and can, which express possibility; must, ought, and shall, which express obli- gation; shall and will, expressing determi- nation of will; might, could, and would, expressing desire; let and may, implying permission; do, which adds emphasis to as- sertion, and is employed in negatives and questions, etc. Ex. It may be so, he can do it, you must see that you should obey, "these things ought not so to be," we shall see to that, 7 will be heard, might it but be so! could we but know it, would he were here! let him do what he will, you may do as you please, we do like simplicity, it does not signify, do you see the meaning? The auxiliary verbs of tense are such as be, be about, be going, begin, do, have, keep, shall, will, etc. Ex. You are chosen; they were laughing; we are about to depart; we are going to learn French ; 7 did once think; he has seen too much; they kept expecting what was impossible ; he would dance and sing the whole day long. All the moods, tenses, etc., of the passive forms of verbs are made by the help of the verb be. Ex. 7 am praised, we were loved, they shall be beaten, to be afflicted, having been disappointed. INFLECTIONAL FORMS. The only distinc- tive personal forms are those of the second and third persons singular of the present indefinite tense, and the second person sin- gular of the past indefinite; all the other persons in each of the simple tenses are alike. Ex. 7 lead, thou leadest, he leads (leadeth), we lead, you lead, they lead. I led, thou leddest, he led, we led, you led, they led. IMPERSONAL VERBS, of which there are but two in our language (strictly so to be called), are found only in the third person singular. Ex. "Meseems I hear her sing- ing loud," meseemed; "methinks he breaks it," "methought I saw my late espoused wife." But other verbs are often used im- personally. Ex. It rained last night, it liked him well, it behooved him to do the same. B GRAMMAR THE PAST TENSE. By far the greater Present Indff. Past Indef. Perfect number of English verbs, including all that Tense. Tense. Participle. have been recently introduced, and almost all derivatives, are of the class called weak verbs, that is, they form their past indefi- Cleave (split) (clove, clave) cleft cloven, cleft Creep (crope) crept crept (Falde)fold folded (folden) folded Freeze froze frozen nite tenses, and their perfect participles, by Heave (hove) heaved (hoven) heaved the addition of d (or /) to the present, or (Qucath) quoth cd when the present ends in d or /. Ex. Hope, hoped; light, lighted. But it must Lead (lode, lad) led led Leap (lope) leapt, leaped leapt, leaped Seethe (soth) sod, seethed sodden be observed, there is a great difference be- Shear (shore) sheared shorn tween our spoken and our written language Speak spoke (spake) spoken in this particular; the forms of the latter Steal stole (stale) stolen having departed widely from the sounds of the former. Ex. Walk, -walked (pron. Swear swore (sware) sworn Tear tore (tare) torn Tread trode, trod, (trade) trodden, trod walkd) ; step, stepped (pron. slept) ; stab, Wear wore (ware) worn stabbed (pron. stabd) ; bar, barred (pron. Weave wove woven tard). Weep (wope) wept wept The remainder form their past indefinite tenses and perfect participles either (i) by modifying the verbal sound, and adding n Wreak (wroke) wreaked (wroken) wreaked Wreathe wreathed wreathen, wreathed Yield (yolde) yielded yielded . u,,\ Hj*fn or (en) for the participle (being of the k oe^ See saw seen class called strong verbs) ; (2) by modify- ing the vowel, and adding t for the partici- Awake, wake awoke awaked Bake (boke) baked (baken) baked ple; (3) by changing the terminal d into t; Forsake forsook forsaken or (4) by retaining the present form for Grave (grove) graved graven, graved both the tense and the participle. But the Lade (lode) laded laden, loaden tendency to uniformity is so strong that many of these verbs have lost 'one or both Shake shook, shaked shaken, shaked Shape (shope) shaped shapen, shaped Shave shaved shaven, shaved of their peculiar forms, and others have two Stave stove forms for the past indefinite and perfect Take took taken participle. Stand stood stood The following is a complete list of these Wax (wox, wex) waxed (waxen) waxed verbs, classified mainly by their present forms. The original forms of many of 2d Class. Vowel i, becoming a, o. u, or ott. them are obsolete, and such forms are in- closed in parentheses. Sometimes the past Begin began (begon) begun Cling clung (clong) clung Dig dug, digged dug, digged tense is used for the participle, and some- Drink drank (drunk, drunken, drunk times the terminal or en has been dropped. dronk) Fling flung (flang, flong) flung First Division. Verbs which change their Hang (hing) hung, hanged hung, hanged vowel sounds, and form their perfect par- Ring rang, rung (rong) rung ticiples by adding en or n, are strong verbs. Run (rin) ran run Shrink shrank, shrunk shrunken, shrunk ist Class. Vowels e and a. becoming e, a, or o. (shronk) Present Indef. Past Indef. Perfect Sing sang, sung (song) sung Sink sank, sunk (sonk) sunken, sunk Tense. Tense. Participle. Sling (slang) slung (slong) slung IX /e (dolve, dalf)delved delved Slink (slank)slunk(slonk)slunk Get got (gat) (gotten) got Spin (span) spun (spon) spun Help (bolp, halp) helped (holpen) helped Spring sprang, sprung sprung Melt (molt) melted molten, melted (sprong) Sweat (swote, swat.) (sweaten) sweated Stick stuck (stoke) stuck sweat, sweated Sting (stang) stung stung Swell (swoll) swelled swollen, swelled (stong) Yell (yoll) yelled yelled Stink stank, stunk stunk Burst (brast) burst (borsten) burst Beat beat beaten, beat (stonk) String (strang) strung strung Swim swam, swum swum Eat eat, ate eaten, eat (sworn) Bear (bring bore (bare) born Swing (swang) swung swung forth) (swong) Bear (carry) bore (bare) borne Swink (swank, swonk) (swonk) swinkt Break broke (brake) broken, broke swink Cleave (ad- (clave) cleaved cleaved Win (wan) won won here) Wring wrung, v, ringed wrung GRAMMAR Present Indef. Past Indef. Perfect 4th Class. Vowel o, shortened. Tense. Tense. Participle. Bid bade (bode), bid bidden, bid Present Indef. Past Indef. Perfect Tense. Tense. Participle. Give gave (gove) given Sit sate sitten, sate Choose chose (chase) chosen Slit (slat ) slit, slitted slitten,, slit, slitted Go gone Spit spat, spit spitten, spit, spat Lose lost (lorn) lost Shoot shot shotten, shot Betide betid betid Do did done Hide hid hidden, hid Light lit, lighted lit, lighted 5th Class. Slide slid slidden, slid Come came come Abide, bide abode abode Arise, rise arose (aris) arisen Bite (bote, bat) bit bitten, bit Chide (chode) chid chidden, chid Second Division. Verbs which change their vowel sound, but form their perfect Climb (clomb, clamb) climbed participles in d or t; and are therefore climbed weak verbs. Dive (dove) dived dived Drive drove (drave) driven ist Class. Vowels shortened. Glide (glode, glid) glided Bleed bled bled glided Breed bred bred Hight (hote, hete) Feed fed fed Lie lay lien, lain Meet met met Ride rode, rid ridden, rid Read read read Rive (rove) rived riven Speed sped sped Shrive (shrove) shrived shriven Smite smote (smate), smitten, smit Bereave^ bereft, bereaved bereft, bereaved emit reave Stride strode, strid stridden (Clepe) y-clept Strive strove striven Deal dealt dealt Thrive throve, thrived thriven Deem (dempt) deemed deemed Write wrote (wrate) writ written, writ, Dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed wrote Feel felt felt Writhe writhed writhen, writhed Flee fled fled Hear heard heard Shine shone, shined shone, shined Keep kept kept Wit (wite) (wote) wot Kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled Strike (stroke) struck stricken, struck Lean leant, leaned leant, leaned Mean meant meant Bind bound (bond) bounden, bound Sleep slept slept Fight fought foughten, fought Sweep swept swept Find (fand, fond) found found Grind ground ground Shoe shod shod Wind wound (wond), wound 2d Class. Vowels a, e, i, and o, changed winded into o, au, on. 3^ Class. Vowel o, becoming e in past tense. Sell sold sold Tell told told Draw drew drawn Fall fell fallen Catch caught, catched caught, catched Saw sawed sawn, sawed Reach (raught) reached (raught) reached Wash (wesh) washed washen, washed Stretch (straught.streight) stretched stretched Blow blew blown Crow crew, crowed crowed Teach taught taught Distract distracted (distraught) dis- Fly flew flown tracted Grow grew grown Hew hewed hewn, hewed Freight freighted fraught, freighted Hold held holden, held Shall should Know knew known Will would (woll) Mow (mew) mowed mown, mowed Show (shew) showed shown, showed May (mought) might Snow (snew) snowed snowed Sow (sew) sowed sown, sowed Beseech besought besought Strow, strew strewed, strowed strewn, strown, (straw) strewed Bring brought brought Buy bought bought Throw threw thrown Own ought, owed owed Seek sought sought Let (late) let let Think thought thought Slay slew slain Work wrought, worked wrought, worked Laugh (loghe, leugh) laughed Note, that the y in "y-clept" is the old participial prefix, of which only one other instance remains in laughed occasional use in our language, "y-clad." 10 GRAMMAR Third and Fourth Divisions. Weak Verbs. Contracted Present Indef. Past Indef. Tense. Tense. Have had Make made Lay laid Pay paid Say said Dwell Pen Spill (WU) Bend Build Gild Gird Lend Rend , Send Sbend Spend (Wend) Cast Cost Cot Hit Hart Knit Lift Pat Quit Rid Roast Set Shed Shred Shut Split Spread Thrust Wet Am Clothe Go dwelt, dwelled penned spilt, spilled (wist) bent, bended built, builded gilt, gilded girt, girded lent rent sent shent spent went cast cost cut hit hurt knit, knitted lift, lifted put quit, quitted rid roasted set shed shred shut split, splitted spread thrust wet, wetted Ptrfect Participle. had made laid paid said dwelt, dwelled pent, penned spilt, spilled bent, bended built, builded gilt, gilded girt, girded lent rent sent shent spent cast cost cut hit hurt knit, knitted lift, lifted put quit, quitted rid roast, roasted set shed shred shut split, splitted spread thrust wet, wetted Defective Verbs. was been clad, clothed (y-clad) clothed went gone In the first of these, each part belongs to a different verb; in the second, "clad" and "y-clad" are derived from some word not greatly unlike "clothe"; and both forms in this kind have appeared in the preceding lists. Irregular Verbs. Can could Dare, durst durst It is the introduction of the / into "could," which makes the former of these irregular. The other appears to have adopted its origi- nal past tense as an additional form for the present; when used transitively, in the meaning of "to challenge or provoke," its past tense and perfect participles are "dared." CONJUGATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS, i. To BE. Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tens*. Sing. i. I am, 2. Thou art, 3. He is, Plur. i. We are, 2. You are, 3. They are. Past Indefinite Tense. Sing. i. I was, 2. Thou wast, 3. He was, Plur. i. We are, a. Thou were, 3. They were. Subjunctive Mood. Form implying probability. Sing, and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they be. Form implying improbability. Sing, and plur. (If) I were; thou wert; he, we, you, they were. Imperative Mood. Sing. Be thou. Plur. Be ye. Infinitive Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. To be. Participles. Imperfect. Being. Perfect. Been. 2. To HAVE. Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. Sing. i. I have, 2. Thou hast, 3. He hath or has, Plur. i. We have, 2. You have, 3 . They have. Past Indefinite Tense. Sing. i. I had, 2. Thou hadst, 3- He had, Plur. i. We had, 2. You had, 3. They had. Subjunctive Mood. Probable form. Sing, and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they have. Improbable form. Sing, and plur. (If) I had; thou hadst; he, we, you, they had. Infinitive Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. To have. Participles. Imperfect. Having. Perfect. Had. 3. To Do. Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. Sing. i. I do, 2. Thou dost,3. He doth or does, Plur. i. We do. a. You do, 3. They do. Past Indefinite Tense. Sing. 1. 1 did, 2. Thou diddest or didst, 3. He did, Plur. i. We did, 2. You did, 3. They did. Subfunftive Mood. Probable form. Sing, and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they do. Improbable form. Sing, and plur. (If) I did; thou didst; he, we, you, they did. Infinitive Mood. Present Indefinite. To do. . Participles. Imperfect. Doing. Perfect. Done. In the auxiliaries, may, can, shall, will, the only change of form is in the second person singular, which are mayest, might- GRAMMAR 11 est; canst, couldst; shalt, shouldst; wilt, Imperative. wouldst; in the present and past tenses re- spectively. Let and must have no inflex- ions, and ought (which admits of no dis- tinction of time) has oughtcst in the second See thou, Be thou seeing, See you. Be ye seeing. Infinitive Present. To see, To be w'ngi Participle. Seeing. person singular. Perfect. Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. I have seen, We have seen, Singular. Plural. Thou hast seen, You have seen, I might, could, would, or We might, could, would, He has seen. They have seen. should be, or should be, Pluperfect. Thou mightst, couldst, Ye or you might, could, I had seen, We had seen, wouldst, or shouldst would, or should be, Thou hadst seen, You had seen, be, He had seen. They had seen. He might, could, would, They might, could, would, Future Perfect. or should be, or should be. I shall have seen, We shall have seen. Thou wilt have seen, You will have seen, Pluperfect. He will have seen. They will have seen. I might, could, would, or We might, could, would, Perfect Infinitive. To have seen. should have been, or should have been, Thou mightst, couldst, Ye or you might, could, Perfect Participle. Seen. wouldst, or shouldst would, or should have SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. have been. been, Present. He might, could, would, They might, could, would, or should have been. or should have been. Probable. Improbable. (If) I see, (If) I saw, Perfect Tense. (If) Thou see, (If) Thou sawest, (If) He see, (If) He saw, Singular. Plural. (If) We see, (If) We saw, I might, could, would, or We might, could, would, should have, or should have, (If) You see, (If) You saw, (If) They see. . (If) They saw. Thou mightst, couldst, Ye or you might, could, Imperfect. wouldst, or shouldst would, or should have, have, He might, could, would, They might, could, would, or should have. or should have. (If) I be seeing, (If) I were seeing, (If) Thou be seeing, (If) Thou wert seeing; (If) He be seeing, (If) He were seeing, (If) We be seeing, (If) We were seeing, (If) You be seeing, (if) You were seeing, (If) They be seeing. (if) They were seeing. Pluperfect. Perfect. I might, could, would, or We might, could, would, should have had, or should have had, Thou mightst, couldst, Ye or you might, could, (If) I have seen, (If) I had seen, (If) Thou have seen, (if) Thou hadst seen, (If) He have seen, (if) He had seen, wouldst, or shouldst would, or should have have had, had, He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, (If) We have seen, (If) We had seen, (if) You have seen, (If) You had seen, (If) They have seen. (If) They had seen. should have had, or should have had. PASSIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MOOD. CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB, Present. TO SEE. Singular. Plural. ACTIVE VOICE. I am seen, We are seen, Thou art seen, You are seen, INDICATIVE MOOD. He is seen. They are seen. Indefinite. Imperfect, Past. Present. I was seen, We were seen, 1 see, I am seeing, Thou wast seen. You were seen, Thou seest, . Thou art seeinft He was seen. They were seen. He seeth, or sees, He is seeing, We see, We are seeing, Future. You see, You are seeing, I shall be seen, We shall be seen, They see. They are seeing. Thou wilt be seen, You will be seen, Past. He will be seen. They will be seen. I saw, I was seeing, Perfect. Thou sawest, Thou wast seeing; I have been seen, We have been seen, He saw, He was seeing. Thou hast been seen, You have been seen, We saw, We were seeing, He has been seen. They have been seen. You saw, You were seeing. They saw. They were seeing. Pluperfect. ty f I had been seen, We had been seen, Future. Thou hadst been seen, You had been seen. I shall see, I shall be seeing, He had been seen. They had been seen. Thou wilt see, Thou wilt be seeing He will see, He will be seeing, Future Perfect. We shall see, We shall be seeing, I shall have been seen, We shall have been seen, You will see, You will be seeing, Thou wilt have been seen You will have been seen, They will see. They will be seeing. He will have been seen. They will have been seen. 12 GRAMMAR SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Probablt. Improbable. Indefinite. (lf\ i be aeen. (10 I wcre 8een ' }lf{ Thou be Been. (If) Thou wert see* ) He be BMIl (H) He were seen, (If) We tern* Hf) We were seen. You teMMk (10 You were seen, (If! TheVbe^en. 00 They were seen. Perfect. (ID I have been seen, (If) I had been seen, (If) Thou have been seen, (If) Thou hadst been een (If) He have been seen. (If) He had been seen, (If) We have been seen, (If) We had been seen, (If) You have been seen, (If) You had been seen, *If) They have been seen. (If) They had been seen. Imperative. Be thou seen, Be ye seen. Infinitive Present. To be seen. Infinitive Perfect. To have been seen. Participle Indefinite. Being seen. Participle Perfect. Having been seen. By means of the various auxiliaries a great number of additional tenses, in all the moods, might be formed. In the passive, the imperfect tenses can not be formed except for a few verbs, and then only in the past and present, and in two ways "the house is building," or "the house is being built;" "the books were printing," or "were being printed." For- merly the first of these forms was different. Ex. The ark was a-preparing. The term, indefinite, as applied to the conjugation of a verb, refers to the time, expressed or implied. Thus, the expres- sion, "I should like to see," involves no consideration of the time of seeing, whether present or future; whereas, the expression, "/ should like to be seeing," is a colloquial form for "/ should like to see now." Simi- larly, in saying, "/ do anything," the mean- ing viay be that the thing done is a matter of custom, past as well as present ; whereas, \i saying, "/ am doing," the obvious mean- ing is that the present time is referred to. Thus, "I am doing it" is equivalent to say- ing, "/ do it now." Such a form, con- structed of an auxiliary verb and the pres- ent participle in ing, is called imperfect, as indicating an action in process, and not yet completed. The term, imperfect, in Latin, and some other grammars, refers to the preterit or past tense. ADJECTIVES. There are no changes of forms in the adjectives, to show their re- lations to the nouns they qualify, as to gender, number or case. Ex. A wise man, wise men; a tall man, a tall woman, a tall tree; they saw the powerful king's golden crown; he defeated three great emperors' vast armies. But the degree of intensity in which any quality is regarded as char- acterizing one or more persons or things, when compared with others, is expressed by the addition of er (or r) and est (or st) to the simple (or positive) form of the ad- jective; the former (called the compara- tive degree) being employed where only two subjects are compared, the latter (named the superlative) when a subject is compared with more than one other in re- spect of the same quality. Ex. This tree is taller than that, but the next is the tallest of the three, and those trees are the tallest in the wood; this man is wiser than those and those men are the wisest in our coun- try; platinum is the heaviest metal, or plati- num is heavier than any other metal. Instead of using these inflections, with adjectives of more than one syllable, the comparative is frequently formed by pre- fixing more, and the superlative by prefix- ing most, to the simple form. Ex. A more prudent man, the most prudent conduct; more seasonable weather, most unseasonable importunities. Some adjectives are defective, or have comparatives and superlatives formed from other words; and some do not form them according to the common rule. The fol- lowing are the principal adjectives to which these remarks apply: worst farthest furthest, first best latest, last least most nearest, next oldest, eldest Another class of adjectives differ from the common rule in having a positive sig- nification with the comparative form (as is the case with the comparatives superior, inferior, exterior, and interior, borrowed from the Latin), and only a superlative degree of comparison besides. Ex. Former, foremost; hinder, hindmost, and hinder- most; hither, hithermost; inner, inmost, and innermost; nether, nethermost; outer, outmost, and outermost; under, undermost; upper, upmost, and uppermost; utter, ut- most, and uttermost. The following su- perlatives also occur: midmost for midst, northernmost and southernmost. Different degrees of intensity are also more generally expressed by the use of some adverbs. Ex. Too hot, very cold, exceedingly angry. "Less" and "least" are employed when the comparison regards lower degrees of intensity. Ex. Less scrup- ulous* least scrupulous. Bad worse (worser) Far farther Fore further Good better Late later, latter Little less, lesser Much, many more Near, nigh nearer, nigher Old older, elder GRAMMAR 13 NUMERALS. When the cardinal numer- als are employed to signify abstract num- bers, they are nouns. Ex. Four and three are seven, two and one are three. But when used to express concrete quantities they are adjectives. Ex. Four horses, ten men, a hundred pounds. The ordinal numerals (which signify po- sition in a series) are most frequently ad- jectives. Ex. The first man, the tenth sheep, the thirtieth day. But they are some- times used objectively, and then are ad- verbs. Ex. He stands first, I am tenth on the list. They are also the regularly formed adverbial ordinal numerals, firstly, secondly, thirdly, etc. Fractional numerals are the same as or- dinals, but they are nouns, and are so be- cause they are abbreviations. Ex. One- third (for "one third part") three-fourths (for "three fourth parts"), four-fifths, two- tenths of an inch. In this series first is omitted, half is used for second, and quar- ter is often substituted for fourth. Besides these there are the reiterative nu- merals, once, twice, thrice, four times, etc.; the multiplicatives, single, double or two- fold, triple or three-fold, quadruple or four- fold, etc.; the distributives, singly or one by one, two by two, etc.; and other classes. The words neither, either, other, both, next, again, then, and some others, which are also called pronouns, are frequently employed as numerals, to signify not one, one, second, two, secondly, etc. Intermediate numerals express number and quantity, but not definitely. They are such words as more, some, none, few, many, several, much, all, etc. PRONOUNS. Those which are used as nouns only, are the personal pronouns, I, thou, he, she, it, and their plurals. They are thus declined : FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON. IJominative Case, I we thou you, ye Objective Case, me us thee you, ye Possessive Case, my, our thy, your, mine ours thine yours THIRD PERSON. Nominative Case, he she it them Objective Case, him her it they Possessive Case, his her, its their, hers theirs The possessive cases of these pronouns are sometimes spoken of as a class by themselves, and called possessive (adjec- tive) pronouns. In the first and second persons, the possessive cases, and in the third person, the objective cases, with self or selves affixed, constitute the renexive pronouns. Ex. Know t /r vself, he loves him- self, they were ashamed of themselves. And these and the possessives" are rendered emphatic by the insertion of own. Ex. "I scarcely coveted what was my own;" "Thou owest unto me even thine own self." THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS are this and that, with the plurals these and those; such, the same, yon and yonder, here, there, hence, thence, then, etc., most of which are adverbs, used instead of a pronominal clause understood. Ex. "This same shall comfort us," "after this or that determinate manner," "it makes a greater show in these months than in those," "such are the cold Riphean race, and such the savage Scyth- ian," "darkness there might well seem twi- light here," "now shaves with level wing the deep, then soars," "useless and thence ridiculous," "yon flowering arbors, yonder alleys green." The, commonly called the definite article, is properly a demonstrative pronoun. INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Pronouns used in questions, called inter- rogative, and those used in subjective and adjective accessory sentences, called rela- tive, are who (in the objective whom, and the possessive whose, in both numbers), which (occasionally with a possessive case, whose) what, where, whither, whence, when, how; some of them being adverbs. Ex. Who art thou? Which is it? What do you mean? "Whose dog are you?" "Whom dost thou serve?" Whence come you? "Whither goest thou?" "How can these things be?" "The son of Duncan, from whom the tyrant holds the due of birth, lives in the English court." "The handsel or earnest of that which is to come." "See what natures accompany the several colors." "In Lydia born, where plenteous harvests the fat fields adorn." "Grateful t'acknowledge whence his good descends." "I strayed I knew not whither." Note, that the relative pronoun what is in signification equivalent to the, that, or those which. Whoever, whosoever (and whomsoever, whosesoever) whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, wherever, whence- soever, however, herein, therein, therefore, wherefore, whereof, whereas, etc., are com- pounded or contracted pronouns and pro- nominal phrases, and are used somewhat in the sense of relative pronouns. Ex. "I think myself beholden, whoever shows me my mistakes." "Whomsoever else they visit, with the diligent only do they stay." "In whatsoever shape he lurk, I'll know." "Thy very stones prate of my whereabout." 2 14 GRAMMAR "You do take the means whereby I live." "Hertin is a wonderful thing." "Howbeit, this wisdom saved them not" INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. In addition to these various classes of pronouns, there are some which are called indefinite, such as one, aught, naught, (sometimes spelt ought, nought), each, every, either, neither, any, other (which has a plural when used as a noun, but not when used attributively), they (when used to signify "people in gen- eral"), etc. Ex. "One may be little the wiser for reading," "for aught that I can understand," "it cometh to naught," "are there any with you?" "the virtue and force of every of these three is shrewdly allayed," "they say that he has died immensely rich." ADVERBS. These words do not admit of inflection, and of them some are found only in the adverbial form, others are used as prepositions or conjunctions also; some are pronouns or adjectives; and many are de- rived from adjectives and even from sub- stantives. They are employed to express the rela- tions of place as here, there, where, hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, whence, above, below, before, behind, in, out, off, on, near, afar, backward, forward, aside, etc.,oi time, as, then, when, now, after, before, still, soon, already, lately, daily, hitherto, etc., of manner, as how, thus, so, as, otherwise, well, -fluently, kindly, blindly, lovingly, bravely, brightly, etc., of mood, as yes, no, not, if, perhaps, probably, possi- bly, likely, really, etc., of degree or in- tensity, as frequently, seldom, often, again, very, quite, even, nearly, only, too, almost, much, rather, once, twice, thrice, etc., of causality, as wherefore, therefore, however, nevertheless, etc. Some of those of manner, degree, and mood admit of degrees of comparison, which they form after the manner of ad- jectives. Ex. Soon, sooner, soonest, brave- ly, more bravely, most bravely. PREPOSITIONS. These also are uninflected words, and besides the prepositions, prop- erly so-called, notms, adjectives, verbs, participles, and adverbs, and even combi- nations of words, are employed as preposi- tions. Almost all the real prepositions ad- mit of being used to express every variety of relation between the predicate and its objects, and between a subject and its at- tributes; but originally they all expressed the relation of place alone. The prepositions, properly so-called, and other words used for prepositions, are such as above, about, across, after, against, along, among, at; before, behind, beside, between, beyond, by, concerning, down, during, from, in, into, of, off, on, over, save, since, through, till, to, toward, up, upon, with, etc. The following are some of the combina- tions of words used as prepositions: be- cause of, by means of, on account of, in behalf of, instead of, according to, adjacent to, contrary to, with respect to, etc. Verbs are frequently compounded with prepositions to modify their signification; and sometimes prepositions are used as ad- verbial objects in our language which in other tongues are compounded with the verb. Ex. He undertook that business will- ingly; they have overcome their enemies; what would I not undergo for you? "they went over to the enemy;" "the poet passes it over as hastily as he can;" "to set forth great things by small;" "I shall set out for London to-morrow." CONJUNCTIONS, like adverbs and preposi- tions, are indeclinable words. Some words are used only as conjunctions, and are called conjunctions proper; others are real- ly pronouns, adverbs, etc. Coordinative conjunctions are simply copulative, or serve to connect two clauses, or even two sentences, into a continuity of ideas. Such are and, also, besides, more- over, too, not only but also, both and, as well as, neither nor, then, etc.; adversa- tive, as, else, either or, not but, on the contrary, still, nevertheless, etc.; or causa- tive, as, therefore, hence, so, consequently, for, accordingly. Subordinative conjunc- tions connect adverbial and subjective ac- cessory sentences with their principal sen- tences; and are such as, that, but that, but, whether, if, since, although, unless, so, when, while, whilst, where, whence, etc. ANCIENT FORMS. Among these indeclin- able classes of words may be found many very interesting examples of ancient forms and inflections of the English language, some of which have been lost in all but these instances, and in these the original signification is no longer preserved. Ex. Possessive cases, else, unawares, needs; dative cases, seldom, whilom; neuter objec- tive cases, little, less, well, nigh, athwart; comparative degrees, after, yonder, over, ere; superlative degrees, erst, next, almost. Indeclinable words, used only as ad- verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and inter- jections, are frequently called particles. The direct affirmative, yes, and the direct nega- tive, no, are by some grammarians placed in a distinct class, as not being properly adverbs. GRAMMAR 15 SYNTAX FORMATION OF SENTENCES. Words are combined in the formation of sentences in three ways: as subjects and predicates; as attributives to subjects, and as objects to predicates. Sentences are combined co- ordinately, or subordinately ; subordinate or accessory sentences occupying the positions of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, in the principal sentences of which they form part. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. In every sen- tence of perfectly expressed thought, two elements are positively essential: some per- son or thing spoken of, or a subject; and something asserted respecting it, or a pred- icate. If either subject or predicate be wanting, the expression in itself is unin- telligible. For subjects, nouns (which stand for persons or things) or pronouns (used in the place of nouns, and always in the nomi- native case), adjectives, participles or in- finitive moods (representing qualities, ac- tions, etc.), single words or letters (in which the thing and the name are identi- cal), or subjective accessory sentences, may be used. Ex. "All tongues speak of him;" "action is eloquence;" "my praises made the first a soldier;" "you are a traitor;" "here he comes;" "they say, she 's mad;" "the dead shall rise and live again;" "the wise shall inherit glory;" "in him sparing would show a worse sin than its doctrine;" "to err is human, to forgive, divine;" "who is now used in relation to persons, and which to things"; "A has, in the English language, three different sounds." Exam- ples of subjective accessory sentences are as follows: "that you have wronged me, doth appear in this ;" "for a holy person to be humble is as hard as for a prince to submit himself to tutors;" "to make such a statement involves the suspicion of igno- rance." The strictly impersonal verbs have no subject expressed. Ex. "Methinks already I your tears survey," "methought I sa\V the grave where Laura lay." Actions or conditions which are not assignable to any subject, have the pronoun it, as a forma! subject Ex. "It thunders, it lightens," "ti snows at the top of them, oftener than t rains," "it was freezing," "it is very cold,' "it is hot to-day," "it seems." And simi- larly, for the sake of emphasis or anima tion, it and there are used formally as sub jects, the real subjects being placed afte their predicates. Ex. "It \* excellent to have a giant's strength, but it is tyrannou o use it as a giant," "it is good to be here," it is //' "it was you who did this," "it be- looved him to suffer," "it is said that par- iament is dissolved," "it repented the Lord hat he had made man," "it doth not yet appear what we shall be," "there be many hat say," "there was in a city a judge," 'once upon a time there lived a man," 'there arose o mighty famine in that land," 'there were that thought it a part of Chris- ian charity to instruct them." PREDICATE CONSTRUCTIONS. The essen- tial characteristic of the predicate being assertion, a verb is indispensable in this part of a sentence. But besides verbs of all kinds, the verb to be, with nouns or pronouns (and that not only in the nomi- lative case, but in the possessive also, and in the objective with a preposition), ad- jectives, participles, the infinitive mood, ad- verbs (and adverbs with prepositions), single words or letters, and accessory sen- tences, may be used as predicates. In the latter cases, the form of the verb to be, which is employed, is called the copula, or link, which unites the predicate to the sub- ject. Ex. "He ran this way, and leaped this orchard wall," "he hath hid himself among those trees," "I 'II believe thee," "Juliet is the sun," "I am a villain," "you 'II be the bear," "her mother is the lady of the house," "ye are Christ's, and Christ is God's," "oh, he is even in my mistress's case, just in her case," "the haughty prelate, with many more confederates, are in arms," "of noble race was Shenkin," "they were to the number of three hundred horse," "they shall be mine," "you shall be ours," "he is not of us," "the sky is red," "you are meek," "you are excused," "they are running this way," "you are not to be taught," "the holy treas- ure was to be reserved," "the woman will be out," "ye are from beneath," "the pret- erit of creep is crept," "the ending of the genitive case is s," "this is what I said," "thou art whom I fear," "men should be what they seem." Nevertheless, in poetry and oratory, when peculiar emphasis or effect is desired, the copula is omitted, and the other predicative word placed before the subject. Ex. "Vain, all in vain, the weary search;" "sweet the moments, rich in blessing." The connection between the predicate and the subject in a sentence is shown by the predicate being in the same number as the subject Ex. He loves, they love, the tree falls, trees grow, I am afraid, we are satis- fied. Two or more singular subjects con- nected by the conjunction "and" (which, however, is often omitted), so as to form 16 GRAMMAR either a compound or a single subject, have their predicate in the plural. Ex. "Bacon and Shakespeare ore the greatest geniuses that England has produced;" "now abide faith, hope, charity;" "one and one are two." And similarly, collective nouns have their predicates in the singular when they are thought of in the aggregate, but the plural when their component parts are most re- garded. Ex. "Parliament is sitting," "a cluster of mob were making themselves merry with their betters," "the people are the city," "my people doth not consider." But when the predicate is a singular noun, the copula is often singular. Ex. "Bread and cheese is fit diet for a prince." And when the conjunction or or nor is used, unless the last subject be plural, the predi- cate is singular. Ex. "Either you or your brother has deceived me," "neither shall the sun light on them, nor any heat" "either he or they have carried her off." ASSERTIONS REGARDING ONE'S SELF. When the speaker makes the assertion re- specting himself, the subject is a personal pronoun of the first person, and the verb is also in the first person; when the assertion is addressed to him respecting whom it is made, the personal pronoun of the second person, and the form of the verb to corre- spond with it, are employed; and when it relates to any other person or thing, the third person of the verb (with the pronoun to correspond, if requisite), is used. Ex. "I, that speak unto thee, am he," "I know in whom / have believed," "we speak that we do know" "thou art the man," "thou knewest that I was an austere man," "ye believe not, because ye are not of my sheep." "Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended. Mother, you have my father much offended." "He planteth an ash, and the rain doth nourish it," "he drinketh no water, and is faint," "the great duke came to the bar," "gentlemen, the Penance lies on you," "heavenly blessings follow such creatures," "the hearts of princes kiss obedience, so much they love it" In commands, the subject is very com- monly omitted Ex. "Observe, observe, he is moody," "believe it, this is true," "pray hear me." The subject is also very fre- quently omitted in animated discourse, be- fore the verbs pray, please, etc., when used m accessory sentences. Ex. "Pray hear me," "give it me, please." GENERAL ASSERTIONS. When the asser- tion is general, or refers to the time at which it is made generally, the present in- definite tense is used. Ex. "Man wants but little here below." "I am the most un- happy woman living." "My lords, you speak your pleasures. What he deserves of you and me, I know; what we can do to him (though now the time gives way to us) I much fear." When it refers to the actual point of time at which the assertion is made, the present imperfect is used. Ex. "The duke is coming," "his grace is entering," "from all parts they are coming," "England is not wanting in a learned nobil- ity." And when it is made respecting an action regarded at the time as completed, the present perfect is employed. Ex. "I have heard one of the greatest geniuses this age has produced," "the gods have placed labor before interest," "this observa- tion we have made on man." The present perfect sometimes appears with a different auxiliary. Ex. "I am come, they are gone." "Cardinal Campeius is stolen away to Rome." The indefinite tense is frequently used instead of the imperfect. Ex. "He bites his lip, and starts, stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground." And the present perfect is sometimes employed to indicate past time, or in a sense equivalent to that of the past indefinite tense. Ex. "We have done that which it was our duty to do," "we have heard with our ears, and our fathers have declared unto us the noble works thou didst in their days." PECULIAR USES OF THE PRESENT. In ani- mated historical narrative, and in narrative poetry, the present indefinite is often em- ployed. Ex. "The boy starts to his feet, and his keen eye looks along the ready rifle .... Lo! a deer from Dalness, hound-driven, or sullenly astray, slowing, bearing his antlers up the glen, then stop- ping for a moment to snuff the air, then away away! The rifle-shot rings dully from the scarce echoing snow-cliff, and the animal leaps aloft struck by a certain but not sudden death-wound." Her lover sinks she sheds no ill-timed tears; Her chief is slain she fills his fatal post; Her fellows flee she checks their base career; Her foe retires she heads the sallying host. "My General descends to the outer staircase, and harangues; once more in vain ... Lafayette mounts the white charger; and again harangues, and reharangves, ... so lasts it, hour after hour, for the space of half a day." CONSTRUCTIONS WITH PAST TENSES. In like manner, actions, etc., are referred to the past generally, or as proceeding and incomplete, or as completed, by the use of the past indefinite, imperfect, and perfect tenses. Ex. "My father loved you, he said he did," "1 thrice presented him a kingly GRAMMAR 17 crown," "you wronged yourself;" "they of Bethshemesh -were reaping," "Israel were fighting with the Philistines," "they were eating, and drinking, and dancing;" "when Boaz had eaten and drunk, he went to lie down," "Elihu had waited till Job had spoken." The emphatic form is commonly used interchangeably with the indefinite. Ex. "Thus did my master bid me kneel, and thus he bade me say." The indefinite is often employed definitely when any par- ticular past time is indicated in the sen- tence. Ex. "/ saw him yesterday." USES OF THE FUTURE TENSE. And in the same way actions, etc., in time become dis- criminated by the employment of the future indefinite, imperfect, and perfect tenses. Ex. "A weighty secret will work a hole through them," "he will not stoop till he falls," "I shall never forget;" "thy people shall be willing in the day of thy power," "they will be still praising thee;" "we shall have completed our task before you commence yours," "then cometh the end, when he shall have delivered up the king- dom to God." Instead of the future, the indefinite present is often used. Ex. / leave England to-morrow, we sail next week. Other forms for expressing future time are mentioned above. Ex. "We are going to spend some time on the Conti- nent," "I was about to write." THE INDICATIVE MOOD. When simple as- sertion, or denial, is intended, the predicate is always in the indicative mood. Ex. "I am glad to see your lordship abroad," "the mouse gnawed the threads to pieces, and set the lion at liberty," "he goeth in com- pany with the workers of iniquity, and walketh with wicked men," "you did wish that I would wake her then," "she may go to bed when she list; all is as she will," "thou must run to him," "flatter him it may, I confess." THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. In principal sentences, when a wish is to be expressed, or a concession to be made for the sake of argument, the subjunctive mood is used. Ex. "Now, all my joy trace the conjunc- tion!" "the Lord forbid!" "the Lord in- crease this business !" "be it so, my argu- ment remains unshaken." Commands are conveyed by means of the imperative mood. Ex. "Know thy- self," "follow thou me," "cease to do evil, learn to do well," "rejoice, you men of An- giers, ring your bells." The auxiliary let is employed for the first and third persons. Ex. "Acknowledge then the king, and let me in," "let none of them escape," "rise, let us go," "let the soldiers seize him," "let Euclid rest, and Archimedes pause," "let him be known among the heathens." ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES. The dis- tinction between the use of the active and the passive forms of verbs has been pointed out and illustrated above (p. n) ; and from that it will appear that whatever has been said here respecting predicates applies as much to the latter as to the former, with this exception there being no (or but few) imperfect tenses in the passive, the indefinite tenses are in all cases (except the few referred to) used to express ac- tion still in progress, or incomplete. Ex. "The colors are changed by viewing them at different obliquities," "I am determined to prove a villain," "you shall be new christened in the town," "to that sweet re- gion was our voyage bent," "Hector was dragged about the walls of Troy," "the Irish horse-boys should be cut off," "after all that can be said against it, this remains true," "it may be occasioned thus," "it shall be reported to the king," "the Presbyterian sect was established in all its forms," "it was said, that the elder should serve the younger." INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. In questions the same grammatical forms are employed as in assertions; but the order of the words is generally inverted, and when compound tenses are used (as they most frequently are), the subject follows the auxiliary, while the verb itself occupies its usual place. Interrogative pronouns are put at the beginning of questions. Ex. "Where is he?" "Shall I live in hope?" "What, do you tremble, are you all afraid?" "Saw you the king to-day?" "When have I injured thee?" "Why look you so pale?" "Who hath believed our report?" "To whom will ye liken God?" "Lusentio is your name?" "What, you mean my face?" "You saw this and opposed it not?" The grammatical construction of nega- tive sentences differs not at all from that of affirmative ones, such as have been chiefly selected for examples ; the relation of the negative words no, not, etc., being either that of the attributive to its subject, or of the object of manner to its predicate, as may be seen below. SUBJECT AND ATTRIBUTIVE. In order to describe the subjects respecting which as- sertions are made in sentences, more accu- rately than their mere names are sufficient to do; and to define them, so that the as- sertions may not become ambiguous by rea- son of the vagueness of the subjects they IS GRAMMAR relate to, words, phrases, and accessory sentences are employed, which are called attributives. The commonest attributives are adjec- tives; with which may be included partici- ples (which are the adjective forms of Terbs), numerals, some kinds of pronouns, nouns used as adjectives, and a few ad- verbs, which are also occasionally used at- tributively. The only sign of the relation between these attributives and their sub- jects is their position, which is immediately before the words they refer to, except in cases where peculiar emphasis or anima- tion is aimed at, when they immediately follow their subjects. Ex. "The weird sis- ters," "my dread exploits," "from this mo- ment," "my dearest coz," "my pretty cousin," "to offer up a weak, poor, inno- cent lamb," "O nation miserable!" "a most miraculous work in this good king," "thy royal father was a more sainted king," "each several crime," "many ways," "the healing benediction," "all my pretty chick- ens," "an accustomed action," "curses, not loud, but deep," "those linen cheeks of thine are counsellors to fear," "a rooted sorrow," "the written troubles of the brain," "what wood is this?" "within this three mile," "a moving grove," "lead our first battle," "hateful to mine ear," "thou shalt have none assurance of thy life," "there was no day like that before," "it is no good report that I hear," "in that very day his thoughts perish," "a hundred altars in her temples smoke, a thousand bleeding hearts her power invoke," "some rqen with swords may reap the field," "see where the victor victim bleeds," "his knowledge of good lost," "man's first disobedience," "these are the martyr spirits of mankind," "which way went he?" "what man is he?" "on the hither side," "yon flowery arbors, yonder alleys green," "in russet gear and honest kersey hose," "a hundred upon poor four us!" "an everlasting now." In some cases where a noun is com- pounded with an attributive word, in the plural number, the noun assumes the plural form. Ex. Attorney-general, Attorneys- general ; Lord-lieutenant, Lords-lieutenant But where the compound word expresses an inseparable notion the plural ending is added to the attributive, if that is the sec- ond element in the word. Ex. Two spoon- fuls. PossEssrvEs AS ATTRIBUTIVES. Nouns and pronouns in the possessive case are exceedingly common as attributives. But it must be noted that there is no distinc- tion between the possessive cases of per- sonal pronoun and certain adjective pro- nouns called possessive; examples of which are given in the preceding paragraphs. Sometimes the subject to these attributives is omitted; and frequently the preposition of is inserted before the possessive case. Ex. "I am not yet of Percy's mind," "the roaring of the lion's whelp," "a herald's coat without sleeves," "hearts no bigger than pins' heads," "I did pluck allegiance from men's hearts," "a fair queen in a summer's bower," "I must to the barber's, monsieur," "the knight came to the tail- or's" "I saw thee late at the Count Or- sino's," "which is the way to Master Jew's?" "let ours also learn to maintain good works," "I seek not yours but you," "the king is now in progress towards St. Alban's," "a friend of mine on his jour- ney," "if e'er those eyes of yours behold another day," "a seal ring of my grand- father's? "this dotage of our general's o'er- flows the measure." OBJECTIVES AS ATTRIBUTES. The ob- jective case of nouns and pronouns, with various prepositions, but especially with the preposition of (which combination is equivalent to the possessive case), is used attributively. Ex. "I speak in behalf of my daughter, in the minority of them both," "the wicked ministry of arms," "the instrument of Providence," "the customs of the Irish," "thou art a soul in bliss," "a wholesome law time out of mind," "com- passion on the king commands me stoop," "travels by sea and land," "the messenger from our sister," "our duty to God" "sons to Cymbeline," "four rogues in buckram." Imperfect participles are also employed with the preposition of as attributives. Ex. "A famine of hearing the word of the Lord," "he hath a bad habit of frowning," "the greatest care of fulfilling the Divine will." Another attributive use of this prep- osition (with one or two others) with nouns and pronouns is called partitive, from its evident force and signification. Ex. "The most diminutive of birds," "I have peppered two of them," "seven of the eleven, I paid," "every one of them," "all of us," "it contained the whole of religion," "for which of these works do ye stonv. me?" "one amongst a thousand." APPOSITION. Subjects are further de- fined and described by means of the words expressing subjects, in the same number, and immediately preceding or following them, and said to be in apposition with them. Ex. "Fulvia thy wife came first into the field, against my brother Vicius," "the GRAMMAR 19 false house-wife Fortune," "thou, my brother, my competitor, my mate in em- pire, friend and companion in the part of war," "King Cophetua wooed the beggar maid," "Hamlet, Prince of Denmark," His royal highness, Prince Albert; Lord John Russell, Mr. Smith. When several per- sons of the same name are spoken of, or addressed by letter, the honorary title is put in the plural, while the name is in the singular number. Ex. Messieurs Smith, Cheeryble Brothers, the Mesdames Robin- son. In some cases the noun in apposition is connected by means of the preposition of. Ex. The empire of Russia, the city of St. Petersburg, the university of Cambridge, the county of Kent, the port of London, the month of July, the province of Judea. When two nouns in apposition are at- tributives to another, the latter only is put in the possessive case. Ex. "Our neigh- bor Shepherd's son," "King Henry's head," "Dr. Johnson's Dictionary," "Duke Hum- phrey's deeds," "The Lord Protector's wife," "my Lord Cardinal's man," "Saint Alban's shrine." Accessory sentences are employed as at- tributives. Ex. "Whose hand is that the forest bear doth lick? Not his that spoils her young before her face," "a day will come, when York shall claim his own," "in that chair, where kings and queens are frowned." ATTRIBUTIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. Many of the illustrations given above show how common it is for a single subject to be described and defined by means of many attributives. The following examples will show some of the ways in which the repe- titiom of the same word as subject to sev- eral attributives, or as attributive to sev- eral subjects, is prevented. Ex. "1 thought the king had more affected the Duke of Albany than Cornwall," "the princes, France and Burgundy," "here I disclaim all . . . propinquity and property of blood, and as a stranger to my heart and me, hold thee," "we still retain the name and all the addi- tions to a king," "thy dowerless daughter is queen of us, of ours, and our fair France," "he wrote this but as an essay or taste of my virtue;" "menaces and male- dictions against king and nobles;" "the marks of sovereignty, knowledge, and rea- son;" "my train are men of choice and rarest parts;" "the messengers from our sister and the king;" "he, the sacred honor of himself, his queen's, his hopeful son's, his babe's betrays to slander;" "uncles of Glo'ster and of Winchester;" "the Dukes of Orleans, Calaber, Bretaigne, and gon." PREDICATE AND OBJECT. The significa- tion of predicates is modified or completed by means of words, phrases, and accessory sentences, which are called objects. And not only are all parts of verbs followed by these adjuncts, but adjectives also fre- quently require them. Objects which complete or supplement the meaning of their predicates are of three kinds: (i.) The immediate or direct ob- ject of the predicate; (2.) the remoter, or mediate and indirect object; (3.) the re- motest object, or that which indicates the effect or result of what is asserted in the predicate. Ex : ist obj. 2d obj. 3d obj. "I will take you to me for a people." ad obj. ist obj. 3d obj. "This opinion gave them courage to all adventures." Those which modify or attemper the sig- nification of their predicates are six in number: (i.) Those which indicate the cause or origin of whatever is asserted in the predicate; (2.) those which tell its de- sign or purpose; (3.) those which declare the means by which it is brought about; (4.) those which show the manner of its existence or action; (5.) and (6.) those indicating the time and place of its occur- rence. It must, however, be observed, that it is not easy in all instances to determine to which class an object belongs those expressing cause, purpose, or means fre- quently being distinguishable by exceed- ingly evanescent characteristics. But this is not, practically, either inconvenient or productive of ambiguity; as may be seen in the examples of these and other kinds of objects. Ex. (i.) "My soul grows sad with troubles;" "by that sin fell the angels." (2.) "She went to glean Palawan's fields;" "one man pursues power in order to wealth, and another wealth in order to power." (3)- "Judge the event by what has passed;" "the strong through pleasure falls "soonest." (4.) "They act wisely;" "beware and gov- ern well thy appetite." (5.) "We lacked your counsel and your help to-night;" "it hath been sung at festivals, on ember eves, and holy ales." (6.) "The lion's foe lies prostrate on the plain;" "I am with thee, by and before, about and in thee, too." Nouns, pronouns, and other words used as nouns, such as the infinitive mood of verbs, and participles, most commonly without, but also with prepositions before them, serve as immediate objects of predi- cates; nd_also of the infinitive mood of so GRAMMAR verbs, and participles, and of adjectives, when they are not the predicates of sen- tences. And the personal pronouns, whether with or without prepositions, are in the objective case. Ex. "Do you not hear him?" "you mar our labor;" "keep your cabins;" "you do assist the storm;" " 't is time I should inform thee further;" "wipe thou thine eyes; have com- fort;" "you have often begun to tell me what I am, but stopped, and left me to a bootless inquisition;" "he whom, next thy- self, of all the world I loved, and to him put the manage of my state;" "the gov- ernment I cast upon my brother;" "the ivy which had hid my princely trunk, and sucked the verdure out on't;" "triumphing over death, and chance, and time;" "on mine arm shall they trust;" victorious over temptation." The common exclamations, "ah me!" and "woe is me!" are contractions; the lat- ter was originally, "woe becomes or befits me," and the former is equivalent to it in meaning, and may have been derived from it THE MORE REMOTE OBJECT is also ex- pressed by nouns, and most commonly pre- ceded by the preposition to; but this is often omitted; and there are other preposi- tions which serve to connect this object with its predicate. Whenever the remoter object is expressed, but the immediate ob- ject left out, the sense is imperfect The personal pronouns, as in the last, are al- ways in the objective case. Ex. "Three great ones of the city oft capp'd to him;" "whip me such honest knaves ;" "throwing but shows of service on their lords, do themselves homage;" "I am beholden to you;" "forgive us our trespasses;" "he makes a supper, and a great one, to many lords and ladies;" "I need not add more fuel to your fire;" "comparing spiritual things with spiritual;" "I have charged thee not to haunt about my doors;" "fetch me an irpn crow ;" "O continue thy loving- kindness unto me;" "the services, which I have done the signiory;" "the goodness of the night upon you, friends;" "I'll refer me to all things of sense;" "good-night to every one!" "it can not be that Desdemona should long continue her love to the Moor, nor he his to her;" "I have told thee often, and I re-tell thee again and again, I hate the Moor." FOB THE REMOTEST OBJECT, which ex- presses the result or effect of the predicate, nouns (with or without prepositions, or preceded by the conjunction as), pronouns, adjectives, participles, the infinitive mood of verbs, and to be with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, are employed. Ex. "He, in good time, must his lieutenant be, and I, his Moorship's ancient;" "the king, your father, was reputed for a prince most pru- dent;" "whom I hold my most malicious foe, and think not at all a friend to truth; bade me enjoy it? "man became a living soul;" "why should damage grow to the hurt of the king?" "they looked upon them- selves as the happiest people vf the uni- verse;" "things were just ripe for a war;" "those pearls of dew she wears prove to be presaging tears f "his servants ye are to whom ye obey, whether of sin unto death, or of obedience unto righteousness,"" "we take a falling meteor for a star;" "it were not for your quiet, nor your good, nor for my manhood, honesty, and wisdom, to let you know my thoughts ;" "I believe him to be a very honest man;" "whom do you sup- pose it to be?" OBJECTS MODIFYING MEANING. Of the objects which modify the meaning of the predicate, those which do so by indicating its origin or cause are expressed by noons (and all words and combinations of words that can be used instead of them), pre- ceded by certain prepositions, and by some adverbs. Oaths are included under this head, as indicating the ground of the asser- tion, though not of what is asserted. Ex. "I would not follow him then;" "therefore to our best mercy give yourselves;" "whom from the How of gall I name not, but from sincere motions;" "you lost your office on the complaint of the tenants;" "men are pleased with variety;" "astonished at the voice, he stood ;" "they were jealous of her beauty," "guilty of high treason;" "I can tell you why;" "thou hast forced me out of thy honest truth to play the woman ;" "they boast themselves of idols;" "Sem- pronius gives no thanks on this account;" "you are good, but from a nobler cause, from your own knowledge, not from na- ture's laws;" "by the faith of a man, I know my prince;" "by heaven, I rather would have been his hangman;" "on my honor, it is so." OBJECTS INDICATING DESIGN. Those ob- jects which point out the design and pur- pose of the predicate are expressed by the infinitive mood of verbs, most commonly, and also by nouns, etc., with prepositions. Ex. "I follow him to serve my turn upon him;" "wears out his time for nought but provender:" "in following him, I follow but myself, not I for love and duty, but GRAMMAR 21 seeming so, for my peculiar end;" "I come to bury Casar, not to praise him;" "he travelled the world, on purpose to converse with the most learned men;" "with this design I have visited all the most cele- brated schools in Europe;" "he writes not for money nor for praise;" "there is a time to weep, and a time to laugh;" "be swift to hear, slow to speak;" "one man pursues power in order to wealth, and another wealth in order to power;" "thou art not able to go against this Philistine to fight with him." OBJECTS INDICATING MEANS. Objects by which the means employed in producing any result are declared are generally expressed by nouns, etc., with prepositions. Ex. "I must be be-lee'd and calm'd by debtor and creditor, this countercaster ;" "preferment goes by letter and affection, not by the old gradation;" "plague him with flies;" "we may outrun by violent swiftness that which we run at, and lose by overrunning;" "my soul grows sad with troubles;" "the strong through pleasure soonest falls, the weak through smart;" "you must think we hope to gain by you;" "thus, by the music we may know when noble wits a-hunting go;" "you absolved him with an axe;" "some he killed with his gun, others by poison." MANNER is expressed by adjectives, par- ticiples, adverbs, and nouns, etc., with prep- ositions or the conjunction as. Ex. "He, as loving his own pride and purposes, evades them, with a bombast circumstance;" "wears out his time, much like his mas- ter's ass;" "wide was spread their fame in ages past;" "in madness, being full of sup- per and distempering draughts, dost thou come to start my quiet ;" "he, with his father, is going home;" "a Puritan among them sings psalms to hornpipes;" "we are not to stay all together, but to come by him, where he stands, by ones, by twos, and by threes;" "seize her by force, and bear her hence unheard;" "so frown'd the mighty combatants ;" "thus he spake ;" "quit yourselves like men;" "ye shall be as gods;" "come quickly;" "he answered well;" "they that sow in tears shall reap in joy;" he that goeth forth weeping, bear- ing precious seed, shall doubtless come again with rejoicing, bringing his sheaves wth him;" "they act wisely." OBJECTS INDICATING TIME. All the va- rious ways in which objects indicate the time of an action, etc., are expressed by nouns, etc., with or without prepositions, adjectives, participles, and adverbs. Ex. "He in good time must his lieutenant be;" "we rose both at an instant, and fought a long hour by Shrewsbury clock;" "then have sat the livelong day;" "he came by night;" "doomed for a certain time to walk the night, and for the day confined to fast in fires;" "he did them meditate all his life long;" "till then, who knew the force of those dire arms?" "I have not wept this forty years;" "morning by morning shall it pass over;" "yet in her sanguine gown by night and day;" "depart immediately;" I was never pleased;" "thy servants' trade hath been about cattle from our youth even until now;" "sometimes walking;" "now is the time." PLACE WHERE, AND DIRECTION whence and whither, are expressed by nouns, ete seek my lost repose, Till .grief my yes should close. Ne'er to wake m6r." THE WRITING OF POETRY 43 IV. ANAPESTIC METRE. The effect of this metre can be learned from this illustration: (12 s. ii s. 4 xxa. xa + 3 xxa.) "I have 16st for that faith more than thou canst bestow, As the God who permits thee to pr6sper doth know; In his hand is my heart and my hope; and in thine, The land and the life which for him I resign." RULES OF METRE; ACCENT. I. Since the long and short vowels are not distinguished in our language, and the same word may have the stress of the voice in one line and be subordinate in another, it follows that the matter of accent is the first and most important consideration in English verse. Therefore, in good poetry the proper accent of a word should never be changed. The effect of rhythmatic unity obtained by this means is most often at the expense of other poetic qualities. One example, selected from an old religious poem, illustrates this very well: (8 s. 6 s. 4 xa. 3 xa.) "None but a foolish fanatic, Of weak and simple brains." As will be observed, the word, "fanatic," which is properly accented on the second syllable, has that syllable unaccented in the first verse, being accented on the first syl- lable, which is impossible and grating. Another glaring example of this error oc- curs in that grand old hymn, "The New Jerusalem" : (8 s. 6 s. 4 va. 3 xa.) "There b< the prudent pr6phets all, Th' ap6stles six and six, The g!6rious martyrs in a r6w, And c6nfessors betwixt." In the last verse, the word, "confessors," which properly carries the accent on the second syllable, has it thrown upon the first, which is even worse in effect than the similar error noted above. II. The accent, as far as possible, should be kept off of short words, like preposi- tions and articles, and off of adjectives, unless the sense requires emphasis: al- though a pleasing effect may sometimes be produced by accenting a preposition at the beginning of a line. A distressing case of ill -effect from this cause occurs in Long- fellow's "Robert of Sicily": (ios. 5 xa.) "And when, once more, within Palermo's wall, And seated on the throne in his great hall." The error lies in the stress thrown on his in the second line. RULES OF METRE; AUXILIARIES. III. The use of auxiliaries, particularly parts of the verb, "to do," should be avoided, probably under all circumstances. Although in prose it is perfectly proper to use this verb in emphatic expressions as, "You did say it" or in negative sentences as, "I did not say it" either construction is extremely in- elegant in verse. It is, in fact, very nearly the best evidence of an insufficient knowl- edge of the language and of the nature of poetic composition; and, quite apart from consideration of subjects treated, is the principal difference between true verse and "doggerel rhymes." Several glaring exam- ples of this fault occur in the hymn already quoted : "There, there the choir of angels sing; There the supernal sort Of citizens, which hence are rid From dangers deep, do sport." Again: "Young men and maids that here on earth Their pleasures did resist." And: "Whom I do love, to him myself In glory will appear." RULES OF METRE; TRANSPOSITION. IV. Although poetical composition requires some transpositions from the natural order of English prose, such transpositions should never depart so far from the regular ar- rangements as to render the meaning ob- scure; nor should a subordinate word, such as a preposition, or an auxiliary verb, end a line. A case in point is as follows: "Whom now as in a glass I see, There face to face I shall." The subject and direct object of a verb in fact, all words closely related in the formation of an idea should be placed as closely as the unities of the metre will al- low. That it is ever necessary to separate the organic words of a sentence as widely as is sometimes done, is doubtful. A nota- ble evidence of this is found in the poems of Tennyson, which are conspicuous for compactness of expression, grammatical ac- curacy, and rhetorical force, combined with a complete mastery of metrical unities. The practice of placing an adjective after the noun with which it agrees is frequently found in the best poets. It is doubtful, however, whether it is really elegant and forceful, and should be avoided wherever possible: it should always be avoided with monosyllabic adjectives. In verses intended to be humorous or vividly descriptive, an exception may be allowed at times. The best general rule, however, is that an ad- THE WRITING OF POETRY jective in direct agreement with a noun should be placed before it, except in cases where inversion would be permissable in prose; as "life eternal," "God Almighty," etc. Such concessions to grammatical form as "his wife so good," for "his good wife," are inadmissible in real poetry. The effect of violating these rules may be judged from the following stanza: " 'O Father dear,' quoth He, 'let them Which Thou hast put of old To me be there where, lo, I am, Thy glory to behold; Which / with Thee before the world Was made, in perfect wise, Have had; from whence the fountain great Of glory doth arise.' " The italics mark the most glaring depart- ures from pure diction and good effect. PRACTICAL POINTS ON SCANSION. It is necessary to scan, either by knowledge of metrical elements, or by correctness of ear and rhythmic sense, just as singing or play- ing a musical instrument requires either a knowledge of notes or a good memory for melody. In order to discover the metrical character of a given line, it is frequently necessary to compare it with some other whose metre is known, or to try each va- riety of foot in turn until one is found giving the correct accents of all words to the end of each verse (line). Bearing in mind that a "long," or ac- cented, syllable corresponds to the musical quarter-note, or crochet, and a "short," or unaccented, syllable to the eighth-note, or quaver, one can gain some idea of the stress required by each, whether the line is to be sung or not A very good illustration of this may be seen in the two following twelve-syllable verses from two familiar hymns: "At the cross, at the cross, where I first saw the light" And: "In the cross, in the cross, be my glory ever." The first scans easily, the accents falling as regularly as in simple prose: "At the cross, at the cross, where I first saw the light." But to attempt the same metre with the second produces a disarrangement of the natural accents, let alone the confusion to the following verses. Thus: "In the cross, in the cross, be my glory ever." The impossible stress on the second sylla- ble of ever, gives us the alternative between reading the line as 3 xxa + xa, giving : "In the cross, in the cross, be my glory e'er," Thus changing it by abbreviation, or of adopting dactyls and trochees instead of anapests. Thus, we have: "I'n the cross, in the cross, bi my glory ever," or 2 axx + 3 ax, or, as the music seems to indicate, 2 axx -\-zax-\-aa, giving a spon- dee in the last foot. The music written for these two lines reveals the accuracy of our analysis. Thus : At the cross, at the cross, where I first saw the light J I I'n the cross, in the cross, be my glo eV er In these lines it will be seen that the time indicated by the musical notation in- volves the same order of stress and pause as occurs when merely reading the verses. IRREGULAR METRES. While in most hymns and ballads, and generally in ex- tended poems, the metre is moderately reg- ular so that the compositions may be set to simple tunes some descriptive poetry is very irregularly scanned. This is due either to carelessness or the necessities of using varying feet for varying ideas, but in either case reveals the great flexibility of English verse. That it would be ex- THE WRITING OF POETRY 45 ceedingly difficult to set some such verses to music is evident: but, for purposes of animated description, it is unsurpassable. A good example of this mixed, or irregu- lar, verse may be found in Whittier's "Bar- bara Frietchie": "U'p from the meadows rich with corn, Clear in the cool September morn, The clustered spires of Fred'rick stand, Green-walled by the hills of Maryland." The rhymic construction of these four verses may be understood by the following analysis : \axx\ax\ax\a\ \axx\ax\ax\a\ \xa\xa\xa\xa\ \xa\xxa\xa\xa\ By reading such a scheme as this, letter by letter, giving particularly strong em- phasis to each a, and leaving each x corre- spondingly weak, a distinct idea of narra- tive is derived from the metre. The effect is similar to that obtained in some musical compositions, known as "Romances," which move precisely as though a story were be- ing told, the effect of beauty or grandeur, suggestive of more or less distinct scenes and emotions, being supplied by the time and tone-coloring. This merely examples the fact that certain metres, in both poetry and music, are peculiarly adapted to ex- press and excite certain definite emotions. METRE; EMOTIONAL EFFECTS. Just as certain styles of musical composition those combining particular varieties of time and rhythm are peculiarly sugges- tive of certain definite emotions, so certain metrical elements in poetry are as well calculated to express them. In general, the fewer the syllables, or the more the feet, in a line, the better fitted it is to set forth deep emotions or give impressive descrip- tions. Thus we find that the "heavier" portions of a poem are expressed in lines of few syllables or many feet each foot consisting most often of but two syllables. Lines of fewer feet, or more syllables, are calculated to express lighter varieties of emotion, such as joy, delight, etc. For this reason, the hymns most popular in re- ligious worship are usually written with short lines that may be sung readily to simple and attractive melodies. Changes of emotion may also be expressed by changes of metrical construction and length of lines, just as the theme of a musical composition like Chopin's "Funeral March" changes at intervals, or as a dif- ferent metre is taken for the chorus or, refrain in most songs, religious and popu- lar. To the end, then, of depicting varying emotion, or of making a definite emotional picture, many poems are written in what is called mixed verse, each stanza being com- posed of several varieties of metre. A few examples will suffice to show what is meant : "Three fishers went sailing away to the West, Away to the West as the sun went down; Each thought on the woman who loved him the best, And the children stood watching them out of the town ; For men must work, and women must weep, And there's little to earn, and many to keep, Though the harbor bar be moaning." This particular form of stanza would scarcely be chosen to express a trivial 'or comic subject, although it could not be said that its construction necessarily im- plies tragedy. There are so many success- ful examples of verse, in every length and every variety of metre, used to express emotions diametrical to those supposed to belong to them, that it is nearly impossible to assert that any particular form neces- sarily belongs with any particular emotion. We may distinguish, however, between verses merely descriptive or reflective in character and those that are animated, or fitted to depict some feeling. Thus, few would attempt to express a comic or emo- tional poem in the metre of "Paradise Lost," or in the dactylic hexameter of Longfel- low's "Evangeline." On the other hand, descriptive and reflective words would go very ill with such a metre as the following: "Let me have a scarlet maple For the grave-tree at my head, With the quiet sun behind it, In the years when I am dead. "Let me have the Silent Valley And the hill that fronts the east, So that I can watch the morning Redden, and the stars released. "Leave me in the Great Lone Country, For I shall not be afraid, With the shy moose and the beaver, There within my scarlet shade." This variety of verse seems well adapted to hortatory or discursive subjects. METRE; MUSICAL QUALITY. The emo- tional quality of a metre may be judged when it is used with words in a foreign language. Thus, from the German: "Im wunderschonen Monat Mai, Als alle Knospen sprangen, Da ist in meinem Hertzen Die Liebe aufgegangen. , 46 THE WRITING OF POETRY '1m wunderscbonen Monat Mai, Als alle Vogel sangen, Da hab* ich ihr gcstanden, Mein Sehnen und Vcrlangen." Few could doubt that this is precisely what it is a love ditty. Take this poem from the Latin, and judge whether its meaning is religious or "worldly": "Tribus signis Deo dignis Dies ista colitur: Tria signa Laude digna Ccetus his persequitUT. Stella magos Duxit vagos Ad praesepe Domini; Congaudentes Omnes gentes Ejus psallunt nominL" The following stanza in the Persian seems to possess a distinct power of sug- gesting emotion: "Janan-i-man haman biyarid in miulahtanam bado miyarid Agar boosa zanad bar in labanam Ta zindah shavam! ajab madarid." Several authors, undoubtedly skilled in the use of metres, notably Edward Lear and "Lewis Carroll," have well displayed the emotional qualities of certain metres by arranging them with nonsensical words. VARIETIES OF STANZA. Most modern po- etry is arranged into collections of lines somewhat like paragraphs in prose called "stanzas." In popular parlance the stanza is incorrectly called a verse, probably from the Scriptural divisions of "chapters and verses." The word, "verse," refers prop- erly to the single line. It is from the Latin word vertere, "to turn," and desig- nates the point where the metre turns, or where the eye turns back to begin another complete element of the poem. Properly speaking, a single line can not constitute a poetic unity, although it may be poetical in conception and metrical in form. Two rhymed lines, of whatever length or metre, constitute a couplet or distich. Thus : " 'Tis the place, and all around it, while as yet 'tis early morn; Leave me here, and when you want m, sound upon the bugle horn." A stanza of three rhymed lines is called a triplet. Thus: "Thy silver locks, once auburn bright, Are still more lovely in my sight Than golden gleams of orient light," A stanza of four lines is called a qua- train. Generally the rhyme is between the -alternate lines the first rhyming with the third, and the second with the fourth; or the second and fourth rhyming together, leaving the first and third unrhymed very seldom, between the four lines consecutive- ly. There are several pleasing variations from common practices. Thus. Tennyson's "In Memoriam" is composed of quatrains having the first and fourth and the second and third lines of each in rhyme: "I held it truth, with him who sings To one clear harp in divers tones. That men may rise on stepping-stones Of their dead selves to higher things." Another famous form of quatrain, in which the first, second, and fourth lines rhyme, leaving the third unrhymed, is borrowed from the Persian. This from Omar Khay- yam's "Rubaiyat": "A book of verses underneath the bough, A jug of wine, a loaf of bread and Thou Beside me singing in the Wilderness Oh, Wilderness were Paradise enow!" SEVEN AND EIGHT LINE STANZAS. Among other special forms of the stanza may be mentioned the so-called "Rhythm- Royal," or seven-lined stanza, invented by Chaucer. It is properly always written in iambic pentameter, and has the first and third, the second, fourth, and fifth, and the sixth and seventh in rhyme. Another form of iambic pentameter is the "Ottava Rima," or eight-lined stanza, of Italian origin. It has the first, third, and fifth, the second, fourth and sixth, and the seventh and eighth in rhyme. The following is an example : " 'Tis sweet to hear the watchdog's honest bark Bay deep-mouth' d welcome as we draw near h6me; 'Tis sweet to kn6w there is an eye will mark Our coming, and look brighter when we c6me; 'Tis sweet to W awakened by* the lark, Or liill'd by falling waters; sweet the hum Of be'es, the voice of girls, the song of birds. The lisp of children and their earliest w6rds." THE SPENSERIAN STANZA. The famous "Spenserian Stanza" is also in iambic pen- tameter, with the last line in hexameter. It has nine lines, the first of which is in rhyme with the third ; the second with the fourth, fifth, and seventh, and the sixth with the eighth and ninth. Thus : "The NioM of nations; there she stands, Childless and crownless, in her voiceless w6e; An empty urn within her wither'd hinds, Whose h61y dust was scatter'd long ago; Her Scipio's t6mb contains no ashes n6w; Her vry sepulchres lie tenantless Of their heroic dwellers: dost thou flow, Old Tiber, through a marble wilderness? Rise, with thy yellow waves, and manitle her di^ tresol" THE WRITING OF POETRY 47 THE SONNET is a fourteen-line stanza also written in iambic pentameter. It is divided into two distinct parts, or mem- bers: the one, consisting of the first eight lines, being called the "major member," or "octave"; the other, the remaining six lines, being called the "minor member," or "ses- tette." The major member is, in construc- tion, two quatrains, in each of which the rhymes are between the first and fourth and the second and third lines, as in the stanzas of "In Memoriam." In order, however, to make the unity of this member complete, the first and fourth lines of the first quatrain are in rhyme with the first and fourth of the second; and the second and third lines of the first, with the second and third of the second. The minor member, or sestette, forms a unit by itself, independent, so far as rhyme is concerned, from the octave. There is no invariable rule for the arrangement of rhymes between its verses, although the prevailing perhaps the typical arrange- ment is to rhyme the first with the fourth, the second with the fifth, and the third with the sixth. The continuity between the major and minor members is usually se- cured by beginning the latter in the midst of a sentence, or by otherwise forming a logical or grammatical reference to the ideas developed in the former. A number of poets, particularly in Amer- ica, have produced fourteen-line stanzas in iambic pentameter, and have called them sonnets. However, on account of the fact that the sequence of the rhymes is some- what different from that named above the octave generally consisting of two dis- tinct quatrains, with the rhyme between the first and fourth and the second and third lines of each, and no rhyme from the one being carried over to the other many authorities contend that the "American son- net" is not properly named. The following sonnet from Lowell de- parts from the scheme of the sestette men- tioned above, in having the rhymes between the first, third, and fifth, and the second, fourth, and sixth lines. It is a true sonnet, however, from the fact that the construc- tion of the octave is perfectly regular. TO A FRIEND "True as the sun's own work, but more refined, It tells of love behind the artist's eye, Of sweet companionships with earth and sky, And summers stored, the sunshine of the mind. What peace! Surfc, ere you breathe, the fickle wind Will break its truce and bend the grass plume high Scarcely yet quiet from the gilded fly That flits a more luxurious perch to find. Thanks for a pleasure that can never pall, A serene moment, deftly caught and kept To make immortal summer on my wall. Had he who drew such gladness ever wept? Ask rather could he else have seen at all, Or grown in Nature's mysteries an adept?" ELEGIAC VERSE. One other use of the iambic pentameter is in elegiac verse, where it frequently appears in the form of qua- trains. Thus from Gray: "Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, A youth to fortune and to fame unknown 1 , Fair science smiled not on his humble birth, And melancholy mark'd him for her 6wn." THE USES OF POETRY. Some people as- sert that the day of poetry has passed. If they mean that the lengthy poems of for- mer times, such as the "Paradise Lost," and the epic of the classic languages is no longer widely read, they have some ele- ment of fact in their contention. For the shorter poems; the ballad, the descriptive verse, songs, hymns, and the like, there is still a demand and an appreciation; and this will probably continue to be the case so long as humanity appreciates rhythm and rhyme, as helps to imagination, memory, and even understanding, and so long as an idea, trivial and irrelevant in prose, can gain force and logical cogency through the medium of verse. Although poetry, like music, the drama, sculpture, and the other arts, has seen its widest and greatest use as a "handmaid of religion" serving as a vehicle for express- ing the loftiest thoughts and aspirations of mankind, and perpetuating the memory of its best and noblest achievements it can not be held at the present time that this is its sole and exclusive function. Apart from its wide use in expressing human love, the bulk of present-day poetry is oc- cupied with the homelier aspects of life; with simple narratives or descriptions, and with subjects classed as comic or humor- ous. That such productions are poetry, in the sense of using properly constructed me- tres and effective language, is often pre- eminently true. That the ideas conveyed by them are "poetic" that is to say, "ideal," ennobling, worthy of preservation in the beautiful unities of metre is frequently doubtful. If art is to be expressive, it must also be broad, inclusive, catholic, like nature it seeks to imitate; although its uses, on oc- casions, may be higher or lower, worthier or unworthier. However, these distinctions apply to the subjects treated, not to the art that expresses them. ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN THERE is an old saying to the effect that "language is history crystallized," which means that a critical study of words and idioms will reveal most, if not all, the foreign influences that have been brought to bear upon a people in the course of history. Thus, the modern Greek, in addition to numerous idioms and constructions not found in the ancient language, has very many Turkish words that distinctly reveal the close and painful connection subsisting for so many years between the two nations. So, also, the Greek of the New Testa- ment contains so many constructions peculiar to Hebrew that the nation- ality of its writers is too evident for denial: its language is the best evidence of its genuineness. What is true in these connections applies with even greater force to the English language. The Romans, the Saxons, the French, have all left monuments of their influence in the words we daily use to express our thoughts, our aspirations, and our necessities. In a certain sense it is true, therefore, that an exhaustive understand- ing of English requires a training in several classical and foreign lan- guages. However, by intelligent study, one need not "go abroad to learn his own tongue." The matter of word-derivation and construction is so simple that a very definite and practical idea of its principles may be readily acquired. These will be set forth in the following pages, in such shape as to simplify study, as far as is possible, for average intelligence and application. ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH WORDS ELEMENTS OF WORD-STRUCTURE. Every word has two and very many have all, of three elements. The first is the root, which is the simplest and most primi- tive sound to which a definite meaning may apply in any given case. The second is the suffix, or ending, which determines to what part of speech a word belongs whether it is a noun, concrete or abstract, an adjective, an adverb or a verb. The third is the prefix, which always stands at the beginning of a word, and modifies the meaning. One root word, combined with the same suffix, may in several different cases have as many di- (48) verse meanings, owing to the presence of a different prefix in each case. Thus, from the Latin verb, tendere, to stretch or strive, we have the words : attention, contention, dfrtention, wrtension, intention, ^rrtension, with as many different meanings, as need not be explained. In the same manner, from the Latin, trahere, to draw or pull, we have the words: a&rtraction. a/traction, contraction, detraction, tftrtraction, extrac- tion, protraction, retraction, <&traction. In order to understand the widely various meanings to be supplied by a single root- wordsuch as ten or tend, as in the above ENGLISH WORDS uF FOREIGN ORIGIN 49 cases it is necessary that one know (i) the meaning of the root in each instance and to be able to identify it in any word; (2) the grammatical significance of the suf- fix; (3) the force of the prefix. The sig- nificance of the word in hand may then be reasoned out, in the majority of cases, without consulting the dictionary. COMPOUND WORDS. Before proceeding to the study of prefixes, suffixes, and roots, it is necessary, perhaps, to mention an- other class of words, known as "com- pound words." With these words, syllables apparently prefixes or suffixes vary the meaning as in the cases just noted; but that they are not prefixes or suffixes in the accepted sense of the terms is due to the fact that two roots are combined into one idea, rather than one root, with a preposi- tional prefix. This is shown in the use of pure English words. Thus, from the verb, see, we have foresee and oversee, with the prepositional prefixes fore and over, as shown; their office in either case being to tell how one sees. With such a compound word as sightseer, however, the word sight is prefixed to seer, in order to tell what one sees. Thus, from the Greek word, metron, a measure, we have the compounds, geometer, barometer, chronometer, and thermometer; signifying, respectively, "earth-measurer," "air-measurer," "time-measurer," and "heat- measurer." These all tell what is meas- ured. If we use Greek prefixes, making such words as diameter, "a measure through," Ammeter, "a measure around," and symmetry, "a measuring-with, an agree- ment," we have words telling how the measuring is done. The significance of compound words derived from foreign lan- guages can best be judged after the mean- ings belonging to the various roots have been found and understood. RULES ON FORMING WORDS. A funda- mental rule applying alike to the use of prefixes and suffixes and to the formation of compound words, is that all the elements of a word prefix, suffix, root, and com- pounded root shall be derived from the same language. This rule is invariable, ex- cept where all the elements of the com- pound have become so thoroughly a part of the common stock of English words as to be combined with other roots and ele- ments of English compounds. That this is the case is fortunate for the student of words, preventing many errors that seem natural. Thus, we have in English the pre- fix, mis, as in misplace, mislead, mistake, etc., having the meaning of "wrongly" ia each case. But, seeing such words as "mis- anthropist," "misogynist," in which the body of the word is evidently borrowed from the Greek, the student understands that the "mis" here must also be a Greek root, and finds it to represent "misos," signifying "hatred." Thus, he derives the meanings "man-hater" and "woman-hater." PREFIXES PREFIXES IN ENGLISH. In most languages, except English, the prepositional words, used to modify the meaning of verbs or nouns, are regularly compounded- with them as prefixes. This is the invariable rule in Latin and Greek, and holds in Ger- man, except in using the separable prefixes, where the modifying preposition or particle is separable from the verbal root. In very many English verbs, so modified, the par- ticle, if of English or Saxon origin, is sep- arate from the word. Thus, we have to put or set down; to hang, put, set, move up; to look, go, take, walk over; to live, run, take out. In several cases, also, the verbs, so used with particles, have a mean- ing opposite to that given, when the par- ticles are prefixes. Thus, "set up," means to "establish, to found, to arrange," while "upset" means "to throw down, to over- turn, to throw into confusion": so there is a wide difference between upsetting and set- ting up. The word "take over" means "to appropriate" while "overtake" means "to catch, or come up with," in running or walking. "Look over" means to "examine carefully," as a book, an estate, but "over- look" means usually "to ignore," or not to look at, although it also has the force of "to look at from above," as in the expres- sion, "the window overlooks the yard." So also, when we say that one "runs out" or "takes out," we see that the out has the force of from; but, when one "out-runs" another, he runs faster than that other. Consequently, he may live out the allotted "threescore and ten years" of human life, and yet be outlived by some one else who survives to "fourscore years." The word, with, has a similar story: If I hold with another, I am either his partner in holding something, or else I agree with him; or if I stand with him I am by his side, or am his ally. If, however, I withhold something, I keep it from him, and if I withstand him, I resist, oppose, or stand against him. Thus, with, as a prefix, has the force of from or against, which seems peculiar until we con- sider the fact that "to withhold" means "to 60 ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN hold with or for one's self"; that "with- stand" means to "stand with or for one's elf against another," and that "onV/idraw" Cleans to "draw with or by one's self, away from others." As several such uses of for- eign prefixes will be encountered, it is well to understand the matter in familiar English words. SUFFIXES USE OF SUFFIXES. A suffix, as already stated, determines the part of speech to which a word belongs. It also varies the force with which it is used and determines the precise meaning to be attributed to it in each case. Most of the important suf- fixes indicate nouns or adjectives, leav- ing a very few forms peculiarly verbal. Among the suffixes used with foreign roots particularly Latin and Greek the following list gives the most important, with their forms in the original language. In a large number of cases, it is necessary only to change the suffix to its Latin or Greek form to find the word borrowed into the English. With words of Latin origin borrowed from the French this is not so easy. ABSTRACT NOUNS NOUN SUFFIXES are the most numerous, and in nearly all cases retain the original form with sufficient clearness to enable ready translation. They are as follows : -ACY (Latin, atio or ado; Greek, ateia), denoting the being, condition, office, or function belonging to a given state or qual- ity. Thus, we have accuracy (accuratio), obstinacy (obstinatio) , and curacy (curatio) the c in nearly all cases representing the Latin t. -ANCE, -ANCV, -ENCE, -ENCY (Latin, antia and entia) have a similar meaning, as in ignorance, arrogancy, impudence, inno- cency. -ICE (L. t'fta), also an abstract, as in avarice, justice, malice. -ION, -TION (L. to, ionis, tio, tionis, sio, sionis), as in aberration, expulsion, pre- cision. -ITY and -TY (L. itas and tas), as in an- tiquity, hostility, sublimity. Some such words are derived direct from the French, as am- ity (Fr. amitie, L. amicitia). -MENT (L. mentum), as in fragment, ali- ment, ligament. Most English words with this suffix are either adapted from French, or are from English roots. -MONY (L. monium}, as fri matrimony, patrimony, testimony, parsimony, sancti- mony. The first three nouns have departed from the original abstract significance, which is represnted by the last two. -TUDE and -UDE (L. tudo and udo), as in altitude, beatitude, fortitude. CONCRETE SUFFIXES -CULE, -CLE, -ULE (L. culus, ulus) have the force of diminutives, as in animalcule, spicule, etc. -ic, -ics (Gr. ikon, plural, ika). The first is an adjectival termination most often used for nouns, and generally used with a plural form and a singular significance Thus, we have music (something pertain- ing to the Muses), physic (medicine), dia- lectic (logic) ; but ethics, metaphysics, eco- nomics, optics, all of Greek origin. -ISM (Gr. ismos). This suffix, very largely used to form the names of sects, cults, and religions, as Buddhism, Calvinism, Catholi- cism, etc., was originally used in Greek for nouns derived from verbs ending in izo (ist pers. pres. ind.), and serves the same purpose in English with nouns from many verbs in ize, as catechism (from catechise), dogmatism (from dogmatize), systematism (from systematize). Its use with a Greek root, as in these cases, generally indicates such a derivation. -IST (Gr. istes) properly indicates a deriva- tive of a verb in izo (ize), but is used with a large number of words of purely English and modern origins. Its force is, in all cases, "one who is, does, or works at" the thing indicated by the root-word. -ins (Gr. tis) indicates a noun or adjec- tive-noun derived from a fundamental word having the same root It has the force of "something belonging to, like, etc.," but is used in English to signify an inflammatory disease, as laryngitis, perito- nitis, etc. -OR (L. or) is only the Latin counterpart of the English er, signifying "one who does." Thus we have in English the pure Latin words, actor, auditor, collector, factor, doctor, juror, victor. In fact, most, if not all, words with this suffix are borrowed di- rect from the Latin. -URE (L. ro) is a suffix akin to the par- ticiple in rus, properly the future participle, and has the force of "done" or "to be done," the word to which it is joined being in form the stem of the past participle. Thus, we have picture, creature, scripture, rapture, capture, nipture. We have, also, mixture, seizure, pleasure, etc., not directly derived from Latin; showing that this suffix is very nearly adopted as a true English termina- tion. It also occurs as ;>. verb and adjec- ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN 51 tive suffix, as in secure, procure, endure, etc. -Y (L. ia, itts; Gr. ia, ios, eia, eios), in such proper names as Italy (Italia), Livy (Livius), Pliny (Plinius), and in such common nouns as philosophy (ia), orthoepy (eia), prosody (to). The adjective suffix, y, as in bloody, dirty, oily, etc., does not seem to have a direct classical origin. -LOGY and -OLOGY (Gr. logos). This word, as a terminative member in compound words of Greek origin, has come to have very much the nature of a suffix in English, and is appended to many words and roots of modern origin. It always in- dicates science of, knowledge of, teaching of, as theology, biology, zoology, geology. ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES. Among adjective suffixes are a number found also with nouns. That is to say, many adjectives with these terminations are used also as nouns. In this category are four principal suffixes with the common significance of "pertaining, relating, belonging to" the idea or object represented by the root- word. They are: -ABLE, -IBLE, -BLE (L. obilis, ibilis) denote "what may be, can be, or is worthy to be," as in respectable, accessible, flexible, visible, and are used with both Latin and English roots. -AC (Gr. akos) signifies "of, belonging to, pertaining to," as in elegiac, cardiac. -ACEOUS (L. aceus) signifies "like, of, or belonging to," as argillaceous, saponaceous, herbaceous. -AL (L. alis), as in filial, mental, regal, general, national, etc. -AN or IAN (L. anus, ianus), as in Roman, Christian, veteran; although many such words are of English origin, as artisan, librarian. -ANT and -ENT (Latin participial stems) are used with verbal derivatives, and have the force of "being," or of "one who is or does" that indicated by the root-word to which they are appended; as in tenant, ser- vant, ignorant, ardent, potent, pendent, etc., very many of which are used as both adjec- tives and nouns. -AR (L. am) has the force of "relating or belonging to, having," as in circular, in- sular, angular, titular. It also occurs, as a shortened form of ary, as in vicar; as a substitute for al, after roots with /, as in the above cases; and as a form for er, as in beggar. -ARY and -ORY (L. anus and orius) seem to differ only by reason of euphony. They give such words as military, pulmonary, temporary, transitory, compulsory; also many nouns, as armory, factory, memory, library, vagary, etc. -ATE (Latin, at us) indicates a verbal de- rivative with the past participial meanings of "having been," or of "one who has been," as in legate, cognate, curate, delegate; also as a simple adjective termination indicating possession or a state of being, as corporate, fortunate, passionate, desperate; many of both descriptions being used both for nouns and adjectives. -ic and -ICAL (Gr. ikos; L. icus, icalis) have the force of "belonging or relating to." These suffixes are often used interchange- ably, as with symbolic and symbolical, chemic and chemical; but in several- cases involve very different meanings in the words: Thus, politic (tactful, wary) and political (relating to the state) although we say body politic; classic and classical; economic and economical; philosophic and philosophical, poetic and poetical. -ID and IDE (L. idus) indicates the Latin form of certain adjective endings with a quasi-participial significance of "being or possessing" the quality indicated by the root- word; as acrid, frigid, fervid, horrid, turgid, etc. ; also, with chemical terms, as carbide, oxide, sulphide, calcide, bromide, etc., which have a significance peculiar to chemistry. -INE (L. inus) is a derivative termination signifying "of, or pertaining to," as in ca- nine, divine, feminine, marine, etc. -ITE (L. itus; Gr. tes) indicates a past participial derivative, or a verb with a past participial form; also nouns with the Greek derivative termination, te, like athlete, aes- thete, frequently made into ite, as in Levite. Among Latin derivatives is favorite. -IVE (L. ivus) is another verbal derivative ending borrowed from Latin, as in captive, fugitive, native, etc., and has the force of "one who has been" or "having been." -OID (Gr. eidos) is a suffix derived from a verbal stem signifying "seeming to be, appearing, like," and is so used in English, principally with Greek roots, as in the words anthropoid (like a man), asteroid (like a star hence a "little star"), pithecoid (like a monkey), odontoid (like a tooth). -OSE and -ous (L. osus) signify "full of or consisting of," as in verbose, jocose, grandiose, igneous, fibrous, sonorous; al- though occasionally, "belonging to, of," as in fallacious, cutaneous, vitreous. These suffixes also terminate many compound ad- 52 ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN Jectives, and some of later origin, such as grievous and murderous. VERBAL SUFFIXES. In addition to the verbal suffixes already mentioned such as ate and ite there are several with the gen- eral meaning of "to do, to make." -IZE and ISE (Gr. iaro) are used very largely with verbs indicating a change in belief, habit, etc., as romanize, Americanize, but frequently has the force of changing a form, as in vulcanize, particularize, general- ize. Their derivatives are formed with ism, ist, ite. The suffix, ise, is sometimes a va- riation of ize, and sometimes indicates a verb of other than Greek origin, often French, allied to verbs in ice, as suffice, no- tice, etc. Thus we have the noun, prac- tice, and the verb, practise. The noun, ad- vice, and the verb, advise. -FY (Fr. Her; L. /Ico), as though a compound from the Latin verb, fieri, fac- t*m, forms its derivatives with faction or /ico/ion as: satisfy and satisfaction; edify and edification; justify and justification; mortify and mortification. The difference will be explained in connection with the list of roots. -UTE (L utus) is used with verbs having the Latin past participial stem in English, as persecute, prosecute, institute, most of which are derived from the Latin verbs sequi, secutus, "follow," and statuere, statu- twn, "establish." LIST OF PREFIXES LATIN AND GREEK PREFIXES. The most prominent prefixes, used with foreign words- in the English language, are given in the following paragraphs, with their more fa- miliar word-combinations. Many of them undergo variation in the process of combin- ing, but these are readily recognized after the rules are understood. Thus, a, signifying "without," becomes an before roots beginning with vowels; ab becomes abs before t, and a before v; con becomes co before vowels, cog before n, col before I, com before b, m, and p, and cor before r; dis becomes di before g, I, m, s, v; in becomes il before /, im before m, ir be- fore r; in (privative) becomes ig before n, il before /, im before m and p, ir before r; ob becomes oc before c, of before f, op be- fore p; sub becomes sue before c, suf before /, sup before p, sug before g, sus before t; syn becomes sy before /, syl before /, and sym before m. Contra is frequently changed to counter, with words of English and French origin; and the Latin prce is always spelled pre. In order to render the following list comprehensible to the student, the prefixes are differ entiattd from the root- words by italics. The suffixes may be recognized. L. A or AN occurs properly only with Greek roots corresponding to the Latin in, privative, also meaning "without" Among the words in which its use is most familiar are the following: abyss (byssos, a bottom), anarchy, acephalous, anemic, anomalous (omalos, like), apathy, aseptic, atheistic, and their derivatives. 2. AB (L) has the force of "away or away from," occurring with the following words: abate, abbreviate, abdicate, aberra- tion, adject, ablution, abrade, a&rupt, ab- sent, absurd, absolve, abstract, abstain, avert, avocation, avulsion. 3. AD (L.) has the force of "to" or "at," and is used with the following, among very many others: adapt, adore, a- scend, aspire, accede, accept, affix, afflict, aggravate, aggrandize, afleviate, a/lude, an- nounce, awnul, append, appertain, arrange, arrogance, assign, assume, attend, a/test 4. AMBI, sometimes AM (L.), means "around, on both sides," as in ambition, ambient, ambiguous, ambidextrous, ampu- tate. 5. AMPHI (Gr.) is the correspondent of the Latin ambi, and occurs in the following common words, amphibian, amphitheatre, amphora. 6. ANA (Gr.) means "up" or "again," also "back." Thus, anadromous means "running up," while anabaptist means "one who bap- tizes again." Among common words formed with this prefix are analogy, analysis, ana- tomy, anagram, awastate, anathema. 7. ANTE (L.), "before," occurs in ante- cedent, antedate, antevert, and with many English words and past-Latin compounds. 8. ANTI, ANT (Gr.), "against, opposed to, opposite," occurs in anfarctic, antipodes, antipathy, antiphon, and a large number of technical and scientific terms. 9. APO (Gr.), "from, away from," occurs in apostate, apostle, apostrophe, apologue. 10. CATA, GATE, CAT (Gr. kata), "down, down upon, on," as in catalogue, catechism, catarrh, category, cafholic, cathode. n. CTRCUM (L), "around, about," as in circumstance, circumscribe, circumspect, cir- cumference, circumflex. 12. CON, CO, COG, COL, COM, COR (L.), "with, together," as in concur, connect, co- equal, cohere, cognate, collect, compel, cor- rode, congress. 13- COKTTRA (L), "against," as in contra- dict, controvert, contravene, contrary. ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN 53 14. DE (L.), "from, out of, away from," as in deduce, deject, depose, depend, de- volve. 15. DIA (Gr.), "through, apart, between," as in diameter, dialogue, diaphanous, dia- gonal. 1 6. DIS, DI, DIP (L.), "apart, asunder, away," as in dissolve, distend, disperse, di- verge, digress, differ, diffuse. 17. EN, EM (Gr.), "in, on," the Greek correspondent of the Latin in, as in en- thuse, emphatic. The prefix, em, is also used with a large number of purely English words. 18. EPI (Gr.), "upon," as in epilogue, epi- gram, epitaph, epidemic. 19. EX, E, EC, EF (L. and Gr.), "from, away from, out, out of," as in the Latin derivatives, exact, expel, expose, extract, edict, emit, emerge, efface, efiulgent, and the Greek derivatives, eccentric, ecstasy, eclogue, exodus, exegesis. 20. EXTRA (L.), "beyond, outside of," as in ex/ramundane, extraordinary, extrava- gant, extradite. 21. HYPER (Gr.), "over and above," as in /zy/>ercritical, y/>ertrophy, hyperbole. 22. HYPO (Gr.), "under," also "less than," as in hypothesis, /zy/>ocritical, hypo- dermic. 23. IN, IL, IM, IR (L.), "in, into, on, upon," as in incline, iwduce, invent, illumine, import, impose, irritate, irruption. 24. IN, IG, IL, IM, IR (L.), "without, not, un-," as in indecent, iwcredible, ignoble, ignominious (i.e., unnamable), iflegal, t'/lit- erate, impossible, impudent, irregular. 25. INTER (L.), "between, among," as in interfere, interlude, interpose, intersect, in- tervene. 26. INTRA, INTRO (L.), "within," as intro- duce, in/rospection, introvert, infromit. 27. META, MET (Gr.), "beyond, after, fol- lowing, according to," as in metaphor, meta- physics, method, wefagastric. 28. OB, oq, OF, OP (L.), "against, toward," as in o&ject, ofctrude, o&solete, ofcloquy, oc- casion, occur, offend, offer, oppose, oppress. 29. PARA, PAR (Gr.), "beside, like," as in paracentric, paraphrase, parody, parabola, parable, parallel. 30. PER (L.), "through," as in pervade, perspire, permanent, permutate, perennial; sometimes meaning "thoroughly," with an intensive force, as in periect, pernicious, perplex, perjure. 31. PERI (Gr.), "around, about," as in perimeter, period, peristyle. 32. POST (L.), "after," as in postpone, postscript, posthumous. 33. PRE (L. />rae), "before," as in pre- cede, predict, preier, prevent. 34. PRETER (L. prater}, "past, beyond," as in preterit, preternatural. 35. PRO (L. and Gr.), "for, forth, out, forward," as in proceed, promote, propel, provoke. With Greek roots this prefix has the same meanings, as in propaedeutic, but has also the force of "before," as in prophet, which may mean "one who speaks for or forth or before," with equal correctness. 36. RE (L.), "again, anew, back," as in react, rebel, recede, repel, resume, refuse, and, probably also, religion. 37. RETRO (L.), "backward," as in retro- grade, retrospect, retrovert, retrocede. 38. SE (L.) has the force of "away, apart from, aside," as in secede, seclude, seduce, sedition. It is probably derived from the third personal pronoun, se, "by one's self," whence the meaning "away from" others. 39. SINE, SIM, SIN (L.), "without," as in sinecure, simple ("without fold"), sin- cere ("without wax," as pure honey; hence "unmingled"). 40. SUB, SUC, SUF, SUG, SUP, SUS (L.), "under" and "beneath," hence, with many verbs, "up." Thus, swoscribe, sw&tract, suc- ceed, succor, suffer, suffuse, support, sup- pose, swggest, supplant. 41. SUBTER (L.), "under," as in subter- fuge. 42. SUPER (L.), "over, above," as in superpose, supersede. 43- SUR (Fr. for Latin super}, as in sur- vive, surface, surrogate. 44. SYN, SYL, SYM (Gr.), "with, together with," Greek correspondent of the Latin con, as in synod, synonym, syntax, synopsis, syllable, sympathy, symmetry. 45. TRANS, TRAN, TRA (L.), "across, over, beyond, through," as in transcript, transfer, translate, traduce, t reject. ROOTS AND THE CHANGES DERIVING WORDS FROM ROOTS. In deriv- ing words from Latin and Greek roots, there are a number of points that must be understood and constantly kept in mind. Among these is the fact that different de- rivatives from some given root frequently vary in spelling from the model given in the English dictionary, even add syllables to that form. Thus, from hospes, a "host," we learn that the words hospitality and hos- pital are derived, but the origin of the syl- lable, it, is not clear. The explanation is that the root word is hospit, as appears in all cases except the nominative, which is ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN probably abbreviated from hospitis. Thus, the genitive is hospitis, meaning "of a host," etc. So also from caput, "a head," all deriv- atives, such as capital, decapitate, etc., give the root-word as capit, which form is found in the genitive, capitis, "of a head," etc. With verbs the case is the same. Thus, from the verb, cedere, "to go, to yield," we have accede, concede, exceed, proceed, pre- cede, etc., but also accession, concession, excess, process, etc. Whence the syllable, essf This is the stem of the perfect par- ticiple, which is cessum, formed by the same irregularity that gives us the English, thought, from think, instead of "thinked," which should derive according to the gen- eral rule. But the spelling of stems is not the only variation in either nouns or verbs. We have, for example, the verb, statuere, from which statue and statute alike derive. When we come to institute, constitute, substitute, we find that the root has been changed from statu to stitu. This fact is explained by the rule that most verbs with a in the root change it to *, when preceded by a prepositional prefix. Thus, from facere, "to do," we have eMcere, afficere, proficere, per- ficere, etc.; from gradi, "to step, to go," progredi, ingredi, etc. Again, certain words that seem to be directly derived from Latin have the spell- ing changed in the process. Such are clear (L. clarus), chant (cantum), claim (cla- mare). The explanation is that these, and numerous other words, both changed and unchanged, are derived through the French, which corrupted or modified most of the Latin words adopted into its vocabulary. Thus, clear derives from the old French cler, now clair; chant, from the French chanter, and claim from the French claimer. The same influence transformed the Latin cadens into "chance"; cancella into "chancel"; concilium into "council," etc. With Greek words the derivation is far more direct, probably because the greater part of them have been added to the lan- guage within the last few centuries, and were long used as the common stock of learned dialects. LIST OF COMMON ROOT- WORDS. From what has already been said, the stu- dent may readily separate the prefixes and suffixes; understand the reasons for most of the common variations in spelling, and be able to identify the roots combined into concrete words. In order to gain a clear understanding of meanings, it will be nec- essary only to give a list of the roots most commonly used. In the following list the nouns are given in their root forms, the verbs in their pres- ent infinitive and past participle, except where the perfect stem presents variations adopted into English. ACERB (L. acerbus, bitter), as in "acerbi- ty," bitterness; "exacerbate," to make [one] bitter. ACOU (Gr. akouo, I hear), as in "acou- stics," the science of sounds; "acoumeter," an instrument to test the hearing. ACRI (L. acris, sharp), as in "acrid," sharp, acid; "acridity"; "acrimony," se- verity. ACRO (Gr. akron, top, end, summit), as in "acrobat" (one who goes to the sum- mit), an aerial performer; "acromegoly," a disease in which the extremities grow to great size; "acropolis," a high place in a city; "acrostic" (end-line), a stanza so ar- ranged that the first letters of the verses spell a name or phrase. ACU (L. acuo, acutum, to sharpen), as in "acute," sharp, penetrating; "acumen," in- tellectual sharpness. AGGER (L. agger, a heap ad-gerere), as in "exaggerate," to pile up with words. ACT, AG, IG (L. agere, actum, to do, to act), as in "act," "action," "active," "actor"; "coact," to act with; "counteract," to hin- der ; "enact," to decree ; "exact," precise, ac- curate, strict; "inaction," rest; "react," to resist act with act; "transact," to perform, as of business, etc.; "agent," one who acts for another; "cogent" (co-agent), forcible, convincing; "indigent" (in-d-agent), want- ing, needy, poor; "navigate" (navigare, from nav-agere), to manage a ship; "prodi- gal" (one sent forth or away), spendthrift, wasteful. AGOG, AGON (Gr. ago, I lead), as in "ag- ony," pain, suffering, as in striving or fight- ing (hence "agonize") ; "antagonist," an opponent, one led against; "demagogue," a leader of the people, a popular head ; "pedagogue," a leader of children, hence a teacher; "synagogue," a place of coming- together (L. conventicle), a Jewish place of worship. AGRA, AGRI, EGRi (L. oger, agri, a field, land), "agrarian," relating to farms; "agri- culture," field-culture, farming; "peregri- nate," to wander, go through lands. AL, ALIT (L. alere, alitum, to feed), as in "aliment," food; "alimony," allowance for support in divorce cases; "alms"; "al- moner," alms-distributor; "coalition" (feed- ing with), union for mutual interest. ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN 56 ALI, ALTER (L. alius, aliettus, alter, an- other), as in "alias," otherwise; "alien," foreign; "inalienable," not transferable; "alter," to change. ALG (Gr. algos, pain), as in "neuralgia," nerve-ache; "algometer," an instrument to measure pain. ALL, ALLEL (Gr. allos, another; allelon, one another), as in "allegory," a parable, a tale leading (ago) to something else; "al- lopathy," a system of treating diseases by drugs producing effects other than its symp- toms; "allopylian," of another tribe; "al- lotropy," chemical property of changing; "parallel," side by side. ALT (L. altus, high), as in "altitude," height; "exalt," to make high. AM, AMIC (L. amare, to love; amicus, a friend), as in "amiable"; "amicable"; "inim- ical," hostile; "amorous"; "enamor"; and through the French, "amity," friendship ; "enmity," hatred; "amour," a love affair; "amateur," one who follows an art or oc- cupation for love of it. ANG, A NX (L. anger e, anxum, to vex or annoy), as in "anger," "anguish," "anxiety." ANGEL (Gr. aggelos, a bearer of tidings), as in "angel"; "evangel" (good tidings), the gospel ; "evangelist." ANGL, ANGUL (L. angulus, an angle), as in "angle," "rectangle," "triangle," "angu- lar," etc. ANIM (L. anima, breath; animus, mind, courage), as in "animal"; "animate"; "an- imadvert," to turn the mind to, to consid- er; "animosity," (courage-fulness), hatred; "magnanimous," noble ; "pusillanimous" (child-minded), weak, cowardly; "unani- mous," one-minded, agreeing. ANN, ENN (L. annus, year), as in "an- nals"; "annual"; "anniversary"; "biennial," two-yearly; "triennial," three-yearly; "mil- lennium," one thousand years ; "superannu- ated," over-yeared, old beyond usefulness, as in business, etc. ANTHROP (Gr. anthropos, a man), as in "anthropometric," man-measuring ; "misan- throp'ist," man-hater; "philanthropist," a lover of humanity; "anthropology," science of man. ARCH (Gr. arche, beginning, chief, head, government), "arch," shrewd; "anarchy," lack of government; "archangel," a chief angel; "archbishop"; "architect," master builder, designer; "hierarch," chief priest; "monarch," one who rules alone, a king; "patriarch," a father-king. ARD, ARS (L. ardere, arsum, to burn), as in "ardent," heated with zeal ; "ardor." zeal ; "arson," house-burning. AST (.Gr. aster and astron, a star), as in "astral," starry; "aster," a star-shaped flower; "asteroid," a small star; "asterisk," a star-shaped sign [*] ; "astronomy" ; "as- trology"; "disaster," evil fortune, an ill- starred happening. AUG, AUCT, AUT (L. augere, auctum, to cause, to make, to add to), as in "augment," to increase; "author," originator; "author- ity," power to act or make; "authorize"; "auction," an authorized public sale. AUTO (Gr. autos, self), as in "autograph,'' one's own writing; "autocrat," one who rules as pleases himself; "autopsy," a see- ing for one's self, examination of a dead body; "automatic," self-moving; "automo- bile," a self-moving vehicle. BALL, BLE, SOL (Gr. ballo, I throw), as in "ball"; "symbol," a sign; "emblem," a pic- ture; "parable"; "problem" (thrown- forth), a question for solution; "hyperbole"; "para- bola"; "diabolical" (accusing, slandering), pertaining to the devil, the accuser; from the French diable, "devil," "devilish." BI (L. bis, two, twice; bini, two-by-two), as in "biennial," two-yearly; "bigamy," hav- ing two wives; "binary" double; "biped," two-footed animal; "combine," to join to- gether; through the French, "biscuit" (twice-cooked). Bi occurs as a prefix to numerous other words, always with the meanings, two or twice, as in "binomial," "bicycle," a two-wheel. BIBL (Gr. biblos, a book), as in "Bible"; "bibliography," knowledge of books ; "biblio- phile," a book-lover. BIO (Gr. bios, life), as in "biology," "bi- ography," "amphibious," living in both (land and water). BBEV (L. bre-vis, short), as in "brevity"; "breviary," a shortened book, a prayer book ; "abbreviate," to shorten; through ' the French, "brief"; "abridge." CAD, CID, CAS (L. coder e, casum, to fall; with prefixes CIDERE), as in "cadence"; "decadent"; "accident"; "coincide"; "inci- dent"; "occasion"; "Occident," the west, place of sunset ; through the French, "case" ; "casual"; "decay." CANT, CENT, CHANT (L. canere, cantum, and cantare, cantatum, to sing, to chant; with some prefixes, cenere and centare), as in "cant," whining talk ; "accent" ; "canticle" and "canto," terms used in poetry; "descant" (discanere}, to sing or relate with details; "recant," to sing again (in religion), hence to renounce heresy ; "incantation," a magical song; through the French "chant," "en- chant," to charm ; also, "recant." CAP, CAPT, CEPT (L. cap ere, cap turn, to 56 ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN take), as "capacity," ability to take; "cap- tive, captor, capture"; "accept"; "antici- pate"; "emancipate"; "capable"; "recipe"; "recipient." Through the French, "con- ceit"; "conceive"; "deceive"; "occupy"; "re- ceive" and "receipt." From Latin deriva- tive, princeps (taken first), a leader, "prince" ; "principal" ; "principle." CAP, CIP (L. caput, capitis, head), as in "cap," head-covering; "capitulate," to give heads of a subject; "decapitate," to cut off the head; "precipice," a headlong steep; "precipitate." Through the French, "cap- tain," a head man, chief; "chapter," princi- pal division of a book or society. CEAL (L. celere, to hide), as in "conceal," which is derived through the French. CEDE, CEED, CESS (L. cedere, cessum, to go, to yield, to cease), as in "cede"; "accede," "access," and "accession"; "precede"; "pro- ceed," "process," and "procession"; "ex- ceed," "excess" ; "recede," "secede" ; "in- cessant," unceasing, not going away; "suc- ceed," to follow, to prosper {i.e. to follow good fortune). CEL (L. celsus, high), as in "excel," to surpass; "excellent"; "excelsior," higher still. CENT (L. centum, a hundred), as in "cent," a coin; "century"; "centurion," commander of too men; "centennial," loo-year; "centi- pede," hundred- foot. CENTR (Gr. kentron; L. centrum, centre), as in "centre"; "central"; "concentrate"; "eccentric"; "paracentric"; "centrifugal," fleeing from the centre; "centripetal," cen- tre-seeking; "concentric"; "geocentric," and "heliocentric." CHRON (Gr. chronos, time), as in "chron- ic" ; "chronicle," an historic record ; "chro- nometer," a clock; "chronology," science of dates, etc.; "anachronism," a custom op- posed to the times. CIDE, cis (L. ceedere, ceesum, to cut, to kill; with prefixes, cidere, cisum), as in "de- cide"; "excise"; "excision"; "homicide, par- ricide, fratricide, regicide"; "incision"; "pre- cision"; meaning "cutting" or "killing," according to the other elements in the word. CIT (L. citare, to summon, to stir up), as in "cite"; "excite"; "recite"; "resusci- tate" (re-sub-citatum). CLAM, CLAIM (L. clamare, clamatum, to shout, to cry), as in "clamor"; "acclama- tion"; "exclamation." Through the French: "acclaim"; "proclaim"; "exclaim"; "re- claim." CLAR (L. clarus, clear), as in "declare"; "clarify." Through the French: "clarion"; "clear" (clair). CLIN (L. clinere, to lie, to lean), as in "clinic"; "incline"; "recline." Through the French: "declension" (L. declinatio). CLUD, CLUS, CLOS (L. claudere, clausum, to close, to shut ; with prefixes, cludere, clu- sum), as in "conclude"; "exclude"; "con- clusion"; "exclusion"; "preclude"; "se- clude"; "clause." Through the French: "close" ; "enclose" and "enclosure" ; "closet" ; "disclose" and "disclosure." COM (Gr. komos, a revel, a social gather- ing), as in "comedy"; "comic"; "encomi- um," a eulogy given at a feast. From the Latin, comes, comitis, a companion: "com- ity" ; "concomitant," accompanying. Through the French: "count," a nobleman (comte), and "county." COR, COUR (L. cors, cordis, heart), as in "cordial"; "concord"; "discord"; "record." Through the French: "core"; "courage"; "discourage." CRACY, CRAT (Gr. kratos, power, domin- ion), as in "aristocracy," rule of the best; "aristocrat"; "democracy," rule of the people; "autocracy"; "autocrat"; "the- ocracy." CREA (L. ere are, creatum, to create), as in "create"; "creation"; "creature"; "recre- ation." Through the French: "recreant," cowardly, false. CRED, CREED (L. credere, creditum, to trust, to believe), as in "creed"; "credit"; "dis- credit"; "credible"; "creditor," one who trusts hence one to whom money is due. CREE, CRIM, CERT (L. cernere, cretum, and -criminare, -criminatum, to separate, to dis- tinguish), as in "crime," something that separates a person from others; "discrimi- nate"; "incriminate"; "concern"; "discern"; "discreet"; "secrete"; "secret"; "secretary." Through the French: "decree" and "de- cretal." CRESE, CREASE, CRETE (L. crescere, cretum, to grow, to increase), as in "concrete"; "dis- creet"; "crescent"; "excrescence." Through the French: "accrue"; "increase"; "de- crease"; "recruit." CRIS, OUT (Gr. krisis, judgment; krites, a judge), as in "critic"; "criticism"; "crite- rion," a standard of judgment; "crisis," a deciding point; "hypocrite"; "hypercriti- cal"; "hypocrisy." CUB, CUMB (L. cubere, cubitum, to bend, to lie; with some prefixes, cumbere), as in "incumbent" ; "recumbent" ; "succumb" ; "cubit" (L. cubitum, the elbow), a meas- ure on the forearm. Through the French: "encumber." CULT, COL (L. colere, cultum, to till, in- habit, care for, worship), as in "cult," a ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN 67 system of worship, etc.; "colony," a new settlement, sometimes a peculiar commu- nity; "culture," "agriculture," "floricul- ture," etc. CUR (L. euro, care), as in "cure," to care for, hence to heal; "curate"; "accurate"; "procure"; "secure"; "sinecure." Through the French : "curious." Contracted, "proxy," for "procuracy." CURR, CURS (L. cur r ere, cur sum, to run), as in "concur" ; "current" ; "excursion" ; "in- cur." Through the French: "carry"; "ca- reer"; "concourse"; "course"; "courier"; "discourse." CYCL (Gr. kuklos, a circle), as in "cycle," a period of time, later, a wheel, as in "bi- cycle," "tricycle"; "encyclical," a letter sent around; "cyclopaedia" and "encyclopaedia" (education-circle), a compendium of in- formation. DAT, DIT (L. dare, datum, to give; with some prefixes, -dere, -ditum), as in "date," a given time; "mandate" (L. mandare), "command"; "edit"; "addition"; "perdi- tion"; "add" (L. addere). Through the French: "subdue." DEC (L. decem; Gr. deka, ten), as in "dec- alogue," the ten commandments; "decagon," ten-angled figure; "decimal"; "decimate," to take (kill) every tenth; "December." Through the French : "decade," a period of ten years; "dean" (L. decanus), a ruler of ten, now used for eldest or head in certain connections. DEM (Gr. demos, people), as in "demo- crat" ; "demagogue" ; "epidemic" ; "en- demic." DENT (L. dens, dentis, a tooth), as in "in- dent"; "dental"; "trident" (three-tooth); "dent," a mark as of a tooth. DI, DIS (Gr. dis, two), as in "dilemma"; "diploma" (folded-double), an authorita- tive document; "diphthong"; "distich," a two-line stanza; "dissever," to cut in two. DICAT (L. dicare, dicatum, to show, to point out), as in "abdicate"; "dedicate"; "predicate" ; "index," a pointer, an indica- tor. Through the French : "predicament." DICT (L. dicer e, dictum, to say, to speak), as in "addict"; "dictate"; "diction"; "dic- tionary"; "interdict"; "jurisdiction"; "con- tradict"; "predict"; "edict"; "verdict" (vere, truly ; dictum, said) ; "benediction." Through the French: "indict" and "indite." DOC, DOCT (L. docere, doctum, to teach), as in "doctor," a teacher, learned man, a physician ; "doctrine" ; "document" ; "do- cile"; "docility"; "indoctrinate." (Gr. do- kco, I teach), as in "dogma," a doctrine; "orthodox," rightly taught; "heterodox," otherwise taught; "paradox," a truth ap- parently absurd; "doxology" (Gr. do.va, a teaching, also glory), an expression of glory to God. DUC, DUCT (L. ducere, ductum, to lead), as in "conduce"; "conduct"; "educate"; "educe"; "induce"; "introduce"; "produce"; "reduce"; "product"; "production"; "re- duction"; "ductile"; "duct," a pipe for water, etc.; "aqueduct"; "viaduct"; "duke" (L. dux, a leader) ; "ducal" ; "ducat," duke's money. Through the French: "conduit." EC, oc (Gr. oikos, a house), as in "eco- nomical" (house-ruling), thrifty; "econom- ics," the science of statesmanship ; "diocese," an episcopal jurisdiction. ENS, ENT (L. ens, entis, present participle of esse, to be, in its compounds), as in such adjectives as "absent"; "present"; "potent"; and such nouns as "essence." EST (L. est, he is), as in "interest." IT (L. ire, itum, to go), as in "ambition" (literally, a going-about for one's interests) ; "circuit"; "transit"; "transitive"; "trans- ient"; "sedition"; "perish" (L. perire) ; "obituary" (from L. obire). FAC, FEC, FIC (L. facere, factum, to do, to make; with prefixes -ficere, -fectum), as in "fact"; "affect"; "effect," and numerous other verbs and nouns with prefixes; "de- ficient"; "deficit"; "manufacture"; "munifi- cent"; "petrifaction"; "proficient"; "suffi- cient" ; and numerous verbs formed from fieri, factus, the passive form of facere, and verbs ending in fy. The word, "preface," is from fari, fatum, to speak, and is cor~ rupted from the Latin prefatum. Also, the word, "fiction," is from the verb, fingere, fictum, to arrange, to put together; and "fix," as in "crucifix"; "prefix"; "transfix"; "fixture," etc., from the verb, figere, fixum, to fix, to secure. FER, FERE (L. ferre; Gr. phero, to bear, to carry), as in "fertile"; "confer"; "de- fer"; "differ"; "infer"; "offer"; "prefer"; "refer"; "suffer"; "transfer." Many nouns ending in fer: "crucifer" ; "conifer," etc. ; also, "circumference" ; "vociferous." Through the French: "proffer." FULG (L. fulgere, to shine), as in "reful- gent"; "effulgent." FUND, FUS (L. fundere, fusum, to pour, to melt), as in "refund"; "confuse"; "dif- fuse"; "infuse"; "refuse"; "profuse." Through the French : "found," to melt met- als ; "confound," to pour together, to mix up, to perplex. (L. fundus, bottom, foun- dation), as in "fundamental"; "profundity." Through the French: "found,'' to establish; "foundation." 68 ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN GAM (Gr. gamos, marriage), as in "big- amy"; "monogamy"; "polygamy"; "cryp- togamous." GE (Gr. ge, the earth), as in "geology," science of rocks and earth formations; "ge- ography"; "geometry"; "apogee," greatest height above the earth. GEN (Gr. genea, birth), as "genealogy," family line; "genesis," beginning; "hetero- geneous," of various origins; "homogene- ous," of like origin. Also many chemical terms: "oxygen"; "hydrogen"; "cyanogen," etc. TONER, GEND, GENT (L. genus, generis, race, family), as in "generate"; "degenerate"; 'regenerate"; "generous" (L. generosus, of high birth), noble, munificent; "general." Among other derivatives from Latin: "gen- der" ; "genial" ; "genius" ; "genteel" ; "gen- tile"; "gentle"; "genuine"; "ingenuity"; "progenitor." \ GER, GEST (L. gerere, gestum, to bear, to \vield, to carry on), as in "congest"; "di- gest" ; "suggest" ; "gesture" ; "belligerent," waging war; "vicegerent," a substitute. GNO (Gr. gignosko, I know), as in "gnos- tic," one of a sect who claim to know divine things; "agnostic" (not-knowing), one who disclaims knowledge of a subject; "prog- nostic," knowing beforehand; "gnomon," a pointer, indicator. GRAD, GRESS (L. gradior, gressum, to step, to walk; with prefixes, -gredior), as in "grade"; "degrade"; "retrograde"; "grad- ual" ; "graduate" ; "congress" ; "digress" ; "ingress"; "progress"; "transgress"; "in- gredient." Through the French: "degree." GRAM, GRATH (Gr. grapho, I write), as in "anagram"; "epigram"; "diagram"; "telegram" ; "grammar" ; "geography" ; "paragraph" ; "lithograph" ; "autograph" ; "graphic." HAS, HIB, AB (L. habere, habitum, to hold, to have; with prefixes, hibere, hibitum), as in "habit"; "habitation"; "exhibit"; "pro- hibit"; '.'habiliment." Through the French: "able" (L. habilis) ; "disable"; "enable." HER, HES (L. harere, heesum, to stick), as in "adhere"; "cohere"; "inhere"; "ad- hesive"; "cohesive"; "hesitate" (L. hasi- tare). HETERO (Gr. heteros, other), as in "het- erodoxy" ; "heterogeneous." HOL (Gr. holos, whole), as in "catholic," universal, general; "holophane"; "holo- caust," whole burnt sacrifice; "holograph." HYD (Gr. hudor, water), as in "hydrant"; "hydraulics" ; "hydrogen" ; "hydrophobia," fear of water; "dropsy" (formerly "hy- dropsy"). JEC (L. jacere, jactum, to throw; with some prefixes, jicere, jectum), "eject"; "in- ject"; "object"; "project"; "reject"; "sub- ject"; "traject"; "abject"; "adjective"; "de- jection"; "conjecture"; "ejaculate" (L. j ocular e). JUNC (L. jungere, junctum, to join), as in "juncture"; "subjunctive"; "junction"; "injunction"; "conjunction." Through the French: "join," with prefixes, ad, con, dis, en, sub. LAB (Gr. root of lambano, I take), "sylla- ble"; "astrolabe." LATE (L. latum, from ferre, to beat", to carry), "dilatory"; "legislate"; "superla- tive"; "late," with prefixes col, e, re, trans: "prelate" ; "oblation." LEC, LIG (L. legere, lee turn, to read, to gather; with prefixes -ligere), as in "col- lect"; "elect"; "select"; "intellect"; "dia- lect"; "elegant"; "lecture"; "legend"; "legi- ble"; "neglect"; "lexicon"; "college"; "al- legiance." Through the French : "colleague." LEG (L. lex, legis, law), as in "legal"; "legislate"; "legitimate"; "privilege," a pri- vate law. (L. legare, legatum, to de~ pute, to bequeathe), as in "legate"; "del- egate"; "legacy." Through the French: "allege." LIB (L. liber, free; liber, a book; libra, scales), as in "liberty"; "liberal"; "liber- ate"; "liber," a volume; "libel" (L. libellus, a little book); "library"; "equilibrium"; "equilibrate"; "librate," to tremble, as in balancing. "Celebrate" comes from the Latin celeber, and is probably not connected to any of the above words. LIC (L. licet, it is allowed, it is lawful), as in "license"; "licentious"; "licentiate"; "illicit." (L. licire, licitutn, to draw, to lure), as in "elicit," to draw out. LIG (L. ligare, Hgatum, to bind, to tie), "oblige"; "obligate"; "ligament"; "liga- ture"; "religion" (a binding-back). Through the French: "liege"; "league"; "colleague"; "liable. (L. lignum, wood), as in "lignite"; "ligneous." LIM (L. limen, liminis, a threshold), as in "eliminate" ; "preliminary" ; "subliminal." (L. limes, limitis, a path, a limit), "limit"; "limitation" ; "illimitable." LIN (L. linea, a line), as in "line"; "lin- eal"; "linear"; "lineament"; "lineage"; "de- lineate." (Latin liner e, to smear), "lini- ment." LING, LANG (L. lingua, tongue), as in "lin- guist"; "lingual." Through the French: "language." LINQ, LTCT (L. linquere, lictunt, to leave, to desert), as in "relinquish"; "delinquent"; ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN 59 "relict"; "derelict." Through the French: "relic." LJQ (L. liquere, to melt), as in "liquid"; ^liquor." LIT (L. litera, a letter), as in "lit- eral"; "literary"; "literature"; "obliterate." Through the French: "letter." LOG, LOQ (L. locus, place), as in "locate"; "local"; "collocate"; "locomotive"; "dislo- cate." (L. loqui, locutus, to speak), as in "loquacious"; "colloquy"; "eloquent"; "ob- loquy" ; "soliloquy" ; "elocution" ; "circum- locution." LOG (Gr. logos, word, description), as in various words ending in logy and ology, as already noted: also in "logic"; "apologue"; "epilogue" ; "prologue" ; "euiogium" ; "eulo- gize ' ; "homologous" ; "syllogism." LUD, LUS (L. ludere, lusum, to play), as in "allude"; "delude"; "elude"; "prelude"; "collusion"; "delusive"; "illusion"; "ludi- crous." LYSIS, LYTIC (Gr. lusis, loosing, breaking- up), as in "analysis"; "electrolysis"; "pa- ralysis"; "paralytic"; "electrolytic"; "elec- trolyte." MAG (L. magnus, great; magister, mas- ter) - as in "magnify" ; "magnitude" ; "mag- nanimous" ; "magnificent" ; "magistrate." Through the French: "master" (maistre). (L. magus, an enchanter), "magic"; "ma- gician"; "Magi." (L. Magnesia, a place in Asia Minor), "magnet"; "magnetic"; "magnesium." MAJ (L. major, greater), as in "major"; "majority"; "majestic"; "majesty." MAN (L. manus, hand), as in "manual"; "manumit"; "manuscript"; "manage"; "ma- nipulate" ; "manacle." Through the French : "maintain"; "manreuvre"; "manteau." (L. manare, manatum, to manifest), as in "man- ifest" (L. manifestos) ; "emanate." MANCY (Gr. manteia, soothsaying), as in "necromancy" ; "chiromancy." MAND (L. mandare, mandatum, to order, to command), as in "command"; "demand"; "countermand"; "remand." Also "com- mend" (L. commendere, intensive of com- mander e}, to praise. MANIA (Gr. mania, madness), "mania"; "maniac" ; "dipsomania" ; "kleptomania" ; "pyromania," desire to destroy by fire. MENS (L. mensura, a measure), as in "mensuration" ; "immense" ; "dimension" ; "commensurate." The word, "commence," is from the Latin cum and initium, to make a beginning with, and is derived through the French. MET (Gr. metron, measure), as in "barom- eter"; "chronometer"; "geometry";, "sym- metry"; "diameter"; "perimeter," etc.; also "metre" ; "mete" ; "metric." MIC (Gr. micros, small), as in "micro- scope"; "micrometer"; "micrograph." MIN (L. miner e, to hang), "imminent"; "eminent"; "prominent." (L. minuere, minutum, to lessen, to reduce), as in "di- minish"; "minute"; "minuend." (L. minor, minus, less), as in "minor"; "minus"; "mi- nority." (L. minimum, least), "minimum"; "minimal." The word, "miniature," com- monly used as a synonym for small, comes from the Latin minium, red lead, formerly used in ornamenting manuscripts. MIR (L. mirus, wonderful), as in "ad- mire"; "mirror"; "miracle." MIS, MIX (L. miscere, mix-turn, to min- gle), as in "miscellany"; "promiscuous"; "mix"; intermix"; "mixture." The words, "mingle" and "commingle," are of Anglo- Saxon origin. (L. miser, miserable), as in "miser"; "miserable"; "commiserate"; "mis- ery." MIT, MIS (L. mittere, misum, to send), as in "admit"; "commit"; "emit"; "permit"; "omit"; "remit"; "intermit"; "mission"; "commission" ; "remission" ; "admission" ; "promise." MON (L. monere, monitum, to advise, to warn), as in "monitor"; "summon"; "ad- monish"; "premonitory"; "premonition"; "monument," something that puts in mind of. (L. mons, montis, a mountain), as in "promontory." Through the French: "dis- mount" ; "surmount" ; "mountain" ; "mound." (Gr. monas, alone), as in "monad"; "mo- notonous"; "monody"; "monarch"; "mo- nopolize"; "monastery"; "monk" (Gr. mo* nachos) . MORPH (Gr. morphe, form), as in "morph- ology" ; "amorphous" ; "metamorphose." MOT, MOB (L. movere, mo turn, to move; mobilis, moving), as in "motion"; "commo- tion"; "motive"; "emotion"; "mobile"; "promote"; "remote"; "remove"; "move." MULT (L. multtts, many), as in "multi- ply"; "multiple"; "multitude"; "multiplex." NOM (Gr. nomas, law), as in "astron- omy"; "economy." on (Gr. odos, a road, a way), as in "epi- sode"; "method"; "synod"; "period"; "anode"; "cathode." (Gr. ode, a song), as in "ode," a kind of poem; "prosody." (L. odor, a smell), "odor"; "odoriferous"; "malodorous." ON (Gr. onoma, a name), as in "anony- mous" ; "synonym" ; "patronymic." ORTH (Gr. orthos, straight, right), "ortho- doxy"; "orthoepy"; "orthopedic," child- straightening ; "orthography." 60 ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN OR (L. or are, oratum, to ask, to beg, to pray, to worship), as in "adore"; "orison"; "orator"; "inexorable." (L. os, oris, mouth), as in "oral"; "orifice." ox (Gr. oxus, sharp, violent, sour), as in "oxygen"; "oxide"; "paroxysm." PAN (Gr. pan, pantos, all), as in "pan- oply"; "panacea"; "pantheist"; "panorama"; "pan-American." (L. pandere, pansum, to spread), as in "expanse"; "expand." (L. pants, bread), as in "pantry"; "companion," one who eats bread with; "company"; "ac- company." (L. panellus, cloth), as in "pan- el"; "impanel." PAR (L. par, equal, like), as in "compare"; "disparage"; "par," even. Through the French: "peer"; "peerage"; "peerless"; "pair." (L. par ere, paritum, to appear), as in "apparent"; "transparent." Through the French: "appear"; "disappear." (L. pario, partum, to bring forth, give birth to), as in "parent" ; "oviparous" ; "viviparous." (L. parare, paratum, to make ready), as in "pre- pare"; "separate"; "apparatus"; "apparel"; "imperative" ; "imperial" ; "imperious." Through the French : "repair" ; "sever" ; "several"; "emperor" (L. imperator) ; "sev- er" (L. se parare). (L. pars, partis, a part), as in "part"; "apart"; "participate"; "par- ticle"; "depart"; "impart"; "participle" (L. particeps, a part-taker) ; "particular" ; "por- tion"; "repartee." PATH (Gr. pathos, feeling, pain), as in "pathos"; "pathetic"; "antipathy"; "sym- pathy"; "apathy"; "pathology" (disease- science); "homeopathy"; "allopathy." FED (L. pes, pedis, a foot), as in "biped"; "expedient"; "expedite"; "impede"; "quad- ruped"; "pedestal"; "pedestrian." Through the French: "pedigree." (Gr. pats, paidos, a child), as in "pediatrics," child-healing; "orthopedic"; "pedant," a schoolmaster; "pedagogue" ; "pedobaptist." PEL, PULS (L. pellere, pulsum, to drive), as in "expel"; "expulsion"; "compel"; "compulsion"; "dispel"; "impel"; "im- pulse"; "repel"; "repulse"; "pulse"; "pulsa- tion." (L. pellare, pellatum, to call by name), "appellation." Through the French: "appeal." PEND, PENS (L. pendere, pensum, to hang), as in "append"; "appendix"; "depend"; "impend"; "suspend"; "suspense"; "perpen- dicular"; "pendulum"; "propensity." (L. pendere, pensum, to weigh), as in "com- pend"; "compensate"; "dispense"; "ex- pend"; "expense"; "recompense"; "pensive," weighing, whence thoughtful. PET (L. peter e, petitum, to seek), as in "appetite"; "compete"; "competent"; "pe- tition." (L. petare, petatum, to fall upon), as in "impetus"; "impetuous." PHAN, PHEN (Gr. phaino, I appear, I show), as in "phantom"; "phantasm"; "epiphany" ; "phenomenon" ; "theophany" ; "phase," aspect (phao, I shine). PHAS (Gr. phasis, a saying), as in "em- phasis"; "prophesy"; "emphatic." PHOR (Gr. phero, I bear), as in "meta- phor"; "phosphorus," light-bearer; "periph- ery." PLE, PLI (L. plere, pletum, to fill), as in "complete" ; "complement" ; "implement" ; "replete." PLIC, PLEX (L. plicare, plicatum, to fold), as in "complex"; "triplex"; "duplex"; "quadruplex" ; "simplex" ; "application" ; "supplication"; "perplex"; "explicit"; "ap- plicable." Through the French: "apply"; "supply"; "imply." (Gr. plectos, struck), as in "apoplexy." POD (Gr. pous, podos, foot), as in "tri- pod" ; "gasterpod" ; "antipodes." POLY (Gr. polus, many), "polygon"; "monopoly" ; "polygamy" ; "polytheism" ; "polypus," many-footed. PON, POS (L. ponere, positunt, to place), as in "component" ; "compose" ; "depose" ; "deposit"; "oppose"; "opponent"; "pro- pose"; "suppose"; "transpose"; "deponent." Through the French : "expound." PORT (L. pontare, portatum, to carry), "comport"; "import"; "export"; "report"; "transport." (L. portus, a door), as in "port" ; "portal." Whence, we have "por- ter," a carrier; also, a doorkeeper. POSS, POT (L. posse, to have power, to be able), as in "possible"; "possess"; "posse"; "potent." PRAC, PRAG (Gr. practos and pragma, deed), as in "practice"; "practicable"; "pragmatic." PROB (L. probare, probatum, to prove, to try), as in "probate"; "probe"; "reprobate"; "approve" ; "disprove" ; "improve" ; "re- prove." QUER, QUIRE, QUis (L. qucerere, quasi- turn, to seek), as in "inquire"; "require"; conquer inquest query inquisi- tive"; "question"; "request"; "requisite." (L. queror, I complain), "quarrel"; "queru- lous." The word, "sequester," is probably derived from sequi, to follow, but its ety- mology is uncertain. REG, REC (L. regere, rectum, to right, to rule), as in "correct"; "erect"; "direct"; "rector"; "regent"; "regimen"; "regiment"; "regular"; "regulate"; "rectify"; "recti- tude." (L. rex, regis, king), as in "regal"; "regalia." ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN 61 RH, RHY, RHEU (Gr. rheo and rhuo, I flow), "catarrh"; "hemorrhage," flow of blood; "diarrhoea"; "rheum"; "rhyme"; "rhythm." ROG (L. rogare, rogatum, to ask, to seek), as in "rogation"; "abrogate"; "arrogant"; "derogate" ; "interrogate" ; "prerogative." RUP (L. rump ere, ruptum, to break, to burst), as in "eruption"; "corrupt"; "dis- rupt"; "interrupt"; "rupture." SCOP (Gr. skopeo, I see), as in "episco- pal," pertaining to a bishop or "overseer" (Gr. episkopos); '"scope"; "telescope"; "gyroscope." SCRIB, SCRIPT (L. scribere, scriptum, to write), as in "scribe"; "scripture"; "script"; "ascribe"; "describe"; "prescribe"; "pro- scribe"; "transcribe"; "postscript"; "manu- script" ; "conscript." SED, SID, SESS (L. sedere, sessum, to sit), as in "assess" ; "consider" ; "preside" ; "re- side"; "subside"; "supersede"; "session"; "sediment"; "sedentary"; "president." SERV (L. servire, servitum, to serve, to obey), as in "servile"; "serve"; "servitude"; "subserve." Accordant to meaning, also, "servant," which in form belongs to the next root. (L. servare, servatum, to keep, to preserve), as in "conserve"; "preserve"; "reserve"; "observe." Through the French: "reservoir." SIST (L. sistare, sistatum, to stand, to stop; from stare, statum"), as in "resist"; "persist"; "insist"; "consist"; "desist"; "ex- ist." SOLV, SOLUT(L. solvere, solutum, to loose), as in "absolve"; "absolute"; "dissolve"; "dissolute"; "resolve"; "resolute"; "solve"; "solution"; "solvent"; "absolution." SOPH (Gr. sophos, wise), as in "sophist"; "philosophy" ; "sophism" ; "theosophy." SPEC, SPIC (L. specere, spectum, to look at), as in "aspect"; "circumspect"; "in- spect"; "retrospect"; "suspect"; "inspec- tion"; "suspicion"; "perspective"; "spec- tacular"; "spectacle"; "specious"; "species"; "speculate" ; "spectator." SPIR (L. spirare, spiratum, to breathe), as in "spirit"; "aspire"; "inspire"; "expire"; "suspire" ; "respire" ; "perspire" ; "conspire" ; "spiritual" ; "spiritous." STA, STI (L. stare, statum, to stand), as in "state"; "station"; "statue"; "statute"; "standard"; "static"; "circumstance"; "con- stitute"; "substitute"; "instant"; "sub- stance." (Gr. sta, root of verb to stand), as in "apostasy"; "ecstasy," a standing out of one's self; "system"; "hydrostatic." STOL, STL (Gr. stello, I sen'd), as in "apostle"; "epistle"; "diastole" ; "systole." SUM (L. sumere, sumptum, to take, to as- sume), as in "assume"; "consume"; "pre- sume"; "resume"; "sumptuary"; "sumptu- ous." (L. summus, highest), as in "sum"; "summit" ; "consummate" ; "summary." TAC, TEG, TEC (L. tangere, tactum, to touch, to attain), as in "contact"; "tact"; "integer"; "integrity." Als*o, "tangible"; "contingent"; "contagion." (L. tegere, tectum, to cover), as in "detect"; "protect"; "integument." (Gr. tektos, a builder), as in "architect." (Gr. techne, science, art), as in "technical"; "polytechnic" ; "pyrotechnic." TEL (Gr. tele, afar), as in "telegraph"; "telescope" ; "telephone." TEND, TENS (L. tendere, tensum, to reach, to stretch), as in "attend"; "contend"; "ex- tend"; "intend"; "portend"; "pretend"; "intense"; "intent"; "tense"; "tension"; "tent." (L. tenere, tentum, to hold), as in "tenacious"; "tenet"; "tenement"; "tenure"; "pertinent"; "content"; "abstain"; "con- tain"; "appertain"; "pertain"; "retain"; "de- tain"; "obtain"; "sustain." (L. tentare, tentatum, to try), as in "tentative"; "at- tempt"; "tempt." (L. tennis, thin), as in "tenuity"; "attenuate"; "extenuate." THEM, THES, THET (Gr. them and thes, roots of verb, to place, to set), as in "anathema"; "theme"; "thesis"; "antithe- sis"; "parenthesis"; "hypothesis"; "synthe- sis"; "epithet"; "synthetic." TOM (Gr. tomos, a cut), as in "anatomy"; "atom," what can not be cut; "epitome." TON (Gr. tonos, a sound), as in "intone"; "tone"; "monotony"; "syntonic"; "tune"; "tonic," something to "tune" the body, as if a musical instrument. TORT (L. torquere, tor turn, to twist), as in "contort"; "distort"; "retort"; "tortu- ous"; "torture." TRAH, TRAC (L.trahere, tractum, to draw), as in "tract"; "traction"; "attract"; "sub- tract"; "extract"; "protract"; "retract"; "distract." Through the French: "trait"; "treat." VAL (L. valere, to be strong, to be well), as in "avail"; "invalid"; "prevail"; "valid"; "valor"; "value"; "valedictory"; "equiva- lent." (L. vallum, a valley), as in "inter- val." VEN (L. venire, ventum, to come), as in "advent"; "prevent"; "convent"; -"event"; "invent"; "intervene"; "vent." (L. venter, the belly), as in "ventriloquist." (L. ven- tus, wind), as in "ventilate." (L. venenum, poison), as in "venom." VER, VERS (L. vertere, versum, to turn), as in "advert"; "avert"; "adversity"; "ad- vertise"; "revert"; "pervert"; "verse"; "uni- ENGLISH WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN verse"; "versatile"; "diverse"; "converse"; "reverse," (L. verus, true), as in "aver"; "verity"; "verify"; "veracity"; "verisimili- tude." vi (L. via, a way), as in "obviate"; "de- viate"; "previous"; "viaduct"; "impervious." vn>, vis (L. viderf, visum, to see), as in "evident"; "provident"; "provide"; "visit"; "vision"; "advise"; "supervise"; "revise." (L. viduare, viduatum, to part, to deprive of), as in "divide"; "devoid"; "void"; "in- dividual"; "device." voc (L. vocare, vocatum, to call), as in "advocate"; "convoke"; "provoke"; "re- voke"; "invoke"; "evoke"; "vocal." VOL (L. volare, volotum, to fly), as in "volatile." (L. voile, to wish; volitis, will- ingness), as in "volition"; "benevolent" ; "voluntary"; "malevolent" (L. volvere, volutum, to roll), as in "involve"; "re- volve"; "devolve"; "revolt"; "evolution"; "involution" ; "revolution." VOR (L. vorare, to eat), as in "voracious"; "voracity" ; "carnivorous" ; "devour" ; "herbivor." zo (Gr. soon, a living being, an ani- mal), as in "zoology"; "zodiac," so called from the animal figures anciently rep- resenting the constellations; "zoophyte"; "hylozoism." ,ANGUAGES THE number of languages and dialects, ancient and modern, has been computed by Adelung to be 3,064, namely: Belonging to Asia, 987; to Europe, 587; to Africa, 276; to America, 1,214. Total, 3,064. It would take more space than our limits permit to give a tabular view of all languages : the following summary contains the prin- cipal families, and the classes in which they are generally placed: I. Monosyllabic Class. Chinese, Siamese, Avanese, Japanese. II. Shemitic or Semitic Class. Araemean (Chaldee-Syriac), Hebrew, Phoenician, Arabic. III. Indo-European or Indo-Germanic Class. Sanskrit, Celtic, Teu- tonic or Gothic, Pelasgic or Greco-Latin, Sclavonic, Hungarian, Tartarian or Turkish. IV. The Polynesian Class, consisting of the dialects spoken in the Indian archipelago and islands of the South Seas. V. The African Class. Remains of the ancient Libyan in the north; Soosoo and Foulah (between the rivers Senegal and Gambia); Ashantee; Amaaric, spoken in parts of Abyssinia; Hottentot, in the south; Kaffir, extending from the south along the east coast as far as Delagoa Bay. VI. Polysynthetic Class, extending from north to south of both continents of America, and comprising Chilian, Peruvian, Brazilian, Mexican, Western dialects of North America, Boreal dialects of North America, etc. The contrast between the first and the last of these classes presents an apparent anomaly. The Chinese languages have existed among a polished people from very remote antiquity, and yet are as rude and simple as if they had been just devised for the use of a nation but recently emerged from barbarism; whereas the languages in common use among the wild (63) LANGUAGES tribes of America are complex and difficult in their structure, and seem as if they had been invented by a people who had made great advances in civilization. It has consequently been surmised that America was at one time the residence of a civilized people, of whom the Indian tribes are the degenerated remains. SPECIMENS OF LANGUAGES; ANCIENT AND MODERN WITH the view of affording the un- learned reader an idea of the ap- pearance of some of the principal languages, dead and living, we append the passages from the New Testament composing the Lord's Prayer, in Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, German, Dutch, and En- glish for the sake of clearness the Greek is printed in the Roman alphabet, the aspi- rate at the beginning of certain words being represented by the letter h. The reader is called on to observe the difference between the Greek and Latin words, and how evi- dently the Latin is the parent of the Italian, Spanish, and French, the latter, however, possessing the least resemblance in orthog- raphy and arrangement to its original. He will also have an opportunity of comparing the German with its kindred tongue, the Dutch, and both with their relation to the Anglo-Saxon or English. GREEK Pater hemon ho en tois ouranois, hagias- theto to onoma sou. Eltheto he Basileia sou. Genetheto to thelema sou, hos en ourano, kai epi tes ges. Ton arton hemon ton epiousion dos hemin semeron. Kai aphes hemin ta opheilemata hemon, hos kai hemeis aphiemen tois opheiletais hemon. Kai me eisenengkes hemas eis peirasmon, alia rusai hemas apo tou ponerou; hoti sou estin he Basileia, kai he dunamis kai he doxa, eis tous aionas. Amen. LATIN Pater noster, qui es in coelis, sanctificetur nomen tuum. Adveniat regnum tuum. Fiat voluntas tua, sicut in coelo, et in terra. Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie. Et remitte nobis debita nostra, sicut et nos remittimus debitoribus nostris. Et ne nos inducas in tentationem, sed libera nos a malo. Tibi enim est regnum, et po- tentia, et gloria, in sempiternum. Amen. ITALIAN Padre nostro, che sei ne' cieli, sia san- tificato i' tuo nome II tuo regno venga. La tua volonta sia fatta in terra come in cielo. Dacci oggi il nostro pane cotidiano. E rimettici i nostri debiti, come noi ancora gli rimettiamo a' nostri debitori. E non indurci in tentazione, me liberaci dal ma- ligno. Percioche tuo e il regno, e la po- tenza, e la gloria, in sempiterno. Amen. SPANISH Padre nuestro, que estas en los cielos, sea sanctificado tu nombre. Vega tu reyno ; sea hecha tua volontad como en el cielo, ansi tambien en la tierra. Danos oy nuestro pan quotidiano. Y sueltanos nuestras deudas, como tambien nosotros soltamos a nuestros deudores. Y no nos metas en tentacion, mas libranos de mal. Porque tuyo es el reyno, y la poteeia, y la gloria, por todos los siglos. Amen. FRENCH Notre Pere qui es aux cieux, ton nom soit sanctifie. Ton regne vienne; ta volonte soit faite sur la terre, comme au ciel. Donne-nous aujourd'hui not re pain quoti- dien. Pardonne-nous nos peches, comme aussi nous pardonnons a ceux qui nous ont offenses. Et ne nous abandonne point a la tentation, mais de"livre nous du malin. Car a toi appartient le regne, la. puissance, et la gloire, a jamais. Amen. GERMAN Unser Vater in dem Himmel, dein Name werde geheiliget Dein Reich komme. Dein Wille geschehe auf Erden wie im Himmel. Unser tagliches Brod gieb uns heute. Und vergieb uns unsere Schulden, wie wir unsern Schuldigern vergeben. Und ftihre uns nicht in Versuchung, sondern erlose uns von dem UebeL Denn dein ist das Reich, und die Kraft, und die Herrlich- keit, in EwigkeiL Amen. DUTCH Onze Vader, die in de Hetnelen zijt, uw naam worde geherligd. Uw Koningrijk kome. Uw wil geschiede, gelijk in den hemel, alzoo ook op de aarde. Geef ons heden ons dagelijksch brood. En vergeef ons onze schulden, Gelijk ook wij vergeven LANGUAGES 65 onzen schuldenaren. En lied ons nict in verzoeking, Maar verlos ons van den boozen. Want Uw is het koningrijk, Eii de kracht, en de heerlijkheid, In de eeuwigheid. Amen. ENGLISH Our father which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as" it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory, for ever and ever. Amen. LANGUAGE DEFINED Language, in the largest sense of the term, may be defined as the means by which thought is expressed. Thought, as is well known, may be expressed by means of mute signs, as frowns, sighs, kind looks, gestures' of the body, or by inarticulate sounds, as groans, cries, sobs, laughter. The first are usually called natural language, and the second inarticulate language; and these means of expression partly belong to the lower animals. Finally, there is articulate language, peculiar to man alone, and con- sisting of a multitude of sounds, each of which represents a distinct idea. To this last mode of expression, generally known by the simple term language, our attention is for the present to be directed. ORIGINAL FORMATION OF LANGUAGE It is sufficiently clear that the vocal or- gans of man are constituted with a view to his expressing himself by speech. The larynx, epiglottis, pharynx, tongue, palate, and lips, are all of them framed in such a manner as to show incontestably that they were designed for producing such sounds as we employ in articulate language. The first language of a child is that of inarticulate sounds ; it cries when it is hungry, screams when it is angry, and moans when it is in pain. The strong re- semblance which subsists between the words in different languages expressive of the first social ties, is worthy of observa- tion. Thus the word mother is Em and am in Hebrew Modor in Anglo-Saxon. and Arabic. Moder in Swedish. Madr in Persian. Moder in Danish. Matr in Sanskrit. Moeder in Dutch. Meter in Greek. Mutter in German. Mater in Latin. Mater m Russian. Madre, in Italian. Mathair in Celtic. Mire in French. When the primitive men, advancing from early necessities and simple tangible ideas, found it necessary to have words to repre- sent the abstractions of the mind, they still proceeded according to the dictates and analogies of nature. In all languages, every term expressive of mental operations is borrowed from the ma- terial world. Some of the terms thus ap- plied are signally appropriate. In the present stage of language we have become so habituated to the use of terms applied metaphorically that we seldom re- flect on their original import. There are many instances in which the metaphorical word remains, when its primary- significa- tion has been forgotten. For instance, the word capricious does not suggest the idea of a goat, although it is derived from the Latin caper, a goat, to denote the character of a person who bounds from subject to subject, without paying due attention to any; like a goat, which bounds from rock to rock, without settling long in any one spot. ON LEARNING FOREIGN LAN- GUAGES The work of mastering a foreign lan- guage involves a number of considerations, among which may be mentioned the acqui- sition of a vocabulary, the identification of the peculiar pronunciation and the com- mitting of noun and verb paradigms. This is only half the work, however, the mere collection of the necessary raw materials. The real understanding of the language comes with the mastery of idioms, or the peculiar ways of expressing ideas, and the number of these that are alike in two lan- guages is by far the smallest proportion of the total number in any case. Thus, nearly the most important thing that the student learns, on entering the study of a new language, is that a sentence perfectly ex- pressing a given idea in English would possibly have a far different, if not a com- pletely contrary, significance in the tongue he is attempting to acquire. It is essential, therefore, that he study not only the grammar and dictionary, but also the works of the best authors of the new language, in order to familiarize him- self with the proper methods of expression. This caution is particularly necessary for the English-speaking student of another language; since, as he will discover after his studies have progressed sufficiently far, the English differs from nearly every other tpngue in point of idioms and expressions. 66 LANGUAGES In acquiring another language, therefore, the aspiring student must literally unlearn his native tongue, to the extent, at least, of ceasing to think in its forms, when attempting to express himself in the new dialect In the following pages are given short and explicit resumes of French, German, and Spanish grammar and syntax, specially arranged with a view to enabling a student to lay the foundations, at least, of a knowl- edge of speaking, reading, and writing. The usual method of arranging the subject into lessons has been abandoned; since, as it seems, the earnest student can far more readily master a language by carefully reading the rules of construction, arranged in a logical sequence, than would be pos- sible with the common plan of administer- ing the same knowledge in small doses, without that same logical arrangement. If the student will carefully study each branch of the subject, as it is developed, not attempting to burden his mind by com- mitting rules, lists, and paradigms, until he has a good general idea of what he must master, in order to become proficient, he will find that the terrors and difficul- ties of the subject rapidly disappear. Language, like religion, must be accepted mostly on authority. There is no use in trying to "reason out" many of the rules and usages of talk: they are stated as facts, and one must be content to learn and use them. In point of pronouncing a foreign lan- guage, the English correspondents of the separate sounds have been given, wherever possible. When such sounds as the French u, the German modified vowels or ch sound, or the French guttural n are en- countered, the matter is treated, as far as possible, by giving directions for ar- langing and using the vocal organs. If these rules are carefully followed, the stu- dent will find that sounds totally foreign to English will result in each case, and, provided he is sufficiently careful, he may rest assured that his pronunciation is the correct one. FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT IN attempting to gain a clear understanding of a foreign language, with- out the help of a competent teacher, the first difficulty will be found in the pronunciation of the various vowels and diphthongs occa- sionally, also, of the consonants which differ from the English. The advantage of learning pronunciations from a teacher, or from one expert in the language, is that the separate sounds may be carefully discriminated, and, if possible, imitated. One thing must be remembered, however, and this is that very many people lack the ability to imitate sounds correctly, just as very many others have no "ear for music." If, therefore, we wish to teach the pronunciation of a language, it is quite as necessary that the principles involved in the use of the vocal organs be explained, as that a student of the piano, or other instrument, be instructed in reading notes and in properly manipulating the keys. Since it is assumed that the student is sufficiently well acquainted with the pronunciations of English words to identify and reproduce the sounds they represent, the equivalents of the French alphabet, as far as possible, will be given with corresponding sounds in our language. Where this is not possible, from the fact that a sound is not found in English, the method of making it will be explained as clearly as possible. THE FRENCH ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATIONS THE FRENCH ALPHABET lacks the > w, found in the English and Germanic languages, and hence has but twenty-five letters. The names, as adopted in recent years, are formed largely with the French *t-sound, which will be explained later, as the English has no exact equivalent. The sound of in "fur" is the nearest approach. The values are given as nearly as possible in English words. A, a (ah). Pronounced like a in the English word "father." B, b (b M ). Pronounced as in English. C, c (SM). Pronounced like ^ before e and i; like k before a, o, u, unless written with cedilla g. D, d (d). Pronounced as in English. E, e (). e (unaccented), pronounced like u in "but," before d, r, t, z, like at in "bait"; e (grave accent), like e in "bet"; e (acute accent), like ai in "bait." In certain con- sonant combinations it has the force of a as in "man," or as in "father." F, f (fw). Pronounced as in English. (67) FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT G, g (JM). Pronounced as in English, except before e and i, where it sounds like ;' in "jet." So sounded like French / in a word with . H, h (h). Is generally silent, pronounced as in the English words "humor," "honor." I, i (ee). Pronounced like e in "me," except in oi (pronounced "wah") and before n, when it has the sound of a in "van," "man," as vingt (20), cinq (5), etc. J, j (zhu) Pronounced like s in "pleasure"; has the supposed sound of zh, or of zi in "glazier." K, k (ku) Pronounced as in English. L, 1 0). Pronounced as in English. M, m (raw). Pronounced as in English. N, n (nw). Pronounced as in English. O, o (oh). Short o, pronounced like aw in "paw"; long o, au, and eau, like o in "open." P, p (p). Pronounced as in English; often mute at end of words. Q, q (k). Pronounced like k (u never sounded after q). R, r (r). Pronounced like r in "rut"; should be sounded carefully; never silent except at the end of words thus, er, like ay in "bay." S, s (SM). Pronounced as in English; occasionally like z. T, t (ttt). Pronounced lik the first t in "tent"; is silent at the end df words thus et, like ay in "say." U, u (). This sound does not occur in English and will be explained later. V, v (VM). Pronounced as in English. X, x (kz). Pronounced like gz, or kz; silent at end of words. Y, y (ee). Pronounced like e in "me." Z, z (zu). Pronounced like soft s in "say"; is silent at the end of words, as ez, like ay. VOWEL PRONUNCIATIONS THE FRENCH u, which some foreigners pronounce like u in "fur," "but,'' "hut," etc., and others, like ee in "feet," "beet," "meet," etc., is really a compromise be- tween these two errors. Its pronunciation is virtually the same as that of the German modified u, which is really a combination with the short e sound (like e in "bet"). Because this compound sound does not occur in English, the only means for identi- fying it, in the absence of a teacher, is to observe the proper conformation of the vocal organs, particularly the lips. Having thoroughly identified the sounds of oo, as in "fool," "tool," "school," and of e, as in "bet," "wet," sound the former until the position, of the lips and teeth are fully understood. Having done this, change the sound from oo to short e, without moving the lips, and prolong it until thoroughly identified. The rule given usually is to "fix the lips to say oo, and say short e, or to say ee, as in feet, with the lips fixed to say oo" but it is necessary to practice both the component sounds carefully before attempting to com- bine them, as stated. THE SOUNDS OF DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPH- THONGS in French are as peculiar as those of the vowels. Thus, AU and EAU have the sound of o in the English exclamation "oh !" On the other hand, EU and u have the sound of M in "but," "much," "such," etc. At, AY, EI, and EY sound like a in "late," "rate," etc. Oi, like English iva, as in "warrant," or as if a w were prefixed to the exclamation "ah !" In combining oi into words, the ef- fect after consonants is as if short u, as in "but," "hut," etc., were sounded before it Thus, the word, droit, has the sound of dru-wah run into a monosyllable; the merging into iva so rapidly as to form one vowel sound. When sounded before an- other syllable, oi or oy give the effect of consonant y. Thus, moyen is sounded wwah-yanh. FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT The sound of ui and out is like the En- glish pronoun "we." When * and e occur together they are sounded separately, the pronunciation vary- ing as the consonant following. Thus in mien, the e has the sound of a in "man," while in mienne, that of e in "men." The sound of ou is the same as that of oo in the English "moon." CONSONANT PRONUNCIATIONS Among consonant sounds there are sev- eral important variations from the En- glish pronunciations. Thus, ch before a vowel has the sound of sh, but, before a consonant of k, as in Chretien (kray- tyanh). GN in the midst of a word always has the sound of ny, as in "canyon," except in a very few words seldom used. S final is silent, except in such words as atlas, fils, gratis, and in Greek and Latin names. DRE final has the approximate sound of dr, omitting the e. ABLE and IBLE, as suffixes, have the sound of abl and ibl, as in English, except for the fact that the vowel a or t is usually long (a as in "father"; * as ee in "beet"), thus thowing the bl still further into ob- scurity. FINAL N AND ND are frequently made equivalent to ng thus prends is repre- sented as "prong" but this combination hardly represents the French sound to the average student. The e in the above word has nearly the sound of o in "prong," but the final consonants form the sound ofwA, made in the throat, and approaching the sound of nk, far more nearly than ng. Considering that the h has the force of suddenly terminating the sound of n, as if another consonant, like d, g, k, t, were to follow, but without giving a distinct con- sonant sound, we have very nearly the quality required. Since the vowel is given a guttural (or throat) quality, the con- sonants following will naturally be thrown as far back in the mouth as possible, thus giving the sound popularly supposed to come "through the nose." In trying to learn this sound, the best method is to sound the vowel fully and as long as is necessary to render it perfectly definite to the mind ; then to give the con- sonant following it, with as few changes as possible in the position of the tongue, palate, lips, etc. This is a mechanical rule, but it can not fail to identify the sound, and finally enable its ready production, if persistently followed in practice. Final consonants, d, g, r, s, t, x, are regu- larly silent; n, as in ban (bawnh), is much abbreviated, being scarcely more than a breathing. Since it is the rule in French to make the final .s and t silent, it follows that the sound of a final s or t is thrown forward, so as to be the first sound of a succeeding word in a sentence, provided that word be- gin with a vowel or silent h. Thus: les (lay), "the" (PLUR.), but les hommes (lay zaum), "the men." Final silent t is sim- ilarly thrown forward in all cases except with et, "and." Thus: C'est un homme (say tunh aum) ; but, Une femme et un homme (Une famm ay unh aum). These pronunciations for vowels and consonants are as nearly correct as it is possible to state them on paper. Learning a language is like learning singing: to ob- tain the correct intonation it is highly de- sirable, if not necessary, to have assistance from a master. It is possible, however, to learn to read and express one's self cor- rectly, and to leave the more difficult points of pronunciation to be "learned by ear." Nearly every educated person knows French, and those who study without a master ought, when an opportunity occurs, to ask the pronunciation of a difficult word ; by such means it is possible to arrive at correct pronunciation, which no description of words is fully capable of conveying. ACCENTS There are three accents in the FrencK language: the acute, thus, e; the grave, thus, e; and the circumflex, e. The cir- cumflex accent simply denotes the elision of a silent (generally an "s") after it, thus tete, originally written teste; depot for depost, etc. The acute and grave accents belong exclusively to the letter "e"; an accented e must have the acute accent, if at the end of a word, as cafe; or followed by a pronounced syllable, as metal; a grave accent when followed by a silent syllable, as mere, lievre. The grave accent is used, however, on the a of the adverb la (there and its compounds voila, etc.) ; but it is thus employed merely to distinguish it from the article la (the), and not for any effect in pronunciation. Similarly, it is used on the preposition, a, to distinguish it from the third person sin- gular present of avoir; and on the adverb, ou, "where," to distinguish it from the con- junction, ou, "or." 70 FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT VOCABULARY OF COMMON AND USEFUL WORDS OBSERVE CAREFULLY. In order to make the pronunciation of French words as clear as possible the following equivalents will be given in this vocabulary: u for French u; uh for u, as in "but"; oo for u, as in "flute." As the h following a vowel or consonant is commonly supposed to have the force of a consonant, without giving a distinct sound, shortening a vowel and ab- ruptly checking the sound of m and n, it will be used thus in the following vocabu- lary: Thus, the French le, in which the e has the sound of e in "bet," is given as leh. Long a, as in "father," is ah, or italicized (o) : short a, as in "hat" is roman (a) ; so with o, long (o) and short (o). In numerous words ending in eille, while the // and final e are properly silent, the voice makes a sound resembling the sylla- ble, yeh, very much abbreviated. In the fol- lowing vocabulary, this is expressed by -y/t, the y being sounded as a consonant. Thus : la corneille (lah cornay-yh). The same closure of the vocal organs ends words with final gne. Thus : la campagne (lah comh- pan-yh), la montagne (lah monh-tan-yh) . The definite Article is "le" before a masculine noun, and "la" before a femi- nine noun ; they are both written "/' " before a noun commencing with a vowel or silent "h." The indefinite Article is "un" mascu- line, and "une" feminine. THE UNIVERSE God, Dieu, Deeyuh the world, le monde, leh maund the sky, le del, leh seeyel the sun, le soleil, leh so-layee the moon, la lune, lah Iwne a star, une etoile, une aituh-ohl the air, I' air, 1'air the earth, la terre, lah tayr the water, I'eau, \'o the fire, le feu, leh fuh the sea, la mer, lah mare an island, une tie, une eel a lake, un lac, unh lahc a stream, un fteuve, unh fluhv a river, une riviere, une reeveeair. the animals, les animaux, laiz- aneemo the metals, les metaux, lai maito the gold, I'or, 1'orr the silver, Yargent, 1'arjonh the iron, le fer, leh fayr the steel, I'acier, 1'asseayh the copper, le cuivre, leh cweevr the tin, I'etain, 1'aytanh MAN AND THE PARTS OF THE BODY man, I'homme, 1'omm the body, le corps, leh cor the head, la tete, lah tait the face, le visage, leh veesaj the forehead, le front, leh fronh the eye, I' ceil, luh-yee the eyes, les^yeux, laiz yuh the nose, le nez, leh nay the ears, les oreilles, laiz oray-yee the chin, le menton, leh mantonh the beard, la barbe, lah barb the mouth, la bouche, lah boosh the lips, les levres, lai layvr the tooth, la dent, lah danh the tongue, la langue, lah langh the neck, le cou, leh coo the shoulders, les^epaules, laiz aipole the arm, le bras, leh brah the hand, la main, lah manh the fingers, les doigts, lai duah the nails, les^ongles, laiz aungl the chest, la poitrine, lah puahtreen the heart, le cceur, leh keuhr the lungs, les poumons, leh poomonh the leg, la jambe, lah zhahmb the foot, le pied, leh peeay the bones, les^os, lay zoh FOOD AND DRINK the bread, le pain, leh panh the flour, la farine, lah fareen meat, de la viande, de lah veeandh roast meat, du roti, du rotee beef, du boeuf, du buff veal, du veau, du vo mutton, du mouton, du mootonh lamb, de I'agneau, deh 1'anyo pork, du pore, du pork bacon, du lard, du lar ham, du jambon, du zhahmbonh the soup, la soupe, lah soop rice, du riz, du ree eggs, des^ceufs, daiz uhff salad, de la salade, deh lah salahd mustard, de la tnoutarde, deh lah mootard salt, du sel, du sel oil, de I'huile, deh 1'weel vinegar, du vinaigre, du veenaigr pepper, du poivre, du puahvr butter, du beurre, du buhr cheese, du fromage, du fromahj the breakfast, le dejeuner, leh dayzhuhnai the dinner, le diner, leh deenai the supper, le souper, leh soopai hunger, la faint, la fanh thirst, la soif, lah suof FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT 71 water, de I'eau, deh \'o wine, du vin, du vanh beer, de la biere, deh lah beeair milk, du lait, du lay tea, du the, du tay gin, du genievre, du jenyavr brandy, de I'eau de vie, deh 10 deh vee THE DRESS a coat, un surtout, unh swrtoo a cloak, un manteau, unh manto a waistcoat, un gilet, unh jeelay the trousers, la culotte, la kwlott the braces, les bretelles, lai bretell the cap, le bonnet, leh bonnay the hat, le chapeau, leh shapo the comb, le peigne, leh peine gloves, des gants, dai gonh a ring, une bague, tme bog a watch, une montre, ne monhtr the stocking, le bas, leh bah the boots, les bottes, lai bot the bootjack, le tire-botte, leh teer bot the slippers, les pantoufies, lai pauntoofl the shoes, les souliers, lai soolyai a shirt, une chemise, wne shemeeze a pocket handkerchief, un mouchoir, unh mooshouah the cothes brush, la brosse, lah bross the umbrella, le parapluie, leh paraplu-wee the parasol, le parasol, leh parasol HOUSE UTENSILS a table, une table, wne tahbl a chair, wne chaise, wne shayse an armchair, un fauteuil, unh foh-tuh-yuh a looking-glass, un miroir, unh meeruahr a clock, wne horloge, wne orloje a trunk, wn coffre, unh cofr a box, wne boite, ne buaht the bed, le lit, leh lee the counterpane, la couverture, lah coovair- tyure a pillow, wn oreiller, unh oraylyai the sheets, /es drops de lit, lai drah deh lee the mattress, le matelas, leh matlah the plate, I'assiette, 1'assyet the candlestick, un chandelier, unh shande- lyai the lamp, une lampe, wne lamp a spoon, une cuiller, une kww-yay a fork, une fourchette, wne foorchett a knife, un couteau, unh cooto a cup, une tasse, wne tass a saucer, la soucoupe, lah soocoop the tablecloth, la nappe, lah nap the towel, un essuie-main, unh esswee manh a glass, un verre, unh vair the tea-pot, la theiere, lah taiyair RELATIONS the family, la famille, lah fameel the husband, le mari, leh maree the wife, la femme, lah fam the father, le pere, leh pare the mother, la mere, lah mare the child, I'enfant, 1'anhfanh the son, le fils, leh feess the daughter, la fille, lah feel the brother, le frere, leh frair the sister, la sceur, lah suhr the uncle, I'oncle, 1'awnkl the aunt, la tante, lah tont the cousin, le cousin, leh coosanh the marriage, le mariage, leh mareeahj OCCUPATIONS an occupation, un metier, maytyai a workman, un artisan, arteesonh a baker, un boulanger, boolanh-zhay. a miller, un meunier, meuhnyai a butcher, un boucher, booshai a brewer, un brasseur, brassuhr a tailor, un tailleur, ti-yur a shoemaker, un cordonnier, cordonyai a smith, un forgeron, forjehronh a saddler, un sellier, say-yay a carpenter, un menuisier, mennweesyai a mason, un magon, massonh a bookbinder, un relieur, relleeuhr THE TOWN the town, la ville, lah veel the bridge, le pont, leh ponh the tower, la tour, lah toor the gate, la porte, lah port the street, la rue, lah ru the market, le marche, leh marshay the building, le batiment, leh bahteemonh the townhouse, I'hotel de ville, 1'otel deh veel the theatre', le theatre, leh tayahtr the post-office, la paste, lah post the church, I'eglise, 1'aygleeze the cathedral, la cathedrale, lah cataydral the school, I'ecole, laycoll the prison, la prison, lah preesonh the exchange, la bourse, lah boorse the palace, le palais, leh pallay the hotel, I'hotel, 1'otel the inn, I'auberge, 1'obayrj the public house, le cabaret, leh cabbaray the coffee room, le cafe, leh caffay THE HOUSE the house, la maison, lah maysonh the door, la porte, lah port the lock, la serrure, lah serrwr the key, la de, lah clay 72 FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT the bell, la sonnette, lah sonnet the staircase, I'escalier, 1'escallyai the drawing-room, la salle, lah sal the dining-room, la salle -a-manger, lah salah-manzhai the room, la chambre, lah shambr the bedroom, la chambre-a-coucher, lah shombr-a-cooshay the window, la fenetre, lah fennaitr the wall, la paroi, lah pahruah the kitchen, la cuisine, lah cweezeen the roof, le toil, leh tuah the cellar, la cave, lah caav the garden, le jardin, leh zhardanh ANIMALS an animal, un animal, unh aneemal a horse, un cheval, unh sheval a donkey, un one, unh ahn the dog, le chien, leh sheeanh the cat, le chat, leh shah the rat, le rat, leh rah the mouse, la souris, lah sooree an ox, un bceuf, unh beuh a cow, une vache, une vash a calf, un veau, unh vo a sheep, une brebis, ne brebbee a lamb, un agneau, unh anyo a pig, un cochon, unh coshonh the hare, le lievre, leh leeayvr a monkey, un singe, unh sanj a wolf, un loup, unh loo a bear, un our.y, unh oorse a lion, un /ton, unh leeonh an elephant, un elephant, unh aylayfonh a tiger, un tigre, unh teegr BIRDS a bird, un oiseau, unh wahzoh a cock, un cog, unh cock a hen, une poule, ne pool a chicken, un poulet, unh poolay a swan, un cigne, unh s.inyh a goose, une oie, une wha a duck, un canard, unh canar a lark, une alouette, une alwett a nightingale, un rossignol, unh rosseenyol the swallow, Vhirondelle, 1'eeronhdel lie sparrow, le moineau, leh muano the raven, le corbeau, leh corbo the crow, la corneille, lah cornay-yh the parrot, le perroquet, leh perrokay the eagle, I'aigle, 1'aygl FISHES AND INSECTS a fish, un poisson, unh puassonh a pike, un brocket, unh broshay a salmon, un saumon, unh somonh a carp, une carpe. ne car^. an eel, une anguillt, une onggheel a trout, une truite, Mne trweet a herring, un hareng, unh harronh oysters, dej hultres, dai zweetr a crab, un* ecrevisse, une aycreveese a turtle, une tortue, une tortyu a whale, une baleine, une ballayn a serpent, un serpent, unh sairponh a frog, une grenouille, une granooeeyh a worm, un t/er, unh vair an insect, un insecte, anh a spider, un? araignce, une arraynyai a moth, une teigne, unh taine a fly, une mouche, une moosh a gnat, un moucheron, unh moosheronh a bee, une abeille, une abbay-yh the honey, /e miel, leh meeyell a wasp, une guepe, une gwape a butterfly, un papillon, unh pap-pee-yonh VEGETABLES beans, des feves, dai faive peas, des pois, dai puah cabbage, des choux, dai shoo cauliflower, des choux-fieurs, dai shoo-fluhr carrots, des bettera-ves, dai betrahve asparagus, des asperges, daiz aspairj spinach, des epinards, daiz aipeenar radishes, des radis, dai raddee celery, du celeri, du selleh-ree a melon, un melon, unh mellonh cucumber, de.s concombres, dai konh- komhbr TREES AND FLOWERS a tree, un arbre, unh arbr a branch, une branche, une brawnhsh a leaf, une feuille, une fuh-eel an apple, une pomme, une pomm a pear, une poire, une puah a plum, une prune, une prune a cherry, une cerise, une serreeze a nut, une noix, une nuah a currant, de la groseille, de lah grozah-yh a gooseberry, rfe la groseille verte, deh lah grozah-yh vert a strawberry, une fraise, une fraize a chestnut, un marron, unh marronh the oak-tree, le chene, leh shane the fir-tree, le pin, leh panh the birch, le bouleau, leh boolo the willow, le saule, leh sole a flower, une fleur, une fluhr a rose, une rose, une rose a pink, un ceillet, unh uh-yay a tulip, une tulipe, une tuleep a lily, un Us, unh lee a violet, une violette, une vee-oh-lett a bouquet, n bouquet, unh bookay FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT 73 THE SCHOOL a school, I'tcole, 1'aycol the teacher, le maitre, leh maytr the book, le livre, leh leevr the paper, le papier, leh papyai a pen, une plume, ne plum an inkstand, une encrier, unh onh-kree-yay the ink, I'encre, lonh-kr the pencil, le crayon, leh crayonh a letter, une lettre, ne lettr an envelope, une enveloppe, wne onhvellope TIME AND SEASONS the time, le temps, leh tonh a minute, la minute, lah meenwt an hour, une heure, une uhr a quarter of an hour, un quart d'heure, unh kar derr half an hour, une demie-heure, wne demmy err four o'clock, quatre heures, katr err a quarter of four, quatre heures moins le quart, katr err mwanh leh kar a quarter past four, quatre heures et quart, katr err ay kar twenty minutes past eight, huit heures vingt, wheet err vanh half-past six, six heures et demie, seece err ay demmee. the day, le jour, leh zhoor the morning, le matin, leh mattanh noon, le midi, leh meedee the afternoon, I'apres-'midi, 1'apray meedee the evening, le soir, leh suahr the night, la nuit, lah nwee a year, un an, un anh a month, un mois, unh mouah January, Janvier, zhonhveeay February, fevrier, fayvreeay March, mars, * Pronunciation Englfah FnMh ProoBBotoUon if only pourvu que poorvM keh too much trop tro even if quand meme kaunh meym little peu puh although quoique cooahk much beaucoup bocoo that is to say c'cst-a-dire sait-ah-deer very tres, fort tray, fore as comme kum more plus plu except that outre que ootr kuh less mains mouanh for car car at least au mains o mouanh because parceque parsk thus si see why pourquoi poorkuah nearly presque pressk and et ai about environ aunhveeronh therefore ainsi anhsee all tout too consequently par consequent par conhsay- altogether tout-d-fait toot-ah-fay conh only seulement suhlmonh ADVERBS well better bien mieux beeanh mee-uh at first previously d'abord auparavant d'abor oparravanh so much the better tant-mieux taunh mee-uh afterward ensuite aunsweet bad mat mal together ensemble aunsaumbl worse pis pee at last en fin aunfanh rather plutot pluto where oft 00 without doubt sans doute saunh doot here id eesee indeed en effet aw-neffay there Id lah on the con- elsewhere ailleurs aeellyure trary au contraire o conhtrare above dessus dessu scarcely a peine ah pen below dessous dessoo perhaps peut-etre puh-taitr within dedans deddonh all at once tout-d-coup tuht-ah-coo without dehors dehor not at all point du tout pouanhdutoo everywhere partout partoo not yet pas encore pah-zahnh-core nowhere nulle part nul par nothing rien reeanh up en haut aunh oh nothing at all Hen du tout reeanh du too down en has aunh bah with, near chez, aupres shay, opray anywhere quelque part kulk par near pres pray already dejd dayzhah in, within dans, en donh, aunh often souvent souvonh before avant awonh sometimes quelque fois kulk-fwah behind derriere derriair in future a I'avenir ah 1'avneer below sous soo always toujours toozhoor over sur sr never jamais zhammay against vers vare soon bientot beeanhtoe far from loin de luanh deh immediately late aussitot tard oss-eetoe tar on the side of d cote de ah cotay deh early tot toe opposite vis-d-vis veez-ah-vee at present a present ah praysonh round about autour de otoor deh quickly vite veet instead of au lieu de o leeyw deh at once tout de suite too deh sweet in the midst of au milieu de o millyw deh afterward puts pwee on this side en deed de aunh-dessahde yesterday yesterday evening hier hief au soir yare yare o suahr on the oppo- site side out of au-deld de hors o-dellah-deh or to-day aujourd'hui ojoordwee after apres appray to-morrow demain demmanh with avec avvec to-morrow morning demain matin demmanh mattanh since between depuis entre, parmi deppwee aunhtr, parmee to-morrow . demmanh without sans sanh dfniain soir evening suahr for pour poor the day after to-morrow apres demain appray dem- manh through, by against par contre par conhtr enough assez assay during pendant paundonh FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT 77 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES Some thirty men, une trentaine d'hommes. one, un, unh 80 quatre-vingt, Hundreds of men, des centaines d'hommes. two, deux, duh katr-vanh 3 trois, trouah 81 quatre -vingt-un, ORDINAL NUMBERS 4 quatre, kahtr katr-vanhtunh the first, le premier leh premyai 5 cinq, sanh 82 quatre-vingt-deux " second, le second leh zeggonh 6 six, seece 83 quatre-vingt-trois " third, le troisieme leh trouazzeeame 7 sept, set 84 quatre-vingt-quatre " fourth, le quatrieme leh kattreeame 8 /jwiY, wheet 85 quatre -vingt-cinq " 5th, le cinquitwie leh sahnkeeame 9 n^tt/, nuf 86 quatre-vingt-six " 6th, le sixieme leh seeceeame 10 rfur, deece 87 quatre-vingt-sept " 7th, le septieme leh setteeame II 0H2, onhz 88 quatre -vingt-huit " 8th, le huitieme leh wheeteeame 12 douze, dooze 89 quatre-vingt-neuf ," 9th, le neuvieme lehneuveeame 13 treize, trayz 90 quatre-vingt-dix " loth, le dixieme leh deezeeame 14 quatorze, katorz 91 quatre-vingt-onse " nth, le onzieme leh ongzeeame 15 quinse, kanhz 92 quatre-vingt-douze " I2th, le douzieme leh doozeeame 16 j.stf, sayz 93 quatre-vingt-treize " I3th, le treizieme leh trayzeeame J7 dix-sept, dee-sett 94 quatre-vingt- " I4th, le quatorzieme leh kattorzeeame 18 dix-huit, deez- quatorze " isth, le quinzieme leh kahngzeeame wheet '95 quatre-vingt- " i6th, le seizieme leh sayzeeame 19 dix-neuf, deez-nuf quinze " I7th, le dix-septieme leh deessettiame ^ 20 vingt, vanh 96 quatre-vingt-seize 21 vingt-et-un, vanh- 97 quatre-vingt-dix- , ,. , .... leh deez-wheetee- i8th, le dix-huitieme __._ dlllC tay-unh j/> " I9th, le dix-neuvieme leh deezneuveeame 22 vingt-deux 98 quatre-vingt-dix- " 2oth, le vingtieme leh vahnteeame 23 vingt-trois huit le vingt-et- leh vahng-eh- 24 vingt-quatre 99 quatre-vingt-dix- 218 unieme uneeame 25 vingt-cinq neuf " 30th, le trentieme leh traunteeame 26 vingt-slx 100 ctfwf, saunh " 40th, le quarantieme leh karaunteeame 27 vingt-sept 101 cent-un 28 vingt-huit 1 10 cewf dur f*u i *-i ^ en sahnkauntee- 5oth, le cinquantieme cunc 29 vingt-neuf 120 c^nf z/tngf < f^t-t. i .i-i leh souahssauntee- ootn, le soixantieme 30 trente, traunh 130 c c^nte dixieme zeeame 71 soixante-et-onze 800 /zw'f c^nte looth, le centieme leh saun'teeame 72 soixante-douze 900 n^ttf cta i,oooth, le millieme leh milleeame 73 soixante-treize 1,000 //, meel Firstly, premierement or uniemement. 74 soixante-quatorze 2,000 tf^M^r wi7/ Secondly, secondement or deuxiemement. 75 soixante-quinzz 3,ooo frow wti//^ 76 soixante-seize 10,000 di> wtV/^ FORMATION OF NUMERALS. As may be 77 soixante-dix-sept 20,000 zrc'ngf mt//^ seen from this list, the numerals in French 78 soixante-dix-huit a million, tn million, are formed precisely as in English, with 79 soixante-dix-neuf unh meelyonh the exceptions that, instead of seventy, they say "sixty-ten"; instead of eighty, The half, /a moitie or demi- (prefix). "four-score"; and, instead of ninety, "four- The third, /^ ftVrj. The fourth, /^ quart. score-ten." It will be noticed, therefore, The fifth, / cinquieme, etc., etc. that 71, 72, 73, etc., are given as sixty- The double, fe double. The triple, / fn'/>/^. eleven, sixty-twelve, sixty-thirteen, etc., Three (etc.) times as many, trois (etc.) while 91, 92, etc., are four-score-eleven, fois autant. four-score-twelve, etc. In five cases only, Three (etc.) times more, trois (etc.') fois plus. the un is connected to the larger numeral Three (etc.) times less, trois (etc.) fois by the conjunction et, and these are 21, mains. 31, 41, 51, 61 : in one case the onze takes Some twenty dollars, une vingtaine de the conjunction 71. In all other cases the piastres. un follows the leading numeral directly. 6 78 FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT OUTLINES OF FRENCH GRAMMAR DECLENSIONS THE DEFINITE ARTICLE is rendered by "le" before a masculine noun, and by "Id' before a feminine noun, as le pere, the father; la mere, the mother. The plural for both genders is "les," as: les peres, the fathers; les meres, the mothers. MASCULINE Singular Nom. le (leh) pere, the father Gen. du (d) pere, of the father Dat. au (o) pere, to the father Ace. le (leh) pere, the father Plural Nom. les (lai) peres, the fathers Gen. des (dai) />^r, of the fathers Dat. aux (o) peres, to the fathers Ace. les (lai) />^rw, the fathers FEMININE Singular Nom. /a mere, the mother Gen. de la mere, of the mother Dat. a /a m<*re, to the mother Ace. la mere, the mother Plural Nom. / meres, the mothers Gen. d meres, of the mothers Dat. aux meres, to the mothers Ace. les meres, the mothers In the declension of a word beginning with a vowel or a silent "V the definite article becomes /' in the singular. Thus: Singular Nom. I'homme, the man Gen. de I'homme, of the man Dat. a I'homme, to the man Ace. I'homme, the man P/id*NMi MUb The body Gfrmn der Korper PronuwUUoa dair korper supper das Abend- fa rod dos abent- brote the skin the face die Haut das Gesicht dee hout dos gesic/t boiled meat gekochtes Fleisch gekochtes flishe the head der Kopf dair kopf roast meat Braten brahten the forehead die Stirn dee steern beef Rindsfleisch rinds flishe the tongue the tooth die Zunge der Zahn dee tsoong-ay dair zaan roast-beef veal Rinderbraten Kalbfleisch rinderbrahten kalbflishe the arm the beard the blood der Arm der Bart das Blut dair arm dair bait dos bloot calves-liver veal-cutlets Kalbsleber Kalbscotelet- ten kalbs-layber kalbs-cottelet- ten the bosom the breast / j*lt *A.\ der Busen die Brust dair boosen dee broost mutton a leg of mut- Hammelfleisch hamelflishe eine Hammels- inay hamels- (.chest/ ton keule koylay the eye the ear das Auge das Ohr dos owgay dos ore pork Schweine- fleisch wj ./ shvinayflishe the chin das Kinn dos kin ham Schinken shinken the eyebrows die Augen- dee owgen- bacon Speck speck the elbows the fist the finger the flesh brauen der Elbogen die Faust der Finger das Fleisch browen dair elbogen dee fowst dair fing-er dos flysh a sausage vegetables a pie an omelet eine Wurst Gemiise eine Pastete eine Eier- kuchen inay voorst gemwsay inay pastatay inay eyer- koocAen the foot der Fuss dair foos cake Kuchen koocAen the hair the hand das Haar die Hand dos har dee hont cheese der Kase Kipr casay <*vpr the right die rechte dee rechtay eggs Hock J_1C1 Rheinwein cjrci rhinevine hand the left Hand die linke hont dee linkay Port-wine Sherry Portwein Xereswein port vine kseressvine hand Hand hont the beer das Bier dos beer the heart the hip the knee the lip the under- das Herz die Hufte das Knie die Lippe die Unter- dos hairtz dee hwfte dos k'nee dee lippay dee oonterlip- the glass the flask the bread fresh bread the butter das Glas die Flasche das Brod frisches Brod die Butter dos glahs dee flashay dos brote frishes brote dee bootter lip the upper- I'.r. lippe die Ober- pay dee oberlip- fresh butter the honey frische Butter der Honig frishay bootter dair honizh . lip the neck the nose lippe der Nacken die Nase pay dair nacken dee nazay the milk the butter- milk die Milch die Butter- milch dee milch dee bootter- milc/i the mouth der Mund dair moont lit 11 IV tVio nil das Oel dos o\ the stomach the voice the hearing the sight the taste the feeling the smell the neck the back the leg der Magen die Stimme das Gehor der Sicht der Geschmack das Gefiihl der Geruch der Hals der Rticken das Bein dair mahgen dee stimmay dos gehor dair slcht dair geshmack dos gefwhl dair gcrooch dair hals dair rucken dos bine lll\_ vMl the fish the punch the water the salt the pepper the salad the soup the pudding the coffee the tea der Fisch der Punsch das Wasser das Salz der Pfeffer der Salat die Suppe der Pudding der Kaffee der Thee dair fish dair poonch dos vosser dos saltz dair pfeffer dair salat dee sooppay dair poodding dair kaffay dair tay the chocolate die Chokolade dee chocolah- NUTRIMENTS day The meal die Mahlzeit dee mahl-tsite the lemonade die Limonade dee Hmonahday breakfast das Friihstuck dos fru-stuck dinner das Mittag- dos mittahg- EATING UTENSILS essen essen The eating das Essen dos essen the refresh- die Erfrisch- dee erfrisch- the drinking das Trinken dos trinken ment um? oong the tablecloth das Tischtuch dos tischtoor/i GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 103 English German Pronunciation English German Pronunciation the napkin die Serviette dee serviettay the stick der Stock dair stohck the plate der Teller dair teller the cravat die Cravatte dee cravatay the knife das Messer dos messer the cap die Kappe dee kappay the fork die Gabel dee gahbel the ring der Ring dair ring the spoon der Loffel dair iMffel the vinegar der Essig dair essizh RELATIONS the mustard der Senf dair zenf the cup die Tasse dee tassay The woman die Frau dee frow the dish die Schiissel dee shwssel the boy der Knabe dair knahbay the girl das Madchen dos made/ten THE DRESS the child das Kind dos kint The clothes the coat the trousers die Kleider dee klider der Rock dair rohck die Hosen dee hozen the old man the parents the father- der Greis dair grice die Eltern dee eltern der Schwieger-dair shveegayr- the pocket the buttons die Tasche dee tashay die Knopfe dee knopfay in-law the mother- vater fater die Schwieger- dee schvee- the dressing- gown der Schlafrock dair shla frock in-law the brother- mutter gayrmootter der Schwager dair shvahger *he slippers the drawers die Pantoffeln dee pantofeln die Unterhosendee oonter- hosen in-law the cousin the marriage der Vetter dair fetter die Heirath dee hi-raht the stockings the shirt the braces die Strtimpfe dee strwmpfay das Hemd dos hemt die Hosen- dee hozen- the wedding the father the grand- die Hochzeit dee hohc/ttzite der Vater dair fater der Grossvater dair grosfater the waistcoat the boot trager trayger die Weste dee ves,tay der Stiefel dair steefel father the stepfather the fatherland der Stiefvater dair steeffater das Vaterland dos faterlont the boot jack der Stiefel- dair steefel- knecht knecht the mother the brother die Mutter dee mootter der Bruder dair brooder the cap the gloves die Miitze dee mwtzay die Hand- dee hont- schuhe shooay the sister the uncle the aunt die Schwester dee shvester der Onkel dair onkel die Tante dee tantay the handker- chief das Taschen- dos tashen- tuch tooch the nephew the niece der Neffe dair neffay die Nichte dee nic&tay the watch die Uhr dee oor the man der Mann dair mon the umbrella der Regen- dair raygen- schirm sheerm the bride the widow die Braut dee browt die Wittwe dee vitvay the purse the brush the comb die Borse dee borsay die Biirste dee bwrstay der Kamm dair komm the widower the guest the neighbor der.Wittwer dair vitver der Gast dair gast der Nachbar dair nac/tbar the apron die Schiirze dee shrtzay the friend der Freund der froint the fan der Facher dair fac/rer the dress das Kleid dos klide TOWN AND COUNTRY, HOUSE AND the petticoat der Unterrock dair oonter- GARDEN rohck The house das Haus dos house the stays der Schniirleib dair shnrlibe the garden der Garten dair garten the veil der Schleier dair shlier the land das Land dos lont the powder der Puder dair pooder the market der Markt dair markt the soap die Seife dee zifay the street die Strasse dee strassay the tooth- das Zahnpulverdos tzonpool- the church die Kirche dee keerc/iay powder ver the bank die Bank dee bahnk the jacket die Jacke dee yackay the theatre das Theater, dos tayahter the shoe der Schuh dair shoe the hospital das Hospital dos hospital the hat der Hut dair hoot the coffee- das Kaffee- dos kaffay- the hairbrush die Haarburste dee hahrtwrs- house haus house tay the palace der Palast dair palast the frock der Frack dair frak the haven der Hafen dair hafen (coat) (harbor) the wool die Wolle dee vollay the door dieThiir deetwr 104 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT Knglkh Gnn*n Pronunciation Eoglbh 6>rmu Proonnclcltoa the bed das Bett dos bet the weaver der Weber dair vayber the mattress die Matratze dee matratzay the king der Konig dair konizh the oven der Of en dair ofen the prince der Prinz dair prints the beerglass das Bierglas dos beerglahs the baron der Baron dair baron the wineglass das Weinglas dos vineglahs the officer der Officier dair offitseer the stool der Stuhl dair stool the soldier der Soldat dair soldat (chair) the pope der Papst dair papst the field das Feld dos felt the archbishop der Erzbischof dair ertzbishoff the dale das Thai dos tahl the bishop der Bischof dair bishoff (valley) the wood derWald dair vahlt THE QUADRUPEDS (forest) The hound der Hund dair hoont the bush der Busch dair boosh (dog) the heath die Haide dee hiday the cat die Katze dee katzay the hill der Hugel dair liMgel the rat die Ratte dee rattay the corn das Korn dos korn the mouse die Maus dee mouse the straw das Stroh dos shtro the swine das Schwein dos shvine (pig) THE PROFESSIONS AND TRADE the hare der Hase dair hahzay The baker der Backer dair becker the roe das Reh dos ray the bookbinder der Buch- dair booc/tbin- the ox der Ochse dair ocksay binder der the bull der Bulle dair boollay the book das Buch dos booch the cow die Kuh dee koo the doctor der Doktor dair doktohr the calf das Kalb dos kalb the hat der Hut dair hoot the sheep das Schaf dos shaf the hatter der Hut- dair hoot- the lamb das Lamm dos lorn macher mahc/ter the fox der Fuchs dair fooks the shoe der Schuh dair shoe the wolf der Wolf dair volf the shoemaker der Schuh- dair shoe- the bear der Bar dair bear macher mahcher the elephant der Elephant dair elefahnt the beard der Bart dair bart the camel das Kameel dos camale the barber der Barbier dair barbeer the horse das Pferd dos pfayrd the glass das Glas dos glahs the colt das Fullen dos feeyullen the glazier der Glaser dair glahser the donkey der Esel dair aysel the nail der Nagel dair nahgel the goat die Ziege dee tzeegay the saddle der Sattel dair sattel the dog der Hund dair hoont the saddler der Sattler dair sattler the pig das Schwein dos shvine the mill die Miihle. dee mwlay the miller der Muller dair muller BIRDS, FISHES, AND INSECTS the master der Meister dair miceter The swan der Schwan dair shvahn dancing tanzen tantzen the falcon der Falke dair folkay the dancing- der Tanz- dair tantz- the goose die Cans dee gans master meister miceter the stork der Storch dair starch the post die Post dee post the snipe die Schnepfe dee shnepfay the post- der Post- dair post- the raven der Rabe dair rahbay master meister miceter the lark die Lerche dee lerc/ray the riding- der Reitmeis- dair ritemice- the nightingale die Nachtigal dee nac/itigal master ter ter the cuckoo der Kuckuck dair kookook the school die Schule dee shoolay the swallow die Schwalbe dee shvolbay the school- der Schul- dair shool- the finch der Finke dair finkay master meister miceter the sparrow der Sperling dair Sperling the smith der Schmid dair shmit the fish der Fisch dair fish the smithy die Schmiede dee shmeeday the carp der Karpfen dair carpfen the nail smith der Nagel - dair nagel- the herring der Hering dair hering (nailmaker) schmid shmit the eel der Aal dair ahl the goldsmith der Gold- dair goltshmit the frog der Frosch dair frosh schmid the worm der Wurm dair voorm the copper- der Kupfer- dair koopfer- the spider die Spinne dee spinnay smith schnaid shmdt the oyster lie Auster dee Owster GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 105 English German Pronunciation English German Pronunciation the crab der Krebs dair kreps the bronze die Bronze dee brontsay the flea der Floh dair flo the diamond der Diamant dair deeamont the fly die Fliege dee fleegay the pearl die Perle dee pairlay the bee die Biene dee beenay the coral die Koralle dee corallay the wasp die Wespe dee vespay the marble der Marmor dair marrnor the snail die Schnecke dee shneckay the gypsum der Gyps dair gips the duck die Ente dee entay the lime (clay) der Lehm dair lame the pigeon die Taube dee towbay the chalk der Kalk dair calk the cock der Hahn dair hahn the coal die Kohle die coalay the chicken das Hiihnchen dos hunchen the earth die Erde dee airday the eagle der Adler dair ahdler the sand der Sand dair sont the hawk der Habicht dair habicht the stone der Stein dair stine the pheasant der Fasan dair fahsan the bat die Fleder- dee flayder- SHIPS AND SHIPPING maus mouse The ship das Schiff dos shiff the partridge das Rebhuhn dos rebhoon the boat das Boot dos boat the peacock der Pfau dair pfow the ship of das Linien- dos leenee- the lobster der Hummer dair hoommer the line schiff enshiff the pike der Hecht dair hec/tt the fisherboat das Fischer- dos fisherboat the perch der Barsch dair barsh boot the salmon der Lachs dair locks the anchor der Anker dair onker the trout die Forelle dee forellay the deck das Deck dos deck the snake die Schlange dee shlongay the flag die Flagge dee flaggay the ant die Ameise dee ah-my-say the mast der Mast dair mast the butterfly der Schmetter- dair shmetter- the foremast der Vorder- dair forder- Kng ling mast mast the sail das Segel dos saygel TRAVELLING the strand der Strand dair strant The voyage die Seereise dee zayreyzay the rudder das Ruder dos rooder the traveller der Reisende dair reyzenday the net das Netz dos netz the road die Land- dee lontstras- the lading die Ladung dee ladung strasse say (freight) the railroad die Eisenbahn dee isenbahn the freight die Fracht dee iracht the station die Station dee statzione the cliff die Klippe dee klippay the train der Zug dair tzoog the downs die Dunen dee dwnen the engine 'die Maschine dee masheenay the haven derHafen dairhafen the carriage der Wagen dair vahgen the ground der Grund dair groont the departure die Abreise dee ah-bry-say the storm der Sturm dair stoorm the arrival die Ankunft dee onkoonft the fleet die Flotte dee flottay the passport der Pass dair pass the frigate die Fregatte dee fregatay the inn (hotel) der Gasthof dair gasthof the landlord der Wirth dair veert OF WRITING the waiter der Kellner dair kelner The paper das Papier dos papeer the bill die Rechnung dee recAnoong the writing- das Schreib- dos shribe- the interpreter der Dolmet- dair dolmet- paper papier papeer scher sher the writing die Schrift dee shrift the luggage das Gepack dos gepeck the sheet der Bogen dair bogen the trunk der Koffer dair coffer the pen die Feder dee fayder the carpet-bag derReisesack dair rey-zay- the steel pen die Stahl- dee stahlfay- sock feder der the penknife das Federmes- dos faydermes-^ MINERALS AND METALS, ETC. ser ser The gold das Gold dos golt the inkstand das tintenfass dos tintenfoss the silver das Silber dos silber the ink die Tinte deetintay the copper das Kupfer dos koopfer the pencil der Bleistift dair blystift the iron das Eisen dos izen the scissors die Scheere dee shayray the tin das Zinn dos tstnn the seal das Petschaft dos petshaft the steel der Stahl dair stahl the sealing- der Siegellack dair seegellack the zinc das Zink dos tsink wax 106 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT Koclbh Utrmtn PromuDcUllou Englbh Otmao ProouorUUon the wafer die Oblate dee oblahtay spring Fruhling fowling the ruler das Lineal dos leenayal summer Sommer sommer the letter der Brief dair breef autumn Herbst hairbst the note das Billet dos bilyet winter Winter vinter the envelope das Couvert dos coovayrt January Januar yanooar the date das Datum dos datoom February Februar febrooar the direction die Adress* dee adressay March Marz marts April April apreel THE SEA May Mai my The Ocean der Ocean dair oatsayan June Juni yoonee the Baltic die Ostsee dee ostsay July Juli yoolee the North-Sea die Nordsee dee nordsay August August owgoost the channel der Kanal dair canal September September September the island die Insel dee insel October October October the shore die Kiiste dee kwstay November November november the waves die Wellen dee vellen December December detzember the tide die Fluth dee floot the days of die Wochen- dee vocAentah- the rock der Pels dair fels the week tage gay the beach die Seekuste dee saykMStay Sunday Sonntag sontahg the navy die Marine dee mareenay Monday Montag monetahg the vessel das Schiff dos shiff Tuesday Dienstag deenstahg the steamer das Dampf- dos dampf- Wednesday Mittwoch mittvocA boot boat Thursday Donnerstag donnerstahg the man-of- das Kriegs- dos kreegs- Friday Freitag fritahg war schiff shiff Saturday Sonnabend sonabent the merchant der Kauffah- dair kowffah- a holiday ein Feiertag ine firetahg vessel rer rer Christmas Weihnachten vine-ahc/ten the rudder das Ruder dos rooder Easter Ostern ostern the rigging das Takel- dos tackle- Whitsuntide Pfingsten p'fingsten werk verk the morning der Morgen dair morgen the cabin die Kajute dee ka-ywtay noon Mittag mittahg the stern das Hintertheildos hintertile the afternoon der Nachmit- dair nachmit- the bow der Bug dair boog tag tahg the maintop der Mastkorb dair mastkorb the evening der Abend dair ahbent the oar das Ruder dos rooder the night die Nacht dee nacAt the rope das Tau dos tow midnight Mitternacht mitternacAt the captain der Kapitan dair capitan sunrise Sonnenauf- sonnenowf- the boatswain der Boots- dair boatsmon gang gong mann sunset Sonnenun- sonnenoonter- the sailor der Matrose dair matrosay tergang gong the cabin- der Schiffs- dair schiffs- boy junge yungay THE TOWN the pilot der Lootse dair loatsay The city die Stadt dee stott the light- der Leucht- dair loycht- the suburb die Vorstadt dee forstott house thurm toorm the gates die Thore dee toray the harbor der Ha fen dair hafen the edifice das Gebaude dos geboiday the tower der Thurm dair toorm TIME AND SEASONS the cathedral der Dom dair dome A century ein Jahrhun- ine yar-hoon- the church- der Kirchhof dair keerchhof dert dert yard the year das Jahr dos yar the town hall das Rathhaus dos rahthouse the month der Monat dair nvonot the arsenal das Zeughaus dos zoyghouse the week die Woche dee voch&y the mint die Miinze dee mwntzay the day der Tag dair tahg the custom- das Zollhaus dos zollhouse the hour die Stunde dee stoonday house the minute die Minute dee minutay the library die Bibliothek dee bibleeotake the second die Sekunde dee secoonday the university die Universitat dee ooniversi- the seasons die Jahres- dee yaresziten tate zeiten the exchange die Borse dee borsay GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 107 English German Pronunciation FRUITS, TREES, AND FLOWERS the prison das Gefangnissdosgcfang-niss English . German Pronunciation the square der Platz dair platz the apple der Apfel dair opfel the lane die Gasse deegassay the apple-tree der Apfelbaum dair opfelbown the bridge die Briicke dee brwckay the pear die Birne dee beernay the monument das Monument dos monoo- the pear-tree der Birnbaum dairbeern- ment bowm the Mining- das Speisehaus dos spysay- the plum die Pflaume dee pflowmay room house the plum-tree der Pflaumen- dair pflowmen- the shop der Laden dair lahden baum bowm the cherry die Kirsche dee keershay THE HOUSE the chestnut die Kastanie dee kostonee The bell die Glocke dee glockay the peach der Pnrsich dair pfeersic/z the knocker to open der Klopf er dair klopfer offnen ofnen the apricot die Apricose dee apreecosay the orange die Apfelsine dee apfelseenay the servant the staircase die Magd dee magt die Treppe dee treppay the lemon die Citrone dee citronay the grape die Wein- dee vine-trow- the room das Zimmer dos tzimmer traube bay the drawing- room das Putzzim- dos pootstzim- mer mer the nut die Nuss dee nooss the walnut die Wallnuss dee volnooss the sitting- room das Wohnzim- dos vohntzim- mer mer the currant die Johannis- dee yohanis- beere bayray the dining- das Esszim- dos ess-tzim- the gooseberry die Stachel- dee stachel- room mer mer beere bayray the sleeping- room das Schlafzim- dos shlaftzim- mer mer the raspberry die Himbeere dee himbayray the blackberry die Brombeere dee brombay- the kitchen die Kuche dee kuchay ray the cellar der Keller dair keeler the strawberry die Erdbeere dee erdbayray the window das Fenster dos fenster the oak die Eiche dee i-chay the stove derOfen dairohfen the beech die Buche dee boochay the chimney der Kamin dair kameen the poplar die Pappel dee pohpel the looking- glass der Spiegel dair speegel the lime die Linde dee linday the ash die Eshe dee eshay the table der Tisch dair tish the fir die Tanne dee tannay the chair der Stuhl dair stool the willow die Weide dee vy-day the armchair der Armstuhl dair armstool the rose die Rose dee roh-say the carpet the chest of der Teppich dair teppicA die Kommode dee commoh- the pink die Nelke dee nelkay the tulip die Tulpe dee toolpay drawers day the lily die Lilie dee leeleeay the sofa der Sopha dair sofa the violet das Veilchen dos filecAen the candlestick der Leuchter dair loyc&ter the lilac der Flieder dair fleeder the candle das Licht dos lic/tt the lily of the das Maiblum- dos my-blttm- the lamp die Lampe dee lompay valley chen chen the wick der Docht dair docht the oil das Oel dos 01 COUNTRIES AND NATIONS to light anziinden anzwnden The country das Land dos lont the bed das Bett dos bet the native land das Vaterland dos faterlont the counter- die Bettdecke dee bettdeckay the state der Staat dair staat pane the empire das Reich dos riche the sheets die Bettucher dee bettwr her the kingdom das Konigreichdos keunizh- the pillow das kopfkissen dos kopfkissen riche the basin das wasch- dos vashbecken Europe Europa Oyropa becken the European der Europaer dair Oyropayer the soap die Seife dee si fay America Amerika America the towel PLURAL Masc. Fern. Neuter M. F. N. N. der die das die, the G. des der des der, of the D. dem der dem den, to, for, at the A. den die das die, the The indefinite article, as in French, is simply the numeral, "one," inflected through genders and cases, but without a plural. Thus: Masc. Fern. N. ein eine G. eines einer D. einem einer A. einen eine Neuter ein, a eines, of a einem, to, for, at a ein, a The student will notice that the neuter form of both articles is the same as the masculine in the genitive and dative cases, but has its accusative like its nominative. This peculiarity characterizes the declension of all neuter adjectives and nouns, as will be seen later. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES After the inflection of the articles, that of the possessive and demonstrative adjectives (sometimes called pronominal -adjectives) follows logically. Among these, mein, meine, mein, my ; dein, deine, dein, thy; sein, seine, sein, his; kein, keine, kein, no; follow exactly the declension of the indefi- nite article. Precisely on the same model follow the other possessives : unser, unsere, unser, our; Ihr, Ihre, Ihr, your; euer, euere, euer, your; ihr, ihre, ihr, her, their. This declension is as follows : Masc. . Fern. Neut. Plur. N. unser unsere unser unsere G. unseres unserer unseres unserer D. unserem unserer unserem unseren A. unseren . unsere unser unsere 112 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT The demonstrative and determinative ad- jectives, dicser, diese, dieses, this; jener, jene, jenes, that; keiner, keine, keincs, no; mancher, manche, manches, many a; jeder, jede, jedes, every, each, are declined according to this model: Masc. Fern. Neut. Plur. N. dicser diese dieses diese G. dieses dieser dieses dieser D. diesetn dieser diesem diesen A. diesen diese dieses diese Since none of these adjectives is used with an article, their case terminations are always the same. With the adjective, solcher, sole he, solches, such, however, the case endings are like the above model, when used without ein; like all other adjectives after ein, as will be subsequently explained. When solch is used before ein, as in "such a house," solch ein Haus, case endings are omitted. Two adjectives have a plural form only, like the above paradigm. They are beide, both, and alle, all. THE DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS In the matter of inflection in the oblique cases and in the formation of the plural, nouns present very many variations and sev- eral great departures from regular construc- tions. The subject seems complicated at first sight, but a very little attention to the following classes of declension will give the student a ready clew to proper usage. There are several schemes of classification in use among grammarians such as the division into "strong" and "weak" declensions, after the analogy of adjectives but altogether the least confusing classification is to separate the five classes or declensions, as follows: THE FIRST CLASS on DECLENSION includes all masculine and neuter nouns ending in el, en, er, chen, and lein. With these the terminations are the same in the plural except in the dative, which takes n, when it is not found already in the nominative of nouns in en and very many, although not all, modify the leading vowel, when possible. The regular ending for the genitive singu- lar is s. A few samples are as follows: Sing. N. der Voter G. des Voters D. dem Voter A. den Voter FATHER (M) Plur. N. die Voter G. der Voter D. den V Stern A. die Voter Sing. N. der Adler G. des Adler s D. dem Adler A. den Adler EAGLE (M) Plnr. N. die Adler G. der Adler D. den Adler* A. die Adler APPLE (M) Sing. Plur. N. der Apfel N. die Aepfel G. des Apfels G. der Aepfel D. dem Apfel D. den Aepfeln A. den Apfel A, die Aepfel GIRL (N) Sing. Plor. N. das Mddchen N. die Mddchen G. des Mddchens G. der Mddchen D. dem Mddchen D. den Mddchen A. das Mddchen A. die Mddchen Among the nouns that do not modify in the plural we may mention : Adler, eagle; Kuchen, cake; Maler, painter; Tropfen, drop; Amerikaner, American. Several nouns in en that do not modify in the plural are more generally used m the singular with the termination e. They are: Samen, seed; Glauben, faith; Funken, spark ; Haufen, heap ; Gedanken, thought ; Frieden, peace ; Willen, will ; Namen, name. Felsen, rock, is often simply Pels. Seven nouns of this class depart from the regular rule by adding n in the plural, without modifying the vowel. They are: Bauer, peasant ; Baier, Bavarian ; Gevatter, godfather; Muskel, muscle; Panto ff el, slipper; Stachel, sting; Vetter, cousin. THE SECOND CLASS OR DECLENSION of nouns includes : (i.) All one-syllable masculine nouns, ex- cept the seven mentioned in the third de- clension, and a few following the fourth declension; (2.) All masculine nouns ending in at, ich, ig, and ling; (3.) Most masculine nouns of foreign ori- gin ending in al, an, ar, ast, ier; (4.) One-syllable masculine nouns com- pounded with a prepositional prefix, or with another noun. All such nouns take the ending e in the nominative, genitive, and accusative plural, en in the dative plural, and, with few ex- ceptions, modify the vowel. GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 113 The genitive singular is regularly formed with the ending s or es, and the dative with e. A few exceptions in these cases will also be noted. A few nouns regularly inflected accord- ing to this declension are as follows: SON TREASURE KING PALACE Singular N. der Sohn Schats Konig Palast G. des Sohnes Schatzes Konigs Palastes D. dem Sohne Schatze Konig Palast A. den Sohn Schats Konig Palast Plural N. die Sohne Schatze Konige Palaste G. der Sohne Schatze Konige Palaste D. den Sohnen Sch'dtzen Kdnigen Paldsten A. die Sohne Schatze Konige Paldsten The use of s or of es in the genitive sin- gular is largely determined by euphony, as is also that of e in the dative. As shown by the last two nouns in the above para- digms, the final e in the dative singular is often omitted. Eleven one-syllable masculine nouns form their oblique cases and plurals by the addition of en, without modifying the vowel, as in the third declension. They represent either words formerly ending with e, or else simple irregularities due to usage. Thus : Singular der Bar, the bear; Fleck, the spot; Fiirst, the prince; 1 Graf, the count; " Held, the hero; ' Herr, the lord; Mensch, the man; [ Narr, the fool ; Pfau, the peacock; ' Prins, the prince; " Thor, the simpleton; Plural die Baren ' Flecken " Fursten " Graf en " Helden 1 Herren " Menschen ' Narren " Pfauen Prinzen " Thoren The word, Herr, forms the singular oblique cases Herrn, and the plural, Herren. Six words of this declension take en in the plural cases and do not modify. They are: Der Staat, the state ; der Strahl, the beam ; der Schmerz, the pain; der Sporn, the spur; der Dorn, the thorn; der See, the lake. Several nouns that logically belong in this class form their plural with final er and vowel modification, after the rule of the fourth declension. Thus: MAN (M) ERROR (M) SPIRIT (M) Singular N. der Mann der Irrtum der Geist G. des Mannes des Irrtums des Geistes D. dem Manne dem Irrtum dem Geiste A. den Mann den Irrtum den Gfist Plural N. die Manner die Irrtiimer die Geister G. der Manner der Irrtiimer der Geister D. den Mdnnern den Irrtiimern den Geister n A. die Manner die Irrtiimer die Geister THE THIRD CLASS OR DECLENSION of nouns includes : (l.) All masculine nouns ending in e; (2.) The few monosyllabic nouns already noted ; (3.) Masculine nouns of foreign origin other than those noted in the last class which take the accent on the last syllable; (4.) Several irregular nouns not accented on the last syllable, but forming their plurals as in this class. This class is sometimes called the "weak declension" from the fact that all cases, except the nominative singular, regularly take final n or en. The root vowels are not modified in the plural. Thus : BOY SOLDIER STUDENT Singular N. der Knabe der Student' j er Soldat G. des Knaben des Student en des Soldaten D. dem Knaben dem Student' en dem Soldaten A. den Knaben den Student' en den Soldaten Plural N. die Knaben die Student' en die Soldaten G. der Knaben der Student' en der Soldaten D. den Knaben den Student' en den Soldaten A. die Knaben die Student' en die Soldaten Several one-syllable masculine nouns, as given under the second declension, are in- flected like nouns of this class. Several others, as given under the first declension, have the nominative singular either in e or en, and apparently follow this class in add- ing n to all other cases, except the genitive singular, which has ns. Seven nouns prop- erly in the first declension, according to the termination of the nominative singular take n in the plural cases, as already noted. Words of Latin origin ending in or form the plural by adding en. Also, der Nachbar, the neighbor, takes n in the plural cases, although forming the singular like nouns of the first declension. Finally, some neuter 114 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT nouns, properly belonging in the fourth de- out modifying. Those ending in the femi- clension, form their plurals in n. nine termination in add nen to form the Specimen paradigms of several of these plurals. Thus : exceptions are as follows: HANI) (F) FEATHEE (?) QUEEN (p) NAME (M) DOCTOR (if) EYE (N) Singular Singular N. der Name der Doctor das Auge G.desNamens des Doctors des Auges D. dem Namen dem Doctor dent Auge A., den N amen den Doctor das Auge N. die Hand die Feder die Kdnigin G. der Hand der Feder der -Konigin D. der Hand der Feder der Kdnigin A. die Hand die Feder die Kdnigin Plural Plural N. die Namen die Doctoren die Augen G. der Namen der Doctoren der Augen D. den Namen den Doctoren den Augen A. die Namen die Doctoren die Augen N. die Hande die Federn die Kdniginnen G. der Hande der Federn der Kdniginnen D. den Hdnden den Federn den Kdniginnen A. die Hande die Federn die Kdniginnen The exceptions in this declension must THE FOURTH CLASS OR DECLENSION of be carefully noted, and, as far as possible, nouns includes: committed to memory. Thus : (i.) All neuter nouns not found in the first class ; (i.) All feminine nouns ending in niss (2.) A few masculine nouns, as already and one in sal take e in the plural. explained under the second declension. Die Kenntniss, knowledge; die Kenntnisse. The regular inflection of this class gives Die Trubsal, sorrow; die Triibsale. es in the genitive and e in the dative sin- gular. (2.) Two common feminine nouns ending All nouns take n in the dative plural, but in er follow the rule given under the first the one-syllable nouns form the other plural declension. They merely modify the root cases in er r and the remainder in e. The vowel in the plural cases and add en for the root vowel is regularly modified. Thus-: dative. They are: SONG (N) BOOK (N) GUN (N) Die Mutter, the mother; die Mutter, den Singular Miittern. N. das Lied das Buck das Gewehr Die Tochter, the daughter; die Tdchter, den G. des Liedes des Buches des Gewehres Tdchtern. D. dem Liede dem Buche dem Gewehre A. das Lied das Buck das Gewehr They are regular in the singular. Plural (3.) Twenty-seven one-syllable feminine N. die Lieder die Biicher die Gewehre nouns form their plural in en, without modi- G. der Lieder der Biicher der Gewehre fying the root vowel. D. den Liedern den Biicher n den Gewehr en A. die Lieder die Biicher die Gewehre Die Art, the kind, die Schaar, the troop species die Schlacht, the Nouns of this declension ending in e in die Bahn, the road battle the nominative singular do not add another die Bucht, the bay die Schrift, the writr e for the plural. Thus: die Burg, the old ing Das Gebirge, the mountain; die Gebirge Das Gemalde, the picture; die Gemdlde castle die Schuld, the debt die Fahrt, the pas- die Spur, the trace, satr< track Das Gebdude, the building; die Gebdude ^I-^V- l*\-*^ die Flur, the field die That, the deed dieFluth, the flood die Tracht, the cos- THE FIFTH CLASS OR DECLENSION of nouns die Form, the form tume includes all feminine nouns. die Frau, the woman die Uhr, the watch, In the singular, these nouns are un- die Gluth, the blaze clock changed, having no case terminations. die Jagd, the chase die Wahl, the choice In the plural, monosyllabic nouns regu- die Last, the load die Welt, the world larly modify the root vowel and add e for die Pfticht, the duty die Zahl, the num- all cases except the dative, which takes die Post, the post ber, figure en. Nouns of more than one syllable die Qual, the tor- die Zeit, the time regularly form the plural in n or en, with- ment, pang GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 115 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES There are three declensions of adjectives; that is to say, every adjective may be declined in three ways, according to (i) whether it is unqualified by an article or demonstrative; (2) whether it is preceded by the indefinite article; or (3) whether it is preceded by the definite article. These three considerations alone act to modify the case endings. In the first state, the adjective takes the strong declension, with the sole exception of the genitive singular masculine and neu- ter, where, for the sake of euphony solely, es is changed to en. In the second state, which involves the use of the mixed declension, the adjective is pre- ceded in the singular by the indefinite ar- ticle, or in either number by one of the eight adjectives inflected like it, as already given. In the nominative and accusative singular of this declension the three genders take the forms already given in the inflec- tion of dieser. In the genitive and dative singular all genders take the termination en, In the plural all three genders take en final in every case. In the third state, which is known as the weak declension, the adjective is preceded by the definite article, or by dieser, jener, jeder, mancher, welcher. Then, because the gender is definitely indicated, it follows the rule of the third declension of nouns, having the final e in the nominative singular of all persons, and final en in all other cases, sin- gular and plural, except the accusative singular feminine and neuter, which take final e. These rules may be understood from the following paradigms: Masculine N. armer Mann G. armen Mannes D. armem Manne A. armen Mann Masculine N. dein guter Voter G. deines guten Voter D. deinem guten Voter A. deinen guten Voter Masculine N. der brave Mann G. des braven Mannes D. dem braven Manne A. den braven Mann STRONG DECLENSION Feminine Neuter schSne Frau gutes Kind schoner Frau guten Kindes schoner Frau gutem Kinde schone Frau gutes Kind MIXED DECLENSION Feminine Neuter deine schone Mutter deiner schonen Mutter deiner schonen "Mutter deine schone Mutter dein kleines Kind deines kleinen Kind deinem kleinen Kind dein kleines Kind WEAK DECLENSION Feminine Neuter die siisse Dame der sussen Dame der sussen Dame die siisse Dame das Hebe Kind des lieben Kind dem lieben Kind das liebe Kind Plural arme Leute armor Leute armen Leuten arme Leute Plural deine lieben Verwandter deinen lieben Verwandter deiner lieben Vertvandtern deine lieben Verwandter Plural die guten Eltern der guten Eltern den guten Eltern die guten Eltern Careful study of these paradigms will re- veal the fact that one end attained in the proper use of adjectives is to designate the gender of the noun. For this reason the strong declension has the full case endings, as in dieser and other demonstratives and relatives not to be preceded by an article. With ein, or with any one of the several adjectives declined like it, the proper desig- nation of gender is necessary in the nomi- native and accusative singular only; hence this order follows the "mixed declension." With the definite article, or with one of the several adjectives declined like it, no fur- ther designation of gender is required in the following adjective. As in the articles, definite and indefinite, and in the several adjectives declined like them, the determi- native adjective preceding the noun is the same in any given plural case for any gen- der in the noun. When two or more adjectives precede one noun, the same rules hold, the whole matter of terminations in each case be- ing decided by the definiteness or indefi- niteness of the article used or the absence of articles. Thus : guter, alter Johann ein guter, alter Mann der gute, alte Mann, etc. ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY In this connection it is necessary to add only a few remarks: (i.) When an adjective is used as a noun, or when a noun is evidently derived from an adjective, the rules regarding case 116 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT terminations after articles or demonstra- tives are always followed Thus: From fremd, "strange," we have der Fremde, but tin Fremder, "a stranger" ; from deutsch, "German," we have der Deutsche, but ein Deutscher; from gelthrt, "karned," we have der Gelehrte, but tin Gelehrter. Such words follow the rule of the weak or mixed declension, forming all the oblique cases by adding en. (2.) When an abstract neuter noun is formed from an adjective, the case termi- nations follow on the declension proper in its use as an adjective. Thus: das Gute, "the good" ; das Schone, "the beautiful"; das Wahre, "the true," etc. (3.) Any adjective-abstract-noun preceded by etwas, mehr, nichts, viel, wenig, takes endings according to the strong declension of adjectives. RULES FOR INFLECTION Adjectives ending in el regularly drop the e before the /, and sometimes the e (of the case ending) following the /. Thus: From edel, "noble," we have die edle Fran; or from eitel, "vain," die eitle Frau. In the oblique cases of the singular and in the plural, the e of the root may remain and the e of the ending be dropped. Thus: die edeln Frauen or die eiteln Frouen is the form occasionally found. Adjectives ending in er or en do not regu- larly drop the e of the root, but frequently drop that belonging to the case ending. Thus: ein bitterer Trank, but eines bittern Trankes. The adjective hoch, "high," gives its root as hoh when declined. Thus : das hohe Haus; ein hoher Berg; but das Haus ist hoch, and der Berg ist hoch. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES Adjectives are compared, as hi English, by the addition of r or er to the root for the comparative, and of st or est for the super- lative. The root vowel, if a, o, in, is regularly modified in the comparative and superla- tive degrees, although a number of adjec- tives do not follow this rule. Adjectives whose positive degree has a final e take only r in the comparative. The superlative of adjectives is regularly formed only by adding st to the root. The ending est is given mostly to those ending in three consonants or a sibilant (z, s, or sch). Gross, "great," however, merely adds t for the superlative. Adjectives ending in el drop the e of the root in the comparative, but not in the superlative. While the comparatives and superlatives of adjectives are regularly declined with case endings when in agreement with nouns, such endings are omitted when they are merely used as predicates. Thus: Der hohe Baum; der hoher e Bautn; der hochste Baum. But, diescr Baum ist hoher and jener Baum ist am hochsten. Most predicate superlatives use the form just given, as in am schonsten, "the hand- somest" ; am besten, "the best" ; am dltesten, "the oldest," etc. This form is sometimes used, aufs schonste; auf's beste. Among irregularities in comparison may be mentioned: gut, besser, am besten gross, grosser, am grossten hoch, hoher, am hochsten nahe, naher, am n'dchsten viel, mehr, am meisten viele, mehrere, am meisten Adjectives of two or more syllables and monosyllables ending in au never modify in the comparative and superlative degrees. The following one-syllable adjectives also never modify: Blass, pale morsch, brittle bunt, variegated nackt, naked fahl, fallow plait, flat falsch, false plump, clumsy froh, joyful roh, raw gerade, straight rund, round gesund, healthy sanft, gentle glatt, smooth satt, satisfied hohl, hollow schlaff, slack hold, kind schlank,s\ender kahl, bald Starr, numb karg, stingy stolz t proud klar, clear straff, stiff knapp, tight stumm, dumb lahm, lame toll, mad los, loose voll, full matt, wearied zahm, tame RELATIVE ADJECTIVES There are in German, as in English, a number of adjectives, known as "relative adjectives, " which involve, as predicates, either an oblique case of a noun or the in- finitive of a verb. Many of these words are not declined; others are ordinary ("ab- solute") adjectives used as predicates in certain idioms. Thus, we say in English, "I am not aware of it," and "I am not sure of it" (or "about it"). Such adjectives govern either the geni- tive or the dative case. GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 117 The following relative adjectives govern eleven, elf 100, hundert the genitive: twelve, zwolf 101, hundert und eins bedurftig, in want gewiss, certain of of kundig, acquainted beflissen, diligent in with befugt, authorized machtig, master of benothigt, in need of miide, tired of bewusst, conscious of schuldig, guilty of eingedenk, remember- theilhaft, partaker of ing verdachtig, suspected thirteen, dreizehn 102, hundert und zwei fourteen, vierzehn 200, zwei hundert fifteen, funfzehn 300, drei hundert sixteen, sechssehn 400, vier hundert seventeen, siebenzehn 500, funf hundert eighteen, achtzehn 600, sechs hundert nineteen, neunzehn 700, sieben hundert twenty, zwanzig 800, acht hundert 21, ein und zwanzig 900, neun hundert fdhig, capable of of froh, happy in verlustig, losing gewartig, in expecta- voll, full of tion of wurdig, worthy of 22, zwei und zwanzig 1000, tausend 23, drei und zwanzig 2000, zwei tausend 30, dreissig 3000, drei tausend 40, vierzig loooo, zehn tausend The following govern the dative: 50, funfzig a million, 60, sechszig eine Million dhnlich, resembling lastig, troublesome 70, siebenzig 1859, ein Tausend vngemessen, suited to lieb, dear, agreeable 80, achtzig acht Hundert neun angenehm, agreeable nachtheilig, hurtful 90, neunzig und funfzig anstdssig, offensive nahe, near bekannt, known nutzlich, useful ORDINAL NUMBERS bequem, convenient schddlich, injurious The first, der Erste the 2ist, der Ein und bewusst, known schuldig, indebted the 2d, der Zweite Zwanzigste dienlich, serviceable treu, true, faithful the 3d, der Dritte the 22d, der Zwei und eigen, own iiberlegen, superior the 4th, der Vierte Zwanzigste fremd, strange unvergesslich, ever the fifth, der Fiinfte the 23d, der Drei und freundlich, friendly memorable to the 6th, der Sechste Zwanzigste gegenwartig, present verdachtig, suspected the7th,derSiebente the 3oth, der Dreis- to by the 8th, der Achte sigste geldufig, fluent verderblich, destruc- the 9th, der Neunte the qoth, der Vier zigste gemdss, suited to tive to the roth, der Zehnte the soth, der Funf- geneigt, inclined verhasst, odious to the nth, der Elfte zigste gewogen, kind verwandt, related the I2th, der Zwolf te the 6oth, der Sechs- gewachsen, equal to vortheilhaft, advan- the I3th, der Drei- zigste gleich, like tageous zehnte the 7oth, der Sieben- gnddig, gracious widrig, loathsome the I4th, der Vier- zigste heilsam, salutary willkommen,-welcomz zehnte the Soth, der Achzigste hold, kind zugethan, addicted to the isth, der Funf- the 9Oth, der Neun- Among these adjectives commonly used relatively the following are never declined : zehnte zigste the 1 6th, der Sechs- the looth, der Hun- eingedenk, theilhaft, verlustig, gemdss, ge- neight, gewogen, gewachsen, gleich, zu- zehnte dertste the I7th, der Sieben- the loist, der Hun- zehnte dert und erste gethan. the i8th, der Acht- the 2Ooth, der Zwei" NUMERICAL ADJECTIVES zehnte hundertste Among cardinal numbers only one, two the igth, der Neun- the 3OOth, der Drei- and three are inflected, as will be explained Zehnte hundertste later. Others take the dative termination, the 2Oth, der Zwan- the loooth, der Tau- en, when used substantively. Ordinals, when, zigste sendste as in general, following the definite article, COLLECTIVE NUMBERS take case endings of the weak declension of adjectives. The numerals are as follows: A half, ein Halb two and a half, dritte- a third, ein Drittel halb CARDINAL NUMBERS a fourth, ein Viertel three and a half, One, ein, eins six, seeks a fifth, ein Funftel viertehalb two, zwei seven, sieben a sixth, etc., ein Seek- four and a half, three, drei eight, acht stel fiinftehalb four, vier nine, neun one and a half, aw- five and a half, etc., five, funf ten, zehn derthalb sechstehalb . 118 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT a pair, ein Poor a dozen, tin Dutzend a score, Zwanzig firstly, erstens secondly, sweitens thirdly, drittens the first time, das Erstemal the second time, das Zweitemal once, einmal twice, zweimal three times, dreimal all times, allemal every time, jedesmal singly, cinfach many times, manchmal double, doppelt threefold, dreifach fourfold, vierfach one sort, einerlei two sorts, zweierlei ten sorts, zehnerlei of all kinds, allerlei of many kinds, vie- lerlei of various kinds, mancherlei The numeral eins, "one," is declined: (i.) Like the indefinite article, when pre- ceded by no other declinable word. Thus: ein Mann, "one man"; eine Frau, "one woman"; ein Kind, "one child." (2.) Like dieser, when without a follow- ing noun, or when referring to some noun understood. Thus: einer von uns, "one of us"; eine meiner Schwestern, "one of my sisters." (3.) Like an adjective of the weak de- clension, when preceded by the definite ar- ticle. Thus : der eine Mann, "the one man" ; der eine gute Konig, "the one good king." (4.) Like an adjective of the strong de- clension when preceded by a possessive .ad- jective. Thus: meine eine Schwester, "my one sister"; dein eines Kind, "thy one child," etc. The numerals zwei and drei are declined when not preceded by an article or other declinable word. Thus: N. zwei G. sweier D. zweien A. zwei drei dreier dreien drei PRONOUNS The German pronouns are declined regu- larly, like articles and demonstrative and possessive adjectives, never changing their endings. There are five classes of pronouns: per- sonals; possessives, derived from posses- sive adjectives; demonstratives, from dem- onstrative adjectives; interrogatives and relatives. One point that will likely puzzle the be- ginner is that the third person singular for "she" is the same as that for "you," sin- gular or plural, and as that for "they," plural. It is well to remember, however, that the pronoun for "you" is always capi- talized, like a noun, and that the one for "she" is declined differently. PERSONAL PRONOUNS Singular ist Person ad Person du, thou deiner, of thee N. ich, I G. meiner, of me D. mir, to me A. mich, me dir, to thee dich, thee Singular 3d Person Fern. sie, she ihrer, of her Masc. N. er, he G. seiner, of him D. ihm, to him ihr, to her A. ihn, him sie, her Plural ist Person ad Person N. wir, we ihr, ye G. unser, of us euer, of you D. uns, to us euch, to you A. uns, us euch, you Sing, and Plur. ad Person Sie, you Ihrer, of you Ihnen, to you Sie, you Neut M,it seiner, of it ihm, to it es, it 3d Person sie, they ihrer, of them ihnen, to them sie, them In addition to these, we have the reflex- ive pronoun, sich, "self," only in the dative and accusative cases. The personal pronouns are used with proper case prepositions, when referring to persons, when inanimate objects are desig* nated the adverb do, "there," is prefixed to the preposition. Thus : Mit mir, with me; von dir, from thee; fur ihn, for him ; ohne Sie, without you ; damit, with it; daftir, for it; davon, from it, of it; darin, in it. In the last, it will be noticed that da becomes dar for sake of euphony. The pronoun, Ihr, "you," is used as the plural of du, in addressing several per- sons familiarly. Sie is used in formal discourse in addressing either one or sev- eral persons. The reflexive, sich, is used only with the third personal pronouns and with Sie, "you." With the first and second personal pronouns, the dative or accusative cases serve all uses of reflexives. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS The possessive pronouns, properly so called, are as follows: der, die, das meinige, or, meiner, meine, meine s, mine der, die, das deinige, or, dtiner, deint, deines, thine GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 119 der, die, das seinige, or, seiner, seine, seines, his, its der, die, das ihrige, or, ihrer, ihre, ihres, hers der, die, das unsrige, or, unserer, unsere t unseres, ours der, die, das eurige, or, euerer, euere, eueres, yours der, die, das Ihrige, or, Ihrer, Ihre, Ihres, yours der, die, das ihrige, or, ihrer, ihre, ihres, theirs DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS The demonstrative pronouns are merely the demonstrative adjectives dieser, "this," and jener, "that," used without nouns. It is common, also, to use dies, "this," and das, "that," in very indefinite pronominal sentences. Thus : Das ist ein Deutscher, "That is a German"; Dies ist mein Haus, "This is my house." INTERROGATIVES AND RELATIVES German interrogative and relative pro- nouns, as in English, are usually the same words. The two leading relatives are der, die, das, and welcher, welche, welches. They are used in very much the same kind of sentences, although the former is used much in the same way as the English rela- tive "that." They are .declined, as fol- lows, and it is necessary to note that the former differs from the definite article in the genitive singular and in the genitive and dative plural : Masc. N.dtr G. dessen D.dem A. den Masc. N. welcher G. -. D. welchem A. welchen Fem. die deren der die Fern. welche welcher welche Neut. das dessen dem das Neut. welches welchem welches Plur. die deren denen die Plur. welche welchen welche Although the genitives, singular and plural, of welcher are frequently given, the approved custom is to use the genitives of the relative der wherever required in a sentence. The relative, welcher, may be used as an adjective with a noun, after the fashion of the English "which"; as in "which thing he did." Two other relatives are frequently used; the first, wer, "who," most often as the English "he who," never, except in oblique cases, as a true relative in a consecutive clause; the second, was, "what," like the first, or like a true relative. The distinc- tion between the use of der and welcher and that of was is that the former relate most often to the noun in the principal clause, as with the English "which" and "that," while the latter relates to the clause as a whole, or to the idea expressed by it. It is often used, however, with such words as alles, "everything"; nichts, "nothing," etc., just as the other relatives aften nouns. Thus : Alles was nicht angebunden ist, ist los, "Everything that is not tied down is loose." Kaufe fa nichts was von keinen Ntitzen ist, "Never buy anything that is of no use." Wer and was are declined, as follows: Masc. and Fem. wer, who wessen, whose wem, to whom wen, whom Neuter was, what wessen, of what was, what The dative of wer and was is occasion- ally supplied by a prepositional compound of precisely the same class as are used in referring to things with personal pronouns. Among such compounds are worauf, wo- raus, wofiir, worin, womit, woruber, wovon, wozu; all combinations of the conjunction wo, rendered often war for euphony. RELATIVE CLAUSES In a relative clause, just as in one in- troduced by a so-called "subordinating con- junction," the verb comes last, and, if of a compound tense, the auxiliary is last Thus: Es giebt mane he Thieren, die nur einen Tag leben, "There are many animals that live only one day." Hier ist das Buch, das (or welches") Sie mir gebracht haben, "Here is the book that you brought me." The principal "subordinating conjunc- tions" are as follows : als, when, as auf doss, in order that bis, till da, as, since doss, that, in order that damit, in order that ehe, bevor, before falls, wofern, in case that indem, as, while ;V ( desto ) ,the ( the) nachdem, after ob, whether, if 'obgleich, obschon, although obwohl, although sett, seitdem, since sobald, as soon as so doss, so that so oft als, whenever um dass, in order that ungeachtet, notwith- standing 120 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT wdhrend, while wie, as, how utann, when weshalb, weswegen, warum, why wherefore wenn, if, when wieauch, however wenn auch, although wo, where weil, because The uses of wer and was are illustrated in the following sentences: Wer nicht horen will, muss fiihlen, "He who will not hear, must feel." Das, was er ers'dhlt hat, ist vollkommen wahr, "What he has related is perfectly true." The relatives, welcher, wer, and was, are also used as interrogatives, in about the same fashion as in English. The preposi- tional combinations are also used for the oblique cases of wer and was in asking questions. One notable idiom of the German lan- guage is formed with was. That is in ask- ing a question beginning "What kind of," which is rendered in German with was fiir. Thus: Was fur ein Mensch ist dies? "What sort of a person is this?" Occasionally was fiir is used where the English has merely "what" (sometimes "which") in an indefinite question. Thus, the above sentence may also mean, "What (or which) man is this?" This construction is also used in ex- clamations. Thus : Was fiir ein Mensch! "What a person!" THE VERB i The conjugation of the German verb is very simple and depends upon only a few general principles. It includes five moods the infinitive, indicative, subjunctive, con- ditional, imperative, also present and past participles. The indicative and subjunctive moods have each six tenses present, im- perfect, perfect, pluperfect, first future and second future (or future perfect). The conditional mood has two tenses the first and second, corresponding, respectively, to the English "I should (be)" and "I should have (been)." The infinitive has a pres- ent and a past, while the imperative, as in English, is altogether in the present. The present tense, as in English, is formed direct from the present infinitive, and the imperfect tense comes direct from it by the addition of the ending te or ete, as euphony may require. The perfect participle is formed by pre- fixing the syllable ge to the root or per- fect stem, and adding the ending t or en to the same. All other tenses, as in English, are formed by using, as auxiliaries, tenses of the verb, werden, "to become," for the fu- ture, "shall" and the conditional "should"; and tenses of the verbs, haben, "to have," or of sein, "to be," for the perfect, pluper- fect, and future perfect tenses. The imperfect, and often the present, of the subjunctive of auxiliary and strong verbs, with a, o, u, as root vowel is modi- fied. The verb, werden, is also used in form- ing the passive tenses, where we use the verb "to be." The verb, haben, is used regularly in forming the compound tenses of transitive verbs, while the verb, sein, is used with intransitive verbs. There are a number of variations, how- ever, subject to the following rules: Haben is used with (a) impersonal and reflexive verbs; (b), all the modal auxil- iaries, to be given later; (c) intransitive verbs followed by the genitive or dative or by the accusative with a preposition; (d) intransitive verbs denoting a perma- nent state or action without motion to or from, except sein, "to be," bleiben, "to stay," legen, "to lie," schlafen, "to sleep," schwimmen, "to swim," stehen, "to stand," wohnen, "to dwell"; (e) with verbs de- noting actions -or states that impress the five senses, i.e. do things that are heard, seen, smelt, tasted, felt, with weinen, "to weep," and a few others. Sein is used (a) with its own compound tenses, as ich bin gewesen, "I have been"; (b) with verbs expressing motion to or from a place, or transition to or from a state ; (c) with most such verbs having the prefixes er and ver. In addition to the three auxiliaries of tense, which are regularly used in forming the compound tenses, there are six aux- iliaries of mood, not necessarily used in the conjugation of any verb, and expressing the ideas of the English verbs, "can," "may," "must," "ought," "will" (intend), and "let" (permit). They are konnen, mogen, miissen, sollen, wollen, diirfen. In addition we have the verb, lassen, "to let (do), to have (a thing) done," which is generally called the "causative auxiliary." While the English equivalents given to these words are correct for general use, special expressions can be learned only from idiomatic sentences, such as will be given later. GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 121 THE AUXILIARIES OF TENSE THE AUXILIARY "HABEN," TO HAVE Principal Parts : present infinitive, haben; imperfect indicative, hatte; past participle, gehabt. INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Present Present ich habe, I have ich hdbe, I have, or (that) I may have, etc. du hast, thou hast du hdbest, thou have er hat, he has er habe, he have wir haben, we have wir haben, we have ihr habt, you h'ave ihr habet, you have Sie haben, you have Sie haben, you have sie haben, they have sie haben, they have Imperfect Imperfect ich hatte, I had ich hatte, I had, or (that) I might have, etc. du hottest, thou hadst du h'dttest, thou hadst er hatte, he had er hatte, he had wir hatten, we had wir h'dtten, we had ihr hattet, you had ihr hdttet, you had Sie hatten, you had Sie hatten, you had sie hatten, they had sie hatten, they had Future Future ich werde haben, I ich werde haben, shall have (that) I shall have du wirst haben, thou du werdest haben, wilt have thou wilt have er wird haben, he er werde haben, he will have will have wir werden haben, wir werden haben, we we shall have shall have ihr werdet haben, ihr werdet haben, you you will have will have , Sie werden haben, Sie werden haben, you you will have will have sie werden haben, sie werden haben, they they will have will have The compound and conditional tenses are formed as follows. As in English, only the auxiliaries are inflected : PERFECT. Indicative, "I have had," Ich habe gehabt, etc. Subjunctive, "I have had" (preceded by wenn, "if," dass, "that," or some other suitable conjunction), Ich habe gehabt, inflected like present subjunctive. PLUPERFECT. Indicative, "I had had," Ich hatte gehabt, inflected like imperfect indica- tive. Subjunctive, "I had had," Ich hatte gehabt, inflected like imperfect subjunctive. FUTURE PERFECT. Indicative, "I shall have had", Ich werde gehabt haben. Subjunctive, "I shall have had," Ich werde gehabt haben, inflected like subjunctive present of werden. CONDITIONAL. First, "I should have," Ich wiirde haben. Second, "I should have had," Ich wiirde gehabt haben. IMPERATIVE habe, have thou habe er, let him have haben wir, let us have lasst uns haben, let us have habt, have (you) haben Sie, have you haben sie, let them have INFINITIVES Present: haben, to have Perfect: gehabt haben, to have had PARTICIPLES Present: habend, having Past: gehabt, had THE AUXILIARY "SEIN," TO BE Principal Parts : sein, war, gewesen INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE Present Present ich bin, I am ich j,(that)I may be du bist, thou art du seiest, thou mayest be er ist, he is er set, he may be wir sind, we are wir seien, we may be ihr seid, you are ihr seiet, you may be Sie sind, you are Sie seien, you may be sie sind, they are sie seien, they may be Imperfect Imperfect ich war, I was ich wore, (that) I were du worst, thou wast du wdrest, thou wert er war, he was er ware, he were wir waren, we were wir wdren, we were ihr waret, you were ihr waret, you were Sie waren, you were Sie wdren, you were sie waren they were sie wdren, they were Future Future ich werde sein, I ich werde sein, (that) shall be I shall be du wirst sein, thou du werdest sein, thou wilt be wilt be er wird sein, he will er werde sein, he be will be wir werden sein, we wir werden sein, we shall be shall be ihr werdet sein, you ihr werdet sein, you will be will be Sie werden sein, you Sie werden sein, you will be will be sie werden sein, they sie werden sein, they "will be will be The compound tenses of sein are formed like those of haben, except that tenses of sein are always used as auxiliaries. Thus : ich bin gewesen, "I have been" ; ich sei ge- wesen, "[If or that] I have been"; ich war gewesen, "I had been," etc., etc. 122 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT THE AUXILIARY "WERDEN," TO BECOME (TO GET, TO GROW) Principal Parts : werden, wurde, geworden INDICATIVE Present ich werde, I become du wirst, thou becomest er wird, he becomes u'ir werden, we become ihr werdet, you become Sie werden, you become sie werden, they become Imperfect ich wurde (ward), I became du wurdest, thou becamest er wurde, he became wir wurden, we became ihr wurdet, you became Sie wurden, you became sie wurden, they became Future ich werde werden, I shall become du wirst werden, thou wilt become er wird werden, he will become wir werden werden, we shall become ihr werdet werden, you will become Sie werden werden, you will become sie werden werden, they will become Perfect ich bin geworden, I have become du bist geworden, thou hast become er ist geworden, he has become wir sind geworden, we have become ihr seid geworden, you have become Sie sind geworden, you have become sie sind geworden, they have become SUBJUNCTIVE Present ich werde, (that) I (may) become du werdest, thou become er werde, he become wir werden, we become ihr werdet, you become Sie werden, you become sie werden, they become Imperfect ich wurde, I became du \viirdest, thou becamest er wurde, he became wir wurden, we became ih',- wurdet, you became Sie wurden, you became sie wurden, they became Future ich werde werden, I shall become du werdest werden, thou wilt become er werde werden, he will become wir werden werden, we shall become ihr werdet werden, you will become Sie werden werden, you will become sie werden werden, they will become Perfect ich sei geworden, I have become du seiest geworden, thou hast become er sei geworden, he has become wir seien geworden, we have become ihr seiet geworden, you have become Sie seien geworden, you have become sie seien geworden, they have become The other compound tenses are formed with proper tenses of sein, "to be." The construction is so exactly like that followed in English that it is necessary only for the student to remember that the Germans say "I am been" and "I was been," for "I have been" and "I had been"; or, "I am become" and "I was become," for "I have become" and "I had become." If, in a dependent clause (introduced by a relative, or by a subordinating conjunc- tion), an auxiliary (haben, sein, werden) oc- curs with two infinitives, the auxiliary is not removed to the end of the clause, but immediately precedes the infinitives: Der Wind blast meinen Hut so schnell fort, dass ich ihn kaum werde fangen konnen. Having mastered the conjugation of the three tense auxiliaries, we may turn to gen- eral verbs. These are of two classes of verbs, called respectively the weak and the strong, or the regular and the irregular. As may be seen, these terms are used in a precisely opposite sense from the French, where a "strong verb" is one that does not change its root, and, hence, is "regular" ; and where a "weak verb" is one that does change its root, and, hence, is "irregular." In German the "strong" verbs change, and the "weak" do not. The "weak" verbs follow the rules for forming the simple tenses; the "strong" do not. PARADIGM OF A WEAK OR REGULAR VERB "LOBEN," TO PRAISE Principal Parts : loben, lobte, gelobt ACTIVE VOICE INDICATIVE Present ich lobe, I praise du lobst, thou praisest er lobst, he praises wir loben, we praise ihr lobt, you praise Sie loben, you praise sie loben, they praise GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 123 Imperfect ifh lobte, I praised du lobtest, thou praisedst er lobte, he praised wir lobten, we praised ihr lobtet, you praised Sie lobten, you praised sie lobten, they praised Future ich werde lob en, I shall praise du wirst loben, thou wilt praise er wird loben, he will praise wir werden loben, we shall praise ihr werdet loben, you will praise Sie werden loben, you will praise sie werden loben, they will praise Perfect ich habe gelobt, I have praised du hast gelobt, thou hast praised er hat gelobt, he has praised SUBJUNCTIVE Present ich lobe, I praise du lobest, thou praise er lobe, he praise wir loben, we praise ihr lobet, you praise Sie loben, you praise sie loben, they praise Imperfect' ich lobte, I praised du lobtest, thou praised er lobte, he praised wir lobten, we praised ihr lobtet, you praised Sie lobten, you praised sie lobten, they praised Future ich werde loben, I shall praise du werdest loben, thou wilt praise er werde loben, he will praise wir werden loben, we shall praise ihr werdet loben, you will praise Sie werden loben, you will praise sie werden loben, they will praise Perfect ich habe gelobt, I have praised du habest gelobt, thou hast praised er habe gelobt, he has praised IMPERATIVE lobe, praise thou lobe er, let him praise loben wir, let us praise lasst uns loben, let us praise lobet, praise (you) loben Sie, praise (you) loben sie, let them praise The remainder of the compound tenses are formed with inflections of either werde*, or haben, or both, with loben, or gelobt, as the case may be, instead of haben and ge- habt, in the paradigm of haben given above. THE PASSIVE VOICE of a regular verb may be understood from the following synopsis, always remembering that the tenses of wer- den are inflected as in the foregoing para- digms: SYNOPSIS OF "LIEBEN," TO LOVE PASSIVE VOICE INDICATIVE Present er wird geliebt, he is (becomes) loved Imperfect er wurde (ward) ge- liebt, he was loved Future er wird geliebt wer- den, he will be loved Perfect er ist geliebt warden he has been loved SUBJUNCTIVE Present er werde geliebt, he may be loved Imperfect er wurde geliebt, he might be loved Future er werde geliebt wer- \ den, he will be loved Perfect er sei geliebt war- den, he may have been loved Pluperfect Pluperfect er war geliebt wor- er ware geliebt -war- den, he had been den, he might have loved been loved Future Perfect Future Perfect er wird geliebt wor- er werde geliebt war- den sein, he will den sein, he will have been loved have been loved CONDITIONAL First Conditional Second Conditional er wurde geliebt wer- er wurde geliebt war- den, he would be den sein, he would loved have been loved IMPERATIVE Present werde geliebt, be loved INFINITIVES Present geliebt werden, to be loved Perfect geliebt warden sein, to have been loved PARTICIPLES Perfect geliebt warden, having been loved As will be noticed here, the prefix gc of the auxiliary past participle is omitted after the past participle of the main verb. This 124 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT rule is always observed by the past par- ticiple of every verb logically and gram- matically following the past participle of another. In the STRONG, or IRREGULAR, verbs the principal irregularities occur in the forma- tion of the imperfect tenses and in the im- perative mood. The subjunctive imperfect also modifies a, o, or u, like haben. In the compound tenses and in the passive voice the construction is perfectly regular, as in the foregoing paradigms. PARADIGM OF A STRONG, OR IRREG- ULAR, VERB "GEBEN," TO GIVE Principal Parts : geben, gab, gegeben INDICATIVE Present ich gebe, I give du giebst, thou givest er giebt, he gives wir geben, we give ihr gebt, you give Sie geben, you give sie geben, they give Imperfect ich gab, I gave du gabst, thou gavest er gab, he gave wir gaben, we gave ihr gabt, you gave Sie gaben, you gave sie gaben, they gave SUBJUNCTIVE Present ich gebe, I give du gebest, thou give er gebe, he give wir geben, we give ihr gebet, you give Sie geben, you give sie geben, they give Imperfect ich gdbe, I gave du g'dbest, thou gave er gdbe, he gave wir gaben, we gave ihr gdbet, you gave Sie gaben, you gave sie gaben, they gave IMPERATIVE gieb, gebet, geben Sie, give VERBAL PREFIXES German verbs, like the English, are fre- quently compounded with prepositional par- ticles, which have the force of modifying the meaning. There are, moreover, two varieties of prefixes, separable and insep- arable. In German such prepositional par- ticles are prefixed to the infinitive, but, according as they are separable or insepara- ble, they may be used, as in many of the English compound verbs, in a different part of the sentence, or remain prefixed to the verbal stem. A very large number of English com- pound verbs are derived direct from the Latin, or from the Latin through the French. Thus, from the same Latin root we have "accede," "precede," "proceed," "intercede," "recede," "secede," "succeed," "exceed." All such prepositions are insep- arable. We have from English roots, also, a number of compounds, like "bewail," "forego," "mislead," "outline," "overlook," "withstand," "upset," which are inseparable. Many such may be used separably, however, in which case a different meaning is as- sumed by the verb. Thus : "outlive" and "live out"; "overlook" and "look over"; "upset" and "set up," etc. In studying this matter of verbal pre- fixes, we will discover that the same rule holds for both English and German : sep- arable (or separated) prefixes are accented; the inseparable are not. Thus, in German, as in English, a number of particles may be used separably or inseparably, taking or missing the accent accordingly. The following particles are always sep- arable; ab, an, auf, aus, bei, dar (da), ein, fort, her, hin, nach, nieder, ob, vor, weg, su, zuriick and the compounds of da, her, hin, vor darunter, davon, heraus, herunter, herzu, hinauf, hinaus, hinein, voraus, vorbei, vorher, voriiber. Thus : from anfangen, "to begin," we have er fdngt an, "he begins" ; from heraus- kommen, "to come out," nichts kommt heraus, "nothing comes out [of it]." The separable prefix stands at the end of the clause with all Jhe inflected parts of such verbs, except when standing in a dependent clause. The particles durch, hinter, iiber, urn, unter, voll, wieder, are separable when the accent rests on the particle, inseparable when it rests on the first syllable of the verb. In most cases the verb with one of these particles used inseparably has a fig- urative meaning. Thus : durch'laufen, to run through durchlau'fen, to peruse hastily ii'bersetzen, to cross over uberse'tzen, to translate um'gehen, to go round umge'hen, to evade un'terhalten, to hold under unterhal'ten, to entertain hin'tergehen, to go behind hinterge'hen, to deceive wie'derholen, to recover, recollect wiederho'len, to repeat The prefixes be, emp, er, ge, ver, wider, zer, are always inseparable; the prefix mis, almost always. The student should care- fully discriminate between wider, "against," and wieder, "again," given in a previous list. Both are used inseparably. GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 125 It is important that the student carefully commit to memory the foregoing lists of prefixes, separable and inseparable, since several important rules govern their proper use with verbal roots. FIRST, with all compound verbs the par- ticle is always prefixed to the infinitives and participles, whether it be separable or inseparable in the other tenses. Thus : Da ist in meinem herzen die Liebe aufge- gangen. Da hab' ich ihr gestanden. The participle in the last sentence is de- rived from the verb gestehen, "to con- fess," not from stehen, "to stand." SECOND, separable prefixes always pre- cede the augment syllable ge of the past participle. THIRD, inseparable prefixes are always prefixed directly to the perfect stem, the syllable ge being omitted. Antworten, "to answer," however, has its past participle geantwortet. FOURTH, if a particle prefix may be used either separably or inseparably, as in the list of verbs given above, it is prefixed be- fore ge, when separable, and takes the ac- cent; and is prefixed direct to the stem of the perfect participle, omitting ge, the ac- cent being thrown upon the first syllable of the root word. Thus we have the principal parts with inseparables : durchdri'ngen, durchdra'ng, durchdru'ngen, to penetrate durchrei' sen, durchrei'ste, durchrei'st, to travel over uberfuh'ren, uberfiih'rte, uberfuh'rt, to con- vince unterha'lten, unterhie'lt, unterha'lten, to en- tertain Also the principal parts with separables: du'rchdringen, drang du'rch, du'rchgedrun- gen, to press through a crowd, etc. du'rchreisen, reiste du'rch, du'rchgereist, to travel through uberfiirhen, fiihrte iiber, iibergefuhrt, to convey over unterhalten, hielt unter, untergehalten, to hold under In addition to the verbs with inseparable prefixes and those with separable prefixes used inseparably, all verbs whose present infinitive ends in ieren, as marchieren, omit the augment ge in the past participle. Certain prefixes require certain cases in the noun to follow the verb. Thus, the prefix be, as in English, renders the verb transitive, even though its simple form be intransitive, or used with an indirect ob- ject. The same is true of verbs with ver and zer, although -vergeben, verzeihen, and a few others, govern the dative, while ver- blasen, verbleiben, verkehren, and a num- ber of others, are intransitive. Most verbs compounded with ab, an, auf, aus, bei, ein, emp (ent), entgegen, mis, mil, nach, unter, vor, wider, zu, govern the dative. OUTLINES OF GERMAN SYNTAX The uses of the verb in German are peculiar in a number of particulars, mak- ing it quite impossible to render a sen- tence directly from or into the English. All the idioms, however, are very simple, extremely regular, and by no means diffi- cult to remember. It will be necessary for the student to master the rules thor- oughly before attempting to form even the simplest sentences in German. Perhaps the most difficult matters in the German verb relate to the use of the sub- junctive mood, as this mood is all but obsolete in English. Since, in German the indicative mood is used only where state- ments of positive, actual, and certain facts are to be made, the subjunctive mood is most often used to express uncertainty, con- tingency, doubt, possibility; in general, mat- ters on which the speaker does not wish to make an unqualified statement. ' CONTINGENT ASSERTIONS. In making statements beginning with "I think that"; "I believe that" ; "I incline to think that" ; "I assume that," etc., the verb of the En- glish dependent clause should properly stand in the subjunctive mood, as in Ger- man. In the latter language, however, it is frequently the case that only the de- pendent clause is used, the main clause being omitted and understood (logically). Thus: Ich wtiste wohl("I may know well"), "I think I know"; Ich d'dchte, "I incline to think"; also, dass ich wiisste, "so far as I know." WISHES AND COMMANDS are often ex- pressed by the subjunctive in German, as in Latin and in classic English. Thus: Wdren mir nur Flugel gegeben, "Were wings only given me"; Das thue er nicht, "Let him not do that"; Lang lebe der Konig, "Long live the king." g 126 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT INDIRECT DISCOURSE is one of the more familiar uses of the subjunctive mood. As in English, the clause indirectly quoted is often introduced by the particles "that" (doss), "whether" (ob), etc., when, of course, the words take the transposed or- der. Thus: Sie sagten, sie wiissten die Zeit nicht, "They said they did not know the time"; Ich riet ihm, doss er Aeisiger werde, "I advised him that he (to) be- come (be) more diligent"; Frage ihn, ob er schon meinen Bruder gesehen habe, "Ask him whether (if) he has seen my brother." SEQUENCE OF TENSES. The proper se- quence of tenses, between the verbs of the main and dependent clauses, generally fol- lows certain definite rules, although popu- lar usage, as in English, allows some varia- tions. Thus, the present or perfect sub- junctive properly follow a past tense in the main clause, although the imperfect or pluperfect are often used, particularly when the form of the proper tense is the same as that of the indicative used in the main clause. To be brief, the rule demands the same tense of the subjunctive in in- direct discourse that the indicative would take in the direct discourse, except where an assimilation takes place from the pres- ent to the past in ordinary narrations. Thus, in narrations, Sie glaubten es ware (not sei) Herr Schneider, "They thought it was Mr. Schneider." But : Sie glauben es ware Herr Schneider. The past tense rendering "It is," spoken in the past, gives "it was"; but the present tense, quoting a present re- mark about a past event, takes the same word. Thus, the German may use the pres- ent or past tense in the subjunctive, where the English generally gives only the past. USES OF THE TENSES THE PRESENT TENSE may be used where the English gives the perfect as a form of "present anterior" when the action, re- ferred to past time, continues to the present in force or effect. Thus : Ich sehe ihn nicht schon seit drei Monaten, "I have not seen him for three months" ; Sind Sie schan lange in America? "Have you been long in America?" But, in speaking of an action continuing to a certain definite past time, either the present or imperfect may be used. Thus: Ich sah (or sehe) ihn nicht scit drei Monaten. THE PERFECT TENSE is frequently used for the English preterit, in the sense of simple past time; in referring to an action not necessarily habitual or continued; in stating a general truth. Thus: Ich habe hcute meinen Hund verloren, "I lost my dog to-day"; Gott hat die Welt erschaffen, "God created the world"; Vorige Woche bin ich in Boston gewesen, "Last week I was in Boston," but Vorige Woche war ich in Boston, als der Herr President das Stadthaus besuchte. In the latter sentence the notion of continued action "was visit- ing" to be translated by the English pro- gressive conjugation involves that the state of the first clause extends beyond a merely isolated point or period of past time. Hence the use of the imperfect in both clauses. THE FUTURE TENSE expresses not only futurity, but also probability, as in the English "may." Thus: Er wird dreizig Jahre alt sein, "He may be thirty years old." Futurity is very often expressed by the present tense. Thus: Morgen ist mein Geburtstag, "To-morrow will be (is) my birthday"; Morgen bin ich swanzig Jahre alt, "To-morrow I shall be (am) twenty years old." In very many such cases, how- ever, the same idiom holds in English. IN ATTEMPTING TO FORM SENTENCES in German, the student will soon find himself puzzled by the numerous departures from rules found in the "strong," or irregular, verbs, many of the most common of which he will find it necessary to commit to memory. Full lists of these verbs are given in most grammars and dictionaries. MODAL TENSES The use of the modal auxiliaries, or auxiliaries of mood, in German involves numerous rules, usages and idioms quite foreign to anything found in English. In the first place, some of the corre- sponding words in English such as "ought," "let," "permit," "intend," etc. are followed by .the infinitive with "to." This is contrary to German usage, since the preposition "to" never precedes the in- finitive used with a modal auxiliary. The principal parts of the modal auxil- iaries are as follows: konnen, konnte, gekonnt, be able mogen, mochte, gemocht, may, might miissen, musste, gemusst, must, be com- pelled sollen, sollte, gesollt, ought, should, be obliged ivollen, wollte, gewollt, will, intend diirfen, durfte, gedurft, be allowed lassen, Hess, gelassen, let, get to do GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 127 One peculiarity of the modal auxiliaries, most frequently of mussen, wollen, sollen, is that, with the infinitive of another verb, the compound tenses take the form of the present participle with haben. Thus: ich habe sollen; ich habe mussen; ich habe wollen, etc., as in the following sen- tences : Am Ende, er hat die Aufgabe lernen mussen, "In the end, he was obliged to learn his lesson." Wir haben heute Morgen Brief e schreiben sollen, "We ought to have written letters this morning." THE AUXILIARIES OF MODE THE AUXILIARY "MUSSEN" (MUST), TO BE OBLIGED, TO HAVE TO Principal Parts : mussen, musste, gemusst INDICATIVE Present ich muss, I must, am obliged du musst, thou must er muss, he must wir mussen, we must ihr musst, you must Sie mussen, you must sie mussen, they must Imperfect ich musste, I was obliged du musstest, thou wast obliged er musste, he was obliged wir mussten, we were obliged ihr musst et, you were obliged Sie mussten, you were obliged sie mussten, they were obliged Future ich werde mussen, I shall be obliged du wirst mussen, thou wilt be obliged, etc. Perfect ich habe gemusst or mussen, I have been obliged du hast gemusst or mussen, etc. Pluperfect ich hatte gemusst or mussen, I had been obliged du hottest gemusst or mussen, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE Present ich miisse, (that) I must, be obliged du mnssest, thou must er musse, he must wir mussen, we must ihr miisset, you must Sie mussen, you must sie mussen, they must Imperfect ich musste, I were obliged du musstest, thou wert obliged er musste, he were obliged wir mussten, we were obliged ihr musstet, you were obliged Sie mussten, you were obliged sie mussten, they were obliged Future ich werde mussen, (that) I shall be obliged du werdest mussen, thou wilt be obliged, etc. Perfect ich habe gemusst or mussen, (that) I have been obliged du habest gemusst or mussen, etc. Pluperfect ich hatte gemusst or mussen, (that) I had been obliged du hottest gemusst or mussen, etc. INFINITIVES Present mussen, to be obliged Perfect gemusst haben or haben mussen, to have been obliged PARTICIPLES Present mussend, being obliged Past gemusst or mussen, been obliged The other compound tenses are conju- gated like verbs with the auxiliary haben, except for the peculiar construction com- mon to the use of the perfect participle constructions with these verbs. THE AUXILIARY "KONNEN" (CAN), TO BE ABLE Principal Parts : konnen, konnte, gekonnt INDICATIVE Present ich kann, I can, am able du kannst, thou canst er kann, he can wir konnen, we can ihr konnt, you can Sie konnen, you can sie konnen, they can Imperfect ich konnte, I could, was able du konntest, thou couldst er konnte, he could wir konnten, we could ihr konntet, you could Sie konnten, you could sie konnten, they could GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT SUBJUNCTIVE Present ich konne, (that) I can, be able du konnest, thou canst er konne, he can wir konnen, we can ihr konnet, you can Sie konnen, you can sie konnen, they can Imperfect ich kdnnte, I could, were able du konntest, thou couldst er kdnnte, he could wir konnten, we could ihr konntet, you could SV konnten, you could V konnten, they could THE AUXILIARY "WOLLEN" (WILL), TO BE WILLING (TO WISH, TO LIKE) Principal Parts: wollen, wollte, gewollt INDICATIVE Present ich -will, I will, am willing du willst, thou wilt er will, he will wir wollen, we will ihr wollt, you will Sie wollen, you will sie wollen, they will Imperfect ich wollte, I would, was willing du wolltest, thou wouldst er wollte, he would wir wollten, we would ihr wollt et, you would Sie wollten, you would sie wollten, they would SUBJUNCTIVE Present ich wolle, (that) I will, be willing du wollest, thou wilt er wolle, he will wir wollen, we will ihr wollet, you will Sie wollen, you will sie wollen, they will Imperfect ich wollte, (that) I would, were willing du wolltest, thou wouldst er wollte, he would wt'r wollten, we would i'&r wolltet, you would 5"tV wollten, you would jiV wollten, they would THE AUXILIARY "SOLLEN," SHALL (OBLIGATORY), OUGHT Principal Parts: sollen, sollte, gesollt INDICATIVE Present ich soil, I shall, am to du sollt, thou shalt er soil, he shall wir sollen, we shall ihr sollt, you shall Sie sollen, you shall jiV sollen, they shall SUBJUNCTIVE ich solle, (that) I shall du solle st, thou shalt er solle, he shall wir sollen, we shall ihr sollet, you shall Sie sollen, you shall sie sollen, they shall The imperfects, indicative and subjunc- tive, are like those of wollen. THE AUXILIARY "DURFEN," TO BE ALLOWED (TO DARE) Principal Parts: durfen, durfte, gedurft INDICATIVE Present ich darf, I am allowed du darfst, thou art allowed er darf, he is allowed wir durfen, we are allowed ihr dtirft, you are allowed Sie durfen, you are allowed sie durfen, they are allowed Imperfect ich durfte, I was allowed du durftest, thou wast allowed er durfte, he was allowed wir durften, we were allowed ihr durftet, you were allowed Sie durften, you were allowed sie durften, they were allowed SUBJUNCTIVE Present ich diirfe, I be allowed du diirfest, thou be allowed er diirfe, he be allowed wir durfen, we be allowed ihr diirfet, you be allowed Sie durfen, you be allowed sie durfen, they be allowed GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 129 Imperfect ich durfte, I were allowed du durftest, thou wert allowed er durfte, he were allowed wir durften, we were allowed ihr diirftet, you were allowed Sie durften, you were allowed sie durften, they were allowed THE AUXILIARY "MOGEN" (MAY), TO LIKE Principal Parts: mogen, mochte, gemocht INDICATIVE Present ich mag, I may, like du magst, thou mayest er mag, he may wir mo gen, we may. ihr mogt, you may Sie mo gen, you may sie m'ogen, they may Imperfect ich mochte, I liked du mochtest, thou likedst er mochte, he liked wir mochten, we liked ihr mochtet, you liked Sie mochten, you liked sie mochten, they liked SUBJUNCTIVE Present ich moge, (that) I may, like du mogest, thou mayest er moge, he may wir mogen, we may ihr moget, you may Sie mogen, you may sie mogen, they may Imperfect ich mochte, (that) I might, liked du mochtest, thou mightest er mochte, he might wir mochten, we might ihr mochtet, you might Sie mochten, you might sie mochten, they might THE CAUSATIVE AUXILIARY "LASSEN," TO LET, TO LEAVE (TO HAVE DONE) Principal Parts : lassen, Hess, gelassen INDICATIVE Present I let ich lasse du Idssest er Idsst wir lassen ihr lasset sie lassen SUBJUNCTIVE Present I may let ich lasse du lassest er lasse wir lassen ihr lasset sie lassen INDICATIVE Imperfect ich Hess Perfect ich habe gelassen Pluperfect ich hatte gelassen Future ich werde lassen SUBJUNCTIVE Imperfect ich Hesse Perfect ich habe gelassen Pluperfect ich hatte gelassen Future ich werde lassen Future Perfect Future Perfect ich werde gelassen ich werde gelassen haben haben FIRST CONDITIONAL ich wurde lassen SECOND CONDITIONAL ich wurde gelassen haben IMPERATIVE lassen wir lasset ihr lassen sie SYNTAX OF THE MODAL AUXILI- ARIES The uses and meanings of the modal auxiliaries are numerous, and far more in- clusive than those of their English equiva- lents. In fact, the equivalents given in the above lists and paradigms represent only a small portion of the meanings actually belonging to them. To be perfectly precise, we will take each verb in turn, giving a list of the meanings commonly attached to it; then arrange sentences under the En- glish equivalents. Thus : THE AUXILIARY mtissen signifies gener- ally moral necessity, occasionally, also phys- ical necessity. THE AUXILIARY konnen, on the other hand, denotes (a) physical possibility; (b) it is used in the sense of the English "may," as indicating a possibility or proba- bility admitted by a speaker; (c) it has the force of "know" or "able to speak," in sentences referring to languages, as, ich kann nicht Englisch, "I can not speak En- glish." THE AUXILIARY mogen expresses (a) permission or lack of objection to an ac- tion; (b) a possibility granted in speak- ing; (c) inclination or liking; (d) wishing. THE AUXILIARY wollen expresses (a) desire, design, or intent ; (b) with eben, immediate future action, being about to act; meaning or significance. 130 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT THE AUXILIARY sollen expresses (a) moral obligation, duty; (b) significance or value; (c) contingent possibility, in the sense of "would"; (d) allegation, in the sense of "it is said"; (e) destiny, in the sense of "should," "was to"; (f) chance, in the sense of "should"; (g) by ellipsis, should, with an infinitive ("do," etc.) un- derstood. THE AUXILIARY diirfen expresses (a) obligation; (b) allowance, or permission; (c) venturing or daring in the moral sense; (d) as the English "need" in "You need not complain," Sie diirfen nicht dariiber klagen; (e) admitted probability or possibility. THE CAUSATIVE AUXILIARY lassen signi- fies (a) to let, allow, permit; (b) to leave; (c) to have or get (before an infinitive) ; (d) to cause, to order (before an active infinitive) ; (e) "let," as an auxiliary imperative, as in lasst uns singen und tanzen, "Let us sing and dance"; (f) "may" or "can" with the reflective pronoun sich. In its use as causative auxiliary it sup- plies the place of the English phrase "have done." Thus : "I have had a pair of shoes made." Ich habe ein Paar Schuhc machen lassen. IDIOMATIC USES OP THE MODAL, AUXILI- ARIES In learning the principles of the German language, it is necessary to fully under- stand how to express a number of ideas, used in English with proper verbal auxil- iaries or with general verbs used in an auxiliary manner. Prominent among these meanings, as we have already learned, are can, could, do (auxiliary and emphatic), know, let, like, may, mean, might, must, need, ought, pre- tend, "said to be," shall, should, want, will, wish, would. As most of these may be ex- pressed by two or more German auxiliaries, the following lists of modal idioms will be arranged under the English equivalents. I. CAN, COULD I can do it Ich kann es thun. How can I help it? Was kann ich dafiir? I can do nothing else. Ich kann nicht anders. I can speak German. Ich kann Deutsch. I can not help laughing. Ich muss lachen. Who can it have been? Wer muss es ge- wesen sein? He can not be there. Er muss noch nicht da sein. What can (am I to) do? Was soil ich? How could that be possible? Wie solltg das moglich seinf Can that be true. So lite das wahr seinf II. Do (auxiliary emphatic) What do you mean by that? Was wollen Sie damit sagen? That does not quite please me. Das will mir nicht recht gef alien. III. LET (Allow, Permit) I let him alone. Ich lasse ihn stehen. We let the children sleep. Wir lassen die Kinder schlafen. Let us take a cup of coffee. Lassen Sie uns eine Tasse Kaffee trinken. Let him take care. Er mag sich in Acht nehmen. IV. LIKE (Incline, Care) He does not like to drink wine. Er mag keinen Wein trinken. I should have liked to see him. Ich hdtte ihn sehen mogen. I should like to know. Ich mochte gem. wohl wissen. I incline (almost) to think. Fast mochte das nicht glauben. I did not like to do it. Ich habe es nicht thun mogen. V. MAY You may come in. Du kannst herein kom- men. He may be a German. Er kann ein Deutscher sein. You may read the letter. Sie mogen den Brief lesen. It may be true. Es mag wahr sein. This question may possibly be superfluous. Diese Frage diirfte wohl uberttussig sein. May I ask ? Darf ich fragen. He may have forgotten that. Er diirfte das vergessen haben. Er kann das vcr-' gessen haben. It may be three months already. Es mogen jetzt drei Monaten sein. It may be as you say. Es mag sein wie du sagst. VI. MEAN What does it mean? Was soil das? What is it (does it mean) to me? Was soil mir das? What do you mean by that? Was wollen Sie damit sagen? VII. MIGHT Might it not be too late? Diirfte es nicht zu spat sein. That might be dangerous. Das konntg gefahrlich sein. GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 131 VIII. MUST It n;ust (needs) be so. Es muss nun einmal so sein. He must be sick. Er muss wohl krank sein. If it must be so. Wenn es sein soil. IX. NEED He needs fcut to command. Er darf nur befehlen. You need not complain. Sie durften nicht dariiber klagen. X. OUGHT He ought to pay his debts. Er sollte seine Schulden bezahlen. I ought to have gone. Ich hdtte gehen sollen. XL PRETEND (Profess) He pretends to have known us. Er -will uns bekannt haben. XII. "SAID TO BE" He is said to be very poor. Er soil sehr arm sein. This (statue or picture) is said to be Mr. Smith. Dies soil Herr Smith sein. XIII. SHALL, WILL (about to be) He was about to go out. ' Er wollte eben ausgehen. He is about to speak. Er will eben sprechen, or Er ist im Begriff zu sprechen. Where are you going? Wo wollen Sie hin? You shall smart for it. Du sollst es em- pfinden. He was about (destined) to experience a greater misfortune. Er sollte ein gross- eres Ungliick erleben. XIV. SHOULD (Would) I should like to know. Ich mdchte gern wohl wissen. I should prefer. Ich mdchte gern lieber. One would think. Man sollte meinen. XV. TELL (Bid) He told the messenger to wait outside. Er lies den Bo ten draussen war ten. Among other modal idioms, the following may be mentioned as expressions of wish, etc., such as : Please God. Wills Gott. God forbid it. Das wolle nicht Gott. Would God it were trite. Wollte Gott es ware wahr. STRONG AND MIXED VERBS There are seven classes of irregular verbs in German: (1) Those changing radical e into a in the imperfect indicative and resuming it in the past participle; as, geben, gab, ge- geben. (2) Those changing radical e or i to a in the imperfect indicative, and into o in the past participle; as, nehmen, nahm, genom- men and gewinnen, gewann, gewonnen. (3) Those changing radical i into a in the imperfect and into u in the past par- ticiple; as, schlingen, schlang, geschlungen. (4) Those changing radical a into ie in the imperfect and resuming it in the past participle; as, halten, hielt, gehalten. (5) Those changing radical ei into ie in both imperfect and past participle, but into i before a double consonant; as, bleiben, blieb, geblieben. (6) Those changing radical a, au, e, i, ie, o, ii, into o in the imperfect and past par- ticiple. (7) Those changing radical a into in the imperfect; as, wachsen, wuchs, gewach- sen. EXPLANATION. Compounds are not in- cluded in this list, unless the simple verb is not in use. The letters (h) and (s) signify that the auxiliary is haben or sein. Where a tense is regular, it is omitted from the list. The principal irregularities occur in the present indicative (i), the imperfect indica- tive (2), the imperfect subjunctive (3), and the past participle (4), as shown in the fol- lowing list. When there are three forms under (i), the first, second, and third persons are in- dicated ; when only two, the second and third. Two forms under (2) and (3) indi- cate variations of the first person singular. BACKEN, (h), bake, (i) backst, backt; (2) buk; (3) biike; (4) gebacken. BEFEHLEN, (h), command, (i)befiehlst, be- fiehlt; (2) befahl; (3) befahle, befohle ; (4) befohlen. BEFLEISSEN, (h), apply, (2) befliss; (3) beflisse; (4) beflissen. BEGINNEN, (h), begin, (2) begann; (3) beganne, begonne; (4) begonnen. BEISSEN, (h), bite, (2) biss; (3) bisse; (4) gebissen. BERGEN, (h), hide, (i) birgst, birgt; (2) barg; (3) barge, biirge; (4) geborgen. BERSTEN, (s), burst, (i) birstest, birst; (2) barst, borst; (3) barste, borste; (4) geborstenj 132 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT BEWEGEN, (h), induce, (2) bewog; (3) bewoge; (4) bewogen. BIEGEN, (h and s), bend, (2) bog; (3) boge; (4) gebogen. BIETEN, (h), offer, (i) beutst, beut; (2) bot; (3) bote; (4) geboten. BINDEN, (h), bind, (2) band; (3) bande; (4) gebunden. BITTEN, (h), beg, (2) bat; (3) bate; (4) gebeten. BLASEN, (h), blow, (i) blasest, blast; (2) blies; (3) bliese; (4) geblasea BLEIBEN, (s), remain, (2) blieb; (3) bliebe ; (4) geblieben. BLEICHEN, (h), bleach, (2) blich; (3) bliche ; (4) geblichen. BRATEN, (h), roast, (i) bratst, brat; (2) briet; (3) briete; (4) gebraten. BRECHEN, (h and s), break, (i) brichst, bricht; (2) brach; (3) brache; (4) ge- brochen. BRENNEN, (h), burn, (2) brannte; (3) brennte; (4) gebrannt. BRINGEN, (h), bring, (2) brachte; (3) brachte ; (4) gebracht. DENKEN, (h), to think, (2) ich dachte; (3) ich dachte; (4) gedacht. DINGEN, (h), to bargain, hire, (2) ich dung; (3) ich diinge; (4) gedungen. DRESCHEN, (h), to thrash, (i) du dri- schest, er drischt; (2) ich drosch (drasch) ; (3) ich drosche (drasche) ; (4) gedroschen. DRINGEN, (s), to urge, insist, (2) ich drang; ich drange; (4) gedrungen. DURFEN, (h), to be permitted, (i) ich darf, du darfst, er darf; (2) ich durfte; (3) ich durfte; (4) gedurft. ESSEN, (h), to eat, (i) du issest, er isset, or isst; (2) ich ass; (3) ich asse; (4) ge- gessen. FAHREN, (s), to drive, (i) du fahrst, er fahrt; (2) ich fuhr; (3) ich fuhre; (4) gefahren. FALLEN, (s), to fall, (i) du fillst, er fallt; (2) ich fiel; (3) ich fiele; (4) ge- faJlen. FANGEN, (h), to take, catch, (i) du fangst, er fangt; (2) ich fing; (3) ich finge; (4) gefangen. FECHTEN, (h), to fight, (i) du fichtst, er ficht; (2) ich focht; (3) ich fochte; (4) gefochten. FINDEN, (h), to find, (2) ich fand; (3) ich fande; (4) gefunden. FLECHTEN, (h), to plait, (i) du flichtst, er flicht; (2) ich flocht; (3) ich fiochte; (4) geflochten. FLIEGEN, (s), to fiy, soar, (i) reg. or: du fleugst, er fleugt; (2) ich flog; (3) ich floge; (4) geflogen. FLIEHEN, (s), to fiee, (i) reg. or: du fleuchst, er fleucht; (2) ich floh; (3) ich flohe; (4) geflohen. FLIESSEN, (s and h), to drop, How, (i) reg. or: fleussest, er fleusst; (2) ich floss; (3) ich flosse; (4) geflossen. FRAGEN, (h), to ask, (i) du fragst, er fragt; (2) ich frug; (3) ich fruge. FRESSEN, (h), to eat voraciously, (i) da frissest, er frisst; (2) ich frass; (3) ich frasse ; (4) gefressen. FRIEREN, (s and h), to freeze, (2) ich fror; (3) ich frore; (4) gefroren. GAHREN, (s and h), to ferment, (2) ich gohr; (3) ich gohre; (4) gegohren. GEBAREN, (h), to produce, to bear, (i) du gebierst, er gebiert; (2) ich gebar; (3) ich gebare; (4) geboren. GEBEN, (h), to give, (i) du giebst(gibst), er giebt (gibt) ; (2) ich gab; (3) ich gabe; (4) gegeben. GEDEIHEN, (s), thrive, (2) gedieh; (3) gediehe; (4) gediehen. GEHEN, (s), go, (2) ging; (3) ginge; (4) gegangen. GELINGEN, (s), succeed, (2) gelang; (3) gelange; (4) gelungen. GELTEN, (h), be worth, (i) giltst, gilt; (2) gait; (3) galte, golte; (4) gegolten. GENESEN, (s), recover, (2) genas; (3) genase; (4) genesen. GENIESSEN, (h), enjoy, (2) genoss; (3) genosse ; (4) genossen. GESCHEHEN, (s), happen, (i) geschieht; (2) geschah; (3) geschahe; (4) geschehen. GEWINNEN, (h), gain, (2) gewann; (3) gewanne, gewonne; (4) gewonnen. GIESSEN, (h), pour, (i) geussest, geusst; (2) goss; (3) gosse; (4) gegossen. GLEJCHEN, (h), resemble, (2) glich; (3) gliche ; (4) geglichen. GLEITEN, (s and h), glide, (2) glitt; (3) glitte; (4) geglitten. GLIMMEN, (h), gleam, (2) glomm; (3) glomme ; (4) geglommen. GRABEN, (h), dig, (i) grabst, grabt; (2) grub; (3) griibe; (4) gegraben. GREIFEN, (h), gripe, (2) griff; (3) griffe; (4) gegriffen. HABEN, (h), have, (i) hast, hat; (2) hatte; (3) hatte; (4) gehabt. HALTEN, (h), hold, (i) haltst, halt; (2) hielt; (3) hielte; (4) gehalten. HANGEN, (h), hang, (i) hangst, hangt; (2) hing, hieng; (3) hinge, hienge; (4) gehangen. HAUEN, (h), hew, (2) hieb; (3) hiebe; (4) gehauen. HEBEN, (h), raise, (2) hob, hub; (3) hobe, hiibe; (4) gehoben. GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 133 HEISSEN, (h), call, (2) hiess; (3) hiesse; (4) geheissen. HELFEN, (h), help, (i) hilfst, hilft; (2) half; (3) halfe, hiilfe; (4) geholfen. KEIFEN, (h), chide, (2) kiff; (3) kiffe; (4) gekiffen. KENNEN, (h), know, (2) kannte; (3) kennte ; (4) gekannt. KLIEBEN, (h and s), cleave, (2) klob; (3) klobe; (4) gekloben. KLIMMEN, (h and s), climb, (2) klomtn; (3) klomme; (4) geklommen. KLINGEN, (h), sound, (2) klang; (3) klange, kliinge; (4) geklungen. KNEIFEN, (h), pinch, (2) kniff; (3) kniffe ; (4) gekniffen. KNEIPEN, (h), pinch, (2) knipp; (3) knippe; (4) geknippen. KOMMEN, (s), come, (2) kam; (3) kame; (4) gekommen. KONNEN, (h), can, (i) kann, kannst, kann; (2) konnte; (3) konnte; (4) ge- konnt. KRIECHEN, (h and s), creep, (2) kroch; (3) kroche; (4) gekrochen. KUREN, (h), choose, (2) kor; (3) kore; (4) gekoren. LADEN, (h), load, invite, (i) ladst, ladt; (2) lud; (3) liide; (4) geladen. LASSEN, (h), let, (i) lassest, lasst; (2) Hess; (3) liesse; (4) gelassen. LAUFEN, (s and h), run, (i) laufst, lauft; (2) lief; (3) liefe; (4) gelaufen. LEIDEN, (h), suffer, (2) litt; (3) litte; (4) gelitten. LEIHEN, (h), lend, (2) lieh; (3) liehe; (4) geliehen. LESEN, (h), read, (i) liesest, liest; (2) las; (3) lase; (4) gelesen. LIEGEN, (h), lie, (2) lag; (3) lage; (4) gelegen. LOSCHEN, (h), go out, (i) lischest, lischt; (2) losch; (3) losche; (4) geloschen. LUGEN, (h), tell a lie, (2) log; (3) loge; (4) gelogen. MAHLEN, (h), grind, (2) muhl; (3) muhle ; (4) gemahlen. MEIDEN, (h), shun, (2) mied; (3) miede; (4) gemieden. MELKEN, (h), milk, (2) molk; (3) molke; (4) gemolken. MESSEN, (h), measure, (i) missest, misst ; (2) mass ; (3) masse ; (4) gemessen. MISLINGEN, (s), fail, (2) mislang; (3) mislange ; (4) mislungen. MOGEN, (h), may, (i) mag, magst, mag; (2) mochte; (3) mochte; (4) gemocht. MUSSEN, (h), must, (i) muss, musst, muss; (2) musste; (3) miisste; (4) ge- musst. NEHMEN, (h), take, (i) nimmst, 'nimmt ; (2) nahm; (3) nahme; (4) genommen. NENNEN, (h), name, (2) nannte; (3) nennte; (4) genannt. PFEIFEN, (h), whistle, (2) pfiff; (3) pfiffe; (4) gepfiffen. PFLEGEN, (h), cherish, (2) pflog, pflag; (3) pfloge; (4) gepflogen. PREISEN, (h), praise, (2) pries; (3) priese; (4) gepriesen. QUELLEN, (s and h), gush, (i) quillst, quillt; (2) quoll; (3) quolle; (4) ge- quollen. RACHEN, (h), avenge, (2) roch; (3) roche; (4) gerochen. RAT(H)EN, (h), advise, (i) rat(h)st, rat(h); (2) riet(h) ; (3) riet(h)e; (4) gerat(h)en. REIBEN, (h), rub, (2) rieb; (3) riebe; (4) gerieben. REISSEN, (h and s), tear, (2) riss; (3) risse ; (4) gerissen. REITEN, (s and h), ride, (2) ritt; (3) ritte; (4) geritten. RENNEN, (s and h), run, (2) rannte; (3) rennte; (4) gerannt. RIECHEN, (h), smell, (2) roch; (3) roche; (4) gerochen. RINGEN, (h), wring, (2) rang; (3) range; (4) gerungen. RINNEN, (s and h), run, (2) rann; (3) ranne, ronne; (4) geronnen. RUFEN, (h), call, (2) rief; (3) riefe; (4) gerufen. SAUFEN, (h), drink, (i) saufst, sauft; (2) soff; (3) sdffe; (4) gesoffen. SAUGEN, (h), suck, (2) sog; (3) soge; (4) gesogen. SCHAFFEN, (h), create, (2) schuf; (3) schiife ; (4) geschaffen. SCHALLEN, (h), sound, (2) scholl; (3) scholle; (4) geschollen. SCHEIDEN, (s and h), part, (2) schied; (3) schiede; (4) geschieden. SCHEINEN, (h), appear, (2) schien; (3) schiene ; (4) geschienen. SCHELTEN, (h), scold, (i) schiltst, schilt; (2) schalt; (3) schalte, scholte; (4) ge- scholten. SCHEREN, (h), shear, (i) schierst, schiert; (2) schor; (3) schore; (4) geschoren. SCHIEBEN, (h and s), shove, (2) schob; (3) schobe; (4) geschoben. SCHIESSEN, (h), shoot, (2) schoss; (3) schosse; (4) geschossen. SCHINDEN, (h), flay, (2) schund; (3) schiinde ; (4) geschunden. SCHLAFEN, (h), sleep, (i) schlafst, schlaft; (2) schlief (3) schliefe; (4), geschlafen. 134 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT SCHLAGEN, (h and B), strike, (i) schlagst, schlagt; (2) schlug; (3) schliige; (4) geschlagen. SCHLEICHEN, (s and h), sneak, (2) schlich; (3) schliche; (4) geschlichen. SCHIJEIFEN, (h and s), grind, (2) ; schliff ; (3) schliffe; (4) geschliffen. SCHLEISSEN, (h and s), slit, (2) schliss; (3) schlisse; (4) geschlissen. SCHLIEFEN, (s), slip, (2) SChloffj (3) schloffe ; (4) geschloffen. SCHLIESSEN, (h), shut, (2) schloss ; (3) schlosse ; (4) geschlossen. SCHLINGEN, (h), sling, (2) schlang; (3) schlange ; (4) geschlungen. SCHMEISSEN, (h), smite, (2) schmiss; (3) schmisse; (4) geschmissen. SCHMELZEN, (s), melt, (i) schmilzest, schmilzt; (2) schmolz; (3) schmolze; (4) geschmolzen. SCHNAUBEN, (h), snort, (2) schnob ; (3) .mobe; (4) geschnoben. SCHNEIDEN, (h), cut, (2) schnitt ; (3) schnitte; (4) geschnitten. SCHRAUBEN, (h), screw, (2) schrob ; (3) schrobe ; (4) geschroben. SCHRECKEN, (s), be afraid, (i) schrickst, schrickt; (2) schrak; (3) schrake; (4) geschrocken. SCHREIBEN, (h), write, (2) schrieb; (3) schriebe ; (4) geschrieben. SCHREIEN, (h), cry, (2) schrie; (3) schriee ; (4) geschrieen. SCHREITEN, (s), stride, (2) schritt; (3) schritte ; (4) geschritten. SCHWAREN, (h and s), ulcerate, (2) tchwor; (3) schwore; (4) geschworen. SCHWEIGEN, (h), be silent, (2) schwieg; (3) schwiege; (4) geschwiegen. SCHWELLEN, (s and h), swell, (i) schwillst, schwillt ; (2) schwoll ; (3) schwolle ; (4) geschwollen. SCHWIMMEN, (s and h), swim, (2) schwamm, schwomm; (3) schwamme, schwomme ; (4) geschwommen. SCHWINDEN, (s), vanish, (2) schwand, schwund; (3) schwande, schwiinde; (4) geschwunden. SCHWINGEN, (h), swing, (2) schwang, schwung ; (3) schwange, schwiinge ; (4) geschwungen. SCHWOREN, (h), swear, (2) schwor, schwur; (3) schwore, schwtire; (4) geschworen. SEHEN, (h), see, (i) siehst, sreht; (2) sah; (3) sahe; (4) gesehen. SEIN, (s), be, (i) bin, bist, ist; (2) war; (3) ware; (4) gewesen. SENDEN, (h), send, (2) sandte, sendete; (3) sendete; (4) gesandt, gesendet. SIEDEN, (h), boil, (a) sott; (3) siedete; (4) gesotten. SINGEN, (h), sing, (2) sang; (3) sange; (4) gesungen. SINKEN, (s), sink, (2) sank; (3) sanke; (4) gesunken. SINNEN, (h and s), think, (2) sann; (3) sanne, sonne; (4) gesonnen. SITSEN, (h), sit, (2) sass; (3) sasse; (4) gesessen. SOLLEN, (h), should, (i) soil, sollst, soil; (2) sollte; (3) sollte; (4) gesollt. SPEIEN, (h), spit, (2) spie; (3) spiee; (4) gespieen. SPINNEN, (h), spin, (2) spann; (3) spanne, sponne; (4) gesponnen. SPLEISSEN, (h and s), split, (2) spliss; (3) splisse; (4) gesplissen. SPRECHEN, (h), speak, (i) sprichst, spricht; (2) sprach; (3) sprache; (4) gesprochen. SPRIESSEN, (s and h), sprout, (2) spross; (3) sprosse; (4) gesprossen. SPRINGEN, (s and h), spring, (2) sprang; (3) sprange; (4) gesprungen. STECHEN, (h), prick, (i) stichst, sticht; (2) stach; (3) stache; (4) gestochen. STECKEN, (h), stick, (2) stak; (3) stake; (4) gestochen. STEHEN, (h and s), stand, (2) stand, stund; (3) stande, stunde; (4) gestanden. STEHLEN, (h), steal, (i) stiehlst, stiehlt; (2) stahl; (3) stable; (4) gestohlen. STEIGEN, (s and h), ascend, (2) stieg; (3) stiege; (4) gestiegen. STERBEN, (s), die, (i) stirbst, stirbt; (2) starb; (3) starbe, stiirbe; (4) gestorben. STIEBEN, (h and s), disperse, (2) stob; (3) stobe; (4) gestoben. STINKEN, (h), stink, (2) stank, stunk; (3) stanke, stiinke; (4) gestunken. STOSSEN, (h and s), push, (i) stossest, stosst; (2) stiess; (3) stiesse; (4) ge- stossen. STREICHEN, (h), stroke, (2) strich; (3) striche ; (4) gestrichen. STREITEN, (h), strive, (2) stritt; (3) stritte ; (4) gestritten. THUN, (h), do, (2) that; (3) thate; (4) gethan. TRAGEN, (h), carry, (i) tragst, tragt; (2) trug; (3) triige, (4) getragen. TREFFEN, (h), hit, (i) triffst, trifft; (2) traf; (3) trafe; (4) getroffen. TREIBEN, (h and s), drive, (2) trieb; (3) triebe ; (4) getrieben. TRETEN, (h and s), tread, (i) trittst, tritt; (2) trat; (3) trate; 64) getreten. TRIEFEN, (h and s). drip, (2) troff; (3) troffe; (4) getroflfen. GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 135 TRINKEN, (h), drink, (2) trank; (3) tranke ; (4) getrunken. TRUGEN, (h), deceive, (2) trog; (3) troge; (4) getrogen. VERDERBEN, (s and h), spoil, (i) ver- dirbst, verdirbt; (2) verdarb; (3) verdarbe, verdiirbe ; (4) verdorben. VERDRIESSEN, (h), vex, (2) verdross; (3) verdrosse ; (4) verdrossen. VERGESSEN, (h), forget, (i) vergissest, vergisst; (2) vergass; (3) vergasse; (4) vergessen. VERLIEREN, (h), lose, (2) verier; (3) verlore ; (4) verloren. WACHSEN, (s), grow, (i) wachsest, wachst; (2) wuchs; (3) wtichse; (4) ge- wachsen. WAGEN, (h), weigh, (2) wog; (3) woge; (4) gewogen. WASCHEN, (h), wash, (i) waschest, wascht; (2) wusch; (3) wiische; (4) gewaschen. WEBEN, (h), weave, (2) wob; (3) wobe; (4) gewoben. WEICHEN, (s and h), yield, (2) wich; (3) wiche; (4) gewichen. WEISEN, (h), show, (2) wies; (3) wiese; (4) gewiesen. WENDEN, (h), turn, (2) wandte, wen- dete; (3) wendete; (4) gewandt, gewendet. WERBEN, (h), sue, (i) wirbst, wirbt; (2) warb; (3) warbe, wiirbe; (4) geworben. WERDEN, (s), become, (i) wirst, wird; (2) ward, wurde; (3) wiirde; (4) ge- worden. WERFEN, (h), throw, (i) wirfst, wirft; (2) warf; (3) warfe, wiirfe; (4) geworfen. WIEGEN, (h), weigh, (2) wog; (3) woge; (4) gewogen. WINDEN, (h), wind, (2) wand; (3) wande ; (4) gewunden. WISSEN, (h), know, (i) weiss, weisst, weiss; (2) wusste; (3) wiisste; (4) ge- wusst. WOLLEN, (h), will, (i) will, willst, will; (2) wollte; (3) wollte; (4) gewollt. ZEIHEN, (h), accuse, (2) zieh; (3) ziehe; (4) geziehen. ZIEHEK, (h), draw, (2) zog; (3) zoge; (4) gezogen. ZWINGEN, (h), force, (2) zwang; (3) zwange ; (4) gezwungen. FAAILIAR AND SIMPLE PHRASES IN GERAAN AFFIRMATIVE PHRASES It is not so Es ist nicht so It is true Es ist wahr It is not true Es ist nicht wahr It is so Es ist so I say nothing Ich sage nichts I believe it Ich glaube es I will say nothing Ich will nichts sagen I think so Ich denke es I have nothing Ich habe nichts I say yes Ich sage ja He is not here Er ist nicht hier I say it is Ich sage es ist I have it not Ich habe es nicht I am certain Ich bin gewiss He has it not Er hat es nicht I am certain of it Ich bin dessen gewiss We have it not Wir haben es nicht You are right Sie haben Recht You have it not Ihr habt es nicht You are quite right Sie haben ganz Recht He said no Er sagte nein I know it Ich weiss es Has he said no? Hat er nein gesagt? I know it well Ich weiss es genau Has he said noth- Hat er nichts ge-sagt? I know him Ich kenne ihn ing? I know it positively Ich weiss es sicher I did not hear Ich habe nicht gehort I promise it Ich verspreche es I have not heard it I ch habe es nicht gehort I promise it to you Ich verspreche es You are quite wrong Sie haben durchaus Ihnen Unrecht I give it Ich gebe es I give it to you Ich gebe es Ihnen INTERROGATIVE PHRASES "\iri- -^ Tir d I will give it to you Ich will es Ihnen geben You are wrong Sie haben Unrecht He is wrong Er hat Unrecht I believe him Ich glaube ihm Very well Sehr wohl Very well Sehr gut Wnor Wer? Who was it? Wer -war es? What is it? Was ist es? Who is it? Wer ist es? Did you say it? Sagten Sie es? What are you doing? Was thun Sie? What is he doing? Was thut er? NEGATIVE PHRASES Tell me Sagen Sie mir No Nein Will you tell me? Wollen Sie mir sagen? I say no Ich sage nein How are you? Wie gehts? I say it is not Ich sage es ist nicht How is he? Wie gehts ihm? 136 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT What for? Wofur? Speak to me Sprechen Sie mit mir Why? Warum? Speak to him Sprechen Sie mit ihm Why do you ask? Warum fragen Sie? Be quiet Seien Sie ruhig Why shall I go? Warum soil ich gehen? Go Gehen Sie Why do you speak? Warum sprechen Sie? Go to him Gehen Sie zu ihm Why are you silent ? Warum schweigen Sie Go to bed Gehen Sie au Belie Why did you go? Warum gingen Sie? Fetch Holen Is it ready? 1st es fertig? Fetch it Holen Sie es Have you heard? Haben Sie gehortf Bring it Bringen Sie es Do you hear? Horen Sie? Bring it to me Bringen Sie es mir Where? Wo? Let it be Lassen Sie es sein Where is it? Wo ist es? Let me have it Lassen Sie es mich Where is he? Wo ist er? haben Where is she? W o ist sie? Where are you? Wo sind Sie? EXPRESSIONS OF JOY Where are you going ? Wo gehen Sie hin? What! Wast Where do you come Wo kommen Sie her? Is it possible! Ist es moglich! from? Can it be! Kann es sein! Where were you? Wo war en Sie? How can it be pos- Wie kann es moglich What? Was? sible! sein! What is it? Was ist es? Who would have be- Wer wiirde das ge- What is that? Was ist das? lieved it! glaubt haben! What time is it? Was ist die Zeit? Indeed! Wirklich! What o'clock is it? Wie viel Uhr ist es? It is impossible Es ist unmoglich What have you? Was haben Sie? That can not be Es kann nicht sein What do you say? Was sagen Sie? I am astonished at Ich wundere mich What did you say? Was sagten Sie? it daruber What do you mean? Was meinen Sie? You surprise me Sie iiberraschen mich What do you want? Was wollen Sie? It is incredible Es ist unglaublich What will you do? Was wollen Sie thun? OF SORROW AND JOY IMPERATIVE PHRASES I am sorry Es thut mir leid Come away! Kommen Sie fort! I am very sorry Es thut mir sehr leid Come here! Kommen Sie hierher! What a pity Wie schade Go there! Gehen Sie dorthin! It is a great pity Es ist sehr schade Come back! Kommen Sie zuruck! It is a sad thing Es ist eine traurige Go on! Gehen Sie weiter! Sache Sit down! Setzen Sie sich! It is a misfortune Es ist ein Ungliick Stand still! Stehen Sie still! It is a great mis- Es ist ein grosses Wait Warten Sie fortune Ungliick Wait for me Warten Sie auf mich I am glad Es ist mir lieb Wait a little Warten Sie ein wenig I am glad of it Ich freue mich daruber Make haste Machen Sie schnell I am very glad Es ist mir sehr lieb Be quick Beeilen Sie sich It gives me pleasure Es macht mir Ver- Follow me Folgen Sie mir gnugen Follow him Folgen Sie ihm It gives me great joy Es macht mir grosse Tell him Sagen Sie ihm Freude Call him Rufen Sie ihn I am happy Ich bin gliicklich Speak Sprechen Sie How happy I am Wie gliicklich ich bin Eat Essen Sie I wish you joy Ich wunsche Ihnen Drink Trinken Sie Gliick Hear Horen Sie I congratulate you Ich gratulire Ihnen Hear me Horen Sie mich Look at me Sehen Sie mich an OF ANGER AND BLAME Look at him Sehen Sie ihn an I am angry Ich bin drgerlich Begin Fangen Sie an He is angry Er ist drgerlich Continue Fahren Sie fort He is very angry Er ist sehr drgerlich Stop Halt Don't be angry Seien Sie nicht drger- Tell me Sagen Sie mir lich Tell it hirn S^sen Sie es ihm You are wrong Sie haben Unrecht GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT 137 You are right Sie haben Recht TO ASK QUESTIONS Why don't you doit? Warum thun Sie es What do you say? Was sagen Sie? nicht? Do you hear? Horen Sie? Be quiet Seien Sie ruhig Do you hear me? Horen Sie mich? What a shame! Welche Schande! I don't speak to you Ich spreche mii Ihnen How could you do Wie konnten Sie es nicht it? thun? Do you understand Verstehen Sie mich? I am ashamed of you Ich schdme mich Ihrer me? You are very much Sie sind sehr zu Listen Horen Sie to blame tadeln Come here Kommen Sie hierher Don't answer Antworten Sie nicht What is that? Was ist das? Be patient Gedulden Sie sich Answer Antworten Sie I will improve Ich werde mich bes- Why don't you an- Warum antworten Sie sern swer? nicht? EASY EXPRESSIONS What do you mean? Was meinen Sie? What do you mean Was meinen Sie Tell me Sagen Sie mir by that? damit? If you please guttigst gefdlligst You speak German Ich vermuthe Sie Have the goodness Haben Sie die Gute I suppose sprechen deutsch Yes, Sir Ja, mein Herr Very little, Sir Sehr wenig, mein Yes, Madam Ja, Madam Herr No, Sir Nein, mein Herr I can understand, Ich kann es verstehen, No, Madam Nein, Madam. but I can not aber Sprechen kann No, Miss Nein, mein Fr'dulein speak it ich nicht Do you speak Sprechen Sie Do you know me? Kennen Sie mich? German? deutsch? Do you know Mr. H ? Kennen Sie Herrn H? English ? englisch ? I know him Ich kenne ihn or French? oder -fransosisch? I do not know him Ich kenne ihn nicht I do not speak Ger- Ich spreche nicht I know you Ich kenne Sie man deutsch I know him by sight Ich kenne ihn -von I speak it a little Ich spreche etwas Ansehen I understand Ich verstehe I know him by name Ich kenne ihn bei I understand it but Ich verstehe es aber Namen I do not speak it Ich spreche es nicht I know him well Er ist mir wohl I speak English Ich spreche englisch bekannt I am an Englishman Ich bin ein Engldnder What do you call Wie nennen Sie das? I speak French a Ich spreche ein wenig that? little fransosisch What is that in Ger- Wie heisst das auf I am not a French- Ich bin kein Fransose man? deutsch? man What do you call Wie heisst das auf Do you understand? Verstehen- Sie? that in English? englisch? Can you understand? Konnen Sie verstehen? What does that Was heisst das? Speak slower Sprechen Sie lang- mean? samer What is it good for? Wozu ist es gut? You speak too fast Sie Sprechen zu schnell It is good for noth- Es ist zu nichts gut Give me Geben Sie mir ing some bread Brod Is it good ? Ist es gut? some butter Butter Is it bad? Ist es schlecht? some water Wasser Is it eatable? Ist es essbar? some tea Thee Is it drinkable? Ist es trinkbarf some wine Wein Is it nice? Ist es schdn? some meat Fleisch Is it fresh? Ist es frisch? something etwas AGE to eat zu essen to drink zu trinken How old are you? Wie alt sind Sie? Bring me Bringen Sie mir I am twenty Ich bin zwanzig Jahr some coffee Kaffee alt some milk Milch I shall soon be thirty Ich werde bald dreis- some cheese K'dse sig sein I thank you Ich danke Ihnen He looks older Er sieht alter aus 138 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT She is younger Sie ist jiinger How is your mother ? Wie befindet sich Ihre She can not be so Sie kann nicht so Frau Mutter? young j^ng sein I am not well Ich bin nicht wohl He must be older Er muss alter sein I am unwell Ich bin unwohl I did not think you Ich glaubte nicht dass She is not well Sie ist nicht wohl were so old Sie so alt sein He is not well Er ist nicht wohl He is at least sixty Er ist wenigstens She is ill Sie ist krank sechszig He is very ill Er ist sehr krank She must be forty Sie muss vierzig Jahr She has a cold Sie hat sich erkaltet alt sein I have the toothache Ich habe Zahnweh How old is your Wie alt ist Ihr Voter? I must go Ich muss gehen father? I am going now Ich gehe jetzt He is nearly eighty Er ist nahe achtzig It is time to go Es ist Zeit zu gehen Is he so old? Ist er so alt? Good-by Leben Sie wohl How old is your Wie alt ist ihre Farewell Adieu sister? Schwester? I wish you a good- Ich wiinsche Ihnen She is fifteen Sie ist fiinfzehn morning einen gnten Mor- Is she so young? Ist sie so Jung? gen How old is your Wie alt ist Ihre Tante Good-evening Guten Abend aunt? Good-night Cute Nacht She is nearly ninety Sie ist fast neunzig I wish you good- Ich wiinsche Ihnen It is a great age Esist ein hohes Alter night gute Nacht He begins to grow Er fangt an alt zu My compliments at Meine Empfehlungen old werden home den Ihrigen MORNING A VISIT An early morning Ein friiher Morgen There is a knock Es klopft Early Friih It is Mr. A. Es ist Herr A. It is a fine morning Es ist ein schoner It is Mrs. B. Es ist Madam B. Morgen I am glad to see you Ich freude mich Sie What o'clock is it? Wie viel Uhr ist es? zu sehen It is nearly eight Es ist nahe acht Uhr Pray be seated Bitte setzen sie sich It is a quarter after Es ist viertel nach What news is there ? Was gigbt's Neues? four vier Good news Gute Nachrichten It is half-past two Es ist halb drei Do you believe it? Glauben Sie es? Light the fire Zunden Sie das Feuer I don't believe a Ich glaube kein Wort an word of it davon Light a candle Zunden Sie ein Licht I think so Ich denke (glaube") so an I think not Ich denke nicht I am going to get up Ich will aufstehen Who told you? Wer hat es Ihnen ge- Get me some hot Bringen Sie mir el-was sagt? water heisses Wasser It is true Es ist wahr Some cold water Etwas kaltes Wasser It is not true Es ist nicht wahr Some spring-water Etwas Trinkwasser I doubt it Ich bezweifie es Make haste Machen Sie schnell Have you heard from Haben Sie von House home? gehort? MEETING The postman brought Der Brieftrdger Good-morning Guten Morgen me a letter to-day brachte mir heute Good-day Guten Tag einen Brief Good-afternoon Guten Nachmittag Sad news Schlechte Nachrichten How do you do? Wie geht's? Will you dine with Wollen Sie mit uns How are you? Wie befinden Sie sich? us? speisen? Very well Sehr wohl No, thank you Nein, ich danke Ihnen I am very well Ich befinde mich sehr I can not stay Ich kann nicht bleiben wohl I must go Ich muss gehen Pretty well Ziemlich wohl You are in a great Sie sind in grosser Tolerably So ziemlich hurry Eile How is your father? Wie befindet sich Ihr I have a great deal Ich habe viel zu thun Herr Voter? to do SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT OF all modern languages, except the Portuguese, the Spanish pre- sents the closest approximations to the grammar and construc- tions of classical Latin. Like French and several other Euro- pean dialects, it represents the Latin in a more or less advanced stage of decomposition. Thus, as in English and French, the regular case endings used in the inflection of nouns and adjectives have been abandoned, and the oblique cases are formed with prepositions. The use of the personal pronouns very much resembles that of Latin, since, when the subjects of verbs, they are regularly omitted except where emphasis requires them to be expressed. The syntax of Spanish is very simple, and in very many cases quite agrees with the English usage. Thus, the student attempting to speak is saved many errors arising from perplexity regarding the proper order of words. While the Spanish verb presents some departures from construc- tions understood by English-speaking people, the idioms are, for the most part, simple and logical in theory and readily to be understood. Taken all in all, the Spanish is far easier of acquisition than even the German. By students thoroughly grounded in Latin it may be acquired with sur- prising ease. THE SPANISH ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATIONS THE Spanish alphabet contains twenty- seven letters, exclusive of K and W, which are used only in foreign words. It contains, however, three characters, ch, II, and n, which are regularly regarded as sep- arate letters. Ch (tchay) has been con- sidered a separate letter since 1803. LI and n are called "ligatured consonants," both having a consonant y sound after the letter represented. The alphabet is as follows : A, a (ah). Always pronounced like a in the English words "art" and "father." B, b (bay). Pronounced as in English, although in some parts of Spain it is confused with V. C, c (thay) When followed by a, o, u, or any conso- nant, sounds like k; before e and i, it sounds like th in "think." Ch, ch (tchay). Pronounced like ch in "child." D, d (day). Pronounced as in English. At the end of words it sounds somewhat like th in "though." E, e (ay). Pronounced like the sound of a in the word "male." F, f (ay- fay). Pronounced as in English. (139) 140 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT G, g (hay). Has two distinct sounds; before a, o, u, er consonant, it sounds like g in the En- glish words "girl" and "good"; before e and i, it sounds like h in the English words "high," "hay." H, h (ah-tchay). Is silent in the Spanish language, pro- nounced as if no such h were there. I, i (e). Sounds like e in the English word "evil." J, j (hoe-tah). Is pronounced like h in the English words "horse," "hall," "hill." L, 1 (ai-lay). Pronounced as in English. LI, 11 (ail-yay). Similar sound to the English word "William." At the beginning of a word the first / is vocalized; the second given with a consonant y sound following. M, m (ai-may). Pronounced as in English. N, n (ai-nay). Pronounced as in English. Sf, n (ain-yay). Always pronounced like m in the En- glish words "pinion," "minion." O, o (o). Pronounced like the English o in the word "organ," and when accented, like the o in "old." P, P (pay). Pronounced as ' in English. Q, q (coo). Pronounced as the English k before ue and ui, in all other instances it has been replaced by c. R, r (er-ay). When single is pronounced as in English ; at the beginning of a word and when double, it has a strong rolling sound. Near- est possible sound: rr er'-ray. Final r has the full rolling sound, almost like double r in English. S, s (ai-say). Pronounced like the English s in the words "say," "simple," "seven." T, t (lay). Pronounced as in English. U, u (oo). Pronounced as the English u m the word "pull"; it is silent in the syllables gue, gut, except when it has a diaeresis over it, thus u. In the syllables que, qui, is always si- lent. V, v (vay). Pronounced as in English. X, x (ay-kiss). Has the sound of x in the English word flax. Y, y (e-gree-ai-gah). Has the sound of e in the English word "evil." Z, z (thay-tah). Pronounced like th in the English word "thin." PRONUNCIATION The pronunciation of Spanish is easy of acquisition, since the sounds of the vowels and consonants once understood, and a few simple rules of variation learned, it will be found that there is positively no necessity for uncertainty regarding the pronuncia- tion of any word. In this respect it pre- sents many advantages over the French, and is certainly easier to learn than the English. A good general rule for the pronuncia- tion of Spanish is to remember that one must acquire great distinctness in enuncia- tion. There are no silent consonants if we except h; so that, when the student has once mastered the sounds belonging to the various letters, he may learn the proper pronunciation of separate words by pro- nouncing them slowly and distinctly, giving the full sound and value to each letter. By cultivating the habit of clear and dj stmct pronunciation, giving each letter a separate dynamic impulse, the peculiar intonation of Spanish may be readily acquired. SPANISH VOWELS In Spanish, as in other languages, the vowels are long and short. However, the distinction between the two is not in the sounds belonging to them, but, properly, in the time occupied in pronunciation. Thus, the long vowels are pronounced fully, and at length, while the short vowels are given rapidly, although with the same qualities of sound. This rule should be thoroughly un- derstood by the student, and will remove a fertile source of perplexity at the begin- ning of his studies. SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 141 SPANISH CONSONANTS As in English and some other languages, there are two classes of vowels recognized in Spanish. These are called the "weak" and the "strong" vowels ; these names being given on account of their influence upon me sound of a preceding consonant. The strong vowels are a, o, u, the weak vowels e, i. Thus, c before a strong vowel is sounded like k, but before a weak vowel, like th in "think," etc. ; g before a strong vowel is hard, but before a weak vowel is sounded like guttural h. Since this rule is invariable, hard c before a weak vowel be- comes qu, and soft c before a strong vowel becomes z. Also, hard g before weak vowels becomes gu, while soft g before strong vowels becomes /. Y is a consonant letter. When used as a consonant at the beginning of words or be- tween vowels it has the same sound as when used in English in the words youth and year. When it (y) stands alone it serves as a vowel, used as a copulative con- junction meaning and; it is also used in- stead of the vowel * at the end of words; as ley, law; soy, I am; estoy, I am; rey, king. As a conjunction meaning and it is used as follows : Juan y Pedro, John and Peter; Salud y diner o, Health and money. DOUBLE LETTERS In pure Spanish no letters, except e, i, c, r, are written double // being consid- ered one letter and these occur only un- der certain conditions. Consonant combi- nations are much less numerous, and much less frequent, than in almost any other language. This is an important point, which the student will find of use in comparing similar, or cognate, words from Spanish and English in the following vocabulary. ACCENT Words ending in consonants are accented on the last syllable : as salud, health ; cantor, to sing. Words ending in a vowel or a diphthong are accented on the penultimate syllable : as bianco, white ; silla, chair ; cam- pana, bell ; ruido, noise ; cielo, heaven ; reino, kingdom. This is called the "tonic accent." The written accent is used only on words that do not follow the above two rules. When the written accent is used, it indicates where to lay the stress of the voice, as azucar, sugar ; papa, papa ; sdbado, Saturday. The vowels d, e, 6, u, when standing alone, are always accented. This is called the "graphic accent." The acute accent (') is the only one used in the Spanish language. VOCABULARY OF FAMILIAR AND USEFUL WORDS To THE STUDENT familiar with Latin, the acquisition of a good-sized Spanish vocabulary will be easy, after a few simple rules of vowel and consonant variation have been understood. The English-speaking student is in very nearly the same position of advantage provided he have an intelli- gent comprehension of his own language; since both Spanish and English are very largely of Latin origin. Thus, very many English words derived direct from Latin roots have their counterparts in Spanish. Several hundred English words, of Latin origin, ending in tion and sion, are found practically the same in Spanish, except for the change to the ending cion. Among these are accion (action), conversation (conversation), declaration (declaration), invention (invention), nation (nation), diction (diction), ratification (ratification), habitation (habitation), etc. A number of English nouns of Latin origin ending in ty have counterparts in Spanish with the ending tad or dad. Thus : libertad (liberty), vanii-id (vanity), grave- dad (gravity), necesidad (necessity), so- ciedad ( society ) . The following brief vocabulary will fur- nish the attentive student with a number of the other common variations of suffixes that, with close observation of vowel and consonant changes, will soon enable him to greatly increase his store of ready words. The pronunciations appended to these words are, as far as possible, given with unmistakable English combinations. Note that ah and oh correspond in sound to the English interjections so spelled. THE WORLD AND SEASONS English The earth the sea the water the fire the wind the rain the snow the ice the day the night the sun Spanish la tierra el mar el agua el fuego el vicnto la lluvia la nieve el hielo el dia la noche el sol lah teeayri^ih ail mahr ail ahgooah ail fooaygoh ail veeayntoh lah youveeah lah neeayvay ail eeayloh ail deeah lah nochay ail sohl 142 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT Engbh Spuhh PronuncUOon FOOD the moon la luna lab loonah taM SyMiah PimoBclBttM the stars las estrellas lahs aystrayyahs the meat la came lab carnay the river el rio ail reeoh the bread el pan ail pan the animate Io3 animales lohs ahneemah- the flour la karina lah ahrecnah lays veal came de ternera carnay day tay^ the air el cure ail ah-ceray nay rah the morning la maiiana lab mahnyaynah mutton carnc de camera carnay day car* the evening la tarde lah tahrday nayroh the year el ano ail ahnioh lamb eordero cordayroh the century el siglo ail seegloh pork carnc de p*erco carnay day poo- the lake el logo ail lahgoh ayrcoh the winter el invierno ail eenveeayrnoh bacon tocino tohtheenoh the summer el verano ail vayrahnoh ham jamon hamohn the fall el otono ail otonyeeoh butter tnantcquilla mahntaykee-yah the spring la primavera lar preemahvay- cheese queso kaysoh rah fish pescado payscahdoh the heat el color ail cahlohr fowl ave ahvay the seasons las estaciones lahs aystahthee- chicken potto pohl-yoh ohnays turkey pavo pahvoh the stream la corriente lah cohrreeayntay pigeon paloma pahlohmab quail codornis codorneeth THE HUMAN BODY partridge perdis payrdeeth rice arros ahr-roth the head the face the arm the eyes the ears the eyebrows the neck la cabeza la car a el brazo los ojos las orejas las cejas el pescveso lah cahbaythah lah cahrah ail brahthoh lohs ohos lahs ohrayhahs lahs tliayhahs ail payskooaysoh eggs pie oysters lobster desserts ice cream huevos ooayvohs pastel pahstayl ostiones ohsteeohnays langosta lalmgostah postres postrays helados aylahdohs the chest the hand el pecho la mono ail paychoh lah mahnoh VEGETABLES the finger el dedo ail daydoh potatoes papas papas the hair el pelo ail payloh beans frijoles freehohlays the mouth la boca lah bohkah carrots sanahoria thanahoreeab the nose la naris lah nahreeth turnips nabo nahboh the foot el pie ail peeay lettuce lechuga laychoogah the lips lot labios lohs lahbeeohs celery apio ahpeeoh the leg la pierna lah peeayrnah tomatoes tomate tomatay the knee la rodilla lah rohdeeyah cabbage col kohl the elbows los codos lohs kohdohs cauliflower coliflor kohleeflor the blood la sangre lah sahngray onions ccbolla thaybolyah the shoulders las paletas lahs pahlaytahs parsley perejil payrayheel the skin la piel lah peeayl spinach espinaca ayspeenahka the tooth el diente ail deeayntay cucumber pcpino paypeenoh the teeth los dientes lohs decayntays beet remolacha raymohlahchah the tongue la lengua lah layngooah peas chicharos cheechahros the bones los huesos lohs ooaysohs radishes r&bano rahbahnoh the back la espalda lah ayspahldah asparagus csparragos aysparrahgohs HOUSE AND EATING UTENSILS DRINKS the chair la sitta lah seeyah water agua ahgooah the table la mesa lah maysah wine vino yeenoh the armchair el sillon ail seeyohn beer or ale cervesa thayrvaythah the looking-glass el espejo ail ayspayhoh milk leche laychay the pillows la almohada la ahlmohahdah coffee caff cah fay the sheets las sabanas lahs sahbahnahs chocolate chocolate chocohlahtay the towel la toaila lah tohahyah tea te tay the tablecloth el pano de rneja ail pahnyeeoh gin ginebra heenaybrah day maysah punch ponche pone hay the cup la tasa lah tahsah rum ran or aguar- rohn or ahgoo- the knife el cuchillo ail coocheeyoh diente ahrdeeayntay the spoon la citchara lah coochahrah coffee and mflk caff con leche cahfay conn the bowl la escudilla lah ayscoodeeyah laychay the clock el rehj ?'l rayloh lemonade limonada leemohnahdah the trunk el haul ail bahool orangeade naranjada nahrahnhahdah the box la caja lah cah-hah buttermilk suero sooayroh the mattress el colchon ail cohlchohn milk punch ponche de leche ponchay day the lamp la lampara lah lahmpahrah laychay the plate el plato ail plahtoh sherry vino de jeres veenoh day the fork el tenedor ail taynaydohr hayrayth the candlestick el candelero ail cahndaylay- port wine vino de oporto veenoh day roh ohportoh the bed la cama lah cahmah claret vino tinto veenoh teentob the napkin la servilleta lah sayrveeyay- champagne vino de chom- veenoh day tab pafia champahnyah SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 143 MEN'S AND WOMEN'S CLOTHING English SpanUh Pronunciation the young man el /oven ail hohvaym English Spantoh Pronunciation the young wo- la /oven lah hohvayn the hat el sombrero ail sohmbrayroh man the shirt la camisa lah cahmeesah the coat la levita lah layveetah TOWN, HOUSE, AND COUNTRY the pants el pantaloon the collar el cuellu the cuffs los punos the cloak la capa the necktie la corbata the cap la gorra the overcoat el sobretodo ail pantahlohn ail kooaylyoh lohs poonyohs lah cahpah lah cohrbahtah lah gohr-rah ail sohbray- the town the country my country the city the village the building el pueblo el campo mi pais la ciudad la villa el edificio ail pooaybloh ail cahmpoh mee pahees lah theeoodad lah veelyah ail ay dee fee - theeoh the jacket la chaqueta the dress el vestido the skirt las faldas tohdoh lah chahkaytah ail vaysteedoh labs fahldahs the street the house the schoolhouse the church la calls la casa la escuela la iglesia lah cahlyay lah cahsah lah ayskooaylah lah eeglayseeah tne nose t . .. the stockings f las medtas the handker- el paKuelo labs maydeeahs ail pahnyooay- IrvTt the hospital' the inn the post-office el hospital la posada el correo ail ospeetahl lah pohsahdah ail cohrayoh cnici the shoes los eapatos ion lohs thahpahtohs the theatre the hotel el teatro el hotel ail tayahtroh ail ohtayl the tavern la taberna lah tahbayrnah WRITING MATERIALS the custom- house la aduana lah ahdooahnah the paper el papel ail pahpayl the library la biblioteca lah beebleeo- the pen la pluma lah ploomah taycah ihe ink la tinta lah teentah the bridge el puente ail pooayntay the inkstand el tintero ail teentayroh the tower la torre lah torray the pencil el lapis ail lahpeeth the castle el Castillo ail casteelyoh the sealing-wax el lacre ail lahcray the shop la tienda lah teeayndah the wafer la oblea lah ohblayah the exchange la bolsa lah bolsah the ruler la regla lah rayglah the prison la carcel lah carthayl the penknife el cortaplumas ail cortah-ploo- mahs the university la universidad lah ooneevayr- seedad the envelope el sobre ail sohbray the cathedral la catedral lah cataydrahl the post-stamp el sello de correo ail saylyo day cohrrayoh the palace the window el palacio la ventana ail pahlahtheeob lah vayntahnah the letter la carta lah cartah the door la puerta lah pooayrtah a sheet of paper una ho/a de pa- pel oonah ohah day paypayl the wall the key la pared la Have lah pahrayd lah yahvay blotting paper papel secante stamped paper papel sellado papayl saycantay papayl saylyah- doh the bell the staircase the parlor la campana la escalera la sola lah campahnah lah ayskalayrah lah sahlah the address la direction lah deeraykthee- ohn the dining-room the bedroom el comedor el cuarto de ail ccmaydohr ail kooahrto dormir day dormeer RELATIONS the room el cuarto ail kooahrto the kitchen la cocina lah cotheenah the mother la madre lah mahdray the roof el techo ail taychoh the father el padre ail pahdray the cellar el sotano ail sohtahnoh the grandmother la abuela lah ahbooaylah the garden el jar din ail hardeen the grandfather el abuelo ail ahbooayloh the market el mercado ail mayrkadoh the son el hi/o ail eehoh the bank el banco ail bankoh the daughter la hi/a lah eehah the coffee-house el cafe ail cahfay the brother el hermano ail ayrmahnoh the harbor el puerto ail pooayrtoh the uncle el tio ail teeo the field el campo ail campoh the aunt la tia ah teea the bush la brena lah brenyah the nephew el sobrino ail sohbreenoh the oven el homo ail ortioh the niece la sobrina lah sohbreenah the straw la pa/a lah pahah the girl la muchacha lah moochahchah the corn el main ail maheeth the boy el muchacho ail moochahchoh oats avena ahvaynah the wife la esposa lah ayspohsah the mill el molino ail moleenoh the husband el esposo ail ayspohsoh the hill la loma lah lomah the man el hombre ail ohmbray the hay el heno ail aynoh the woman la mufer lah moohayr the soil la tierra, el ter- lah teeayrrah the bride la novia lah nohveeah reno the bridegroom e/ novio ail nohveeoh the barn el granero ail grahnayroh the widow /a Kt'wrfa lah viewdah the meadow la pradera lah pradayrah the widower el viwdo ail viewdoh the hut la chosa lah chohthah the friend (male) el amigo ail ahmeegoh the cattle el ganado ail gahnahdoh the friend (fe- la amiga lah ahmeegah the forest la selva lah saylvah male) the shepherd el pqstor ail paatohr the child (male) el nino ail neenyoh the herd la man a da lah manahdah the child (fe- la nina lah neenyah the woods el bosque ail boskay __j.i \ firewood ) the cousin / riwo ail preemo Split-wood } la lena lah laynyah 144 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT gnjlUh Opal* }> ro mmoiJon PROFESSIONS AND TRADES wheat trigo treegoh _ M . road camino cahmeenoh K: .-.-. Spankh ProaBMtoMM highroad the valley railroad camino-real cahmeenoh rayalil el voile ail valyay fgrro-carrit fayrroh karreel the doctor el doctor ail dohctohr the lawyer el abogado ail ahbohgahdafc a civil engineer el ingeniero ail eenhayneeayroh a mile the waterfall una milla oonah meal-yah la cascado lah cahacahdah civil ceeveel a chemist MM quimico oon keemeecoh a druggist un droguista oon drohgeesta NATIONS, NATIONALITIES, ETC. the baker el panadero ail pahnahdayroh the hatter el sombrerero ail sohmbrayrayroh America an American America. Ahmayreeka un Americano oon Ahmayree- kano the shoemaker el eapatero ail thahpahtayrob the barber el barbero ail bahrbayroh the schoolmaster el maestro dt ail mahaystroh day Mexico a Mexican Europe a European Mejico Mayheeko un Mejicano oon Mayheekahno Europa Ayoorohpah un Europfo oon Ayooroh- payoh escuela ayskooaylah the miller el molinero ail mohlecnayroh the blacksmith el herrero ail ayr-rayroh the weaver el tejedor ail tayhaydohr the butcher el carnicero ail cahrneethayrob England an Englishman France a Frenchman Germany a German Inglaterra Englahtayrrah un Ingles oon Inglays Francia Frahntheeah un Francis oon Frahnthays Alemania Ahlaymahneeah un Aleman oon Ahlayman the brewer el cervecero ail bahbrayroh the tailor el sastre ail sahstray the carpenter el carpintero ail cahrpeentayroh the mason el albanil ail ahlbah-nyeel the bookbinder el encuaderna- ail aytikooahdayr- dor de libros nahdohr day , i ^ Italy Italia Eatnhlccah leebrons an Italian un Italiano oon Eatahlee- a priest un saccrdotg oon sahthayrdohtay a minister Switzerland a Swiss Ireland an Irishman Siviza Sooeethah un Swizo oon Sooeethoh Irlanda Ir-landah un Irlandes oon Ir-landays a bishop un obispo oon ohbeespoh an archbishop un arzobispo oon ahrthohheespoh the Pope el papa ail papa the nun la monja lah mohnhab Scotland Escocia Ayskotheeah a Scotchman un Escocet oon Ayskothays ANIMALS, BIRDS, FISHES, INSECTS Russia* Rusia Rooseeah the dog el perro ail payr-roh a Russian un Ruso oon Roosoh the horse el caballo ail cahbahlloh Denmark Dinamarca Deenahmarka the donkey el burro ail boor-ro a Dane un DinamarqiHS oon Deenamar- the pig el lechon ail laychohn kays the colt el potro ail potroh Sweden Sue da Sooaytheeah the goat el chivo ail cheevob a Swede un Sueco on Sooaykoh the cat el goto ail gahtoh Spain Espana Ayspahn'yah the rat la rata lah rahta a Spaniard un Espanol oon Ayspahn'yot the mouse el rat on ail rahtohn Hungary JJungria Oongreeah an ox un buey oon booaee a Hungarian un Httngaro oon Oongah-roh a cow una vaca oonah vahcah Holland Holanda Oh-landah a calf un ternero oon tayrnayrob a Dutchman un Holandes oon Oh-landays a sheep un camera oon cahrnayrob Belgium Bflgica Belheeka a lamb un cordero oon cohrdayroh a Belgian un Bilga oon Belgah the hare la liebre lah leeaybray Austria Austria Ahoostreeah the monkey */ mono ail mohnoh an Austrian un Austriaco oon Ahoostreeah- a wolf un lobo oon lohboh coh a bear un oso oon ohsoh Brazil Brasil Brahseal a lion un lean oon layohn a Brazilian unBrosiletto oon Brahseel- a tiger un tigre oon teegray en'yo an elephant un elefante oon aylayfahtrtay China China Cheena a mare una yegua oonah yaygooah a Chinese un China oon Cheeno a bull tin toro oon tohro Portugal Portugal Portoogahl a duck un pato oon pahtoh a Portuguese un Portuguet oon Poortoogays a hen una gallina oonah crahl-yeenah Africa Africa Ahfreeka a cock MM Ratio oon gahlyob an African un Africano oon Ahfreekanob a chicken un polio oon pohlyoh Asia Asia Anseeah the eagle tl aguila ail ahgeelah an Asiatic KK Asidtico oon Ahseeah- the pheasant el faisan ail faheesahn teecoh the bat el murcielago ail moorceeaylahgoh Turkey Turquia Toorkeyah the partridge la perdi* lab payrdeeth a Turk un Turco oon Toorko the peacock tl pavo-real ail pahvoh reeahl Prussia Prusia Prooseeah tile swan el cisne ail thcesnay a Prussian un Prusiano oon Prooseeahno the goose el ganso ail gahnsoh Poland Polonia Poloneeah the nightingale el ruisenor ail rooeesayn-yohr a Polander or un Polaco oon Polahco the mocking-bird el sinsonte ail seensohntay Pole the sparrow */ gorrion ail gohr-reeohn Norway Noruega Norooaygah the parrot la cotorra lah cohtohr-rab a Norwegian un Noruego oon Norooaygoh the bird el pa faro ail pah-hahroh Philippine Islas Filipinos Eeslahs Feelee- a fish un pescado oon payscahdoh Islands peenahs the pike el lucio ail lootheeoh a Philippine Isl- un Filipino oon Feeleepee* the salmon el salmon . ail sahlmohn ander nob the carp la carpa lab cahrpah SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 145 English Spanish Pronunciation English Spanish Pronunciation the eel la anguila lah ahngeelah half an hour media-hora maydeeah ohrab the trout la trucha lah troochah a quarter of an un cuarto de hora oon kooahrto the herring el arenque ail ahraynkay hour day ohrah the crab el cangrejo ail cahngrayhoh the time el tiempo ail teeaympoh oysters ostiones ohsteeohnays the day el dia ail deeah the turtle Id tortuga lah tohrtoogah Sunday Domingo Domeengoh the whale la ballena lah bahlyaynah Monday" Lunes Loonays the frog la rana lah rahnah Tuesday Maries Martays the butterfly la mariposa lah mahreepohsah Wednesday Miercoles Meeayrkolays the fly la mosca lah mohscah Thursday Jueves Hooayvays the spider la arana lah ahrahnyah Friday Viernes Veeayrnays the moth la polilla lah pohleeyah Saturday Sdbado Sahbahdoh a gnat un mosquito oon mosquito a month un mes oon mais a bee una abeja oonah ahbehah January Enero Aynayroh a wasp una avispa oonah ahveespah February Febrero Faybrayroh an ant una hormiga oonah ohrmeegah March Marso Marthoh a flea una pulga oonah poolgah April Abril Ahbreel bedbug chtnche cheenchay May Mayo Mahyoh insect insecto eensayctoh June Junio Hooneeoh mosquito mosquito mosquito July Julio Hooleeoh August Agosto Ahgohstoh September Setiembre Sayteeaymbray TREES, BUSHES, AND FLOWERS October Octubre Octoobray November Noviembre Noveeaymbray an apple (tree) un manzano oon mahnthahnoh a pear (tree) un peral oon payrahl December Diciembre Deeceeaymbray a week una semana oonah saymah- a plum (tree) un ciruelo oon theerooayloh nah a cherry (tree) un cerezo oon thayraytho a year un ano oon ahnyo an orange (tree) un naranjo oon nahranhoh a chestnut (tree) un castano oon castahnyoh a currant un grosellero oon grosaylyayroh a century un siglo oon seegloh the half century el media sigh ail maydeeoh seegloh strawberry fresa fraysah raspberry franbuesa. franbooaysah blackberry sarsamora tharthahmorah the morning la mafiana lah mahnyahnal noon el medio-dia ail maydeeoh- deeah an oak (tree) el roble ail roblay the fir (tree) el abeto ail ahbaytoh the willow (tree) el sauce ail sahoothay the afternoon la tarde lah tahrday the evening el anochecer ail ahnochay- a tree un arbol oon arbohl the rose la rosa lah rohsah the tulip el tulipan ail tooleepahn the night la noche lah nohchay midnight media-noche maydeeah- the pink el clavel ail clahvayl the lily el lino ail leereeo sunrise la salida del sol lah sahleedah the violet la violeta lah veeohlaytah the honeysuckle la madreselva lah mahdraysaylvah dayl sol sunset la puesta del sol lah pooaystah the flower la flor lah flohr dayl sol New Year's Day Ano Nuevo Ahnyo Nooay- voh MINERALS, METALS, AND PRECIOUS STONF"? Christmas Navidad Nahveedad Easter Pascua de resur- Paskooah day O i \Jl^t H.O reccion raysoorrayk- gold oro ohroh theeon silver plata plahtah Whitsuntide Dia de Pentecostes Deeah day Pen- iron hierro eeayrroh Whit-Sunday " taycostays copper cobre cohbray a holy day un dia de festa oon deeah day steel acero ahthayroh feeaystah zinc zinc theenk Palm Sunday Domingo de Ramos Domeengoh day tin hoja de lata ohah day lahtah Rahmohs bronze bronce bronthay diamond diamante deeahmantay ruby rubi roobee CARDINAL NUMBERS pearl perla payrlah opal opalo ohpahlo uno oonoh coral coral korahl 2 dos dohs emerald esmeralda aysmayrahldah sapphire safir thahfeer 3 tres trays 4 cuatro kooahtroh topaz topacio topahtheeoh 5 cinco thinkoh amethyst amatista ahmahteestah 6 seis say-is marble marmol marmohl 7 siete seeaytay coal carbon karbohn 8 ocho o-tcho lime col kal o, nueve nooayvay 10 dies dee'ayth i T once onthay TIME, MONTHS, AND DAYS 12 doce dothay 13 trece tretli'-ay an hour una hora oonah ohrah 14 catorce kahtorthay a minute un minnto oon meenootoh 15 - quince keenthay a second ~',n sepw* io oon saygoondoh if dies y sefs deeayth e say-ees 146 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT Knglfch Spanlah Pronandatlon ORDINAL NUMBERS 17 die* y siete deeayth e seeaytay Engltah Spaolah PraoncMioo 1 8 dies y ocho deeayth e ohchob ist primero or primer preemayro or preemayr 19 die* y nueve deeayth e nooayvay 2d segundo saygoondoh 20 veinte vay-in'-tay 3d tercero or tercer tayrthayroh 21 veintc y uno vay-in'-tay e oonoh 4th cuarto kooahrtoh 22 veinte y dos vay-in'-tay e dohs 23 veinte y tres vay-in'-tay e trays 24 veinte y cuatro vay-in'-tay e kooahtroh 5th quinto kintoh 6th sexto or sesto sekstoh or saystoh 7 th septimo or setimo septeemoh or sayteemoB 25 veinte y cinco vay-in'-tay e thinkoh 8th octavo oktahvoh 26 veinte y seis vay-in/-tay e sayees 9th noveno novaynoh 27 veinte y siete vay-in'-tay e seeaytay 28 veinte y ocho vay-in'-tay e ohchob 39 veinte y nueve vay-in'-tay e nooayvay 30 treinta tray-in'-tah loth decimo daythcemoh nth undecimo oondaythcemoh 12th duodecimo doo-ohdaythcemoh 1 3th decimo tercio daythcemoh tertheeoh 31 treinta y uno tray-in'-tah e oonoh 32 treinta y dos tray-in'-tah e dohs 33 treinta y tres tray-in'-tah e trays 34 treinta y cuatro tray-in'-tah e kooahtroh 35 treinta y cinco tray-in'-tah e thinkoh 36 treinta y seis tray-in'-tah e sayees 37 treinta y siete tray-in'-tah e seeaytay 38 treinta y ocho tray-in'-tah e ohchoh 39 treinta y nueve tray-in'-tah e nooayvay 40 cuarcnta kooahrayntah 1 4th decimo cuarto day theemoh kooahrtoh 1 5th decimo quinto daythcemoh kintoh 1 6th decimo sexto dayt heemoh sekstoh i 7th decimo septimo day theemoh septeemoh 1 8th decimo octavo day theemoh oktahvoh 1 9th decimo noveno da ytheemoh novaynoh 2oth vigesimo veehayseemoh 3Oth trigesimo treehayseemoh 4oth cuadragesimo kooahdrahayseemoh 5oth quincuagesimo kinkooah-hayseetnoh 41 cuarenta y uno kooahrayntah e oonoh 42 cuarenta y dos kooahrayntah e dohs 43 cuarenta y tres kooahrayntah e trays 44 cuarenta y cuatro kooahrayntah e kooahtroh 45 cuarenta y cinco kooahrayntah e thinkoh 6oth sexagesimo seks-ah-hayscemoh 7oth septvagesimo septooah-hayseemoh 8oth octogesimo oktoh-hayseemoh 9oth nonagesimo nonah-hayseemoh looth centesimo thentay theemoh 46 cuarenta y seis kooahrayntah e sayees 47 cuarenta y siete kooahrayntah e seeaytay CONJUNCTIONS 48 cuarenta y ocho kooahrayntah e ohchoh that que kay 49 cuarenta y nueve kooahrayntah e nooayvay and y e 50 cincuenta thinkoo-entah not, nor, neither ni knee 60 sesenta saysentah too, also tambien tahmbeeayn 70 setenta saytentah neither tampoco tampoh-co 80 ochenta o-tchentah if, whether si see 90 r.oventa noventah if como komo 100 cie thieh-en when cuando cooahndo 200 doscientos dos-thieh-en/-tos so that asi que ahsee kay 300 trecientos treth-e-en'-tos as, according to segun saygoon 400 cuatrocientot kooahtroth-e-en'-totf while mientras que me-entrahs kay 500 quinientos keeneeayntos as since, there- pues, pues que pooais, pooais kay 600 seiscientos say-is-thieh-en'-tos fore 700 setecientos saytay-thieh-eir*-t08 why? jporque? porkay? 800 ochocientos O-tchoth-e-en'-tos therefore por tanto por tayntoh 900 novecientot no-veth-e-en'-tos however como quiera que komo key-ayrah kay 1,000 mil meel besides fuera de que fooayrah day kay 5,000 cinco mil thinkoh meel since, inasmuch puet, puesto que pooais, pooaysto to? 10,000 diez mil dee'ayth meel but mas, pero mahs, payro 30,000 veinte mil vay-in'-tay meel even aun, cuando ahoon, kooahndo 30,000 treinta mil tray-in'-tah meel although aunque ahoonkay 40,000 cuarenta mil kooahrayntah meel though 50,000 cincuenta mil thinkoo-entah meel provided eon tal que cohn tahl kay 100,000 cien mil thieh-en meel as como, asi como komo, ahsee komo 200,000 doscientos mil dosthieh-en-tos meel as long as mientras tanto meeayntras tantoh 300,000 trescientos mil treth-e-en'-tos meel instead of en lugar de en loogahr day 400,000 cuatrocientos mil kooahtroth-e-en'-tos meel for want of por falta de por fahltah day 500,000 quinientos mil keeneeayntos meet since desde que desday kay BRIEF OUTLINE OF SPANISH GRAMMAR INFLECTION AND CASES IN the inflection of nouns, adjectives, and articles, the several cases or, more prop- erly speaking, "states" are usually formed with prepositions ; no variation of the word- terminations being found except in forming a feminine from a masculine noun or adjec- tive, and in the formation of the usual line of derivatives. As in English, the personal pronouns alone have proper cases and vary the words to form them. According to the classification of most grammarians, the Spanish language has six distinct cases for nouns, adjectives, and par- ticiples. These are nominative, genitive, da- tive, impersonal accusative, personal accusa- tive, prepositional The nominative is the SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 147 case for the subject of all verbs, except the impersonals. The genitive, which corre- sponds to the English possessive case, is formed by preceding the noun with the preposition de, which means "to" or "from." The dative is formed with the preposition a, meaning "to" or "at." The prepositional case is used with de and all other preposi- tions. The difference between the personal and the impersonal accusatives is that the former indicates the direct object of a verb, when it represents a human person, or a thing or quality personified. It takes the preposition a like the dative. The imper- sonal accusative is formed, as in other lan- guages, without a preposition, and is used vith nouns indicating things, animals, or places. Thus, with nouns, the two forms of accusative occur only with the names of things, places, or qualities liable to be per- sonified. to, at of, from in, at, on by, for, through without under but, except toward between, among notwithstanding on, about, above under against with except during to, until, up to after, besides within besides for, in order to so, thus on, over outside, beyond far from near by, close by touching in, into, within PREPOSITIONS d de en par sin so menos hdcia entre no obstante sobre bajo contra con excepto durante hasta tras dentro adem&s de para asi encima fuera de lejos de junto d tocante & dentro de ah day en por seen so mainohs ah-theeah entray no obstantay sobray bahoh cohntrah cohn eks-thaypto doorantay ahstah trahs dayntro ahdaimas day pahrah ahsee enthiemah fooayrah day layhos day hunto ah tocahntay ah dayntro day The preposition, de, which governs the genitive case, may be translated m a variety of ways as "of," "from," "by," "with," "at," "to" or left untranslated in English. The preposition, a, governing he dative case, may be translated as "to," "for," "from," or may be found to give the force of a pos- sessive adjective to a definite article follow- ing it. Prepositions governing the prepositional (or ablative) case always precede the un- altered noun, adjective, or pronoun. The sole exception is in the personal pronouns with con, which is prefixed to the forms -migo, -tigo, -sigo, giving conmigo, "with me," contigo, "with thee," consigo, "with himself, herself," etc. All other pronominal forms are perfectly regular. Thus: con el, con ello, con vosotros, etc. THE ARTICLES In Spanish, as in English, French, and German, there are two articles, the definite and the indefinite. THE DEFINITE lows: Masc. Singular N. el. G. del D. al, para el A. el, al Pr. de, con, en, por, sin, sobre el Masc. Plural N. los G. de los D. d los, para los A. los, d los Pr. de, con, etc.,' los ARTICLE is declined as fol- Fem. Singular la de let d la, para la la, d la de, con, etc., la Fern. Plural las de las d las, para las las, d las de, con, etc., las the of the to the the from, with, in, by, without, over the the of the to the the from, with the As may be readily understood, the forms del and al of the masculine definite article are contractions for de el and d el. The masculine article el is regularly used with the feminine nouns beginning with a or ha with the tonic accent. Another word frequently used is the de- monstrative lo, called improperly the "neutett article." It is used with adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns to express substantive ideas; its use with nouns being irregular and in- correct. It is declined through all cases, which is to say governed by proper prepo- sitions, like the regular articles given above. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE is declined as fol- lows : Masc. Fern. N. un una a G. de un de una of a D. d un d una to a A. un, 6 un una, d una a Pr. de, con, en, de, con, en, from, with, in, por, etc., un por, etc., una by a As in English, the indefinite article has properly no plural, although the adjective unos, unas, meaning "some," is sometimes said to represent the plural. It is used, as in English, mostly with partitives having at- tributes ; also, with attributive expressions in the sense of "a few." PERSONAL PRONOUNS The personal pronouns are yo, "I"; ttt, ^hou"; el, "he"; ella, "she"; the formal pronoun vos, "you" (singular) ; and the 148 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT word us ted, "your grace," or "you," which is really a substantive, and always takes the third person of the verb. The plural forms are nosotros, "we"; vosotros, "you"; ellos and ellas, "they"; and ustedes, "you." All of these pronouns are in more or less regular use among Spanish-speaking peoples. When used with a verb, as already stated, usted and ustedes invariably take the third person. It is, in fact, the only pronominal word regularly used with the verb, and is designated by V. (singular) and W. (plural). This brings us to one of the most noted peculiarities of the Spanish language, which is that the personal pronouns "I," "you," "he," etc., are not used as subjects of the verb, unless required for emphasis ; to give distinctness in a contrast, or in a position where ambiguity might result without them. Thus, as we shall see later, the Spanish verb is inflected precisely as in Latin with per- sonal and tense endings. The subject "it" of an impersonal verb is never expressed, except in emphatic or in- terrogative sentences where ello is used. Even where the personal pronoun in En- glish is in apposition to the noun, as subject of a verb, it is not expressed in Spanish; the regular rule being that the noun Is used whh the definite article, apparently as sub- ject of the verb in the proper person. Thus: "We Spaniards are very back, ward," Los Espanoles estamos muy atra- gados. Where the sense of the sentence requires that the pronoun be expressed, the noun still retains the definite article, and follows the pronoun. Thus : Nosotros los Espanoles estamos, etc. INFLECTION OF THE PRONOUNS. The per- sonal pronouns, as in English, have a fuller inflection than any other parts of speech, and they alone regularly modify the form to designate case. There are two inflections for the dative and accusative of personal pronouns: the conjunctive, representing the construction when governed by a verb, and the disjunctive, representing the construc- tion with a preposition. These two forms appear in the accompanying paradigms: FIRST PERSON Sing. Plur. N. yo, I nosotros (f. *w), we G. de ml, of me, my de nosotros(.t. oj),of us.our \ mt nos "' \ & ml, me, or to me dnosotrosft. as), us, to us . \ me nos ^ \ 6 mt, me & nosotros (f. as,), us Pr. mi, me nosotros (f. as), as SECOND PERSON Thou N. tu G. de ti _ j & a Dj to Pr. ti Singular You vos de vos & vos os 4 vos OS vos Plural You vosotros ( as) mt vosotros ( as) & vosotros (as) OS a vosotros ( as) OS vosotros ( as) Sing. He (moor.) N. el G. de el n J k I OT a a Pr. el THIRD PERSON She (/*m.) rib de c//a If d c//a /a a /la ella Plur. They (masc.) They (fern.) N. ellos ellas G. de ellos de ellas D I les les ( a ellos & ellas A. j los, les las ] & ellos & ellas Pr. ellos ellas It (neut.) ello, lo de ello They (neut.) HO HEUTER PLURAL The student must carefully observe that the conjunctive and disjunctive accusatives of the personal pronouns do not correspond to the personal and impersonal accusatives of nouns, adjectives, and articles, although apparently formed on the same theory. The personal pronouns, when direct objects of verbs, are used without prepositions, in the conjunctive construction; with prepositions, in the disjunctive construction; or the two forms of the same pronoun may be used to indicate the direct object of one and the same verb, in a pleonastic construction. Thus, the English sentence, "He seeks thee/* may be rendered: CONJUNCTIVELY, Te busca; DISJUNCTIVELY, A' ti busca; PLEONASTICALLY, Te busca a ti, or A' ti te busca. In the last construction, emphasis is attained by placing the disjunctive first. Similarly, this sentence may be rendered: Le'busca d V. (tuted), or, A' V. (usted) le busca. To illustrate, the plural of the quasi-pro- noun usted, the following may be given : Les busca d VV. (ustedes), or A' VV. (ustedes) les busca. The pronominal plural accusative, Us, is most commonly used with ustedes. "USTED" AND "USTEDES" The word, usted, ustedes, is a contraction of the ancient formal expression, vuestra merced, "your grace" ("your honor"), and SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 149 vuestras mercedes, "your graces." It is com- monly written V. or Vd. in the singular, and VV, or Vds. in the plural, being always read in full like the English "Mr." (Mister) or "St" (Saint). As a personal pronoun, it is a very good analogue of the German Sie, "you," which is declined precisely like sie, "they," and also takes the verbal forms of the third person (plural). In declension, usted follows the rule for nouns without the article, but has substitute forms from the third personal pronouns in the dative and accusative of both numbers. Thus : Sing. Plur. N. usted ustedes G. de ttsted de ustedes D. a usted, or Ic 6 ustedes, or les . A. d usted, or le, la a ustedes, or los, let, las Pr. usted ustedes The substantive character of this word is seen in the fact that it has only the per- sonal accusative form in both numbers, ex- cept in its pronominal substitutes, which are always conjunctive, omitting the prepo- sition, d. This permits the pleonastic con- structions given above. The uses of usted demand special notice. It may precede or follow its verb in the nominative, never separating the auxiliary verb and participle in compound tenses. Its oblique cases may be used instead of the possessive adjectives, and this construc- tion is considered the more elegant in polite address. Thus, the phrase, "At your feet," may be rendered d vuestros pies, or d los pies de V. Although regularly expressed, when sub- ject of a verb, usted may be omitted: (i) when it has already been expressed, as a subject, in the same sentence; (2) when sufficiently close to its expression in a para- graph, to avoid ambiguity; or (3) in short sentences where no ambiguity could occur. In short sentences it may be replaced by its pronominal substitutes, provided that no ambiguity occur. Its substitutes, also, fol- low the rules for conjunctive pronouns, being suffixed to certain verbal construc- tions. THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN The reflexive and reciprocal pronoun, si, "self," is frequently used for the third per- sonal pronoun and for usted. It is declined as follows in both numbers: G. de si, of himself (yourself) selves. D. se d si, to himself (yourself) selves. A. se d si, himself (yourself) selves. PR. si, himself (yourself) selves. THE DEMONSTRATIVES The Spanish demonstrative adjectives, usually classed with pronouns, are: (i.) este, esta, esto, this; PLURAL, estos, estas; (2) ese, esa, eso, that; PLURAL, esos, esas; (3.) aquel, aquella, aquello, that; PLURAL, aquellos, aquellas; (4.) el, la, lo, that; PLURAL, los, las; (5.) aqueste, aquesta, this; PLURAL, aquese, aquesa; (6.) estotro, estotra, this other; PLURAL, estotros, estotras; (7.) esotro, esotra, that other; PLURAL, eso- tros, esotras; (8.) aquel otro, aquella otra, that other; PLURAL, aquellos otros, etc. To briefly sum up the shades of meaning found in the use of these words, we may say that este, "this," designates something held by the speaker or near to him; ese, "that," something held by or near to the person addressed; aquel, "that," something remote from both. Thus, in referring to cities and places, the words, en esta, "in this," may be used with the meaning "here" ; en esa, "in that," with the meaning "there." Tlie same distinctions hold good in referring to places and times, at hand, or less or more remote. Thus, esta calle, "this street," in- dicates the one in which I live or the one of which I have just spoken; esta calle, "that street," the one inhabited by or mentioned by you; but aquella calle, "that street," one equally remote from both of us. Similarly, este ano, "this year," refers to the present; ese ano, "that year," to the one mentioned by the speaker, or within his recollection; aquel ano, "that year," to a time far in the past, and beyond personal recollection. In short, este, may be translated by the English slang expression, "this here"; ese, by "that there." Consequently, ese is frequently used in the contemptuous sense of the English "that," emphatic, or the Latin iste* as in the expression, el hombre ese, "that man," or "that man there" ("that man of yours"). In ordinary discourse, the demonstrative adjectives precede their nouns, but, in lively or emphatic language, they follow the noun, which is properly preceded by the definite article. The definite article, el, la, is used as a demonstrative pronoun, taking the case, gen- der, and number of the omitted noun to which it refers. The demonstrative adjectives may be used as nouns, with the meaning of "this man" (or "woman"), "that man" (or "woman"), 150 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT or merely of "this one" or "that one." Sim- ilarly, the neuter forms, esto, eso, aquello, may refer to things, or may mean, respec- tively, "what I said," "what you said," "what has been said" by some one else, by some one or other, or in remote time. In all these secondary uses the distinctions of meaning hold good, as already specified. THE POSSESSIVES Like other languages, the Spanish dis- tinguishes possessive adjectives, "my, thy, his," etc., and possessive pronouns, "mine, thine, his, ours," etc. In regard to the use of these, there are several peculiarities, which, however, have partial counterparts in English idioms. The possessive adjectives have two forms, the conjunctive and the absolute, so called; the former preceding, and agreeing in num- ber with, the noun, and the latter following, and agreeing in both number and gender with, the noun. In point of agreeing with the thing possessed, rather than with the possessor, the Spanish follows the rule laid down for Latin, French, German, and many other languages. The possessive adjectives, however, agree in person with the possessor, and their form indicates the number. Briefly expressed, the conjunctive form of Spanish possessive adjectives corresponds to the ordinary construction of English; thus, "my book," "my friend." The absolute con- struction, on the other hand, is represented by the English expression "that of mine," etc., as in "that son of yours." This construction is found in poetical address, particularly in religious odes; thus, "Father of ours," etc. It also occurs in poetry and classic, or romantic, writing in such endear- ing forms as "baby mine," "husband mine." To further smplify the matter for the stu- dent, we may say that the absolute posses- sive, so-called, in Spanish, consists, as in the English corresponding construction, in using the possessive pronoun as an adjective. THE ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES Since, in Spanish, the absolute possessive construction occurs much more frequently than in English, the conditions of its use must be definitely specified. (1) It is used in both languages to admit the demonstratives, "this" or "that," in a possessive construction. (2) It is used, as in English, in familiar and endearing terms, and in contemptuous expressions. (3) With the first person, it is the regu- lar form in direct address, except where the noun, indicating the thing or person pos- sessed, is qualified by an adjective or past participle. In this latter case, either the conjunctive or absolute form may be used. Thus: padre mio, "my father," but mi que- rido padre, or querido padre mio, "my dear father." (4) With impersonal nouns. (5) With nouns used, as in English, in an indeterminate sense. Thus, "a friend of mine." (6) Where special emphasis or rhetorical effect is desired. In connection with the last head, however, it seems necessary to remark that the em- phasis given in English by the word, "own," is similarly given in Spanish by propio, propia. Thus: mi propio padre, "my own father"; mi propia madre, "my own mother," etc. This construction always oc- curs with the conjunctive possessive adjec- tives. Although the absolute forms of the pos- sessive adjectives regularly follow a noun used with the definite or indefinite article the former being used generally in the sense of the demonstrative, "that" there are sev- eral cases, beside direct address, in which articles may be omitted. (1) With idioms using prepositions; as, a casa mia, "at my house" ; a fe mia, "on my word." (2) When the noun is the predicate after the verb, "to be"; as, Es amigo mio, "He is a friend of mine." The conjunctive possessives may be used with a noun governed by a demonstrative adjective, as also in English. Tfeus, we may say, "this thy brother," este tu hermano; "those your friends," esos tus amigos. The possessive adjectives are given in the following list The conjunctives indicating singular possessors have a common form for both genders: the absolutes vary for gender, as do, also, the conjunctives indicat- ing plural possessors, except in the third person. Thus : FIRST PERSONAL POSSESSIVES CONJUNCTIVE. "My," mi (SING.), mis (PLUR.). "Our," nuestro, nuestra (SING.), nuestros, nuestras (PLUR.). ABSOLUTE. "My," or "mine," mio, mia (SING.), mios, mias (PLUR.). "Our," or "of ours," nuestro, nuestra (SING.), nuestros, nuestras (PLUR.). SECOND PERSONAL POSSESSIVES CONJUNCTIVE. "Thy," or "your," tu (SING.), tus (PLUR.). "Your," vuestro, w- estra (SING.), vuettros, vuestras (PLUR.). SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 151 ABSOLUTE. "Thy," or "of thine," tuyo, tuya (SING.), tuyos, tuyas (PLUR.). "Your," or "of yours," vuestro, vuestra (SING.), vuestros, vuestras (PLUR.). Where usted is used instead of the second personal pronoun, the third personal poses- sive occurs, as will be illustrated presently. THIRD PERSONAL POSSESSIVES CONJUNCTIVE. "His, her, its," su (SING.), sus (PLUR.). "Their," su (SING.), sus (PLUR.). ABSOLUTE. "His, her, its, their," or "of his, of hers, of its, of theirs," suyo, suya (SING.), suyos, suyas (PLUR.). The regular construction with the con- junctive possessives is to precede the noun, indicating the thing possessed, by the appro- priate personal form, singular or plural. Thus, mi padre, "my father"; mis padres, "my parents"; tu tio, "thy uncle," tu tia, "thy aunt," tus tios, "thy uncles," or "thy uncle and aunt"; su casa, "his house," sus casas, "his houses," etc. With the conjunctive third personal pos- sessive, the regular rule, in order to indi- cate gender and number, is to use a pleonas- tic construction with the appropriate per- sonal pronoun preceded by de. Thus, while the phrase, su padre, may mean "his, her, its, their (M. or F). or one's father," the pleo- nastic constructions, su padre de el, de ella, de ellos, or de ellas, furnish the only available means for determining the gender and number of the possessing noun. The second personal possessive adjectives, "thy" ("your") and "your" (PLUR.), are ex- pressed by su, sus, in sentences of direct ad- dress containing usted. Thus, in such sen- tences, "your father," may be translated, su padre; el padre de V., or su padre de V, Also, "your parents," sus padres; los padres de V,, or de VV.', or sus padres de V., or de VV. As in French, words indicating parts of the body and wearing apparel take the da- tive of the personal pronoun, instead of the possessive adj ective, after verbs. Thus : Besaron la mono a ella, "They kissed her hand"; Les tomo la ropa, "He took their clothing." Also, as in French, when there is no doubt as to the identity of the pos- sessor, the definite article alone is used. Thus: El levanto la cabeza, "He raised his head"; Corto la mono, "He cut his hand." The possessive pronouns are the same as the absolute possessive adjectives, in both gender and number. They are regularly used with the definite article, and are declined with it in all cases. Thus, we have el mio, la mia, los mios, las mias, "mine," etc. In point of agreement, they refer to the thing possessed in gender, number, and case, and to the noun indicating the possessor or pos- sessors in person and in the designation of number. Thus : mis padres y los vues- tros, "my parents and yours"; Este perro es el mio, "This dog is mine." In order to avoid ambiguity in the use of the third personal pronoun, distinguishing "his," "hers," "theirs," and in the use of this pronoun with usted, it may be replaced by the genitive of the proper personal. Thus, while in the sentence, Esta casa es suya, the gender and number of the noun, indicating the possessor or possessors, is uncertain, the sentence Esta casa es de el, or, de ella, etc., is perfectly specific. In several cases, the possessive pronouns may be used without the definite article. (1) When predicative after the verb, "to be," either without a demonstrative pronoun, or, when the demonstrative is not emphatic. Thus : Tuyo es el reyno, "Thine is the king- dom." When the demonstrative adjective is used in merely stating a fact, about which there is no dispute, the article is omitted, as, Esa casa es tuya, "That house is yours." But, where there is a dispute, the article must be used, as, Esa casa es la tuya, "This house is yours." (2) The article is omitted, when it has already been used with another possessive or with the genitive case of a noun. Thus : Tomaron nuestra ropa la de mi padre y mia, "They took my father's clothing and mine." When the possessive pronouns are used substantively, lo (PLUR., los) is always found where the article should logically occur. Thus: Tos mios y los tuyos "Mine and thine." RELATIVE PRONOUNS The relative pronouns are as follows : quien, quienes, he who, these who; que, that, who, which; el (la) cual, los (las) cuales, who, which; el (la) que, los (las) que, who, which; cuyo, cuya, cuyos, cuyas, whose, of which. The demonstrative adj ective, aquel, aquella, and the definite article, el, la, are also used with que, to give the meanings "he who," "the one who," "those who," etc. Also, the^ meanings, "that which," and "what," are" supplied by lo que, lo cual, and aquello que. The pronoun, que, is used as the nomina- tive of quien, when referece is to persons; in the other cases, except the accusative, it refers only to things and objects devoid of 152 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT natural sex. The declensions of these words, as used in the specified senses for both gen- ders, are as follows: Singular N. quc que G. eis Esttrvierets sive voice, the terminations are regularly beran Estaran Fuerea Estuvieren SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 159 INDICATIVE Perfect or I have been, etc. he sido or estado has sido or estado ha sido or estado hemos sido or esfcado habeis sido or estado han sido or estado SUBJUNCTIVE Past Indefinite I may have been, etc. haya sido or estado hayas sido or estado haya sido or estado hayamos sido or estado hayais sido or estado hayan sido or estado Pluperfect I had been, etc. habia sido or estado habias sido or estado habia sido or estado habiamos sido or estado habiais sido or estado habian sido or estado Past Anterior I had been, etc. hube sido or estado hubiste sido or estado hubo sido or estado hubimos sido or estado hubisteis sido or estado hubieron sido or estado First Pluperfect I might have been, etc. hubiera sido or estado hubieras sido or estado hubiera sido or estado hubiaramos sido or estado hubierais sido or estado hubieran sido or estado Second Pluperfect I might have been, etc. hubiese sido or estado habieses sido or estado hubiese sido or estado hubiesemos sido or estado hubieseis sido or estado hubiesen sido or estado Future Perfect I shall have been, etc. {If ) / should have been, etc. habre sido or estado hubiere sido or estado habras sido or estado hubieres sido or estado habra sido or estado hubiere sido or estado habremos sido or estado hubieremos sido or estado habreis sido or estado hubiereis sido or estado habran sido or estado hubieren sido or estado CONDITIONAL MOOD Present I would be, etc. Seria Serias Seria Seriamos Seriais Serian Estaria Estarias Estaria Estariamos Estariais Estarian Past I would have been, etc. habria sido or estado habrias sido or estado habria sido or estado habriamos sido or estado habrias sido or estado habrian sido or estado IMPERATIVE MOOD Let me be, etc. Sea Este Se Esta No seas No estes Sea Este Sea V. EsteV. Seamos Estemos Sed Estad No seais No esteis Sean Esten Sean VV. Esten VV. USES OF SER AND ESTAR When the verbs, ser and estar, "to be," are used with other words than parts oi verbs, as expressing state or existence, idiom prevents their interchange in prac- tically all cases. This fact gives rise to several shades of meaning, which must seem somewhat strange to the average En- glish-speaking student. Thus, ser always indicates a fact or state that is permanent or essential; while estar indicates what is merely temporary, transitory, or acciden- tal. Examples are, as follows : El fuego es caliente, "Fire is hot" (indicating a perma- nent quality) ; El agua estd caliente, "The water is hot" (indicating that it is in one of several possible states). Also: Soy Es- panol, "I am a Spaniard"; Estoy en Es- pana, "I am [now] in Spain." The distinction involved in the use of these words naturally modifies the mean- ings of many adjectives, when used pred- icatively after the one or the other. Among these we may mention the following: BUENO, (i) after ser, "good"; (2) after estar, "well" (in good health). MALO, (i) after ser, "bad"; (2) after estar, "ill" (in poor health). ALTO, (i) "tall"; (2) "high up." TRISTE, (i) "stupid"; (2) "sad." CANSADO, (i) "tiresome"; (2) "tired." CALLADO, (i) "discreet" or "taciturn"; (2) "silent." Loco, (i) "crazy"; (2) "frantic." USES OF THE TENSES While in the greater number of cases the several moods and tenses of the Span- ish verbs are used very much like the cor- responding parts in English, there are sev- eral points that demand at least passing mention. THE INDICATIVE MOOD states facts that actually exist, that have existed, or that will exist, and is never used in any con- struction expressing contingency or uncer- tainty. There is, however, considerable lat- itude in the use of the several tenses of this mood, as in English and most other languages. Thus, the present tense, in ad- dition to expressing facts represented as occurring at the time of speaking, also in- dicates, (a) habit, custom, and permanent conditions; (b) is used instead of the future in familiar language ; (c) replaces the past definite (preterit) in lively narra- tion; (d) is used idiomatically after a clause with the impersonal verb hace, "it is." These usages are virtually reproduced in English, thus, with the Spanish we say, "I go at once," instead of, "I will go." We also say, in lively narration, "He comes up and speaks to me," or, "He says, thus and so," instead of using the past tense. The idiom giving the present tense after the impersonal verb, "it is," is far less common in English; thus we always say, 160 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT "Have you been waiting long?" while the Spanish says, "Is it long that you waited?" THE IMPERFECT TENSE, as in French, de- notes continued action in the past, and is really equivalent to the English progressive conjugation, giving "was" with the present participle of the verb. It may even be ren- dered by a perfectly similar construction in Spanish. As a consequence it indicates either, (a) some incident that was in proc- ess at the time referred to, or (b) that was customary in a time before the present. It may also indicate the absolute past, properly denoted by the preterit in vivid narrations, either when the action ex- pressed is represented as occupying more or less time, or in expressing what oc- curred during a definite past period. In this sense it is always used to state who or what a certain person was. Thus we say "Alexander was king of Greece," which is rendered in Spanish by Alejandro era rey de Grecia. THE PRETERIT OR PAST DEFINITE indicates action occurring on one occasion of the past, and is almost always used in historical nar- rations, except when the idea of repetition, custom, or long duration is involved. THE PERFECT OR PAST INDEFINITE indi- cates, (a) what actually occurred in the past, without reference to any particular period; (b) what is occurring in time, not yet wholly elapsed. Thus we also say, "I have returned to-day," or, "I have been ill this week," THE PLUPERFECT TENSE is used precisely as in English, as expressing some action or condition already completed at a past time referred to. THE PAST ANTERIOR TENSE, which is al- ways formed with the preterit of the verb, "to have," and the past participle of the main verb, expresses the same idea as the pluperTect, but is always preceded by con- junctions of time, such as cuando, "when"; despues que, "after" ; huego que, asi que, tan pronto como, "as soon as"; no bien, "no sooner"; apenas, "scarcely." THE FUTURE TENSE, in addition to de- noting future time, as in English, is also used idiomatically, (a) to denote possibil- ity thus where we say, "Can such a thing be?" the Spanish says, "Will it be?"; (b) it is used for the present sense, yhen some doubt is involved as to the object, manner, or reason of obvious action, or where the English would use "I wonder," "I suspect," "perhaps," etc.; (c) it indicates also will- ingness, consent, or refusal, as in English. TH CONDITIONAL MOOD, as already stated, is used principally in the apodosis of conditional sentences, which is to say, in the clause stating the conclusion follow- ing a condition expressed by "if" or "when" in the protasis. The present con- ditional may follow either form of the im- perfect subjunctive, and the past condi- tional, either form of the pluperfec- subjunctive. The conditional is also used, (a) as in English, to express conclusion in sentences where the protasis is implied, understood, or logically to be assumed as existing thus, we say "I would not do such a thing"; (b) it is used to indicate a statement somewhat uncertain, or only approximate, in the sense of the English "about' thus, "It is about 2 o'clock," or "He is about twenty years old" ; (c) it also expresses possibility or fitness in the sense of the English auxiliaries "could," "should," "ought," etc.; (d) with preposi- tions expressing desire or wish, it indicates a modest or respectful request, such as is introduced by the English "might"; (e) it is used, like the simple imperfect of the subjunctive, in a dependent clause express- ing indirect discourse, etc. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, as in several other languages, and in classic English, is used in two principal ways: (a) as the proper tense for a subordinate clause, indi- cating indirect discourse, and introduced by a conjunction; (b) independently, to express command, particularly in the third person, or to supply the absence of the imperative form, to express wishes thus, "Would God," "God grant," "Would that," etc. ; (c) to express possible alternatives, such as are represented by the English "whether or not." In a subordinate clause the subjunctive follows a preposition expressing doubt, de- nial, questioning, hope, fear, expectation, command, desire, advice, permission, grief, surprise, regret, and after impersonal ex- pressions in general. It follows in any con- struction that may properly be introduced by the conjunction, "that," in English. The subjunctive also follows conjunctions in sentences expressing possibility, uncertainty, and indefinite futurity; such as, antes que, "before," como and cuando, "when," para que, "in order that," mitntras, "while," etc. The subjunctive is also used in relative sentences, (a) expressing negative ideas; (b) referring to things unknown or indefi- nite. Thus, No hay quien lo crea, "There is no one who believes that." THE INFINITIVE MOOD is used as a verbal SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 161 noun, like the English participle ending in ing, in practically all cases except where the gerund properly ocurs. In some cases, also, it is used alternately with the gerund. The infinitive mood is, thus, used (a) after all prepositions, and (b) with the definite article, as expressing abstract ideas or the actions indicated by the verb. Thus, El saber es indispensable, "Knowledge is in- dispensable." With prepositions expressing command, causing, hindering, forbidding, wishing, fearing, desiring, pretending, etc., the in- finitive follows without a preposition. It is preceded by the preposition, a, when the verb indicates motion or definite direction, also with many reflexive verbs, expressing moral assertion, etc., such as daring, re- solving, attempting, refusing, resisting, etc. It is preceded by the preposition, de, after nouns and adjectives, properly followed by the genitive, and after verbs of remember- ing, forgetting, rejoicing, repenting, ceasing, attempting, being about to, being busy, etc. Other prepositions precede the infinitive, as follows : en, when the idea is expressed in English by the preposition "in," followed by the participle in ing; by con, when the same participle in English is preceded with "by"; by para, in expressing purpose, re- sult, use, etc. ; by the preposition, por, in the sense of result, reason, willingness. THE GERUND is one of the most familiar parts of the Spanish verb being used in several important constructions. It is most frequently used, like the English present participle in ing, instead of a verbal clause introduced by "when," etc. Thus : "Turn- ing to his friend, he added," Volviendo se a suyo amigo, anadio, etc. The gerund is often used with prepositions expressing pro- gressive or continued action, as a substi- tute for such a relative clause as "Those who were doing." It is also used as the English present participle with "while, by, in," as "while working," etc., trabajando; "by pretending," aparentando; "in doing," haciendo. The gerund may also be used ^vith prepositions, being then equivalent to "when or if one has," etc., in English. Thus : En habiendo dinero, etc., "When one has money," etc. The most notable use of the gerund is in forming the so-called "pro- gressive conjugation," as already explained. REGULAR VERBS The regular verbs in Spanish are di- vided into three conjugations, distinguished, as in Latin, according to the characteristic vowel of the present infinitive ending. Thus, all verbs with the infinitive ending in ar belong to the first conjugation; all, in er, to the second; all, in ir, to the third. Since the paradigms of the irregular auxiliary verbs, haber and ser, with those of tener and estar, have already been given, it will be unnecessary to do more than to add a few general rules for the formation of the tenses of regular verbs. THE PRESENT INDICATIVE first person of all regular verbs ends in o, with the sec- ond person as or es, and the third person a or e, according to the conjugation deter- mined by the ending of the present infinitive. THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE first person may be formed by changing the o of the present indicative to e in the first declen- sion, and to a in the second and third de- clensions; making the second and third persons es and e, or as and a, accordingly. THE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERFECT of both terminations may be formed from the third person singular preterit indicative by drop- ping the o, and adding ara and ase in the first persons of the first conjugation, and esa and ese in the first persons of the sec- ond and third conjugations, forming iera and iese respectively. THE CONDITIONAL PRESENT may be formed from the future indicative first per- son, by dropping the final e, and adding ia in all conj ugations ; thus forming aria, eria, and iria, respectively. The list of endings shown in the follow- ing table are suffixed either to the stem or the present infinitive form of the verb. The stem of any verb may be found by drop- ping the ar, er, or ir of the infinitive. The tenses formed from the stem are the indicative and subjunctive present and im- perfect; the indicative preterit; the subjunc- tive future and the imperative. Thus : from amar, "to love," we have, amo, "I love" ; ame, "I may love"; amaba, "I was loving"; amara or amase, "I might love"; ame, "I did love"; amare, "(that) I shall love." The tenses formed by adding the personal endings direct to the form of the present infinitive are the indicative future and the conditional present. Thus : amare, "I shall love," and amaria, "I should love." Close study of the following table of tense endings will show that, while, in the first conjugation, the first imperfect and fu- ture subjunctive appear to be derived direct from the present infinitive form, the rule already given is most convenient for form- ing these tenses in the second and third conj ugations. 162 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT TENSE TERMINATIONS OF THREE DECLENSIONS INFINITIVE MOOD Present Gerund ist Conjugation AR, ANDO, 2d ER, IENDO, 3d IR, IENDO, INDICATIVE MOOD V ER B S Past Participle ADO. IDO. I DO. Present (Yo.) <7u.) (El.) (Usted.) (Nosotros.) (Vosotros.) (Ellos.) (Ustedes.) ist Conj. (ar) o, as, a, a, amos, ais, an, an. 2d " (er) o, es, e, e, emos, eis, en, en. 3d u (ir)-o, es, e, e, imos, is, en, en. Imperfect ist Conj. (ar) aba, abas, aba, aba, abamos, abais, aban. aban. 2d (er) ia, ias, ia, ia, iamos, iais, ian, ian. 3d (ir) ia, ias, ia, ia, iamos, iais, ian, ian. Preterit let Conj. (ar) e, aste, 6, 6, amos, asteis, aron, aron. 2d (er)-i, iste, io, io, imos, isteis, ieron, ieron. 3d (ir)-i, iste, io, io, imos, isteis, ieron, ieron. Future * ist Conj. (ar) are, aras, ara, ara, aremos, areis, aran, aran. 2d tt (er) ere, eras, era, era, eremos, ereis, eran, eran. 3d " (ir) ire, iras, ira, ira, iremos, ireis, iran, iran. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Present ist Conj. (ar)-e, es, e, e, emos, eis, en, en. 2d (er) a, as, a, a, amos, ais, an, an. 3d (ir) a, as, a, a, amos, ais, an, an. Imperfect, First Termination ist Conj. (ar) ara, aras, ara, ara, aramos, arais, aran, aran. 2d (er) iera, ieras, iera, iera, ieramos, ierais, ieran, ieran. 3d " (ir) iera, ieras, iera, iera, ieramos, ierais, ieran, ieran. Imperfect, Second Termination ist Conj. (ar) ase, ases, ase, ase, asemos, aseis, asen, asen. 2d (er) iese, ieses, iese, iese, iesemos, ieseis, iesen, iesen. 3d (ir) iese, ieses, iese, iese, iesemos, ieseis, iesen, iesen. Future ist Conj. (ar) are, ares, are, are, aremos, areis, aren, aren. 2d (er) iere, ieres, iere, iere, ieremos, iereis, ieren, ieren. 3d (ir) iere, ieres, iere, iere, ieremos, iereis, ieren, ieren. CONDITIONAL MOOD Present * ist Conj. (ar) aria, arias, ana, aria, ariamos, ariais, arian, arian. 2d (er) eria, erias, eria, eria, eriamos, eriais, erian, erian. 3d (ir) iria, irias, iria, iria, iriamos, iriais, irian, irian. IMPERATIVE MOOD ist Conj. (ar) e> a, e, e, emos, ad, en, en. 2d (er) a, e, a, a, amos, ed, an, an. 3d (ir) a, e. a, a, amos, id. an, an. The student will notice that the syllables ar, er, or ir in the endings of these cases represent tfie final syllables of the present infinitive, on which the endings .seem to be formed. SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 160 PRONOMINAL VERBS There are numerous verbs, of perfectly regular 'conjugation in English, that are found in the so-called "pronominal" or "re- flexive" conjugation in Spanish. Such verbs are given with the third personal pronoun, se, suffixed to the present infini- tive, and are conjugated through all per- sons and numbers with the proper per- sonal pronouns. Thus : from figurase, "to imagine," we have the present conjuga- tion, me figuro, te figuras, se figura, nos figuramos, os figurais, se figuran; all other moods and tenses being similarly con- structed. The compound tenses take con- jugations of haber, with the personal pro- nouns, as: me he figurado, te has figurado, se ha figurado, etc. As with the regularly conjugated verbs, reflexives take subject-pronouns in emphatic or interrogative sentences. The subject- pronoun, however, "always precedes all the other verb-elements in the emphatic construction, and comes last in the inter- rogative In neither case can it come be- tween the reflexive object-pronoun and the verbal form. Thus : Yo me figuro, "I imag- ine"; i Me figuro yof "Do I imagine?";' Yo no me figuro, "I do not imagine"; jNo me figuro yo? "Do I not imagine?" Although some verbs occur only in the reflexive form, while others derive a dif- ferent signification when it is used, any transitive verb may be used reflexively, as in English, when the action is represented as having the same person or thing as its logical subject and object. If the verb in question regularly governs the- accusative, the reflexive pronoun-object is in the accu- sative: if it takes the dative of the person and the accusative of the thing, the reflex- he pronoun-object is in the dative. The regular conversational forms are in- dicated in the examples already given; but literary usage generally makes the pronoun- object a suffix to the personal forms of the verb in the simple tenses, and of the aux- iliary in the compound tenses, when the verb begins a sentence or clause. Thus: figurame or figurame yo, "I imagine"; heme figurado or heme figurado yo, "I have imagined." The impersonal form of the reflexive verbs and conjugation frequently occurs with permanently reflexive Spanish verbs. This form takes the word se, "self," in ad- dition to the pronoun of the proper person, running through the entire conjugation of all moods and tenses with the third person singular of the verb. Thus, instead of the forms already given, we may have; se mg figura, se te figura se le figura, se nos fig- ura, se os figura, se les figura; "I imagine," "thou imaginest," etc., literally, "It imagines itself to me, to thee, to him," etc., etc. This impersonal reflexive form in the third person, singular or plural, furnishes the Spanish equivalent for the English, "They say"; "They tell me," etc., in the sense that, "I am told"; "They ordered him," etc., when the logical subject is in- determinate. The widest use of the reflexive conju- gation is as a substitute for the passive voice, which is very generally avoided in modern Spanish. Thus, as in French, very many nouns indicating things are given with the reflexive, rather than the passive, conjugation. "The book is published," be- comes, "The book publishes itself," El libre se publique: also, "Money was made" (or "made itself"), El diner o se gano. Instead of saying "Spanish is spoken here," we find the conventional reflexive expression, Aqui se habla Espanol, "Here Spanish speaks it- self." The impersonal reflexive may also be used as a substitute for the passive voice. Thus : "I have been deceived," se me ha en- ganado ("it has deceived itself to me") ; "I am not believed," no se me cree ("it does not believe itself to me"). THE PROGRESSIVE CONJUGATION A verbal idiom of considerable impor- tance is the so-called "progressive conju- gation," formed by associating the gerund of the verb with conjugations of estar, "to be"; occasionally, also, with conjugation! of the verbs, ir or andar, "to go" ; seguir, "to go on" ; quedar, "to remain" ; verse, "to see one's self" ; hallarse or encontrarse, "to find one's self." The nearest idiomatic translation into English may be found in our progressive conjugation, as in "I am going"; "He was coming," etc. In short, the gerund, with any of the above verbs, as an auxiliary, may be taken to form any tense of any verb, as with the English idiom just mentioned. VERBAL IDIOMS In very many cases, the Spanish verb k used, as in English, with auxiliary forms expressing obligation, willingness, or im- mediate attention. Thus, the infinitive is used in a number of such expressions with conjugations of the verb haber, "to have," followed by the preposition de; meaning 164 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT "to have to"; "to be about to"; "to be willing to"; also "must," in the sense of contin- gent certainty. Accordingly, the Spanish clause, he de ir, may mean, either, "I have to go"; "I am to go," or "I am willing to go." Similarly, the verb, tener, "to have," fol- lowed by the conjunction, que, also indi- cates "to have to" ; "to be obliged to" ; also, "what remains," etc. Thus, the familiar method of saying, "We must speak," is, Tenemos que hablar. Similarly, in render- ing such sentences, as, "What have you to say?" the Spanish has, iQue tiene V. que decirf Here the emphasis is indicated by the expression of the pronoun, "you," usted (V.). Similarly, the verb, ir, "to go," followed by the preposition, a, indicates, "to be about to do anything." Thus, "I am going to visit him," Voy a visitarle. The English expression, "to be about to do anything," may also be rendered in Spanish by con- jugations of the verb, estar, "to be," fol- lowed by para, with the infinitive. Thus, Estd para decir, "He is about to speak." EUPHONIC CHANGES IN VERBS In a large number of Spanish verbs the formation of the various' tenses involves certain changes in the root, for the sake of making euphonious combinations with the various endings. These may be divided into the following separate heads: (1) Verbs that change the final conso- nant of the root, in order to maintain the proper characteristic pronunciation before a vowel of a different class in the tense ending. (2) Verbs that change the vowel in the last syllable of the root, without changing the consonant. The first of these classes are subject to "regular euphonic changes," so-called be- cause occurring in all verbs of a given class. The second are called "irregular," because occurring only in some of the verbs not af- fected by the first rules. REGULAR EUPHONIC CHANGES In forming the various tenses of a given verb, the. rules for the variation of con- sonants before vowels, weak and strong, must be rigidly observed. This is particu- larly important, since there are no excep- tions to the rules already laid down for guidance in this particular. The most important principle? of regu- lar euphonic vowel-change may be summed up as follows: (1) All verbs of the first conjugation ending in car, gar, ear their stems ending in c, g, or z change these letters to qu, gu, or c before e beginning a tense ending suffixed to the stem. Thus, from tocar, "to touch," we have PRES. IND., toco, "I touch," PRES. SUB., toque, "I may touch"; from llegar, "to arrive," PRES. IND., llego, PRES. SUB., llegue; from alcanzar, "to reach," PRES. IND., alcanzo, PRES. SUB., alcance, However, with personal endings beginning with strong vowels, the original stem-letter is retained, as shown in the following pret- erits: (i) toque, (2) tocaste, toco; (i) llegue, (2) llegaste, (3) llego; (i) alcance, (2) alcanzaste, (3) alcanzo. (2) Verbs of the first conjugation with stems in gu, forming present infinitives in guar, take a dieresis over the u (thus u) before stem-terminati6ns beginning with e. (3) Verbs of the second and third con- jugations, with stems ending in c, change c to z before stem-terminations beginning with a or o, provided the c be preceded by a consonant. Thus, from veneer, "to over- come," we have venzo, venza, etc. ; from esparcir, "to scatter," esparzo, esparza, etc. When the stem-consonant, c, is preceded by a vowel, the stem is strengthened, before stem-terminations beginning in a or o, by inserting z before it. Thus, from carecer, "to lack," we have caresco, carezca, etc. ; from lucir, "to show," luzco, luzca, etc. (4) Verb-stems of the second and third declensions ending in g giving ger and gir have / before the strong vowels a and o. Thus, from eager, "to gather," we have cojo, coja, etc. (5) Verb-stems of the third declension ending in gu and qu giving guir and quir have the radical hard g or c before stem- terminations beginning in a or o. Thus, from seguir, "to follow," we have sigo, siga, etc.; from delinquir, "to transgress," delinco, delinca, etc. (6) Verb-stems of the second and third conjugations, ending in //, n, and some in ch, absorb the * of ie and io of stem-termi- nations, as in the gerund, preterit, subjunc- tive imperfects, and future. Thus, from bullir, "to boil," we have bullendo, build (id), and bullera (iera) ; from taner, "to play, to sport," tanendo, tan6 (J), tanera (iera). This seems natural; since both // and n have a consonant y-sound follow- ing. With verbs in ch, there are generally two forms, one contracted, the other un- SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 165 contracted. Thus, from henchir, "to fill," we have either hinchendo or hinchienda, etc. (7) Verb-stems of the second conjuga- tion ending in e, giving eer in the present infinitive, retain the radical e and change the * of stem-terminations into y. Thus, from poseer, "to possess," we have pose- yendo, poseyo, poseyese, poseyere, etc. (8) Many verb-stems of the third conju- gation ending in u, giving uir in the pres- ent infinitive, retain the radical u before stem-terminations beginning with ie and io, and change the i to y. Thus, from instruir, "to instruct," we have instruyendo, instruy6, etc. Such verb-stems also give y before the stem-terminations a, e, and o. Thus: from instruir, we have, instruyo, instruye, in- struya, etc. IRREGULAR VERBS The primary use of the term, irregular verb, in Spanish, indicates one that changes or suppresses certain letters in its root in certain tenses and persons. In a second sense, the term indicates a verb that, as in other languages, has irregular terminations .in some of its tenses. There are about five hundred and fifty irregular verbs in Spanish, and of these over five hundred form their irregularities on certain general rules; the remainder showing irregularities peculiar to them- selves and their compounds. The verbs showing general irregularities may be classed under five heads : (1) Verbs in all three conjugations, hav- ing e in the penult of the present infinitive, that change the e to ie in the impera- tive, and in the first, second, and third persons singular and the third person plu- ral of the present indicative and present subjunctive. (2) Verbs in all three conjugations, having o in the penult of the present in- finitive, that change the o to ue in the imperative, and in the first, second, and third persons singular, and in the third person plural of the present indicative and present subjunctive. (3) Verbs of the third conjugation, having e in the penult of the present in- finitive, that change the e to i in the im- perative, and in the first, second, and third persons singular, and in the third person plural of the present indicative and present subjunctive. (4) Verbs of the third conjugation, hav- ing e in the penult of the present infini- tive, that change the e to i in the gerund, and in all tenses and persons having termi- nations beginning with o, e, a, ie, io. (5) Verbs, having the root, due, that change the c to / in the indicative preterit and in the first and second imperfects of the subjunctive. In the following list of verbs commonly met in ordinary conversation, those subject to any of the irregularities of vowel-com- bination just noted are followed by num- bers indicating the rules covering their cases in parentheses. Those subject to special pe- culiarities, such as apply only to themselves, their derivatives and a few very similar verbs, are marked with the letter s in pa- rentheses. VERBS to acquire to walk to seize to hit to encourage to grasp to stuff to agree to observe to ascribe to argue to advise to bless to drink to jump to fall to boil to conceive to believe to shut to give to say to sleep to err to begin to understand to make to trample to flee to go to intervene to infer to institute to impose to play to swear to build to fail to fry to fortify adquirir andar asir acertar (i) alentar (i) apretar (i) atestar (i) acordar (2) advertir (i) atribuir arguir aconsejar bendecir (6) beber brine ar caer cocer, hervir concebir (i) creer c error (i) dar decir (s) dormir (s) error empezar (i) entender (i) hacer (s) hollar (2) huir *r(s) intervenir (s) infer ir (i) instituir imponer (s) jugar juror fabricar faltar freir fortalecer 166 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT to die follecer to reduce reducir (5) to force forsar (2) to laugh reir (s) to favor favorecer to mend remendar (i) to govern gobenar (l) to yield rendir (3) to moan gemir (l) to repeat repetir (3) to exclaim gritar to examine istf requerir to grunt grunir to entreat rogar (2) to till labrar to gnaw roer (s) to read leer to breathe resollar (2) to shine lucir to renew renovar (2) to liquidate liquidar to relapse recaer (s) to raise levantar to reconstruct reconstruir to ram Hover to recognize reconocer to cry llorar to reprimand reconvenir to measure medir (3) to sprinkle re gar (i) to bite morder (2) to glitter re lucir to die tnorir (5) to remove remover (2) to move mover (2) to relish saborear to show mostrar (2) to roll rodar (2) to grind tnoler (2) to rot podrir (s) to support mantener (i) to prefer preferir to ride a horsfc montar to appear parecer to curse maldecir (s) to perish perecer to declare tnanifestar (l) to last Permanecer to deserve merecer to pale palidecer to mark marcar to suffer padecer to chew tnascar to populate poblar (2) to snow nevar (i) to possess poseer to deny negar (i) to postpone posponer (s) to be born nacer to prevail prevalecer to swim nadar to proceed proceder to narrate narrar to prevent prevenir (s) to offer ofrecer to foresee prever (s) to obey obedecer to promote promover (2) to hear oir (s) to pursue proscguir to smell oler (s) to propose proponer (s) to obstruct obtsruir to provide proveer to darken obscurecer to arise Provenir (s) to oppose oponer (s) to presuppose presu poner (s) to obtain obtener (s) to foresee presenter (3) to produce producir (5) to imprison prender to prove probar (2) to present presentar (i|> to put poner (s) to premeditate- premeditar to profess profesar to reward premiar to fold plegar(i) to predominate- predominar to please pacer to preach predicar to pervert pervert ir (i) to foretell predecir (4) to think pensar (i) to go out salir (s) to utter proferir (i) to serve servir (3) to ask, to beg pedir (3) to satisfy sotisfacer to lose peder (i) to know saber (s) to burn quemar to feel sentir (4) to stay quedar to sanctify santificar to wish querer (i) to suggest sugerir (4) to break quebrar (l) to follow seguir to take away quitar to smile sonreir (s) to recommend recomendar (i) to sow sembrar (i) to lean against recostar (2) to sustain sostener (s) to refer referir (i) to substitute substituir to remind recordar (2) wO suppose fuponer (s) SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 167 to dye to twist to translate to tremble to bring to stumble to touch to transfer to transplant to come to see to dress to return to fly tenir (4) torcer (s) traducir (5) temblor (l) traer (s) tropezar (i) tentar (i) transferor transplanter venir (s) ver (s) vestir (4) volver (2) volar (2) FAMILIAR IRREGULAR VERBS Since the irregularities of Spanish verbs are numerous and complicated, it will be possible to give only a few samples, as fol- lows: ANDAR, to walk; indie, pret., anduve, an- duviste, anduvo, anduvimos, anduvisteis, anduvieron. ASIR, to seize ; indie, pres., asgo, ases, ase, asimos, asis, asen. CABER, to be contained in; indie, pres., quepo, cabes, cabe, etc. ; indie, pret., cupe, cupiste, cupo, etc. ; indie, fut., cabre, cabras, cabra, etc. ; subj. pres., quepa, quepas, quepa, quepamos, quepais, quepan. CAEH, to fall; indie, pres., caigo, caes, cae, etc. ; indie, pret., cai, caiste, cayo, etc. ; subj. pres., caiga, caigas, etc. DAR, to give; indie, pres., doy, das, da, damos, dais, dan; indie, pret., di, diste, dio, dimos, disteis, dieron; indie, fut., dare, daremos; subj. pres., de, etc. DECIR, to say; gerund, diciendo; past part., dicho; indie, pres., digo, dices, dice, decimos, decis, dicen; indie, imperf., decia, etc.; indie, pret., dije, dijiste, etc.; indie, fut., dire, diras, dira, etc. DORMIR, to sleep; gerund, durmiendo; past part., dormido; indie, pres., duermo, etc.; pret., dormi, dormiste, durmio. HACER, to make; gerund, haciendo; past part., hecho; indie, pres., hago, haces, etc.; pret., hice, hiciste, hizo, hicimos, hicisteis, hicieron. IR, to go; gerund, yendo; past part., ido; indie, pres., voy, vas, va, vamos, vais, van; imperf., ibe, ibas, iba, etc.; pret., fui, fuiste, fue, futmos, fuisteis, fueron; indie, fut., ire, iras, ira, iremos, ireis, iran; sub}, pres., vaya, vayas, vaya, vayamos, vayais, vayan; subj. imperf., fuera and fuese , cond. pres., iria. OIR, to hear; gerund, oyendo; past part., oido; indie, pres., oigo, oyes, oye, oimos, ois, oyen; pret., oi, oiste, oyo, oimos, oisteis, oyeron; fut., oire, etc. PONER, to put; gerund, poniendo; past part., puesto ; indie, pres., pongo, pones, etc. ; pret., puse, pusiste, puso, etc,; cond. pres., pondria, pondrias, etc.; subj. pres., ponga, pongas, etc. REIR, to laugh ; gerund, riendo or riyendo ; past part., reido; indie, pres., rio, ries, rie, reimos, reis, rien; imperf., reia, etc.; pret., rei, reiste, ri6 or riyo, reimos, reisteis, rieron or riyeron; fut., reire, etc., subj. pres., ria, rias, ria, etc. SABER, to know; gerund, sabiendo; past part., sabido; indie, pres., se, sabes, etc.; imperf., sabia, etc.; pret., supe, supiste, supo, etc.; subj. pres., sepa, sepas, sepa, etc. Other subjunctive cases have the root, sup; the conditional, the root, sab. SALIR, to go out; gerund, saliendo; past part., salido; indie, pres., sal go, sales, etc.; imperf., salia, etc.; pret., sali, etc.; subj. pres., saiga, saigas, etc. TRAER, to bring; gerund, trayendo; past part., traido ; indie, pres., traigo, traes, etc. ; imperf., traia, etc.; pret., trajo, etc.; subj. pres., traiga, traigas, etc. VENIR, to come; gerund, veniendo; past part., venido; pres. indie., vengo, vienes, viene, venimos, venis vienen; pret., vine, veniste, vino, venimos, venisteis, vinieron; fut., vendra, etc. ; subj. pres., venga, vengas, venga, etc. Other subjunctive tenses have the root vin t the conditional, the root vend. VER, to see; gerund, viendo; past part., visto; pres. indie., veo, ves, ve, vemos, veis, ven ; imperf., veia, etc. ; pret., vi, viste, vio, etc.; fut., vere, etc.; subj. pres., vea, veas, vea, etc. ADVERBS inside outside forward before back up to-day to-morrow late early whilst still, yet never behind dentro fuera adelante delante atras arriba hoy manana tarde tamprano mientras aun nunca, jamas detras 168 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT upon encitna here aqui whereto adonde there alii wherefrom de-do tide where donde quick presto yonder alia within adentro there ahi abroad, outside afuera now ahora i acaso afterward luego perhaps 4 tal ves soon pronto ( quizas always siempre yes si well bien no no badly mal neither tampoco tall, loud alto already ya low bajo slowly despacio so, as tan easily facilmente very muy ordinarily ordinariamente much mucho frequently frequentemente how much cuanto grammatically gramaticalmente enough bastante frankly fracamente little POCO near cerca before antes far lejos after despues EASY AND FAMILIAR EXPRESSIONS MISCELLANEOUS Yes, sir Si, senor No, sir No, senor Yes, madam Si, senora No, madam No, senora Yes, miss Si, senorita No, miss No, senorita If you please Si V. gusta Not at all No hay de que How do you do iComo esta V.f Very well Muy bien It is warm Hace color It is cold Hace frio It is cool Hace fresco It is very warm Hace mucho color It is very cold Hace mucho frio Good-morning, 1 good-day ) Buenos dias Good-night ) Good-evening J Buenas noches Good-afternoon Buenas tardes Thanks Muchas gracias I am obliged to you Yo agradezco I am very glad Me alegro mucho I understand Yo entiendo A cup of coffee Una tasa de caff A glass of milk Un vaso de leche I am hungry Tengo hambre I am thirsty Tengo sed Good-by Adios I am very sorry Yo siento mucho That is terrible Eso es terrible I congratulate you Felicito & V. You are very kind Es V. muy bueno What a pity jQue lastima! That is impossible It is incredible I am astonished I am angry I wish it so I detest you Give me some meat Give me some fish Give me some rice Give me some beans Give me some cheese Give me some water Give me some wine I am tired Do you speak En- glish? Do you speak French ? Do you speak Spanish ? What do you speak? I speak English I speak French I speak Spanish I speak a little I know a little How old are you? I am fifteen How old is your mother How old is your father? Eso es imposible Es increible Estoy sorprendido Estoy enfadado Yo lo quiero asi Yo lo detesto & V. Deme came Deme pescado Deme arroz Deme frijoles Deme queso Deme agua Deme vino Estoy cansado jHablaV. el Ingles? jHabla V. el Francis? iHablaV.elEspanol? jQue habla V.f Hablo el Ingles Hablo el France's Hablo el Espanol Hablo un poco Si un poco AGE iQue edad tiene V.? Yo tengo quince anot jQue edad tiene sit madre? iQue edad tiene su padre? SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 169 He does not show No representa su THE TABLE his age edad The table is ready La mesa estd lista He never grows old Nunca envejece Serve the dinner Sirva la comida She is a young wo- Es una mujer joven Will you have some jQuiere V. sopa? man soup? ' She does not look it No lo parece The fish is very nice El pescado estd muy He is older than he Es mas viejo die lo bueno looks que parece The vermicelli soup La sopa de ndeos es- How old is your Que edad tiene su was very nice taba muy buena son? hi jo? I had a very fine Esta manana tuve I am not as young No soy tan joven breakfast this un buen almuerso as I look como paresco morning I believe you to be Creo que V-. tendrd I ate some lamb Comi unas costillas about forty years unos cuarenta ano* chops and fried de cordero y papas old potatoes fritas Not so much No tanto Would you like to jDesearia V. comer Your father is fifty Su padre tiene cincu- have your dinner a las seis? years old and he enta anos y parece at six o'clock looks like a man of un hombre de tre- Whenever you please Cuando V. guste thirty inta The roSst beef is La came asada esta He is a young man Es un joven y parece very nice muy buena and looks like an un viejo Do you like roast iLe guesta a V. cl old man mutton? earner o asadof I feel young Me siento joven I like it very much Me gusta mucho I feel old Me siento viejo This lobster salad Esta ensalada de Be young and gay Sea joven y alegre is very rich langosta estd muy rica ANGER AND SURPRISE Who would have be- iQuien lo hubiera ORDERING MEALS lieved it ! creido ! Bring me a plate Trdigame un plato I doubt that to be Dudo que eso sea of soup dc sopa true verdad Give me a napkin Deme una servilleta Is it possible? jEs posiblef A clean plate Un plato limpio Are you quite sure? Esta V. bien se Bring me some Trdigame ostiones guro ? fried oysters fritos I am ashamed Estoy avergonzado Bring me a bottle Trdigame una bo- What a shame! Que verguenzal of red wine tella de vino tinto He has tired out my Me tiene cansada la The tablecloth on El mantel de esta patience paciencia this table is very mesa estd muy I am disgusted Estoy disgustado dirty sit do I am tired of you Estoy cansado de V. Please bring the Sir vase traer los cu- What a pity! iQue lastima! knives and forks chillos y tenedores What an imperti- iQue impertinencia! Bring me a spoon Trdigame una cu- nence ! chara If you don't do as I Si no haces lo que te Bring me two wine Trdigame dos vasos tell you, you shall digo, te castigo glasses para vino be punished Do you want salt jQuiere V. sal y You are very Eres muy majadero and pepper ? pimientaf troublesome No, but I want No, pero quiero Enough of your Basta de tonterias some vinegar vinagre foolishness Do you want some iQmere V. ensalada How impertinent you iQue impertinente lettuce salad? de lechuga? are! eres! Do you want some jQuiere V. arroz y Don't answer me No me contestes rice and beans? frijoles? I am dissatisfied with No estoy satisfecho I want some boiled Quiero huevos pa- you de V. eggs sados par agua It does not seem Parece mentira Would you like some jQuiere V. postres? true dessert ? Silence I iSilencio! No, sir, I want a No, senor, quiero What! iQue! cup of coffee una tasa de cafe" 170 SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT GREETING, VISITING, ETC. MORNING I am glad to see Me alegro de verle I am going to have Voy a tomar el al- you my breakfast very muerzo muy tem- How have you been ? jComo ha estado early prano V.f Every morning I Todas las mananas I have been very He estado muy bien take a walk in the tomo un paseo por well park el pdrque How is your wife? jComo esta su se- What did you do iQue h\zo V. ayer nora f yesterday morning? por la manana? She does not feel well Ella no se siente bien I went to the post- Fui al correo, y des- How is your sister? jComo esta su her- office, and after- pues conteste una mana? ward answered a carta que recibir How is your brother iComo esta su her- letter that I re- de mi padre John? mano Juan? ceived from my He is well El esta bien father It is a long time Hace mucho tiempo Sunday morning I El Domingo por la since I have seen que no he visto d have to take my manana tengo que you V. wife to church llevar d mi senora I have been in Eng- He estado gn Ingla- d la iglesia land terra The morning air is El aire de la ma- I am very busy and Estoy muy ocupado very wholesome nana es muy sa- I have to leave y tengo que de- ludable you jarlo I walk two miles Camino dos millas Until I see you Hasta otra vista every morning todas las mana- again nas Remember me to Mis recuerdos a su The morning is quite La manana esta bas- your wife senora cool tante fresco It is a very warm Hace un verano muy At what time do 4 A que hora quiere summer caluroso you wish to rise? V. levantarse? This winter is too Este invierno es de- I want to be called Quiero que me lid- cold masiado frio at five o'clock in men d las cinco We are having a Tenemos una pri- the morning de la manana beautiful spring mavera hermosa Do you like to sleep jLe gusto d V. dor- Why don't you jPorque no nos vi- in the morning? mir la manana? visit us more sita con mas fre- Sometimes I like it Algunas veces me frequently? quencia? gusto Yes, I will do so in Si, lo hare en lo I work during the Trabajo durante la the future sucesiro night and sleep in noche y duermo Bring your sister Traiga d su her- the morning la manana with you maha con V. If I don't sleep in Si no duermo la I will do so Asi lo hare the morning, I manana, me le- Have you been to iHa estado V. en el arise all tired out vanto cansado the theatre lately? teatro ultima- I was up very early Me levente muy tem- mente? prano I went to the opera Fui d la opera el I had a cold bath Tome un bano de last Wednesday Mier coles pasado this morning agua fria esta Did you like the jLe gustd d V. el manana singing. canto ? I prefer a warm wa- Prenero el bano de I was very pleased Me agrado mucho ter bath agua caliente with it Have you heard from your son? jHa tenido V. no- ticias de su hi] of AFTERNOON, EVENING, AND NIGHT Yes, sir, he writes Si, senor, el me I wish to go to bed Deseo acostarme me often escribe amenudo At what time do I A que hora se How is your busi- jQue tal esta su ne- you go to bed? acuesta V. ? ness? gocio? Some nights earlier Algunas noches mas Quite dull Bastante nojo than others temprano que They will improve Mejorardn despues otras later I rest well during Descanso bien du- Pray, be seated Siruase sent arse the night rante la noche SPANISH SELF-TAUGHT 171 This afternoon I am Esta tarde voy d Are you sleepy? iTiene V. sueno f going to take a tomar un paseo Let us go to the Vamos al baile walk ball Yesterday afternoon Ayer tarde fui d The bed is ready La cama estd lista I went to see my ver d mi madre These sheets are Estas sabanas no mother not very clean estdn muy limpias I intend to go to Pienso ir al teatro It is not my fault, No es culpa mia, fa the theatre this este noche the washer-woman lavandera las trajo evening brought them so asi Last evening I saw Anoche m a mi her- This evening I am Esta noche estoy my brother at the mano en el hotel very tired muy cansado hotel It is time to go to Es hora de irnos d The evenings are Las noches son muy bed la cama very cool frescos It is time to go to Es hora de acos- Last night I slept Anoche dormi muy bed tarnos very badly mal To-morrow night Manana en la noche To-morrow after- Manana en la tarde I am going to voy al teatro con noon I intend to pienso ir a visitor take my wife to mi senora call on a good d un buen amigo the theatre friend Until to-morrow Hdsta manana en la I am sleepy Tengo sueno evening noche WRITING is the art of expressing ideas by visible signs or char- acters inscribed on some material. It is either ideographic or phonetic. Ideographic writing may be either pictorial, rep- resenting objects by imitating their forms r or symbolic, by imitating their nature or proportions. Phonetic writing may be syllabic or alpha- betic; in the former each character represents a syllable; in the latter, a single letter. Of the origin of this art nothing is positively known. The Egyptians ascribed it to Thoth; the Greeks, to Mercury or Cadmus; and the Scandinavians, to Odin. The first step toward writing was probably the rude pictorial rep- resentation of objects, without any indication of the accessories of time or place; the next, the application of a symbolic signification to some of the figures, so that the picture of two legs, for example, represented not only two legs, but also the act of walking. Pictures, abbreviated for convenience, gradually became conventional signs, and in time these characters were made to stand for the sound of spoken language. The various systems of writing of the ancient world had probably at least three different sources the Egyptian, the Assyrian, and the Chinese systems all of which were originally hieroglyphic. The Egyp- tians practiced four distinct styles of writing the hieroglyphic, hieratic, demotic or enchorial, and Coptic. Hieroglyphic writing, which was in use much earlier than 3000 B.C., was probably at first ideographic; its symbols became gradually used to represent abstract ideas, and in time acquired a phonetic value. The phonetic characters are both syllabic and alphabetic. In the latter, pictorial figures are used to express the initial letters of the words which they represent; for example, the figure of an eagle, akhom, stands for a, of an owl, mulag, for m, etc. The hieratic writing, which probably came into use 2000 B.C., was a simplified form of the hieroglyphic style, in which the pictorial sym- bols developed through a stage of linear hieroglyph into a kind of curi- ous hand. The demotic or enchorial writing represents a still simpler form (172) PENMANSHIP 173 of the hieroglyphic, and a nearer approach to the alphabetic system. It was in use from about the seventh century B.C. till the second century A.D., when it was gradually superseded by the Coptic, which grew out of the hieratic and demotic under Greek influences. The Ethiopians also used hieroglyphs similar to those of the Egyp- tians, and their current written language resembled the Egyptian demotic, but its alphabet had fewer symbols. At a later period a third graphic system, somewhat analogous to the Coptic, came into use, which may be called Ethiopic Greek. With what people the Assyrian Cuneiform or Sphenographic styles of writing originated is not known, but it was originally without doubt a hieroglyphic system, and became gradually modified by the different nations which occupied the Assyrian empire, until it assumed the form of the present known inscriptions. There are three classes of Cuneiform characters the Assyrian or Babylonian, the Scythian or Median, and the Persian. The first is the most complicated, containing from 600 to 700 symbols; the second is less complicated, but contains about 100 symbols, or three times as many as the third, which is almost purely alphabetic. Of these three original systems, the Egyptian is by far the most important, for from its hieratic symbols was probably derived the Phoenician alphabet, the parent of almost all the principal graphic systems of the world. The Roman letters were used in Italy until the latter part of the sixth century, when the Lombardic style was introduced. This is also sometimes called Roman, because used by the Popes in their bulls; it continued in use until the thirteenth century. The Visigothic style, carried into Spain by the Visigoths, was legally abolished in 1091, and Latin letters were adopted for all public instruments. In France, the Merovingian style prevailed from the close of the sixth century to the end of the eighth. Charlemagne introduced the Caroline, which, having degenerated before the close of the tenth century, was restored by Hugh Capet, and was subsequently called the Capetian. It was in use in England, France, and Germany till the middle of the twelfth century, when the modern Gothic spread all over Europe. The present German alphabet is a modification of this. There are no traces of writing in Britain before the Roman con- quest, when Latin letters were introduced. What is called the Roman- Saxon, resembling the Roman, prevailed until the middle of the eighth century; the set Saxon succeeded it, lasting until the middle of the ninth; this was followed by the running-hand Saxon of the time of Al- fred; the mixed Saxon, combining the Roman, Lombardic, and Saxon letters; and the elegant Saxon, which was introduced in the tenth century, and did not become obsolete until the middle of the twelfth. The Norman style, quaint, illegible, affected, and composed of letters nearly Lom- bardic, came in with William the Conqueror. 174 PENMANSHIP The modern Gothic dates in England from the twelfth century; the old English, from the middle of the fourteenth. The English court had a barbarous corruption of the Norman, which was contrived by the lawyers of the sixteenth century, and lasted till the reign of George II, when it was abolished by law. The utmost diversity exists among different nations in the manner or direction of writing; but in general the Semitic races write from right to left, and the Aryan from left to right. In form ancient manuscripts were either rolls, volumnia, or flat pages like our printed books, codices. The Egyptian papyri are usually in rolls of an indefinite length, according to the subject matter, but some of the smaller ones are flat. The transcripts of manuscripts were committed by the Greeks and Romans principally to slaves, who were esteemed of great value when they excelled in the art. There were also at Rome professional copy- ists, some of whom were women. About the fifth century, associations of scribes, who worked under stringent rules, were formed. In the mid- dle ages copying was almost exclusively in the hands of ecclesiastics, who were called clerks, clerici. In the Imperial Library at Vienna is a Roman calendar executed in the first half of the fourth century. In the Vatican there is a fragment of a Virgil of the fourth century. The most ancient manuscripts extant are the papyrus rolls from the tombs of Egypt, where the dryness of the climate and of the sand beneath which they were buried preserved them in an almost perfect condition for thousands of years. HOW TO LEARN TO WRITE BEGIN with good paper, good pens, good ink. In a good copy the letters should be of elegant form, and constructed on natural principles. Every letter should be as per- fect as it is possible for human skill to exe- cute, that wherever it occurs it may present an unvarying model to the pupil. The turns and slopes should be alike, the loops of the same length and width, the proper dis- tances between the letters carefully ob- served, and shade duly distributed. "Curlicues," flourishes, and ornamental capitals may delight an amateur in a show- case ; a thorough business man detests them in his correspondence. In a lady's writing they are simply vulgar. The course of instruction given in the copies should constitute a system, arranged in that order of progression which is in- dicated by a careful analysis of the forms of the letters and of the powers of the hu- man hand, so that each advance may pre- pare the way for the next, and the steps not be further apart than the necessities of the case compel. To this end, the sim- pler forms should precede the more com- plex; the short, the long. Those that have similar curves and turns and identical parts should be together. Words should precede sentences. The columns should be first narrow, then broader, to accustom the hand by degrees to move easily on the given rests across the longest word. These colum- nar sections, intended to be written down, are the gradual preparation for the sen- tences, which occupy the width of the page. The selection of the words for the columns should be in accordance with the same principle of progressiveness first the easier, then the more difficult combinations. In them the loops should so occur that when the copy is written they may be handsomely distributed, and the general appearance of the page be harmonious. A good paper costs more, but it is indis- PENMANSHIP 175 pensable. It should be tolerably thick, well laid, with a smooth surface, moderately glazed; so that the ink will not show through when dry, that there may be no roughness or little hairs for the pen to pick up, and that the pen may glide along with- out jar on the muscles or nerves of the fingers and hand a very important consid- eration now that steel pens are used, as paralysis has, in several instances, resulted from their use, and their injurious effect must needs be greater on a rough surface. A white paper is generally to be preferred to a blue, and, indeed, is almost invariably used. The pen should be fine-pointed, so that a good hair-line can be made, and have a good springy nib, that the shades may be cleanly cut, and that the writing may not be rendered stiff, a result inevitably follow- ing the use of a "hard" pen. They should be of a uniform character as much as pos- sible not one very hard and another very soft. Slight differences can not be avoided ; those that vary least are the best, if they are right in other respects. A new pen is often greasy, owing to a certain process in the manufacture, and will not retain the ink. Hold a lighted match under the pen not too close melt the grease, and remove with a cloth gently applied. Good ink is a very difficult thing to pro- cure. It should be sufficiently fluid to flow easily from the pen, dark enough to enable the pupil to see at the time what he is writing, and to judge of hair-strokes and shades. It must not evaporate rapidly from the inkstand, nor leave a layer of mud in it; neither should it mould. Frost should not affect it. Ink should stain the paper in order to be permanent. Its color when thoroughly dry should be a deep black, which neither time nor exposure to the sun can change. Pupils will learn by experiment that, if they raise the pen from the ink suddenly, it will be too full, and apt to blot; if very slowly, the attraction of the fluid will leave none in the pen ; and, therefore, a moderate motion must be used. One experiment is worth hours of talking. Attention to this will save many a blot. Cleanliness is as absolutely necessary for the well-being of the pen as for our own. Pens should be carefully cleaned at the close of the exercise. Always dip and wipe a new pen two or three times before it is written with, or it will be very likely to make a blot. To avoid the same mishap, the pen should never be wiped on the out- side of the pen-wiper, but always between the leaves of it. Should the pen-wiper then happen to get on the book, no damage will be done. A stiff blotter will last the longest, but common blotting-paper, or a piece of news- paper, or any paper, will answer, not indeed for blotting, but for the use we now desig- nate. The copy-book must be kept per- fectly clean, and the blotter is to be used for that purpose. The right hand does not soil the book, for it rests on the nails of two fingers and only touches the page with them. It is the left hand that does the mis- chief. To obviate it, place the blotter so as to cover each column as soon as it is dry after being written, and rest the left hand on that, and not on the page. POSITION, RESTS, MOVEMENTS The immediate human instrument in writing is the arm. It consists of three parts, the upper-arm, the forearm, and the hand. The two connections of these are the elbow and wrist. The arm is attached to the body by the shoulder-joint. The po- sition of the body must, therefore, evidently depend upon the use we wish to make of the arm and hand. This use, then, must be determined first. Various ones have been advocated by different teachers. The three following are the most strongly distin- guished ; the others arise from combina- tions of two or more of them. First, considering the shoulder as a point of suspension, and moving the whole arm without any support and without any mo- tion of the finger- joints. There are, how- ever, very few who possess sufficient mus- cular strength and steadiness of nerve to write thus. It is the true movement for striking large capitals and flourishing. Sec- ondly, resting the forearm near the elbow and on the nails of the third and fourth fingers, and forming the letters by its movement without any help from the pen- fingers. Thirdly, resting the forearm and hand as in the last, while the letters are formed by the movement of those fingers only which hold the pen. This generally leads to a feeble, constrained style. THERE MUST BE FREEDOM OF STYLE. This condition can only be fulfilled by keeping the arm free from all unnatural constraint. This precludes it from afford- ing any support to the body. Again, the letters are to be written across the page on a horizontal line. A requirement of beauty 176 PENMANSHIP is that this line should be straight. This is secured without much difficulty where the base is ruled. The only important thing is to keep on it If, now, we take pen in hand, use the elbow, placed opposite the middle of the page, for a pivot, and move the hand across, we find that the arc of a circle is described, touching the base line in only two points. In the middle it rises a full half inch above the base line. This is a difficulty to be overcome. Once more, while mere form does not demand consid- eration here, because readiness in shaping letters can only be acquired by practice, yet uniformity of slope and similarity of turns, which are required, will evidently greatly depend upon the maintenance of the same relative position of the pen, hand, and forearm for each letter. If we now observe a little further the movement above described, we find that in it the position of the hand in relation to each succeeding letter is changed, and assumes a new di- rection. How can this difficulty be over- come? Again, it is clear that we shall be able to write much faster, if the pen touches the paper lightly, than if it presses on it heavily : this also contributes greatly to freedom of style. Finally, in order to bold- ness of style, powerful muscles must, if possible, be brought into play in aid of the slight muscles of the fingers, while forming the letters. This would also help to pre- vent fatigue. To sum up, the essentials of the work to be done are: long continuance, freedom, forming the letters on a horizontal straight line across the page, uniformity of slope and similarity of turns, rapidity, and boldness. The conditions we have found to be hereby imposed on the arm are : avoidance of unnatural constraint, relief of all unnecessary pressure, movement of the hand and forearm across the page with the same relative position to each letter, and counteraction of the curve arising from this movement, adequate support, and use of powerful muscles. THE HUMAN INSTRUMENT. A little in front of the elbow, at the thickest part of the forearm, we find a mass of muscle. If the arm is placed on the desk, suspended from the shoulder, and resting lightly on this mass as a support, we find an excel- lent ability for moving the forearm on it with freedom from left to right and back again, within a certain limited distance, the muscle rolling under the arm. We will name this support the rolling rest. It is of the highest importance to observe the peculiar movement of the forearm on this rest. It is not to be so used as that, when the hand passes to the left, the elbow moves to the right, and vice versa. The forearm moves sidewise as the muscle rolls under it, with sufficient play, when it is placed at right angles to the base line and opposite the middle of a word or short clause, to carry the hand across from one end of it to the other without changing its direction. Bending the wrist sidewise to the right a most cramping movement, and painful if frequently repeated is thus rendered quite unnecessary, and should be carefully guarded against. By turning the third and fourth ringers under, so that the hand can rest on the cor- ner of their nails, or, if preferred, on the little finger only, another support, like the runners of a sleigh, is provided, capable of moving freely over the paper. We name this the sliding rest. To avoid friction, the wrist should not touch the desk; by means of the two rests, it may easily and com- fortably be kept a little raised. These, then, we conceive to be the natu- ral positions and rests namely, the right hand and forearm in the same straight line, at right angles to the line of writing, and opposite the middle of a long word or a clause of moderate length. The forearm is supported on the rolling rest, the hand on the sliding rest, and the wrist slightly raised. The left forearm and hand are placed at right angles to the right forearm, with the fingers on the blotter, which covers the part already written, to steady the book, and move it when necessary. The left forearm is therefore in the direction of the line of writing. What now are the movements of the right forearm and hand? On the rolling rest the whole forearm moves, so as always to be parallel to its first position, and carries with it the hand supported on the sliding rest. The rolling rest is stationary; the sliding rest glides along the paper on a horizontal line that is, parallel to the line of writ- ing : this is its only movemant. The whole forearm and hand move gradually to the right in this way, with a nearly continuous motion, for the formation of the successive letters, so that their relative position tc every letter is the same. All stoppages of the nails and jerks to get the hand forward are to be absolutely forbidden. This move- ment of the hand is named the sliding movement; the movement of the forearm we have named the comital movement (I.at comes, a companion), because it accom- panies the hand. PENMANSHIP 177 Since the comital movement is more or less limited, some further means must be found of keeping the forearm and Rand in the right relative position to the letters. Two methods offer themselves to us for selection. One is, to draw the paper to the left as we write. The other, which we prefer, is, by means of a lift from the shoulder, to place the forearm and hand in a position further to the right: this should be done only at the end of a word. To distinguish this movement, we have named it the lateral movement. In performing it, the hand slides as before. Experiment will now demonstrate that, by the adoption of the rolling rest and the lateral movement, the difficulty mentioned above, of the curve formed by the hand crossing the page, is entirely done away with. FOR THE ATTAINING OF BOLDNESS OF STYLE, the powerful muscles of the fore- arm must be brought into action by a slight play of the whole forearm forward and backward, in direction of the slope on the rolling rest, over the sliding rest a fixed point, so far as this movement is con- cerned. This gives a full heft, through the medium of the hand, to the fingers which move the pen, and, as a consequence, bold- ness of style; just as a large and massive stone rolling down a hill maintains its course over considerable inequalities of sur- face, while the slightest obstacle diverts a small and light one. This play of the fore- arm we name the muscular movement. The resulting play of the hand, as the medium of its transmission to the pen-fingers, we name the medial movement. We are now prepared to form a correct judgment as to the best position of the body for the accomplishing of these move- ments most naturally, and consequently with the least fatigue. It may be summed up in two words. The body must be upright and self-supported. Its relative position to the desk is a matter of comparative indif- ference; only, all the pupils should conform to one plan. Each position has its advan- tages and inconveniences. The simplest di- vision of positions is twofold; the right side to the desk, and the face to the desk. Where we adopt the former, we direct the pupil to turn on his seat, so that his right side may be directly to the desk with- out touching; the body to be erect, and supported by the spinal column; the left foot slightly advanced. The book is ad- justed with the back to the front edge of the desk, and at a two-seated desk, the top edge of one at the outside edge of the desk, of the other in a line with the inkstand. When opened, the left side of the page to be written on is to be placed at the edge of the desk. The left hand is brought across, and the fingers placed on the left side of the page to keep it steady. The right fore- arm is placed on the desk, parallel with the front edge. If necessary, from short-sight- edness or bad adaptation of the height of the seats to the desks, the body may be inclined forward from the seat never by rounding the back and contracting the chest and the head may be bowed somewhat forward by bending the neck. The advan- tages of this plan of seating the scholars are : the perfectly natural position of the body; the freedom of the right arm from all avoidable weight, and its ability to form the movements required; the certainty that both rests are on the desk; and the facility with which the teacher can look down the files and along the lines in large classes, and see that every pen is rightly held, and every movement correctly made. An ob- jection to this position is made on the ground that, in business, when using large account-books, it is impossible. We reply, that we adopt this position for learners, be- cause it is very convenient for the teacher. When the art is acquired, the position be- comes a matter of comparative indifference. Where we adopt the second method of seating, namely, the body fronting the desk fairly, or with more . or less inclination of the right or left side to it, we take care of these two points: that both rests of the 178 PENMANSHIP right forearm shall be on and be kept on the desk, and that the book is at right an- gles to the right foreaim The following troubles are apt to arise: A tendency to sprawl over the desk, and, as a necessary consequence, to press the chest against it a practice most injurious. The book gets turned from its proper position at right an- gles to the right forearm. When writing down a column, a habit we strongly com- mend for learners, the book must be con- tinually pushed up, or the back rest of the arm will get more and more off the desk. Indeed, pupils are sometimes found actually resting the wrist on the front edge of the desk. On the other hand, this is often the only position the seats admit of; it is the position that must be adopted when writ- ing large account -books ; and there is no necessity that the above faults should pre- vail. They certainly will not under the care of a faithful teacher. We conclude, then, that the position of the body at the desk is matter of indifference, provided it is upright and self-supported. The next point which claims our atten- tion is the manner of holding the pen, and the movement of the pen-fingers. We have seen that the hand is supported on the sides of the nails of the third and fourth fingers. Their ends, being bent under, are separated from the others, and there is room for the execution of the pen-finger movements. The fingers should touch one another at the sec- ond joints, as far as the shape of the hand permits : this gives unity and support. The pen is held by means of the thumb and the first and second fingers. Place the right extremity of the holder against the left side of the second finger just below the nail ; the end of the finger will thus be above the pen. Next, adjust the holder obliquely across the left side of the third portion of the first finger, just behind the second joint, the middle finger being at the same time slightly bent. The first two por- tions of the forefinger may now be closed down on the holder, which will be found to cross and touch them diagonally. The first and second fingers touch throughout. Next, let the upper corner of the fleshy part of the thumb, near the nail, be placed, by slightly bending the thumb, against the lower half of the left side of the holder, opposite the first joint of the middle fin- ger, and the pen will be found in a secure and natural position, both for extension and retraction. It will be observed that we have given the medium position of the pen. The fingers and thumb with the joints slightly bent outward, straightening them would extend the pen; bending them still more would retract it. The pen is really held between three points the side of the end of the second finger, the side of the third portion of the first finger behind the second joint in front of the knuckle, and the side of the end of the thumb. The first finger is like the lid of a box placed on it to keep the pen from jumping out; it is also the principal agent in effecting the pressure for the shades. As to movement, the thumb may be regarded as a spring. The first and second fingers, by contraction of their muscles, press against it; we relax its muscles, and it yields by bending: thus the downward strokes are made. By relax- ing, in turn, the muscles of the fingers, and straightening the thumb by calling its mus- cles into action, it pushes back the fingers, and the up-strokes are formed. The move- ment is twofold and alternate, extending and retracting, to form oblique lines, ovals, or horizontals. The pen must be held with the least pos- sible grasp. It is to be at right angles to the base line, and thus in a line with the forearm. Great care must be taken to guard against a wrong position of the hand and pen. The pen must be so held that the right side is turned a little down, so that the right nib touches the paper first when the pen is put down. With this right nib the hair-strokes are made. The nibs, so to speak, are at right angles to the slope; not horizontal. By this means the shades can be made smooth. When it is neglected, the shades will be "scratchy," or rough on one side. A glance at the holder tells the teacher in a moment if the hand is right. With beginners, it will be found ahnost as varia- ble as a weathercock. Now it is inclined to the right, showing that the hand is ly- ing down a fault requiring constant watch fulness, and arising from neglect of the comital movement of the forearm ; now to the left, showing that the hand is turned too far over in that direction. Now the end points outward, showing the elbow has got away; again, it points inward, showing that the wrist is bent to the right. The forearms rest lightty on the desk at right angles to one another. The right is supported by the rolling rest, and the hand by the sliding rest. The left arm has the fingers on the left side of the book, to steady it and to move it when necessary. The copy-book is placed with its vertical lines in the direction of the right forearm, and its horizontal lines in that of the left. PENMANSHIP 179 It must be kept far enough on the desk to allow the rests also to be on. This position of the book at right angles to the right forearm is invariable, whatever direction the arm may be in on the desk. The rolling rest is the muscle in front of the elbow ; the sliding rest, the corners of the nails of the third and fourth fingers bent under. THE MOVEMENTS OF THE FOREARM ARE THREE. The comital, which accompanies the sliding movement of the hand, and is made sidewise on the rolling rest. The muscu- lar, which causes the medial movement of the hand, and gives heft to the pen-fingers. It is a play of the arm forward and back- ward on the rolling rest. The consequent medial movement of the hand is made over the sliding rest, of which the only move- ment is in a horizontal line. The lateral is the lifting and moving the whole forearm and hand to the right: it is rendered nec- essary by the limited scope of the comital. The simplest movement for beginners is to form the letters by the motion of the fingers, moving the hand and arm along by the united sliding and comital move- ments, which should be nearly continuous. When thoroughly familiar with these, after considerable practice, the medial and mus- cular movements may be added to give freedom and boldness of style. The lateral will not be needed until sentences are writ- ten. The movements of the pen-fingers are in different directions, by extension and re- traction: thus are written oblique straight lines; ovals, direct, inverted, and alternate; and horizontal lines. The shades are made by pressure. As to these, great care is needed. They must be made in ovals, with a gradual increase and diminution of press- ure. The usual fault is to make them too abrupt, or with the greatest thickness too long continued. The moment the thickest point is reached, the pressure should begin to diminish. Special directions are given in the analysis of the letters, where needed. ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES Words are represented in writing by a single letter, or by a combination of letters. Letters are complex; they can be resolved into forms common to several of them: thus, the form repeated in u is found also in i and w; or, they are ex- pressed by one such form as /, found in g and y. In some there are parts not found in any other. In writing, the letters are placed on hori- zontal lines, either ruled or imaginary. Some of the letters and parts of others are longer than the rest. The letter o, which is the pure oval, is taken as the standard of size. We name the line on which the writing rests the Base Line. Suppose a line parallel to this to be drawn so as to touch the top of the o. This, whether ruled or imaginary, is named the Head Line. The distance between the base and head lines is called one space, and gives the height of the first four principles, wherever they enter into the formation of letters. The dot of the r, the point of the s, the top of the second part of the k, are one- third of a space higher. Suppose, now, six lines parallel to the base line to be drawn, three above the head line, and three below the base line, at intervals equal to the first space. We shall have eight parallel lines bounding seven equal spaces in a. vertical direction. We call the middle space the first; the next above and below, the second; the next, the third; and the last, the fourth. One of these spaces is taken for the unit of meas- urement. RULE. Loop letters are four spaces, and double loops seven; t and d two and a half, q three and a half, p five, two above and two below the first space. All the rest are one space, except r, s, and the second part of k, which are one and a third. The capitals are four spaces. It will be observed that f, long s, and p extend as far above the first space as they do below; and that the top of p is a little higher than that of t and d, and the bottom of q a little lower than that of />. The commencing and ending lines of the letters are always to begin and terminate at the base and head lines respectively. THE TWO DIVISIONS OF LETTERS There are two grammatical divisions of letters, distinguished by their forms: the small letters, which form the main body of writing, and the capitals, which are used on special occasions. We shall begin with the analysis of the capital letters. We shall not, however, take them up in their al- phabetical order, but in that which gives the easiest first, and shows their similar- ity, arising from the possession of com- mon principles. This is the method adopted in our copy-books, in order to render our system of teaching gradually progressive. ISO PENMANSHIP THE CAPITAL LETTERS GENERAL RULES The height of the capitals is four spaces, the same as the loop letters. A. This letter has three parts. The first part is generally written upward, the upper curve very slight The second part is very slightly curved to one-third from the top, then it is a straight line, of which the shade gradually increases. The third part is the cross. It starts from the right foot, coincides for a half space, crosses to the left and forms a loop, the centre of which is one-third the height of the letter, and on the double curve line. A line from the top through the centre of the letter would be on the main slope; hence it will be seen that the second part, or down-stroke, has a little less than the main slope, the first part a little more. Observe that the width of the letter gradually increases from the top to the base, and regulate the first up- stroke accordingly. N. This letter consists of three parts. The first two are the same as in A, ex- cept in slope; at the bottom of the second a very narrow turn is made, and a carve carried up from it, parallel to the first up- stroke, four-fifths the height of the letter. The spaces on a horizontal line across the middle are equal. The shade begins as in A, and is heaviest just before the turn. A line drawn through the centre of the letter, dividing it into two equal lateral halves, would be on the main slope. Observe the gradual increase and diminution of width in the two sections. See the cautions on A. M. This letter has four parts. The first three are the same as N, except that the third stroke is carried to the full height The fourth part is curved from the top, and closes with the direct oval. Observe the shades carefully. A line through the centre, dividing the letter into equal lateral halves, would be on the main slope. The widths at the top and the two at the base are equal. On a horizontal line through the middle there are three equal spaces. T has two parts. The strongest curve is in the lower section. There is 410 shade except in the third principle and dot. F is T crossed in the middle by a small double curve placed horizontally, which is itself crossed by a small straight line on the main slope. P. This letter has two parts, the stem and the cap. It is on the main slope. The cap begins with the inverted oval, two- thirds the height, on the main slope, cross- ing the stem at right angles, the highest point of the cap being in the middle of the line between the section of the oval and the stem; it is continued with the right curve, and terminates on the stem in a dot at half the height of the letter. On the short diameter of the first oval produced to the stem, there are four equal spaces; on a parallel line from the left curve of the oval crossing the stem to the other curve, two equal spaces. A line on the main slope through the oval would pass through the dot. B. The stem and cap are like P, only that the right side is carried down one- third instead of a half, and the dot is omitted. The separation between the up- per and lower sections of the right side is made by a horizontal loop. The lower curve ends with the inverted oval. A straight line drawn on the main slope, touching the right side of the upper curve, would pass through the centre of the lower oval; the lower right curve, therefore, pro- jects beyond the upper. Across the first oval to stem on its short diameter pro- duced, there are four equal spaces simi- larly as to the last oval, three. On a par- allel line from the right side of the first oval to the right side of the upper lobe, there are two equal spaces. R is like B as far as the separating loop, which is here made at right angles to the main slope. After that the descending curve is turned back to finish with the di- rect oval. Across each of the two ovals to the stem on their short diameters pro- duced, there are four equal spaces. On a parallel line from the right side of the first oval to the right side of the upper lobe there are two equal spaces. A line on the main slope through the oval would pass through the dot. X, The capital-stem is made first, writ- ing downward. Then the inverted oval and direct oval joined by a straight line on the main slope. The two parts of the letter coincide through half the height, commencing at one-fourth from the top. Across the ovals there are four equal spaces. The remark on the dot applies also. S. Begin from base line with the right curve on the slope of the connecting lines to half the height of the letter, then form a loop on the main slope, half the height, complete a double curve, and end with a dot on the commencing line. The dot is half a space high, and on the main slope The double .curve is the essential part of PENMANSHIP 181 C (7(2 J^W6ro%^^ /?r /> . x" V f~\ /?>* this letter. Notice how the loop is formed on the upper part, and the greater inten- sity of curve is on the lower part Let the shade begin just below the loop, and be nicely graduated. Give much attention to the lower turn and the dot. An oblique line through the loop lengthwise has sim- ilar curves formed on the double curve, on the upper left and lower right side. L. This letter begins like ^, . but the double curve, instead of making a turn to end with the dot, is carried to the left to form a horizontal loop, which rests on the base line, and whose thickness is half a space; it descends on the right side to touch the base line at precisely the same distance from the crossing as on the left side, and ends with the direct oval incom- plete. The lower curve of the stem is stronger than the upper. It will be ob- served that the upper curve of the hori- zontal loop, and the curve to the right which touches the base line, together form a double curve. The right section only of the direct oval is used. The shade begins as in the S 1 , below the loop. The bottom of this letter, which may be termed the L-foot, occurs also in D, Q, and one form 182 PENMANSHIP of Z. Take care that the direct oval is made on the main slope. /. Begin with the left curve at the height of one space from the base line, carry it round to the right to form a circular loop, and continue to curve to the height of the letter. The second part of the capital-stem and dot passing through the centre of the circular loop, whose centre is also in the middle of the stem. Take care that the upper part of the head is not made too broad. Modify the curve gently to accord with the upper part of the stem. /. This letter begins as the /, but the circular loop is not so high; its lower curve is one space from the base line, and the double curve is carried down to form a loop, the same length as /, three spaces below the line. The left curve of the loop crosses at the base line. A line through the length of the loop should pass through the upper part of the letter. Notice the slight intensity of the curve in both parts of the stem. The heaviest shade is in the middle of the right side of the loop. The loop is one space wide. H. The commencement is the third prin- ciple. Next, the double curve with a loop, the hair-stroke of which is carried across and upward, on the same slope, to form another loop similar to the first; this side is finished with the direct oval. The first section is a little lower than the second, which is the full height. The middle of the hair-line between the two stems is half the height of the letter; hence each loop is a little less than half the height. An ob- lique line through the centre, dividing the central space equally, would be on the main slope. The width between the down-strokes at the middle is one space. The second loop is longer than the first. K. The first part is T. The second part consists of the left curve turned back to make a small separating loop, then con- tinued symmetrically with the upper part, and closed with the direct oval. The sepa- rate curve is inclined as in R, and is one- third the height of the letter from the top. The slope is the same as in H. V. Commencement Next, down-stroke straight, shaded heaviest near the turn, which is narrow, like those of the small letters. Then, up-stroke parallel to previ- ous one, branching off into the left curve, and terminated at the same height as the top of the introductory part. An oblique line through the centre, dividing the letter into two equal parts, would be on the main slope. W. Commencement. Next, double curve down, ending on the base line; then, double curve up with more slope. The second down-stroke is like the second of A, very slightly curved one-third, and then straight. The final stroke is the left curve, as in N. The spaces on a horizontal line drawn through the middle of the letter are equal. A line from the middle point at the top through the centre of the letter would be on the main slope. Z. Commencement. The down-stroke and foot like L, except that the lower curve of the stem is a little less intense. It has the main slope. D. This letter begins with the double curve, commenced at the height of the let- ter; its foot is like that of L until it touches the base line on the right side, whence it is carried up as the right side of an oval, crosses the stem near its top, and ends y ' c/oo with the direct oval. The highest part of the letter is well in front of the stem. Q. Begin with the inverted oval, and end like L. The oval is on the main slope. C. Begin with the left curve from the base line to half the height : next, make a loop half the height; end with the direct oval. Take care that the loop does not pitch over too much. It necessarily has more than the main slope. E. Begin with the left curve a little dis- tance from the base line, carry it two-thirds high, and make a loop one-third; continue the curve to form a small separating, nearly horizontal, loop to the right, and close with the direct oval. The separating loop is a little inclined down to the right, to cor- respond to the lower oval. G. Begin with the left curve; then, a loop two-thirds the height of the letter; continue the down-stroke as the bottom of an oval, whose width is twi<*e that of the PENMANSHIP 183 loop, the bottom of the turn being one- fourth from the base line. End with a double curve and dot: the double curve is half the height of the letter. Both parts of the letter are on the main slope. A line through the length of the loop would pass through the dot. Y. This letter begins with the inverted oval, continues like third principle to one- fourth from the base line, but the lower turn much narrower than the upper, and ends with the double curve and dot; height, two-thirds. U. Begin with the inverted oval; con- tinue as Y, except that it rests on the base line. The second part is a straight line ending with a direct oval. The top of the second part lower than that of the first. Its width is two spaces. CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS Classification relates to the arrangement of the letters in groups, according to their possession of common forms. Since every letter must have something peculiar to dis- tinguish it from others which have a com- mon principle, classification includes a de- scription of this peculiarity, which is termed the characteristic. CLASSES OF SMALL LETTERS The most natural and convenient divi- sion of the small letters seems to give four classes. Some letters will be found to belong to two of them. The reason of the position here assigned is obvious. FIRST CLASS. Those letters which con- sist chiefly of the first, second, and third principles, i, u, n, m, v, w, x. SECOND CLASS. Those formed from the oval, or the fourth principle, o, a, c, e. These two classes contain all the short letters except two. THIRD CLASS. Those which have stems formed of the first element, p, q, t, d. These are called the Stem Letters. FOURTH CLASS. Those which have the fifth and sixth principles, h, k, I, b, j, g, y, z, f, long s. These are the Loop Letters. Besides these, there are two letters whose forms are anomalous, r, s. CHARACTERISTICS The characteristics of the letters are as follows : In the First Class- Of *, one straight line with turn at the bottom and the dot above it; of u, two straight lines with turns at the bottom; of n, two straight lines with turns at the top; of m, three straight lines with turns at the top; of v, its two nearly parallel sides and the dot; of w, its alternately parallel sides and the dot; of x, the straight line forming the cross. In the Second Class. Of o, the oval; of a, the addition of the first principle; of c, the dot; of e, the loop. In the Third Class. Of p, the third principle affixed; of q, the fourth prin- ciple prefixed; of t, the cross; of d, the fourth principle prefixed to the f-stem with- out the cross. In the Fourth Class. Of h, the third principle affixed; of k, the knot or kink; of /, the turn at the bottom; of b, the parallel sides of the lower part and the dot; of j, the dot; of g, the fourth prin- ciple prefixed; of y, the third principle prefixed; of z, the second principle and shoulder; in the other form, the zigzag; of f, the knot. In the anomalous letters. Of r, the dot* and shoulder; of s, the twist on the right side. OF CAPITALS We give the Capitals in the order of their introduction. O, A, N, M, P, F, P, B, R, XS, LI, JH, KV, W, Z, D, Q,C, E,G, Y, U. OCCURRENCE OF PRINCIPLES The capital-stem, or line of beauty, end- ing with a dot, occurs in fourteen letters, A, N, M, T, F, P, B, R, X, S, I, K, G, Y. The capital-stem is written: Generally upward and light in three let- ters, A, N, M. Downward and light, in eleven letters, T, F, P, B, R, X, H, K, W, Z, D. Downward, light and short, in two letters, G, Y. Downward and shaded in the lower curve, in three letters, /, L, S. Downward, prolonged into a loop, shaded on the right side, in one letter, /. The third principle of small letters is used for the commencement of seven let- ters, T, G, H, K, V, W, Z. The direct oval, when of full size, forms the O. Four-fifths of the vertical height, it is the end or front of D. Half the height, it terminates eight let- ters, M, R, X, H, K, C, E, U. One-third the height, it ends L, Z, Q. The inverted oval, two-thirds the height, 184 PENMANSHIP Whole Arm Capitals Ledger Hand Medium Hand s / J- -f* s's sa/ is used officially; but the old measures are also used. See Venice. AUSTRIA The ell = 30.6 inches. The joch = i acre 1.75 rood. The metzen = 1-7 bushel. The eimer = 12.4 gallons. The pf und =1-2 pound. Gold and silver are weighed by the mark of Vienna, which = 4333 grains. BASLE 100 pounds = 108.6 pounds avoirdupois. The ohm = 10.7 gallons. The sack = 3.6 bushels. The large and small ells = 46.4 and 21.4 inches respectively. BAVARIA The long and short ells = 24 and 23.3 inches respectively. The schaff of 8 met- zen = 5.6 bushels. The muid of 48 mass = 15 gallons. loo pounds heavy and light weight = 108.3 and 104.2 pounds avoirdu- pois respectively. The mark of Augsburg = 3643 grains. BREMEN (old) The foot or half-ell = 11.4 inches. The ohm = 3 1. 5 gallons. The last = 10.2 quar- ters. 100 pounds = 109.9 pounds avoirdu- pois. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE The centner, or 100 pounds Dutch weight = 108.9 pounds avoirdupois. The leager of 15 ankers = 126.5 gallons. The muid of 2 schepels = 3 bushels. The ell of 27 Rhyn- land inches = 27.8 inches. CHINA The chang of 10 chih = 4 yards, nearly. The shing = i pint. 10 ho = i shing ; 10 shing = i tow ; 10 tow = i hwuh, or 120 catties. The catty =1.33 pounds avoirdu- pois. 16 taels = i catty ; 100 catties = I pecul. Liquids are sold by weight; but the English gallon is used in trading with foreigners. DENMARK The foot = 12.3 inches. 100 ells = 68.6 yards. The viertel = i.7 gallons. 100 ton- nen=47.8 quarters. The pound =1.1 pounds avoirdupois. The pound for gold and sil- ver weighs 7266 grains. EAST INDIES Bengal. The Factory maund = 74.66 pounds avoirdupois. 10 bazar maunds = ii Factory maunds. 16 chittacks = i seer; 40 seers = i maund. The guz of 2 cubits = i yard. Bombay. The maund = 28 pounds avoir- 192 THE METRIC SYSTEM dupois. 40 seers = i maund ; 20 maunds = i candy. The candy = 24.5 bushels. Madras. The maund = 25 pounds avoir- dupois. 40 pollams = i vi ; 8 vis = i maund, 20 maunds = I candy. The covid = 18.6 inches. The gars of 80 parahs = 16.875 quarters, and weighs 8400 pounds avoirdupois. EGYPT The Turkish pike = 27 inches. The ardeb of 24 Cairo rubbie = 6 quarters. The can- tar = loo pounds avoirdupois. 216 drams or 144 meticals = I rottole ; 100 rottoli or 36 okes = I can tar. FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN (old) The ell = 21.2 inches. The foot = 11.2 inches. The matter = 3 bushels, nearly. The viertel=i.6 gallons, nearly. The pound, light and heavy weight = 1.03 and i.i pounds avoirdupois. The Zoll-centner = 110.2 pounds avoirdupois. The Cologne mark, used for gold and silver, weighs 3609 grains. GENEVA (old) The ell = 45 inches. The acre=i acre i.i rood. The coupe, or sack = 2.1 bushels. The setier = 10 gallons. The heavy pound = 1.2 pounds avoirdupois; the light pound i -6th less. The mark weighs 3785 grains. GENOA The braccio of 2.5 palmi = 22.9 inches. The mina = 3.3 bushels. The barile = 16.3 gallons. The pound=o.7 pound avoirdupois. 1.5 pounds = i rottole. The pound sottile, for gold and silver, weighs 4891.5 grains. GREECE The Venetian measures of length are used, the braccio being called a piche. loo kila = n.4 quarters. The cantaro of 40 okes = 112 pounds avoirdupois. HAMBURG (old) The foot =11.3 inches, nearly. 100 ells = 62.6 yards. The scheffel = i acre 6 perches. The last =1.09 last. The viertel = 1.6 gallons. The pound = 1.06 pounds avoirdupois. For the Cologne mark, see Frankfort. 2 marks = i pound troy. LUBECK (old) The ell = 22.9 inches. The last = n quarters. The viertel = 1.6 gallon. The pound = 1.07 pounds avoirdupois, nearly. MALTA The palme= 10.25 inches; 3.5 palmi = l yard; 8 palmi = i canna. The salma = 7.8 bushels. The caffiso = 4.5 gallons. The barile = 9.33 gallons. 64 rottoli = i hun- dredweight. The cantaro = 175 pounds avoirdupois. MAURITIUS Besides the English weights and meas- ures, those of France before the late al- teration are used. The aune = i.3 yards. The velte=i.7 gallons. The poid de marc = 1.08 pounds avoirdupois. NAPLES The canna = 83.2 inches. The moggia = 3 roods 12 perches. The tomolo = i.4 bushels. The barile = 9. i gallons. The can- tro grosso and piccolo = 196.5 and 106 pounds avoirdupois, respectively. The pound used in weighing gold and silver contains 4950 grains. PORTUGAL The covado = 25.8 inches. The almude = 3.6 gallons. The pound = l.oi pounds avoirdupois. PRUSSIA (old) The ell = 26.5 inches. The morgen = 2 roods 21 perches. The scheffel =1.5 bushel. The eimer = is.i gallons. The pound = 1.03 pounds avoirdupois. The mark of Co- logne is used for gold and silver. ROME The canna of 8 palmi =2.2 yards. The canna of 10 palma = 88 inches, nearly. The rubbio = 8.l bushels. The boccale = o.4 gallon. The pound = 0.7 pound avoirdu- pois. RUSSIA The arshine = 28 inches. The foot = 13-75 inches. The dessetnia = 2 acres 2.8 roods. The tschetwert = 5.7 bushels. The wedro=2.7 gallons. Thepound=o.9 pound avoirdupois. The pood = 36 pounds avoir- dupois. ST. GALLEN The ells for silks and woollens=3i.5 and 24.25 inches, respectively. The mutt of 4 viertels = 2.09 bushels. The eimer= 11.25 gallons. The pound, light and heavy weight = 1.03 and 1.3 pounds avoirdupois, respec- tively. SAXONY The foot = ll. i inches. The acre=i acre 1.5 roods, nearly. The eimer, at Dres- den = 14.9 gallons ; at Leipsic = 16.8 gal- lons. The wispel, at Dresden = 69.9 bush- els; at Leipsic = 91.7 bushels. The pound = 1.03 pounds avoirdupois. THE METRIC SYSTEM 193 SICILY The canna = 76.s inches. The salma = 7.6 bushels. The barrel = 8 gallons, nearly. The pound of 12 ounces = 0.7 pound avoir- dupois. The cantaro = 175 pounds avoirdu- pois. SMYRNA The pike = 27 inches. The killow = 11.3 gallons. The rottolo = l.2 pounds avoirdupois. SOUTH AMERICA The Spanish and Portuguese measures are most generally employed. The use of the English measures prevails in some parts. SPAIN The vara, or ell = 33.3 inches. The fd-negada = i acre 21 perches. The arroba = 3-5 gallons. The fanega = i.5 bushels. The pound = 1.01 pounds avoirdupois. SWEDEN AND NORWAY The ell = 23.3 inches. The tunneland = i acre i rood, nearly. The tennu = o.6 quarter. The kann = o.6 gallon. The pound = 0.9 pound avoirdupois. TURKEY The pike = 26.25 inches. The killow = 0.9 bushel. The almud = i.i gallon. The oke = 2.8 pounds avoirdupois. The rottolo = 1.3 pounds avoirdupois. TUSCANY The braccio = 23 inches, nearly. The saccata = i acre 0.9 rood. The sacche = 2 bushels. The fiasche = 4 pints. The pound = 12 ounces avoirdupois. VENICE Besides the metrical system, the follow- ing measures are used : The braccio, for woollens = 26.6 inches ;' for silks = 24.8 inches. The stajo = 2.2 bushels. The sec- chia = 2.4 gallons. The pound sottile = o.2 pound avoirdupois, nearly; grosso = 1.05 pounds avoirdupois. REDUCTION OF FRENCH (PARIS), ENGLISH, AND RHENISH MEASURES OF LENGTH, USED BY SCIENTIFIC WRITERS, TO THE SCALE OF EACH TOISES, REDUCED TO ENGLISH AND RHENISH METRES/ REDUCED TO PARIS, ENGLISH, AND RHENISH LENGTHS LENGTHS TOISES METRES ENGLISH FEET RHENISH FEET METRES TOISES PARIS ft. in. lines ENGLISH feet & inches RHENISH FEET I 1.94904 6.39459 6.21002 I 0.51307 3 o 11.296 3 3-3708 3.18620 2 3.89807 12.78918 I2.42OO4 2 I.O26I5 6 i 10.592 6 6.7416 6.37240 3 S.847H 19.18377 18.63006 3 1-53922 9 2 9.888 9 10.1124 9.55860 4 7.79615 25.57837 24.84008 4 2.05230 12 3 9.184 13 1-4832 12.74480 5 9.74518 31.97296 3I.O5OIO 5 2-56537 15 4 8.480 16 4.8539 15.93100 6 11.69422 38.36755 37-260I2 6 3.07844 18 5 7.776 19 8.2247 19.11720 7 13.64326 44.76214 43-470I4 7 3-59I52 21 6 7.072 22 11.5955 22.30340 8 I5-59229 5I-I5673 49.68oi6 8 4.10459 24 7 6.368 26 2.9663 25.48960 9 I7-S4I33 57-55I32 55-890I7 9 4.61767 27 8 5.664 29 6.3371 28.67580 10 19.49037 63.94592 62.IOOI9 10 5-I3074 30 9 4.960 32 9.7079 3I.862OO IOO 194.90366 639.45916 62I.OOI94 IOO 5I-3047I 307 10 i. 600 328 1.0790 3I8.62OOO iOOO ^. 1949.03659 6394-59I60 62IO.9I94I IOOO 513.07407 3078 5 4.000 3280 IO.79OO 3186.19996 A A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES AMERICA was known to the ancient Northmen as early as the tenth century, but its true discovery dates from the voyage of Columbus, in 1492. Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, having enlisted the assist- ance of Isabella of Spain, sailed from the port of Palos, on the third day of August, 1492, on his voyage of discovery, with a fleet of three vessels, and a crew of one hundred and twenty men, and landed on the island of San Salvador on the twelfth of October of that year. Having returned to Spain, where he gave an account of his dis- coveries to their Majesties, Ferdinand and Isabella, Columbus sailed on the twenty-fifth of September, 1493, on h* 8 second voyage, in which he discovered more of the West India Islands. John Cabot, a Venetian settled in Bristol, claims with Columbus to have been the first discoverer of the Western Continent. With his son Se- bastian and two other sons he sailed in the spring of 1497, in search of the northwest passage to India, and discovered land, which he called Prima Vista, or Newfoundland, after which he sailed along the coast of America as far as Chesapeake Bay, and then returned to England. On the thirteenth day of May, 1498, Columbus set out on his third voyage from the Bay of St. Lucas, and, after sighting some new islands, on the first of August he discovered the continent, but, imagining it to be an island, he termed it Isla Santa. Americus Vespucius, or Vespucci, from whom the Western Conti- nent derives its name, was a native of Florence, and made four voyages to the New World from 1499 to I 53- After returning to Spain he was appointed by King Ferdinand to draw sea charts descriptive of the New World, from which circumstance the continent became known ag America. Ponce de Leon, a native of Spain, discovered Florida on Easter Sun- day (Pascua Florida, in Spanish), April 6, 1512. On September 29, 1513, Balboa, a Spaniard, crossed the Isthmus of Darien and discovered the Pacific Ocean. In the name of the Spanish crown he took possession of all the lands it might touch. (194) A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 195 EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT FRANCIS I of France, envious of the glory of Charles V (1524), supplied Verazzano, a noble Florentine, with four vessels to prosecute discoveries in Amer- ica. After a severe voyage he came upon a coast supposed to be North Carolina. Sailing north he entered a spacious bay receiving a noble river the Hudson and following the coast he reached the sites of the future Martha's Vineyard and Boston. Proceeding further, first west and then north, he skirted Nova Scotia, discovered Cape Breton Island, and finally reached the land discovered by the Cabots, Newfound- land and Labrador. 1535. Jacques Cartier, the discoverer of Canada, sailed from the port of St. Malo, France, and ascended the river St. Law- rence as far as the site of the present city of Montreal. 1538. The career of Hernando de Soto is one of the most adventurous episodes in the history of American discovery. He accompanied Pizarro to America, and dis- tinguished himself in the severe battle that took place between his chief and Alma- gro. Having returned to Spain, he was created Captain-General of Cuba and Flor- ida, and sailed in command of a brilliant armament from San Lucar de Barrameda, April 6, 1538, to undertake the conquest of Florida. He arrived at Cuba on the 1st of May, sailed from Havana May 12, *539> arrived at Espiritu Santo, Florida, on the 25th, and took formal possession of the country in the name of the Spanish Emperor. After being harassed by the In- dians, he continued his route to the do- minions of the cazique Tuscaloosa, which comprised part of Alabama and Missis- sippi. Here he fought a disastrous battle on the site of the city of Mobile, and on the ist of April, 1541, he came in sight of the Mississippi River, which he crossed. In the spring of 1542 De Soto returned to the Mississippi, where, after untold trials and disappointments, he succumbed to fever and fatigue. His body was sunk in the river, lest the Indians should dese- crate it. 1542. Cabrillo made the first voyage along the Pacific coast, sailing as far north as the boundaries of Oregon. 1562. Admiral Coligni, one of the Hu- guenot leaders in France, conceived the de- sign of establishing a trans-Atlantic settle- ment for the purpose of affording an asylum to his Protestant brethren, and fitted out two vessels, which he placed un- der command of John Ribault, of Dieppe, a seaman of experience. The discoverers landed in Carolina, but the settlement did not prove successful. 1564, In 1564, Coligni fitted out three vessels, which he placed under the com- mand of Laudonniere, an officer who had accompanied Ribault, which attempt, how- ever, was no more successful than the first. In 1565, Ribault was sent with several ships to supersede Laudonniere, bringing with him large supplies, which induced the colonists to remain. !565. Menendez, a Spanish explorer, landed in Florida, and laid the foundations of a colony. It was named St. Augustine^ and is the oldest city in the United States. 1576. Frobisher, an English navigator, tried to find a northwest passage, entered Baffin Bay, and twice endeavored to found a colony in Labrador, but was unsuccessful. 1578. Sir Francis D'rake, a famous En- glish captain, from 1578 to 1580, sailed through the Straits of Magellan and along the Pacific coast as far as Oregon; win- tered in San Francisco harbor, and cir- cumnavigated the globe. 1582. In 1582 New Mexico was ex- plored and named by the Spaniard Espejo, who founded Santa Fe, the second oldest city in the United States. 1584. Sir Walter Raleigh is distin- guished for having projected and estab- lished permanent British settlements in North America. In April, he fitted out two ships, fully equipped and provisioned, under the command of Captain Philip Ama- das and Arthur Barlow. Having arrived on the American coast, they entered into trade with the natives, and, after a hasty examination of the country, returned to England, where they arrived in September. The country which they discovered was named Virginia, by order of Queen Eliza- beth, in allusion to her unmarried state of life. Sir Walter soon fitted out another fleet for America, under the command of Sir Richard Grenville, Mr. Ralph Lane having been appointed Chief Governor of the colony. The Governor returned to England for supplies shortly afterward. Raleigh despatched another colony under John White, who was appointed Governor. Governor White returned to England, and when he came back, thre^ years later, he 196 iound that the entire colony had perished. It is asserted by Camden that tobacco was now for the first time introduced into England, and the potato into Ireland, from America. 1605. De Monts, a native of France, re- ceived a grant of all the land lying be- tween the fortieth and forty-sixth parallels of latitude. The tract was termed Acadia. With Champlain, he founded Port Royal, the first permanent French possession in America. 1606. James I of England granted the London Company a colony in Virginia in 1606. The expedition reached America in 1607, and, ascending the James River, chose for their colony a spot which they called Jamestown. The colonists and their pos- terity were declared English subjects, though they were invested with no politi- cal rights. The colonists suffered many severe hardships, and were saved from de- struction mainly through the energy and sagacity of Captain John Smith, who had been installed as president This was the first permanent English settlement in America. 1608. The first permanent French settle- ment in Canada was established by Samuel de Champlain, who founded the city of Quebec in 1608. In the following year he discovered the beautiful lake which bears his name. He has been justly termed "The Father of New France," as the French possessions in America were named. 1609-10. In the beginning of the sev- enteenth century, the Dutch and English directed their attention to the discovery of a northwest passage to India. After the failure of several navigators in this en- deavor, it was resumed by Henry Hudson, a navigator in the Dutch service. Not succeeding, he proceeded to explore the American coast, and sailed up the river that now bears his name. In 1610 he was sent by a Dutch com- pany on another voyage, when he explored the great bay to which his name is at- tached. In virtue of Hudson's voyage, the Dutch claimed the country from the Delaware River to Cape Cod, and in 1610 several stations were formed on the Island of Manhattan, the name then given to New York. In 1613, a settlement was founded. The country was called New Netherlands, and a cluster of cottages, where New York now stands, was named New Amsterdam. 1619. The "first legislative body that ever assembled in America" was called at Jamestown by Governor Yeardley, July 30. Its laws were ratified by the company in England, but possessed no binding force unless subsequently ratified by the colonial assembly. These privileges were, in 1621, embodied in a written constitution, "the first of its kind in America." 1619. Slavery was introduced into the United States this year by the captain of a Dutch trading vessel, who bought twenty negroes, which he sold to the tobacco plant- ers. Their labor being found profitable, a traffic in slaves soon sprang up. 1620. After various abortive attempts to colonize New England, a tide of popula- tion poured into it from an unexpected quarter. The "Pilgrim Fathers" Puritans who had fled from England to Holland to escape the persecution of the Established Church sailed for America in September, 1620, and arrived on the 9th of November, in view of Cape Cod. They settled on a spot which they named New Plymoutf . Af- ter suffering untold privations, which re- duced their numbers in the spring of 1621 to fifty or sixty persons, they persevered, and in the spring of 1624 they counted one hundred and eighty. Their numbers were increased in 1629, and in 1630, fifteen hun- dred settlers having arrived from England in the latter year. They soon became in- volved in war with the Indians, which checked the progress of the colony, but the natives were finally subdued and dis- persed. In 1692, Plymouth was united with Massachusetts Bay Colony, under the name of Massachusetts. 1622. On the 22d of March, occurred the Indian Massacre of Virginia, when over three hundred men, women, and children fell victims in a single day. 1630. The first house erected in Boston, under Governor Winthrop, in July. Connecticut was settled at Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield, in 1633-36. 1633. Sir George Calvert, Secretary of State under James I, obtained from King Charles I a large grant of land in Amer- ica, which was named Maryland, in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria. Sir George, now created Lord Baltimore, died before the completion of the charter, and the es- tablishment of the colony devolved accord- ingly on his son Cecil. The first emigrants, consisting of about two hundred persons, arrived in 1633. The colonists acted justly toward the natives, and the Maryland gov- ernment was distinguished for proclaiming religious toleration to all. The Protestants having obtained a majority, deprived Cath- A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 197 olics of their rights, and declared them outside the protection of the law. In 1691, Lord Baltimore was deprived of his pro- prietary rights, and Maryland became a royal province. In 1715, under the fourth Lord Baltimore, the government was re- covered and religious toleration was re- stored. 1636. Rhode Island was settled at Prov- idence in 1636, by Roger Williams, who stamped upon the colonies the idea of re- ligious toleration. In 1647, laws guaran- teeing freedom of worship were enacted "the first legal declaration of liberty of conscience ever adopted in Europe or Amer- ica." ** 1638. The first permanent settlement in Delaware was made in 1638 by the Swedes, on a tract lying near Wilmington. The settlement was subsequently conquered by the Dutch, and later still yielded to the English power. 1643. In 1643 took place the Union of the Colonies, Massachusetts Bay, New Haven, and Connecticut, for the purpose of common defence against the Indians, and the encroachment of the French and Dutch settlers. 1646. In 1646 Peter Stuyvesant was ap- pointed Governor of the New Nether- lands, which colony continued to thrive under his just and humane rule till its conquest by the English in 1664, 1660. In 1660, the British Parliament enforced the Navigation Act, whereby the commerce of fhe colony of Virginia should be carried on in English vessels, and their tobacco shipped to England. 1663. In 1663, Charles II granted a vast tract of land south of Virginia to Lord Clarendon and other noblemen, which was termed Carolina, in honor of the king. Two settlements were established, Albe- marle Colony and Carteret Colony (1670). The two colonies separated in 1729. 1664. In August, Sir Robert Nichols, who had been sent out by Charles II to effect the conquest of the Dutch posses- sions in America, arrived before New Am- sterdam, having landed a portion of his troops on Long Island. The Governor, Peter Stuyvesant, was unable to offer any effective resistance, and the colony passed into the possession of the English. T 673- The Jesuit Missionaries were the explorers of the Mississippi Valley. Father Marquette floated in a birch-bark canoe down the Wisconsin to the Mississippi, which he descended to the mouth of the Arkansas. La Salle, another Jesuit missionary, in 1682, made his way to the Gulf of Mexi- co, and named the country bordering on the gulf Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV, King of France. 1682. The first settlement in Pennsyl- vania was established by William Penn, an English Quaker. In the following year he purchased land of the Swedes, and laid out on it the city of Philadelphia. He en- tered into a friendly treaty with the In- dians, and the colony flourished apace. Af- ter his death, in 1718, his heirs ruled the colony until 1779, when their claims were bought out by the State for the sum of half a million dollars. 1689-07. King William's War. In con- sequence of the war between England and France, in Europe, hostilities betweer their colonies broke out in America. The savage tribes took part on both sides. The war lasted eight years, during which time several horrible massacres and barbarities took place. 1692. In 1692, the mania known as the Salem witchcraft broke out, and not till forty-five people had been tortured and twenty hanged was it abated. 1702. Queen Anne's War. In this year, England having declared war against France and Spain, the colonies took up the contest. Hostilities continued for eleven years, during which period several fruitless expeditions and horrible massacres took place. Peace was ratified by the treaty of Utrecht. T 733- Georgia Founded. The last of the thirteen colonies was planned in 1732, and settled the following year by James Ogle- thorpe, an English officer, who received a tract of land from George II, which he termed Georgia, in honor of the donor. Georgia became a royal colony in 1752. 1744. King George's War. France and England being once more at war, the colo- nies entered into hostilities also. The war lasted four years, and was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1754-63. During this period the French and Indian War raged, having originated in the English and French laying claim to the territory west of the AHeghany Mountains. Peace was signed at Paris in 1763, whereby the English acquired all the territory stretching from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. 1765. The Stamp Act, which ordered that stamps purchased from the British Govern- ment should be placed on all legal docu- ments, pamphlets, newspapers, etc., was 198 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES passed in 1765. Resistance to the measure was threatened on all sides. Deputies from nine of the colonies assembled at New York and drew up a Declaration of Rights and a petition to the King and Parliament. The Act was repealed in 1766, but the right to tax the colonies was still asserted. 1768. In this year the "Mutiny Act" was passed, whereby soldiers were quartered on the inhabitants of the colonies, without the consent of the latter. 1770. On March 5, 1770, occurred the "Boston Massacre." This was a fight be- tween the soldiers sent by General Gage to quell the incipient resistance of the Boston- ians to the "Mutiny Act," and the citizens. Two of the latter were killed and three wounded. 1773- On December 16, the climax of resistance to the principle of taxation without representation was reached by the colonists, who, disguised as Indians, boarded the vessels in Boston Harbor and cast three hundred and forty-two chests of tea into the water. 1774. The first Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, September 5. All the col- onies, with the exception of Georgia, sent delegates thither. The Congress, by its resolutions, virtually raised the standard of rebellion, and arrayed the colonies against the mother country. 1775. The battle of Lexington, the first of the Revolution, was fought on April 19, of this year. Seven Americans were killed. The British were assailed on all sides by the surrounding inhabitants, and before their retreat to Boston was completed they had lost three hundred men. 1775. Bunker Hill, the first regular bat- tle of the Revolution, was fought June 17, and resulted in a victory for the Ameri- cans, though they were forced to retire in the end, owing to the exhaustion of their ammunition. On this day General Warren fell. 1775. Capture of Ticonderoga, May 10, by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold. By this surprise large stores of cannon and am- munition fell into the hands of the Ameri- cans. 1775. On the loth of May, the second Continental Congress met at Philadel- phia. It voted to raise twenty thousand men, and on the isth of June unanimously elected George Washington commander-in- chief. 1775 Invasion of Canada. In Septem- ber, Canada was invaded by the Amer- ican forces under General Schuyler. Gen- eral Schuyler, being taken ill, left the com- mand in the hands of General Montgomery, who prosecuted the enterprise. He laid siege to Quebec, and on the morning of the 3ist of December endeavored to carry it by as- sault. He fell at the first fire. The assault was unsuccessful, and the Americans soon after retreated from Canada. 1776. Evacuation of Boston. The evacu- ation of Boston by the British troops, un- der General Howe, took place on the I7th of March. On the following day Wash- ington entered the city amid general rejoicing. 1776. June 28. Attack on Fort Moultrie by an English fleet. The fleet was driven off in a badly shattered condition. Great rejoicing among the colonists, as this was. their first encounter with the English navy. 1776. Declaration of Independence. On July 4, the report of the committee ap- pointed to draw up a Declaration of In- dependence was adopted. This Declaration was signed by each of the members of Con- gress, and by it the thirteen colonies cast off their allegiance to Great Britain and declared themselves an independent people. 1776. Battle of Long Island. On the 27th of August, the British Army, thirty thousand strong, under the command of Howe and Clinton, engaged the Americans, who numbered about nine thousand men, commanded by General Putnam, in Brook- lyn, L. I. The Americans were defeated with a loss of two thousand men. 1776. November 16. Fort Washington captured by the Hessians, after a stubborn defence. 1776. Battle of Trenton. After the bat- tle of Long Island, Washington retreated into New Jersey, to prevent the British from capturing Philadelphia. On Decem- ber 25, it being Christmas night, Washing- ton surmised that the Hessians were not expecting an attack, and, falling upon them in the midst of a plunging storm, surprised them in the height of their revelry, slew their leader, Rail, killed a thousand of their number, and effected his retreat back to camp with a loss of four men, two killed, and two frozen. This defeat of the enemy produced a marked effect throughout the colonies. 1777- January 3. Battle of Princeton. In this battle Washington inflicted a serious defeat on the British troops. The Ameri- cans suffered severely also, losing one Gen- eral, two Colonels, one Major, and three Captains, killed. In this battle Colonel Monroe, who afterward became President A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 199 of the United States, bore a conspicuous part. 1777- Battle of Brandywine. On Sep- tember ii the Americans, who had taken up a position at Chad's Ford, on ';b-. Brn&rly- wine, were attacked simultaneo^jl; r r vent and rear by the British, and, after perform- ing prodigies of valor, were defeated. Philadelphia, in consequence, fell into the hands of the enemy. 1777- Battle of Germantown, October 4. 1777. Battles of Saratoga. On Septem- ber 19 and October 7, of this year, were fought the battles of Saratoga between the forces of Generals Gates and Burgoyne. The latter was defeated on the I7th, and forced to capitulate, surrendering an army of nearly six thousand men, together with a splendid fain of brass artillery, and all the arms and baggage of the troops. In consequence of this defeat, the British were unable to hold possession of the forts on the lakes, and retreated to Isle-aux-Noix and St. John's. 1778. February 6, treaty with France signed at Paris. The chief articles of the treaty were, that if Britain, in consequence of the alliance, should begin hostilities against France, both countries should mu- tually assist each other, that the indepen- dence of America should be maintained, that if France should conquer any of the British West India Islands they should be deemed her property, that the contracting parties should not lay down their arms till the independence of America was formally acknowledged, and that neither of them should conclude peace without the consent of the other. 1778. Battle of Monmouth, June 28. 1778. The Wyoming Massacre. On the ist of July, a band of fifteen hundred men, composed of Indians and Tories, un- der the command of Colonel John Butler, burst into the settlement of Wyoming in the Susquehanna Valley. The able-bodied men being for the most part in the field with the patriot army, there remained none save the old men and boys to make a de- fence. They were quickly defeated, and, with the women and children, were toma- hawked or burned in the flames, after en- during the most savage tortures. The en- tire settlement was destroyed, and those who escaped the hatchet and the flames forced to fly into the depths of the wilder- ness. J 779- Capture of Stony Point. About midnight, on the i5th of July, General Wayne, with a force of only eight hundred men, performed one of the most brilliant exploits of the war, in the capture of Stony Point After encountering unexpected diffi- culties, General Wayne surprised the garri- son and compelled them to surrender. The military stores in the fort were consider- able. 1779- On the 22d of August General Sullivan led an expedition into the Gene- see Country, and on the 29th fought a bat- tle, near the present city of Elmira, with the Indians and their Tory allies, defeated them, and then laid waste their 'towns and orchards, so that they might have no in- ducement again to settle so near the States. 1779- September 23, capture of the Sera- pis by the Bon Homme Richard, under Captain Paul Jones, off the northeast coast of England. 1780. Surrender of Charleston, May 12, to General Clinton, after a siege of forty days. 1780. Battle of Camden. August 16, General Gates having been appointed to take command of the troops of the South, marched to meet Cornwallis near Camden. The armies encountered one another un- expectedly; the American troops were de- moralized, defeated, and dispersed through the woods, marshes, and brushwood. By this disastrous defeat, South Carolina and Georgia were again laid prostrate at the feet of the royal army, and the hope of maintaining their independence seemed once more to vanish. 1780. Arnold's Treason. General Ar- nold, whose services at Quebec and Sara- toga were so conspicuous, having deemed himself unjustly treated, entered into a plot with the British Major Andre to hand over West Point to the enemy. Andre as- cended the Hudson, and went ashore on the night of September 21, but was captured at Tarrytown on his return, condemned as a spy, and hanged. 1781. Battle of Cowpens. General Tarle- ton having attacked General Morgan's forces, January 17, at Cowpens, suffered a crush- ing defeat Cornwallis set out on the news reaching him to punish the victors and re- take the prisoners, but Morgan had mean- time effected a retreat into Virginia, and after a close pursuit gained the fords of the Dan. 1781. Battle of Guilford House, March 15- 1781. Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sep- tember 8. 1781. On the 4th of January, General Arnold, the traitor^ wilQ had been de- 200 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES spatched by Sir Henry Clinton to prosecute the war in that quarter, landed at West- over, 25 miles below Richmond, with 1,600 men and marched directly toward the city. He burned and destroyed all the property in his line of march, and acted with min- gled hate and brutality. Cornwallis soon after took his place, and, after having de- stroyed ten million dollars' worth of prop- erty, took up his position at Yorktown. 1781. August 30, the combined American and French armies entered Philadelphia. 1781. Surrender of Yorktown. On the 28th of September, the combined Ameri- can and French forces, twelve thousand strong, laid siege to Yorktown. The French fleet in the harbor co-operated with "he land forces. After a vain attempt to escape, Cornwallis capitulated to the allied forces on the ipth of October. Exclusive of seamen, nearly 7,000 men surrendered. Seventy-five brass and sixty-nine iron can- nons, with a large amount of ammunition and military stores, fell into the hands of the allies; while one frigate, two ships of twenty guns, a number of transports and other vessels, with about 1,500 seamen, sur- rendered to the French Admiral, Count de Grasse. This virtually ended the war. 1783. Peace Declared. On September 3, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris, acknowledging the independence of the United States. 1783. Savannah evacuated by the British, July ii. 1783. On November 25, the British evac- uated New York, and an American detach- ment under General Knox took possession of the town. 1787. Adoption of the Constitution. A stronger national government than that which existed being needed and desired, a Convention was called in Philadelphia, Sep- tember 17, to revise the Articles of Con- federation. Washington was chosen Presi- dent. After much deliberation an entirely new Constitution was adopted. During the year 1788, nine States, the number required to make it binding, had ratified the Consti- tution, and the same year the government was organized under the new instrument, and in 1789 it went into operation. 1789. April 30. Washington inaugu- rated first President of the United States. He took the oath to uphold the Constitu- tion of the United States on the balcony of the old Federal Hall, in the city of New York, which was then the temporary capi- tal. 1794. Whiskey Rebellion i\: Western Pennsylvania. The tax imposed on whiskey to restore the nation's shattered finances provoked considerable opposition, and in Pennsylvania the rioters had to be subdued by the militia. No blood was shed, how- ever. 1795- Jay's treaty with England ratified by the Senate June 24, after prolonged op- position. 1795- Treaty with Spain, whereby the United States secured free navigation of the Mississippi, and the boundary of Florida was fixed. 1795- Treaty with Algiers by which American captives were released and the Mediterranean commerce was made free to American vessels. 1796. Tennessee, the sixteenth State, was admitted into the Union June i. Two years previously it had been granted distinct terri- torial government. 1797- On the 4th of March, John Adams was inaugurated second President of the United States. He was opposed by Thomas Jefferson, whom he defeated by two elec- toral votes. 1799- Death of Washington. On the I4th of December, George Washington died at Mount Vernon, his home, in Virginia, after a brief illness. 1800. The capital was removed to Wash- ington in this year. 1801. Inauguration of Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated third President of the United States, March 4. He was the chief author of the Declaration of In- dependence and the embodiment of the prin- ciples of Democracy. 1801. War Against Tripoli. The Bashaw of Tripoli, who had been accustomed to re- ceive annual tribute from the United States for immunity from his piratical cruisers, de- clared war against the United States in this year. The United States despatched a fleet thither in 1803, which bombarded the city of Tripoli, and compelled a treaty of peace in 1805. 1802. Ohio, the seventeenth State, was admitted to the Union on November 29, It was first explored by the French, under La Sa41e, in the year 1680. 1803. The Louisiana Purchase. Louisi- ana Territory, embracing most of the region west of the Mississippi, and covering an area of over a million of square miles, was pur- chased from France, under Napoleon, on the 30th of April, for the sum of $15,000,000. 1804. Death of Alexander Hamilton, who fell in a duel with Aaron Burr, at Weehawken, New Jersey, July n. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 201 1807. Robert Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont, made her memorable trip from New York to Albany, on September 14. This was the first steam vessel ever launched. 1807. The American frigate Chesapeake was fired into by the British frigate Leo- pard off the coast of Virginia, June 22. This act was perpetrated in sustainment of a pretension of the English to the right of searching American vessels and impress- ing British subjects found therein into the English service. The immediate result of this outrage was an embargo laid on Amer- ican ships by Congress and the suspension of all intercourse with England. 1809. James Madison was inaugurated fourth President of the United States, March 4. 181 1. Battle of Tippecanoe. The battle of Tippecanoe was fought November 7, between General Harrison and a confed- eracy of the Indian tribes under Tecum- seh, a famous chief. The Indians had been instigated to this war by British emissaries. The Indians were defeated and dispersed. 1812. Louisiana, the eighteenth State, was received into the Union April 8. The territory was so named in honor of Louis XIV, King of France. 1812. War with Great Britain. The British Government continued to seize American vessels and impress our seamen. On the igth of June, the United States declared war against Great Britain. On the i6th of May previous the American frigate President, having hailed the British sloop Little Belt, was fired upon by the lat- ter. A fight ensued, in which the British sloop was disabled. All hope of a peace- ful termination of the difficulty was thereby rendered impossible. 1812. Canada was invaded by General Hull July 12. On the approach of the British and Indians he retreated to Detroit, which, with the whole of Michigan, he, in a most cowardly manner, surrendered to the enemy, August 16, with all its garrison and stores. 1812. The battle of Queenstown Heights was fought October 13. The English were dislodged and their general, Brock, killed, but not being sustained by the American militia, who refused to cross over from their State, the Americans on the Canada side were compelled to surrender, after a heroic struggle. 1812. August 19, the British frigate Guerriere was captured, after a hard fight, by the United States frigate Constitution (Old Ironsides) off the coast of Massa- chusetts, Captain Hull commanding. 1812. October 13, capture of the English brig Frolic, off the coast ol North Carolina, by the American sloop-of-war Wasp. 1813. September 10 was made memora- ble by Captain Perry's brilliant victory over the British on Lake Erie. The American flotilla consisted of nine vessels, carrying fifty- four guns ; that of the enemy, six vessels and sixty-three guns. Perry's famous message after the battle was : "We have met the enemy and they are ours." 1813. The American frigate Chesapeake captured by the British ship Shannon, June I. 1813. Battle of the Thames, October 5. This battle was fought between the forces of General Harrison and the British under Proctor, and their Indian allies under the famous chief Tecumseh. The enemy was defeated, Tecumseh being among the slain. This victory, in connection with Perry's tri- umphs on Lake Erie, virtually decided the issue of the war. . ;-~ 1814. Massacre of Fort Mimms. This deed was perpetrated by the Creek Indians, August 30, who broke in upon the garri- son and slew all, including 'women and children. General Jackson was sent with a force against the Indians, and, falling on them at Horseshoe Bend, slew six hundred of their number and compelled them to make peace. 1814. Battle of Chippewa, July 5, gained by the Americans under General Scott. 1814. Battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25. This battle resulted in a victory for the Americans. 1814. Battle of Lake Champlain, Septem- ber ii. The American squadron, under the command of Commodore McDonough, almost wholly destroyed the British fleet in this conflict. Simultaneous with this signal victory, the American forces, num- bering only fifteen hundred men, repelle\j the advance of General Prevost, the British commander in Plattsburg, at the head of twelve thousand veterans, who had served under Wellington. 1814. Washington captured by the Brit- ish, August 24. The Capitol was burned, and the Congressional Library, together with several public and private buildings, shared the same fate. 1814. Treaty of peace with England, De- cember 24. The treaty was signed at Ghent. 1815. Battle of New Orleans. Though a treaty of peace had been signed on the 24th of December, at Ghent, the intelligence 202 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES had not yet arrived in America. On the 8th of January, General Packenham, with an army of twelve thousand veteran troops, sustained by a powerful fleet, marched to the attack of New Orleans. General Jack- son, with a force of scarce half that num- ber, mostly raw recruits, inflicted an over- whelming defeat on the invaders. General Packenham was slain, and while the Brit- ish lost over two thousand of their num- ber, the American loss was but seven killed and six wounded. 1815. In May, Decatur was sent with a squadron to chastise the Algerines, who had renewed their piratical practices during our war with England. He obtained the libera- tion of all the American prisoners held by the Barbary States, with complete indemnity for all losses inflicted. 1816. Indiana, the nineteenth State, was admitted to the Union on December n. 1817. James Monroe inaugurated fifth President of the United States, March 4. 1817. Mississippi, the twentieth State, was received into the Union on December 10. The State derived its title from the great river of that name. 1818. Illinois, the twenty-first State, was admitted to the Union on December 3. It derives its name from its greatest river, which signifies "The River of Men." 1819. Alabama, the twenty-second State, was admitted to the Union on December 14. It derives its name from the Indian phrase, signifying "Here we rest." 1819. Florida ceded by Spain to the United States, February 22. The treaty was not signed by the King of Spain until Oc- tober 20, 1820, and the United States did not enter into full possession until July 17, 1821. 1820. The Missouri Compromise passed March 3. This was the settlement of the difficulty that arose regarding the question of slavery, on the proposal of admitting Missouri into the Union. Through the ef- forts of Henry Clay, it was admitted as a s 1 .v State, under the compromise that slavery should be prohibited in all the other territories west of the Mississippi and north of the southern boundary of Missouri. 1820. Maine, the twenty-third State, was admitted to the Union on March 15. 1821. Missouri, the twenty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union on August 10. It derives its name from its principal river, which signifies "muddy water." 1824. Lafayette's visit as "the Nation's guest," August 15. He was received with the most joyous welcome in all the States. 1825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated sixth President of the United States, March 4. Four candidates being in the field, and none of them obtaining a majority of votes, the election went to the House of Repre- sentatives. 1826. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, ex-Presidents, died July 4. 1829. Andrew Jackson inaugurated sev- enth President of the United States, March 4, He was distinguished for his honesty, tenacity of purpose, and his thorough Ameri- can spirit. 1832. Nullification Ordinance passed by South Carolina threatening secession from the Union, in the event of force being em- ployed to collect the revenue at Charles- ton. A settlement was effected by the ac- ceptance of Henry Clay's "Compromise Bill." 1832. Black Hawk War. 1835. The Florida War. A war with the Seminole Indians broke out this year. It arose from a refusal of the Indian chief, Osceola, to move west of the Mississippi, in accordance with a treaty. He plotted a wholesale massacre of the whites, in which Major Dade and one hundred men were slain. The Indians retreated to the ever- glades of Florida, where they were pursued and defeated by Taylor, at the Battle of Okechobee, December 25. 1835. Great fire in New York, December 16. Six hundred stores burned. Loss, $18,000,000. 1836. Arkansas, the twenty-fifth State, was admitted to the Union on June 15. Its name is derived from an extinct Indian tribe. 1837. Michigan, the twenty-sixth State, was received into the Union on January 26. The name is Indian, signifying "Great Lake." 1837. Martin Van Buren, the eighth j President of the United States, inaugurated o March 4. During his term of office a terrible financial crisis prevailed throughout the country. In two months alone in the city of New York the losses amounted to $100,000,000. 1841. William H. Harrison inaugurated s% the ninth President of the United States, " March 4. One month after, April 4, he died. 1841. John Tyler, the Vice- President, inaugurated tenth President of the United \$ States, in accordance with the Constitution, April 6. 1842. Ashburton treaty, by which the northeast boundary between Maine and New Brunswick was settled The commis- A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 203 sioners on each side were Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster. 1842. Dorr's Rebellion, a difficulty which arose from the endeavor to secure a more liberal Constitution in Rhode Island. This was secured in 1843. 1844. Anti-Rent Rebellion in the State of New York. The occupants of the old "patroon" estates refused to comply with the feudal customs of the Patroon land- lords, and resisted and killed the officers sent to serve warrants on them. The dis- turbances had to be quelled by the militia, and the allodial was substituted for the feudal tenure. 1845. Florida, the twenty-seventh State, was admitted to the Union on March 3. 1845. James K. Polk inaugurated elev- l| enth President of the United States on Uarch 4. 1845. Joe Smith, the Mormon Prophet, killed, and the Mormons driven away from Nauvoo City, Illinois, by the mob. 1845. Texas, which had wrested its in- dependence from Mexico, and applied for admission to the Union, was received into the family of States, December 27. 1846. Battle of Palo Alto. The Texas boundary having given rise to a dispute between the United States and Mexico, General Taylor was ordered to occupy the disputed territory with his troops. He was attacked by the Mexicans, with a superior force, May 8, at Palo Alto. The latter were defeated. General Taylor fought the battle of Resaca de la Palma the following day, and gained a signal victory. 1846. War declared against Mexico by Congress, May II. 1846. Capture of Monterey, with its gar- rison of ten thousand men, by General Tay- lor, with a force of six thousand, Septem- ber 24. 1846. Iowa, the twenty-ninth State, was admitted to the Union on December 28. 1846. Conquest of New Mexico and Cali- fornia by Captain John C. Fremont, as- sisted by Commodores Sloat and Stockton, and General Kearney. 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, fought be- tween a portion of General Taylor's com- mand, and twenty thousand Mexican troops, under Santa Anna, February 23. After a desperate struggle, lasting the entire day, the American troops, though vastly out- numbered, were victorious. 1847. Capture of Vera Cruz, by General Scott, after a furious bombardment of four days, March 29. 1847. Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. 1847. Battle of Contreras, August 20. 1847. Capture of Chapultepec, Septem- ber 13. 1847. Surrender of Mexico to the Amer- ican army, September 14. 1848. Treaty of Peace with Mexico, Feb- ruary 2. By this treaty the United States acquired the territory stretching south to the Gila, and to the Pacific on the west. 1848. Gold was discovered in California in February, and soon attracted a tide of immigration from Europe, Asia, Australia, South America, and all parts of the United States. Towns and settlements grew up as if by magic. More than one hundred thou- sand persons flocked to the mines from the United States within eighteen months after the discovery of the precious metal. 1849. General Zachary Taylor, the twelfth / President of the United States, was inau- gurated March 5. 1850. Death of President Tayior, July 9. / > 1850. Millard Fillmore, the Vice-Presi- dent, inaugurated thirteenth President of /3 the United States in accordance with the Constitution, July 16. 1850. California, the thirty-first State, was admitted to the Union on September 9. 1853. Franklin Pierce, the fourteenth / President of the United States, inaugurated tr March 4, 1854. Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed in May. This Bill was a virtual nullification of the Missouri Compromise Bill. It pro- vided that the inhabitants of each Territory should decide whether the State should en- ter the Union as a free or a slave State. 1854. A Treaty with Japan was secured in May by Commodore Perry, whereby the United States were granted two ports of entry in that exclusive country. 1857. James Buchanan, the fifteenth f^ President of the United States, was inaugu- rated March 4. 1858. Minnesota, the thirty-second State, was admitted to the Union on May u. It derives its name from the Indian word signifying "cloudy water." 1859. Oregon, the thirty-third State, was received into the Union on February 14. Its name is of Spanish origin. 1860. Secession of South Carolina. On the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency, the Southern leaders prepared to carry out their threats of secession from the Union. On December 20, South Caro- lina withdrew, and was soon followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. The act of seces- sion was the outcome of the question of 204 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES State rights in regard to slavery, which had vexed the country almost from the for- mation of the Union. 1861. Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union on January 29. The name is derived from an Indian term, signifying "smoky water." 1861. Southern Confederacy Inaugurated. On the 4th of February delegates from the seceded States met at Montgomery, Alabama, and formed a government known as the "Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis, formerly a United States Senator from Mississippi, was chosen Presi- dent, and Alexander H. Stevens, of Georgia, was chosen Vice-President. All the na- tional property and munitions of war be- longing to the United States, situated in the seceded States, were seized and held. 1861. Abraham Lincoln, the sixteenth v I President of the United States, inaugurated ^ March 4. 1861. Attack on Fort Sumter, April 12. The Star of the West, an unarmed steamer, bearing supplies to Major Ander- son's garrison in Fort Sumter, had been fired upon and driven back, January 9. At the same time the Southern leaders declared that any attempt to relieve Fort Sumter would be regarded as a declara- tion of war. At length General Beaure- gard opened fire on the fort on the morn- ing of the I2th of April, and after a con- test of thirty-seven hours the garrison surrendered. The garrison numbered only seventy men, while the besieging force was seven thousand. 1861. Call for seventy-five thousand vol- unteers by President Lincoln to suppress the rebellion, April 15. 1861. Seizure of Harper's Ferry by Confederate troops, April 18. 1861. Seizure of the Norfolk Navy Yard by the Confederates, April 20. 1861. Massachusetts troops attacked in the streets of Baltimore, April 19. First blood shed in the Civil War on the anni- versary of Concord and Lexington. 1861. The Confederate Congress assem- bled at Richmond, Virginia, July 20. 1861. Battle of Bull Run, Virginia, July 21. The Federal troops having driven the enemy from the field after a sharp contest, were suddenly attacked in flank and thrown into a panic. The retreat was changed to a rout, arms and munitions be- ing abandoned, the fugitives flying in all directions. The effect of this battle was to convince the Northern people of the des- perate nature of the great conflict that had just opened. Congress immediately voted $500,000,000 and 500,000 men to prosecute the war. 1862. Capture of Fort Donelson, with its garrison of fifteen thousand men, by Gen- eral Grant, February 16. 1862. Battle of Shiloh (April 6 and 7). 1862. Capture of New Orleans by Cap- tain Farragut, April 25. 1862. Battle of the Merrimac and the Monitor, March 9. This was the first bat- tle ever fought between ironclad ships. 1862. Invasion of Maryland by the Con- federate forces under General Lee, Septem- ber 5. 1862. Battle of Antietam, September 17. This was one of the bloodiest con- flicts of the war, and, though the result could scarcely be said to be decisive, the effect was a Federal victory. Lee was forced to retire across the Potomac, and Washington was no longer threatened. 1862. Battle of Fredericksburg, Decem- ber 13, overwhelming defeat of Union troops; Federal loss twelve thousand. 1862. While the Civil War was at its height, the Sioux Indians took to the war- path, and perpetrated horrible massacres in Minnesota, Iowa, and Dakota. They were finally routed by Colonel Sibley, and several of their number taken prisoners and hanged. 1862. Battle of Murfreesboro, Decem- ber 31, and January 2. This was one of the fiercest battles of the war, the loss being stated as one-fourth of the number engaged. The Confederates were compelled to retreat. 1863. Emancipation Proclamation, de- claring freedom to the slaves, issued by President Lincoln, January i. 1863. Battle of Chancellorsville, Virgin- ia, May 2-3. 1863. West Virginia, the thirty-fifth State, was admitted to the Union on June 20. This portion of Virginia remained loyal to the Union during the war, and was accordingly incorporated into a sep- arate State. 1863. Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, July 1-3. This was the bloodiest and most desperately contested struggle of the Civil War. The loss on both sides numbered about fifty thousand men. Lee was forced to retreat beyond the Potomac, and a North- ern invasion was no longer thought of. The backbone of the rebellion was broken. 1863. Surrender of Vicksburg with 37,000 prisoners of war, July 4. This was one of the most important events of A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 205 the war. By its capture the Confederacy was cut in two and the Mississippi opened to the Gulf. 1863. Battle of Chickamauga, September 19-20. 1863. Battle of Chattanooga, Tennessee, November 24-25. 1864. Battle of the Wilderness, May 5-6. 1864. Battle of Spottsylvania, May 8-12. 1864. Battle of Cold Harbor, June 3. Twenty minutes after the battle had opened, ten thousand Union soldiers had fallen. 1864. Capture of Atlanta, Georgia, by General Sherman, September 2. 1864. Nevada, the thirty-sixth State, was received into the Union, October 31. The name is of Spanish origin. 1864. Battle of Nashville, December 15- 16. 1863. Capture of Petersburg and Rich- mond, April 2-3, by the forces of General Grant. 1865. Surrender of General Lee, at Ap- pomattox Court House, Virginia, April 9. This event brought the Civil War to a close. 1865. Assassination of President Lincoln, April 14. This black deed was perpetrated by Wilkes Booth, in Ford's Theatre, Wash- ington, where the President occupied a box. It was the act of the crazed brain of one who, thinking he was ridding the country of a tyrant, struck an almost deadly blow at the now vanquished South, in the mur- der of her most powerful friend. 1865. Andrew Johnson, the Vice-Presi- dent, inaugurated seventeenth President of the United States, in accordance with the Constitution, April 15. 1865. The Thirteenth Amendment, de- claring the abolition of slavery, adopted as a part of the Constitution of the United States, December 18. 1867. Nebraska, the thirty-seventh State, admitted to the Union on March I. 1867. Death of Maximilian, so-called Em- peror of Mexico, June 19. During the Amer- ican Civil War, Napoleon III sought to found an empire in Mexico, and established Maximilian, of the House of Austria, Em- peror, with the aid of French troops. This the Americans regarded as a violation of the "Monroe Doctrine," and after the close of the war they compelled the French Em- peror to withdraw his troops from the neigh- boring republic. Deprived of foreign aid, Maximilian's regime was overthrown by the Mexicans and the unfortunate mon- arch shot 1867. Purchase of Alaska from Russia by the United States Government for the sum of $7,200,000 in gold. 1868. Impeachment of President Johnson, February 24. The order to impeach the President was made in consequence of the latter having attempted to remove the Secre- tary of War, a proceeding which was held to be in violation of the Tenure-of-Office Bill, which had some time previous been passed over the President's veto. After a protracted trial, President Johnson was ac- quitted, having escaped conviction by one vote. 1868. The Fourteenth Amendment, where- by equal rights were guaranteed to all, ir- respective of race or color, was adopted by Congress, July 28. 1868. Treaty between China and the United States, whereby valuable commer- cial privileges were acquired by the latter. 1869. Ulysses Simpson Grant, the eigh- teenth President of the United States, in- augurated March 4. 1869. Completion of the great transcon- tinental railroad from New York to San Francisco. 1870. The Fifteenth Amendment, where- by the right of suffrage is guaranteed to all, regardless of race, color, or previous condi- tion of servitude, was formally announced as part of the Constitution, March 30. 1870. The Treaty of Washington ratified, whereby Great Britain was compelled to pay the United States the sum of $15,500,- ooo in gold, in consideration of damages caused to American commerce by the Ala- bama and other Confederate cruisers fitted out in English ports during the Civil War. 1870. Rejection by Congress of the pro- posed annexation of San Domingo to the United States. 1871. Great fire broke out in Chicago, October 8. Three thousand acres of the city devastated, $200,000,000 of property de- stroyed, and a hundred thousand people left homeless. 1872. Great Boston fire, November 9. Sixty acres of the business portion of the city laid waste and $70,000,000 of property destroyed. 1873. Difficulties with Modoc Indians. After despatching troops against them, Cap- tain Jack and several of the leaders were captured, and executed October 3. 1875. Colorado, the thirty-eighth State, received into the Union, March 3. 1876. Centennial Exhibition of the "arts and industries of all nations," at Phila- delphia,, opened May 10. The exhibition 14 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES lasted six months, and had an average daily attendance of 61,000 persons. 1877. War with the Sioux Indians. The Indian reservation being encroached on by gold prospectors, it led to difficulties which terminated in compelling a despatch of reg- alar troops to the reservation. General Custer and his entire command were slain in the conflict, which occurred on the twenty-fifth of June, on the Little Big Horn River. 1877. Rutherford B. Hayes, the nine- teenth President of the United States, in- augurated March 4. 1881. James A. Garfield, the twentieth President of the United States, inaugurated March 4. 1881. Assassination of President Garfield, July 2, by Charles J. Guiteau, at the rail- road depot, Washington. The assassination was regarded as the act of a crazed brain. The wounded President was removed to Long Branch, N. J., where he died on the loth of September following. 1881. Chester A. Arthur, Vice- President, inaugurated twenty-first President of the United States, in accordance with the Con- stitution, September 20. The centennial anniversary of the surren- der of Cornwallis at Yorktown was cele- brated October 19, 1881. One month pre- vious England had mourned with us over the death of President Garfield, and in rec- ognition and grateful acknowledgment of the friendly feelings manifested upon that occasion, President Arthur directed that during the Yorktown celebration a national salute should be fired in honor of the flag of Great Britain. France, naturally and his- torically, had a place in the anniversary whose event her aid alone made possible. The Stars and Stripes floated in peaceful company with the cross of St. George and the lilies of France on the field of York- town, where, one hundred years before, the decisive battle of the Revolution was fought The steam yacht Jeanne tte, fitted out by James Gordon Bennett, left San Francisco, July 8, 1879, under the command of Lieu- tenant G. W. DeLong, on an expedition into the Arctic regions. The vessel was caught in the ice soon after entering the Arctic Sea, floated about helplessly for more than twenty-one months, and sank June 13, 1881. The nearest coast was Siberia, some four hundred miles distant On sleds and boats mounted on runners the men started southward over the ice in three parties. The party under Lieutenant Danenhower and Chief Engineer Melville entered the Lena River and was rescued by the natives. That under Lieutenant DeLong perished of hunger and cold on the delta of the Lena. The other party was never heard from. At Lady Franklin Bay a Signal Service station was established under Lieutenant A. W. Greely in the summer of 1881, for the purpose of investigating the meteorology of the Arctic regions. Several exploring par- ties were sent out, one under Greely. Sup- plies expected did not arrive, and the Greely expedition returned southward in August, 1883. They went into winter quarters at Cape Sabine, where their only food for sev- eral weeks was moss and lichens and seal- skin broth. June 22, 1884, when the relief squadron under Commander Schley found the party, only seven of the original twenty- five members were alive. Though the party continued to die off, one by one, explora- tions were continued, and the results of the expedition have proved of great value to science. The Signal Service of the United States, under General William B. Hazen, who was appointed December 8, 1880, began in 1881 to be recognized as a very important de- partment. Signal Service stations were es- tablished at various points and equipped with the latest appliances for correct obser- vations. Results were telegraphed to Wash- ington, and the workings were soon regu- lated with methodical exactness. The track of storms across the continent is now so clearly marked out from day to day, and the laws of climatic movements and devel- opments are so well understood, that data are easily obtainable for forecasting the time and nature of any important meteorological change likely to occur in any part of the country. By a disastrous flood in the Mississippi Valley, in the spring of 1882, 100,000 persons were made homeless. The appropriations by Congress to relieve the distress of the suf- ferers were liberal and timely, and the sums contributed by all the people were princely and unstinted. The suspension bridge between New York and Brooklyn was opened May 24, 1883, having been begun January 3, 1870. The roadway is 85 feet wide and 5,989 feet long. The towers are 278 feet high. The sus- pended span, from tower to tower, is 1,596 feet long, and Hs height above the East River at high tide is 135 feet Each of the four cables is 15 3-4 inches in diame- ter, containing 5,206 parallel galvanized steel, oil-coated wires, and weighing, with its covering, 897 1-8 tons. The strength of A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 207 the four cables is estimated at 48,800 tons. The Brooklyn Bridge railway is operated by an endless wire rope. The railroad fare one way is three cents. Foot passengers are free Important measures passed by the Forty- seventh Congress (1881-83) were: a civil service bill regulating the method of ap- pointment and promotions in the civil ser- vice of the United States by means of a system of examinations, and a bill reducing single letter postage from three cents to two cents per half-ounce. Important measures passed by the Forty- eighth Congress (1883-85) were: a bill in- creasing from one-half an ounce to one ounce the maximum weight of a letter to be carried for two cents; a bill constituting Alaska a civil and judicial district, with temporary seat of government. at Sitka, pro- viding for the appointment of a governor, judge, marshal, and other officers to serve four years, without authorizing a legisla- tive assembly or a territorial delegate in Congress. A World's Industrial and Cotton Exposi- tion was held at New Orleans in the win- ter of 1884-85. It was intended to com- memorate the centenary of the cotton indus- try in this country. President Arthur, in the presence of distinguished men in the Execu- tive Mansion at Washington, opened the ex- position by telegraph. The exhibition was a great success, the exhibits from Mexico, West Indies, and Central and South Amer- ica attracting special attention. The administration of President Cleve- land (1885-89) was marked by frequent ef- forts to change the economic policy of the government on the subject of the tariff. The Mills Bill, providing for the reduction of duties on imports to a revenue basis, failed to become a law. Cattle drovers were ex- cluded from the government lands in the Far West. Many new cruisers were pro- jected and built. The progress of the coun- try was satisfactory and the policy of the administration conservative. General Grant died July 23, 1885, at Mount McGregor, N. Y., sincerely mourned by the entire reunited nation and eulogized in many quarters as the foremost military chieftain of the century. In the fall of 1888 Hon. Benjamin Harri- son of Indiana was elected over President Cleveland. President Harrison's adminis- tration (1889-93) was marked by many stirring events and important public acts. Six new States were admitted into the Union. The McKinle; r Bill, a protective tariff measure, became a ^aw. The Congres- sional election of 1890 returned an extraor- dinary Democratic majority to the House of Representatives. The World's Fair site was located in Chicago, and buildings and im- provements were erected and projected there on a scale never before witnessed in the civilized world. The census of 1890 showed a population of nearly 63,000,000. Chicago passed the 1,000,000 mark. Chili paid $75,ooo indemnity for man-of-war's men killed and injured by a mob in Valparaiso, and Italy was paid a liberal indemnity for the death of Italian citizens in the Mafia massacre at New Orleans. The summer and autumn of 1892 wit- nessed the following among other stirring events viz. : Civil war in Tennessee on the subject of convict labor in the mines, which was put down after much reprehensible de- lay on the part of the State authorities ; riot- ous violence in mining regions near Cceur d'Alene, Idaho, resulting in much blood- shed and not suppressed until many fiendish acts of cruelty had been committed by the rioters; a switchmen's strike at Buffalo, in which nearly all the railroads centring at that point were involved, and which devel- oped such serious conditions that the major portion of the State militia was despatched to the scene, the result being the uncondi- tional declaring off of the strike, after much loss of property and disquietude in the public mind had been caused ; a great lockout-strike at the Carnegie Mills in Homestead, Pa., by which nearly four thousand men were thrown out of employment and several lives lost in a battle between Pinkerton guards and strik- ers, the State militia of Pennsylvania finally taking possession of the town and mills; as a final settlement, the leaders of the strikers were arrested on charges of murder and treason, and some of the officials of the mills were charged with conspiracy ; the struggle of American seaports, especially New York, against the cholera invasion from Hamburg, Russia, and France, re- sulted in a signal victory for the vigilance of the great metropolis. President Harri- son and ex-President Cleveland were again the opposing candidates for the Presidency. A treaty between the United States and Chili, under which all disputes between the two countries, including claims of American citizens for damages during the Chili-Peru War, were to be settled by arbitration, was negotiated by Minister Egan, and was to be submitted to the President and Senate as soon as possible after Congress met in De- cember, 1892. The issues between the Democratic and 208 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Republican parties were clearly defined in the Presidential and Congressional cam- paign of 1892. The Republicans favored the protective principle in tariff legislation, on the ground that American industries will be thereby built up. They also favored a Federal Elections Bill, giving the Federal authorities the right of supervision over Congressional and Presidential elections. On the tariff question the Democrats sharply declared their opposition to any but a tariff for revenue only, and solely for the needs of the government economically adminis- tered. They opposed the proposed Federal Elections Bill on the ground that it au- thorized needless interference with the in- dividual and was liable to be abused so as to give the Federal authorities undue power to perpetuate themselves in office. In the ensuing election ex- President Grover Cleveland was re-elected. The first important happening in 1893 was the opening of the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago in May. The formal dedication had taken place in October, 1892, and the Exposition was held to commemo- rate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. The Exposition lasted for six months, cost a lit- tle more than $31,000,000, and tnere were more than 21,000,000 paid admissions. In the spring of the same year, President Cleveland called a special session of Con- gress, which repealed the law obliging the Government to purchase for coinage 4,500,- ooo ounces of silver each month. In January, 1893, revolutionists in Hawaii, having deposed Queen Liliuokalani, the gov- ernment de facto of the islands applied for admission to the United States. Believing that the revolutionists had been improperly assisted by the American Minister, Presi- dent Cleveland blocked annexation and tried to have the Queen restored, but the revolu- tionists declared the Republic of Hawaii on July 4, 1894. In 1895, on account of a disputed bound- ary line between Venezuela and British Guiana, this country came perilously near to a war with Great Britain. The latter country was urged by our State Depart- ment to submit the matter to arbitration, but seemed disinclined so to do. In December, 1895, President Cleveland sent to Congress a message, in which he declared that war with Great Britain was preferable to any surrender of the Monroe Doctrine. This message created astonishment and consterna- tion in England, where there had been no idea previously that war with the United States was possible. An American Com- mission was appointed to discover the true location of the disputed boundary line, but before this Commission had had time to make its report, Great Britain signed a treaty of arbitration, in February, 1897, iuid an important precedent in favor of the Mon- roe Doctrine was thereby established. In 1896 another Presidential contest toot place. William McKinley of Ohio and Gar- ret A. Hobart of New Jersey headed the Republican ticket, on a platform calling for the maintenance of the existing gold mone- tary system. William J. Bryan of Nebraska and Arthur Sewall of Maine represented the Democratic party, on a platform favoring the unlimited free coinage of silyer at a ratio of 16 to i. McKinley and Hobart were elected. The first important act of McKinley*s Ad- ministration was the passage of a tariff act repealing the Gorman-Wilson Bill of 1894, and substituting a method of "protection," which, in its essential features, reproduced the McKinley Bill of 1890. This bill became a law July 24, 1897. In 1895 another revolution against Span- ish authority broke out in Cuba. Spain's conduct of the war aroused such indignation in this country that Congress passed a reso- lution acknowledging the belligerency of the Cuban rebels. President Cleveland saw fit to ignore this resolution, and the problem of handling the question in a manner satis- factory to our people was left to President McKinley. In May, 1897, Congress voted an appropriation of $50,000 to be immedi- ately applied to the relief of the starving Cubans. Late in 1897 Weyler was recalled as Gov- ernor-General of Cuba, and General Blanco, a more humane man, took his place. But affairs went from bad to worse in Cuba, Spaniards openly abused Americans, and the life of Consul-General Lee at Havana was frequently threatened. On February 15, 1898, the United States battleship Maine, then at anchor in Havana Harbor, was sunk by a submarine torpedo, and 266 of her officers and men were killed. In a few hours after receipt of the fearful news in this country indignation was at fever heat, and war was seen to be inevitable. March 9, Congress placed $50,000,000 in the hands of the President, to be spent at his discretion for the national defence. Five days later Spain hurled back her defiance by ordering a fleet of cruisers and torpedo boats to sail for the West Indies. Com- modore Schley was promptly ordered to A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 209 mobilize a flying squadron at Hampton Roads. April was a month of war fever through- out the nation. Consul-General Lee was recalled from Havana, and on April n his report, which contained a startling arraign- ment of Spanish government in Cuba, was read to Congress. In the early morning hours of April 19, at about the same time when Paul Revere took his famous ride on that same date one hundred and twenty- three years before, the Senate first and the House immediately afterward, passed the historic resolution, insisting that "the people of Cuba are, and of right ought to be, free and independent," and calling upon Spain to withdraw at once from the island. In the event of Spain's refusal, the President was directed to use the land and naval forces of tnis country to enforce the resolu- tion. Two days later the Spanish Government handed the United States Minister at Ma- drid his passport. Three days after that Congress passed a formal declaration of war, announcing that this condition had ex- isted since the 2ist. On April 22, the President proclaimed a blockade of Cuban ports, and sent Admiral Sampson's squadron to carry it into effect. On April 23, a proclamation was issued call- ing for 125,000 volunteers. Special taxes were levied, and a temporary loan of $100,- 000,000 was authorized. Commodore Dewey's fleet of six small war vessels had been mobilizing at Hong Kong for some time. On April 27, Dewey sailed for the Philippine Islands. On the morning of Sunday, May i, he appeared in Manila Bay, and before noon had sunk, or otherwise destroyed, Admiral Montojo's squadron of ten vessels, killing and wound- ing more than six hundred Spanish sailors. Dewey's loss was seven men slightly wounded. The hero of Manila Bay was promptly made a Rear-Admiral, and later on a full Admiral. Cervera's fleet from Spain reached San- tiago de Cuba May 19. Admiral Schley, who had been sent in pursuit, quickly bot- tled up the enemy's fleet in the harbor. Sampson, after a feint at bombardment of San Juan de Porto Rico, joined Schley, and took command of the combined fleet. There being some danger that Cervera might escape some dark night, Naval Con- structor Hobson and seven seamen under- took to sink the collier Merrimac across the narrow entrance to Santiago Harbor. This was one of the most henic feats in Ameri- can naval history. Owing to the terrific Spanish fire it was impossible to sink the vessel at just the point where it had been planned to do it. Hobson and his men, though unharmed, became prisoners of war, and all attempts to exchange them proved futile for several weeks. By the latter part of April several thou- sand of the cream of our regular army troops, and a few regiments of volunteers, were in process of mobilization at Tampa. Thereafter, every day saw the arrival of more troops. June 8 an expeditionary army embarked at Tampa, but was recalled before the end of the day on account of the ru- mored presence of two formidable Spanish cruisers in Nicholas Channel. On the i4th, the fleet, consisting of more than thirty-five troopships and supply ships, and guarded by several war vessels, sailed from Tampa. The total strength of the land forces of this expedition was nearly sixteen thousand offi- cers and men. June 22, the expedition landed at Daiquiri, Cuba, and two days later the first decisive action was fought, which re- sulted in driving the Spaniards back from Las Guasimas toward Santiago. On July I, the outer works of Santiago, at El Caney and San Juan Hill, were carried after bril- liant fights that won the warmest commen- dation of the European military experts present. On July 2 there was more desper- ate fighting, that made the fall of Santiago seem certain. July 3, Cervera, between the two fires of our army and navy, was ordered to force his way out of the harbor. In the fight that followed he lost his fleet. Admiral Schley, who was second in command of the Ameri- can fleet, had the actual conduct on our side, though Admiral Sampson, who had gone up the coast for a conference with General Shafter, returned as soon as he heard the opening shots of the fight. After that, General Shafter pressed the enemy for immediate surrender. On July 14, the capitulation of Santiago was agreed to, though our formal occupation of the city did not take place until three days later. The losses were about 1,500 men killed and wounded on either side. The best strategic work of the war was that done by General Miles, who was sent in the latter part of July to invade Porto Rico. While he was still marching against the capital, San Juan, a peace protocol was signed, at the request of Spain, on Au- gust 12. Since May, troops had been moving from San Francisco to assist Admiral Dewey in 210 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the capture of Manila. On August 13, be- fore news of the protocol had arrived, our land forces, under General Wesley Merritt, moved upon the city during a furious bom- bardment by Dewey's fleet The disheart- ened Spaniards surrendered after a mere show of resistance. December 10, 1898, the Peace Treaty be- tween the two countries was signed at Paris. The freedom of Cuba was acknowledged by Spain ; Porto Rico, the Philippines, and the island of Guam were ceded to us, and this country agreed to pay to Spain $20,000,000 for the public buildings in the Philip- pines. July 6, 1898, Congress passed a joint reso- lution annexing the Hawaiian Islands at the request of the inhabitants thereof. Tu- tuila, one of the Samoan Islands, was ac- quired by this country through arrangement with Great Britain and Germany in 1899. Wake Island, a barren rock on the route be- tween Hawaii and Hong Kong, was an- nexed by the United States in the same year. This latter island was of value only as a location for a possible cable station. On April 1 1, 1899, Congress passed a bill providing for Porto Rico a territorial gov- ernment differing in many essential re- spects from that given to any territorial government within the continental limits. Supreme authority was vested in a Gov- ernor, to be assisted by an Executive Coun- cil, both to be appointed by the President; a House of Delegates, to be elected by the Porto Ricans, and a Supreme Court, to be appointed by the President, was provided for. It was also enacted that goods im- ported from the United States into Porto Rico should pay a duty of fifteen per cent of the duties prevailing at United States ports, and that the same should be charged on goods shipped in the opposite direction. But it was provided that these tariff charges should remain in force only up to March i, 1902, with the further proviso that these tariffs should be discontinued in case local taxation became before then sufficient for the costs of the Porto Rican insular gov- ernment In the spring of 1900 a bill was passed by Congress returning to Porto Rico nearly $2,000,000 previously collected on imports from that island. It was in the Philippines that our great- est difficulties, arising out of the changed condition brought about by the war with Spain, came to the surface. February 4, 1899, just before the Senate ratified the treaty ol peace with Spain, the Filipinos, under the leadership of Aguinaldo, Luna, and other native chiefs, attacked the American lines around Manila. The insurgents lost about two thousand men, and were driven further back from the city. Aguinaldo became dic- tator of the rebellious faction of the na- tives. During the following summer Luna was assassinated by an officer of Aguinal- do's body-guard, and, as many believed, by the order of Aguinaldo. Throughout the spring and summer there was much spirited fighting by our regular and volun- teer troops, though at about this time the various organizations of State volunteers were sent home in the order in which they had reached the islands. Regulars replaced them, and the campaign was vigorously pushed. By the fall of 1899 all semblance of organized insurgent resistance had been dissipated. From then on, until March, 1901, Aguinaldo continued to be an elusive fugitive. One after another the little brown leaders surrendered their commands, but the chief cause of the trouble remained free and annoying. Then Brigadier-Gen- eral Frederick Funston, a volunteer officer from Kansas, contrived a ruse by which he caused himself and some brother officers to be led into the presence of Aguinaldo by a body of native troops enlisted in the United States service from the Macabebe tribe. As soon as he found himself in the presence of the putative Filipino leader, Funston gave the order that resulted in the capture of the Malay dictator. Aguinaldo was brought to Manila, where he took the oath of allegiance to the United States. Funston was made a Brigadier-General in the United States regular army as a re- ward for his signal service to the country. Following the capture of Aguinaldo, many other Filipino leaders surrendered and the insurrection fizzled out. In the fall of 1900 another Presidential contest was fought out along the lines of that of 1896. President McKinley was re- nominated by the Republican party, with Theodore Roosevelt of New York as his running mate. William J. Bryan was again selected as the standard-bearer of the Democratic party, with Adlai E. Stevenson as the Vice- Presidential candidate. The Republican party was returned to power by a great majority of the popular vote. May i, 1901, saw the opening of the great Pan-American Fair at Buffalo. In many respects this Exposition eclipsed the great World's Fair at Chicago in 1893. The object of the Pan-American was to present in bewildering array all the re- sources of the American Continent, and to A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 211 bring the countries thereof into closer com- mercial union. A few months before this the world wit- nessed the most extraordinary military spectacle known to history. In the spring of 1900 China stood behind the blood-red curtain of war against the entire civilized world. For many months previous there had been threats of rebellion against the imperial government of China. The rebels belonged to a secret sect known as the "Boxers." As to whether the "Boxers" acted in opposition to, or in accordance with, the real wishes of the Chinese Government may never be known to outsiders. But the le- gations of the various powers represented at Peking were besieged. Baron von Ket- teler, the German Ambassador, was mur- dered, and the same fate befell an official of the Japanese legation. At about this time marines of the various powers were landed and hurried to the capital of China. Admiral Seymour, with a mixed force of two thousand men, including many Amer- ican marines, tried to reach Peking, but was obliged to turn back. In July, after a powerful international force had been landed in China, a bloody engagement was fought between the allies and the Chinese, who were now composed of "Boxers" and the regular troops of the Empire. After a stubborn fight the Chinese were defeated, though a month more was consumed by the allies in reaching Peking, which was captured August 14. In the succeeding months many punitive expeditions were undertaken by the allied armies, but from these the United States forces held aloof. No section of Peking was so well governed as that which fell to the rule of the United States troops as represented by the Ninth Infantry. In May, 1901, all United States troops, ex- cept a small legation guard under com- mand of Major Robertson, were ordered back to Manila. This was due to the be- lief of our Government that we had no right to occupy any portion of Chinese soil a moment longer than was necessary for the protection of our citizens and commer- cial interests. Yet the Chinese in the sec- tion of Peking that was temporarily under the administration of our provost guard re- monstrated against the withdrawal of our troops. A petition signed by five thousand Chinese of wealth, position, and cultivation declared that under American rule they had enjoyed the best and fairest government known in their hislory-^A magnificent trib- ute to American capacity to govern wisely and justly! While holding a reception in the Tem- ple of Music of the Pan-American Exposi- tion, September 6, President McKinley was twice shot by an anarchist, Leon Czolgoz. The President died at a private house in Buffalo, September 14, and on the same day Vice- President Roosevelt took the oath of office as President, pledging himself to carry out the policy of his predecessor. The assassin was executed on October 29. After impressive funeral ceremonies in the Capitol at Washington, September 19, the remains of the President were temporarily interred at Canton, Ohio. Unusual honors were paid his memory in Europe, these in- cluding services in Westminster Abbey. The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, regarding the projected Isthmian Canal, signed Feb- ruary 5, 1900, and subsequently amended by the Senate, was signed by the President November 18. On June 28, 1902, Congress passed an act to provide for a canal con- necting the Atlantic and Pacific, authoriz- ing the President to acquire at a cost not exceeding $40,000,000 all the rights, etc., of the Ntew Panama Canal Company of France, also perpetual control of a strip of land extending from ocean to ocean, with the right to dispose of the waters thereof, and to cause the construction of a ship canal. Failing in this, he was au- thorized to obtain from Costa Rica and Nicaragua perpetual control of territory for the construction and maintenance of a canal by the Nicaragua route. After con- cluding a contract with the Panama Canal Company, Secretary Hay began negotia- tions with Colombia, and on May 18 a treaty was concluded, but questions of sov- ereignty and jurisdiction were left unset- tled, and negotiations were delayed by the civil war in Colombia and the opposition in that country to the relinquishment of sovereignty and the small amount offered by the United States. The treaty was re- jected by Colombia, August 17, 1903. On May 15, 1902, the anthracite coal min- ers of Pennsylvania began a strike, having failed in their demands for a shorter work day, a minimum day wage-scale, uniform increase of wages, and the weighing of coal for payments by the amounts mined. About 145,000 miners went out. Rioting occurred, with persecution of non-union men, and some destruction of property. On July 30, the State troops were called out, and on September 23-24 President Roose- velt intervened. October i, a conference '212 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES of railroad presidents and labor leaders was held at the White House, but noth- ing was effected. On October 13, the mine operators agreed to submit the mat- ters under dispute to the arbitration of a commission appointed by the President. On October 21, the miners voted in favor of the plan and declared the strike off. Cessation of work for five months caused a "coal famine," with attendant suffering among the poor and enormous detriment to business. The commission began its work in Washington, October 24, Judge Gray of the United States Circuit Court being chairman, and continued its sessions until February 13, 1903. The result was that the miners secured a sliding wage scale, shorter hours, and an increase in size of mine car or tipping, to be accompanied by proportionate increase in rate paid per car. Both sides agreed to abide by the decision. The visit of Prince Henry of Prussia (February 23 March n) was productive of much international good feeling. He was present at the launching of the Em- peror's yacht, the Meteor, at Shooters Isl- and, New York Bay, Miss Alice Roosevelt naming the vessel; was given the freedom of the city of New York, was most cor- dially received in Washington and else- where in the country, of which he made a tour, and left bearing the title of LL.D., conferred by Harvard University. After his return, Emperor William presented the people of the United States with a bronze statue of Frederick the Great to be erected in Washington. Early in the year charges against the mili- tary administration in the Philippines were made: namely, that officers had tortured Filipinos, burned their dwellings, and com- mitted other barbarities. The President or- dered a full investigation, and a court-mar- tial was held in Manila in April, at which General Jacob H. Smith admitted that he had given directions to kill, burn, and lay waste Samar, but claimed that he had not transgressed the laws of retaliation recog- nized by international law. The court sen- tenced him to be admonished, and President Roosevelt retired him from active service with a reprimand. On July 4, civil govern- ment was established in the Philippines and amnesty to all political prisoners was pro- claimed. The cost of the operations in the Philippines up to June was $170,326,586. On October 14, The Hague tribunal ren- dered its first decision in favor of the United States in the matter of the "Pious Fund," created in 1697 for the support of missions in California. Mexico .for a number of years had refused to contribute from this fund to the Roman Catholic bishops in California, holding that the Mexican Church alone should profit by it. On November 29, The Hague tribunal ren- dered another award in favor of the United States, in the matter of the claim against Russia for the seizure of American vessels by Russian warships in Behring Sea in 1891. On November 8 was signed the reciproc- ity treaty, arranged in September by Sir Robert Bond, Premier of Newfoundland, and Secretary Hay. This gives free admis- sion into the United States of fishery prod- ucts (fresh cod excepted) and crude min- erals in return for certain privileges in the way of bait to American fishing vessels in the waters of Newfoundland. On January 19, 1903, messages were trans- mitted by wireless telegraphy from the Mar- coni station on Cape Cod to Cornwall, Eng- land, President Roosevelt and King Edward exchanging greetings. The submarine cable between the United States and the Philip- pines was so far advanced on July 4 that the President sent a message to Honolulu on that date. The cable was completed to Manila not long afterward. OPERATION OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT A~i PRESCRIBED by the Constitution, and as denned by subse- quent laws and practices, the Government of the United States is the same, as far as outward form is concerned. That the changing conditions of life and civilization on this continent since 1789 have involved numerous departures from the plans originally contemplated can not be denied. Most notable among these is the difference between prescribed theory and actual practice in the matter of electing the President and Vice-Presi- dent. These Federal officers are still chosen, formally, by the Electoral College, which consists of members appointed from each State to the number of Senators and Representatives allowed. Although, in the con- templation of the Constitution, all these electors shall be free to choose their own candidates, quite untrammelled by the opinions of their constit- uents precisely in the same fashion as Congressmen are privileged to act the growth and development of parties in this country has determined that each of them is pledged to vote for some certain candidate. Thus, the original object sought in founding the Electoral College is thwarted, and the matter is entirely in the hands of the people, or, rather, of the two or three powerful political parties. In another respect, also, the present hybrid scheme of choosing a Presi- dent thwarts the choice of the majority: the electors, like Congressmen, do not represent equal numbers of constituents. Thus, as in the memorable national election of 1876, a Presidential candidate may receive the greater number of popular votes actually cast in the country, and yet fail of the required majority in the Electoral College. Such facts as these have created a strong sentiment in late years for the abolishment of electoral voting in favor of direct popular choice. CONDUCT AND DEPARTMENTS OF THE GOVERNMENT NATIONAL CONVENTIONS THE first step in the process of choosing a President is the appointment of dele- gates to the national conventions of the several political parties; each party in each State sending four delegates-at-large, and twice as many district delegates as the State has congressional representatives. These party conventions formulate and adopt the platforms for the forthcoming campaign, and nominate the candidates for President and Vice- President. THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE is made up, as previously stated, of two Electors-at-large, (218) 214 OPERATION OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT or Senatorial Electors, and as many Dis- trict Electors as there are Congressmen from each particular State. Each party in each State chooses its candidates for this body; each district being represented by its own successful candidate, according to the popular vote. The successful electoral candidates in each State meet at their respective State capitals, on the first Mon- day in January following the general elec- tion, and vote for the candidates heading the party tickets with which each member is affiliated. The electoral votes are for- mally counted, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, on the sec- ond Wednesday in February, and the Presi- dent and Vice-President declared elected. In case of non-election, the matter is placed in the hands of Congress, which chooses candidates by two-thirds vote. DEPARTMENTS OF THE GOVERN- MENT The Government of the United States consists of three departments: the Execu- tive, the Legislative, and the Judiciary. The Executive is represented by the Presi- dent; the Legislative, or law-making pow- er, by the two Houses of Congress; the Judiciary, by the United States Supreme Court and the numerous Federal District Courts throughout the Union. THE PRESIDENT is chosen for a term of four years, and may not be removed, ex- cept by impeachment for bribery, treason, or other high misdemeanors, after trial be- fore the Senate. In case of his death, resignation, disability, or removal, the law provides that the Vice-President shall suc- ceed to his office and duties. In case of the removal, resignation, or inability of both President and Vice-President, the succession is as follows : "In case of the removal, death, resigna- tion or inability of both the President or Vice-President, then the Secretary of State shall act as President until the disability of the President or Vice-President is re- moved or a President is elected. If there be no Secretary of State, then the Secre- tary of the Treasury will act; and the re- mainder of the order of succession is: The Secretary of War, Attorney-General, Post- master-General, Secretary of the Navy, and Secretary of the Interior. The acting Presi- dent must, upon taking office, convene Con- gress, if not at the time in session, in extraordinary session, giving twenty days' notice. This act applies only to such Cab- inet officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate, and are eligible under the Constitution to the Presidency." THE POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT are in no sense legislative. He has no authority to propose or issue laws, except such as are passed and ratified by both Houses of Con- gress. He may, however, recommend de- sirable legislation in his annual message, and, provided he is in harmony with Congress, his recommendations are usually acted on. He possesses also the power of veto, which enables him to kill any bill passed by Congress, unless, after due re- consideration, it is again passed by a two- thirds vote of both Houses. All bills passed by Congress, except those previously vetoed by the President, and those not returned by him within ten days after submission, must receive his signature, in order to become laws. Beyond these limits, he has no power to influence legislation, except that he may convene extraordinary sessions of Congress in special emergencies. He may appoint all Federal officers, not chosen by popular election, with the advice and approval of the Senate, and may remove incompetent and dishonest officials in the same class. In the making of treaties with foreign powers, he acts solely with the two-thirds majority of the Senate, but he has the power to direct the movements of Army and Navy, as Commander-in-Chief, with the advice of his Cabinet and staff, in times of war and peace. He has also the power to pardon criminals convicted of offences against Federal laws, except such as have been duly impeached from office. THE CABINET, or advisory council of the President, consists of the heads of nine Federal Departments, who are called Secre- taries. These Departments are: Of State, War, the Navy, the Treasury, the Interior, Agriculture, the Post-Office, Commerce, and Justice. The head of the Post-Office De- partment is known as the Postmaster-Gen- eral, and the head of the Judiciary De- partment, as the Attorney-General. All these officers are appointed by th6- President with the approval of the Senate, and hold office during the Presidential term, subject only to resignation or removal for cause by the President. They are respon- sible only to him, and have no relations with Congress. Each administers the affairs of his particular department, without ref- pron-e to the ^thers, except in extraor- dinary matters that come before the Presi- dent and Cabinet. THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMNET The Senate and House of Representatives compose the Legislative Department of the Government. .THE SENATE consists of two members from each State, chosen by the Legisla- ture to represent the State as a whole, like delegates-at-large in the party national conventions, or electors-at-large in the Electoral College. Each Senator is elected for six years, although the terms are so arranged that one-third of the body retires every three years. A Senator must have been a citizen of the United States for nine years before election, must be at least thirty years of age, and a legal resident of the State he represents. THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES is com- posed of members elected by popular vote from the various States, one member for each 154,325 inhabitants; although every State is entitled to at least one representa- tive. To be eligible as a representative in Congress, one must be at least twenty-five years of age, a citizen of the United States for at least seven years before election, and a legal resident of the Congressional Dis- trict he represents. ELECTIONS TO MEMBERSHIP. Both Houses of Congress have the right to pass on the qualifications of new members, although these are elected under the supervision of the laws and authorities in the several States. Although each new member must present his certificate of election signed by the Governor of his State, there have been very many cases of contested election the majority, of course, being in the House of Representatives. In such cases, the papers relating to the claims of the con- testant are delivered to the Clerk of the House, who refers them to the Committee on Elections. Meantime, the person hold- in the Governor's certificate is not allowed to assume his seat. In numerous instances the papers in the case have been so volu- minous that the Committee has been obliged to delay decision for several weeks. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE. Both Houses of Congress have the power to compel the attendance of members not absent on valid excuse. Were this not the case, it would frequently be impossible to obtain a quorum for the transaction of business. In the House of Representatives, the Ser- geant-at-Arms is furnished with a list of absentees, and directed to find and take them into custody the order of arrest being necessarily discharged before the members so brought in are allowed to vote. In the Senate, the Sergeant-at-Arms may be directed by the majority of members present to request, and, if necessary, com- pel, the attendance of absentees. In the Senate, voting is always by "yeas" and "nays," and in the House, by ballot, except in reconsidering vetoed bills, or when the decision on a ballot is questioned. THE ORGANIZATION OF BOTH HOUSES is permanent. The Vice-President is presid- ing officer of the Senate, or, in case of his death, resignation, or accession to the Presi- dency, some Senator is elected by the mem- bers to hold the office. The House of Representatives elects one of its own members to preside, under the title of Speaker. The members of both Houses are parcelled into various standing committees, which examine into and re- port on proposed laws and measures, and draw up bills for consideration by the full House. Any bill to become a law must pass both Houses by a majority of votes, but it may be originated, formulated, or amended in either House; but a bill passed in one House and amended in the other must be referred back again for approval and repassage in its revised form. In ad- dition to its legislative office, the Senate also acts as an advisory body to the Presi- dent in the matter of appointments, treaties, and in some other matters of administrative concern. It is also a high court for im- peachment trials. THE JUDICIARY DEPARTMENT consists of the Supreme Court of the United States and the minor Federal and District Courts throughout the country. Its function is to hear and decide causes at law under the Federal statutes, and also to pass on the constitutionality of acts passed by Con- gress. In the last particular it has a power superior to either the Executive or Legislative; deciding not only how a law shall be interpreted and enforced, but also whether it shall continue to be a law at all, as it is decided to be in or out of accord with the Constitution. The various Federal courts throughout the Union try cases under the Federal laws, and at no time deal with the laws of the various States, unless there is a direct bearing in particular cases. 216 OPERATION OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT I 1 Ok 00 ir, CO tx 00 y. O 00 1 o5 25 tx mvo ix, vo ixmvovo rx^m 2 00 1 M i i^ 00 00 1- 00 00 OO 00 00 oooooooooooooooooooooo s, s ; : fl U > u : u u o ._ (5 1 S J5 c P w J ri * ^ i? CO H 9 s | If ! Si ! III ^ .S .2 g * 8 IX o\ o tx 00 a H M N oo oo 00 00 00 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO oo c oo o X Ov O ) 00 O *"* D OJ 1 M : J J . : : : W esidence .2 J3 o .rt ii j .2 K 4 *C a 2 ^ 5 ' \ 1 H > 31 " >* ' *0> H ^ ^ K H, S H Q * J5 M / 5055 fc S3 X i^ IX tx i^ IxlxOOOO txoOOOOOuOOOOOOO oo o D 00 00 CO Z w Q M CO Birthplace Westmoreland Co., Va... i > X - ?? 1 > z Westmoreland Co., Va... Quincy, Mass 5 c U ^^ . >; S >> es "S 4J s (j : : ?|_-^ ( ^| vU |6c3^f2i lw2rftf.5Jirfi - - C *-" u .^ O * CU u *O r^ 4; 4> 4> O v *C rt O ^* 4> o "* f f O ^ fr H < 55 George Washington.. John Adams Thomas Jefferson. . . . James Madison 1 o ll o .5 S 3 8 c S-8 H-> >-> c j c Martin Van Buren.. William H. Harrison. John Tyler ::::: S ::: : :c5cscK2 - -o jj u C K 9 a 5 fi vuSS 2i]Jll|f ri 1M , n = OLiOMO .-OO . rf p " jl I^^JlJ^O 5 S JB* K W > gjCvUc^S*vOo)> 4tx!ll^<<5A5u Benjamin Harrison.. r^>^. .. /->i-...i__j William McKinley. .. Theodor* Roonevelt. . - W ( M 1 OPERATION OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT 217 VICE-PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES NAME Birthplace Year) Residence Qual ified - Poli- tics Place of Death Year 1826 1826 1836 1812 1814 1823 1850 1862 1850 1862 1864 1874 1853 1875 1891 i87S 1885 1875 1887 1886 1885 Age at Death 9i 83 So 73 70 Si 68 80 70 72 72 74 67 54 81 67 62 63 68 56 66 i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 1735 1743 1756 1739 1744 1774 1782 1782 1780 1790 1792 1800 1786 1821 1809 1808 1823 1812 1819 1830 1819 1824 1835 1844 1858 Mass 1789 1797 1801 1805 1813 1817 1825 1833 1837 1841 1845 1849 1853 1857 1861 1865 1869 1873 1877 1881 1885 1889 1893 1897 1901 Fed.. Rep.. Rep.. Rep.. Rep.. Rep.. Rep.. Dem. Dem. Dem. Dem. Whig. Dem. Dem. Rep.. Rep.. Rep.. Rep.. Rep.. Rep.. Dem. Quincy, Mass. . . . Monticello, Va. . . Staten Island. N.Y Washington, D. C. Washington, D. C. Staten Island, N.Y Washington, D. C. Kinderhook, N. Y. Frankfort, Ky. . . . Richmond, Va. . . . Philadelphia, Pa. . Buffalo, N. Y Thomas Jefferson... Shad well, Va Virginia. . . New York.. New York. . Mass George Clinton Elbridge Gerry Ulster Co., N. Y... Marble head, Mass. . Scarsdale, N. Y... Abbeville S C . . . . Daniel D. Tompkins John C. Calhoun... Martin Van Buren. . Richard M. Johnson. John Tyler George M. Dallas. . . Millard Fillmore... William R. King... J. C. Breckinridge. . . Hannibal Hamlin... Andrew Johnson. . . . Schuyler Colfax.... New York. . So. Carolina New York. . Kentucky. . Virginia. . . Pennsylva'a New York. . Alabama. . . Kentucky. . Maine. .... Kinderhook, N. Y. Green way, Va Philadelphia, Pa. . . Summer Hill, N.Y. Sampson Co., N.C. Lexington, Ky . .... Paris, Me Raleigh, N.C New York City Farmington, N. H. . Malone, N. Y Fairfield, Vt Muskingum Co., O. Shoreham, Vt Christian Co., Ky. . Long Branch, N.J. . New York, N.Y... Dallas County, Ala Lexington, Ky. . . Bangor, Me Carter Co., Tenn.. Mankato, Minn . . . Washington, D. C. Malone, N.Y New York City. . . Indianapolis, Ind. Tennessee . . Indiana. ... Mass ...... William A. Wheeler. Chester A. Arthur T. A. Hendricks Levi P. Morton.... Adlai E. Stevenson. . Garret A. Hobart. . . Theodore Roosevelt. New York. . New York. . Indiana... . New York.. Illinois. .. . New Jersey. New York. . Dem. Rep.. Rep. . Paterson, N. J. . . . 1899 55 JUSTICES OF THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT (NAMES OF THE CHIEF-JUSTICES IN ITALICS.) NAME Term Born Died NAME Term Born Died J h n Toy N Y 1789-1795 1829 Samuel Nelson N Y 1845-1872 187-1 John Rutledge S. C. 1 789- 1 79 1 1800 1780 1851 William Gushing, Mass 1789-1810 1733 1810 Robert C. Grier, Pa 1846-1870 1794 1870 1789-1798 1798 1851-1857 1874 John Blair Va 1789-1796 1800 1853-1861 1811 1889 Robert H. Harrison, Md. . . 1789-1790 '745 1790 Nathan Clifford Me 1858-1881 1803 1881 James Iredell N C 1790-1799 1751 1799 1861-1881 1804 1884 1819 1816 William Paterson, N. J 1793-1806 1806 1862-1877 1815 1886 John Rutledge S. C 1795-1795 1739 Stephen J. Field, Calif 1863-1897 1816 1807 1741 1811 Salmon P Chase O 1864-1873 1808 1871 1796-1800 1807 William Strong, Pa 1870-1880 1808 1895 Bushrod Washington, Va Alfred Moore N. C. 1798-1829 1799-1804 1762 1755 1829 1810 Joseph P. Bradley, N. J. .. Ward Hunt, N. Y 1870-1892 1872-1882 1813 1811 1892 1886 John Marshall Va 1801-1835 i7s>; i8^e Morrison R. Waite O 1874-1888 1816 1888 William Johnson, S. C Brockholdt Livingston, N. Y. Thomas Todd, Ky 1804-1834 1806-1823 1807-1826 1771 1757 1834 1823 1826 John M. Harlan, Ky William B. Woods, Ga Stanley Matthews, O 1877-..-. 1880-1887 1881-1889 1833 1824 1824. 1887 1889 Joseph Story, Mass 181 1-1845 iS^s Horace Gray Mass 1881- 1828 Gabriel Duval, Md 1811-1836 1752 1844 Samuel Blatchford, N. Y. . . . 1882-1893 1820 1893 Smith Thompson, N. Y. . . . . Robert Trimble Ky 1823-1843 1826-1828 1767 1843 1828 Lucius Q. C. Lamar, Miss . . Melville W. Fuller 111 1888-1893 1888- 1825 1833 1893 John McLean, O 1829-1861 T7&C 1861 1889-. . . . 1837 Henry Baldwin, Pa 1890-. . . . 1836 James M. Wayne, Ga 1835-1867 1867 1892-. . . . 1832 Roger B. Taney, Md 1836-1864 1777 1864 1893-1895 1832 1895 Philip P. Barbour, Va John Catron, Tenn 1836-1841 1837-1865 1783 1786 1841 1865 Edward D. White, La Rufus W Peckham N Y . 1893- 1895-. . . 1845 1837 John McKinley, Ala 1837-1852 1780 1852 Joseph McKenna, Calif. . . . 1897-. 1843 Peter V. Daniel, Va. ., 1841-1860 1785 1860 Oliver W. Holmes. Mass.. IQ02-. . . 1841 218 OPERATION OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL TABLE OF THE UNITED STATES AND TERRITORIES SHOWING THE AREA OF EACH IN SQUARE MILES, AND THE DATE OF ADMISSION OF NEW STATES INTO THE UNION, AND THE DATES OF ORGANIZATION OF TERRITORIES STILL REMAINING From the Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office with Corrections. The areaa are from the Census Report of 1890. THE THIRTEEN ORIGINAL STATES Ratified the Constitution Area of the Orig*! States in Sq. Miles STATES When Admitted Sq. Miles Dec. 28, 1846 Dec. 29, 1845 May, 29, 1848 Sept. 9, 1850 May, u, 1858 Feb. 14, 1859 Jan. 29, 1861 June 19, 1863 Oct. 31, 1864 March i, 1867 Aug. i, 1876 Nov. 3, 1889 Nov. 3, 1889 Nov. 8, 1889 Nov. ii, 1889 July 3, 1890 July n, 1890 Jan. 4, 1896 56,025 265,780 56,040 158,360 83,365 96,030 82,080 24,780 110,700 76,855 103,925 , 70,195 76,850 i45>3io 66,880 84,290 97,576 84,928 New Hampshire.. Massachusetts . . . Rhode Island Connecticut June 21, 1788 Feb. 6, 1788 May 29, 1790 Jan. 9, 1788 July 26, 1788 Dec. 1 8, 1787 Dec. 12, 1787 Dec. 7, 1787 April 28, 1788 June 25, 1788 Nov. 21, 1789 May 23, 1788 Jan. 2, 1788 9,005 8,315 1,250 4,990 49,1/0 7,8i5 45,215 2,050 12,210 42,450 52,250 30,570 59,475 Texas Wisconsin M. nnesota New York New Jersey Pennsylvania .... Delaware West Virginia . . . Maryland Nebraska North Carolina. . . South Carolina. . . Georgia Colorado North Dakota . . . South Dakota .... Washington Idaho Utah STATES When Admitted Sq. Miles Kentucky June i, 1792 March 4, 1791 June i, 1796 Nov. 29, 1802 April 30, 1812 Dec. n, 1816 Dec. 10, 1817 Dec. 3, 1818 Dec. 14, 1819 March 15, 1820 Aug. 10, 1821 June 15, 1836 Jan. 26, 1837 March 3, 1845 40,400 9,565 42,050 41,060 48,720 36,350 46,810 56,650 52,250 33,040 69,415 53,850 58,915 58,680 Vermont TERRITORIES Organized Ohio New Mexico .. ..- SM*. o- 1 8 eo Feb. 24, 1863 June 30, 1834 July 1 6, 1790 Mar. 3, 1791 July 27, 1868 May 2, 1890 July 6, 1898 April ii, 1899 July 4, 1903 District of Columbia -1 Alaska Oklahoma Arkansas Hawaii Florida Philippine Islands... OPERATION OF THE ENGLISH GOVERNMENT _ .- THE government of England presents several anomalies to the casual student: it is a monarchy in form, but a republic in practice; it is conducted with reference to no one formal organic document, like the Constitution of the United States, yet the principles of popular and personal rights, supposedly to be secured by such an instrument, are jealously and effectively conserved ; it retains the ancient tradition of allow- ing a hereditary aristocracy, represented in the Upper House of Parlia- ment, to censor all laws passed in the House of Commons, yet, in effect, the popular representatives are able to achieve such legislation as seems desirable; it maintains an established church, supported by taxation and public appropriations, with 'c3 bishops seated in the House of Lords, yet in no country on earth is religious liberty more secure. THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE GOVERNMENT THE FUNDAMENTAL LAW HE Constitution of England is found in the large body of carefully pre- served precedents and in the five great his- toric documents that define the first prin- ciples of English liberty. The first and most notable of these is the Magna Char- ta, signed by King John in 1215, which grants (i) the first principles of represen- tative government, in the formation of Parliament in two houses, which shall pass upon all questions of taxation and the mak- ing or repealing of general laws; (2) the right of each man to a fair trial by a compe- tent court before sentence of imprisonment, death, or forfeiture of property is imposed; (3) trial by jury; (4) the sanctity of jus- tice, against delay or purchase. These princi- ples were precisely stated under sixty-three heads, most of which have appeared in the Common Law, developed in later times. The second great document is the Peti- tion of Right, formulated in 1628, which sets forth the protest of Parliament against sundry abrogations of personal rights that had been practiced during the centuries succeeding the reign of Edward III. The third document is the Habeas Corpus Act, dating from the reign of Charles II (1679), which still further contributed to safeguarding the liberties of English sub- jects by providing the right of habeas cor- pus, and a fair and adequate trial on all charges made against a suspected criminal. As the fourth document we have the Bill of Rights, granted by William and Mary in 1689, which dealt particularly with re- ligious liberties, enacting certain principles looking toward the preservation of Protes- tantism and the maintenance on the throne of rulers of the reformed faith. To this end, many of the principles of representa- (319) 220 OPERATION OF THE ENGLISH GOVERNMENT tive government were reaffirmed more defi- nitely and precisely. The fifth document, the Act of Settle- ment, formulated on the accession of Wil- liam III in 1701, fixes the line of succession to the throne with the Electress Sophia of Hanover and her heirs, as the nearest Protestant descendants of the Stuarts. In attempting to still more firmly establish the liberties of the English people against the assumptions of the Sovereigns, it enacts that (l) no foreigner shall sit in Parliament nor hold office under the Crown; (2) that the King shall not go to war in defence of foreign countries without the permission of Parliament; (3) that the King shall not pardon any official, so that Parliament shall be unable to impeach him. These five documents, while not in the precise form of a Constitution, are really sufficiently extensive, explicit and far-reach- ing in their provisions to serve precisely the same end. Furthermore, so far as the people of England are concerned, they have operated eminently well to the preservation of liberties and the restraint of tyranny and injustice in the Sovereign and his ministers. THE SOVEREIGN According to the provisions of the Act of Settlement, the Sovereign of the Brit- ish Empire, ruling under the title of King of Great Britain and Ireland and Emperor of India, shall be a direct descendant by the eldest line of the Princess Sophia of Hanover, a Protestant in faith, a member of the Established Church of England, and married only to a Protestant. On account of the numerous limitations of power im- posed by the various constitutional acts already mentioned, and by the customary disuse of other rights and privileges, such as the veto power, the King or Queen of Great Britain is to a large extent a figure- head. His proper sovereign powers are largely delegated to his ministers, and ex- ercised only with the sanction of Parlia- ment. Although, according to all principles and precedents, he has the sole power to sum- mon, prorogue, or dissolve Parliament, even this right is very largely exercised with the advice and on the responsibility of his min- isters. He is required, however, to deliver an address at the opening of Parliament, which must be read by himself or some appointed substitute. Precedent requires also that he shall sign all bills passed be- fore they can become laws, but, as a gen- eral rule, the suggestions of the ministry are sufficient to secure the required assent. Among the powers still exercised freely by the Sovereign, although largely in con- sultation with the ministry, is the right to appoint all officers of the Army and Navy, and all bishops and other dignitaries of the Church of England, and the right of pardoning criminals. The Sovereign may not be removed from office for any cause, and the ministers are responsible for his personal conduct in all respects. THE PRIME MINISTER The really active and responsible head of the English Government is the Prime Min- ister, who, as the recognized leader of his party in the House of Commons, succeeds to the office on the downfall of the oppos- ing forces, through failure of their policy. Thus, while the people do not vote directly for the Prime Minister or any other ex- ecutive officer, popular sentiment, expressed in their suffrage, really determines who shall succeed to the office. The Sovereign, recognizing the choice of the people, ap- points the recognized leader of the success- ful party as his Prime Minister. THE CABINET The Prime Minister succeeds to office along with a number of other ministers, or secretaries, who, with himself, are nom- inated and recommended by the dominant party from both Houses of Parliament, and confirmed by the Sovereign. The Cabinet is, in fact, a direct evolution of the Privy Council, which has been rec- ognized as the body of advisers to the Sovereign, often to the detriment of popu- lar liberties, since the reign of Henry VI. The Privy Council was always a rather loose and indefinite body, consisting of members of the Royal Family, the high dignitaries of the Church, certain lords and exalted officials, and persons appointed to the title of Privy Councillor by the favor of the Sovereign. The entire body seldom met, and no member ever attended unless specially summoned. Since the organiza- tion of the Cabinet in the seventeenth century, as a special committee of the Privy Council, practically all its functions have been taken over, and the body has not met since 1839. The Cabinet, as at present constituted, consists of seventeen members designated as follows: OPERATION OF THE ENGLISH GOVERNMENT 221 1. Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury. 2. Lord High Chancellor. 3. Lord President of the Council. 4. Chancellor of the Exchequer. 5. Secretary of the Home Department 6. Secretary of State for War. 7. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. 8. Secretary of State for the Colonies. 9. Secretary of State for India. 10. First Lord of the Admiralty. 11. Lord Chancellor of Ireland. 12. Chief Secretary of the Lord-Lieuten- ant of Ireland. 13. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 14. President of the Board of Trade. 15. Lord of the Privy Seal. 16. President of the Local Government Board. 17. President of the Board of Agriculture. Each of them conducts the affairs of his own Department so long as he is supported by Parliament, but is obliged to resign as soon as his policy fails in securing the ap- proval of that body. Each of them is di- rectly responsible to the House of Com- mons in the inauguration and conduct of any lines of policy that may be adopted, and continue as leaders of their party in the House only so long as their measures are successful. Although the Sovereign has not sat at meetings of the Cabinet since the reign of Queen Anne; he is theoretically responsi- ble for all its doings. Practically, however, the responsibility rests in the members themselves, and through them in Parlia- ment, to which they are responsible. PARLIAMENT The English Parliament consists of two Houses the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Members of the House of Lords are drawn (i) from the peers of the realm, either such as inherit their titles or such as are created by the Sovereign; (2) from the bishops of the Church, who have seats in the House by virtue of their office ; (3) from the Irish and Scotch peers ; the former elected for life and the latter for the dura- tion of the Parliament. The presiding officer of the House of Lords is the Lord High Chancellor, and, although the membership is between 500 and 600, a quorum may be constituted with three members including the Presid- ing Officer. The functions of this body are to review and revise all laws passed by the House of Commons, except laws relating to public revenue and expenditure, which must be passed or rejected without amendment. Special committees are appointed from among its members to inquire into special matters that can not be referred to the whole House. It also acts as the Supreme Court of Appeal in all causes that are qualified to come before it. THE HOUSE OF COMMONS The Lower House of the British Parlia- ment, known as the House of Commons, is composed of about 700 members elected by popular ballot from the various districts of England. Each member must be at least twenty-one years of age, and can not be a clergyman, an English or Scottish peer, or the incumbent of any one of several specified local and government of- fices. The term of office is seven years, although this time is seldom served by any one member after one election, since Par- liament is generally dissolved before its expiration, thus necessitating a new elec- tion. The presiding officer, or Speaker, is elected by the majority of the members from among their number. A quorum is constituted by forty members, including this officer. The House of Commons acts under the direction of the Ministry, subject to the reports of its own select committees, speci- ally appointed to inquire into proposed measures. It may originate and pass any measure of law in concurrence with the House of Lords, but all bills relating to taxation and the granting of supplies must be originated by this body, and can not be revised by the Upper House. 15 222 OPERATION OF THE ENGLISH GOVERNMENT A TABLE OF THE KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND Name SAXONS AND DANES Acces- sion Died 839 858 860 866 871 901 925 940 946 955 958 975 979 1016 1016 1035 1040 1042 1066 1066 1087 IIOO "35 "54 1189 "99 1216 1272 1307 1327 1377 Dep. 1399 1413 1422 Dep. 1461 1483 1483 1485 1509 1547 1553 1558 1603 Age Reigned 827 837 858 1 858 866 871 901 925 940 946 955 958 975 979 1016 1017 '035 1040 1042 1066 1066 1087 I 100 1135 "54 ' 1189 "99 1216 1272 1307 1327 1377 1399 1413 1422 1461 1483 1483 1485 I5<>9 1547 1553 te c8 52 46 23 20 3i 17 28 40 64 60 43 67 49 56 42 Si 65 67 43 65 33 46 34 49 4i 12 33 52 55 16 42 69 12 9 2 8 5 30 24 5 6 9 3 17 4 37 i 18 5 2 24 o 21 13 35 19 35 10 '7 56 35 20 50 22 '4 9 39 23 2 24 38 6 5 45 ETHELWULF 1P,THKI,BAIJ> ..,,,,. Son of Ethel wulf ETHELRED Third son of Ethelwulf . ALFRED EDWARD THE ELDER.... ATHELSTAN EDMUND EDHED EDWY Brother of Edmund EDGAR EDWARD THE MARTYR.. ETHELRED II Son of Edgar EDMUNB IRONSIDE Eldest son of Ethelred CANUTE By conquest and election HAROLD I Son of Canute EDWARD THE CONFESSOR HAROLD II WILLIAM I Son of Ethelred II Brother-in-law of Edward THE HOUSE OF NORMANDY Obtained the Crown by conquest WILLIAM II HENRY I Third son of William I Youngest son of William I STEPHEN Third son of Stephen, Count of Blois, by Adela, fourth daughter of William 1... THE HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET Son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, by Matilda, only daughter of Henry I HENRY II JOHN HENRY III . . Sixth and youngest son of Henry II.... EDWARD I Eldest son of Henry III EDWARD II Eldest surviving son of Edward I EDWARD III Eldest son of Edward II RICHARD II Son of the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III HENRY IV THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Ed- Ward III HENRY V. . Eldest son of Henry IV HENRY VI Only son of Henry V. (Died 1471).... THE HOUSE OF YORK His grandfather was Richard, son of Ed- mund, fifth son of Edward III; and his grandmother, Anne, was great- granddaughter of Lionel, third son of Edward III EDWARD IV Eldest son of Edward IV RICHARD III Younger brother of Edward IV HENRY VII THE HOUSE OF TUDOR Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tu- dor, by Katharine, widow of Henry V; his mother, Margaret Beaufort, was great-granddaughter of John of HENRY VIII EDWARD VI Son of Henry VIII by Jane Seymour. . Daughter of Henry VIII by Katherine MARY I ELIZABETH . DaiiffVifpr nf flrnrv VTTT tiv Antw Bnlpvn OPERATION OF THE ENGLISH GOVERNMENT 223 A TABLE OF THE KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND (continued) Name THE HOUSE OF STUART Son of Mary Queen of Scots, grand- . daughter of James IV and Mar- garet, daughter of Henry VII Acces- sion Died Age Reigned JAMES I 1603 1625 1649 i6S3 1658 1660 1685 1689 1702 1714 1727 1760 1820 1830 1837 1901 1625 1649 1658 Res. 1659 1685 Dep. 1688 Dec. 1701 1702 1694 1714 1727 1760 1820 1830 1837 1901 58 48 59 54 68 Si 32 49 67 77 82 68 72 82 22 24 25 3 13 6 12 I 33 60 10 7 64 COMMONWEALTH CHARLES II JAMES II Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector THE HOUSE OF STUART Restored Eldest son of Charles I Second son of Charles I (died Sept. 16,1701) (Interregnum, Dec. 1 1 , 1 688 Feb. 13,1 689) Son of William, Prince of Orange, by Mary, daughter of Charles I WILLIAM III and GEORGE I THE HOUSE OF HANOVER Son of Elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I GEORGE II GEORGE III GEORGE IV Eldest son of George III WILLIAM IV VICTORIA Daughter of Edward, fourth son of George III EDWARD VII Eldest son of Victoria SOVEREIGNS OF SCOTLAND FROM A.D. 1057 TO THE UNION OF THE CROWNS NAMES BEGAN TO REIGN NAMES BEGAN TO REIGN 057, Apr. 092, Nov. 094, May 095, Nov. 097, Sept. 107, Jan. 8 124, Apr. 27 153, May 24 165, Dec. 9 214, Dec. 4 249, July 8 286, Mar. 19 292, Nov. 17 306, Mar. 27 120. Tune 7 Roberf II (Stuart) Robert III James I James II Edgar James III 1460, Aug. 3 Alexander I '. . David I James IV James V Mary 1488, June n 1513, Sept. 9 William (The Lion) Francis and Mary 1 558, Apr. 24 Mary Henry and Mary 1 565, July 29 Margaret i John (Balliol) i Mary James VI 1567, Feb. 10 Robert I (Bruce) ' i (Ascended the throne of March 24. 1601.) England as James I., David II . WELSH SOVEREIGNS OR PRINCES A.D. 840 TO 1282 Roderic the Great 840 Anarawd, son of Roderic 877 Howel Dha, the Good 943 Jefan and Jago 948 Howel ap Jefan, the Bad 972 Cadwallon, his brother 984 Meredith ap Owen ap Howel Dha 985 Idwal ap Meyric ap Edwal Voel 992 Llewelyn ap Sitsylht 1015 lago ap Idwal ap Meyric 1023 Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsylht. Killed .... 1039 Bleddyn 1063 Trahaern ap Caradoc 1073 Griffith ap Cynan 1079 Owain Gwynedd 1136 David ap Owain Gwynedd 1 169 Llewelyn the Great H94 David ap Llewelyn 1240 Llewelyn ap Griffith, last Prince, 1246; slain 1282 Edward of Carnarvon, afterward King Ed- ward II of England; born 1284 Created Prince of Wales 1301 r Tin Tin mi 11 n ii ii nil mi 1111 iiiui ir ll mill 11 11 11 iiJi ii 11 11 1111 1111 1111 1111 11 im ii 11 ii mill ii im 1111 mi mill OPERATION OF THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT THE present government of France is republican, under the provisions of the Constitution adopted February 25, 1875. Historically speak- ing, the present order is known as the "Third Republic," and, as such, succeeded to power on the downfall of the "Second Empire" in 1870. After numerous difficulties and continued oppositions from the monarchical parties, the Constitution was finally adopted, and, with a number of emen- dations and changes made in succeeding years, still continues to be the organic law of France. The French Constitution relates almost wholly to the nature, powers, and manner of election of government officers ; all these points being most elaborately developed, in order to prevent the slightest miscarriage or irregularity that might give opportunity to the persistent opponents of the republican form of government. In order to revise and amend the Constitution, it is necessary that the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, the two Chambers of the National Leg- islature, shall meet as one body to deliberate the matter, under the title of the "National Assembly." This body can meet, however, only after the joint vote of both Houses, or Chambers, has declared that revision or emendation is desirable. THE PRESIDENT THE President of the French Republic must be a citizen of France and unre- lated by birth with any family that has ever occupied the French throne. He is elected for a term of seven years by the National Assembly, which is formed by the two Chambers sitting together for the purpose. Once elected, he can not le removed, un- less impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, and tried on the charge of high treason be- (224) fore the Senate. In case of his death, re- moval, or resignation, executive duties are discharged by the Council of Ministers, or Cabinet, until the National Assembly has elected a successor. The duties and capacities of the French President include supreme command of the Army and Navy of the Republic; the mak- ing of appointments and removals, each such act, however, requiring the counter- signature of the Minister whose Depart- OPERATION OF THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT 225 ment is concerned; the making of treaties, alliances, and commercial agreements, and the granting of pardons. He must also sign all bills passed by the Chambers the counter-signature of one of the Ministers being required in every case but, instead of the veto power possessed by the Presi- dent of the United States, he can only demand reconsideration of any measure by the Chambers. The President has power to adjourn the sessions of the Chambers at any time for not more than one month. He can also call extraordinary sessions, when occasion demands, and order extra sessions at his discretion. After the regular session of the Chambers has lasted five months, he can close it, and, with the consent of the Senate, can dissolve the Deputies at any time; thus necessitating a new election, which he can direct at discretion. He can not dissolve the Senate, however, his action in regard to the Deputies merely closing the Senatorial session, without terminating its life. He may suggest legislation in a message read at the opening of the Cham- bers by one of the Ministers. According to the wording of the Con- stitution, "The President of the Republic has the initiative of the laws, concurrently with the members of the two Chambers. He promulgates the laws when they have been voted by the two Chambers : he looks after and sees to their execution. He has the right of pardon ; amnesty can be granted by law only. He disposes of the armed force. He appoints to all civil and mili- tary positions. He presides over national festivals ; envoys and ambassadors of for- eign powers are accredited to him. Every act of the President of the Republic must be countersigned by a Minister." THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS The Cabinet or Council of Ministers forms the second department of the Ex- ecutive, sharing with the President in the administration of the laws and public af- fairs of the Nation. It has eleven mem- bers chosen by the President, generally from the Chambers, and these, as mem- bers of the Cabinet, are recognized as leaders in the Chambers with special priv- ileges in debate; as members of the Coun- cil of Ministers, they conduct the affairs falling in the jurisdiction of their several departments. According to precedent, the President may appear in the Chambers, although since the administration of Presi- dent Thiers, who took active part in the debates on restoring the monarchy, the Ministers alone have represented the Ex- ecutive in the legislative body. The members of the Council preside over the following departments: 1. Department 2. Department 3. Department 4. Department 5. Department Worship. 6. Department onies. 7. Department 8. Department 9. Department 10. Department 11. Department of War. of Foreign Affairs, of Finance, of Public Instruction, of Justice and Public of Marine and the Col- of Public Works. of Agriculture. of Commerce. of the Interior. of Posts and Telegraphs. The President has a seat in all the meet- ings of the Council of Ministers, shaping and directing the policy of administration; although the Ministers are not responsible to him, but "jointly and severally to the Chambers for the policy of the Govern- ment, and individually for their personal acts." If the policy of the Ministers is not sustained by the Chambers, their resig- nations must be submitted. In addition to the Cabinet, the President appoints the Council of State, composed of Councillors, Masters of Requests, and Au- ditors, and presided over by the Minister of Justice. Its members "may be dismissed only by decree rendered in the Council of Ministers." This latter body has the duty of advising on all matters of law, admin- istrative by-laws,, and regulations, submitted either by the Chambers or the Executive, and its decision is final in all disputes on these points. THE CHAMBERS The two Chambers are the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. According to the provisions of the Con- stitution, "the Senate consists of 300 mem- bers; 225 elected by the Departments and Colonies and 75 elected by the National Assembly. "No one can be Senator unless he is a French citizen, forty years of age at least, and enjoying civil and political rights." The term of office is nine years, but the rotation is so arranged that one-third of the members shall retire every three years. The business of the Senate is largely in the hands of Bureaux, which are chosen 226 OPERATION OF THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT monthly by lot to appoint all special com- mittees on bills and measures, except such as are directly elected by the full mem- bership for special purposes. The Senate also chooses its own presid- ing officer, known as the President, and its Vice-Presidents and other officers. Its quorum is a majority of members. Its duties are to originate all legislative meas- ures, except bills relating to revenue, ap- propriations, etc., in which the Chamber of Deputies must take the initiative, and in reviewing and amending all acts passed by the Deputies. THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES Members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected from each Department of France, and from several of the Colonies by popu- lar vote; the regulation specifying one deputy for each 70,000 inhabitants. The term of office is four years. To be eligible to this body the sole re- quirements are that a man shall be a citi- zen of France and at least twenty-five years of age. Like the Senate, the Chamber of Depu- ties chooses its own parliamentary officers, and delegates the business of its special committees to bureaux, which are monthly chosen by lot. It may originate and pass, concurrently with the Senate, all bills on public matters, but is required by law to originate all measures relating to finance and appropriations. It may bring charges against the President of the Republic, but only the Senate can act as a court to try him. FRENCH DYNASTIES AND SOVEREIGNS The Merovingians Hairy," King of the Salic Clovis, "The Franks... Childeric III, last of the race The Carlovingians Pepin, "The Short," son of Charles Martel.. Charlemagne, The Great, Emperor of the West Louis V, "The Indolent," last of the race... The Capets Hugh Capet, "The Great" Louis IX, "St. Louis" Charles IV, "The Handsome" 428 737 75* 768 986 The House of Valois Philip VI de Valois, "The Fortunate" Henry III, last of the race The House of Bourbon Henry IV, "The Great," King of Navarre... Louis XIII, "The Just" Louis XIV, "The Great," Dieudonne Louis XV, "The Well-beloved" Louis XVI (guillotined January 21, 1793)... Louis XVII (never reigned) The First Republic The National Convention first sat. . .Sept. 21, The Directory nominated Nov. I, The Consulate Bonaparte, CambaceVes, and Lebrun. ..Dec. 24, Bonaparte, Consul for 10 years May 6, Bonaparte, Consul for Life Aug. 2, 987 1226 1322 1328 IS74 1589 1610 1643 1715 1774 1793 1792 1795 1799 1802 1802 The Empire Napoleon I decreed Emperor May 18, 1804 Napoleon II (never reigned) died. .. .July 23, 1832 The Restoration Louis XVIII re-entered Paris May 3, 1814 Charles X (deposed July 30, 1830, died No- vember 6, 1836) 1824 Heir-expectant, Henry, Comte de Chambord Sept. 29, 1820 The House of Orleans Louis Philippe, King of the French 1830 (Abdicated Feb. 24, 1848, died Aug. 26, 1850.) Heir-apparent, Comte de Paris, born. .Aug. 24, 1838 The Second Republic Provisional Government formed Feb. 22, 1848 Louis Napoleon elected President. .. .Dec. 10, 1848 The Second Empire Napoleon III elected Emperor Nov. 22, 185* (Deposed Sept. 4, 1870, died Jan. 9, 1873.) The Third Republic Committee of Public Defence Sept. 4, 1870 L. A. Thiers elected President Aug. 31, 1871 Marshal MacMahon elected President . May 24, 1873 Jules GreVy elected President Jan. 30, 1879 Sadi Carnot elected President Dec. 3, 1887 Casimir-Perier elected President June 27, i?9< Felix Faure elected President Jan. 17, 1895 Emile Loubet elected President Feb. 18, OPERATION OF THE GERMAN GOVERNMENT ALTHOUGH, previous to the establishment of the modern German Empire in 1871, the various states and cities of Germany had been accustomed for several centuries to send representatives to the general diets and had formed themselves into a Confederation for offensive and defensive purposes, there was no organic unity among them that should constitute an undivided German nation. Each state, as also several of the more important cities, continued to be ruled by its own independent and supreme sovereign. At the end of the Franco-Prussian War, how- ever, the long-contemplated end, of an organic empire, was finally attained, with the King of Prussia as its President, under the title of Emperor (Kaiser). While the Emperor was proclaimed supreme ruler of Germany, under the provisions of the Agreements of Federation formally adopted at Ver- sailles on January 18, 1871, the rulers of the several German states, such as Bavaria, Wiirtemburg, Baden, Hesse, etc., were still recognized as sov- ereigns possessed of a considerable measure of independence. In this respect the federation of the German Empire resembles that of the several States of the American Union, whose sovereignty is still affirmed, in spite of the indissolubleness of their alliance. The territory included in the German Empire covers the states of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wiirtem- burg, Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Saxe- Weimar, Mecklenburg- Strelitz, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe- Coburg-Gotha, Anhalt, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sonderhau- sen, Waldeck, Reuss, Schaumburg-Lippe, Lippe, Lubeck, Bremen, Ham- burg. The federal government of all these states and cities is formulated in the Constitution issued by imperial proclamation April 16, 1871. It con- tains fourteen chapters and seventy-seven articles. Its chapters deal with the following subjects : (i) Territory; (2) Legislation; (3) Federal Coun- cil; (4) The Presidium; (5) The Diet; (6) Customs and Commerce; (7) Railways; (8) Mails and Telegraphs; (9) Marine and Navigation; (10) Consular Affairs; (n) Military Affairs; (12) Finances; (13) Settlement of Disputes; (14) General Provision for revising the Constitution. (237) 228 OPERATION OF THE GERMAN GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS AND POWERS OF THE GOVERNMENT THE EMPEROR THE Chief Magistrate, or President, of the German Empire is the King of Prussia, who holds office for life by virtue of inheritance, under the title of Emperor. He is irresponsible and can not be removed or impeached for any cause whatsoever. By virtue of his office the Emperor is the federal representative of the Empire, and is empowered to conclude peace, make treaties and other alliances with foreign powers, without reference to the legislative assemblies, except in such matters as con- cern customs duties, commerce, and im- posts, which constitutionally fall under the surveillance of the representatives. The Emperor can also declare war on any for- eign power that has made an attack on the coasts or territory of the Empire, but for an offensive war the consent of the Bun- desrath is required. He is Commander-in- Chief of the entire military and naval forces of the Empire, and has supreme control over their organization and equip- ment. He is particularly authorized to maintain the Army at its full strength and to select suitable places for garrisons and fortifications, as well as to control the ap- pointment and transfer of officers, accord- ing to his own judgment. The Emperor has the right to appoint the Chancellor of the Empire and any civil officers. He may also discharge the Chan- cellor, and, with the counter-signature of that officer, may remove any other official. He has the power to grant pardons; may declare martial law, whenever necessary in his opinion, and may summon, open, ad- journ, and close the two Houses of the Legislature, or dissolve the Reichstag, with the advice or consent of the Bundesrath. In the matter of legislation he has the right of promulgating or giving necessary authority to any bills passed by the two Houses of the Imperial Legislature. While the right of veto is not definitely accorded, he may refrain from promulgating any law, on the ground that it involves a change in the Constitution, unless it has been passed by forty-five out of the total of fifty-eight votes in the Bundesrath. THE CHANCELLOR The responsible administrative head of the German Empire is the Chancellor, who is appointed by the Emperor and retained in office at his pleasure solely, not being removable by legislative action. In one aspect his duties closely resemble those of the English Prime Minister, but he does not form a cabinet, and is also presiding officer in the Bundesrath. The Chancellor must be one of the seventeen Prussian representatives in the Bundesrath, in which he represents the Emperor as King of Prussia. He con- trols all the departments of the Govern- ment through a central bureau ; superin- tends the administration of laws in the various states; and renders an annual bud- get and an account of the condition of the Empire to the Reichstag. THE BUNDESRATH The Upper House of the Imperial Ger- man Legislature is known as the Bundes- rath, which word is best to be translated Federal Council. This body consists of fifty-eight members from all the States of Germany, apportioned as follows: seventeen members from Prussia, including Hanover, the Electorate of Hesse, Holstein, Nassau, and Frankfort; six from Bavaria; four each from Saxony and Wurtemburg; three each from Baden and Hesse; two each from Brunswick and Mecklenburg- Schwerin, and one each from the remaining seventeen States. These members are not elected, but are appointed by the Kings or other rulers in their several States. In the Reichstag, as in other branches of the Government, the ascendency of Prus- sia is maintained. The Imperial Chancel- lor is its chairman, and, at a regular meet- ing, himself or his accredited representa- tive constitutes a quorum for the trans- action of business. In case of a tie in the voting on any question, the decision is given to Prussia, whose representatives are required to cast an undivided vote. The Chancellor votes with the other Prussian representatives. The business of the Bundesrath is largely divided among seven permanent committees, which are annually appointed by the Coun- cil from among its own members; except those on the Army and Navy, whose mem- bers are chosen by the Emperor himself, always appointing one Bavarian to the former. No other restrictions as to mem- bership are prescribed, except that each committee must contain representatives of OPERATION OF THE GERMAN GOVERNMENT 229 at least four of the German States. These permanent committees are (i) on the army; (2) on the navy; (3) on duties and taxes; (4) on commerce and trade; (5) on rail- roads, post-offices, and telegraphs; (6) on the judiciary; (7) on accounts. In addi- tion, there is an annually elected commit- tee on foreign affairs, to be composed of the plenipotentiary representatives of Ba- varia, Saxony, and Wiirtemburg, and of two other States. The duties of the Bundesrath include the origination of bills to be sent to the Reichstag in the name of the Emperor. The particular departments affected by its deliberations are (i) measures proposed by or to be submitted to the Reichstag; (2) general provisions for the execution of laws thoughout the Empire; (3) measures looking to the remedying of defects in ex- isting laws. By a wise provision, all bills of local application are voted on only by representatives of the interested States. THE REICHSTAG The Lower House of the German Im- perial Legislature is known as the Reichs- tag, which is by translation the Imperial Diet. It consists of representatives from every German State, elected by popular suffrage and apportioned at the ratio of one to every 100,000 inhabitants. To be eligible to the Reichstag a candidate must be at least twenty-five years of age, and have resided at least one year in the State he is to represent. For the transaction of business the mem- bers are divided by lot into seven sections, from which select committees are appointed, as required. There are no permanent com- mittees. The president and other officers are elected by the members, and a quorum for business must always be a majority. The Reichstag has power to originate bills and to pass laws in concurrence with the Bundesrath; a majority of votes being always essential to the passage of a meas- ure. Its concurrence in a number of laws is required by the Constitution, and it may withhold its sanction to such measures by majority vote. It is also allowed to in- quire into certain matters of administra- tion, among which are questions of trade, customs, weights and measures, banking, railroads, navigation, postal and telegraph affairs, judicial administration and the ex- ecution of sentences, the Army and Navy, the press, trade unions, etc., etc. DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY A>TRONOMY (from the Greek, astron, a star, and nomos, a law) is, comprehensively, that science which explains the nature and motions of the bodies filling infinite space, including our own globe, in its character of a planet or member of the solar system. The science may be divided into two departments i. Descriptive Astronomy, or an account of the systems of bodies occupying space; 2. Mechanical Astronomy, or an explanation of the physical laws which have produced and which sustain the arrangements of the heavenly bodies, and of all the various results of the arrangement and relations of these bodies. Ura- nography is a subordinate department of the science, presenting an account of the arrangements which have been made by astronomers for delineating the starry heavens and working the many mathematical problems of which they are the subject. THE PLANETS, SATELLITES, AND FIXED STARS THE field contemplated by the astrono- mer is no less than INFINITE SPACE. So, at least, he may -well presume space to be, seeing that every fresh power which he adds to his telescope allows him to pene- trate into remoter regions of it, and still there is no end. In this space, systems, consisting of suns and revolving planets, and other systems again, consisting of a numberless series of such lesser systems, are suspended by the influence of gravita- tion, operating from one to another, yet each body at such a distance from another, as, though the mind of man can in some instances measure, it can in none conceive. We begin with what is usually called the Solar System that is, the particular solar system to which our earth belongs. THE SOLAR SYSTEM The solar system, so named from sol (Latin), the sun, consists of the sun in the centre, numerous planets, and an un- known number of bodies named comets. The word planet is from the Greek planao, to wander, because the few such bodies known to the ancients were chiefly remark- able in their eyes on account of their con- stantly shifting their places with reference to the other luminaries of the sky. Comets (230) are so named from coma (Latin), a head of hair, because they seem to consist of a bright spot, with a long brush streaming behind. Some of the planets have other planets moving round them as centres the moon, for instance, round the earth. These are called secondary planets, moons, or satel- lites; while those that move round the sun are called primary planets. The primary plan- ets consist: ist, of eight larger planets, in- cluding the earth ; their names, in the order of their nearness to the sun, are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel or Uranus, and Neptune. 2d. A group of lesser planets, which are generally known as asteroids. These bodies, number- ing between 400 and 500, are all very small. The entire surface of one of the larger asteroids may be equal to that of Texas. There are many asteroids whose areas, respectively, do not equal that of Rhode Island. The planets move round the sun on nearly one level or plane, corresponding with the centre of his body, and in one direction, from west to east. The second- ary planets, in like manner, move in planes round the centres of their primaries, and in the same direction, from west to east. These are denominated revolutionary mo- DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY 231 tions ; and it is to be observed that they are double in the case of the satellites, which have at once a revolution round the primary, and a revolution, in company with the primary, round the sun. The path described by a planet in its revolution is called its orbit. Each planet, secondary as well as pri- mary, and the sun also, has a motion in its own body, like that of a bobbin upon a spindle. An imaginary line, form- ing, as it were, the spindle of the sun or planet, is denominated the axis, and the two extremities of the axis are called the poles. The axes of the sun and planets are all nearly at a right angle with the plane of the revolutionary movements. The mo- tion on the axis is called the rotatory mo- tion, from rota, the Latin for a wheel. The sun, the primary planets, and the satellites, with the doubtful exception of two attending on Uranus, move on their axes in the same direction as the revolu- tionary movements, from west to east. The Sun is a sphere or globe of 865,000 miles in diameter, and rotates, or revolves upon its axis, in between twenty-five and twenty-six days. When viewed through a telescope, the surface appears intensely bright and luminous, as if giving out both heat and light to the surrounding planets. But on this surface there occasionally appear dark spots, generally surrounded with a border of less dark appearance; some of which spots have been calculated to be no less than 45,000 miles in breadth, or nearly twice as much as the circumference of the earth. The region of the sun's body on which the spots appear, is confined to a broad space engirdling his centre. These are sometimes observed to come into sight at his western limb, to pass across his body in the course of twelve or thirteen days, and then disappear. They are sometimes observed to contract with great rapidity, and disappear like something melted and absorbed into a burning fluid. Upon the bright parts of the sun's body there are also sometimes observed streaks of un- usual brightness, as if produced by the ridges of an agitated and luminous fluid. It has been surmised, that the sun is a dark body, enveloped in an atmosphere calculated for giving out heat and light, and that the spots are produced by slight breaks or openings in that atmosphere, showing the dark mass within. Though so much larger than the earth, the matter of the sun is only about a fourth of the density or compactness' of that of our planet, or little more than the density of water. The sun is surrounded to a great dis- tance by a faint light, or luminous matter of extreme thinness, shaped like a lens or magnifying-glass, the body of the sun be- ing in the centre, and the luminous matter extending in the plane of the planetary revolutions, till it terminates in a point. At particular seasons, and in favorable states of the atmosphere, it may be ob- served before sunrise, or after sunset, in THE SOLAR SYSTEM RATE OF MOVEMENT OF THE PLANETS IN MILES PER MINUTE. Mercury, 1796; Venus, 1334; Earth, 1133; Mars, 905; Vesta, 905; Juno, 905; Ceres, 693; Pallas, 693; Jupiter, 490; Saturn, 363; Uranus, 255; Moon, 38. DENSITIES OF PLANETS COMPARED WITH WATER, WHICH is CONSIDERED AS ONE. The Sun, i, 2-i3ths; Mercury, 9, i-6th; Venus, 5, n-isths; Earth, 4, s-ioths; Mars, 3, 2-7ths; Jupiter, I, i-24th; Saturn, o, 13-3265; Uranus, o, 99-iooths. INCLINATIONS OF ORBITS TO THE ECLIPTIC. Mer- cury, 7 o' 9" i; Venus, 3 23' 28" 5; Mars, i* 51' 6" 2; Vesta, 7 5' 9" o; Juno, 13 4 ' 9" 7; Ceres, io37'26"2; Pallas, 34 34' 55" o; Jupi- ter, ii8'si"3; Saturn, 2 29' 35" 7; Uranus, o 46' 28" 4. the form of a cone pointing obliquely above the place where the sun is either about to appear or which he has just left. It is termed the Zodiacal Light. Mercurv the nearest planet to the sun, is a globe of about 2,992 miles in diameter, rotating on its axis in 24 hours and 5^ minutes, and revolving round the central luminary, at a distance of 33,000,000 miles in 88 days. From the earth it can only be seen occasionally in the morning or 232 DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY evening, as it never rises before, or sets after the sun, at a greater distance of time than I hour and 50 minutes. It appears to the naked eye as a small and brilliant star, but when observed through a tele- scope, is horned like the moon, because we only see a part of the surface which the sun is illuminating. Mountains of great height have been <-bserved on the surface of this planet, particularly in its lower or southern hemisphere. One has been cal- culated at io>4 miles in height, being about eight times higher, in proportion to the bulk of the planet, than the loftiest moun- tains upon earth. The matter of Mer- cury is of much greater density than that of the earth, equalling lead in weight, so that a human being placed upon its surface would be so strongly drawn toward the ground as scarcely to be able to crawl. Venus is a globe of about 7,660 miles in diameter, or nearly the size of the earth, rotating on its axis in 23 hours, 21 minutes and 19 seconds, and revolving round the sun, at the distance of 67,200,000 of miles in 225 days. Like Mercury, it is visible to an observer on the earth only in the morning and evening, but for a greater space of time before sunrise and after sun- set. It appears to us the most brilliant and beautiful of all the planetary and stel- lar bodies, occasionally giving so much light as to produce a sensible shadow. Observed through a telescope, it appears horned, on account of our seeing only a part of its luminous surface. The illumi- nated parts of Venus occasionally presents slight spots. It has been ascertained that its surface is very unequal, the greatest mountains being in the southern hemi- sphere, as in the case of both Mercury and the earth. The higher mountains in Venus range between 10 and 22 miles in altitude. The planet is also enveloped in an at- mosphere like that by which animal and vegetable life is supported on earth, and it has consequently a twilight. Venus per- forms its revolution round the sun in 225 days. Mercury and Venus have been termed the Inferior Planets, as being placed within the orbits of the earth. The Earth, the third planet in order, and one of the smaller in size, though not the smallest, is important to us, as the theatre on which our race have been placed to "live, move, and have their being." It is 7,918 miles in mean diameter, rotating on its axis in 24 hours, at a mean distance of 95,000,000 of miles from the sun, round which it revolves in 365 days, 5 hours. 56 minutes, and 57 seconds. As a planet viewed from another of the planets, sup- pose the moon, "it would present a pretty, variegated, and sometimes a mottled ap- pearance. The distinction between its seas, oceans, continents, and islands would be clearly marked; they would appear like brighter and darker spots upon its disk. The continents would appear bright, and the ocean of a darker hue, because water absorbs the greater part of the solar light that falls upon it. The level plains (ex- cepting, perhaps, such regions as the Arabian deserts of sand) would appear of a some- what darker color than the more elevated and mountainous regions, as we find to be the case on the surface of the moon. The islands would appear like small bright specks on the darker surface of the ocean; and the lakes and Mediterranean seas like darker spots on broad streaks intersecting the bright parts, or the land. By its revolution round the axis, successive portions of the surface would be brought into view, and present a different aspect from the parts which preceded." The form of the earth, and probably that of every other planet, is not strictly spher- ical, but spheroidal, that is, flattened a lit- tle at the poles, or extremities of the axis. The diameter of the earth at the axis is 26 miles less than in the cross direction. This peculiarity of the form is a conse- quence of the rotatory motion, as will be afterward explained. The earth is attended by one satellite, the Moon, which is a globe of 2,160 miles in diameter, and consequently about a 49th part of the bulk of the earth, revolving round its primary in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and n seconds, at the distance of 238,000 miles. The moon is 400 times nearer the earth than the sun is; but, its diameter being at the same time 400 times less than that of the sun, it appears to us of about the same size. The moon rotates on her axis in exactly the same time as she revolves round the earth. She conse- quently presents at all times the same part of her surface toward the earth. Inspected through a telescope, her surface appears of unequal brightness and extremely rugged. The dark parts, however, are not seas, as has been supposed, but more like the beds of seas, or great alluvial plains. No ap- pearance of water, or of clouds, or of an atmosphere, has been detected. The sur- face presents numerous mountains, some of them about a mile and three-quarters in Height, as has been ascertained by meas- DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY 233 urement of the shadows which they cast on the neighboring surface. The tops of the mountains of the moon are generally shaped like a cup or basin, with a small eminence rising from the centre, like many volcanic hills on the earth. It has hence been surmised that the moon is in a vol- canic state, as the earth appears to have been for many ages before the creation of man, and that it is perhaps undergoing processes calculated to make it a fit scene for animal and vegetable life. The moon turning on its axis once in a little more than 27 days, presents every part of its surface in succession to the sun in that time, as the earth does in 24 hours. The day of the moon is conse- quently nearly a fortnight long, and its nights of the .same duration. The light of the sun, falling upon the moon, is partly absorbed into its body; but a r ,mall por- tion is reflected or thrown back, and be- comes what we call moonlight. The il- luminated part from which we derive moon- light is at all times increasing or dimin- ishing in our eyes, as the moon proceeds in her revolution around our globe. When the satellite is at the greatest distance from the sun, we, being between the two, see the whole of the illuminated surface, TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE OF THE MOON which we accordingly term full moon. As the moon advances in her course, the lu- minous side is gradually averted from us, and the moon is said to wane. At length, when the satellite has got between the earth and the sun, the luminous side is entirely lost sight of. The moon is then said to change. Proceeding in her revolu- tion, she soon turns a bright edge toward us which we call the new moon. This gradually increases in breadth, till a moiety of the circle is quite filled up; it is then said to be half moon. The luminary, when on the increase from new to half, is termed PHASES OF THE MOON a crescent, from crescens, Latin for in- creasing; and this word has been applied to other objects of the same shape for instance, to a curved line of buildings. In the early days of the new moon, we usually see the dark part of the body faintly illuminated, an appearance termed the old moon in the new moon's arms. This faint illumination is produced by the reflection of the sun's light from the earth, or what the inhabitants of the moon, if there were any, might be supposed to consider as moonlight. The earth, which occupies one invariable place in the sky of the moon, with a surface thirteen times larger than the apparent size of the moon in our eyes, is then at the full, shining with great lustre on the sunless side of its satellite, and re- ceiving back a small portion of its own reflected light. The light, then, which makes the dark part of the moon visible to us, may be said to perform three jour- neys, first from the sun to the earth, then from the earth to the moon, and finally from the moon back to the earth, before our eyes are enabled to perceive this object. Mars, the fourth of the primary planets, is a globe of 4,189 miles in diameter, or little more than a half of that of the earth; consequently, the bulk of this planet is only about a fifth of that of our globe. It performs a rotation on its axis in 24 hours, 37 minutes, and 22 seconds, and re- volves round the sun, at a distance of 141,- 000,000 of miles, in 686 days, 22 hours, and 18 seconds. Mars appears to the naked 234 DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY eye of a red color; from which circum- stance it was, probably, that the ancients bestowed upon it the name of the god of war. Inspected through a telescope, it is found to be occasionally marked by large spots and dull streaks, of various forms, and by an unusual brightness of the poles, As the bright polar parts sometimes pro- ject from the circular outline of the planet, it has been conjectured that these are masses of snow, similar to those which beset the poles of the earth. Vesta, Ceres, Pallas, and Juno are among the globes revolving between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, in paths near and cross- ing each other, and which are not only much more elliptical than the paths of the other planets, but also rise and sink much further from the plane of the general planetary revolutions. Vesta is of a bulk only i-is,oooth part of the bulk of the earth, with a surface not exceeding that of the kingdom of Spain. It revolves round the sun in 3 years, 66 days, and 4 hours, at a mean distance of 225,500,000 miles. Though the smallest of all the planets, it gives a very brilliant light, insomuch that it can be seen by the naked eye. Juno is 1,425 miles in diameter, and presents, when inspected through the tele- scope, a white and well-defined appear- ance. Its orbit is the most eccentric of all the planetary orbits, being 253,000,000 of miles from the sun at the greatest, and only 126,000,000, or less than one-half, at the least distance. In the half of the course nearest to the sun, the motion of the planet is, by virtue of a natural law afterward to be explained, more than twice as rapid as in the other part. Ceres has been variously represented as of 1,624 and 160 miles in diameter. The astronomer who calculated its diameter at 1,624 miles, at the same time believed him- self to have ascertained that it has a dense atmosphere, extending 675 miles from its surface. It is of a reddish color, and ap- pears about the size of a star of the eighth magnitude. Ceres revolves round the sun, at a distance of 260,000,000 of miles, in 4 years, 7 months, and 10 days. Pallas has been represented as of 2,099 miles in diameter, with an atmosphere ex- tending 468 miles above its surface. An- other astronomer has allowed it a diame- ter of only 80 miles. It revolves round the sun, at a mean distance of 266,000,000 miles, in 4 years, 7 months, and n days. However unimportant it may appear beside the large planets, it has a peculiar interest in the eyes of astronomers, on account of its orbit having a greater inclination to the plane of the ecliptic than those of all the larger planets put together. Jupiter is the largest of all the planets. Its diameter is nearly eleven times that of the earth, or 85,000 miles, and its volume or mass is consequently 1,200 times that of our globe. The density of Jupiter is only a fourth of that of the earth, or about the lightness of water; and a human being, if transferred to it, would be able to leap with ease over a pretty large house. It performs a rota- tion on its axis in 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 33 seconds, or about two-fifths of our day. It revolves round the sun, at a distance of 482,000,000 miles, in 4,332 days, 14 hours, and 24 minutes, or nearly twelve of our years. Viewed through a telescope, Jupiter appears surrounded by dark lines, or belts, which occasionally shift, melt into each other, or separate, but sometimes are ob- served with little variation for several months. These belts are generally near the equator of the planet, and of a broad and straight form; but they have been ob- served over his whole surface, and of a lighter, narrower, and more streaky and wavy appearance. It is supposed that the dark parts are lines of the body of the planet, seen through openings in a bright, cloudy atmosphere. Jupiter is attended by five satellites, which revolve round it, in the same manner as the moon round our globe, keeping, like it, one face invariably presented to their pri- mary. They are of about the same size or a little larger in diameter than our moon ; the first having a diameter of 2,508, the second of 2,068, the third of 3,377, and the fourth of 2,890 miles. The first re- volves round the primary planet in I day 18 hours 28 minutes; the second in 3 days 13 hours 14 minutes; the third in 7 days 3 hours 43 minutes; and the fourth in 16 days 16 hours 32 minutes. These satellites frequently eclipse the sun to Jupiter; they are also eclipsed by the primary planet, but never all at the same time. Little is known about the fifth satellite. Saturn, seen through a telescope, is the most remarkable of all the planets, being surrounded by rings and attended by seven satellites. In bulk this is the second of the planets, being 71,000 miles in diame- ter, or about 900 times the volume of the earth. Its surface appears slightly marked by belts like those of Jupiter. It performs a rotation on its axis in 10 hours 14 DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY 235 minutes, and revolves round the sun at a distance of 884,000,000 miles, in 10,759 days 2 hours 3 minutes, or about 29^2 of our years. At such a distance from the sun, that luminary must be diminished to one-eightieth of the size he bears in our eyes, and the heat and light in the same proportion. The matter of Saturn is one- eighth of the density of our earth. The rings of Saturn surround the body of the planet in the plane of its equator. They are thin, like the rim of a spinning- wheel, and are always seen with the edge presented more or less directly toward us. They are luminous with the sun's light, and cast a shadow on the surface of the planet, whose shadow is also sometimes seen falling on part of the rings. The distance of the inner edge from the planet is calculated at about 19,000 miles, the entire breadth from the inner to the outer edge is 28,538, and the thickness is not more than 100. In certain positions of the planet we can see their surface at a considerable angle, and the openings or loops which they form on the sides of the planet. At other times we see their dark side, or only their edges. They are also occasionally marked by small spots. The rings of Saturn rotate on their own plane in 10 hours, 32 minutes, 15 seconds, and a part of a second, being about the same time with the rotation of the planet. The nine satellites of Saturn revolve around it, on the exterior of the rings, and almost all of them in nearly the same plane. They are so small as not to be visible without a powerful telescope. The two inner ones are very near to the outer edge of the rings, and can only be dis- cerned when the rings are presented so exactly edgewise as to be almost invisible. They have then been seen passing like two small bright beads along the minute thread of light formed by the edge of the rings. The three next satellites are also very small; the sixth is larger, and placed at a great interval from the rest. The eighth is the largest ; it is about the size of the planet Mars, and is situated at nearly thrice the distance of the sixth, or about 2,300,000 miles from the body of Saturn. The revolutions of these satellites range from i to 79 days ; and it has been ascer- tained of some of them that, according to the usual law of secondary planets, their rotations on their axes and their revolu- tions round their primary are performed in the same time, so that, like our moon, they always present the same face to the centre of their system. The orbit of the eighth satellite is much inclined to the plane of Saturn's equator. Uranus, or Herschel, given the latter name after its discoverer, is a globe of 31,700 miles in diameter, rotating on its axis in 7 hours, and performing a revolution round the sun, at a distance of 1,780,000,000 of miles, in 84 of our years. The sun to this remote planet must appear only a 4OOth part of the size which he bears in our eyes. Four satellites, or moons, are now known to attend upon Uranus. The two which were first observed cir- culate round their primary in orbits almost perpendicular to the ecliptic, and are further supposed to move in a direction contrary to that of all the other planetary motions namely, from east to west. Neptune, the eighth and furthermost of the principal planets of our solar system, is not visible to the naked eye. Its exist- ence was discovered, in 1846, by the com- putations of Leverrier, of Paris, and Adams, of Cambridge. At the request of Lever- rier, Dr. Galle, of Berlin, looked for this huge planet and found it. Neptune is 2,780,000,000 miles from the sun, and re- quires 60,127 days to make its periodic revolution around the sun. The period of its axial rotation is not yet known. Unlike Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus, Nep- tune is not well supplied with satellites, having but one. The inhabitants of this planet, if it has any, must live in what we might call perpetual night time, for at so great a distance the sun would seem only about the size of a pinhead. While the diameter of Neptune is 34,500 miles, its density is calculated to be but one-fifth that of the earth. Lalande is believed to have been the first astronomer to see Nep- tune, in 1785, but he failed to recognize it as a planet. Some idea may be obtained of the com- parative size of the principal objects of the solar system, by supposing a globe of two feet in diameter, placed in the centre of a level plain, to represent the sun ; a grain of mustard-seed, placed on the circumfer- ence of a circle 164 feet in diameter, for Mercury; a pea, on a circle of 284 feet, for Venus; another pea, on a circle of 430 feet, for the Earth; a large pin's- head, on a circle of 654 feet, for Mars; four- minute grains of sand, in circles of from T.OOO to 1.200 feet, for Vesta, Ceres, Pallas, and Juno ; a moderate sized orange, on a circle of nearly half a mile in diameter, for Jupiter; a small orange, 236 DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY on a circle four-fifths of a mile in diame- ter, for Saturn; and a small plum or full-sized cherry, on a circle of a mile and a half in diameter, for Uranus. It is calculated that the united mass of the whole of the planets is not above a 6ooth part of the mass of the sun. The sun and planets are represented, with an approximation to correctness, in philo- sophical toys termed orreries. THE COMET Comets are light vapory bodies, which move round the sun in orbits much less circular than those of the planets. Their orbits, in other words, are very long el- lipses, or ovals, having the sun near one of the ends. Comets usually have two parts, a body or nucleus, and a tail ; but some have a body only. The body appears as a thin, vapory, luminous mass, of globular form; it is so thin, that, in some cases, the stars have been seen through it. The tail is a lighter or thinner luminous vapor surrounding the body, and streaming far out from it, in one direction. A vacant space has been observed between the body and the en- veloping matter of the tail ; and it is equally remarkable that the tail has in some instances appeared less bright along the middle, immediately behind the nucleus, as if it were a stream which that nucleus had in some measure parted into two. Out of the great multitude certainly not less than 1,000 which are supposed to ex- ist, above 150 have been made the subject of scientific observation. Instead of re- volving, like the planets, nearly on the plane of the sun's equator, it is found that they approach his body from all parts of surrounding space. At first, they are seen slowly advancing, with a comparatively faint appearance. As they approach the sun, the motion becomes quicker, and at length they pass round him with very great rapidity, and at a comparatively small distance from "his body. The comet of 1680 approached within one-sixth of his diameter. After passing, they are seen to emerge from his rays, with an immense increase to their former brilliancy and to the length of their tails. Their motion then becomes gradu- ally slower, and their brilliancy dimin- ishes, and at length they are lost in dis- tance. It has been ascertained that their movement round the sun is in accordance with the same law which regulates the planetary movements, being always the quicker the nearer to his body, and the slower the more distant. In the remote parts of space their motions must be ex- tremely slow. Three comets have been observed to re- turn, and their periods of revolution have been calculated. The most remarkable of these is one usually denominated Halley's Comet, from the astronomer who first cal- culated its period. It revolves round the sun in about seventy-five years, its last appearance being at the close of 1835. Another, called Encke's Comet, from Pro- fessor Encke, of Berlin, has been found to revolve once in 1,207 days, or 3j/j years; but, in this case, the revolving body is found, at each successive approach to the sun, to be a little earlier than on the pre- vious occasion, showing that its orbit is gradually lessening, so that it may be expected ultimately to fall into the sun.. This fact has suggested that some part of that space through which the comet passes must be occupied by a matter presenting some resistance to the movement of any denser body; and it is supposed that this matter may prove to be the same which has been described as constituting the zo- diacal light It is called a resisting medi- um; and future observations upon it are expected to be attended with results of a most important nature, seeing that, if there be such a matter extending beyond the or- bit of the earth, that planet, in whose wel- fare we are so much interested, will be exposed to the same ultimate fate with Encke's Comet. The third, named Beila's Comet, from M. Beila, of Josephstadt, revolves round the sun in 6^4 years. It is very small, and has no tail. In 1832, this comet passed through the earth's path about a month before the arrival of our planet at the same point. If the earth had been a month earlier at that point, or the comet a month later in crossing it, the two bodies would have been brought together, and the earth, in all probability, would have instantly be- come unfit for the existence of the human family. Comets often pass unobserved, in con- sequence of the part of the heavens in which they move being then under day- light. During a total eclipse of the sun, which happened sixty years before Christ, a large comet, not formerly seen, became visible, near the body of the obscured luminary. On many occasions, their small- ness and distance render them visible only by the aid of the telescope. On other oc- DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY 237 casions, they are of vast size. The comet now called Halley's, at its appearance in 1456 covered a sixth part of the visible extent of the heavens, and was likened to a Turkish cimeter. That of 1680, which was observed by Sir Isaac Newton, had a tail calculated to be 123,000,000 miles in length, a space greater than the distance of the earth from the sun. There was a comet in 1744, which had six tails, spread out like a fan across a large space in the heavens. The tails of comets usually stretch in the direction opposite to the sun, both in advancing and retiring, and with a slight wave at the outer extremity, as if that part experienced some resistance. THE STARS The idea at which astronomers have ar- rived respecting the stars, is that they are all of them suns, resembling our own, but diminished to the appearance of mere specks of light by the great distance at which they are placed. As a necessary consequence to this supposition, it may be presumed that they are centres of light and heat to systems of revolving planets, each of which may be further presumed to be the theatre of forms of beings bearing some analogy to those which exist upon earth. The stars, seen by the naked eye on a clear night, are about two thousand in number. This, allowing a like number for the half of the sky not seen, gives about four thousand, in. all, of visible stars. These are of different degrees of brilliancy, probably in the main in proportion to their respective distances from our system, but also perhaps in some measure in propor- tion to their respective actual sizes. As- tronomers class the stars under different magnitudes, not with regard to apparent size, for none of them presents a measur- able disk, but with a regard to the various quantities of light flowing round them; thus, there are stars of the first magni- tude, the second magnitude, and so on. Only six or seven varieties of magnitude are within our natural vision; but with the telescope vast numbers of more distant stars are brought into view; and the mag- nitudes are now extended by astronomers to at least sixteen. The stars are at a distance from our system so very great, that the mind can form no idea of it. The brilliant one called Sirius or the Dog-star, which is supposed to be the nearest, merely because it is the most luminous, has been reckoned by tolerably clear calculation 'to give only i-2o,ooo,oooth part of the light of the sun ; hence, supposing it to be of the same size, and every other way alike, it should be dis- tant from our earth not less than 1,960,- 000,000,000,000,000 miles. An attempt has been made to calculate the distance of Sirius by a trigonometrical problem. It may be readily supposed that the position of a spectator upon the earth with respect to celestial objects must vary considerably at different parts of the year: for instance, on the 2ist of June, he must be in ex- actly the opposite part of the orbit from what he was on the 2ist of December indeed, no less than 190,000,000 of miles from it, or twice the distance of the earth from the sun. This change of position with relation to celestial objects is called parallax. Now, it has been found that Sirius is so distant, that an angle formed between it and the two extremities of the earth's orbit is too small to be appreciated. Were it so much as one second, or the 3,6ooth part of a degree, it could be ap- preciated by the nice instruments we now possess ; but it is not even this. It is hence concluded that Sirius must be at least 19,200,000,000 of miles distant, how- ever much more ! Supposing this to be its distance, its light would take three years to reach us, though travelling, as it does, at the rate of 192,000 miles in a second of time ! OU INES OF GEOLOGY GEOLOGY (from the Greek, ge, the earth, and logos, discourse) may be defined as the science which describes the solid ma- terials of the earth, the order in which they are arranged, the causes which have effected that arrangement, and the organic re- mains which are found in them. At some places the surface of the earth is found to consist of a hard rock of crystalline or glassy texture, generally called granite, though subject to a considerable number of varieties. Granite is never, except in peculiar circumstances, found in the form of a layer, whether thick or thin, but gen- erally in large, irregular-shaped masses; and no other kind of rock, except in equally rare and peculiar circumstances, is ever found beneath it. At other places the earth's immediate surface is found composed of some one of certain kinds of rock not less hard in texture than granite, and also of a crystalline consistence, but always found in layers or beds, generally of great thickness. At other places we find, near the surface of the earth, rocks of a com- paratively soft and not of a crystalline consistence, forming also layers or beds, of greater or less thickness. In some places, rock of a very hard kind is found, not exactly like any of the above, deposited in irregular forms, and often with the appearance of having penetrated through gaps forcibly made in other rocks. Finally, throughout the first three classes of rocks, but particularly the first two, there are thin veins of diverse substances, including minerals. THE STORY OF THE ROCKS ROCKS of the first class are denomi- nated PLUTONIC (from Pluto, the god of the infernal regions among the ancients), as supposed to have been formed at great depths in the earth, the matter having been originally in a hot and soft state, and after- ward cooled and crystallized slowly, under such enormous pressure as prevented the contained gases from expanding. The term (288> unstratified is also applied to this class of rocks. Rocks of the second and third classes are called AQUEOUS, as composed of matter deposited by water. Those of the second class are more specially named Metamor- phic (from the Greek, metamorphosis, a transformation), as supposed to have un- dergone a remarkable change in the course OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY 239 of their formation. It is supposed that the matter of these rocks, derived from rocks of the granitic kind, and suspended in vast oceans, was, when deposited, sub- jected to a great heat from below, which gave it, in its reconsolidation, much of that crystalline texture which it had in its plutonic form. Rocks of the fourth class are denomi- nated VOLCANIC, as being evidently composed of lavas, or masses of fire-melted rocky matter, which have been sent upward by volcanoes. Rocks of the second and third classes are likewise called Stratified Rocks, as be- ing invariably found in strata or layers: Rocks of the first and fourth classes, as wanting this peculiarity, are distinguished as Unstratified Rocks. The plutonic and some of the lower meta- morphic rocks have been also called Pri- mary, or Primitive Rocks, as either the first formed of all, or formed very early. The upper metamorphic rocks have in Jike manner been called the Transition Series, as forming a kind of link between the primary and those which follow, and partaking of the characters of both. Of the remainder of the aqueous rocks, a con- siderable number, being the lower portion, are sometimes called the Secondary Rocks, while the upper are named Tertiary. Igne- ous Rock is also a variant name for the volcanic kind. When rocks of various classes are seen at or near the same place, it is found that those of the second (except in the ex- traordinary circumstances alluded to), lie above those of the first; and those of the third above those of the second and first classes. Special kinds of aqueous rock are also found in a certain order above one another much in the same way as if we were to place a book of many volumes on its side, having previously arranged the volumes according to ,. their numbers, in which case the second would be above the first, the third above the second, and so on. Rocks are thus said to observe an order of supraposition the volcanic kind alone observing no order. In some of the upper metamorphic rocks, and in all those of the secondary and tertiary series, remains of plants and animals are found, showing that when these rocks were formed, the earth had become a scene of vegetable and animal life. The rocks containing these organic remains or fossils, are called FOSSILIFER- ous; and the remaining rocks, from their containing no such relics, are called NON- FOSSILIFEROUS. The changes produced by the united op- erations of aqueous and igneous agency are in part represented in .the subjoined en- graving of a supposed section of part of the earth's crust. Now to begin our lesson! Here are three pieces of stone: 1. A piece of Sandstone. 2. A piece of Granite. 3. A piece of Chalk. You are quite familiar with each of these kinds of stone. Sandstone is a common material for walls, lintels, hearths, and flagstones. Granite may now be frequently seen in polished columns and slabs in pub- lic buildings, shops, and in tombstones ; and the streets in many of our large cities and towns are now paved with it. Com- mon white chalk is well known to every- body. Take the piece of sandstone in your hands and examine it carefully, using even a magnifying glass if the grains are mi- nute. Then write down each of the char- acters you observe one after another. You will of course pay little heed to the color, for sandstone, like books, may be red or white, green or yellow, or indeed of al- most any color. Nor will you give much weight to the hardness or softness as an essential character, for you may find even in a small piece of the stone that one part is quite hard while a neighboring place is soft and crumbling. If your piece of sandstone has been well chosen for you, you will be able to write down the following characters : 1. The stone is made up of small grains. 2. The grains are all more or less rounded or worn. 3. By scraping the surface of the stone these rounded grains can be separated from the stone, and when they lie in this loose state they are seen to be mere grains of sand. 4. More careful examination of the stone shows that the grains tend to lie in lines, and that these lines run in a general way parallel with each other. 5. The grains differ from each other in size and in the material of which they are made. Most of them consist of a very hard white or colorless substance like glass, some are perhaps small spangles of a ma- terial which glistens like silver, others are softer and of various colors. They lie touching each other in some sandstones; 240 OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY in others they are separated by a hard kind of cement which binds them all into a solid stone. It is this cement which usually colors the sandstone, since it is often red or yellow, and sometimes green, brown, purple, and even black. Summing up these characters in a short definition, you might describe your sand- stone as a stone composed of worn, rounded grains of various other stones arranged in layers. Proceed now in the same way with the piece of granite. You find at once a very different set of appearances, but after a lit- tle time you will be able to make out and to write down the following: The stone contains no rounded grains. It is composed of three different sub- stances, each of which has a peculiar crys- talline form. Thus, one of these, called feldspar, lies in long smooth-faced, sharply defined crystals of a pale flesh color, or dull white, which you can with some diffi- culty scratch with the point of a knife. Another, termed mica, lies in bright glis- tening plates, which you can easily scratch and split up into thin transparent leaves. If you compare these shining plates with the little silvery spangles in the sandstone', you will see that they are the same ma- terial. The third, named quartz, is a very hard, clear, glassy substance on which your knife makes no impression, but which you may recognize as the same material out of which most of the grains of the sandstone are made. The crystals in granite do not occur in any definite order, but are scattered at random through the whole of the stone. Here are characters strikingly different from those of the sandstone. You might make out of them such a short definition as this Granite is a stone composed of distinct crystals, not laid down in layers, but irregularly interlaced with each other, Last 1 v go through the same process oi examination with your piece of chalk. At first sight this stone seems to have no dis- tinct characters at all. It is a soft, white, crumbling substance, soils your fingers when you touch it, and seems neither to have grains like the sandstone nor crystals like the granite. You will need to use a mag- nifying-glass, or even perhaps a micro- scope, to see what the real nature of chalk is. Take a fine brush and rub off a little chalk into a glass of clear water; then shake the water gently and let it stand for a while until you see a layer of sedi- ment on the bottom. Pour off the water and place a little of this sediment upon a piece of glass, and look at it under the microscope or magnifying-glass. You will find it to have strongly marked characters, which might be set down thus: The stone, though it seems to the eye much more uniform in its texture than | either sandstone or granite, is made up (a) Primary Rock, which has been thrown up, so as to disturb and mix itself with the Secondary Rocks; (6) Secondary Rock, thrown into inclinations and curves by the rising of the Primary Rock; (c) Tertiary Formation, deposited in a hollow formed by the disturbance of the Secondary Rocks; (tf) Basaltic Columns; (e) A fault or hitch in the strata. The Circles are bowlders or detached stones rounded by travelling in water, and deposited in hollows formed by water. The dots indicate beds of gravel, immediately beneath the soil. OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY 241 of particles resembling each other in color and composition, but presenting a variety of forms. It consists of minute shells, pieces of coral, fragments of sponges, and white particles, which are evidently the broken- down remains of shells. As a brief description of chalk you might say that it is a stone formed out of the remains of once living animals. WHAT STONES HAVE TO TELL US We take again our three pieces of stone sandstone, chalk, and granite and com- pare other stones with them. We get out of town to the nearest pit or quarry or ravine, to any opening in fact, either natural or artificial, which will enable us to see down beneath the grass and the soil of the surface. In one place we may find a clay- pit, in another a sandstone quarry, in an- other a railway cutting through chalk or limestone, in another a deep ravine in hard rocks with a stream flowing at its bottom. It does not matter for our present pur- pose what the nature of the opening be, provided it shows us what lies beneath the soil. In all such places we meet with stone of some kind, or of many different kinds. By a little practice we learn that these various sorts of stones may be usu- ally arranged under one or other of the three divisions. For example, a large num- ber of stones will be found answering to the general description which you found to be true of sandstone. These will of course be placed together with our piece of sandstone. Another considerable quan- tity of stones will be met with made up wholly, or almost wholly, of the remains of plants or of animals. These we arrange m the same division with our piece of chalk. Lastly, a good many stones may be met with built up of crystals of different kinds, and these, for the present, we class together with our piece of granite. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS To each of these groups names must be given. We might call them the Sandstone group, the Chalk group, and the Granite grpup. But it happens that other names have been already in use, which will be more convenient. Accordingly we shall re- fer all stones having characters like those of sandstone to the Sedimentary Rocks ; those formed of the remains of plants or animals, as chalk is, to the Organic Rocks; and those having a crystalline character, like our granite group, to the Igneous Rocks. The meaning of these names will be seen as we proceed. The word "rock" is applied to any kind of natural stone, whatever may be its hard- ness or softness. In this sense, sand, mud, clay, peat, and coal are rocks, as much as sandstone, limestone, or granite. Sediment is something which, after hav- ing been suspended in or moved along by water, has settled down upon the bottom. The term Sedimentary Rocks is a very expressive one, for it includes stones formed of all kinds of sediment, whether coarse or fine. HOW GRAVEL, SAND, AND MUD ARE MADE You have taken the first step in the study of the Sedimentary Rocks you now know that they are made of sediment, such as gravel, sand, and mud. How "then are gravel, sand, and mud made at the present day? If you were to search on the shore of the sea, or on the banks of a river, you could, without much difficulty, prove in another way that sand and gravel only differ from each other in the size of their grains. Let us get away up among the hills, and watch what goes on where the brooks first begin to flow. Where the rocks are hard and tough, they rise out of the hillsides, as prominent crags and cliffs, down which the little streamlets dance from ledge to ledge before they unite into larger streams in the bottom of the valleys. Now let us descend the brook and look at its channel carefully as we go. The red frag- ments from that crag will be easily dis- tinguishable from the other dull gray stones, which have been detached from the rest of the crags on either side. If you look nar- rowly at the bits of stone which are strewn about upon the slope you will notice that they are all more or less angular in shape; that is to say, they have sharp edges. But those in the brook are not quite so rough or so sharp-edged as those on the bare hillside above. Follow the brook down the valley for some way and then take another look at the stones in the bed of the stream. You do not now find so many big blocks of the red stone, and those you do meet with are more rounded and worn than they were near the crag. They have grown smooth and polished, their edges OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY have been worn off, and many of them are well rounded. Once more you make a further examination still lower down the valley, and here and there where the stream has thrown up a bank of gravel, you find that the pieces of our red crag have been so well ground away that they now form part of an ordinary water- worn gravel. HOW GRAVEL, SAND, AND MUD BECOME SEDI- MENTARY ROCKS So long as a current of water is moving swiftly it keeps the gravel, sand, and mud from setting down on the bottom. A rapid current will hurry along, not only mud and sand, but even gravel. As its rapidity flags, first the gravel will sink to the bottom as a sediment, the sand will sink more slowly and be carried further, while the mud will hang in the water for a long time, travel a much greater distance, and only fall with extreme slowness to the bottom. The sheets of sand, gravel, or mud which can be seen on the seashore, or at any lake or pool on land, are soft or loose materials. Sandstone, conglomerate, shale, or any other sedimentary rock, is usually more or less hard or compact. A sedimentary rock, then, is one formed from sediment which was derived from the waste of older rocks, and deposited in water. It usually shows the stratified ar- rangement characteristic of water-formed deposits. Since its original formation it has usually been hardened into stone by pressure or infiltration. THE REMAINS OP PLANTS AND ANIMALS Rain can wash away leaves and other pieces of plants, and allow them to drop in a pool, where they become interstratified with the silt, that is, are deposited between its layers and covered over by it. You can now see, therefore, how it is that pieces of ferns or any other kind of land plants should be found in the heart of such a solid stone as a piece of shale. The stone was once merely so much sedi- ment laid down below water, and the frag- mentary plants were drifted away from the place where they grew until at last they were buried among that sediment. It is not only plants, however, which occur imbedded in sedimentary rocks. You will notice a numbe of shells and other animal remains. A QUARRY AND ITS LESSONS Let us suppose ourselves to be in a quarry. In the first place, what feature about the quarry strikes you most forcibly when you enter? You answer readily, the Stratifica- tion of the rocks. In the second place, you observe that they do not all consist of the same ma- terials. Some are fine conglomerate, others of various kinds of sandstone, and some of different sorts of shales or clays. In the third place, let us ask you to point out which are the oldest of the beds. You answer without hesitation that those at the bottom of the quarry must be the oldest, because they certainly were depos- ited before these lying above them. We split open some of the lower beds of sandstone and find their surfaces often covered with markings. If you have ever walked along a flat sandy beach you must have noticed the ripple-marks which the shallow rippling water leaves on the soft sand. They are precisely like those on the sandstone. You may see them, too, along the shelving margin of a lake, in- deed wherever water has been thrown by the wind into little wavelets over a sandy bottom. They betoken shallow water. Hence we have learned one important fact from our quarry, as to the origin of these rocks : viz., that they were not deposited in a deep sea, but in shallow water. We look still further among these strata, and notice at last that some of them are curiously covered with little round pits, about the size of peas or less. How did these markings come there? You know that when drops of rain fall upon a smooth surface of moist sand, such as that of the beach, they each make a little dent on it Here, then, is another fact which throws still more light on the history of these rocks. The ripple-marks show that the water must have been shallow; the rain- prints prove that it must have risen along a beach liable, now and then, to be laid dry to the air and rain. Now can we tell whether the water was salt or fresh ? In other words, was this beach the shore of a lake, or of the sea? Again we turn to the rocks themselves, and from some of the layers of shale we pick out a number of fossils, which enable us to answer the question. ROCKS FORMED OF THE REMAINS OF PLANTS Since the leaves, branches, and stems of plants, and the shells or other remains 243 of animals, are sometimes scattered so abundantly through ordinary sedimentary rocks, it is easy to see that sometimes they may occur in such quantity as to form great deposits of themselves. You could hardly call such deposits sedimen- tary, in the same sense in which common shale and sandstone are so named. We may term them Organic Rocks, or, Or- ganically derived Rocks, because they owe their origin to the accumulation of what are called organic remains, or fossils; that is, the remains of plants or animals. We begin with those rocks which have been formed out of the remains of plants. As an illustration let us ask you to ex- amine carefully a piece of coal. If you master all that it has to tell you, you will not have much difficulty in tracing out the history of other rocks belonging to this series. Now look at one end of a lump of coal, where the edges of the layers are ex- posed. You can not follow them with the same ease as in the case of a piece of shale, for they seem to blend into one another. But you may notice that among the layers of hard, bright, glossy sub- stance, there occur others of a soft ma- terial like charcoal. A mere general look at such a piece of coal would show you that it is stratified. Let us suppose ourselves at a coal mine. Now, first of all, you see that the coal occurs as a bed, having a thickness of a few feet. This bedded character agreed with what you have already noticed as to the internal layers in the stone, and con- firms you in believing that coal is a strati- fied rock. Next observe that the pavement on which the coal rests, and the roof which covers it, are both made of very different materials _ from the coal itself. Were you to cut a trench or section through pave- ment, coal, and roof, you would prove be- yond any doubt that the bed of coal lies among beds of common sedimentary rocks. You are driven to conclude that in truth the under-clay is an old soil, and the bed of coal represents the vegetation which grew upon it. ROCKS FORMED OUT OF THE REMAINS OF ANIMALS It is on the floor of the great sea that the most wonderful examples occur of the way in which rocks are gradually built up from the remains of animals to a depth of many hundreds or thousands of feet, and over distances of many hundreds of miles. To the west of Britain the Atlantic soon and suddenly deepens. Its floor then stretches away to Newfoundland as a vast plain, the lowest part of which is about 14,000 feet below the waves. It was over this wide submarine plain that the tele- graph cables had to be laid, and hence numerous soundings were made all the way across from Ireland to the American coast. While in the shallower parts of the sea the bottom was found to be cov- ered with sand, gravel, or mud, from the deeper parts there came up with the sound- ing-lead a peculiar gray sticky substance known as ooze, which must stretch over that wide deep-sea basin for many thou- sands of square miles. This ooze when dried looks like a dirty kind of chalk. After the lapse of centuries, if the de- posit we r e to remain undisturbed, and if we could set a watch to measure its growth, we should find it to have risen upward and to have inclosed the remains of any star-fishes or other sea-creatures which chanced to die and leave their re- mains upon the bottom. Hundreds of feet of such slow-formed deposit have no doubt already been laid down over the bottom of the ocean between Ireland and Newfoundland. Here, then, is a second and notable example of how a deep and far-spread mass of rock may be formed out of the remains of animals. WHAT IGNEOUS ROCKS ARE This word igneous means literally fiery. It does not very accurately describe the rocks to which it is applied, but it has long been in use to include all rocks which have been actually melted within the earth, or which have been thrown out at the surface by the action of volcanoes. So that the Igneous Rocks owe their origin to some of the effects of the internal heat of the earth. You will find that the solid materials cast up by volcanoes are of two kinds 1st, streams of molten rock called Lava, poured down the sides of a volcanic moun- tain during an eruption: and 2d, immense quantities of dust, sand, and stones, cast up into the air from the mouth of the crater, and falling down upon the moun- tain, sometimes even all over the sur- rounding country for a distance of many miles. Here, then, are two very dissimilar kinds 244 OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY of rock-material discharged from the in- terior of the globe. The lava cools and hardens into a solid rock. The loose ashes and stones, likewise, are in time pressed and hardened into more or less firm beds of stone. So that two totally distinct kinds of rock are laid down upon the sur- face of the earth by the volcano. In the case of the lava, the rock, if you look at it with a magnify ing-glass, is seen to be made up of distinct crystals all matted to- gether. The beds of ashes, on the other hand, no matter how compact they may have become, are found to be made up of irregular fragments of various kinds of stone, and of all sizes, from the finest dust up to big blocks. By attending to this very simple and intelligible difference you could arrange igneous rocks into two great groups ist, the Crystalline, that is, those which are made up of crystals, and which have once been in a melted state; and 2d, the Fragmental, that is, those which con- sist of the loose materials thrown out during volcanic explosions. Crystalline Igneous Rocks. When the rock was still melted it was full of im- prisoned steam and gas which were con- stantly striving to escape to the surface. It was this steam which collected into lit- tle bubbles and formed the curious set of holes in the mass of the still molten rock. In the same way the holes which you often see in the heart of a loaf of bread were formed by the struggles of the steam to escape from the dough as it was heated in the oven. There are Fragmental Igneous Rocks. Now this is the kind of material under which the old Roman city of Pompeii was buried. It fell upon the streets and houses and gradually covered them up as the eruption of the neighboring volcano con- tinued. And at this day the workmen find the streets and chambers all choked up with layers of coarser and finer volcanic ash and dust. These masses of consolidated volcanic dust and stones are known by the name of Tuff. At the present time there are, it is said, about 270 volcanoes either constantly or at intervals throwing out steam, hot ashes, and lava, in different parts of the globe. Even among the perpetual snows of the South Polar regions they have been met with, and also far within the Arctic Circle at the Island of Jan Mayen. But besides these volcanoes which are still active, many others occur from which no eruptions have ever been seen to take place, and which are therefore called don- raant or extinct. WHERE IGNEOUS ROCKS COME FROM If we ask you from what source the Ig- neous Rocks have been derived, you will reply that they have come up from the intensely hot regions within the earth. Deep Borings and Mines. If you were taken down to the bottom of a deep mine in the United States, you would find the temperature much wanner there than near the surface, and a similar increase of heat would meet you in the deep mines of every country in the world. You would soon discover, too, that on the whole the deeper the mine the greater the warmth would be. Experiments of this kind have been made all over the globe, with the result of show- ing that after we get down for a short and variable distance below the surface, we reach a temperature which remains the same all the year, and that underneath that limit the temperature rises about i Fahr- enheit for every fifty or sixty feet of de- scent. If this rate of increase continues, we should get uncomfortably hot before having descended very far. For instance, at a depth of about two miles water would be at its boiling-point, and at depths of twenty-five or thirty miles, the metals would have the same temperatures as those at which they respectively melt on the sur- face of the earth. It is clear from this kind of evidence that the inside of our planet must be in an intensely heated condition. THE CRUST OF THE EARTH This solid rocky outer part of the earth on which we live, into which men sink mines and out of which springs arise, is called the Earth's Crust. The rocks of which this crust consist belong mostly to the Sedimentary series, a large number to the Organic series, and a smaller, but still considerable propor- tion, to the Igneous series. PROOFS THAT PARTS OF THE CRUST HAVE SUNK DOWN Submerged Forests, are to be regarded as evidence of subsidence of the earth's surface, just as the raised beaches are taken as proofs of upheaval. The beds of coal, for example, which once flourished as green forests at the surface, are now found buried deep within the earth. OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY 245 Two facts are now very clear to you about the crust of the earth 1st, it has often been pushed outward, so as to rise above the level of the sea; and 2d, it has also often sunk inward so as to carry parts of the land deep beneath the sea-level. But it could not undergo these movements with- out suffering other changes. PROOFS THAT THE ROCKS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST HAVE BEEN TILTED, CRUMPLED, AND BROKEN The crust of the earth, instead of being made of regular layers one above another, like the coats of an onion, has been so squeezed and fractured, that in many cases the bottom or oldest rocks have been pushed up far above the newest. Wherever, therefore, strata are pushed up or let down more at one place than at another, without being actually broken across, they must be thrown into an in- clined position. Now this unequal and ir- regular kind of movement has taken place many times in every quarter of the globe. If you look at the stratified rocks, in most parts of this and other countries, you will seldom find them quite flat usually they are inclined, sometimes gently, some- times steeply, so that they have not only been upheaved out of the sea, but have been moved irregularly and unequally. THE ORIGIN OF MOUNTAINS First of all, then, when any chain of mountains is examined it is found to be made of rocks belonging to one or more of the three great classes with which you are already acquainted. In particular, the great mass of most mountain chains con- sists of various kinds of stratified rocks such as sandstones, conglomerates, lime- stones, and others. Now you have found that these rocks have been laid down un- der water, most of them under the sea. They often contain the remains of shells, corals, sea-urchins, or other marine crea- tures, and these remains may be taken out of the rocks even at the summits of the mountains. No clearer proof than this could be required to show that mountains are not so old as "the beginning of things," for these fossils prove that where the mountains now stand wide seas once rolled. . Again, mountains which consist of rocks formed originally under the sea must owe their existence to some force which could raise up the bed of the sea into high land. As a consequence of the slow cooling of our planet, its outer crust, under the enor- mous strain of contraction, has been forced up into ridges in different places, with wide sunken spaces between. The ridges form mountain chains, while the sunken spaces are filled with the waters of the ocean. If you look at a map of the world you may trace out the principal lines of elevation, as they are called, over the globe. HOW THE ROCKS OF THE CRUST TELL THE HISTORY OF THE EARTH ' Geological history brings before us, in this way, many facts well calculated to impress our minds with the great an- tiquity of our planet, and with the mar- vellous chain of changes by which the present order of things has been brought about. We learn from it that mountains and valleys have not come suddenly into existence, such as we now see them, but have been formed gradually, by a long series of processes similar to those which are even now slowly doing the same work. We discover that every part of the land under our feet can yield us up its story, if we only know how to question it. And, strangest of all, we find that the races of plants and animals which now tenant land and sea are not the first or original races, but that they were preceded by others, these again by others still more remote. We see that there has been upon the earth a history of living things, as well as of dead matter. At the beginning of that wonderful history we detect traces merely of lowly forms, like the foraminifera of the Atlantic ooze. At the end we are brought face to face with man thinking, working, restless man, battling steadily with the powers of nature, and overcom- ing them one by one, by learning how to obey the laws which direct them. THE VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE It may occur to the reader to ask: "Of what practical value is information con- cerning geology, or any of the other sci- ences? How will such knowledge, unless I devote years to the acquirement of it, aid me in bettering my condition?" Huxley, in one of his admirable essays, answered this question. He told of the formation of an English company for the mining of coal. The supposed vein lay beneath a certain formation of rock, yet every geologist in the world knew that coal could not be found below that stra- tum. Ignorance of this fact cost the in- vestors a fortune. PRINCIPLES OF PERSPECTIVE THE word perspective means "seeing through," and indicates the fundamental principle of the arts of drawing and painting; fur- nishing the rules by which the artist is able to reproduce the appear- ance of natural scenery and several-sided objects upon a plane surface. Like every other subject in the arts and sciences, ability to apply the rules of perspective may be derived either from a naturally quick eye, trained by practice to correctly reproduce things seen, or it may be learned and understood by mastering certain geometrical rules, such as will enable the production of effects more technically correct. GENERAL RULES AND PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS IT is not necessary to enter into mathe- matical discussions which are seldom of practical advantage to artists. The prin- ciples of perspective may be readily under- stood by a few simple rules. Probably the most important principle is found in the method of tracing a landscape on a plane surface. Perfectly described, this consists simply in drawing the more distant objects smaller in size and somewhat above those represented to be close at hand. That this is the correct method may be readily veri- fied by a simple experiment. If, for ex- ample, we look through a window at a landscape, we find that the objects further away literally appear to the eye higher up than those close at hand, as may be shown by holding a measuring rule perpendicular to the plane of vision. The same facts may be better observed with the reflection of a landscape in a looking-glass or on a screen of a photographic camera. More- over, the objects seen in both cases are actually impressed upon a virtually plane surface the retina of the eye which is (246) the exact prototype in nature of the camera obscura. The illustration usually given for the practical demonstration of the first prin- ciples of perspective is to place a vertical plane, such as a transparent screen of glass, between the observer and the object seen. Now, although the observer and the object are actually on the same ground plane, or level, the object seen by him will appear to be standing in an elevated position on the picture plane, with the in- tervening distance of ground plane between him and it rising to its level. The ex- planation of this fact is readily obtained when we consider that the rays of light converging at the pupil of the eye really form a sort of imaginary cone, constantly increasing in diameter and having its apex at the eye. DISTORTION OF OBJECTS Objects of perfectly rectangular shape, when viewed at an oblique angle, appear to taper rapidly toward the horizon in the PRINCIPLES OF PERSPECTIVE 247 picture. Thus, a house, whose sides are perfectly rectangular, and the peak of whose roof is perfectly horizontal to the plane of the ground, if viewed from a point at such an angle to one of its cor- ners that two sides may be seen, should be drawn in a picture with the base line rising from the corner nearest to the ob- HORI2.0N Diagram of Perspective, showing the distortion of * rectangular object viewed from above server, with the line of the base inclin- ing almost as rapidly toward this, and that of the eaves inclining at a somewhat more gradual angle. If, now, we extend the three lines just mentioned so that they meet, we will have in a drawing of the level landscape the approximate position of the line of the horizon. Of course, the angles of variation from the horizontal in such cases vary with the height of the building and its position in the picture. Correct inclination of such lines, however, is largely a matter of judg- ment and experience. By remembering that the base line and peak line of an object, like a building, must be drawn so that, if extended, they would meet at the horizon, the true effect can be readily obtained. Should we draw the base line and peak line parallel, the building would appear to be going up or down hill, as the case might be, or the effect of showing two sides would be lost. The rules applicable to drawing the lines of buildings apply also to the drawing of other parallel Ikies, as, for example, the rails of a railroad track or the two sides of a street If we stand at the end - of a long street, or it* the centre of a railway track that extends beyond the horizon, the parallel lines on either side will apparently come closer to- gether, and, if the landscape is a level one, they will apparently meet at the point furthest from the eye. This point is at the horizon and is called the "vanishing point." In speaking of landscapes the word "horizon" is used to indicate the line limiting vision, beyond which nothing can be seen. The best example of this may be seen in a view looking out directly upon the ocean or upon a perfectly level prairie of wide extent. In drawing such views as these, the line of the horizon should be .placed at a point which the eye judges to be directly opposite to its line of vision. This is above the base of the picture, which is the theoretical ground plane on which the observer stands. But it is somewhat below the point at which it should be, supposedly, if intervening distances were actually considered; since, according to the theory of the picture plane previously explained, the object of vision appears to be raised above the ground plane on the one hand, and somewhat lower than the sky line on the other, by virtue of Diagram illustrating the theory of the picture plane, and the principles of perspective in drawing and painting 248 PRINCIPLES OF PERSPECTIVE the fact that the lines of vision, converg- ing at the eye, are actually nearer together at the picture plane than at the object of vision. Other principles of perspective are read- ily understood from the foregoing princi- ples as well as from ordinary experience. Thus, for example, it is familiar to any observer that the top of an object, viewed from above at an oblique angle, must be drawn more or less elliptical, if round, and more or less trapezoidal, if square. That these methods reproduce the objects pre- ing a very tall house, but slightly removed from the theoretical position of the ob- server, the line of the peak should incline very rapidly toward the horizon, while that of the base would incline more gradually. Similarly, when such an object is further removed from the observer or viewed from a somewhat elevated position, the condi- tions are rapidly reversed, until the base line inclines more rapidly than that of the peak. This fact is also illustrated in the accompanying diagrams. Probably one of the most effective meth- Diagram showing the perspective of a building, with drop of lines to the horizon cisely as the eye sees them, rather than as the mind knows them to be, may be readily discovered by departing from the rules laid down. The picture we draw will then appear as something other than either a cylindrical or cubical object. In drawing cubical objects, such as houses, etc., the rule of perspective, as shown by accompanying diagrams, involves that the greatest inclination from a line drawn perpendicular to the ground line is at the furthest distance, either above or below the plane of vision. Thus, in draw- ods for mastering the details of perspec- tive, as applied to the reproduction of landscapes, is to use a camera obscura, by means of which the lines of distances are reproduced for the artist precisely as the eye sees them to exist in nature. Consid- erable experience with the camera obscura will accustom the eye to the correct out- lines and proportions, and eventually en- able the hand to reproduce them without such artificial assistance. As a good general rule, geometrical prin- ciples and laws of 'lines and angles are of PRINCIPLES OF PERSPECTIVE 249 Diagram showing the drop of parallel lines to the horizon, as shown with a railway track, telegraph lines, and fences very little use to artists in the production of landscapes and general views. The great object to be obtained -is to train the eye to see correctly and the hand to re- produce exactly. Of course, in the work of drawing a city street, the outside of a building, or the interior of a room, con- siderable measuring must be done in order to obtain correct results; but, without ade- quate drawing of the eye and hand, such measurements are of little account. In drawing many objects involving a con- siderable number of lines, such as a build- ing, a very ready and helpful method of obtaining correct proportions is to employ the following simple device. Tie a string around a pencil or other straight stick and hold the string between the teeth at a cer- tain point indicated by a knot which is tied after the desired proportions of the nearest lines have been obtained. Propor- tionate lengths of all other lines may then be obtained by stretching the string held between the teeth, marking the points of the figure to which it extends above the points to which the string is tied. This, correctly measured off on paper, will give the true proportions in every case. THE ANATOMY OF ART WHILE in the work of drawing natural scenery, landscapes, build- ings, etc., the artist needs to understand the laws of perspective, as explained in the preceding article, the work of correctly draw- ing human and animal figures demands a very certain and" definite knowl- edge of anatomy and of the proportions of the various parts of the body. Correctly speaking, human beings and animals are not drawn in perspec- tive. Should this be attempted the results would be about the same order of distortion as is found in photographs of people and animals taken with the subject so posed as to bring the parts into different planes. The cor- rect procedure with figures of human beings is to draw the various parts as the mind knows them to be, rather than the laws of perspective, rigidly applied, might compel us to represent them. PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT FIGURE DRAWING GENERAL PROPORTIONS WHILE the end of correctly drawing a living being is in many respects like that of drawing any other objects, natural or artificial, requiring particularly such training of the eye and hand as shall en- able correct using and perfect reproduction of what is seen, there are certain laws of proportion, especially thos applying to the human figure, which must be thoroughly understood and applied. For example, many youthful artists attempt to draw the hu- man face, and w.hile, on account of cer- tain natural aptitudes, they can perhaps pro- duce a good likeness, the relative propor- tions of the various features seem so utterly incorrect that the effect is marred. This is due to the fact that the artist has not mas- tered the fundamental rules for drawing" the face. Although there are numerous variations in the proportions of the face, as in other parts of the body, it may be generally assumed that a face, measured from the tip of the chin to the upper edge of the forehead, may be divided into three equal parts. These are measured from be- low, from the tip of the chin to the point of the nose, and from thence to the edge of the forehead. These measurements, of course, give the ideal human face, but knowledge of the rule will enable the ar- tist to speedily discern and reproduce any variations occurring in particular subjects. (250) A similarly general rule makes the length of the human hand, measured from the end of the palm to the tip of the middle finger, exactly the same as the length of the face just given. Some persons and races have the hands somewhat longer than this meas- ure; others have them shorter; but the rule applies to well-formed representatives of European nations. A general rule for the length of a human figure is eight heads measured from the tip of the chin- to the top of the skull, not including the hair for persons above the average height. For persons of average height, or below, the most approved proportions give seven and one-half heads from the base of the heel to the top of the cranium. W'hile, on the basis of the eight-head measurement, the exact centre of the body is at the pubic bone for representatives of both sexes; with many figures below mediufti height, the centre is set up higher on account of the shortness of the lower limbs. Such variations need not be considered, however, as the aim of the artist is to reproduce the ideal and normal, rather than the accidental variations occasionally occurring in real life. Another rule of proportions followed by the ancient Egyptians is to make the total height nineteen times the length of the middle finger; but this rule also is rather ideal than invariable, although it may be regarded as approximate for the large ma- 251 jority of figures. It is useful also in de- termining the correct size of the hand in any given figure, since the middle finger is approximately one- half the total length of the hand. The approximate length of the arm in normal male figures is about three and one- 7 - 6 The important muscles of the trunk side view: pectoralis major (i); serratus magnus (2); great oblique (3) ; trapezius (4) ; dorsalis magnus (5) ; gluteus maximus (6) ; deltoid (7). half heads from the tip of the middle finger to the point of the shoulder-blade. With the average female figure, the length of the arm similarly measured is nearly three and three-quarter heads, being proportionately longer than in the average male. The length of the leg is approximately the same in both sexes, measuring about four heads from the tip of the heel to the point of the femur, which is approximately on the line with the pubic bone. The exact cen- tre of the lower limbs goes just below the patella or knee-cap. PHYSICAL CONFORMATIONS Next to understanding the general pro- portions and relative lengths of the various parts of the body the artist should under- stand at least the general outlines of con- formation, in order to draw a figure true to life. It is not sufficient that the correct proportions be observed : he must know the exact outlines and shapes of the various parts. Knowledge of this subject can come only from study of anatomy, which ac- quaints the student at least with the loca- tion and extent of the various muscles, as well as with the uses for which they are intended. It is necessary that the artist understand the uses of the various mus- cles, because in attempting to draw a figure in action, as, for example, one with the arm raised, he must know precisely what mus- cles are in action and should be empha- sized. As this matter requires exact study, it will be possible only to point out the more important facts connected with the muscles of the body and several limbs. MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. In beginning the study of the muscles with the trunk, 5 The important muscles of the trunk rear view: trapezius (i); deltoid (2); latissimus dorsi (3); great oblique (4); gluteus maximus (5). or body, we find that the most prominent, and, consequently, the ones most liable to appear with a figure in action, are the Great Pectoral Muscles, which are attached to the internal edge of the clavicle, and in front of the sternum and to several of the ribs, and, at the other hand, to the '252 THE ANATOMY OF ART bicipital groove of the humerus. Directly beneath the Great Pectoral Muscle is the Serratus Magnus, apparently running in the direction of the ribs, interlaced by several branches of the Great Oblique Muscle, which arises from the front half of the Ileum to the lower edges of the seven or eight last ribs. Both these muscles, particularly the former, are very prominent in well-devel- oped athletes, and their conformation and location should be carefully studied. The most prominent muscles at the back of the trunk are the Latissimus Dorsi, which rises on either side from the attachments at the six or seven last dorsal vertebrae, 2 ---, ...J? Important muscles of the arm front view: deltoid (i); triceps (2); biceps (3); first radial ex- tensor (4); supinator longus (5); second radial extensor (6); great palmar (7). and the lumbar and sacral vertebrae, to the bicipital groove of the humerus. Its function is to carry the arm near to the body downward and backward. Above and superimposed on the last-named muscle, is that known as the Trapezium, which is at- tached to the spines of almost all the cervi- cal, and sometimes all the dorsal, vertebrae, on the one side, and, to the edge of the scapula, acromion, and clavicle on the other. Its functions are to lower and elevate the shoulders or to incline the head backward. MUSCLES OF THE ARM. In drawing the arm with anatomical correctness the prin- cipal points to be observed are the Deltoid Muscle, which is a nearly triangular mass attached to the clavicle and shoulder-blade, on the one hand, and to the humerus on the other. It is fixed so that the Great Pectoral Muscle, in front of the Latissimus A well-developed' arm, showing the deltoid, triceps, biceps, extensor, and abductor muscles. Dorsi in the rear, are both attached to the humerus at points beneath it. Its function is to raise the arm so that the humerus shall stand at right angles to the trunk. The most important muscles of the hu- merus are the biceps, at the top, and the triceps, at the bottom, of the arm; the former having as its object to raise the forearm, and the second to draw it straight A well-developed arm, showing the muscles that appear most prominent in the position assumed. again. Similarly the most important mus- cles of the forearm are the Supinator, at the top, and the Extensor muscles at the lower sides of these. The former is con- tracted, and becomes apparent when hand THE ANATOMY OF ART 253 is clinched ; the latter, when the fingers are extended. Taking these five muscles into consideration, the outer appearance of the human arm may be very well outlined. MUSCLES OF THE LEG. The shape of the lower limb is largely determined by the conformation of several large muscles, which ..8 Important abdominal and femoral muscles, etc.: iliac crest (i); aponeurosis (2); great trochanter (3) > gluteus maximus (4) ; biceps (5) ; rectus anticus (6) ; triceps (7) ; patella (8). The large ligament is the tensor muscle of the aponeurosis fasciae late. are made prominent when brought into action. To the rear of the femur and at- tached to .the thigh-bone is the Biceps or Flexor Muscle, whose duty it is to turn the leg outward. Superimposed upon this, and on the outer side of the femur, is the Triceps Muscle, which is brought into ac- tion on the bending of the knee. To the top and front of the femur is the large muscle, known as the Rectus Anticus, whose function is to straighten the leg. On the lower half of the lower limb the most important muscle is the Soleus, which is attached at the top to the posterior part of the head of the fibula and to the nearer edge of the tibia, on the one hand, and through the great tendon of Achilles to the calcaneum or heel, on the other. This muscle, which forms the "calf" of the leg, as it is called, has as its function to ex- tend the foot. To the front of the lower half of the lev IS the muscle known as Tibialis Anticus, which arises from the outer side of the head of the tibia, on the one hand, and passes over the cuneiform bone to the great toe. Its function is to bend the foot inward and upward. MUSCLES OF THE NECK. The principal muscles of the neck that must be consid- ered in artistic work are the Sterno-Cleido Mastoids, which attach to the skull directly behind the ears, and, running downward and forward, connect to the interior of the collar-bone and sternum. The func- tion of these muscles is to turn the head from one side to the other, when one of them acts alone, or to bend the head for- ward toward the chest, when both act to- gether. Although they are seldom very prominent, except in subjects having a thin or muscular neck, they must be care- fully considered in drawing a correct outline of the throat, particularly with the head in- clined sidewise or in an oblique position. Above and forward of the Sterno-Mastoid Muscles, we have, on either side, that known as Platysma Myoides which is attached to 3 A.... The important muscles of the lower limb: tibialis anticus (i); soleus and tendon of Achilles (2); gastrocnemii (3). the jaw-bone almost from the chin to the hinge, and, at the lower extremity, arises from the fascia covering the upper part of the Deltoid and Pectoral Muscles. This muscle is a very thin sheet of fibres and is seldom apparent on the surface, except in aged people. Its principal function, so 17 264 THE ANATOMY OF ART far as concerns the artistic significance of the anatomy, is to depress the corners of the mouth, thus increasing the expression of melancholy. THE MUSCLES OF THE FACE, while not ap- pearing so strongly on the surface as those of the limbs and trunk, are nearly the most important to the artist. This is true The muscles of the face and neck: the occipito- frontalis (i); the orbicular of the eyelids (2); the common elevator of nose and upper lip (3) ; smaller zygomatic (4) ; larger zygomatic (5) ; triangular of the chin (6) ; sterno-cleido mastoid (7); latissimus colli (8). because, by the use of these muscles, the various expressions of the human face are made. In order, therefore, to cor- rectly reproduce the exact expression we may have in mind, it is necessary to know what muscles are active in producing it. The most important muscles of the face are the Occipito-Frontalis, having its origin at the point of the forehead .and its inser- tion above the Orbicular Muscles of the eyelids, so as to effect the elevation of the eyebrows, as in expressions of astonishment, etc., by which the forehead is wrinkled. The Orbicular Muscles, being circular in shape, contract with the effect of depress- ing the eyebrows, producing a vertical angle above the bridge of the nose. This gives the expressions of perplexity, reflection, etc. The first muscle attached to the mouth is the Zygomatic, which has its origin in the neighborhood of the chin-bone and its insertion at the corners of the mouth. Its principal function is to draw up the cor- ners of the lips, thus producing the ex- pression of laughter and smiling. It also has the effect of elevating the muscles of the face on either side, so as to strongly accentuate the naso-labial lines, and to draw them up toward the cheek- bone; also producing in some places the radiating folds of the corners of the eye known as "crow's-feet." Another muscle, known as the Smaller Zygomatic, attaches to the mouth on either side at a point nearer the centre of the lips; thus acting to draw up the centre rather than the ends of the lips, and pro- ducing the expression of grief, disgust, and similar sentiments; also being the muscle brought prominently into action in weep- ing. This muscle, acting with the so-called Common Elevator of the lips and nose, accentuates the expression of grief, giving the expression of despair or abandoned sorrow. Another muscle of considerable impor- tance in the expressions of the face is the so-called Triangular Muscle of the chin, which has its attachment below -the fower lips on either side. It operates to depress the corners of the mouth, thus producing the expression of contempt, discontent, etc.. usually accompanied by a pursing of the lips at the centre and a strong tension on the naso-labial lines. II MEDITATION SORROW GRIEF CONTEMPT LANDSCAPE painting is comparatively a modern art. Titian, who lived in the sixteenth century, is generally looked upon as its founder. By landscape painting one means the representation of natural scenery for its own sake. Now, of course, long before Titian, you find painters painting sky, and sea, and mountains, and trees, and paint- ing them with extreme beauty and skill. But you will not find a single instance among the early Italians of a picture existing wholly or primarily for the sake of its landscape. Nay, more than this; you will find scarcely a*ri instance in which the landscape is much more than a beautifully de- signed surrounding for figures; a surrounding founded indeed upon love and observation of nature, but painted primarily for exactly the same reason as still earlier the gold pattern backgrounds were painted that is to say, simply as a beautifully designed surrounding for figures. Titian com- menced a new order. Natural scenery had for him a meaning and a fas- cination in itself apart from human beings. And so Titian commenced the modern art of landscape; the art with which we connect the great names of Holbein and Ruysdale and Caspar Poussin, and Crowe and Cour- dette and Turner. These men and their followers rejoiced in natural scenery purely for its own beauties, and tried to represent it as they saw it under its different aspects; they tried, as we may say, to give portraits of it, to give its genuine effect; they did not use it simply as material from which to work out beautiful designs; but they went to it that they might know its appearance, and bear record of that. And this is true landscape painting. It is a matter of wonder that the art of landscape painting, which is now so popular, should have been such a late development of art! The answer to that question would lead us probably into a somewhat difficult dis- cussion hardly suited to these pages. But we may say this in early times, nature, as we call it, was not rejoiced in by the people as it is nowa- days, because it was for them full of known or dreaded perils, and they cared neither to visit it nor to look at its representation. Many of these perils were real, such, for instance, as those of a robber or a wild beast; some were imaginary, such as those from supernatural beings. If every time you went up to a mountain you were in dread of meeting a spirit, and every time you went into a forest you were in dread of meeting a robber or a wild beast, you would not much care about going up moun- CKD 256 PAINTING tains or into forests, nor would you care about paintings of these dreadful places. But by and by civilization increased, superstition passed away, people came to be more and more at their ease with nature, and able to gaze on her with enjoyment. PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR LANDSCAPE PAINTING TECHNIQUE. The first business of a student is to learn how to reproduce with exactness the scene before him or her. When you go out to draw, determine that you will do your best to match the colors and the tones of the landscape as nearly as ever you can. Do not be content with im- perfect knowledge and resources. Do not try to make pretty pictures; endeavor sim- ply to make a study which shall be like the thing before you. By and by you will get command over your materials, and then it will be time enough to commence paint- ing pictures. But over your materials get command as soon as ever you can. Grudge no time or trouble which helps you on with this. Learn how to do whatever you want to do, to imitate whatever you want to imi- tate; this is studentship, and do not shirk it. DETAIL; MASS; TONE. The great diffi- culty which most people find when they begin landscape painting from nature arises from detail. Detail is a terrible task. Let us by way of illustration try and imagine some simple scene. Supposing, then, we want to paint shall we say a cottage, with some trees in the background, and in front a stream in which they are reflected. Now, in the trees there will be visible innumer- able leaves, no doubt, and branches, and variations of color. In the roof it is per- fectly certain that there will be a thousand tints, and in the walls a thousand streaks and reflected lights and tones; and then all this more or less over again in the water with increased intricacy. Most amateurs, when they sit down to paint such a thing, begin trying bit by bit to copy each leaf and twig, and tile and stain. One knows so well the result a thin, toneless, unproportional drawing, that has no true art-value whatever. Well, the first thing is to forget absolutely all detail, and to aim simply at mass and tone; to aim simply at getting down a groundwork of the general color, which shall be true in its broad relation of light and dark, and of tint. Into this you may work any amount of detail you choose; but unless you have got this, all Detail is worthless, and when you have gotten it, when your tone, ac- quired by broad relation of light and dark and of tint, is true, even supposing that you carry the drawing no further, it has real value as a representation of the scene and as a piece of art. You will find it an excellent plan at the commencement of a drawing to half-close your eyes as you look at the landscape ; in this way you will shut out all detail and will see the scene before you as a whole; you will see it in its broad relations, that is, of light and dark, and of tint. It is exceedingly useful, too, when you have the time, to first of all make a pencil sketch of the scene on the same principle, attending, that is, wholly to masses and tone. You will get these down rightly with greater ease, because you will not have to be think ing yet of what the colors are and have to match them. When you have got your black and white study correct using your pencil, we should advise you, as one uses charcoal, rubbing it, that is, with your fin- ger then on a new piece of paper begin coloring, keeping the pencil study by you as your scheme of mass and tone. BLOCKS; BODY COLOR; INK; COLORS. Un- less you have a long while before you, and can return to your subject again and again, so as to work it carefully out, we advise you not to make your landscape studies too large. For a morning's or an afternoon's work, a block the size of a piece of note- paper folded out, or even of a piece of note- paper folded in two, as we ordinarily write on it, is large enough. Paint on white pa- per, and on white paper that has a tolerable but not too rough grain. You will find it useful to use body-color with a fair-sized brush, and in a fluid state, when you are commencing your drawing, when you are getting in the broad relation of light and dark, and of tint. Into the body-color, while it is still fluid, work different tints more or less pure as you want them; then, when the groundwork is dry, draw into it the main form, with a pen charged with indelible brown ink, and then work on to- ward finishing with pure colors. You need PAINTING 257 not \n this way fear that your drawing will rook chalky; it will not in the least, if you work your pure colors in with tolerable skill. And as for the brown pen-lines, also, they will disappear if you like to work on them enough. As to colors, it is well to have a moder- ate number only in one's box. The follow- ing list will serve you for painting most ordinary landscapes. Raw Umber, Burned Sienna, Raw Sienna, Light Red, Rose Mad- der, Brown Madder, Aureolin, Cobalt Blue, Viridian, Olive Green, Black and Chinese White. Every artist, of course, has special colors that he or she is fond of, just as he or she has special methods ; but with these colors you will be able to do most of what you find to do as soon as you get a toler- able facility in combining them. SKETCHING. Amateurs are exceedingly fond of what they call sketching. We all know what that generally comes to going out and choosing some large piece of land- scape, and then making nonsense of it ; spoil- ing a piece of paper with something which has no drawing, no tone, no color, but which is purely rubbish. Fly from the temptation to sketch as you would fly from the Evil One himself. If you do not really feel that you can muster energy enough to learn how to draw and how to color, do not set your hand to the business at all. But if you do, go to nature and to the masters, reverently continuing, and try to let this witchery work on you, grudging no pains or no sacri- fice. You may not do great things, but if you have any true art instinct at all you will in time do some beautiful things, things which, however small and quiet, it is well to do ; they will bring you happi- ness, and they will bring some others, of whom it is worth thinking, happiness also. PAINTING ON TERRA COTTA In painting on terra cotta it is best to treat your whole subject, first of all, in light and shade, with white enamel, using it thinly for the shadows, and thickly in the light. As the unglazed pottery is more absorbent than the glazed, more oil is required in the enamel when used for this purpose than for ordinary work. Remember that the brush must never be filled with enamel, but take as much on the tip as it will hold, and you will begin to replenish it for every brush- mark. It will not be found at all easy to do this well, as white enamel is difficult to lay on cleanly and smoothly, until the stu- dent has had a good dea. of practice. When the whole design has been painted in this manner, it must be fired, and then, if the white has been put on sufficiently thick, the design will be glazed. You may then tint it with the ordinary china-painting col- ors and have it re-fired. The chief difficulty in painting on terra cotta will be overcome if your subject is well chosen. Let the flowers be of a sim- ple, open nature, such as daisies, hawthorn, blackthorn, wild roses, any sort of fruit blossoms, buttercups, or primroses. Any of those, and many others, are very appro- priate, and look well ; but if the student has chosen anything of a bell-shaped nature, or, more still, anything elaborate, such as col- umbine or antirhinium, success will be most difficult of attainment. Colors should be very subdued on terra cotta: Pale Yellows, White, Dull Greens, and Browns all look well, with possibly a little Turquoise Blue. It is best for the student not to paint on terra cotta un- til he can conscientiously assure himself that his taste is well trained, and his ma- nipulations good. It is quite allowable to mix color with the enamel for the first firing, but there is no advantage in doing so, as the enamel makes too rough a surface for shading upon, and it therefore requires a second firing before it can be finished. If, how- ever, for anything very simple, you would like to try it, let the proportions be about four of enamel to one of color. Colored glazed plates and tiles may also be painted in the manner described for terra cotta. Beautiful shades are to be had of Celadon, Chocolate, Orange, Blue, Green, and others. PAINTING ON CHINA In commencing the study of China Paint- ing it will be well if the student starts with the firm determination of completely mas- tering the use of his materials. And even though he hiay be proficient in oils or wa- ter colors, the technique is so different that it will be necessary to begin at the very be- ginning. If the student knows nothing of pottery painting, by all means let him begin with over-glaze in preference to under-glaze painting. In the former, all faults (for in- stance, brush marks, inefficient dabbling, the use of too much turpentine, too much or too little oil) are apparent on the sur- face. They are only too visible the instant they are perpetrated. There is seen to be something obviously wrong, and if the stu- 258 PAINTING dent does not know how to remedy it, he feels, if he is a conscientious worker, that the least he can do is to take it out, and hope for more skill in a second attempt. But fn under-glaze painting, work often has the appearance of being very tolerably well done until it is glazed and fired, when brush marks, bad edges, and harsn lines start forth in a manner that is most unexpected and disappointing. We shall confine our attention entirely to over-glaze painting, and throughout it must be remembered that the colors men- tioned are invariably over-glaze or manual colors. Enamel colors should be kept care- fully apart from under-glaze colors, as the smallest grain of the latter mixed with the former would completely spoil the effect. The same remark applies to oil paints, and even to the turpentine in which brushes used for them have been rinsed. In choosing your earthenware or china, notice that the glaze is smooth and even, without specks of any sort, and not crazed, i.e. requiring either a greater or less de- gree of heat in order to fuse it. The following implements and colors are absolutely necessary. Those contained in the supplementary list will be found a great convenience after some progress has been made: I Steel Palette Knife. i Glass Muller. I Hand Rest. I Medium- si zed Dabber. I Small Dabber in Quill. I Sable Crow Writer. 1 Plate (glazed). 2 or 3 sizes of Camel's-Hair Brushes for China Painting. Several 6-inch or 8-inch Tiles (also glazed) to be used for Palettes. Turpentine. Fat Oil of Turpentine. Spirits of Lavender, or Oil of Cloves. MOIST WATER COLORS Deep Azure Blue. German Brown. Brunswick Brown. Vandyke Brown. Gray Black. Royal Purple. Rose-leaf Green. Dark Orange. Red. Strong Yellow. China Meglip. Outremer Turquoise. Olive Brown. Sepia. Deep Black. Carmine. Deep Green. Light Sevres. Pearl Gray. Persian Yellow. White Enamel. DRY COLORS FOR BEGINNERS Rouge Orange. Noir d'lvoire. Carmine No. 2. Gris Perle. Ocre. Vert Chrome Riche. Vert Noir. Violet de Per. Bleu Riche. Pourpre Riche. Jaune Orange. Brun No. 4. Vert Brun. White Chrome (English). SUPPLEMENTARY LIST FOR THE MORE ADVANCED STUDENT Jaune a Meier. Vert Bleu Riche. Brun No. 3. Ivory Palette. Rouge Chair No. I. Carmine No. 3. Evan's Brown. Knife. All the colors mentioned in the list will work freely together, with the exception of Brunswick Brown and Red, which will, however, mix together, and with black and purple, but not with the other colors. Work- ing with the moist water colors will be found very pleasant. In sketching, use the crayon purchased for that purpose, which, being of an oily nature, will not be washed out by the wa- ter-color passing over it. It will, however, disappear completely in the firing. The man- ner of working is very much the same as if the colors were mixed with oil. The brush must be kept square, and the mark of color may be retouched again and again in order to make it smooth. If a large space is to be covered, use the dabber. More water or meglip must be added as occasion requires; but too much of the former is apt to produce a very worky appearance, and if too much of the latter is used the color will take a long time to dry. For a broad sweep of color, a combination of the two is best. .When the ground is laid, and your drawing is of such a nature that you have been obliged to take the color over it, you may clean out your design with great ease, by merely washing away the surplus color with a brush just moistened with water, but care must be taken that the brush is not too wet, lest the work shall be made messy. The pattern may also be cleaned out either with a penknife or with the pointed end of a brush-handle. These colors are perfectly well ground and free from grit. One of the few technical diffi- culties connected with their use will be overcome if the student will never try to shade his work without drying the first washes at the fire. When these colors are dry they are easy to work upon, but we can PAINTING 259 not sufficiently impress upon the student that they will not dry of their own accord. If the underworks are disturbed, it will show that these remarks have not been at- tended to. With reference to the French colors, it must be borne in mind that the Iron Reds (all Reds of a brick-dust shade) will mix with each other, or with Black or Violet de 5er, and, to a moderate extent, with Jaune a Meier, or Jaune d'lvoire, but not with other colors. If mixed with Carmine, Blue, etc., and fired, the Red would all disappear. However, if a little thought is bestowed on the subject, this is no very great disadvan- tage, as by using Jaune a Meier as a sort of go-between, you may blend or graduate Red into almost any other color you wish. Say, for example, that you desire to shade Red into Green; a good Green for the pur- pose can be made with Noir d'lvoire and Jaune a Meier, both of which colors will mix with Red. Or if a brighter Green is required, put plenty of oil into your Jaune a Meier, and, with different brushes, wash the Red on to one end of the space to be covered, and the Green on to the other, blending them with Jaune a Meier in the middle. If well done, the effect should be smooth and the gradation uniform ; but if you use too little oil, the colors will join with a harsh line. Ochre is useful for shad- ing Yellow, or, used by itself, for the warm glow in a sunset sky; but it will not mix at all satisfactorily with Greens. All the other colors will mix freely together; but after a little experience you will find that Browns are very apt to fire out, i.e. to dis- appear in the firing, leaving the other color with which they were mixed somewhat of the same tone as if it had been used pure; you will also find that Blues, Purples, and Carmines are very strong in their effect, being apt, when mixed with other colors, to show more after they are fired than be- fore. White Enamel is most useful for lit- tle touches of white, or for painting on terra cotta. It must be kept scrupulously clean, and a separate palette shoulfl be re- served for it, a glass one being preferable to an ordinary tile. Then grind it with a steel knife, but use a glass muller or ivory palette-knife, otherwise it will probably be discolored in firing. If in painting with Enamel you find it is inclined to spread, breathe into the color on your palette, at the same time mixing it with a little more turpentine. As you require to put it on rather thickly, do not use too much oil. The hand-rest, if placed over your work, for your hand to rest on while painting, will greatly help you to avoid rubbing or scratching your work, to which beginners are very prone. It will also assist you to acquire a light touch. A tall easel is a convenience, as it will save much stooping, and you can also see the general effect of your work better when it is not flat on the table. If you have any facility in drawing we recommend you to sketch your work with Indian Ink, water-color carmine, or smoke ; and if with the first, let it be of the first quality, or there may be impurities in it which will remain after firing. If the last is used, it is merely necessary to hold a saucer or tile over the flame of a candle, and then use the carbon while it collects with a little turpentine. If your design is very elaborate and you wish to trace it, you may do so by making use of either of the following methods. First, and least ob- jectionable, is the process known as "pounc- ing." Arrange a piece of tracing-paper over your design, and with a fine hard pencil make a careful outline of your drawing. When this is complete, place it on a cushion or anything soft, and with a fine needle, prick along every line. Finally, arrange your tracing on your plate, secure it at the corners with a wafer, and dust over it with a little black-lead or fine char- coal powder. The drawing will by this means be transferred to your plate in a series of dotted lines. It is then ready to be sketched with India Ink. Afterward remove all the dust with a soft brush or cloth, or it may interfere with your painting. The second process is to place a sheet of black tracing-paper on the china, and over it your tracing; then go over all the lines again with a hard, fine-pointed pencil, or the sharp end of a porcupine quill. The patterns so transferred to the china should be strengthened and corrected with a fine brush and India Ink. The process is' quicker, but it is also dirtier, and you are more likely to lose the delicacy of your drawing, although in simple conventional borders there is no objection to this method being used. As the great advantage which amateurs possess over professional china painters is the power of spending unlimited time over the smallest piece of work, they should never run the risk of spoiling their painting by using inferior methods. AIY ONE starting for the first time as a sculptor must be struck by the extreme simplicity of the material and the ease with which the rudiments of the art are to be learned. A lump of soft clay, a board to put it upon, and a few wooden tools of most simple shapes these, and a bit of sponge, and your own fingers are really all that is necessary to produce a result. When the result has been attained, and the work has been modelled, then no doubt there are a few things to learn to enable you to transpose your work which now exists in soft material into a hard and more durable substance, either into stone, plaster, or terra cotta. There is no good in disguising the fact that to carve properly, a strong arm and a firm grasp are required, and that is not consistent with a woman's more delicate frame. She may console herself, though, with the reflection that there are many man sculptors who do not do their own carving, so she will not be exceptional if she employs help to perform that part for which she is not fitted. In earlier days it would have been almost impossible for ladies to take up the profession of a sculptor, as we have reason to believe that the clay model was much less depended upon, the statue in marble being worked from small sketches or models, and not so elaborately pointed up, or so dependent for its general form upon mechanism as now. With all this great difference it is still a pity for a man who is able not to carve or finish his marble work himself, and in fact our best work has been produced by the sculptor's own chisel; it is, however, considered legitimate help, and a lady would be justified in employing assistance in that branch of the art. PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS DIFFICULTIES IN MODELLING. You will find that although the rudi- ments are so easily learned, the art of mod- elling will not appear so very easy; and if you love your work, you will find there is more and more to learn, and the knowledge (260 will gradually dawn upon you that sculp- ture is not merely a copy of what you see, but rather a free translation. It is easier certainly to produce a show in this art than in painting, that is, it requires a less skilled artist to reach to a certain point in the one SCULPTURE MODELLING 261 than in the other; but that being the case, it is equally certain that it requires greater art to put individuality into sculpture than into painting, and to touch the deeper chords of human nature, for that which helps you at the commencement of your career, namely, the simplicity of your ma- terials, impedes you as you march onward, and makes it very difficult for you to im- press your thoughts into it. You have form, and form alone, to deal with, color being entirely excluded. (The question of poly- chromy is not alluded to here, as the color employed by the Greeks was especially un- realistic and decorative in its character.) Sculpture, therefore, is one step further off life than her sister art, and it requires more imagination both to enjoy it thoroughly and to practice it to perfection. To prove that form is more rarely ap- preciated than color, we would instance the general opinion of faces that we meet at an assembly. Ask why a certain face pleases more than another, and the answer will be generally one based on complexion and ex- pression rather than on form. Now, com- plexion is impossible to render in sculpture, and in the power of expression the art is exceedingly limited; the subtle changings, the exquisite language of the eye, being en- tirely outside the province of sculpture. We will assume now that you are not troubling yourself about the limits of a sculptor's art, that you are not going into the abstruse question of Lessing's "Laoc- oon," about what can and what can not be done, nor are dreaming at present of rank- ing with Phidias, Michelangelo, and the other giants, but are simply anxious to do your little in the modeller's art, and would be glad if all unnecessary difficulties were cleared for you. A few axioms may be useful at starting. I. Do not be afraid of making a muss; the corollary naturally follows, do not work on a carpeted floor; select one where you can do as you like. See only that it has a good light, either a high side-light (block- ing out the lower) or a skylight, the for- mer being better because less flattering to your work; a room to the north or north- east is preferable in order to avoid the sun. 2. Work with soft clay, and have a sponge by your side to keep your fingers from stick- ing, and let the clay you put on be softer than that on which you work. The prin- ciple of modelling, as opposed to carving, is, that in the first you put on, and in the latter you lake off. In using the wet sponge, first wash the clay from your fin- gers, then dry them on a cloth or towel. 3. Use your fingers as much as you can, and let your tools be as simple as possible more like a continuation of fingers, as if Nature had provided you with two or three smaller and larger ones. Let them be slightly curved, just as your fingers when much used will of themselves assume a backward turn. 4. Be sure you consider the question of weight and balance when arranging your supports, or one fine morning you may see your work, when far advanced, lying on the floor. If you anticipate baking when the work is done, you must either have no sup- ports at all, or place them in such a manner that you can easily remove them when the Wire and box-wood clay modelling tools for shaping 1 where the fingers cannot be used conveniently. clay is tolerably hard, without injuring the surface of your work. 5. All clays bake, some harder than oth- ers, but terra cotta merely means baked clay. 6. In working from life, depend as little as possible upon measurements; rely upon the eye, and so cultivate it. "These few precepts in thy memory see thou character," to quote the worldy-wise Polonius. In working from life you should also try to have your sitter very much in the same light as your work, for light and shade are most important factors, and you will find that the relative proportions of shadow were wonderfully understood in the best Greek work, and, in fact, in all good work, two equal shadows are never brought near to each other. In addition to clay, you also use wax for 262 SCULPTURE MODELLING modelling; it has the advantage of being much cleaner, but still we should not rec- ommend it, as clay admits of freer and quicker work, and the end is attained with more facility. English clay bakes about the same color as when moist. The French is dark gray, and bakes a light reddish hue. Besides the essentials clay, tools, and a board^-you will find it more convenient to have a proper stand, or banker, as it is called, with a revolving top, so that you may easily turn your model around, for it is most important not to work too long at one view it is the fault of a sculptor when first learning to model. Your sitters, too, you should make as comfortable as you can, so that you are not worried by their not being at their ease ; an office revolving-chair on a raised dais is per- haps the best contrivance you can have while modelling in the round, to take relief into consideration, but this, though often tried at starting, we should not recommend at first. It has difficulties of its own, which, when understood, might hamper you when afterward modelling from the round. These difficulties of treatment will be overcome as soon as you have learned how to model at all. One great advantage a sculptor has over a painter is that he can take advantage of artificial lighting. We can thus throw the light where we will ; for, although work will, and should, look better in a certain light, it should not look wrong in any. It does not matter very much what you choose to model first; no doubt you will select something difficult, but will soon discard it for some more simple form. A foot, or a hand, whether antique or cast from life, is as good as anything, or a face where the planes are simple and broadly marked. For the foot or hand you would probably require no support at all ; for the head, just an upright stick fastened well into a board, or bat, as we call it that is, two boards, each about eighteen inches or two feet square, fixed at two sides with two- inch space between, one above the other, parallel, so that you have room to place your tools in between them. When you have the support ready, build your work up to the bat, keeping the upright well in the mid- dle, so as not to let it protrude at the neck or elsewhere. Keep your work clean-look- ing and simple, the planes all distinctly marked, and particularly avoid all details and sharp cuttings until you have the gen- eral form rightly set in. It is good not to be always too near your work. Continually place your model and work together, so as to compare them, remembering to have them at the same angle to the light. You will understand by this that it is seldom you can sit to your work. When not work- ing keep damp cloths over your work, and do not let the cloths touch the more important surfaces. A box made of laths covered with oilcloth is even better. If you should intend that your clay model should go to the kiln to be baked, there are two or three particulars you must carefully attend to. In the first place, see that your clay is quite clean from lime, plaster, or stone, as the presence of any of these is sufficient to burst your work and make pieces fly. Secondly, before sending it away from your studio, see that your work is perfect- ly dry. It is only through non-attention in these matters that much of the beginner's work is spoiled in the firing; it is seldom the fault of the potter. A small figure can be baked solid, but a large one should al- ways be hollowed out, as there is much more room for air to play round it. If you hollow it out, take care that there are a few small holes in unimportant places where they would not be seen to allow of escape of air. The hollowing out should be done when the clay is totally hard, but before it is quite dry. It is better to build up your work solidly and hollow it out afterward, than to hollow it out from the first. The latter can be done, but the difficulties neces- sitated by it are apt to distract your atten- tion from your chief object, as very great care would be required to put the model together. The question of supports has been referred to. Most busts you can build up without any support at all ; and for statu- ettes you can generally arrange a support that can readily be removed when the clay becomes of sufficient consistency to stand alone. Take care, also, that the clay is well kneaded, so that it holds together, and that there are no air-holes present. You can never be quite sure of the color when baked, as that depends a little upon the surroundings of your work in the kiln, nor can you always avoid slight cracks. There is another important point to re- member about terra cotta. As clay naturally shrinks when drying, you must allow for it. If you should want your work, when fin- ished, to be of a certain size, one-tenth is generally allowed a little more or less would depend upon the degree of moisture that is in the clay, but it is seldom neces- sary to be so very particular. There are drawbacks to terra cotta, but SCULPTURE MODELLING 263 it is well to know that terra cotta can be repaired. A thin coat of distemper or paint will hide the cracks, although it also slightly hides the more delicate modelling, so it is not therefore to be recommended for finer work better show the cracks. If you don't intend to have your work baked, but to have it cast in plaster prepara- tory for bronze or marble, you need not be so careful in preparing your clay, neither need you consider your supports except for their strength and position. Do not attempt to cast your work yourself, for it requires some little skill to mix the plaster, and there are men (molders) who make it their vocation only caution them that you want your work returned to you exactly as you left it, otherwise you may find your surfaces all gone and worked out, or fin- ished according to the molder's notion. These remarks will assist those who might try to model unaided, but if you get to like the work, and would wish to succeed, you should take a few lessons from an expert, so as to be guided in your progress. In modelling, remember always that you have merely form to deal with, but you have, if modelling a bust, to give the im- pression of the head and not a copy of it, and this is where the art of the sculptor is called into play. In sculpture you can not give the color to the eye; you can not give eyelashes, nor the fineness of the hair all these points so important in life so you must execute your work that none of these specialties should be missed. "How is this to be done?" you will ask. In a great measure it must be left to you to decide, to your own feeling and individuality. There are several ways of interpreting life, and sev- eral schools formed on these ways of exe- cution, and a sculptor is perhaps the last person to recommend one way or the other, as, if he loves his art, he has become a spe- cialist himself, and would unintentionally direct you toward his own way of interpre- tation. He can teach you to see nature, it is true, but can only teach you to render it in his own way he is not able to say which is the right way, probably there isn't one; it is only a matter of feeling. The destination of a work as well as the subject itself, are most important factors in determining the treatment. We will refer to one or two ways of treatment. For instance, in the eyes the Greeks left the pupils blank, but they gath- ered shadow by sinking the whole eye, and generally making the lower eyelid deeper than the upper. We moderns usually cut in the pupil, and leave the eye where nature placed it, conventionalizing the pupil more. Perhaps the former way is more suitable for ideal work, and the latter for portrait and character. The disadvantage of the lat- ter way is that it is more dependent for its true effect upon the light in which it may be placed. The Roman work is marked much in the same way as our own, only not so deeply. While speaking of the antique we caution you against a too free use of it. Students generally commence there, and they stop Armature or support for a clay statue during work. It is composed of a square iron rod, with lead or copper tubes for arms and leg?, carrying blocks of wood bung by wires to support the clay of the limbs there so long, that the development of all individuality and life is checked. It is certainly useful at first, because you are not troubled with a model's varying phases, but when you have attained some little proficiency in modelling, it would be better to go direct to life. In the antique, as in other work, there is both good and bad. Many of the figures, and also of the busts, are merely interesting from a histori- cal point of view, and you must, as a stu- dent, look at them from the artistic side, to see whether the form is good, the lines well composed, and whether the entire builds up into one artistic whole. BRASS WORK ir ir n ir n f rr ir if THIS work is easy, pretty, and effective, and is well suited to ladies, as it does not require any great degree of strength. Most of us know what is meant by repousse work in metal. In that kind of work the pattern is beaten out at the back so that it stands out from the groundwork, which remains at its old level. The work which we are about to describe is precisely the opposite to this. Though the effect produced is somewhat the same, it is attained by different means. In a few words, instead of beating out the pattern from behind, the ground is beaten down from in front, leaving the pattern untouched. PRACTTCAL INSTRUCTIONS TOOLS. The tools required for this work are few and inexpensive. The beating down of the metal is effected by means of punches, struck by a mallet or hammer. It is well to use punches with some little pattern on them, for two reasons: first, be- cause they are then less likely to slip from the exact place where the blow is required; find, secondly, because such punches give a grained surface to the groundwork, and such an appearance is more pleasing than a plain surface, and affords a greater con- trast to the smoothness of the pattern. Punches suitable for this purpose are called "star" and "checkering" punches. Besides these you will require some tool with a plain edge for marking out lines on the pattern itself. For this purpose a blunt brad-awl or small screw-driver maybe used, or even a large nail filed to a similar edge; 'hese tools should not be sharp, or you will un the risk of cutting the metal. These are also useful for getting into sharp angles in the pattern, where your punches, whether round or square, can not go; a triangular file broken off will also be found a handy tool for this purpose. If you have any doubts of your ability to hit the head of the punch, it will be safer to use a mallet than a hammer, as a miss means an awkward rap on the knuckles. You will requi"- - pair of shell shears for (364) cutting the sheet metal ; these are like a pair of very strong scissors. QUALITY OF METAL. The metal itself should be brass, at any rate to begin with, though if you like you may use silver when you get on. The kind of brass to use is sheet brass; No. 7 gauge will be found to be of a proper thickness. It may be procured of any length ; in width, from two or three inches upward. It is sold by weight. THE PATTERN. The first thing to do is to decide on the pattern, and we would sug- gest for your first attempt some simple de- sign on a small piece of brass ; a plain Latin cross on a bit four inches by three inches will do very well ; or, if you like, the initial letter of your name. Cut your brass to the size required with the shears ; you will find it rather difficult to make a straight cut of any length at first. This is because the" part cut off does not yield and get out of the way like paper or cloth. You will have to bend it out of the way ; it can easily be flat- tened afterward with the hammer. Cut out a piece of thin paper (tissue paper does well) the exact size of the brass, and on it trace your pattern. Flatten the brass, and gum the paper to it. Never mind if there are a few small wrinkles ; these will vanish when the paper dries. Thin paper BRASS WORK 265 is recommended because thick paper is apt to loosen and come off when the punch is applied. This sometimes occurs even with thin paper, and if you find this happening, it is best to trace the pattern through the paper on the brass with some sharp instru- ment, taking care to scratch only very faintly. You can then wash off the paper, and be independent of it. PREPARING FOR WORK. To work on the brass, it must be fastened down in some manner, and the most convenient way of doing this is to put a strip of wood on each end and screw it down. The brass need only be covered by the wood for about a quarter of an inch or even less. The board to which it is screwed should lie quite flat and firm on the table, and the table itself should be a carpenter's bench, or some very strong and steady piece of furniture. The most essential point about the punch- ing is that it should be commenced at the edges of the brass, and worked inward to- ward the middle. If the piece of brass you are using is larger than is really required, it may be fastened down at once as recom- mended above. But if it is only the exact size, the edges, which are to go under the strips of wood, must be first punched. Holding the punch perfectly perpendicu- lar, strike firmly with the mallet, or ham- mer, so as to dent the brass. DEVELOPING THE PATTERN. Begin at one corner, and work all around the edge, al- lowing the marks to overlap each other somewhat irregularly, so as to do away with any suggestion of pattern in the groundwork. When you have got all round, do a second row inside the first in the same irregular manner. Enough of the ground will now be done to enable you to fasten it down with the strips of wood, and you can then proceed, working inward to- ward the pattern. As you get on you will see the inworked portion in the centre (containing all the pattern) rising up in relief. You must ncrw be guided by the pattern itself. If it is a figure with no grounding in the middle, proceed with the punching right up to the edges of the pat- tern. If it has an isolated piece of ground- work in it, for instance, if it has the letter O, it will be well at this stage to begin punching the middle, and working alter- nately thence to the pattern, and from the outside also, for if you go quite up to the pattern from the outside before you touch the middle, the brass will have risen to such a height that it will be difficult to punch it down neatly. On the same principle if the pattern has some groundwork running into it, as in the letter V, you should commence working up into this place before you have reached the pattern from the outside. As a general rule, it is a good thing to keep the advancing line of dents at the same distance from the outline all round, that is to say, the punch-marks should give a rough representation of this outline. But no rule can be laid down on this point, and a few attempts will show you with tolerable cer- tainty how to proceed in any particular case. HOLDING THE PUNCH. As you get near to the pattern a new difficulty encounters you. This is caused by the fact that, as the centre has risen, you are working each punch-mark on a sloping surface of brass. Under these circumstances the punch will slip when struck, and will not make a clean dent. This is very annoying, especially as it occurs chiefly when you are approaching the outline of the pattern and wish every blow to tell in exactly its right place. It may be avoided by holding the punch very firmly against the brass and by giving the head of it a slight inclination outward from the pattern, so that the blow may be directed really at right angles to the sur- face, as was the case before the rising of the pattern took place. It is hardly neces- sary to mention that the punch is usually held in the left hand, and the mallet or hammer in the right, though it is some- times convenient to work the reverse ways. When you have worked up to the pattern in this manner, and have carefully gone round the outline, wash off the paper trac- ing, if you have retained it till now. You will then be able to see many little places which require punching, and this can be easily done by the aid of the eye alone. If the punch-marks appear too marked or regular in any part of the ground, go over this again, until the whole groundwork pre- sents a uniformly dented appearance. LINES ON THE PATTERN. If any lines have to be marked out on the pattern itself, this is the time to do it. Intricate work on the pattern is difficult and not effective, but in many cases some simple lines must be made. For instance, if a butterfly has been rep- resented, it would be hopeless to attempt any reproduction of the pattern on its wings, but it would be easy (and sufficient) to mark out the division between its front and hind wings and the segments of its body. This should be done with the small screw- driver or brad-awl mentioned before. They 266 BRASS WORK should be used as a punch, and the lines marked out by light blows of the hammer, as it is not desired to sink these lines down to the level of the groundwork. In fact, if they are well marked, the less indented they are the better. Be careful to hold these chisel-shaped implements upright when rtruck, as you do not want to dig the cor- ners into the work. It is difficult to give any idea on paper of the exact force which should be given to the blows of the mallet or hammer, but a few trials will put you in the way of it. The brass should be considerably indented, but, on the other hand, you must be careful to avoid making a hole. Perhaps you will be able to get on better with thinner brass than we have recom- mended; this is a matter of individual pref- erence. FINISHING. Your work is now finished as far as the punching goes, and you can remove the slips of wood which have been holding it down and examine it at your leisure. You will probably find that it has a slight curl in it and will not lie flat. This may be removed by beating the groundwork lightly with a small hammer, and it will be found useful to beat it from behind, by turning it upside down and beating it on the projecting corner of a board. Of course, this corner must not project on the pattern, or the raised work will be beaten down. If any fragments of paper remain, or any gum, they can be removed by warm water and rubbing with a rag. POLISHING. The whole work can now be polished, using sifted whiting, tripoli pow- der, or anything of that kind which will not scratch the brass. It will be a matter of taste or convenience whether you prefer the brass to look old or to keep it polished. In the former case, it only requires to be let alone, and in a very short time it will tr se its bright polish and the pale yellow color which it will have immediately after it is cleaned. But if you wish it always to shine, you must either be always polishing it or else it must be "lacquered." "LACQUERING" brass is nothing more than varnishing it with a transparent varnish, which protects it from the action of the air and enables the lustre to be seen through it. The varnish used for this purpose is "shellac" varnish, and is made by dissolv- ing shellac in spirits of wine. As you will only require a small quantity, it will be better to buy it than to try to make it yourself. Before applying it see that the brass is perfectly clean, then warm it, and lay on the varnish with a small brush. It will dry rapidly, and be hard and transparent if the work has been properly carried out. If the varnish becomes too thick, as it will do if the cork is ever left out, it may be thinned by adding some methylated spirits, and the brush can be cleaned in the same liquid, which may also be used for cleaning old lacquer off, or for removing an unsatis- factory coat before applying a fresh one. MOUNTING. The work is now ready for fixing wherever you intend, and this leads us to consider to what purposes such work is applicable. It may be generally stated that wherever a decorative panel of moder- ate size is required, this metal work will be found suitable. Perhaps the simplest thing to begin on, after your first attempt, will be a door-plate. We do not mean the brass plate on the outside of the front door, which conveys to passers-by the name and profession of the occupier, but the plates used on room doors to prevent the door from being soiled by the fingers. Such a plate should be attached to the door by very small brass-headed screws, and holes to receive them should be drilled in the corners. If it is not lacquered and re- quires to be cleaned, it is as well to cut out of a piece of pasteboard a hole the exact shape of the plate. This pasteboard should be held over the plate while it is being cleaned, and^ will protect the door from being injured by whatever composi- tion is used. USES OF BRASS WORK. Brass work may be advantageously substituted fdr mirrors in the mahoganized furniture so fashionable at present, and it may also be used for the panels in the lid and sides of a wooden coal-box. A small shield, with a crest or coat of arms worked on it, is an effec- tive ornament in wall decoration. Panels should have a slight margin left outside the worked part; this will be found useful in fixing. You may also try to make a circular card- tray, or an oblong pen-tray. A margin must be left to form the sides of these articles, and the punching should begin from the inside of this margin. This will cause the sides to rise some- what, and will be sufficient, unless a very deep tray is desired. In this case more slope may be given by denting lines with your chisel-shaped tool on the margin at right angles to the edge. This will give a crimped look to the margin and make it BRASS WORK 267 rise. The blows should be harder at the outside. TIME REQUIRED. It may be well to say a few words about the time and labor re- quired for this work. The time taken in drawing the pattern will of course be less if the worker is gifted with sufficient ar- tistic power to enable him to rapidly sketch the outline from the subject, whatever it may be, but a very short time will suffice even for those who have to trace their outlines. Leaves, etc., may be put on the paper, and the outline traced directly from them. Anybody can draw geometrical patterns with rule and compasses, though we think they are usually unsuited to brass work. The actual labor of working the punch is very slight, though it may be found that the hand which holds it is apt to get rather cramped at first. The time required will, of course, depend greatly on the in- tricacy of the pattern, more care being re- quired where there is much outline, but at the. same time there will be less ground to do if the pattern covers much space. About twenty minutes should be ample for a square panel of five inches in the side, that is to say, with an average pattern, but this is not meant to include tracing or fix- ing the paper design. SUITABLE DESIGNS. With regard to the sort of designs which can appropriately be represented, it is really so much a matter of taste that no absolute rule can be laid down. Speaking generally, any subject which can be expressed chiefly by means of outline is suitable. Leaves, either singly or in the form of sprays, .will do very well. One should go to the right source for the model nature herself. Of course, any kind of motto or saying may be worked on a band of brass, if you have a suitable place to put it in when finished. Insects produce an effective and quaint appearance. Butterflies and moths, with their wings extended, or flies, with the wings closed about the back, are easy and striking, while beetles have quite a "cun- ning" look. Some large beetle should be chosen, either the Egyptian scarabaus or the large water-beetles of the ponds. You cau attempt to imitate, if you will, the old repousse work, of which Cellini was such a master, though you will per- haps be unable to try it on the same pre- cious metals which were placed at his com- mand by his wealthy and influential pa- trons. Learn, however, to command your temper better than he did; you may be sure that your work will be none the worse for that In these days, a greater respect for life prevails than in his age, and when we want to defeat a rival, we do so by trying to make our work better than his, and not by an appeal to arms. A little care and pains will enable you to turn out very fair work, and you will be surprised and pleased to find what a won- derful effect may be produced by such sim- ple means. You will have to exercise your forethought in the selection of a subject within the range of the process and the reach of .your own powers, and your man- ual dexterity will be called out in the exe- cution of the work. It is an old saying, but a very true one, that what is worth doing at all is worth doing well. Work done badly bears on it the stamp of its own worthlessness, the confession that the workman had not thought it worth doing. A beginner's work can not be as good as that of an old hand, but let it be the beginner's best, and nobody should complain. And whatever you do, fit yourself up a workshop of your own, where you can carry out your brass work or wood carving and other such employ- ment conveniently, without fear of inter- ruption, or of being told you make a "horrible mess." WOOD CARVING THE art of wood carving Is a very ancient one and has always been the close rival to sculpture or carving in stone; although, of course, its greatest field has ever been in the line of producing household furniture and interior decorations. Like several other arts, its essential principles are extremely simple, and, as a matter of fact, after the uses of the various tools have been thoroughly understood, any one with artistic taste and sufficient perseverance to persist in the study of the art should soon become a good wood carver. PRACTICAL PRINCIPLES VARIETIES OF WOOD CARVING THERE are several varieties of wood carving which may be classified ac- cording to the style of work or the style of designs. Under the first head, there are three varieties flat or stamped work, in- taglio or sunken work, and round carving or lowered work. So far as the style of designs is concerned, there are a number of varieties belonging mostly under the head of intaglio and incised work such are the majority of designs in scroll work and geometrical figures, rosette work, or dia- pering, and the effective chip carving. TOOLS. The tools used in wood carving are of a few varieties of chisels and gouges. The chisels have flat blades, such as are used in carpenter work, while the gouges and modellers have the cutting edge more or less curved according to require- ments. The manner of using these tools is much the same as in carpentering; the general plan being to drive the cutting edge into the wood with a rawhide mallet, or with a wooden club cut down to form a handle at one end. FLAT CARVING. The ordinary flat carv- ing; which is the variety most often under- taken by the beginners, is produced by merely tracing a design on the surface of a panel and then cutting around it care- fully with a chisel-shaped gouge having a deeply grooved cutting end, almost U- shaped; this is called a "veiner." When a design is thoroughly cut out, the back- (268) ground effect is produced by use of a stamp or punch. When this kind of work is well done, it is highly effective, but, as a general rule, its use is confined to house- hold furniture, panels, etc. INTAGLIO CARVING. The variety of carv- ing work known as intaglio is produced in much the same manner, except that, in- stead of being left flat, the body of the design leaves, flowers, etc. is cut out, leav- ing the background in relief. The work of cutting out the design is done chiefly with small gouges, after which the background is usually hammered in, as with the former variety of carving. SUNKEN WORK. Closely allied to the intaglio and flat carving, at least in the manner of its production, is the variety of work found with flat designs and sunken background. The background is cut out, leaving the design in flat relief. It is used largely in panel and scroll work, on house- hold furniture, etc. LOWERED WORK. The round carving, or lowered work, is the most difficult, as well as the most artistic, variety of wood carv- ing. Its successful production depends, of course, upon the extensive use of carving tools and wide experience in handling de- signs. Briefly described, the process of producing this kind of carving is as fol- lows: The design is first transferred to the surface of the wood, being traced on with a pencil, so that its outlines are clear and WOOD CARVING 269 sharp. The next step is to cut out the de- sign, which is done with a flat chisel, usu- ally with one about one-half inch across. This is grasped firmly in the left hand, so that the blade touches the wood at a slight angle from the perpendicular. With the use of a mallet the point of the chisel is driven into the wood to a certain definite / ) } WOOD CARVING TOOLS, CHISELS, GOUGES AND MODELLERS, ALSO SHAPES OF CUTTING EDGES depth, which is generally not more than a half-inch at each incision. This process is called "stabbing." After the design has been thoroughly cut out, especial care be- ing taken to make the incisions to the same depth in every case, the background may be carefully cut away on all sides, leaving the design in high relief. The best procedure in this work is to shave the wood out gradually, and not to attempt cutting out large chips at a time. It is also better to cut across the grain in many varieties of wood, thus avoiding the dan- ger of splitting or tearing. When the background is thoroughly and cleanly cut away from the design, the work of modelling or shaping the essential de- tails of figures may be undertaken. This work had better be guided by the use of clay or wax models, wherever possible, or with the use of the natural objects them- selves. When flowers or leaves are to be cut out, the upper surface of the design is, of course, modelled first, the shape and the conto :r being carefully formed with suit- able gouges and modellers. After the upper surface is complete, the wood may be cut away beneath to a level with the back- ground, to give the necessary relief effect. This work is, of course, extremely delicate, and required the utmost skill and experi- ence, particularly in the production of de- signs of flowers, leaves, birds, etc., in which some portions of the figures are almost en- tirely cut under. MODELLING. The work of modelling the surface of carved figures is a detail re- quiring much skill and taste. According to many authorities it is desirable that the carver have clay models to work from, as by this means he is able to obtain a far more complete idea of the designs to be produced than would be possible from the best drawing or print, and, in many cases, from nature itself. The use of clay is recommended for the production of trial models, since it is far more readily worked than wood, and the carver can speedily judge of the effect of his design. This is, however, a mere detail, to be determined largely by the experience of the carver, or by the degree of skill he may possess. CLAMPING AND WORKING. In the work of carving, the wood should always be firmly clamped to the table, in order to prevent all slipping. When the carver is working upon an article composed of sep- arate parts such as boxes, and easels, and DESIGN FOR ROSKTTK WORK 270 WOOD CARVING several other articles of furniture it is necessary that each portion be carved and worked separately. This is necessary, both because the carver can obtain the requisite grip upon his material only by taking each piece separately, and, also, because, if the work was attempted on the completed ar- ticle, straining and breakage would prob- ably result. POLISHING. After the work of carving designs is completed, and the parts of the box, or other article of furniture, have been put together, the work may be pol- ished. This process is accomplished by thoroughly smoothing all surfaces with fine sandpaper, and then smoothing down the plain portions with pumice-stone and oil. When the perfect smoothness has been at- tained in this manner, a thorough coat DESIGN FOR CHIP CARVING of boiled linseed oil may be applied with a brush. After thoroughly drying in some place out of the reach of dust, another coat of boiled oil may be applied ; and this process may be repeated as many as three or four times, if desired. CARE OF TOOLS. An all-essential point in successful wood carving is to maintain the tools in good condition and perfectly sharp. Of course, it is necessary that they be of the best quality, and made of the finest steel, since in this art, more than in car- pentry, a poor chisel or gouge is a serious consideration. Carving tools are sharpened not alone on one side, as with a carpen- ter's chisels and gouges, but, after the edge has been thoroughly formed with a stone or wheel, the inside edge must also be ground on a small piece of oil stone called the "slip." These slips are mounted in wooden holders so that they may be in- serted in a vise and held fast while the edge of the tool is being ground. It is a com- paratively simple matter to grind carving tools properly when the matter is once thoroughly understood. It is always more convenient to follow the plan of doing one's own sharpening than to depend upon the convenience of carpenters or machinists. DESIGN FOB PANEL IN RAISED CARVWG VARIETIES OF WOOD. A skilful wood carver can, of course, work with almost any kind of wood, provided it be suffi- ciently close-grained to prevent tearing or splitting with the application of tools. The best woods for this purpose, however, are black walnut, oak, mahogany, and cherry; all of which are close-grained and not liable to mar the design by warping or splitting in sufficiently heavy work. PYROGRAPHY THE form of artistic work known as pyrography is, briefly, drawing outlines and shaded pictures on wood or leather with a red-hot needle, or, as in former times, with heated pokers of various sizes. By a little practice, any one proficient in pencil drawing can very soon learn to produce clean and handsome sketches by this process. Since, to all intents and purposes, it is merely drawing with a hot point, instead of with a black lead, it will be necessary to do no more than to touch briefly on several matters connected with the necessary apparatus and its operation. PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS THE NEEDLE. The first step in ren- dering pyrography a practicable art, at the present day, has been in substituting a hollow point of platinum for the heated pokers of former times. The platinum point is screwed into a metal tube sur- rounded by a cork handle, and connected, through a long pipe, with the stopper of a small bottle filled with gasoline. Open- ing into the gasoline bottle is another rub- ber tube, at the extremity of which is a double elastic bulb, for the purpose of forc- ing air through the gasoline, and thence through the first rubber tube to the plati- num needle. PREPARING FOR WORK. To heat the tube sufficiently to begin work, it is necessary only to begin forcing air through the gaso- line, with the result that the carburetted mixture is forced into the needle. This mixture, being highly inflammable, will ignite and maintain the tube at a high temperature by thrusting it into the flame of an alcohol lamp. When the desired degree of redness appears upon the point, it may be withdrawn from the alcohol flame, and is then ready for beginning work. The advantage of using platinum for the needle is that this metal more readily absorbs and retains the inflammable gas than any other. OPERATING. In working with the pyro- graphic needle, it is necessary only to con- stantly force air from the bottle of gaso- line, in order to maintain the required tem- perature. A little practice will very soon enable one to make clean-cut and even lines, provided only that the needle be kept constantly heated. GENERAL DIRECTIONS. There are really very few points that a person at all ac- quainted with pencil drawing will need to learn in mastering the art of pyrography, although there are several matters which must be carefully understood, on account of the difficulty of handling a peculiarly shaped drawing instrument, and of using fire as a means of marking. In the first place, the student must learn, by careful practice and observation, ex- actly what degree of heat is indicated by the color of the needle, and exactly how much pressure of the hand is required to make lines of the desired depth and heavi- ness on given kinds of wood. It is es- sential that he be careful about this mat- ter, since very many handsome designs (271) 272 PYROGRAPHY AN EFFECTIVE AND EASILY PRODUCED DESIGN FOR PYROGRAPHIC DRAWING are marred by an incorrect use of lines and shading. The temperature of the needle may be regulated by varying the amount of air forced through the gasoline, and the proper temperature for a given kind of wood, together with the pressure required in any case, may soon be found by careful experiment. In making curved lines one must always be careful to remember that he is using an instrument shaped somewhat like a pen, and that, in order to produce the effect desired, he must change the position of his hand gradually. If this rule is not carefully observed, the needle will burn a jagged and ugly line, where a clean and even one was desired. Another point of considerable importance is to avoid making deep points at the be- ginning and at the end of a straight line; this result is due to the fact that the hand, unless trained by careful practice, is liable to pause at the commencement and end of a stroke. A perfectly artistic line can best be made by bringing the needle lightly down upon the wooden surface, causing the line to be only a part of the sweep described by the wrist. It is necessary, however, that the strokes be made lightly, since the needle is fragile, and, when once broken, can not be readily repaired. In the production of really artistic ef- fects, such as landscapes, human faces, figures, animals, etc., considerable practice is necessary to enable the production of the required quality of lines at the various points. A heavy line in a portion of a picture that should be lightly shaded will mar the general effect very much more than a light line at a point to be heavily shaded. The ability to produce the proper strength and quality of lines can be ac- quired only by careful practice with vari- ous kinds of wood and with various tem- peratures of the needle. Beyond this the matter belongs more properly to drawing in general, and the effect is to be deter- mined solely by the skill of the artist. As regards the kind of wood to be used in this work, it may be said that the best quality is of close grain and medium soft. To use wood that is too soft involves the danger of making lines deep and heavy. With a very hard wood the irregularity of PYROGRAPHY 273 the lines is nearly the greatest source of trouble. However, with sufficient practice, very nearly any kind of wood from white pine to box-wood may be successfully used. The most usual quality of wood for this purpose is bass-wood, white-wood, and pine ; good effects have been produced with box-wood and others of close grain. If the artist will thoroughly understand the fact that good pyrographic work demands the use of clean and even lines of pencil drawing, or any other branch of art, he will experiment carefully to acquire the ability of producing them. In burning pictures and figures on leather new difficulties arise ; not only does this substance so vary at different points as to make the production of even lines very difficult, even with the greatest skill, but the ill-smelling smoke that results from burning it is both trying to the eyes and nauseating. The smoke produced by burning several qualities of wood is al- most as disagreeable, but the would-be pyrographist must accustom himself to such annoyances, or, by careful handling of his instrument and the habit of working rapidly, reduce them as far as possible. THE APPARATUS USED IN PYROGRAPHIC WORK RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC IN studying music it is quite as essential to learn the meaning and value of musical notes, signs, and terms, as it is to learn reading, in order to understand a language. Indeed, in every case, the knowledge of reading is necessary to a thorough understanding. Without the ability of reading properly, in either music or language, the student is deprived of the best source of instruction and the best corrective of errors, as well as shut out from most of the thoughts and achievements of his prede- cessors. THE PRINCIPLES OF MUSICAL NOTATION HTHE TONES OF THE SCALE. All * musical ideas are expressed by the seven tones of the natural scale, which are designated by the letters of the alphabet, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, or, by the syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si (or TV). On the pianoforte, or any other instrument, these tones follow each other in regular succession from A to G; each G being suc- ceeded by the A of another series higher, or more treble, in sound. When several successive notes are sounded in succession, we have a scale. The word, "scale," is de- rived, through the Italian, from the Latin scalaria, a "ladder," which, in turn, comes from the verb, scandere, "to climb"; thus indicating a regular progress by consecu- tive steps, either upward to the high, or treble, notes, or downward to the low, or bass, notes. The terms, "low" and "high," as applied to musical tones, are derived from the use of the human voice, in which the bass notes are apparently formed in the chest, according to the theories of some, while the treble notes vibrate in the highest cavity of the head. A complete scale beginning at C, for ex- ample, and running through all the inter- vening tones, either above or below, up or down, is called a gamut; and all the notes, (274) taken together from any one note to its similarly lettered counterpart, eight notes above or below it, form an octave, which is the Latin word for "eighth." THE ACCIDENTAL SEMITONES. In addition to the seven tones already mentioned, which are known to musicians as full tones or naturals, each octave contains five others, known as semitones (half tones) or acci- dentals. These are the sounds represented by the black keys on the piano or organ, and are designated in musical writing as the "sharps" (*) or "flats" (b) of the notes, either immediately below or imme- diately above each of them. Thus the black note on the piano, immediately fol- lowing C and preceding D, may be indi- cated in written music either as C$ or Db. The semitones, occurring as they do in the musical octave, naturally vary the in- tervals, distances, or sound-values between several notes in each series. Thus, while the intervals between F and G, G and A, A and B, C and D, D and E, are all whole tones, since a semitone occurs between each two of them, the interval between B and C, and between E and F, is only a semitone because no other sound intervenes, each following the other directly on the piano keyboard. The distance between any two RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC 275 tones in the scale is called an interval, and, because there are eight natural tones in a complete octave, it follows that there are seven intervals, or thirteen "half steps." There are, also, two kinds of scale, the diatonic and the chromatic. The former contains only eight tones, sounded as ex- plained later; the second advances by a succession of semitones precisely as they occur. THE TIME ELEMENT. In producing mu- sic, it is necessary to have, not only differ- ent tones, but also variations of time; for, as may be readily understood, if every tone were sounded for exactly the same length of time, the effect of the music would be very unsatisfactory, and its power of ex- pression extremely limited. CLASSES OF NOTES. There are, therefore, seven different classes of notes used in writing music, and any of them may be used for any tone in the scale. They be- gin with the whole note, or semibreve, which is sounded in the violin, mandolin, and guitar, and on the wind instruments, same with three hooks; and the sixty- fourth, the same with four hooks. When several quavers, or other hooked notes of the same class, follow in succession, the hooks are extended into bars, which connect all the notes in each series. Thus, a series of quavers has one bar; a series of sixteenth notes, two bars; a series of thirty-second notes, three bars, etc. Fre- quently, we find eighth and sixteenth notes, or sixteenth notes and thirty-second notes, in a series, extra bars being added to re- duce the time of the smaller notes in any case desired. THE STAFF. In order to combine the notes of any required time-value with the proper tones, in writing a musical composi- tion, the notes are written upon what is known as the staff or stave. This consists of five horizontal parallel lines with four equal spaces between them. The lines are designated as first, second, third, etc., from the bottom; the spaces, as first, second, third, etc., also from the bottom. A note may be either on a line, when the line THE NOTES AND CORRESPONDING RESTS Whole Note. Half. Quarter. Eighth. i6th. szn 6 4 th. f 2 f f n ij ~ 5 | D y a B Whole Rest. Half. Quarter. Eighth. i6th. V 32nd. M 6 4 th. f--* =1 9 -I =1 ,__g .. ._ NOTES. RESTS. for the full time represented this is gen- erally the period occupied while one counts "four," at the ordinary conversational rate of utterance and, on the piano and organ, he key is held down during the same period. The remaining six notes are frac- tional parts of the semibreve, and are desig- nated as the half note, or minim, two of which are equal to one whole note, in point of time occupied in sounding; the quarter note or crotchet; the eighth note or quaver; the sixteenth note or semiquaver; the thirty-second note or demisemiquaver ; and the sixty-fourth note or hemidemisemi- quaver. The semibreve is indicated by an oval figure, somewhat like the letter O tipped to one side; the minim is the same figure with a stem at one end extending either up or down; the crotchet is a black note with a similar stem; the quaver is a black note with a stem carrying a hook at its further end; the semiquaver is the same with two hooks; the demisemiquaver is the passes through it, or on a space, when it is between two lines. As written, the staff gives opportunity for indicating eleven full tones, counting one note written below the first line, and an- other written above the fifth line. Since, however, this number of notes represents LINES. SPACES. m a very small fraction of the tones actually available in any instrument, it is necessary to resort to several additional devices, in order to enable the musician to find the tone indicated by any given note with least possible trouble. The first, and most important, device of this description is to divide musical nota- tion into two clefs, called, respectively, the bass and the treble clefs. As written for all modern instruments, the treble clef has 276 RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC the tone, represented by the G above middle C on the piano keyboard, on the second line, and the bass clef the tone corresponding to the pitch of F below middle C on its fourth line. LEGER LINES. The second device for simplifying musical notation consists in the use of leger lines, which are, briefly, merely extra lines either above or below the staff, for writing notes outside of the limited range of the staff tones in either clef. Thns, there may be any number of lines or spaces, above or below the staff, but each note, whether on a line or on a space, must have sufficient number of lines between it and the staff, to indicate the precise rela- tive position of its tone. In order to un- derstand the system, involved in separat- ing the clefs and using leger lines, we may point out that the tone, represented by mid- dle C on the piano, is written on the first leger line above the bass staff, and on the first leger line below the treble staff. Thus, the C below middle C is written on the second space of the bass staff, and the C above, on the third space of the treble staff. The leger lines are designated as the first, second, third, etc., lines above, or first, second, third, etc., lines below the staff. The first note above the staff is said to be on the first space above, and the first note below the staff, on the first space below. THE OTTAVA. The third device for sim- plifying musical notation is to use the ot- tava, which, written above the staff, thus, 8va. with a series of dots, or a waved line, following, indicates that the notes written on the staff are to be played an octave higher. Accordingly, the octave is raised, so long as the dotted line extends over the staff. The dotted line following the sign for the ottava sometimes ends with the word loco, which indicates that the music is to be played thereafter as written. If the sign, 8va., is followed by the word, bassa, the notes are to be played an octave lower than written. Sometimes, particu- larly where the last sign has been used, the word, alta, is used to indicate that the notes are to be played an octave higher. When the tones, to be indicated by notes, are either so far below the treble staff, or so far above the bass as to render difficult the use of leger lines, ottavas, etc., the op- posite clef sign is written on the staff, and the tones indicated accordingly. On re- turning again to the staff compass, the proper clef sign is written again, and the notation changes accordingly. THE CLEFS. As it is necessary to indi- cate the clef in which a given bar of music is written, the treble is indicated by a sign resembling the figure &, which is said to Treble or G clef. Bass or F clef. represent the old Gothic G, and the bass clef, by a mark resembling the letter C, which is said to represent the Gothic sign for F. THE BRACE. When two staves of music are intended to be played simultaneously, they are connected by a brace. Thus, two treble staves may be connected, when the music indicates a duet for two violins, a flute and violin, or any two other instru- ments having their music in this clef, or for a human voice with an instrumental y- accompaniment. Music for the piano or organ is written with a treble and a bass staff joined by a brace, and when music for the human voice, or some treble instrument, is to be played at the same time, an extra staff is written above the F clef, and con- nected to the end of the staff above the brace. THE RESTS. We have learned thus far that true music requires, not only varia- tion in tones, which is supplied by the musi- cal scale, but, also, variation in time, which is supplied by the notes of different lengths, and combinations of the same. In order, however, to fulfil all the requirements of modern music, it is necessary that the ef- fect of tone and time be heightened by measured intervals of silence. This re- quirement is supplied by the marks of no- tation known as rests. Moreover, these rests- must be of varying length, exactly like the notes. The accompanying diagram il- lustrates the seven kinds of rests, with the RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC 277 notes to which they correspond in length. The whole rest, as shown, is always writ- ten below the fourth line of the staff; the half rest, above the third line; the quarter rest has two forms, the most common being a short line with a hook turned to the right; the eighth rest resembles the first form of the quarter rest, except for the fact that the hook is turned toward the left ; the sixteenth rest has two hooks like the sixteenth note; the thirty-second rest, three whole note, plus one minim, plus one crotchet. A minim followed by two dots has the value of a half note, plus one crotchet, plus one quaver. Rests, also, may be extended in time by dots written after them, in precisely the same manner as the notes. OF THE MEASURE. The last, but perhaps the most important, element in musical no- tation is that of measure, which, properly speaking, supplies the metrical rhythm to RESTS IN ONE OR MORE MEASURES 268 8 20 N^= =^= Mp ~Bg^~|= = ngii^ = = ^=1 hooks like the thirty-second note, and the sixty-fourth rest, four hooks like the sixty- fourth note. Rests are never connected by a tie, but follow one another in succession, until the required period of silence is completely in- dicated. When more than one bar rest is required, it is indicated, as shown on the accompanying staff, the notation varying according to the number of bars to be rested. More frequently, however, the rest for one bar is indicated by the somewhat elongated whole rest with some figure above it; for indictaing the rest for more than one bar slanting parallel lines are used. DOTTED NOTES. Similar in character to the rests are the dots, which frequently follow the notes. Instead of indicating an interval of silence, these dots require that the notes preceding them be increased in time. Thus, one dot following a note in- a musical composition. We may have a series of notes of known time-values, writ- ten upon a staff, so as to indicate certain tones. But, unless the composition be prop- erly punctuated, or divided into distinct sections, like the words or phrases of writ- ten language, it is entirely unintelligible. Accordingly, each staff in a musical com- Bar. Bar. Bar. Measure. Measure. position is divided into a series of sections, commonly known as bars or measures; each of which is equal in time-value with every other in the same piece. Such a division is indicated by a line drawn perpendicular to the lines of the staff, and, with braced staves, directly through both clefs. The conclusion of a Dotted Notes. DOTTED NOTES AND RESTS /? . (^ T-. --; Sri ^ . ^ . 1 ^ ^ f-^- p . ~fT- equal to. gy r? i mm* 1 3 ~* ^ g 1* P ^ Rests. =t= ^ *L* 1 n >-h h h- & u 4^- "T" volves that the time of the note is increased one-half. A whole note followed by one dot is to be sounded to the value of three minims, etc. Where two dots follow a note the time of that note is to be in- creased three-quarters. Thus, a whole note followed by two dots has the value of a composition of music, or of a principal part, is indicated by two thick lines drawn across the staff. When these lines have two dots to the left that part of the music which precedes them is to be repeated. When the dots are both to the right and left of the bars, the measures both preced- 278 RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC ing and following them must be repeated. This is called a double repeat. REPEAT SIGNS. While treating of the mu- sical measures in general we may turn our attention to the subject of repeat signs. The methods of indicating that a measure or a succession of measures must be re- peated are various. In addition to the re- peating dots before heavy bars, as already mentioned, we frequently find the letters, D. C. (de capo), written over a double bar. This signifies that the opening strains of the piece must be again played before concluding. In other pieces the final bars have horizontal lines ruled above them with the figures I and 2, indicating that the piece is to be played down to the measure written between the bars of each measure must have the same value, as counted by the student in practicing, or must occupy precisely the same amount of time in play- ing as the notes contained in every other measure in that particular piece. On the other hand, different compositions vary in time, and, consequently, also, in value of each separate measure. The accompanying figure illustrates the value of almost all the common measures. These are indicated by numbers written after the signature at the beginning of the first staff. Thus, the common or 4-4 meas- ure indicates that the value of a whole note is to be counted in each bar. This may be one whole note, two minims, or four EXAMPLES OF REPETITION marked i ; then repeated, so as to end with the measure marked 2, omitting i. The sign of repeat, or return, shaped liked a crossed S with dots on either side indi- cates that, beginning with the measure over which it is written, the music must be re- peated a second time to the point where it is found again, or where the word, "fine," occurs, or any sign designating the conclu- sion of the piece. The word, bis, placed over one or more bars of music, or placed at the beginning of a series of bars, and followed by a wavy line, indicates that these measures are to be played twice; the word, bis, being the Latin for "twice." TIME VALUES OF MEASURES. As already stated, the measures or bars on the musi- cal staff indicate so many divisions equal in respect to time. That is to say, the notes crotchets, the last being the most usual. In order, therefore, to learn the correct time for playing a piece written in this measure the student should count "four" between each pair of bars; making the counting as even as possible, or using a metronome to secure positive accuracy. In the same fashion, the 2-4 measure indi- cates the value of one minim or two crotch- ets, each measure being counted thus, i, 2; the 3-4 measure is equivalent to a dotted minim or three crotchets, and may be meas- ured by counting thus, I, 2, 3. The values of the other measures are given in the diagram. In every case the upper figures indicate the number of notes to be used in regularly measured bars, and the lower figure the kind of notes to be so used, usu- ally either fourth or eighth notes. INDICATIONS AND TIME-VALUES OF MEASURES Common time. Two four. Three four. Three eighth. Six eighth. Nine eighth. Twelve eighth. H"^" 4 2 ESE * _g 9 t^ The value is a whole note. -A Half note. -4 A % note dotted. &=r=F- A H # note dotted. F-r S a measures of }. P ^*TF 3 measures of ^. 4 measures of J^. -t-'P' f f-' T 1.1.1,1 1 1 1 TT RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC 279 COUNTING TIME. In attempting to play a given piece of music the first thing that is essential to the beginner is that he care- fully consider at all times the precise value of the notes used. This is the reason that in practicing a piece he counts each meas- ure as above indicated. He must always TIME OF VARIOUS MEASURES Count. 1334, 1334, 1234. 1234. m Count. 1 i 2. -H Count. 123, 123, 12 3, 123. Count. 123, 123, 23 123. remember that a minim is equal to two crotchets, and must count i, -2, for it, where the crotchets count I. It will always be the best plan for the beginner in music to count the measures aloud, as he is prac- ticing them. While, of course, it is of prime importance that he learn to read the music correctly, striking the tones pre- cisely as they are indicated on the staff, it is undesirable to begin either too fast or too slow, since, in either case, he will lose the sense of proper proportion. If he be- gin too slow, he will confirm himself in the habit known as "dragging" or "hanging back" : if he begins too fast, he will run the risk of stumbling and slurring, where he should give distinct and studied expres- sion. A good rule given by music teachers is as follows: "Never begin a piece at a rate more rapid than you can readily con- tinue to the end." MUSICAL ACCENT. After the student has thoroughly mastered the measures of mu- sic, so as to be able to play any indicated time correctly and evenly, he is ready to take up the last element of music accent. This matter holds -precisely the same rela- tion to properly played music that accent and stress hold in properly spoken lan- guage. Just as we notice that a person, speaking with a certain rapidity, will give approximately the same time value to the vowels and syllables of equal length, which, if arranged in the regular order, called "rhythm," would give true poetry, so, in music, the division into bars or measures indicates the time-values, while the proper accent supplies the other element of mu- sical rhythm. Although accent is not regu- larly indicated in musical compositions, the proper sign is an arrowhead pointing to- ward the right. This is not used in ordi- nary notation, since the rules of accent are definitely established for the various kinds of measure. Thus, the rule is that, for common time 2-4, 6-8, and all other even numbers, each measure is accented both at the beginning and at the middle. A 3-4, 3-8, or other odd-numbered measure, is ACCENTS OF EVEN MEASURES ACCENTS OF ODD MEASURES accented upon the first note only of the measure. These rules are indicated in the accompanying figures. In order to facili- tate the correct phrasing of a piece in a measure indicated by odd numbers, such as 3-4, 3-8, also 6-8, the notes taking bars 280 RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC across the stems are combined in groups of three each. However, in time indicated by even numbers, notes requiring bars are combined in groups of even numbers. IRREGULAR ACCENT. While, as we have already learned, accent is not indicated when it follows regular rules, it is neces- sary, for the proper effect of the piece, to introduce irregular accents at points in the measure other than those on which the ^tress properly falls. The most important irregular accents in common use are those EMPHASIS ES^feE 1 fz SYNCOPATION ft Count. known as emphasis and syncopation. These are distinguished principally in the fact that emphasis indicates merely that a particular stress is to be thrown upon an unaccented part of the measure; while, syncopation in- volves that the weaker part of a measure is to be given greater importance than that regularly taking the accent, and, hence, called the "stronger" part of the measure. Both of these irregular accents may be in- dicated by the characters, fs, rf, meaning respectively, the Italian words, forsando, "forcibly," and rinforzando "very forcibly," or "with additional force." They are also indicated by arrowheads and carets. ON SYNCOPATIONS. The syncopation is an accent often very difficult to render cor- easier than is possible in very many pieces. In order to learn it correctly, the student had best count each measure thus, "one and, two and," playing the second note on saying "and"; holding it down until he has said "two," and releasing it only when he emphasizes the second "and," and plays the remaining notes of the measure. Another variety of syncopation, very commonly met, occurs when, in one clef or part, the notes are regular in their rhythmi- cal position, and, in the other clef or part, commence at the middle of each note in the first clef or part, being prolonged to the middle of the next This variety of syn- copation' does not always interfere with the regular accent belonging to the measure. In the annexed example, taken from a piano score, we will see that the eighth note, which begins the first measure in the bass clef, is simultaneous through one-half its time with a sixteenth rest in the treble. The eighth note beginning the first meas- ure of the treble, therefore, begins 1-16 from the start, involving that the last note of the bar be a sixteenth note, in order to complete the time. THE TIE. This example shows the tie, which often occurs in simple pieces, and indicates briefly that the notes joined by it, if representing the same tone, are to be played, not separately as written, but by one note held down for the full period in- dicated. If, for example, we have a piece written in 6-8 time, in which three six- teenth notes, representing the same tone, are joined in a series of four, with a bar across their stems, the tie, written under- neath them, means simply that the tone indicated is to be held down, while three of the sixteenth notes are counted. The reason for writing such notes in this man- SYNCOPATED PASSAGE AND TIE i, -F J 1 ^3 /I^P 2 " g 9 1 33 *ch >\ i 3 = 3 * * . -f=^= 9- f x - \|w ..^ i , -H i 1 1 rectly, as it is extremely probable that the wrong time will be given to the measure in which it occurs. In the above example of 2-4 time, the accented note in the three measures is a crotchet. This makes the proper rendering of the accent somewhat nef, different from that in which they are played, is to maintain the unity of the time indicated in the signature. With the piano or organ, such a tone is held down for the required period, but with the violin or mandolin it must be constantly sounded. 281 THE SLUR, GROUPS OF NOTES. A mark similar to the tie, thus given, is used to in- dicate several other musical variations. As shown in the accompanying diagrams, we have the arc-shaped line, known as a slur, to indicate groups of notes. In indicating the groups known as triplets, the slur is drawn over three notes with a figure 3 be- neath occasionally, also, the figure 3 alone is used. With notes written, as in the ex- ample, with the signature giving 2-4 time, vided as if they were in 9-8 time, the accent falling on the rest, G and A, and not on C. In accenting the C above middle C, the groups here shown would become simply double triplets, and not sextolets. Such a measure as this must always be accented as evenly as possible, without violating the given time. Other similar combinations of slurred notes are indicated in the accompanying diagram; the first indicating seven to be SEXTOLETS AND TRIPLETS t ? - 4 4 fi: =^=^=--f^ E 4 4 *- 1/a.-^ p p p KY\A _/ J J f Efa m m m | 1 f&20 1 i ^^"^ 4 9 m we would count "two" for the measure, playing the triplets, or three slurred notes, in even time with the three quarter notes in the bass. A precisely similar notation is used to indicate sextolets, a figure 6 inside the slur, indicating, as in this example, that six notes are to be played in the time of four. In both cases the slurred notes are to be played smoothly and in unbroken se- quence. If these sextolets are to be played di- vided, as in the next figure, we must always divide them two and two, never three and three: this rule is invariable. In the fol- lowing example the groups should be di- played in the time of four; the second, ten to be played in the time of eight, etc. LEGATO PASSAGES. The slur placed over, or under, any combination of notes on dif- ferent lines and spaces signifies that they must be performed smoothly and connect- edly, as in the groups already noticed. This notation is known as legato, signify- ing "bound or united." STACCATO PASSAGES. The opposite of legato is the movement known as stac- cato, signifying "marked and distinct," and represented by a dot placed immediately above or below the head of a note. The effect is that each tone is to be played, EXAMPLES OF SEXTOLETS Count. 1 282 RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC LIGATURED GROUPS OF NOTES ILLUSTRATION OF LEGATO EXAMPLE OF WRITING AND PERFORMING STACCATO Written thus : Played thus : m DOUBLE STACCATO, AS WRITTEN AND PLAYED Written thus : Played thus : 4 F^S ^^iE* FP^Ff as if entirely detached from others, so that there is a marked interval between each sound, which amounts virtually to a rest. Thus, if three crotchets in a measure are marked staccato, they are to be played like three quavers, each followed by a quaver rest. When the note is marked with a small point, instead of a dot, it indicates that the playing is to be particularly short and dis- tinct. Thus, a measure containing three pointed crotchets is to be played as three semiquavers of the same tones, each fol- lowed by a semiquaver rest and a quaver rest, in order to fill out the time of the measure. The signs of legato and staccato are fre- quently combined in music written for the violin, and indicate that the tones are to DEMI-LEGATO NOTES -PS be detached by so many distinct movements of the bow in one direction, be it either up or down. Since these dots and slurs are of almost constant occurrence, they rank among the most important things that the student must thoroughly master at the be- ginning of his studies. ABBREVIATIONS IN WRITING Music. In order to simplify the writing of music, a number of abbreviations are commonly used, particularly where successions of sim- ilar notes are required. These occur fre- quently in scores for various instruments, and must be thoroughly understood, al- though not more than a passing mention WHOLE NOTE IN EIGHTHS is necessary to describe them. For ex- ample, when a whole note occurs in a measure, with a single diagonal dash above it, the meaning is that it is to be played as eight eighth notes, as in the example. A double dash over a whole note indicates, similarly, that it is to be played as sixteen sixteenth notes. The same rules apply to all other notes, as shown in the following examples. RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC 283 INDICATIONS OF REPEATED NOTES When a series of similar notes, as a scale or trill, is to be repeated a certain number of times the repetition is indicated by di- agonal dashes, shown in the accompanying figures. This sign is used very largely in writing music for the violin and mandolin, and is repeated as many times as the writ- the marked tone, very quickly and in rapid succession. When this mark is on one of two notes with their stems connected with a bar, the trill is to be played by sounding the tone marked, the tone above it, the tone marked again; then the second of the two written tones, as in the example. The first REPETITIONS OF DEFINITE MOVEMENTS ten scale or trill is to be repeated; thus greatly simplifying the notation. In every case, however, the rule requires that the tones, repeated by this sign, should always have precisely the same value as the notes written down. SHAKES AND TRILLS. Another familiar abbreviation used in instrumental music is shake is known as the plain shake, the sec- ond as the passing shake. The so-calied turned shake, or trill, is in- dicated and played as in the following ex- ample; always beginning as the plain shake, with the tone above that written and end- ing with the tone written, so as to join to the other notes in a measure. Shakes and PLAIN SHAKE Written. Played. -jr 1 D =F- ^ r~ 1 ! , 1 r^-T r r i , , 9 LL i ' i i " PASSING SHAKE Written. / /= Played, the shake or trill, which, placed over a note, indicates that it is to be played as a suc- cession of notes to its full time-value. When the sharp waved line is written over a note, as shown in the accompanying fig- ure, it is played as a trill of two notes ; the tone above being sounded first, and then trills are among the principal embellish- ments used in the music for stringed in- struments. They should be carefully played in time, and not used so frequently as to involve loss of their effect THE ARPEGGIO. The familiar abbrevia- tion known as arpeggio is a chord preceded 284 RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC y EXAMPLES OF TRILL tr TtL^ w 1 1 1 1 i . r i 1 jx u 1 1/iftV <^ 1 _ii j *fff 5^ IMCJ. f 1 J i I i i 1 i * r Written. Played. THE TREMANDO Tremando. i=^3 i j i-j-i^y Written. EXAMPLES OF THE GRUPETTO OR TURN Plain Turn. Inverted Turn. Turn after a Dot. c\5 2. RUDIMENT? OF MUSIC 285 by a waved line, as in the accompanying example from the piano score. As indi- cated, it is to be played by striking the low- est tone first; then, that tone with the one next above; then three tones together, etc., until the entire chord has been played pro- gressively. Each chord thus struck must be played very quickly, and, when the se- quence is played, the full chord must be held down until the value of a whole note has been counted. Another form of arpeg- gio is shown in the accompanying example, in which the repetition of a trill is indi- cated by the tones composing it, written as a chord ; their common stem being crossed by bars. THE TURN. The last form of abbrevia- tions that requires notice is that known as the turn, which is indicated by a figure re- sembling a reversed S; either laid on its side, to give the plain turn, or standing upright, to give the inverted turn. The dif- ference between the two is simple and read- ily explained, since, for all the various com- binations, as shown in the accompanying examples, but one sequence of tones is rec- ognized for each variety. When the note is marked with a plain turn the sequence is played thus : A series of three notes of 1-4 value of the note written, formed by the tone above that written, the tone writ- ten, the tone below, and, second, the tone written with the note with one-half of the value given. With the inverted turn the sequence is simply reversed; consisting in playing the tone below, the tone written, the tone above, and ending with the tone written at one-half time. When a turn is turn is sometimes written with grace notes giving proper combinations with the writ- ten tone at full size, but the sequence is always played with the proportional time indicated in the accompanying figures. The final forms of embellishments used in musical notation is that known as the grace note or appoggiatura. This is usu- ally a small note reversed and added to the regular notes in the bar for the purpose of giving expression to the piece or relieving the effect of too great uniformity. Very frequently the grace note is in value about one-half of the note it precedes; although this matter is determined largely by the use it is intended to serve, and the kind of piece in which it is written. In general, there are two varieties of grace notes: the greater and the lesser. The effect of the former is fo reduce the time of the note which it precedes. The lesser appoggiatura is written as a small no^e of one-half value, before any of regu- lar size. Thus, a quaver before a crotchet indicates two quavers. As a general rule, when the grace note is to be played with particular rapidity instead of varying the performance from the written score it carries a small cross on its stem. The double appoggiatura, so called, con- sists of two notes connected by bars writ- ten before the regular notes of a measure, and to be played in a light and collected manner. It may be understood that the effect produced is similar to that given by the turn, as shown in the accompanying diagram. The turn is frequently indicated EXAMPLES OF APPOGGIATURA OR GRACE-NOTE JU. placed over a note joined by bars to the stem with other notes, the succession indi- cated is to be played by four notes of one- quarter the value of that written. A turn written with a sharp sign involves that the tone below that written shall be sharped, when sounded. A turn written with a Hat sign indicates that the tone above that writ- ten rhall be Hatted, wher sounded The by three small or grace notes, placed in regular order before and after the regular notes. This arrangement is occasionally known as choice notes, and always indi- cates that the combination is to be played as indicated in the diagram. THE SIGNS OF TONE MODIFICATION. In beginning the study of the musical scale it is desirable to fully understand the various 19 286 RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC characters used in writing music. These are the signs for the sharp ($), the flat (b), the double sharp (X), the double flat Cob), and the natural (t|). They may be written in the signature at the beginning of a staff, or before any single note at any place on the staff. The effect of placing a sharp sign before any note on the staff indicates that it is to be raised a semitone. Thus, this sign before C, D, F, G, or A indicates that a black note on the piano or organ is to be sounded, but, if written before E, it indicates that F is to be sounded, and, if before B, that C is to be sounded. Sim- ilarly the flat sign before any note on the staff indicates that it is to be lowered a semitone. Thus, before D, E, G, A, and B, it indicates a black note on the piano or organ ; but before F it indicates E, and, be- fore C, it indicates B. The signs for double sharp and double flat are less often met. The first, however, raises the note a whole tone; the second lowers it a whole tone. Thus, a double sharp sign before C, D, F, G, A indicates, respectively, D, E, G, A, B; before B it indicates C8, and be- fore D it indicates F*. The double flat sign similarly lowers the note a whole tone. Placed before C, it gives Bb ; before F, it gives Eb. The natural sign contradicts a flat or sharp indicated in the signature, call- ing for the natural tone. It also restores the single flat or sharp after the double sign in either case. Whenever a sharp is placed before the last note of a space or measure, the same note is to be played sharped in the following measure, unless on its next occurrence it is preceded by the natural sign. THE MAJOR SCALE. The major scale is composed of five whole tones and two semi- tones; every major scale being constructed on precisely this principle. The two semi- tones occur between the third and fourth, and between the seventh and eighth de- grees of the scale, either in ascending or descending; the degrees being counted from the lowest tone upward. The scale of C is called the model or natural scale, be- cause all of its tones are whole tones and naturals; being produced entirely by the white keys on the piano or organ. As shown in the accompanying diagram, the semitones occur between E and F, and be- tween B and C, o- between three and four, and seven and eight, as already indicated. The different tones, or degrees, of the scale are regularly named, as follows: the first is called one, or the tonic ; the second, two, or supcrtonic; the third, three, or mediant; the fourth, four, or subdominant; the fifth, five, or dominant; the sixth, six, or sub- mediant; the seventh, seven, or leading note; the eighth, eight, or octave. As may be seen, there are but seven tones in the ' ' 1 Z? ' t?d _*/ &- -^- *? 2 3 45878. CD EFGABC. major scale, the eighth being the same as the first, except that it is an octave higher in ascending, or an octave lower in de- scending. The major scale may be formed with any other tone, natural or accidental, as its first and eighth, but it must invariably have the semitones between the third and fourth and the seventh and eighth degrees, which in- volves that certain notes must be sharped, in order to produce the correct effect of the regular sequence of sound. Thus, the scale of G, shown in the accompanying diagram, has the second semitone between six and seven, or between E and F, when composed only of natural tones. Therefore, in order to make the sequence of tones correct, the seventh degree, or F, must be sharped. This simple principle enables the transpo- sition of the scale without trouble to the trained musician, when transposition be- comes necessary, as, for example, when ac- companying the piano on the cornet. Re- membering that all ascending intervals must be between whole tones, except those be- tween the third and fourth, and the seventh ^ ** \ r(B & a> 1 rap zi . . . . . . 12 34567 G A B C D E Ff 8 G. and eighth degrees, enables the ready con- struction of a major scale in any key. THE SEQUENCE OF MAJOR SCALES. The easiest clew to the formation of the various major scales, beginning with C, is to form each succeeding scale a fifth higher or a fourth lower; or, more correctly speaking, on the seventh semitone after the tonic of the previous scale, counting upward, or, on the fifth semitone after that same tone, RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC 287 THE MAJOR SCALES AND SIGNATURES Key of C. -&- Key of G. g Key of D. (52- -&; txo d- 1 Key of A. gg Key of E. Key of B. Key of F$. KeyofCtf. Key of F. Key of Eft. Key of Aft. ia: Key of Cfe. 288 RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC counting downward. Thus, we have the regular succession of major scales from C as follows: G, D, A, E, B, Fit, Cl The scale of G has one sharp, F; D has two, F and C; A, three, F, C, G; E, four, F, C, G, D; B, five, F, C, G, D, A. Similarly the scale of F flat has six sharps, F, C, G, D, A, E; and the scale of C flat seven, F, C, G, D, A, E, B. In each successive key the last sharp sign at the signature always corresponds to the seventh degree of the scale in that key, as may be readily under- stood on examining the annexed scales. These scales are shown as played and with their proper signatures in the accompany- ing diagrams. FORMATION OF SIGNATURES. The matter of scales is exceedingly important to the correct writing and playing of music, since any composition written in a given key, like a scale beginning with any one tone in this list, is invariably played with the notes belonging to that scale only, and introduces variations from these, as embellishments, for the sake of harmony and other effects. Thus, a piece with a clean signature is said to be written in the key of C ; one with F sharped, in the key of G ; one with F and C sharped, in the key of D ; one with F, C, and G sharped, in the key of A, etc., ac- cording to the scheme of the major scales and their proper signatures given in the accompanying diagrams. In view of what has just been said, the student must carefully notice that the first sharp at the signature is placed on F, the second on C, the third on G, the fourth on D, the fifth on A, the sixth on E, the seventh on B. Furthermore, CJf never oc- curs at the signature without the F#; Gtf never occurs without F# and C$ preceding it; DJ never occurs without the F$, Of, and GJf preceding it, etc., throughout the entire list. MAJOR SCALES WITH FLATS. The major scales may be written with Hats, as well as with sharps, as shown in the accompanying diagrams. The rule, in forming the proper sequence from C, is to make each succes- sive scale on the tone, either three and a half tones above or four and one-half tones below ; which is to say, on the fifth semi- tone after the previous tonic, counting up- ward, or, on the seventh semitone after it, counting downward. This rule gives the following: C, F, Bb, Eb, Ab, Db, Gb, Cb (or B). The signatures of the other keys and scales show the first "flat on B, the sec- ond on E, the third on A, the fourth on D, the fifth on G, the sixth on C, the seventh on F. As with the sharps, this sequence of flats at the signatures is always invari- able; no one fiat occurring without those regularly preceding it in the above-named sequence. Furthermore, the last fiat sign at the signature of any given key always corresponds to the fourth degree of its scale. The sharps are added by ascending fifths, the fiats, by ascending fourths. THE MINOR SCALE. The major scale on every key has a relative minor scale having the same signature. The minor scale is constructed like the major scale, except that, in ascending, the semitones always oc- cur between the second and third, and be- tween the seventh and eighth degrees; while, in descending, they are always found be- tween the fifth and sixth, and second and third degrees, counting from the lowest note. The relative major and minor scales have the same signatures. The character- istic difference between the two is in the nature of the interval from the first to the third note of the scale. When that interval forms two whole tones which is to say, a "major third" the scale, or mode, is major. Thus, the scale of C major has the first three degrees, C, D, E, constituting an interval of two whole tones after the tonic. If, however, the interval consists only of a tone and a semitone which is to say, a "minor-third" the scale or mode is minor. Thus, the minor scale beginning with C it is the relative minor of Eb major, signature three flats has the first three notes, C D, Eb, constituting an inter- val of one tone and a semitone after the first. The difference between the major and minor modes on any tonic is well il- lustrated by the respective major and minor chords. Thus, CEG is major, while CEbG is minor. DERIVING RELATIVE MINOR KEYS. In or- der to find the relative minor of any given major key or tonic which is to say, the scale having the same signature, save for the accidental semitones between the seventh and eighth degrees, in ascending the rule is to take the note three semitones below the tonic of the major scale, as the first degree of the minor scale. The ascending scales may then be formed by" observing the rules regarding the positions of the semi- tones, as already given. VARIETIES OF MINOR SCALE. On the basis of several variations, in both ascending and descending, three varieties of minor scale are recognized by musicians: the harmonic, the melodic, and the combined. The harmonic minor scale raises its RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC 289 DIATONIC MAJOR SCALE OF C. ASCENDING. DESCENDING. CDEFGABC. CBAGFEDC. -tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone. semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone.^- one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight. eight, seven, six, five, four, three, two, one. MELODIC MINOR SCALE OF A. HARMONIC MINOR SCALE OF A. p ffg; , &$: - COMBINED MINOR SCALE OF A. J= seventh degree one semitone,- in both as- cending and descending. The melodic minor scale raises its sixth and seventh degrees each one semitone in ascending, and restores them both in de- scending. Thus, the melodic minor scale of A, which is the relative of C major, and is written with the same signature, has the sixth (F) and seventh (G) degrees sharped in ascending, but has both natural in de- scending. In this manner, although there is a whole tone between the seventh and eighth in descending, the semitone is pre- served between the sixth and seventh, ac- cording to the rule already given. The combined minor scale is like the melodic form in ascending having both its sixth and seventh degrees raised one semi- tone. It is, however, like the harmonic form in descending having the sixth de- gree one semitone above the fifth, or re- storing it, as in the melodic scale. The seventh degree, however, is always one semitone lower than the eighth. *It thus preserves the semitone between the fifth and sixth. These rules are applicable in all minor scales. Therefore, in writing a musical composition in the key of D, with two sharps, the relative minor B may be intro- duced, as desired, by using the minor semi- tones, as in the following examples. By using the sharp signs before the notes in the last measure, the key of D is still maintained. This key, as we have already seen, involves that the scale should be D, E, Fft, G, A, B, Ctf ; with the relative minor as B, Of, D, E, F$, G*, AS, B; which, in descending, again gives B, Aft, G, Ftf, E, D, Ctf, B. These rules apply in all minor scales. THE CHROMATIC SCALE. The so-called chromatic scale is formed by twelve con- secutive semitones upon any degree of the major or minor. In other words, it is formed by adding to the seven principal tones of the major or minor scales the re- maining five semitones. The construction of the chromatic scale of C is indicated in the accompanying diagrams; the notes hav- ing the sharps, or signs of elevation in as- cending, and the flats, or signs of depres- sion, in descending. CHORDS. In closing this brief review of the rudiments of music, it seems desirable to add a few words regarding the forma- KEY OF D, WITH RELATIVE B MINOR m 290 RUDIMENTS OF MUSIC tion of chords; since this will be a matter of considerable importance in later stages of study. The formation of chords de- pends immediately upon the construction of the scale. Thus, in any given key or scale, it is found that certain combinations of notes form a pleasing and harmonious ef- fect, fitting into the melody of the piece, without introducing any suggestions of an- val correspond to the descriptions already given, the major being a semitone larger than the minor, and the minor being a semi- tone smaller than the major. In order to avoid confusion in terminology, the term perfect is substituted for major on three intervals or degrees of the scale, the fourth, fifth, and eighth. These perfect intervals correspond to the major scale, in which CHROMATIC SCALE. j lii. w ^ AAJB C B BbAAbGGbF E Eb D Bfr C other key. Certain other chords, while not actually displeasing, are less suitable for musical purposes, and are seldom, if ever, used. The construction of chords proceeds on intervals of the scale; each chord being named according to the degree of the scale, upon which it is constructed. An interval has already been defined as the distance be- tween two natural tones, or between two whole tones, on all but two degrees of the scale. Thus, the distance from one white key to another on the piano keyboard is an interval. INTERVALS. In discussing the subject at the present time, we may define an interval as the "distance between two degrees of a scale," reckoning from the lower or higher of the two notes, containing it and counting the first as one. Thus, the inter- there is always a perfect fourth, fifth, and eighth, and a major second, third, sixth, seventh, and ninth. An augmented interval is one that is raised a semitone above the major interval and a diminished interval is one that is lowered a semitone below the minor interval. All intervals, except the second, sixth, and ninth, may be dimin- ished; and ail, except the third, seventh, and ninth, may be augmented. There may also be a major or a minor second, third, sixth, seventh; the fourth, fifth, and eighth intervals never being distinguished by these terms. To be brief, the second may be major, minor, augmented; the third, major, minor, diminished; the fourth and fifth, perfect, augmented, diminished; the sixth, major, minor, diminished; the seventh, minor, diminished, augmented; the eighth, perfect, augmented, diminished; the ninth, EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS INTERVALS i flfcj t? -<; i>r^ ++2 ++4 ++5 + 4 4+8 -- --4 i- -S- -, with brilliancy and spirit. CON"EI s? sp J 75 1 iTn ' t \ IMJ i- 1 C" (*y.4. 1- fc^3 z? 2, &> Z5> ^ J natural position of the hand is found when the thumb and four fingers rest evenly and lightly on five consecutive keys ; the right hand having the thumb on the lowest note and the little finger on f he highest, and the the fourth, unless that interval be made with the thumb, in which case the unem- ployed finger should be over the shortest interval. (10.) Doubts as to the proper method of 20 302 THE PIANO SELF-TAUGHT fingering a given piece correctly may always be settled by referring to the indicated fin- gering of the diatonic scale of the key in which the piece is written. (n.) The diatonic scales are all fingered upon the same principles. Since the thumb and the first and second fingers are used twice on the treble scale, this is fingered, so that the third finger is used only once in every octave. This fingering is based upon the scientific fact that if the third finger is placed upon its proper key, the others will take their correct places. For this reason, as shown in the accompanying notes, the third finger is used only in the second posi- tion in each octave. In the scales for the bass clef the fingering is generally marked, so as to give the first note with the thumb or third finger; the second with the second finger; the third with the first, and the fourth with the thumb; making the second position of the octave with the third, sec- ond, first, and thumb. According to this scheme, the third finger may be used in both positions, although many instructors recommend that the student begin the scale with the thumb. FINGERING THE SCALES. The following excellent rules for fingering the scales are given in a well-known book of instruction, for piano students : "THE DIATONIC SCALES are all fingered upon the same principles. As the thumb, first and second, or second, first and thumb, are always used twice, and the third finger once, in each octave, it follows that if the third finger is placed upon its proper key, the other fingers will readily take their proper place. "!N THE MAJOR SCALES, place the third finger of the right hand, in Scale of C, on B; G on FS; D on CS; A on GS; E on D$; B on AS; F$ on AS; C* on A*; Ab on Bb; Eb on Bb; Bb on Bb; F on Bb. "Left hand. Third finger in Scale of C on D ; G on A ; D on E ; A on B ; E on FS ; B on FS; F* on FS; Of on FS; Ab on Db ; Eb on Ab; Bb on Eb; F on G. "The Scales of C, G, D, A, and E are fingered with the third finger of the right hand on VII; and the third finger of the left upon II of the scale. "The Scales of B, FS, and CS employ only two white keys in each octave which are played with the thumb. The black keys are played with i 2: 2 i: or, i 2 3: 3 2 I. HALF NOTES AND RESTS, COMMON TIME xx ii a a i x x x i i a a fnrl. """ r -F- r- -f 2 -(2 |S i f~ H r- 2 \ ^-: i i -1 ' 4 1 1 -<2 fS* U J f 2 f 3 r- i E? 1 1 rJ cj ei " -Si eL_ 3 i 1 T* 5*- -^ 1 QUARTER NOTES, COMMON TIME Pfr=^ F^= 8 T-l rV-3 * J J F " 4 a 1 X i 1 j 2 I X X Er Count. 4 1 2 -p f J 3 4 f- ^^ t=t= f=f= =3=3 * J~ i ^ J J- ^-j^^ IEZJC ^_ -1 ? 1 !_ -I- ? 1 _ _ * 1 ^ 4X8X4184 4 X4X84 fTT= = 3=^ -FT-d 1 F- F=^r\ ^^ i f m * J EE PJS--P J P- ^= J f- u - ^ j= ! P T~ t=?= r^ i -i-4 " u f N^ 1 1 ^ | 1 1 4 X e [' * | 48X41 .1 X 1 4 I i ^HF -* 1 1 THE PIANO SELF-TAUGHT 303 DOTTED HALF NOTES, THREE-QUARTER TIME 131 X Jf T f* f 1* -f=z -4- 2 -9 -f-f ! - p: 3 H- Count 1 ^ f =t i 3 i 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 -1 1 123 -M 1 5 i 3 1 I 3 123 =1 1 2 ^ X i -f a i O f X 4 r 2 X 2 f 3 1 -e> 3 1 -f a i " r~ X X fit r & X X J 1 2 B I '. 1 i 3 1 2 J i 1- 2 : 5 -^ \ 123 s 1 I- 2 3 1 2 3 123. ^^\* Sty -1- I -T- -- 1 izpz i i- -/gi-.- 1 ^~ i - ^ E ~~& "fit-^ X X X X X DOTTED QUARTER NOTES, SIX-EIGHTH TIME ^EE 123 456 . ,-> 1 x 334133, , fc /TL i * * ~ r F- 3 S i m m M- (CT)- * - 1 1* _ j * -r F- - 1 -- X 43X4 ) 1 \ LJ d_: -L iLjL.. -LJ:^ Most of the Flat keys have a similar fingering, viz. the THIRD finger of the right hand always falls on Bb in the keys of F, Bb, Eb, Ab, Db, and Gb. In the left hand, the THIRD finger will fall on IV of the scale in the keys of Bb, Eb, Ab, and Db. "!N THE MINOR SCALES place the third finger of the right hand in Scale of C on B; G on F*; D on Ctf; A on Gtf; E on Djt; B on AS; Fff on D; Of on A; F on Bb; Bb on Bb; Eb on Bb; Ab on Bb. "Left hand. Third finger in Scale of C on D ; G on A ; D on E ; A on B ; E on F* ; B on Ftf; Ftf on FS; Ctf on F*; F on G; Bb on Gb; Eb onGb; Ab on G." IMPORTANCE OF THE SCALES. Since the practice of the scales is nearly the most important element in obtaining a correct understanding of the piano, it may be said truly enough that the student need study little else until he has thoroughly mastered them. If he has been perfectly attentive and conscientious, he will then be able to play with perfect equality of force and time, and with such a thorough understanding of fingering that he will be able to perform other pieces without the delays caused by interference and uncertainty in this respect. It is desirable, if not necessary, to impress upon the student's mind that, in the work 804 THE PIANO SELF-TAUGHT PIECE IN TWO-FOURTH TIME 4812 X 1_ X 1_ X 48 1 X sHI -. 1234 * * 1234 4 1234 i 1234 4 Fine. 4 X 3=t= Fine, signifies the end of die piece. 8 1 S r i* -* 0- This means, to repeat from this mark : to the Fbe or end. PIECE IN THREE-EIGHTH TIME, INCIDENTAL SHARP Count three eighths in each measure. THE PIANO SELF-TAUGHT 305 H ' ^ >, s sg ^ l-H w u CO IX H W C* < 1. OH XI 1 X UH < >..- "in tlqcs ' ^ 1.. - U. H 4 1. 1 L . X 0 ' 1 H p*i"i % * ' k " ""' 1 X I - . . rt' " " l| 1 H (L X'"' ** 1.- W 1 H ' L <__ XI- *"-- H ' 1. H < L X 1 '1 H X "" ... S H' " " I i l:" 1 " 1 1 I -- " '' 1 - 1 a IH' " " 1 1 1 x^-^ 1 ^0 H 1 L PL, X l_ H 1 I X "1 1 1 CO 10 ' ~ 1 .2 t> ^ ~ '' \ .2 x - H ** H' " i ^ x i 1 1 ' L.. s - X 1 .... "1 3 "rt > *. \ j V u CO II > ' of practicing, he should always play by note, avoiding the habit of playing from ear or memory. It is often desirable to be able to play without notes, or to learn a melody easily on hearing it a few times. But it is even more important that the student, by constant attention to the written notes, should culti- vate the ability to read rapidly and correctly. This is nearly the best method of learning to read at sight in any musical instrument. RULES FOR PRACTICING. In prac- ticing, the student must be partic- ularly careful to avoid forming hab- its of moving the head, body, or arms in any way other than is act- ually necessary. To be sure, in striking high notes in the treble and low notes in the bass, it is nec- essary to incline the body to one side or to the other, but nearly all other movements, which are too frequently seen among otherwise good players, are to be avoided, as far as possible. Among such unde- sirable movements are inclining the body forward, as if a difficult pas- sage of music could be simplified on being viewed closer at hand; the habits of nodding the head or drumming with the feet, in keep- ing time. It is, also, essential to the best quality of touch conse- quently, also, to the best tone-pro- duction that the fingers be as even and well regulated as possible. The student should avoid forming the habits of lifting the fingers too high ; of straightening them on rais- ing from a key, or of moving the arm or wrist, in the effort to pro- duce emphasis. While it is diffi- cult for a beginner on the piano to develop more than the rudiments of a good touch, it is desirable that he understand, at the start, that the greater majority of emphatic pas- sages and strong accents may be rendered by simply varying the force used in pressing down the key. The method of varying the force, however, to suit the require- ments of finished performance, can be learned only as the result of extended and earnest practice. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED. Among other faults to be avoided from the start are the habits of rendering the retardando too slowly or the 806 THE PIANO SELF-TAUGHT n XJ ** 'Q THE PIANO SELF-TAUGHT 307 accellerando too rapidly. The notion that these signs demand such a radical change in movement, as to affect the time in which the piece is written, involves that the best effect of the playing is lost. USE OF THE PEDALS. In connection with the faults just mentioned it is desirable to further warn the student against incorrect use of the pedals. Although the proper places for using the pedals are usually marked in compositions for the piano, the finished performer will frequently use them at other points, according to his own theory of interpreting the music. However, until the student is thoroughly acquainted with the use and effect of the pedals, and has also developed by practice the comprehension of the proper points at which to use the left one, for damping the vibrations, or the right, for lifting the damper from the strings, thus diminishing or increasing the quality of the sound, he had best avoid using them, except as indicated in written music. RULES FOR FINGER MOVEMENTS. When executing scales and runs, the easiest move- ments are as follows : (i.) Bend the hand slightly upward, al- though avoiding all marked and ungraceful attitudes. (2.) Hold the arm slightly away from the body, keeping it steady, without twist- ing or turning, while it follows the move- ment of the hand, up or down the keyboard. (3.) In passing the thumb under the fin- gers, move it under each finger consecu- tively, as that finger strikes its key. In learning this movement, particular attention must be given to the thumb in practicing. (4.) Avoid the tendency of the first fin- ger to remain on its key, after striking. This is a common fault in playing scales. (5.) In order to learn the passing-under of the thumbs, carefully practice each hand's part separately. FINGER AND WRIST ACTION. In effective playing, three distinct actions are resog- nized: (i) simple finger action with the wrist held firmly; (2) wrist action down- ward; (3) wrist action upward. Simple finger action is used in playing any series of connected or legato notes, ex- cept, perhaps, in playing runs of thirds, sixths and octaves. Wrist action downward, with apparent raising of the hand, is used in playing (i) repeated notes ; (2) the first note of a group or phrase; (3) chords; (4) octaves in ordi- nary use; (5) demi-legato notes, with as little raising of the hand as possible; (6) stafccato notes, with a somewhat freer rais- ing of the hand; (7) double staccato notes, or staccato played rapidly, except when a dot or point indicates the last note of a group or phrase. Wrist action upward is used principally in playing notes followed by a rest, and staccato notes to be rendered slowly. ON PLAYING OCTAVES. In playing oc- taves, the student should be particularly careful to shape his practice, with a view to developing easy and graceful movements that do not disturb the normal rhythm of playing. Facility in playing octaves de- pends on the proper use of the wrist. The hand should be raised at the wrist before striking, and, then, with an easy movement, thrown down, as it were, upon the key- board. As soon as the required notes have been struck, the hand must be again raised at the wrist, in readiness to strike the next octave, if there is one ; or to resume its nor- mal position, in readiness to strike the next succession of notes. In playing octaves, the student should lift his hand at the wrist, but he must not understand that this lift- ing is to be at a large angle, or any further above the keys than is necessary to enable the hand to move backward or forward to the indicated position for making the oc- tave. Briefly expressed, he is required only to lift his fingers from contact with the keys. FAMILIARITY WITH KEYS. One point that it is particularly desirable to keep carefully in mind, while practicing, is developing an easy familiarity with every key which is to say, every scale or octave written in par- ticular keys, as already explained in the section on the rudiments of music. Al- though the effect of sharps or flats at the signature may seem an uncertain and com- plicated matter to the beginner, it is a thing which must be carefully studied, at the start, and when once mastered, as it must soon be, will remove very many causes of perplexity in his subsequent studies. As a matter of fact, it is no more difficult to play a piece having a number of sharps and flats than to play in the simple key of C. The black keys are narrow, and, hence, somewhat more difficult to press down firmly and fully, but if the student will once accustom himself to reading the signature correctly, understandingly, and rapidly, one serious difficulty will be overcome for him. t CO) (9) 41- - 4-- 00(o) W H O fc CJ S5 O - C/3 O O CO - - O O o K "t a Q o pq tH x W M (308) THE VIOLIN SELF-TAUGHT THE most familiar of the stringed instruments is the violin, whose shape, construction, and manner of playing are familiar to all. Briefly described, it consists of a peculiarly shaped box, called the body, at one end of which is attached the neck. The two ^ides of the box, or body, are called, respectively, the belly and the back; both being care- fully shaped, or arched, in order to afford the greatest possible resonance. On either side of the belly are the sound holes, which, from their shape, are frequently called the /-holes. The belly and back are joined together by a number of narrow side pieces called ribs. Within the body of the instrument, between the sound holes, is a small upright piece, known as the sound post, one end of which rests on the bass bar glued to the under side of the belly, and the other, against the inner side of the back. These two pieces serve to strengthen the instrument by offering resistance to the tension of the stretched strings. The sound post also conveys the vibration from the belly directly to the back board. The neck of the instrument carries at one end the so-called peg-box, in which turn the four pegs, carrying one end of each of the strings. The opposite ends of the strings are attached to the tail-piece, which is hung to the opposite end of the body. Extending over the neck, from the upper end of the body, is the -finger-board, which is separated from the peg-box by a low narrow ridge of hard wood called the nut. This nut serves to raise the strings somewhat above the level of the finger-board, in order that their vibrations may not be interfered with. Across the belly of the instrument, between the sound holes, is set another narrow strip of hard wood, called the bridge. The strings, extending from the tail-piece to the peg-box, pass over the bridge; each one being free to vibrate in its entire length from that point to the nut. Each string is tuned by stretching it to a sufficient tension by twisting the peg to which it is attached. PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE VIOLIN STUDENT THE strings are of four sizes, or diam- eters, the first or highest, placed on the right side, as one looks toward the belly of the instrument, being of the smallest diam- eter; the fourth, or lowest, at the left of the instrument, being the largest in diam- eter. The strings are made of catgut, usu- ally formed of the membranes from the intestines of sheep. The largest string is covered with spirally wound silver wire, which serves to deepen the quality of its note. THE Bow. Although, as constructed, the violin may be played like the guitar or man- (309) 310 THE VIOLIN SELF-TAUGHT dolin, by picking the strings with the fingers or with a special quill or plectrum, its char- acteristic music is evoked by the use of an instrument known as the bow. This con- sists of a stick of hard, close-grained wood, having a projection at one end called the head. At the opposite end is a slot in which slides the nut; a thumbscrew at the end of the stick moving the nut backward or for- ward as desired. Between the head of the stick and the nut is hung the hair, which may be stretched to the required tension by turning the thumbscrew and sliding the nut toward the end of the stick. When cov- ered with a small quantity of resin, the bow, sliding on the strings, is able to produce the characteristic sounds of the violin music. Indeed, the whole Secret of playing the vio- lin properly, and producing pleasing sounds, rather than disturbing scrapes and wheezes, lies in the proper manipulation of the bow. Skill in this particular conies, not only from practice, but also from correct instruction at the start; being in fact precisely what a good touch is in piano-playing and correct breathing in the production of vocal music. THE TONES AND TOUCHES. The four strings of the violin are tuned to perfect fifths, beginning with the tone correspond- ing to G next below middle C on the piano for the fourth or lowest string. The next three strings, accordingly, are: for the third string, the D above middle C; for the sec- ond string the A next above, and for the first string the following E. As is well known, the intermediate tones between the so-called open tones of each string are pro- duced by pressure of the fingers at certain definite points in the length of the string. Although the violin has no frets or touches, like the mandolin, guitar, etc., the point on the finger-board at which pressure will pro- duce the several tones and semitones are situated precisely as in these instruments. Thus, on the G string, the G# is situated at a point approximately about 7-8 inch *>, from the nut ; the A about 1-2 inch ; the Bb at about 2 3-16 inch; the B at 2 5-8 inch; the C at 3 1-4 inch. The next string above, giving D as its open tone, has the DJ, the E, the F, the FJf, and the G at the same re- spective distances from the nut. Similarly also, the second, or A, string has the Bb, B, C, C#, D, and Eb ; while the first, or E, string measures off the F, F#, G, Gtf, A, Bb, and B. Although the notes represented by suc- cessive open strings may be produced by carrying the pressure of the fingers suffi- ciently far down in its length the intervals between the touches becoming constantly smaller as we approach the end of the fin- ger-board furthest from the peg box al- together the best practice is to play each fifth note on the open strings in order to' avoid too much shifting of the hand up and down the neck, and consequently also cor- responding delay and irregularity in render- ing the music. It is frequently customary, however, to give the notes higher than the compass of the first position by running up the string, thus obtaining an available playing compass of at least one-half octave above the open tone. HOLDING THE VIOLIN. The methods of holding the bow and the violin are indi- cated in the accompanying illustrations. It is necessary to add only that the instrument should be so held as to be at right angles to the body, on a line exactly parallel to the position of the left foot, upon which the weight of the body should be thrown in standing. The body of the instrument should be held firmly between the chin and the left collar-bone; the left hand maintain- ing it at such a slant that the bottom of the scroll on the end of the neck is on a level with that part of the body pressed by the chin. HOLDING THE Bow. The bow should be held with the right hand, the thumb being against the lower side of the stick, close to the slide or nut; being balanced at the top by the first and fourth fingers, as already explained. The second and third fingers rest only gently upon the stick, serving to steady it between the varying pressures of the other two fingers. Thus, the pressure on the strings is varied according to position by the first and fourth fingers, as already indicated. The movement, up or down, is THE VIOLIN SELF-TAUGHT 311 controlled, as far as possible, by motions of the hand and wrist, and, when the limit of these has been reached, by motions of the forearm, working from the elbow; the upper arm being held close against the body, until the movement of the bow, 'Coming nearer to the nut, requires that it move slightly forward, while keeping as near the body as possible. Since the first and fourth fingers of the right hand perform the most important function in regulating the pressure of the bow, hence in obtaining the best effects of bowing constant effort should be exercised to guide their actions so care- fully as to equalize the pressures of all strokes, short or long, in either direction. IN FINGERING, OR STOPPING, the strings the four fingers of the left hand are used, the joint being bent double in each case, so as to bring only the tips of the fingers against the string. In the act of stopping the strings, the fingers must be brought down with strength and firmness; greater force being necessary on the larger strings. In learning fingering it is necessary to prac- tice persistently, in order to secure a pure tone at every stop and to accustom the fingers, by constant exercise, to press the strings with proper force and effect. The fourth finger requires particular exercise, because its pressure on the strings is the weakest, and also because, at the beginning of practice, it will be found difficult to move it freely, independent of the third finger. In fingering the notes on the violin it is desirable to hold the fingers against the strings as long as possible, not making short and sharp contacts like the hammers of a piano. In playing ascending scales, there- fore, the fingers are brought down, one after another, and held firmly against the strings, while, in playing descending scales, they are raised, one after another, each successive tone being ready made as required. PRACTICAL POINTS ON PLAYING. As is evident from the diagram of the strings and keyboard already shown, the tones of the open strings D, E, and A may also be made with the fourth finger on the string next above. Whether one plays on the open string, or produces the tone on the string below, is largely determined by the particu- lar piece he is playing. As a rule, however, it is considered best to keep on one string as long as possible. Thus, unless in playing long upward runs, when it is desirable to give the open tone on the succeeding string, so as to allow the hand sufficient time to shift its position, it is generally customary to make the D, A, or E on the Jring above. One more rule usually followed, on account of superior convenience to the player, is that when a succession of notes is to be played in one movement of the bow, it is preferable to make the note by the pres- sure of the little finger, if the following tones are lower. When, however, the run or succession is upward, the open string is used. PRINCIPLES OF BOWING. The most essen- tial point in correctly playing the violin is good bowing. This involves, not only a light and careful touch on the string and the ability to produce loud or soft notes as desired, but also exact knowledge of the .proper movements in executing different musical effects. Careful study and observa- tion soon reveal the fact that there is a very great difference between the up-stroke and down-stroke of the bow, and, also, that the tones produced vary greatly in effect, as they are produced by short, sharp strokes, up and down, or in the course of a long sweep of the bow. THE STROKES. The first rule for good bowing is based upon the observed fact that the up-stroke, from the head to the nut, is necessarily weaker than the down-stroke, in the opposite direction. This follows from the pressure naturally brought to bear by the hand in making each of these move- ments. In order, therefore, to equalize the force of contact as much as possible, it is desirable to use pressure with the first and little fingers of the right hand. The further down the bow is moved, the stronger the pressure to be made with the first finger; the further upward it is moved, the stron- ger the pressure to be made with the little finger. ON CONTACT. In making contact between 312 THE VIOLIN SELF-TAUGHT the bow and the strings it is necessary that i the hair rest firmly upon the string, about one-half inch above the bridge. The stick a of the bow is slightly inclined toward the p finger-board, thus giving a firmer grip on f|_ _ f ^ the string, and also enabling the performer =3 . to vary the tones as desired. 1 ? MOVING THE Bow. In moving the .bow in 4-* 'B 4_ eo^ either direction, from the head or from CO the nut, it is necessary to describe a per- 8 W fectly straight line, always running paral- ~ ca o5 lel to the bridge. In order to accomplish 8 4-l 4> 2 / this, a gradual movement is given to the ft >, "* V a wrist as the stroke progresses. Thus, when x> *o H V^ the contact of the bow is nearer the nut, the Z 4) I** CO wrist is bent somewhat upward; sinking I-H i gradually as the stroke approaches the head i d in of the bow, with the result of elevating the P 0, o hand. The movements of the wrist and Z Wr hand are thus of importance in bowing, al- 5< 1 . though it is not correct to move the arm CD 4) -i % eo O c vv -^ above the elbow, except so far as it neces- p> I 55 * sarily yields to the movements of the fore- O * 2 2 arm. Thus, on beginning the up-stroke, i__ g a E * C^ ^ Q 3 with the head of the bow nearest to the Z 1 1 8 si > ft ( point of contact with the string, the upper ij 2 a * 1 arm and elbow are held flat against the o "k >> & N< k _ H W** body, and all movements are made with the forearm, until nearly one-half of the stroke is completed. Then, bringing the bow nearer I-H w . " ^ M* 1 ^ O tial point in bowing is to acquire the ability z a o to make all strokes, upward or downward, w a A W O g at the same speed. Since, as frequently CO 4> J3 ^\ happens, there are runs of considerable -t CQ O Q O M H 3 co bb + 01 ^0 *K 4 c c 00 CO TJ bi) w o >-H CO O PH H O CO '5 W o ' bo C 314 THE VIOLIN SELF-TAUGHT all but the very best performers. It is cus- IS c ^IMi tomary, therefore, to tell the beginner that strongly accented passages should be played to W " "HIP ,. " rv o with a down-stroke, while the weaker beats c be w a >0 are taken with an up-stroke. In actually J3 * z co CO - - ^ i cv rendering advanced passages for the violin, 9 "% " it is difficult to apply these rules with any * ^" degree of rigidity. Indeed, nearly the first * ** H thing that the student of the violin should hi bi i 1. J .=o seek to attain by practice is the development C* ( LLi eo % of equal strength in both upward and down- 00 2 " ' _M_2 ward strokes. However, it is customary, E H ** n i i -H particularly in orchestral work, to use the * *^'~~ * ure inverted or by an acute angle re- 2 -| i .. _ V* . "~ sembling the letter V inverted. Other com- M W -a '% S 1 *- _ -H posers use a vertical line to indicate the up-stroke, and a slanting line to indicate d S < ~L - - cj; t .. c. the down-stroke ; further indicating the points at which the stroke is to start, O CO c y 30 CO whether at the nut, middle, or head, pro- lA j 1> vided it is to be a short stroke by short .5 r *4 % - J ^H lines, drawn parallel to that indicating the in hi . movements, crescendo, etc., should be care- i 7 > < If ^ 4 THE VIOLIN SELF-TAUGHT 315 fully practiced according to directions al- ready given. THE NOTES. In producing a whole note on the violin the bow is drawn in either di- rection in which it happens to be travelling at the time, so as to form a crescendo move- ment, succeeded by a decrescendo, each for bowing is simple, and, in order to acquire the desired effect in producing fulness and purity of tone, it is necessary only to re- member the rules already given for ob- taining loud or soft tones, remembering that it is very seldom necessary to increase the pressure o: r the bow on the string, and BOWING OF WHOLE NOTES one-half the time of the note. Thus, the greatest volume of sound occurs as nearly as possible at the middle of the measure. Among other useful rules for manipu- lating the bow it may be stated that the best practice is always to begin a full measure with a down-stroke. In general, except in staccato movements and grace notes, the time and sequence of the tones are produced by fingering, the bow mov- ing from end to end, upward or down- ward, with a slow or rapid motion, as is best suited to the time. In playing triplets the best procedure is to use a greater length of bow for the first note of each three, giving it a light start, and then resuming equality of movement. This impulse, given to the first note, adds to the effect in passages re- quiring energy in performance. In order to acquire the flexibility de- manded in parts of detached or staccato passages, it is well to practice on the open strings, being particularly careful to make the motions as light and even as possible, thus avoiding jerking motions, pressing very moderately on the string, and ob- taining as full a vibration as possible in each case. In performing the movement known as glissando, or "gliding," the finger that has just stopped the string slides up to a new that a light and gentle touch is all that is required in practically every passage that may be written. The student should, there- fore, aim (i) to produce a full and cor- rect tone by proper fingering, and (2) a good singing musical quality by moving the bow directly across the string, with the gentlest possible contact consistent with the production of sound. TUNING THE STRINGS. As the violin is tuned to perfect fifths the respective open tones being G, D, A, E, from left to right, as previously stated it is a compar- atively simple matter to tune the strings. As it is also an act that is very fre- quently necessary, the student should thor- oughly understand the process as early as possible in his studies. The method most often followed by vio- linists is to tune the second string to the tone of A, found by using an A tuning- fork, or by getting the tone from the piano or other instrument. When this string is once perfectly tuned, the tone of the first, or E, string may be readily found by run- ning the natural scale upward to the fifth degree, and tuning the first string to uni- son. The tuning may be verified by run- ning the natural scale, so as to place the fifth on the first string. The third string may then be tuned to the fifth below, or D, being drawn up until GLISSANDO The small notes remain unheard. Movement reversed. position, still holding it down, and the next finger stops at the required touch. This is shown in an accompanying example. POINTS FOR PRACTICE. The matter of the sound is judged to be correct and veri- fied by running the scale up or down, so as to place the open tones on fifths. The same process is repeated in tuning the fourth, or 316 THE VIOLIN SELF-TAUGHT G, string. The correctness of the tuning may be proved, either by running the nat- ural major scale from G to E, or by draw- ing the bow over each open tone, in suc- cession, to identify the perfect fifths, which may soon be learned by ear. If the beginner finds it easier to begin tuning with some other string say the fourth, or G, string he may obtain the perfect tone on that, and find the next higher tone on the fifth, whose touch is approximately 4^ inches from the nut with every string. This method, however, is far less simple than that already out- lined, and is never followed by experienced violinists. Allegretto. SIMPLE PRACTICE PIECE IN C MAJOR ON THE FIRST AND SECOND STRINGS rzr* " i* F ~ ' f " _ ... f . __ #' ' hW ! ' 1 1 3 i'-r-H SIMPLE PRACTICE PIECE IN G MAJOR ON THE SECOND AND THIRD STRINGS ^ i i; (Q rl- Z>. C. THE MANDOLIN SELF-TAUGHT IN CONSTRUCTION, and in the general theory of playing, the man- dolin closely resembles the violin. It is composed of two parts: the body and the neck. The body is shaped peculiarly, having a pear-shaped back, and a flat top, instead of the rounded back and belly of the violin. It has also one large round, or oval, hole between the bridge and the finger-board, instead of the two S-holes of the violin. In both instruments the strings are attached at the base to a suitable tail-piece, and are stretched between the bridge and the nut by attach- ment to pegs arranged on a board at the further end of the neck. The strings, instead of being of catgut, as in the violin, are of metal, generally steel, and, although tuned to precisely the same fifths as the strings of the violin, are double. Thus there are two G strings, two D strings, two A strings, and two E strings. The method of stringing and tuning the mandolin is practically the same as already described in connection with the violin, to which the student may refer for guidance in this particular. Each separate pair of strings must be tuned in perfect unison, but this matter is comparatively simple after a little practice. PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE MANDOLIN STUDENT THE FRETS OR TOUCHES. The mandolin presents the primary advan- tage to the student of having the various tones and semitones indicated by proper frets or touches, consisting of small metal pieces inserted in, and running across, the finger-board at proper intervals. For two instruments of the same size, the proper position for making the various sounds are the same in both violin and mandolin. HOLDING THE MANDOLIN. In playing, the mandolin is held so that the fingers of the left hand may produce the various tones by stopping the strings at the frets, as in the violin. The body of the instrument, however, is held upon the lap or against the right side of the body, so that the play- ing may be done with the right hand. The neck of the instrument should lie in the middle of the left hand, supported by the thumb and slightly balanced by the forefinger, in order to admit of easily running over the keyboard. The hand should be kept somewhat off the neck, without strain at the joint, so that, in the act of stopping the keys, the fingers may fall straight downward on the strings. THE PLECTRUM. The mandolin is played (317) 21 * < s Ota Jb Jt- en w H O fc w o - O o 0) o HH O CO fc i i O Q 55 *l - U , - i-s i i 1 1 TT^ fl T* V . ffl: ;S "' ,i / _ "% I W " LI }" S PH "5J J o o *n * E; II 01.. . g r^ ~ i d o o y fl) +* ^ e s <5 -* K ftl C.. fe JO ed - " -4UJ , ** bO 4 f^ r? 'S * 4- - *~? " bo - .1 o i- g < o 4 krH tt) (fl "* T- - ~ .r *li it^ i o 00 S ^tLLL *. PC H< 1 Til 5 *44_L _ "tl * is "- >3 ft 01. _ o O ^M-T^ H a- S T T^==v & W ^ \ J fl q" ^0^3 * % CO _j i o Hl^ \ g 5 *o K Cfl ^> 1 ..." c w t(. 1 Q 4) o _ o IT W ^ 43 it' ' 1 i C9 4> ^ ^ S" CO t-l ^^~ Cb 3 1 1 " o 11 1 1 rrt ft. y 8' " 9 ~ 1 kj_! O >, H M 4iji ' ~ " ^ O 1 1 -J H J .J \ 89 '* < %u . (X 4) H O ft ;| o " P J*J " C5 s ib J 1 ^ J S> *" .S f \ (p. (H fa U. x 3 _ I Q ^ -U THE MANDOLIN SELF-TAUGHT 321 for each succeeding position. Thus, for the fourth, or G, string, the first position finds the first finger on Ab ; the second, on A ; the third, on Bb ; the fourth, on B. On shifting to form the second position, the first finger falls -on Bb or B#; in the third posi- tion it falls on C or Ctf ; in the fourth po- sition on Db or Dtf, etc. These successive changes of position, of course, involve cor- responding changes in the key of the scale beginning on the note made by the first finger. Thus, the second position on the fourth string is in the key of Bb; the third position in the key of C; the fourth posi- tion in the key of D; the fifth position in the key of Eb ; the sixth position in the key of F, etc., provided the scale be run from the key governed by the first finger. ORNAMENTAL MOVEMENTS. In making the movements, known as glissando or por- tamento, the motion of the plectrum is continuous, while the finger that is stop- ping the string slides up only until it reaches the semitone above that which is to follow, thus giving opportunity for the next finger to fall upon and stop the note required. In making slurs, only the first note of the two connected by the brace is to be struck with the plectrum, the second one being sounded only accidentally as the finger changes position. In descending slurs, the first note is struck with the plec- trum, and the string is then pushed by the finger that is already stopping it. In playing staccato and legato move- ments, the fingering is quite as important an element as the manipulation of the plec- trum. The grace note, however, is struck by a short and sharp movement, which is distinct from that followed in the produc- tion of other notes of the same indicated value. THE GUITAR SELF-TAUGHT ACCORDING to an easy method of classification, there are three ordinary types of stringed instruments. The first includes instruments of the violin class, such as the violin, violoncello, bass viol, viola, etc., which are played with a bow. The second class is represented by the mandolin, which is played with an instrument called the plectrum or pick. The third class includes the guitar, banjo, lute, and several other instruments, mostly obsolete, which are played by plucking the strings with the fingers, as in the harp, zither, etc. The modern guitar is an instrument which, in its general form, suggests the violin. Like the latter instrument, it consists of two parts: the body and the neck. At the end of the neck is the peg-board, holding the pegs for attaching and stretching the strings. The body, however, is formed flat on both the front and rear faces, and has a single sound hole, or "rosette," in the centre of the sounding-board. As in the violin and mandolin, the strings, stretched by tension at the pegs, hang free between the nut and the bridge. Unlike these instruments, however, the strings are attached to the bridge, instead of to a tail-piece. The various tones are produced by the stopping" of the strings at the frets, which are metal strips fixed across the finger-board at proper intervals. PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GUITAR STUDENT THE STRINGS AND OPEN TONES. The guitar has six strings, which, as in the violin and mandolin, are arranged to run up the scale from left to right; the finest string being the last to the right and the coarsest, the last string to the left. As shown in the accompanying diagram, the sixth, or left-hand, string represents the tone corresponding to the E below middle C, and the first string at the right, the E above middle C. From left to right, the strings correspond to the following open tones: E, A, D, G, B, E. Thus the inter- vals between the 6th and 5th; 5th and 4th; 4th and 3d; 2d and ist are fourths, and (322) that between the 3d and 2d is a third. The guitar is always tuned to these tones ex- cept for the playing of some Spanish pieces, fandangos, etc., which require a somewhat different tuning, as will be explained later. The three lower strings (4th, 5th, and 6th) are generally made of brass or sil- ver wire, or occasionally of silk, and the three upper strings (ist, 26, and 3d) of catgut. THE CORRECT POSITION IN PLAYING. In playing a guitar, the correct position is to sit with the left foot slightly elevated, as on a footstool, and with the right thrown somewhat outward. The instrument is held THE GUITAR SELF-TAUGHT 323 in the left hand, pressed slightly against the body, being balanced by the right arm be- tween the wrist and elbow. The neck is held between the upper point of the thumb and the lower part of the forefinger of the left hand. This allows the four fingers to hang over the first four frets in the first position; being conveniently disposed, at the same time, to assume the other posi- tions, as will be presently explained. The various tones are formed precisely as in the mandolin and violin, although, on account of the peculiar character of the instrument, there are several methods of stopping and touching, which are very seldom, if ever, used in the former instruments. THE USE OF THE RIGHT HAND. The play- ing is done by the right hand, which rests at the middle of the forearm on the edge of the instrument, so as to enable the fin- gers to touch the strings midway between the sounding-board and rosette. The play- strings with the left hand, and in shifting from one string to another, the same gen- eral rule holds for the guitar as for the violin and mandolin. This prescribes that one string should be used as long as pos- sible which is to say, as long as no very great shifting of position on the one string is required. Generally, however, in scales and runs, or where there is a succession of notes, rising in one direction or falling in another, it is preferable to use the open tone, when it is reached, instead of stop- ping at the proper fret on the string below. This rule is formed on the basis of experi- ence, and indicates the method found most suitable for attaining ease of playing and good effect. ON THE POSITIONS. In order to acquire a facility in playing the guitar, it is essen- tial to practice, not only the scales in the various keys, as in other instruments, but also to acquire a facility in playing on the p B , > i a ATCOr STRINCS 1 it $T*IC 30 S'BiNC 1 . U r F# C A Bb B C c* D Xt z U c C* 9 Ifc E F T* C F F* C C* A Bk B C C* BB B C Cf f L ff A 'i LAYOUT OF THE GUITAR: RANGE OF TONES ing is done with the thumb, first, second, and third fingers. The fourth finger is practically never used in ordinary playing, but should not be placed against the sound- ing-board, as a support to the hand, since this practice tends to interfere with the grace and ease of movement. The thumb always strikes the lowest note of a chord, and also the lowest string in any scale or succession of tones. This rule applies whether the lowest string be of wire or of gut. In picking the strings, only the ends of the fingers should be used. MARKS FOR DOUBLE FINGERING. In mark- ing the exercises for the guitar it is nec- essary to indicate fingering for both hands. The plan generally adopted, therefore, is to designate the open strings by zero (o), and the first, second, and third fingers by I, 2, 3, respectively. In the right hand the thumb is indicated by (X) ; the first finger by one dot (.) ; the second by two dots (. .) ; the third by three dots (...). STOPPING AND SHIFTING. In stopping the different positions, and in shifting from one position to another. Briefly explained, a position is called first, second, third, etc., according as the first finger of the left hand "governs" or is in position to stop at the first, second, or third fret, etc. In chang- ing position on any given string, the hand is simply shifted upward, so that the first finger comes over the fret next above that which is previously governed. Thus, on the lowest, or sixth, string, the first position finds the first finger over the F fret, the sec- ond over Fit, the third over G ; in the second position the first finger is over F#, the sec- ond over G, the third over Gtf. Thus, in running scales on the several positions the key is changed. This is an important point for the beginner to understand; since it shows him at the start the most convenient positions in which to play a piece written in any given key. THE BEST KEYS FOR THE GUITAR. While the range of the guitar is sufficiently ex- tensive to allow of playing music in any 324 THE GUITAR SELF-TAUGHT Q 55 g E PL, O H S E u " ' Pi X H tO U g w EH * w E ft o 2 o K H . O [*l S S fy^ 3! " H S w H < W H K 5 CO < ^ 55 5 WO ^ to co o O g S M CO CO >4 55 < O J H i * O OH X I I CO M K H x ** *!- -4- U- . . .09 (- I O PL, I 1 1 I I i THE GUITAR SELF-TAUGHT 325 key, the rules governing correct perform- ance determine that certain keys may be more easily rendered than others. The most suitable are, accordingly, the natural key of C major, and its relative, A minor; the key of F major, and its relative, D minor; the key of G major, and its rela- tive, E minor; also, of D major, A major, and E major. The other keys are more difficult than those designated, and should be avoided when possible. As may be seen from the accompanying musical diagram, the five positions most used to wit, the second, fourth, fifth, seventh, and ninth CHORDS IN KEY OF C. IBarre. -*&- CHORDS IN KEY OF G. CHORDS IN KEY OF F. Jgj ?6J *r-*J 1 3-S>- B-&- CHORDS IN KEY OF A. I Barre. 4 a<^- correspond, respectively, to the keys of D, E, F, G, and A, as already indicated. In playing in other keys, it will be found nec- essary to use the barre more frequently than is convenient for the average player. ON STOPPING THE STRINGS. In stopping the strings, the finger should press down firmly on the nut-sjde of the fret until an- other fret is to be stopped, unless the follow- ing note had best be given open on the same string. In playing scales, or a long suc- cession of notes, it is desirable that the fin- gers be not raised too quickly. Neglect of this rule involves that the open string may vibrate, as the hand shifts from one to another string, thus marring the effect of the performance. In stopping the strings the same rule holds, as has been previ- ously given for the mandolin, that the fin- ger should press the string between frets so as to leave it free to vibrate fully, sup- ported between the fret and the bridge. If the string is wrongly fingered, and the fin- ger presses directly on the fret, the result will be a damping of the vibration, and a marked and disagreeable contrast between the open and stopped tones. On this ac- count, it is particularly desirable that the student take regular exercises on the open tones, as, for example, in running the dia- tonic or chromatic scales on the first posi- tion, or, in the scale of C, as shown in the plan of the positions already given. ON PLAYING CHORDS AND ARPEGGIOS. Owing to the manner of playing the guitar, it is possible to render a large number of ordinary chords of from three to six notes. A chord composed of three notes is to be played with the thumb and first and second fingers of the right hand, which may be used to pluck the three strings simultaneously. With a chord of four notes, the third finger is added to the other two, and the four strings are plucked simultaneously. When a chord of five or six notes occurs, the rule is that the two lowest tones are to be produced by the thumb sliding rapidly from the lower string to the next; after which the remain- ing three or four notes are struck simul- taneously, in the manner just described. Very frequently a chord is played as an arpeggio, the strings stopped by the fingers of the left hand, or left on open tones, be- ing struck one after another in rapid suc- cession, so as to produce, as nearly as pos- sible, the effect of being a simultaneous attack, as in the mandolin. The following example illustrates the method of playing a chord as an arpeggio, also the proper fin- gering. Of course, in playing a chord as an arpeggio, the strings remain stopped until the entire sequence has been rendered, or as many of them as possible are held down to the end. Thus, all of them con- tinue vibrating at once. When an arpeggio occurs in a piece written to slow time, ' it may be fingered as in the annexed exam- ples ; but, when the movement is rapid, the thumb is run over the stopped strings, from the lowest to the highest; this movement being indicated by the slur. THE BARRE. The movement known as the barre consists in pressing two or more strings with the first finger on some given fret. A mechanical device known as capo- 826 THE GUITAR SELF-TAUGHT PT S P-. O mm mm "* -n> - . 4-J. "S "14 o - -W n mm mm -tit H c/) " " k O 14 w . - .-L. " 1 1 e P e -4 * I--4-V IP \\ : \ " 1 1 e ) > -4 "1 * '< 1 T --ij IP 14 t4 S 1 1 1 "k pf " 1 ei ' * p ? " >_, I * ' ~ 1 H e " " 1 I - " 1 t 1 O * ' " w "1 41 1 > H N e "4 o - k - -i, U w -2 03 U k i - - 1 * ' ' " I o ~r o -g Ul . L ~ " ^ !. ;! . H e ! " ~ 1 1 w " ' k r 1 u - . H . - H ' . . . < L j er - - 1 -"! 1 A H -c i t > * e i L . 4-- * 1 10 ~ ' 1 1 pj K.. O Jj 4. ... s i 1.. 1 L 4.- 4U 1 H < L _ M * .. H < i . . et i L 41 1 O I COMMON GUITAR i use of the thumb for the th fingers for the three -** H H ,=M^-E=t= ^ < L J H M - '"I . . 89 . . o U . . * 1 .. - ! < lu 1 O 4 1 H . O . . , - .H s ! %. % lo ^ "1 " " I t w 1 , ffi .5 ! H bfl a - ^ . . .H O _ _ * & Ct ' (l j 5 1 bO c/i ' W i i - ii --i > t " 1 1 H " " e ' - 4 o _ . fc < T- U - 1/1 S * - o '5 I ' ' k ** 1 'e? H S " k H' - " " "^ ^ Mi. " ~ r O * & w ll g -i 6 " i e --4 E ^ -14 |- --Hk S "4 *-> < < H U *d w Q IP C '14 ^ Sol W w IS K-l W PL, u ..S - .S o % --^ 8 ii 14 .g e it m "t i ': ^ r^-> ^c p g " 1* 1 t^i) CS ^ .S j 2 > ^ "tt ^s p THE GUITAR SELF-TAUGHT 327 mmm "5 _ 1* > "4 e "1t* -ttt -t* dastro is also used. The effect produced is to shorten the vibrating range of the string so that by stopping it lightly sounds may be produced somewhat higher than those natu- rally obtained by stopping at the same frets. Of course, the pressure of the first finger must be very strong, being reinforced by the thumb on the under side of the neck. There Small Barre. Great Barre. 1 1 1 09 r " P a M 1 1 et 09 1 \ i . 2 'T E 4 ^ >.- O w jj" 414 to w ^" 3 A- u . tf o -- i o ' i e* o ^ . . .H " " - - ot er ' " . . o ~ " ^ - H ,! as < i ^ \ i T | 1 i e . . JH [(^ \ &=$* ^^ ijziii ^k* y ^ . . .H - " _ < . H 1 et U 4i .. H 4. . J [ 19 * ' 1( f f ^ Y are two kinds of barre; the small, when two or three strings only are stopped in this manner; the great, when all six are stopped. Examples of both occur in the above diagram. TRIPLETS AND SEXTOLETS. In accompany- ing the voice, or another instrument, trip- lets and sextolets are frequently introduced into the music, in order to improve the ef- fect. Such a movement should be carefully practiced, as well as the chords, with the fingering, since they are among the most important elements of the guitar. ON PLAYING SLURS. Another point nec- essary to be understood is the manner of playing slurs. As is well known, there are two kinds of slurs: (i) the ascending, in which the movement is from a lower to a higher note; and (2) the descending, in which it is from a higher to a lower note. In playing an ascending slur, the correct procedure is to pick the string, properly stopped, for producing the first note, and immediately to place the finger in position for making the second note, without pick- ing the string to produce it. To play the descending slur, strike the first note with the right hand, and, on stopping the string to form the second, snap it with the finger of the left hand, thus producing the second tone at about the value required. In sim- ilar manner, the slide or glide is produced. A series of notes being indicated to be played glissando, the lowest is stopped by the first finger of the left hand, and, after it has been struck by the right hand, the succeeding notes are produced by sliding the left up the neck of the instrument, over all the frets, until the proper position for making the last note is reached. Grace notes are also played with the slurred effect. Ow 'H'ADMnTJ'Trs TVi* final pmhf11inmptit *... J.. _, et < i . H 1 ll - U - H , ! - . O - - *4 O " " * " 1 1 - 1 1 i" ;;*. S- ^ it ik rS o I O 1 1 ;'* -tt+ 1 1 1 w 1 ;, Q . . et H - - > o * - I 1 d 1l s -, . Q 1 = C N -3- is THE GUITAR SELF-TAUGHT used in guitar music is the production of that known as harmonics. A harmonic is usually an octave higher than the tone in- dicated in the written music, and is pro- duced by touching the string at the proper fret with only sufficient force to prevent it from vibrating on the open tone; thus pro- ducing a pleasing flute-like note. Har- monics may be produced on every string of the guitar on the twelfth, seventh, fifth, fourth, and third frets. They are gener- ally distinguished from the note indicated in the written music by the abbreviation har., or a small circle (). The explanation given by physicists for the production of harmonics, as just ex- occur at the frets designated above; pro- ducing tones pitched an octavo higher than those occurring with a fully stopped string, although sounding clear and sharp. These effects may not be produced by similar fin- gering on other frets. TUNING THE GUITAR. The process of tuning a guitar is comparatively simple, being very similar to that already described in connection with the violin. In both in- struments the usual custom is to tune the open string of Atl first and to find the tones for the other strings on the proper intervals. Thus, the fifth string is tuned to the tone of A, as given by a piano or tuning-fork. On the piano the tone cor- TABLE OF TONES GIVING HARMONICS AN OCTAVE HIGHER OR AT THE FRETS INDICATED FRETS Sixth String. Fifth String. Fourth String. Third String. Second String. First String A. a 13 i II rm i ^^ v w 1 I s h K & *^ -f 2 - V & BZ II A_ II ./m f ex II 5th 4th : 3d n " *^" ^ 1 II II f^ II -yBw- 1 #d fr 2 "u- =3 r DBC P^ II plained, is that several strings of the same length, whether of the same diameter or not, vibrate with the same "amplitudes" which is to say, "belly out" to about the same distance on every side. Each string, however, vibrates in a succession of such "loops," as has been proved repeatedly by experiment; leaving inactive spaces, or "nodes," between the several loops. If, therefore, a vibrating string be touched at any point on a loop, its sound will only be muffled, or damped. If it is touched on a node, the vibration may continue, and a clear tone be Droduced. Thus, in sounding harmonics on the guitar, the player merely touches the string r 4 - --odal points, which responds exactly to that of the A below middle C. Having found this tone, the fourth string may be tuned to a fifth above, or in unison with the tone given by the second string stopped at the fifth fret. The third, or G, string should give, as its open tone, a unison with that produced by stop- ping the fourth string at the fifth fret The open tone of the second string, how- ever, being only a third above G, or B, may be obtained by stopping the third string at the fourth fret. In tuning the first, or E, string the tone may be found by stop- ping the second string at the fifth fret. Having found the proper open tone for the first string, that of the sixth string may THE GUITAR SELF-TAUGHT be readily obtained, by tuning the two into unison; the tones being exactly two oc- taves apart. SPECIAL TUNING SCHEMES. The tuning, as just given, is the one adopted in playing most music for the guitar. Certain Span- ish pieces, however, require different tun- ings, in order to simplify the manipulation of the instrument. It is necessary, there- fore, in buying sheet music, to carefully m observe the special tuning, if any, that is indicated at the head oi the first page. Two examples of peculiar tuning are given here- with. The first follows the tuning most comr only adopted in playing the Spanish fandangos, habaneras, etc. As may be seen, the sixth string is tuned to the pitch of D below middle C on the piano, or the D below the F in the bass clef; the fifth string is tuned to a fourth above, which is the G below middle C; the fourth string is the fifth above that, or the D below the line of the treble staff; the third string is tuned to a fourth above, or to G of the treble clef, the second string, to a third above, or B, and first string, also, to a third, or D. In tuning the instrument to this scheme, therefore, it is first necessary to lower the open tone of the sixth string one whole note, making it D, in octave with the open tone of the fourth string. The fifth string is then lowered a whole tone to G, in oc- tave with the open tone of the third string, the fourth, third, and second strings re- maining precisely as in ordinary tuning, but the first string being lowered a whole tone so as to give D, or a third above the second. By this tuning the instrument may be played as under ordinary conditions, the distance between each pair of frets being still a semitone. The second piece, included herewith, il- lustrates still another method of tuning, in which the sixth string has the tone of C next below middle C on the piano, or the C of the bass staff; the fifth and fourth have each the tone of middle C; the third and second strings the tones of G, B, and E, as ordinarily. While these exceptional tunings will not be met by the student, until his studies are considerably advanced, it is desirable to describe them in this place, in order that he may understand at the start one of the commonest experiences of the finished per- former. THE VIOLONCELLO SELF-TAUGHT IN POINT of construction and general theory of playing, the violoncello is a larger form of violin. In fact, except for the difference in size, the same general description holds good for both instruments. As compared with the music for the piano or violin, it is a bass instrument; its tones on the open strings ranging through nearly two octaves from the second below middle C, and by stopping the strings, giving more than two octaves above. As compared with the bass viol, however, it reminds one of the relation between baritone and bass voices the bass in both cases being characterized by the greater weight and body of tone. On account of its greater size, the violoncello must be held and played differently from the violin. It also requires several other peculiarities of management. PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE STUDENT POSITION OF THE PLAYER. In playing the violoncello, the performer sits rather *orward in his chair and sup- ports the instrument between his knees; its principal support at the rear being against the muscular portion of his legs. It is es- sential, however, that the belly of the in- strument should be further forward than the performer's knees, in order that the movement of the bow may not be inter- fered with. THE POSITION OF THE LEFT HAND. The manner of holding the neck of the instru- ment with the left hand is, in general, very much the same as that already described for the violin. In other words, it is the duty of the left hand to support the instrument at the neck, at the same time allowing the fingers freedom for stopping the strings. To be more precise, the thumb of the left hand must grasp the back of the neck, at a point exactly opposite the second finger, as it touches the finger-board. In holding the fingers in readiness for stopping, they should be at least three-quarters of an inch above the level of the string; all of them curved, except the fourth, which is more easily held straightened. The fingers are (330) supported by the third joint of the first fin- ger, which rests against the side of the neck. This position renders it an easy mat- ter to stop the strings strongly and quickly. In making some of the higher notes in the range of the instrument, particularly on the first string, it is necessary to remove the hand entirely from the neck, and to sup- port the instrument wholly at the knees, at the same time using the thumb, by lay- ing it across the strings at a convenient point, in order to support the hand, and as- sist the fingers in making stops. HOLDING AND WORKING THE Bow. The rules for bowing the violoncello are, in gen- eral, the same as those noted in connection with the violin, so far as applicable in play- ing, although the bow is differently held in the two instruments, while the effects to be obtained are somewhat different. In order to produce the proper effect in playing, the bow should be held slightly between the thumb and the two middle fingers. It is held, hoWever, from the top of the stick, instead of from the side, as in the violin, the two middle fingers resting against the hair to give the hand a firm hold. The first finger of the right hand serves to regulate THE VIOLONCELLO SELF-TAUGHT 331 ;he pressure of the bow upon the strings, by its degree of pressure on the stick, and, in so doing, performs the most essential part in the proper production of tone ef- fects. The little finger of the right hand is placed near the nut of the bow, although having no function in either holding or regulating its motions. The fingers should be about one-quarter of an inch apart, and all, except the first, be kept straight, in order that the knuckles of the hand may remain parallel with the stick as long as pos- sible. As in playing the violin, the bow must touch the strings exactly at right angles to their length, the stick being in- clined toward the finger-board, as in the violin, care always being taken to prevent it from touching the strings. Apart from the rule of regulating the pressure of the bow with the first finger of the right hand, there are very few pe- culiar points that need be specified for bowing the violoncello. To produce a fine tone, the bow should be placed lightly upon the strings, particularly at the begin- ning of a note. In playing whole tones, the bow is drawn from end to end, but FIRST STRING. for short notes only a part of a stroke is used. As in the violin, the terms "up- bow" and "down-bow" are used to desig- nate, respectively, the pushing and the drawing stroke. In playing scales an runs, the length of bow to be used for each note may be determined by its time- value; also, by the rapidity with which the fingering is done or the bow is moved. THE STRINGS AND TUNING. As in the violin and mandolin, there are four strings on the violoncello. They are differently tuned, however, from the strings of other instruments, the tones ranging from the C of the second octave below middle C to the A next before it. The four strings, as in the violin, are tuned to perfect fifths, being respectively C, G, D, and A. STOPPING THE STRINGS. Owing to the length of the finger-board and the greater diameter of the strings on a violoncello, the touches for the proper tones are fur- ther apart than on any other stringed in- strument we have thus far described. Thus, the first touch, for producing the semitone next below the nut, is over one and three- eighths inches up the string, while the touch for the first tone above the nut is nearly three inches up the string. In order, there- fore, to hold the fingers in position for stopping four consecutive semitones, a con- siderable stretch is required, and the hand must be firmly held against the neck of the instrument. In playing upward runs and scales, the rule is to hold down the fingers already stopping the strings, even after the new tone is reached. Thus, in per- forming the descending scales, the fingers are raised, one after another, from the po- sitions taken in performing the upward run. THE POSITIONS. In shifting position, precisely the same principles hold as have already been described in connection with other stringed instruments. In order, Second Position. SECOND STRING. * f THIRD STRING. ! | 1 FOURTH STRING. 01134 --*-.' r i J J J , , 1 | j ! ' J J J 01134 Third Position. . . f- -*- f 1 01134 1 3 1 a i J i i a 4 018134 013134 5V i - A 1 1 CJ | ! ' \0 * 1 1 H J "^ i 1 1 I 1 - -d * * ' r 1 1 J * Fourth Position. 1 ' . i ^ -j- J- * 1 3 4 1 S 4. fr)I [ [ 1 1 1 1 jtrf fi.... - 1 1 J J J *-{= j i rt~" 0134134 1 j \- 1 1 0134184 - i m $4 * 1 1 3 4 1 8 4 J.J.J.J ^ ^ " 332 THE VIOLONCELLO SELF-TAUGHT co O O T/) F TT1 1* -ILL ^TT1% CO s g-iLll c%_LJ_ Ir- ?9v %^ t- g ; .L I f 1 c 5 W !< u HM. ii 1L. T c^ 1 w c . 5 s < C/) -- c r-. I-. H-JL 4 i r i i TT T* mi THE VIOLONCELLO SELF-TAUGHT 338 %j B -*=Ti =;ii .Hi 3F ^ cid I P: U 414^- w- w!%j_ %.j_ *9 c < o -41- J- S HIUl < -Hi *L -. I C) ; 1 - >-, o S 6 1/1 c%. e* kL -Pi W S W 11 T? 1 1 -HftI 1- - "j i-J 6 C/) M J N TJ '* -Pi I I-LG^ H THE VIOLONCELLO SELF-TAUGHT 335 therefore, to stop a note that is beyond the reach of the hand held in the first posi- tion which is to say, with the fingers ready to stop the strings at the first four semi- tones above the nut it is necessary to shift a semitone, a tone, or even further up the finger-board, in order to reach and stop it In playing a scale or succession of notes to a shift, it is necessary to change the fingering somewhat from that which would usually be followed, if the first position only were in use. Thus, in playing and rendering the scale of C, from the fourth to the first string, avoid- ing open tones, the fingering will be as given in the accompanying example. Here we see that the first touch above the nut is made by the first finger of the left hand, and, in order to shift a whole tone and stop three notes higher up, the first finger is shifted to the touch a tone above, and stops that tone; the second finger following to the semitone above, and the fourth finger on the whole tone next above that. The same fingering applies to the playing of the remainder of the run through the other three strings. However, in taking the third position on each string, in which five tones below the nut are to be stopped in each, the fingering is changed, so that the first and third are used in the first position, and the first, second, and fourth, in the second, on making the whole shift. Similarly, in making the runs on the fourth position, so as to include six whole stops below the nut, the first, second, and fourth fingers, or the first, third, and fourth, are used in stopping on the first position; and the first, third, and fourth, after the shift, except on the first string. In the fifth and other po- sitions, the touches are so much closer to- gether that the first, second, and third fin- gers may be used throughout, thus greatly simplifying the production of long runs, and rendering the work of stopping much simpler. STACCATO AND SPICCATO MOVEMENTS. In the production of staccato movements, the several notes are sharply detached under a single stroke of the bow. The proper motion may be obtained by pressing the bow lightly with the first finger. Consid- erable practice is required to enable the performer to strike the staccato notes suf- ficiently short and distinct. A movement, somewhat similar in effect, is that known as spiccato, which is performed in the mid- dle of the bow, held against the strings with an elastic contact, but receiving a continual jumping movement, by quick up- and-down movements of the wrist. As in the case of the staccato, the notes must be made as short as possible; the bow being kept moving up and down, as it were, by the movement of the wrist, and making mere touches in alternate di- rections, in order to produce consecutive notes. HARMONICS. Like the guitar, music for the violoncello regularly uses harmonics to Played thus: Real sound. EASY HARMONICS ON THE FOUR STRINGS FIRST STRING. SECOND STRING. tf-f- -*- mt THIRD STRING. FOURTH STRING. Played thus : Real sound. =3= THE VIOLONCELLO SELF-TAUGHT several different tones. There are two va- rieties of harmonics recognized in this in- strument ; to wit, natural and artificial. Nat- ural harmonics are produced by touching the string lightly on certain notes with a finger of the left hand, and striking the string, thus stopped, with the bow, also held lightly. Artificial harmonics are pro- duced on the higher tones by setting the thumb firmly on the string and touching the fourth degree above lightly with the third finger of the left hand. This pro- duces the sound of the second octave above the note that would usually result, if the string were regularly stopped at the point touched by the thumb. ARTIFICIAL HARMONICS ON THE FIRST AND SECOND STRINGS Upper staffs show how they are played; lower staffs how they sound 8 - a 4 Afl Aft or Bl? Bfl or C* . Bft or Cfl Cft or Dt> Dfl 2 I 20 21 I 31 1 OR 1 P Dft or Et> Efl or Ffr Eft or FQ Fft or Gfr Gfl Gft or Afr Afl Aft or Bfl or Cfr or Cfl C$ or I DCLi Plf or Efr Efl or F|> E$ or Ffl F or Gfr Gjj >_.^a_ ^F-M- Bfl or C* BJf Or Cfl Cfl or B$ C* or Bjj 1 B> or A$ Afl Afr or G Qfl GP or Fjf Ffl or Eff Ffr or Efl El? or D Dfl Dtr or Cft Cfl or Bft Cfr or Bfl Bt> or Aft Afl At> or Gft Gfl Cb or Bfl |* Wo.^ i}-sr irsf' 840 THE CORNET SELF-TAUGHT the time being, incapable of performing their functions. On this account, it is par- ticularly desirable that the beginner should apprehend the fact that the greater part of his primary practice should consist in production of the lower tones. In addi- tion to saving his lips, the practice of these tones gives him quite as great a facility in the management of the instrument, and also in the reading of notes; at the same time rendering him proficient in perform- ing the notes most often neglected, hence most often poorly given by otherwise good performers. RULES FOR BREATHING. The fundamen- tal rule for the beginner on the cornet is that the breath should be forced into the mouthpiece of the instrument without in- flating the cheeks or protruding the lips. Either of these practices will injure, if not entirely prevent, the proper production of tones the first, because it subjects the muscles of the mouth to a useless and B-FLAT CORNET SHOWING SLIDES AND VALVE-KEYS, I, 2, 3 1 3 * painful pressure; the second, because it prevents the lips from discharging the proper function of a vibrating reed. Al- though a considerable pressure of breath is required in the production of the higher tones in the compass of the instrument, the student must learn, among the first things, if not as the very first thing, that the pressure should not be given with any unnecessary strain on the breathing appa- ratus. After a few weeks of practice, he will have fully grasped the idea that the required force is an effect obtained by the proper use of the lips, combined with the pressure of the instrument upon them. In fact, the higher the tone, the greater is the compression of the lips, and the more firmly is the mouthpiece of the instrument held against them. By this means, the opening of the lips into the mouthpiece is constantly reduced, as the tones rise higher, and is constantly increased, as the tones become lower. In the latter case the mouthpiece presses less firmly against the lips, giving them more opportunity to vibrate, and, consequently, forcing the breath through a larger opening. In adjusting the instrument, it should be placed at the exact centre of the lips, which should be so drawn over the teeth as to produce the effect of smiling. In playing, it is necessary frequently to breathe from the corners of the mouth, so as not to interrupt the music any longer than pos- sible. After same little experience in the practical performance, the student will have learned how, and at what points, to take a new breath. It is well to exercise the lungs and diaphragm, according to some recognized system, in order to enable the holding of the breath through as long an interval as possible. Having thus strengthened the breathing apparatus, it is not necessary to take new breaths until the completion of a phrase, however extended it may be. One vice against which the student should be carefully warned is the habit of "breath- ing from the stomach" ; exerting effort from a point below the diaphragm. This spoils good performance. Its cause is the attempt to blow too hard. ARTICULATION OR TONGUHNG. After the position of the lips and the manipulation of the instrument have been thoroughly mastered, it is in order for the student to proceed to the study of the method for separating the notes. Were the cornet an instrument like the organ, or even the flute or clarinet, the separation of the notes would be a matter simply of manipulating a key or valve, alternately opening am closing a passage, for the breath. With all brass instruments, however, the sepa- ration of notes must be otherwise attained, since, even with the use of the valves, the tones would be slurred into one another, with a sustained portamento or glissando effect. Although this very movement is frequently used in cornet music, and is the rule in playing slurred and legato pas- sages, the separation of the notes for ordinary music is achieved by what is known as "articulation" or "tongueing." For ordinary performance the necessary effect of separating the notes is obtained by moving the tongue, as though to pro- nounce the syllable, tu (as in "tub"), or, as in the act of expelling a straw from between the lips. The letter, t, gives a short and sharp division to the sound produced by the instrument, while the letter, u, has the effect of drawing the THE CORNET SELF-TAUGHT 341 tongue forward, so as to touch the lips lightly. As if in audibly articulating this syllable, the tongue is then drawn back quickly; releasing the breath confined in the mouth by this valve-like movement, and allowing it to pass through the lips into the mouthpiece. With extra rapid passages, the syllable, du, (as in "dug"), is used instead of tu, on account of the fact that it can be more speedily given. In learning and producing correct articula- tion, the student must bear in mind that it is very nearly the most important ele- ment in correct performance on his in- strument In fact, as has been well said by several authorities, "correct, tongueing is as important to the cornet as correct bowing is to the violin." For obtaining certain effects of accent, etc., cornet authorities discriminate at least three kinds of tongueing. These are: (i) the mute articulation of the syllable, together, without separation by tongueing of any kind. This movement produces a pleasing variation, but would hardly be acceptable for all music. The same re- mark applies to the special form of slur- ring, known to cornet players as the porta- mento, which indicates properly such a slurring together of two sounds, as is de- fined as "a slurred interval." In playing the portamento, a crescendo or diminu- endo is most often used, or, in case of long notes, an alternating rise and fall in the volume of the sound. Another form of portamento, which should be used with particular care, by beginners, consists sim- ply in repeating the first of the two notes as a grace note, and slurring it into that following. DEMI-LEGATO OR PORTATO. One form of embellishment common in music for the cornet is the so-called demi-legato, written as a series of staccato notes joined by a TWO EXAMPLES OF PORTAMENTO EXAMPLE OF PORTATO PASSAGE XE tu, as just explained; (2) the mute articu- lation of tu, followed by ku thus, tu, ku; (3) by combining the notes into groups of three, as tu, tu, ku. These three are called, respectively, single, double, and triple tongueing; or the two latter are known as double and triple staccato. Either one of the three may oe usea in rendering staccato passages, according to taste. The first and second ) however, are gener- ally used with passages in even measures, and the third, with triplets, in y% time, etc. SLURRED PASSAGES. As previously stated, legato passages and slurred notes are run slur or ligature. The method of render- ing is known as portato, and is executed by separating the sounds by very soft strokes of the tongue, as if in pronounc- ing the syllable, du. The effect of making soft strokes with the tongue is to com- bine the proper separation, belonging to staccato measures, with the slurring effect The notes are somewhat more definite ;han in either legato or portamento, but not so clear and marked as in ordinary stac- cato. The student should be careful to thoroughly understand the ordinary tongue- ing, particularly of the staccato passages, before attempting to practice portato, or, 342 THE CORNET SELF-TAUGHT otherwise, "tongueing-in." Until he has f"n thoroughly confirmed the habit of prop- erly articulating ordinary cornet music, the practicing of portato is very liable to weak- en the stroke of the tongue. RULES FOR PRACTICING In order to > If A V - J ^ cr iHd *w W I* THE STUDY OF VOCAL MUSIC IN the work of learning and practicing singing, it is necessary to con- sider the vocal organs as a musical instrument, to be played upon and to be tuned and cared for in the same manner as any other in- strument. It is even more important, with the voice, to observe every law of use and care than with any of the others. This is true be- cause any incorrect handling of the vocal apparatus involves, not only a loss of the ability to sing, but also loss of health and numerous other disasters. Correctly speaking, it is very difficult, if not impossible, for a person to master the art of singing without an instructor. He may understand all the laws governing the production of tone, and carefully observe all the rules for breathing and vocalization; but, except in very rare cases, or with what is called a "naturally placed voice," the rule to be observed is that the services of a competent instructor should invari- ably be sought, after the first rudiments have been understood. If a person takes lessons on a violin, for example, and can not master the in- strument sufficiently well to become a finished performer, it makes com- paratively little difference after he has once come under the instruction of a competent teacher. With the voice, however, any incorrect method taught and practiced, for a longer or shorter period, frequently does irrep- arable harm, and renders the efforts of the best teachers almost, if not altogether, futile. The very first thing that the student must thoroughly understand is that it is quite as natural for a human being to sing correctly and effec- tively as for a bird to sing, or for other animals to give forth their pecul- iar sounds and cries. It appears, therefore, that the correct method of training the voice is, simply and logically, that method which develops nature along natural lines. Singing is not an art that is to be acquired by learning to use the organs in a way not intended by nature: it is in no sense analogous to the performances of acrobats and contortionists. Some people might suppose that, because singing is, rationally speak- ing, the natural use of natural organs in a natural way, therefore, any /844) one can sing without need of instruction. If, however, he will consider a few facts of life outside of this department, he will speedily recognize that the human being is peculiar in nature, in the fact that he must labo- riously learn the correct use of nearly every organ and faculty he pos- sesses. He utterly lacks the instincts of the lower animals, which, while making them virtually animated machines, lead them unerringly to the proper use of all their faculties. The human being must be taught to use his brain, his muscles, and his senses, and this education is necessary in every instance, to prevent the injuries arising from both misuse and abuse. In some departments of activity he soon discovers that, with the best eyes and the best ears in the world, he can neither see readily nor hear rightly until he has been accurately instructed in the proper meth- ods of use. If, without proper education, he attempts to use his brain in any but ordinary work, it soon becomes apparent that he is competing hopelessly with trained minds, and is able to accomplish very little of what he laboriously and unsuccessfully strives after. In all departments of life, however, the word "education" is properly to be understood in its original Latin signification of a "leading-forth," which is to say, the development of natural faculties from within, outward. FROM what has just been stated the student will readily understand that the correct method of using the voice in- volves, in learning, no strain or unnatural effort of any kind. To be sure, the pro- tracted use of the voice, in singing, speak- ing or reading aloud, will produce weari- ness of the muscles of articulation. But, if this weariness is followed by soreness of the throat, severe hoarseness, or any other distinctly pathological condition, it is the best evidence in the world that the voice has been incorrectly used, and that it is time to seriously consider a rational and natural method of training. At this point it is necessary to observe that there are certain persons professing to teach singing and the use of the voice, who will tell the student that a sore and rasped throat is necessary to attaining the strength that is needed, or that the straining of the vocal organs is only a step in the process of developing their powers. Such persons should always be avoided. Many good voices have been ruined by their so- called "methods." RUDIMENTS OF CORRECT SINGING. There are three things to be considered in learn- ing and practicing singing: they are breath- ing, articulation, and tone-production. In studying breathing and articulation, we are merely tuning the musical instrument to produce the tones that should naturally result with proper use. This means that correct tone-production is simply the nat- ural consequence of correctly using prop- erly trained and tuned vocal organs. We must not forget, however, that the student of singing is, by no manner of means, able to judge when his vocal organs are sufficiently developed to produce correct tones, nor whether, in the production of tones, he is merely following a vicious habit or actually doing his best While, how- ever, it may be possible that, with a cor- rect understanding of all that is involved in learning singing, one can progress con- siderably toward mastery of the art, at the point of producing correct tones and using his voice for actual work, he re- quires the services of a competent teacher, whose trained ear can detect any defi- ciencies and indicate precisely what is re- quired. This warning should convince the student that he must proceed with the greatest care, and with constant attention to even the minutest detail. Tone-produc- tion is, of course, the most important ele- 346 THE STUDY OF VOCAL MUSIC tn * ...... * i* II* ..... o I 3s CO w U (b o CO to O u J *-' 1* * * ^ ll 5 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 y 1 1 *5 ' I I . 5 ( < 8 i i *> J i II ) i ( > * l jj '* g O u S II* 2S cs < : / 5 j [ J UL 1 M THE STUDY OF VOCAL MUSIC 347 ment in all vocal training. It is the first thing to be considered, and, perhaps, the last thing to be actually mastered. According to the Italian method, which consists simply in training natural facul- ties naturally and normally, the interior of the head, including the cavities behind the nose and mouth, is to be considered as a sounding-board. This does not mean that tones are to be produced by forcing the breath through the nose or throat, but that these cavities act like the boxes of the violin and guitar in supplying the ele- ment of strength and power to the sounds of the vibrating strings. With a stringed instrument, the sound which is to say the point of excitation of the string is always at one precise place on the instrument The human voice differs, however, from every instrument in the fact that tones, resonating more or less through nature's sounding-board, can be produced at a large number of points in the throat, head, chest, etc. This is the very particular in which singing, or correct training of the vocal instrument, is found to differ from bungling and injurious tone-produc- tion, in precisely the same manner that the strummings and scrapings of the ama- teur differ from the finished performances of the trained guitarist or violinist The first thing, therefore, that the student should understand is that the tones must be focused which is to say, directed, de- liberately and intelligently upon a certain definite point That point is the centre of the dome or arch formed by the roof of the mouth, or, more correctly, the palate. DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING. Knowing, now, exactly at what point the sound must strike the resonant sounding-board, we may proceed to the second point, which is to the art of singing precisely what cor- rect bowing is to violin playing; in other words, we are to learn now whence comes the sound that is focused in the dome of the mouth. A distinguished singer has given us a suggestive sentence for guid- ance in this particular. She says: "To sing correctly you must pick up your notes from the floor." This means that the breath, which is to produce the sound, must be constantly and deliberately ex- pelled from the lowest portion of the breathing apparatus which is to say, from the diaphragm. This muscle, as all know, is situated in the chest and, in certain senses, serves as a partition to separate the lungs from the other organs of the body. It performs, also, a very important function in the act of breathing; since, to express it briefly, it acts upon the lungs in about the same fashion as the hand acts upon the rubber bulb of an atomizer, forcing the air from it and, on withdrawal of the pressure, permitting the air to rush into it again. To breathe cor- rectly the muscle known as the diaphragm must be deliberately strengthened by proper exercise and constant service in the act of expelling the breath, until its correct use becomes a habit. In singing, therefore, while it is emi- nently correct to say that the "singer has no throat or chest" which is to say that these parts have nothing to do with tone- Diagram showing position of the diaphragm ?n the human body: the lungs, i; the heart, 2; the diaphragm, 3; the stomach, 4. production every sound produced by the vocal cords and focused against the palate must be formed by a column of air, ex- pelled by a deliberate dynamic action of the diaphragm. In the earliest efforts to properly direct sounds the student can do no better than place his hand over the diaphragm, which is situated just above the point where the ribs join to the breast-bone at the front of the chest. It is not necessary that he exercise force with his hand, as though he were a bel- lows or a rubber ball filled with air although this action might assist in en- forcing the true use of his breathing and vocalizing apparatus but, in the early stages of his study, he must be careful 348 THE STUDY OF VOCAL MUSIC that every impulse, short or long, proceed from a distinct effort of the diaphragmatic muscle. ELEMENTS OF TONE- PRODUCTION. We have learned thus far that each sound in singing must proceed from the lowest point of the breathing apparatus to the highest point of the mouth. In singing, therefore, the student must direct his attention to those two points, with a view to guiding the tone pure, straight, and full, upon the focal point. In doing ' this he must not allow the throat to act, except as a wind passage; he must not restrict its action consciously, or allow it to be restricted unconsciously. The sound-producing breath is like an arrow shot from the bowstring, which is the diaphragm, to the roof of the mouth, which is the target. Nothing must act midway, either to deflect or check the shaft. EXERCISES IN ARTICULATION. Another element of weakness lies in the insuffi- cient development of the organs of artic- ulation. A large number of persons speak indistinctly "chew up their words" as the saying is simply because, in articula- tion, they use their lips no more than is necessary to producing the barest rudi- ment of a sound. In order to produce clear, distinct, and full enunciation, it is necessary that the lips have as large a part as possible in shaping the sounds. This involves that, in training himself for the profession of a singer, the student should take daily exercises in the use of the lips, standing before a looking-glass and making each sound as clearly as pos- sible; using the lips to perform as large a part as they can in the shaping of each sound. Even if such action appear to be exaggerated, causing him to make a suc- cession of ugly faces and grimaces, it is better so than that the lips should not act to the fullest possible extent in the pro- duction of words. To be sure, this activity of the lips is hardly required in ordinary conversation, and may be unnecessary in a good deal of public speaking, but in singing it is es- sential that the lips be so strengthened by constant exercise; so completely under the control of the will, that they can per- form the largest possible part in articu- lation, thus relieving the throat of much of the strain which some people throw upon it in talking and very many in sing- ing. Strengthening the lips and increasing their activity is the all essential element in producing a clear and distinct enuncia- tion. The action of the tongue must also ' be perfect and complete in every instance, although its movements need not be exag- gerated, as those of the lips must often appear to be. In the effort to strengthen the lips, and secure their activity to as great an extent as possible in articulation, some teachers recommend that the begin- ner in practicing lip exercises press his hands against his cheeks, so as to render the muscular effort in moving the lips as strong as possible; thus helping to exer- cise them, and, at the same time, confirm- ing the habit of activity in his mind. It is customary, also, to give the student exercises in running through the vowels, which are pronounced, however, as in the continental languages, Italian, French, etc.; thus, ah, ay, ee, oh, oo. These vowels sounds are most effectively practiced when they follow the labial or lingual conso- nants, such as d, t, n, m, b, p; thus, tah, toy, tee, toh, too. In each case the lips must form as large a part as possible even an exaggerated part in the produc- tion of both vowel and consonant sounds. Thus, as we have already stated, the greater part of articulation is performed by the lips and tongue, leaving the throat free to serve as a mere conductor of the breath and the chest as the seat of the original dynamic impulse of the voice. EXERCISES FOR THE DIAPHRAGM. For the proper strengthening of the diaphragm cer- tain exercises are given by instructors in cor- rect breathing and physical culture. Their object in every case is to increase the ac- tivity of this organ, and to give 4t greater strength. It must not be forgotten, how- ever, that in the exercise . of this muscle, as in the exercise of other muscles of the body, it is not necessary to subject it to any unnatural strains, or to compel it to perform any acts that are outside of the function ordained by nature. Its func- tion, as we have already seen, is most largely to relax when breath is taken into the lungs, and to contract to expel it again, as soon as the natural ends have been served. To strengthen its action, therefore, one of the most beneficial courses is to stand upright with the shoulders thrown back; to take a deep, long breath through the nostrils; to hold it for a cer- tain period, say while you count twenty, and to expel it again through the nostrils by the conscious effort of the diaphragm. Conscious action of the diaphragm may be secured and increased by placing the , hands on the lower portion of the thorax THE STUDY OF VOCAL MUSIC 349 on either side, just opposite to the breast- bone. This secures the focusing of the thought at the correct point. Another of the exercises that is sometimes recom- mended is what is known as "the panting exercise." This consists in taking short deep breaths through the nostrils and ex- pelling them by distinct actions of the diaphragm. Perhaps the exercise to be most strongly recommended to the student of singing is as follows : Take a deep breath through the nostrils, and, in expelling it, under di- aphragmatic impulse, vocalize some vowel sound such, for example, as oh or oo prolonging it sufficiently to nearly ex- haust the air in the lungs, while at the same time keeping the tone as near as possible on the same pitch and note. As soon as it becomes impossible to maintain the sound at a given pitch let it die away slowly, and stop before the breath is en- tirely exhausted. Apart from enabling one to learn sustaining the note, this exercise is of the greatest benefit in strengthening the diaphragm. FORMING THE TONES. After the student has thoroughly identified the action of the diaphragm, and has learned to breathe cor- rectly, which is to say with the complete action of the diaphragm in every case, he may proceed to attempt the use of his voice, always remembering that sounds are to be focused in the dome of the mouth, and that words are to be formed with as great activity as possible of the lips in every case. We have previously used the simile of an arrow shot from a bow at a target, and this figure may further be car- ried out by saying that, in both cases it is necessary to deliberately aim at the point we wish to strike. Of course, the student can not see the interior of his own head, but he can direct the impulses to the point of resonance by fixing his attention upon it. In order to thoroughly identify the focal point, it is desirable that he vocalize certain notes with closed lips, thus producing sounds resembling m or n long continued. By the making of these sounds with diaphragmatic impulses, at the same time fixing the thought upon the dome of the mouth, the tone may be prop- erly placed. In this work, however, the assistance of a teacher is most desirable, if not entirely necessary. In the production of tones the student will discover that it is far easier to vo- calize which is to say, to produce the simple sounds than it is to sing, or to utter articulate words, while giving forth musical sounds. This is precisely where the singer requires the ability to control the action of his lips, and also where it is positively essential that the lips be suffi- ciently strengthened by proper exercise to fully and perfectly perform their functions. While the student can not tell whether he is producing a correct tone or not, being unable to hear his own voice, so far as the tones or qualities are concerned, The pharynx laid open, showing the vocal cords. These are membraneous muscles on either side of the air passage; their function being to modify the tone produced, by contract- ing or relaxing, thus reducing or enlarging the opening, like a reed in wind instruments he can very readily detect any poor tone production in the fact that the inevitable result is tickling and rasping in the throat, such as will make it difficult or impossible to continue. It is not necessary, however, nor is it in any sense desirable, to con- tinue the vocal experiment sufficiently long to find out whether the throat or other parts show signs of injury. The slightest sign of such symptoms should convince the student that he is on the wrong track; either his breathing is not sufficiently strong ; 2.3 350 THE STUDY OF VOCAL MUSIC his enunciation is not sufficiently distinct, or, most probable of all, his sound-focusing is faulty. He must carefully pick his way, paying attention to all these points; giving each note with a strong impulse of the diaphragm ; carefully keeping his mind up- on the diaphragm and -the highest point of his palate, and using his lips in every case for shaping articulate sound. At the slightest sound of weariness in the throat or mouth he should carefully reconsider the sound, as it is more than probable that it is wrongly produced. RESULTS OF PROPER TRAINING. If a voice is properly trained according to the natural method of tone-production, and the student continues to practice properly, so as to strengthen all organs which re- quire strength, he may continue singing indefinitely without weariness, or produc- ing tickling or irritation in his throat or mouth, and feeling no more than such gen- eral lassitude as follows any continued physical exertion. Furthermore, a voice properly trained should last for years, even to old age, and with no other impairment of strength and quality than comes from the inevitable general debility of advancing years. THE NEED OF GOOD INSTRUCTION. While it is very probable that few, if any, students can train themselves to sing properly, with- out the assistance of a competent teacher, it is considerably better for them to try to learn singing by themselves, rigidly observ- ing every direction set forth in this article not attempting the second thing until the first thing is thoroughly mastered than to trust themselves in the hands of any of that very large, ignorant, and vicious ele- ment that thrives by charging exorbitant fees to ruin voices by teaching unnatural methods. COMPASS OF HUMAN VOICES. As shown by the annexed diagrams, the ordinary com- pass of the human voice is between the F sharp below the bass clef and the E above the treble ; the lowest note being in the bass compass and the highest in an exceptionally good soprano. The compass of the various voices, as indicated in these diagrams, is, of course, only approximate, since individual voices differ immensely in both range and power no two having exactly the same com- pass, even though falling under the same general category. One of the most neces- sary things, therefore, for the singer to learn is exactly the range of his own voice, which will enable him to judge the key in which a piece can best be rendered. This means that it is not possible to take a piece of music written for a bass voice, for example, and raise it an octave, in or- der that it may be sung as a soprano solo. On account of limited range and other special properties of voices, it is generally necessary that the key be transposed, as Well as the clef. It is particularly desir- able, especially for beginners and students, that, except in carefully selected practice pieces, they should not attempt to sing in a key containing tones difficult of production. BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION. The classifi- cation of voices is based, not only upon their compass or range of effective tones, but upon the amount of weight and body with which these tones are produced. Thus, the bass has, characteristically, a greater volume of sound than the baritone: it, in turn, is less light and fine than the tenor. The same distinctions hold, also, for female voices. POSITION IN PRACTICE. In practicing singing and the essential breathing exer- cises, it will be found that the standing position is calculated to produce the most satisfactory results. In this position, the action of the lungs and diaphragm is free and unconfined for the production of per- fect tones. PRACTICE ON TONES. When the student has once arrived at a definite knowledge of the proper compass of his voice, the best exercise in tone-production is running the scales, although, at the beginning, he should carefully avoid attempting any tone that seems difficult to produce, whether it be too high or too low. By rigidly observing this rule, he may readily sing the scales and exercises after a few weeks' proper practice. Where the organs have been suffi- ciently strengthened by exercise, and the production of the easy tones is perfected, it will be time to consider whether the tones, hitherto found difficult, may be acquired by practice. As a general rule, nature decides this question. For, with the proper devel- opment of the vocal apparatus, some tones, difficult at first, will be readily produced or easy to attain. Others, however, must al- ways continue to be outside the register even of a cultivated voice, which can not produce a semitone above or below. In practicing singing such simple exer- cises as are shown herewith are usually given to the student. He must sing each tone with the word "too," and must be careful to pronounce it fully and properly; at the same time sending the voice to the highest point in the head, as already de- STUDY OF VOCAL MUSIC 351 scribed the test of correctness being that he. can feel vibration at that point in every separate case. In the earliest exercises given to the vocal student, the end of correct EXERCISE IN ARTICULATION too, too, too, too, too, too, too, too, too. breathing is assured by taking a fresh breath at the end of every note. The place for taking the breath is indicated in primary exercises by a mark "resembling a comma (,) written immediately above the staff. RULES FOR USING THE BREATH. The act of breathing at the end of each note, as in the subjoined exercises, not only involves correct action of the diaphragm, but also attains another desirable object the ability to properly sustain the note for its full value in time. Such exercises should be sounded from the lowest to the highest tone of the scale which the student finds in his available compass, and must be per- sistently practiced until the ability to sus- tain notes to their full value is fully acquired. The next step in the practicing of sing- ing is to master the slur, which must be carefully studied. In general, the produc- tion of slurred or legato movements in singing consists in running through the en- tire range of notes indicated in the written scale on a single inspiration. If the lungs are properly filled with air, the first tone should be attacked boldly and sounded with clear precision; the breath being held, meantime, and sent higher in the head for each succeeding note, until the movement is finished. This rule applies, not only in the production of two tones immediately following in the scale, or seconds, but in ARTICULATION WITH THE SLUR too, too, too, too, too, too, too singing runs of thirds, fourths, fifths, etc., until the entire gamut may be given at a single breath. In order to attain the most satisfactory results in this particular, it is desirable to practice scales of whole or half notes, instead of notes of smaller value, since by this means the important ends of strengthening the diaphragm and enabling the better sustaining of notes are alike attained. It is, therefore, essential that exercises in thirds, fourths, fifths, etc., should not be attempted until the student has mastered the exercises on seconds, as given above. He should first practice to acquire the ability to sustain several notes on one tone, without fresh inspiration; then, to produce two tones on one breath, EXERCISE IN THIRDS EXERCISE IN FOURTHS -&- -SI- EXERCISE IN FIFTHS EXERCISE IN SIXTHS EXERCISE IN THE SCALE and, finally, to connect any possible num- ber, as already explained. ARTICULATION. After thoroughly mas- tering these exercises in tone-production and the sustaining of notes, the important matter of articulation is introduced. In- stead of practicing the successive tones with the syllable "too," the syllable "toe" is to be used. This syllable is the open tone, and is pronounced so that the o is prominent, being given with a quick drop-, ping of the lower jaw. The student must practice all the first exercises with this syllable before advancing. In practicing the scales, the student must 852 THE STUDY OF VOCAL MUSIC work patiently and persistently, without straining or undue effort, so as to run the gamut once, and then twice, according to his breathing power, on a single breath. SHADING AND DRAWING-OUT. When he has succeeded in singing the scales two or three times with a single breath, he will have obtained excellent results. After hav- ing practiced the scales, so as to obtain perfect uniformity in the notes, the next step is to practice shading or the singing of notes loud or soft, and dropping from loud to soft, and rising from soft to loud, on the same note. This is called "drawing-out" tones, and is one of the points in vocal music that should be prac- ticed with the greatest care. As in the violin and other musical instruments, the EXERCISE IN DRAWING-OUT A breath for each note. Very slow. drawing-out of a note, or the alternate crescendo and decrescendo, are indicated by two angles with their points in opposite directions. Only when the student is sufficiently master of his voice to sing through the scale on a single breath is he in position to attempt drawing-out. In studying shad- ing, it is desirable to begin the exercises with the whole note, taking a breath for each one, and carefully practicing the al- ternate increase and decrease as indicated in the following example. PRACTICING OCTAVES. Exercises in oc- taves, or in transitions from any one note to its counterpart eight tones above, may be attempted after the tones are clearly discriminated in the student's mind, and their production, as degrees of the scale, has beca perfected. In singing octaves, especial care should be exercised, since the tones are very liable to be run together, and sung as a unison, instead of as eighths. EXERCISE IN OCTAVES While they must be connected, they must not be dragged together. It is not alto- gether the most advantageous habit to run the scale mentally from the lowest to the highest tone, in the production of eighths, but this may be done at the start in order to ensure accuracy. Altogether the best method of practicing octaves is to return to the lower tone, after sounding the eighth, and taking particular care, mean- time, to keep both tones high in the head. OBSERVATIONS ON PRACTICE. The neces- sary practice involved in rendering singing, or any other form of music, may seem laborious, and, at times, somewhat more than is positively necessary. But the be- ginner must understand that all these mat- ters have been carefully calculated, with a view of giving him facility in the very points that are most essential to good exe- cution. As has already been explained, it is necessary that the breathing apparatus be properly strengthened, and that the production of tones be clear, pure, and ac- curate. If this is not carefully remem- bered, and the directions given by the teacher are not conscientiously observed, it will inevitably follow, not only that one can not learn to sing properly, but also, that in attempting to sing at all, he may do himself serious injury. INSTRUMENTAL SIGHT- READING SELF-TAUGHT THE term, "sight-reading," may mean either of two things: (i) the ability to render any piece on a musical instrument from printed or written notes, without previous practice; (2) the ability to read written notes, with such complete appreciation of the tones indicated on the staff in each case, as to enable the voice to reproduce them apart from instrumental guidance or accompaniment. As may be understood, therefore, the two arts are really distinct; the latter requiring by far the greater training in musical technicalities. Nevertheless, both require patient and careful study, and considerable exercise of memory and discrimination. SIGHT-READING FOR INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN order to acquire the desirable ability to read at sight music for any instru- ment, three things are essential. The first is that the student should be so far mas- ter of his instrument that he can turn, with the least possible hesitation, to the key, fret, touch or valve that represents any desired tone, or semitone; the second, that, by virtue of constant practice, he is perfectly familiar with the notation of writ- ten musical scores, and can readily name ;my line or space in either clef; the third, that, by virtue of the constant use of written notes in practicing, his mind readily co-ordinates the tone indicated by a note on a line or space with the fret or key producing it on his in- strument. In the fewest words, the whole matter of instrumental sight-reading consists in constant, careful, and thoughtful practice at playing from written notes using the ear and the memory for melody or tone- sequence as seldom as possible, if at all. By this means one is enabled not merely to learn single pieces or selections, but also to train the eye to rapidly co-ordinate the written note with the key producing its tone, and to enable the fingers to take the proper position for striking at the moment the mind forms its concept. As with all other mental processes, the es- sential act of learning to read by note is unconscious; following simply as the sense and facility at understanding and acting increase by constant practice. In practicing, however, it is imperative that, no matter how well a piece may be known and mastered, it be always played from notes the eye being compelled to observe each separate element written upon the staff, and the fingers being restrained from acting until the mind has followed the eye. Thus, the habit of closely ob- serving notes and of compelling the fin- gers to perform the acts they indicate is confirmed; making the concrete act more and more automatic and precise, until fa- miliarity with both notes and instrument is complete. The process is undoubtedly tedious at first, and the performance slow, but the student will find that his progress into rapid reading and playing is amaz- ingly easy. At this point it seems desirable to again emphasize the fact that study of music, or (353) 354 INSTRUMENTAL SIGHT-READING SELF-TAUGHT any other subject, should never be a tiring or agonizing process. The brain, like the digestive organs, the heart, lungs, etc., is a machine that works, automatically, un- consciously, and regularly, according to natural laws. There is no need or use, therefore, to "cudgel" it We have only to feed ideas to it, just as we feed nour- ishing substances to the stomach, allowing it to act upon them in its own way and in its own time. By thus following the rules for study and the presentation of ideas to the senses, without worrying or striving, the understanding and familiarity come all of a sudden, when we are not expecting it: the brain has worked upon and assimilated the idea. Therefore, we can only say to the student; "Practice, practice, practice, according to the simple rules given you, and some morning you will wake up and find yourself perfect in your art" The following list of directions is given in several works of instruction in instru- mental music, and is included here for the sake of giving greater clearness to what has already been said : (1) "The student can not turn his at- tention to playing at sight, until he has gone entirely beyond the rudiments, and has attained a certain degree of mechanical skill. (2) "Then, let him choose, in beginning, such works as he can fully master, and which, in special reference to mechanism, offer but few difficulties. (3) "The main rule in practicing read- ing is to play one portion of the piece through from beginning to end, without allowing one's self to be stopped by any difficulty. Although many imperfect chords and indistinct passages may occur, and al- though he may leave out many notes, yet the player must not be misguided by them and stop to correct himself, but play on uninterruptedly and endeavor to give such a rendering as may be, in the main, a faithful picture of the whole work. (4) "He must choose a tempo, or rate of playing, that will make the execution somewhat easy, and yet one not too far removed from that marked at the begin- ning of the piece. (5) "He should play a piece through in this way a few times only at the utmost, and then change it for another. (6) "He will, then, by degrees, acquire facility at quickly conceiving a composi- tion, and learning to read quite readily, even intricate chords and passages. To this end, however, some knowledge of har- mony is in a high degree desirable, if not altogether indispensable. (7) "Playing with others in duets, trios, quartets, arranged for your instrument, as well as with the accompaniment of one or more other instruments, lends a con- siderable zest to practice." VOCAL SIGHT-READING IN ORDER to master any instrument, or to obtain even a moderate facility in singing, easily the most important thing is to acquire familiarity with the scale or gamut in every key. Taking the natural scale of C major, and running the succession of natural tones, either one or two octaves, can train the ear to detect the same proper sequence of tones and semitones in all other major scales. It is far better, however, to thoroughly master the theory of the scale, or gamut; remem- bering that every other key follows the natural, or C, scale, in having a semitone between the third and fourth and between the seventh and eighth degrees in the major, and between the second and third and between the seventh and eighth in the minor. The scales thoroughly discriminated and mastered, the other intricacies of either instrumental or vocal music are naturally and easily understood. When the student of vocal music has reached the stage at which correct tone-production is natural and easy, he will find himself greatly assisted by sounding the tones on the piano, or some other carefully tuned instrument, and reproducing them with his voice. In this work, as in all other steps in the process of learning music, it is in every sense desirable to closely follow a. written score; thus gradually fixing in the mind the correspondences between the lines and spaces of the staff, in either clef, and the tones to be produced by an instrument or by the voice. In the following pages only the general principles have been explained, in order to give the student the benefit of experience, apart from the tech- nical expressions used by various teachers. SIGHT-READING FOR VOCAL MUSIC IN mastering the intricacies of vocal sight- reading, the first step is to obtain per- fect familiarity with the so-called natural scale of C major. Upon this scale are based all the generalizations to be followed later with other keys. In learning to read vocal music, the student is taught to give the degrees as Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, Do, instead of singing, as might be more logical in some ways: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C. These syllables, furthermore, are pronounced, not as in English, but as in other European languages. Thus : Do (doh), RE (ray), Mi (mee), FA (fah), SOL (sole), LA (lah), Si (see) the syl- lable, ah, being always' pronounced broad ; as in the English interjection, "Ah!"; and the syllable, oh, like the interjection, "Oh!" The origin of the syllables denoting the several degrees of the scale is a matter of interest. They represent the first syllables of the seven lines of an ancient Latin hymn, which is as follows : Ut queant laxis. Resonare fibris, Mira gestorum. Famuli tuorum. Solve polluti. Labu reatum, Sancte Joannes. (855) 356 VOCAL SIGHT-READING SELF-TAUGHT This hymn, according to the crude ideas of mediaeval musicians, was sung so that each successive line was rendered on one degree of the scale, from the first to the sixth which is to say, all the words in the first line were given in the tone of C; all in the second, in the tone of D, etc. On account of being sung to this "tune," it furnished a ready model of the gamut in six degrees for students of music. Thus, the lines of the hymn, afterward only the first syllables, came to be used as synonyms for the pitches of the suc- Do may represent the keynote, or first de- gree, of any scale, while RE is the second, Mi the third, etc. Any one attempting to teach himself to sing by note must begin with constant prac- tice in the scale of C major, running it up and down the gamut by seconds and thirds. Having accustomed himself to readily rec- ognize the degree of the scale indicated in written music, it may be possible for him to more readily begin scales in any key with the syllable indicating its tone on the natural scale. Thus, while the scale GAMUT OF C MAJOR cessive degrees. Later, when the seventh degree was recognized in music, the first syllable, sa, of the seventh line, was added to the other six; but, for the sake of euphony, was changed to si. Similarly, ut came to be rendered do by a large ma- jority of authorities. To the present time, however, the seven degrees of the natural scale are designated by French musicians as Ut, Re, Mi, etc., instead of by the let- ters, C, D, E, etc., as with us. The syllables, therefore, correspond pri- marily to the degrees of the scale of C major and this system is rigidly followed by many masters of vocal music. Others again, for the sake of rendering the study simpler in some particulars, consider that of C major begins oh Do, that of its rela- tive A minor, begins on LA. After a little practice, it is quite as simple to begin the scale in any key with the name of the de- gree on the scale of C, as to begin it with the syllable Do. In every case, however, a variation occurs when sharps or flats are to be indicated. Whatever may be the vowel used for the natural tone, its sharp is represented by the letter f (pronounced as e in "me"), and its flat, by the letter w (pronounced as in "bud"). Thus RE S is Ri and RE b is Ru. Thus, in running the scale of C by sharps, we have: Di, Ri, FA, Fi, SIL, Li, Do, Di. In running it by flats, we have: Si, Ru, Mu, Mi, SUL, Lu, Su, Si. TWO BEATS sr cro I MODE OF BEATING TIME TRIPLE TIME ora. COMMON TIME 3d beat strong. VOCAL SIGHT-READING SELF-TAUGHT 357 In these sequences it will be noticed that FA, being the sharp of Mi, which already has the , is substituted for it; and, that Do, being the sharp of Si, also having the i, is also retained. In the scale by flats, Si, being the flat of Do is used instead of "Du," and Mi, being the flat of FA, is used instead of "Fu." Such terminology serves two good ends : ( i ) it provides that the names of the natural tones shall never be varied; (2) it gives the student both visible and audible reminders of the proper intervals of the scale the semitones being indicated by the sequences, FA-Fi, Do-Di, Mu-Mi, and Su-Si. In beginning the study of the scale, the student will find it best to accompany his voice on the piano, or some other instru- ment with which he is thoroughly familiar; always reading the notes from a written or printed staff, and trusting to memory for nothing except the sounds indicated on the lines and spaces, when the instrument is not used. It is most essential from the start to observe the time indicated at the signature; and, even in singing scales, this rule must be followed strictly, in order to give each note an exactly even value. This means that the student must study sight- reading with the assistance of a metro- TIMES OF TWO BEATS. J j j At -i i 1 H IMES O F T* [RE 1 E BEATS. r 1 i 1 1 f i m 4 n -4 V ( l B 1 j j{ V i iii CIS Q a J J, j j j j j j j j j . . I ; ; J TIMES OF FOUR BEATS. l\jf 7-S * i ; i 1 yep <* ' i Lf 12 i ^ i - 1 1 1 T~! T -1 \ W ^> J 000000 -0-04 ^0 VOCAL SIGHT-READING SELF-TAUGHT nome, or preferably by beating the time with a baton or ruler, according to the diagram on page 356. The proper num- ber and directions of the beats are indi- cated in connection with several exercises following. After careful practice has made the stu- dent proficient in reading and rendering the natural scale by consecutive degrees, the next important step is to acquire the in- tervals. This means that he is to sing the scales on thirds from notes, omitting each alternate degree, and producing sounds in- third indicates the third, fifth, and the minor seventh. Of course, the voice can not produce a chord, such as may be sounded on the piano and several other instru- ments, but the object of writing them is that they may be rendered as arpeggios, running quickly from the lowest to the highest indicated tone in the given time. In starting to sing a selection in any given key, the proper tones may be obtained by sounding the chord of the fifth, or dominant, according to the scheme given later. The matter of beating time must now be I. EXERCISES IN THIRDS ON C MAJOR do mi sol si re fa la do la fa re si sol mi do. z? 1 \ _2 z? m ^ \s> \ re fa la do mi sol s sol mi do la fa re. dicated on the staff with as little hesita- tion as possible. At first, unless he has been unusually industrious in learning the scale with consecutive degrees, he will find that his mind will run over the intervening tones, producing audibly only those indi- cated. It is well to state, however, that one can not make himself proficient, until this practice is rendered altogether un- necessary. Therefore, when the student finds himself expert in the scale with con- secutive degrees, he may take up the scales with thirds; practicing them first in con- nection with consecutive scale, then by themselves, until he is able to render any degrees on the scale at sight. While it is essential that he should so practice the scales and intervals that he can readily produce any tone indicated in the key of C, which is the model for others, there are certain intervals that are most important in singing. These are indicated in the following example of chords and should be carefully practiced at this point. IMPORTANT CHORDS IN C MAJOR /L * a The first indicates intervals of the third, the fifth, and the octave; the second, of the fourth, the sixth, and the octave; the briefly discussed, in order to prepare the student for the subsequent exercises. As has already been stated, it is positively es- sential that the singing of all notes of equal length occupy precisely the same in- terval of time in each case, as indicated by the beats. Of course, at the start the rate of beating time will be necessarily slower than in the more advanced stages: it must, however, be perfectly even from the first, even though each beat occupy a large fraction of a minute. Carelessness in this particular will cause the time of a piece to vary, hence confirming nearly the worst of all habits in singing. Another thing of -great importance is that the hand, in beating time, should be moved as nearly as possible at an even rate of speed ; pre- cisely like the vibrating tongue of the met- ronome. This is essential for the reason that the singing should follow the time in- dicated by the hand, and at no time should the hand follow the time of the singing. For the guidance of the student several specimens of common measures are in- cluded, the number of beats being indicated. Such an exercise as No. II will illustrate at once the time value of measures in beats. It is comparatively easy to render either seconds or thirds in the diatonic scale, but the exercise in sounding the tones, indicated in such a piece as this, is p valuable step in practical note-reading. VOCAL SIGHT-READING SELF-TAUGHT 359 As soon as the student has arrived at the point where he can readily and ac- curately produce any tone indicated on the staff which fact he may readily prove by sounding the indicated note on the in- strument, after giving it, or attempting it, with his voice he may proceed to the study of the chromatic scale. In studying this scale, which proceeds by semitones, the student will find himself faced by a real difficulty; since it requires long and ear- fork, witnout so rendering the other con- secutive tones. This enables the student to obtain the habit of self-confidence and in- dependence of instrumental assistance, which is the very thing he is studying to obtain. It is always well, however, to start by sounding the keynote or the chord of the fifth. Proficiency in giving accidental semi- tones may be discovered by the success in rendering such an exercise as No. Ill, in which the time is indicated, but not the tonic II. EXERCISE ON INTERVALS IN C MAJOR Not too fast. q I | | "g=g=| do re do re mi re mi fa mi fa sol fa sol la st sol fa sol fa mi fa mi re mi re do re do. nest practice to fully and finally identify the sharp or flat occurring between two natural tones. It is a matter, however, that must be studied with the same per- sistence and thoroughness as has been ex- pended on the diatonic scale, since the sounds, indicated by accidental semitones in the key of C, form the degrees in all other keys. It is, therefore, more desir- able in running the chromatic scale, both syllables. It is well to associate these syllables so thoroughly in the mind with the tones to which they correspond that their proper names, as well as their tones, may be recognized and rendered whenever they are indicated on the staff. After the scale of C major is so thor- oughly learned that the student can sing it at sight, or correctly render any of its degrees in any order on the staff; and CHROMATIC SCALES IN C MAJOR do di re ri mi fa fi sol sil la li si do. Elfo i = -to5 -&& -^& & I do ru re mu mi fa sul sol lu li su si do. upward and downward, to sing them both by sharps and flats; the difference being always indicated by the syllables used, as already explained. This is for the purpose of giving the required training in producing each incidental correctly, whether it be written as a sharp or as a flat. In practicing the scale, particularly the chromatic, it is desirable to start by sound- ing the keynote on the piano or a tuning- after the chromatic scale is mastered in the same way, and with the same result, it is possible to begin systematic study on the other keys, both major and minor. This is true, because, after proficiency in the key of C has been attained, the student has the materials at hand to render him a thoroughly equipped sight-reader. The other keys are, therefore, mere variations on the chromatic scale of C; beginning 360 VOCAL SIGHT-READING SELF-TAUGHT III. EXERCISE IN CHROMATICS AND INTERVALS Note well the beats throughout thts piece. Moderately slow. Ut,, fl -?> j 1 1 -T i rr-fr^ Efti-r r ii-gu Count. 123 4, 1234, bdH-H jd3=^f W 1234, -J J h -r f 3- -f- 1 2 S 5 ^, 123 4, 1234, ,' I ul III ; h Ep==t^t^ 1 2 3 4, 1234, 1234, 1 ._* J_ 1 1 f ^ 1 234, 1234, 1 2 34, h^ y \r* Hi* h 1 [& J s^ - r j - --J * i ~^ J~ F ~*-f 1234, 1234, 1234, * r 1234, 1234, 1234, 9 9 ^fe r f -t- ' i ** '* ' ^ '"^J. 1234, 1 234, 1234, 1234, 1 2 3 4, 1234 at any desired tone as keynote, and ob- serving the proper intervals of the scale, major or minor, as already indicated. Since the signs following the clef are not sufficient of themselves to show whether the piece is in the major or minor mode, The perfect chords of the various keys, both major and minor, are given in the following examples. The mode in which a piece is written in any given key may be readily recognized in playing or singing it. The minor chord is usually described SOL MAJOR. bJj?, { & a <9 -&. & gy r=\ sol la si do re mi fi sol, sol fi mi re do si la sol. FA MAJOR. A -^ ' ^n & gy- ^ _TIJ O. ^ ?5- & fy bffcB 1 * ' s> & i i & -, \ fa sol la su do re mi fa, fa mi re do su la sol fa. it is necessary to look through the music in order to find the notes forming the perfect chord which is to say, the chord of the tonic or keynote as the fundamental, with the third and fifth above it. The melody or the accompaniment should indi- cate one or the other of these. as having a "more sad and melancholy effect" than that of its corresponding ma- jor, or, in more descriptive words, seems to indicate a movement that is restrained or held back. Although, as already stated, all keys pro- ceed easily after the key of C is thor- GAMUT OF LA MINOR, THE RELATIVE OF DO MAJOR. ^^p^ la si do re mi fi si) la. la sol fa mi re do si la. VOCAL SIGHT-READING SELF-TAUGHT 361 oughly mastered by notes, the student must constantly and carefully observe the sig- natures in practicing the other keys. This is true, because, except in the minor mode, the sharps and flats are not marked in the measures, but are always sounded through- out, as written at the signature. As can not be too ^trongly emphasized, each key must be taken up in order, pref- erably in the order of its derivation thus, C and its relative, A minor; G, one sharp, and its relative, E minor, etc., as shown in the accompanying examples. Furthermore, the student must continue to practice scales and exercises in each successive key, until he can read readily any piece written in that key. As already stated, the keynote and the third and fifth degrees are the tones by which the student can most easily learn all the rest of the scale. Bearing in mind that he has to learn two distinct things in studying sight-read- ing the tones corresponding to the notes on the staff in each case, and the habit of retaining the time correctly by beats it is necessary at this point to mention a few things, regarding which the student must MAJOR MINOR. PERFECT CHORDS IN THE MAJOR AND MINOR KEYS Do. Sol. Rr. La. IT Mu. Lu. 362 VOCAL SIGHT-READING SELF-TAUGHT $: Andante. IV. EXERCISE IN LA MINOR * Fine., J 3=3 al Segno. 1 \ 1 1 ' 1 H ipH^ L 3 LMd hj. ^ zs 1 1 be particularly careful. Foremost among these may be mentioned syncopation, which furnishes a difficulty that must be thor- oughly mastered in beating time. Since syncopation indicates a variation from the proper accent of the measure, the synco- pated note must be strongly accented, thus necessitating a corresponding variation from the order of beats already given. Like all other subjects worth learning, the study of vocal sight-reading involves hard work, which the student must per- form for himself. In attempting to master this subject, without the assistance of a teacher, one must be even more conscien- tious and careful than if under constant personal direction. He must thoroughly read and digest all the directions given in this article, and must follow them to the best of his ability. When he has thoroughly mastered all the exercises here given, he should proceed to the study of any simple hymn tunes or popular airs of which he has notes. Since his success depends en- tirely upon himself, he should carefully observe two things: (i) Never leave a thing, no matter how hard it may be, until it is thoroughly mastered, as may be proved by comparing the accuracy of your note- reading by a musical instrument, as al- ready explained; (2) since you are study- ing to read from notes, avoid trusting to your ear or memory, as far as possible. In taking simple pieces for practice, choose those rather with which you are not fa- miliar. In short, in learning to read notes, proceed precisely as you did when you were learning to read words; always en- deavoring to derive your ideas of tone from the note you see written on the staff, until you are so familiar with the staff that it represents to your mind tones and semitones, instead of merely lines, spaces, and measures. V EXERCISE IN FA MAJOR WITH SYNCOPATION A llegretlo grazioso. SYNCOPATION. PHOTOGRAPH? A/IATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY is one of the most attractive and permanently interesting forms of amusement. Its practice in- cludes everything from the simplest of mechanical operations to the intricacies of modern chemistry. Some definite technical instruc- tion, therefore, becomes necessary in order to introduce the beginner to the subjects he must study in connection with making pictures. In the selection of an instrument, it is desirable to consider whether to buy a simple affair, which will require only the touching of a button, or an apparatus more difficult to operate. The matter is one worth care- ful consideration, because a good, serviceable camera will prove a life- long companion, while a toy will never furnish opportunity for an extended study of photography. An instrument that can be used either with films or dry plates is one of the most recent innovations, and permits of a wide range of work with great convenience for the operator. In selecting the camera, bear in mind the importance of having the size such as will be useful for your requirements. Should it be intended to print direct from negatives, a camera with plate about five by seven inches would be the most desirable size, while for lantern slides and en- largements a smaller plate, yielding pictures about three and one-quarter bv four and one-quarter inches, would be desirable. AS specified by several authorities on photography, the following articles are positively essential to a well-regulated outfit, and should be provided: (i.) Trays of the various sizes required. (2.) Scale for weighing grains and ounces; apothecaries' weights. (3.) A thermometer to measure the tem- perature of solutions. (4.) A hydrometer to test the strength of the solutions. (This instrument should be tested for its correctness by measuring a solution of nitrate of silver, 40 grains oer fluid ounce, which should indicate 40. In case of a material difference, use the figure the instrument shows instead of 40, or pro- cure a hydrometer which is correct.) (5.) A one (i) ounce graduate. (6.) A pint or quart graduate. (7.) A glass stirring rod. (8.) Bottles for solutions, labelled and provided with good corks. (9.) A camel's-hair brush for dusting plates. Especial care must be taken to thoroughly wash and cleanse the trays after each using. (863) 364 PHOTOGRAPHY On frequent occasions, also, they should be thoroughly cleaned with sulphuric or muri- atic acid, washed and scrubbed with a brush. In case it is possible to have more than one lens, better results can be obtained by having one specially adapted for short and the other for long distances, a wide-angle lens being preferable for interiors. The tripod should always be as light as possible, and a mackintosh focusing cloth is the most useful for all weathers. The work of focusing the object to be taken will be found by the amateur the most difficult thing when first starting out. Of course, where a snap-shot camera is used, there is what we designate a finder attached, and one has only to look at this to see mirrored in it a picture of the scene or ob- ject to be taken. By exercising the judg- ment for a moment, the best distance and elevation at which to snap the button will be easily seen. When using an ordinary camera and tripod it is entirely different, and mathematical accuracy is necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory picture. The first point is to ascertain the focus of the lens with which the camera is fitted. The focus means that point at which the re- flected rays of light meet, or, more plainly speaking, the central point of vision to the camera. It will be apparent to the novice that, owing to the divergency of the rays of light entering the camera, some system of regu- lating their action on the plate or film must be adopted. By obtaining what is known as the equivalent focus, the operator will learn in what position to place the camera before interposing the shutter. Several ex- act mathematical formulae have been used for finding this, but the following simple and practical rule is given by Cramer : "The equivalent focus of a lens may be ascertained by focusing an object so that it will show on the ground glass in exactly its original size, then measuring the distance Vom object to ground glass and dividing ame by 4. Another way is to focus on the sun and to measure the distance from the optical centre of the combination (where diaphragm is placed), to the ground glass, the sun focus and equivalent focus being approximately the same." With the modern rapid plates and ad- justable lens shutters, it is possible to take photographs in a very small fraction of a second. The time of exposure is adjusted with regard to two things: (i) the number of the diaphragm, and (2) the nature, etc., of the object and its distance from the camera. Diaphragms are interchangeable, and each is numbered, according to the ratio be- tween its diameter and the focal length of the lens. Thus, with a focal length of 6 inches and a diaphragm diameter of l /i inch, we have 6-^.5=12, or as usually expressed, F 12. For the same lens and focal length, the relative time exposure with two different diaphragms is found by dividing the smaller of their two numbers (found as above), and squaring the quotient. Thus, if we have F 4 and F 16, the operation is as follows: i6-=-4= 4 4 squared (4X4)=i6. These figures indicate, therefore, that the diaphragm numbered 16 requires 16 times as long an exposure, under given condi- tions, as that numbered 4. English-made camera diaphragms are numbered by a somewhat different system the numbers used indicating at a glance the relative length of exposure required. This is seen in the following comparative table. i equals F'4 4 " F'8 8 " F/n 16 " F/i6 32 " F/22 64 " F/32 128 " F/45 256 " F/64 Modern cameras for instantaneous work have attachments for varying the size of the diaphragm opening, also for timing the exposure. In taking instantaneous photographs of moving objects, it is necessary to time the exposure so as to prevent the picture from being blurred, as must certainly result from over-exposure under such conditions. Va- rious mathematical rules have been given for determining this matter, but none of them is wholly practical, except where the photographer has plenty of time before- hand to arrange all details. The best prac- tice is to focus on the object, or on the spot where it will appear as in the case of a railroad train on a track, or of horses and wagons on a road and adjust for an ex- posure according to the following table. As may be readily understood, an object moving toward the camera may be taken with an exposure generally about 3 times longer than an object moving at right PHOTOGRAPHY 365 MOVING AT RIGHT TOWARD ANGLES TO CAMERA. CAMERA i-i5thsec. i-45th sec. i-iS i -20 i-45 1-60 1-40 I-I2O -IOO 1-300 -100 1-300 -150 -200 I-4SO 1-600 -2OO 1-600 If distance and double angles to it, or across the line drawn from the lens tube outward. OBJECT Man walking slowly Cattle grazing . . Boating 1-20 Man walking, children playing 1-40 Pony and cart, trotting Ordinary cycling . . Man running and jumping Cycle racing .... Horses galloping . . Halve exposure for 1 for twice distance from object. Some little experience is necessary to enable one to judge correctly in this matter, as the only really reliable rules are ex- perimental. In determining such points, the photographer should keep careful notes of all plates exposed and of the results ob- tained in developing them. Thus, in cases of uncertainty, a good practice is to ex- pose three plates; one for about the time prescribed, one for a somewhat shorter period, one for a somewhat longer period, and compare the results obtained. Where glass plates are used the holders should be numbered, and records kept, on each occasion, of the time of exposure of the plates, etc. With a film, the records may be kept by the numbers appearing as it is turned forward. THE DARK ROOM The dark room is a necessary adjunct to the camera, but it need not be a matter of heavy cost to the amateur. A large closet or pantry with a fair-sized window in it will answer better than anything else; otherwise a portion of a room can be used with a corner which may be screened off for the purpose. Total darkness, of course, is not what is required of this chamber, the purpose being only to exclude all actinic, or white, rays of light. Run- ning water will be a great convenience, if available. The exclusion of all undesirable light must be very complete. Thick baize curtains falling very full upon the floor, must be arranged at the doorway. The window should be glazed with ruby glass, of two thicknesses, on the inside of which there should be a curtain or blind of me- dium-weight yellow material. A developing sink will be the next thing necessary, and for this purpose cheap apparatus can be bought or some simple substitute arranged. The^ all-important point about the dark room is to have every ray of white, or ordinary, light positively excluded. In or- der to test the room, and provide that not even the tiniest ray is admitted, even as small as would come through a keyhole, darken the window thoroughly, and then, having adjusted the curtains, watch for some time in the total darkness to see if any streak of light becomes visible. Some writers recommend that a screen be placed before the entrance wherever pos- sible, making a "zigzag" passage into the dark room and avoiding the necessity of more elaborate precautions for excluding rays of daylight. This is not always pos- sible, however, owing to lack of room, and by the use of properly arranged screens or curtains the end may be quite as fully attained. Where it is not convenient to have a window in the dark room it will be neces- sary to use a lamp, fitted with a red or yellow chimney. A swinging screen made on the principle of a looking-glass can be interposed between the lamp and the de- veloping bath, so as to allow of minimizing the light while manipulating the pictures. This because it is not desirable to expose the plate to a strong light until it is thor- oughly developed. A great convenience in the dark room is a fan driven by electrical or water power, not only for the purpose of preventing the temperature from rising too high in hot weather, but also as an assistance in dry- ing the negatives. If the negatives are dried in a hot and sultry atmosphere, they are liable to become too intense. The fan is also useful in keeping the solutions cool, when the bottles are wrapped in wet flan- nel and set in a shallow dish containing water. It is necessary, however, to main- tain a comfortable heat in the dark room during cold weather. In developing a plate or film, pour a sufficient quantity of the developing solu- tion to cover the plate into a shallow tray. The plate should either be slid into the tray, which is slightly tilted in the process, to ensure an even flow of the liquid over its surface, or it is laid, face upward, in the tray and the developer is poured over it with one sweep of the arm. Air bubbles may be removed with a piece of filtering cotton kept in clean water. During the process of development, the tray should be gently rocked every now and then, care being taken to keep the solution always over its surface, in order to prevent the staining liable to result from exposure to the air. In order to discover if the plate is suffi- 24 366 PHOTOGRAPHY ciently developed and the figures possess the required density, it may be removed quickly from the tray and held up to the light. This process, however, should be repeated no oftener than necessity requires. A plate that has been properly exposed will speedily develop; the high lights ap- pearing first and the half-tones and shad- ows in rapid succession thereafter. If it has been overexposed, the whole image, with lights and shadows, appears simul- taneously, but the effect is flat and the de- tails are imperfect. The condition may be remedied by the use of bromide of potas- sium, as will be presently explained. An underexposed plate will develop slowly, and with imperfect effect on the shadows. This may be remedied by soaking the plate after cleansing in pure water, and then returning it to a fresh developer, or else by using a diluted solution. In either case the process of developing is greatly prolonged, but the result will be a strengthening in the shad- ows, and, with good care, a satisfactory printing plate. All light should be ex- cluded from an underexposed plate in proc- ess of prolonged development. Some developers have been condemned for their unpleasant effects on the hands, but the objection to those containing strong alkalies and acids can scarcely be over- come, as such ingredients are necessary to proper work. A comparatively new chemi- cal compound known as metol is being ad- vocated by one school of photographers, while pyrogallic acid, or "pyro," hydro- quinone, ettconogen, amidol, and half a dozen others are still used extensively. Me- tol has, perhaps, received more favor re- cently than any other developer, and many advantages are claimed on account of the rapidity of its action. A method of development, known as the "Universal," is used by many as combining the quick effects of metol and the slow work of glycin. It is said to be produc- tive of the finest possible results irrespec- tive of the time of exposure. By using this solution as many as two dozen plates can be developed at a time. The outcome is certain and eminently satisfactory ; good, quick-printing negatives, full of tone and style, being produced. In this method a large fixing-box with a tight cover to it will be necessary, and a normal plate will develop in about thirty minutes. The for- mulas are as follows : No. i . Metol 20 grains Sulphite soda crystal 3-4 ounce Water ao ounces No. 2. Glycin ao grains Sulphite soda crystal 50 Carbonate potass 100 " Hot water a ounces Add 18 ounces water when all the ingredi- ents are dissolved. These two formulas can be combined for neutral results, care being taken not to place the negatives in a bath which has been used for fixing purposes. The plates should be so arranged in the bath that the developer can reach them readily, and the liquid must be kept moving while the plates are immersed. The so-called "pyrogallic" developer pre- sents many advantages over most others. Like the "Universal," it is a combination of two different solutions, as follows: No. i. Sulphuric acid 10 drops Cold boiled water 6 ounces Pyrogal 1 ic acid i ounce No. 2. Sulphite of soda (crystals) 6 ounces Carbonate of soda (crystals) 4 ounces Hot water 15 ounces Cool and filter For normal exposures, mix i drachm of No. i and y* ounce of No. 2 in 3 ounces of pure water. For an overexposed plate, add to this 3 or 4 drops of a 10 per cent solution of sal bromide of potash in water. For underexposure, add only water. After the plate has been sufficiently de- veloped, it should be carefully rinsed and placed in a grooved tank containing the fixing solution. An essential part of this stage of the process is dissolving off the bromide of silver, which has been affected by both the light and the developing so- lution. The fixing bath should be pro- longed some five minutes or so after the silver appears to have been dissolved away, in order to ensure permanency, perfect hardening and freedom from stains. If properly exposed and developed, a plate will not require intensifying or re- ducing, but, if necessary, may be immersed in these solutions : No. i. Bichloride of mercury i ounce Water 20 ounces The negative is kept immersed in this solution until the film is evenly whitened. It should then be immersed in this solu- tion : No. 2. Sulphide of soda i ounce Water 20 ounces which will cause it to assume a dark brown- ish color. The process may be repeated PHOTOGRAPHY 367 until the desired density is obtained, after which the plate should be thoroughly washed. Plates that have been overexposed and overdeveloped may be reduced by the fol- lowing solutions : No. i. Soda hyposulphite i ounce Water 16 ounces No.2. Red prussiate of potash i ounce Water 16 ounces Take 8 ounces of No. i and i ounce of No. 2 as a bath for a plate already fixed. If the plate is dry it may be soaked for half an hour. In order to avoid streaks, rinse the negative before holding it up for examination, and when sufficiently reduced wash thoroughly. Since these reducing solutions may be affected by light, they should be kept care- fully in a dark place. The best fixing solution for general pur- poses is as follows : Soda hyposulphite i part Water 4 parts giving a hydrometer test of about 80. This bath may be used only until it be- gins to show discoloration, when it should be thrown away. In order to obtain a superior harden- ing of the negative that will permit of washing in warm water and drying by ar- tificial heat, a mixture of the following two solutions may be used : No. i. Soda hyposulphite 32 ounces Water (7 pints) 112 ounces No.2. Sulphuric acid (C. P.) 1-2 ounce Soda sulphite (dry) 3 ounces Chrome alum (powdered) 2 ounces Water 32 ounces In mixing No. 2 it is important to meas- ure the ingredients accurately, and pour them into the water in the order named. No. 2 should then be poured into No. i, never the reverse, the. pouring being ac- companied by constant stirring, in order to prevent precipitation and consequent in- effectiveness of the combined solution. In cold weather, half the quantity of No. 2 is usually sufficient to secure good results. This bath may be used repeatedly with- out becoming discolored, but should be replaced by a new one as soon as it ap- pears to have become exhausted. The negative should be left in solution for from 5 to 10 minutes after the silver has been dissolved. Spots on the negative, or pinholes, as they are termed, should be looked after before the printing is attempted. The best method is to touch them with carmine, using a very fine brush for the purpose. Other defects in the negative are remedied by what is known as retouching. Dark marks are either painted over on the nega- tive or in the print, and lighter ones may be fixed by using a soft lead-pencil. PRINTING It is probable that the amateur will find it more convenient to buy paper ready cut for printing his pictures on from the nega- tives. There are numerous kinds upon the market, each having its advocates, and in some instances being befter suited to cer- tain purposes. In order to spare time and consider- able- trouble the amateur will be wise to use paper which is ready prepared and sen- sitized, rendering the amateur's work com- paratively easy from this stage on. Carbon papers are used much less than formerly, the albumenized and the gelatino-citro- chloride papers now having the preference. It is claimed for the latter that they pro- duce prints of greater richness and bril- liancy than any others. A very essential point in the amateur's outfit is to get a few good printing frames, as it will spare many troubles and annoy- ances in the course of the work. See that the back of the frame is made of hard wood, so as to prevent warping or shrink- ing, as the spring must always work easily yet firmly. Otherwise the prints will shift about, causing any amount of inconvenience and disappointment. It is well to have the inner side of the back of the frame lined with velvet. A small cloth pad, cut rather smaller than the size of the negative, will also be required. When films are used place a piece of glass in the printing frame, with the back of the negative toward the glass, to prevent the film from curling. Before placing the paper in the frame in contact with the negative, dust both thoroughly with either a velvet or a camel's-hair brush. In order to get the negative and paper arranged in correct po- sition in the frame, so that the printing will be straight, hold the frame up to the light so as to be sure that both are exactly in place. Always be careful to print from the film side of the negative, or disas- trous results will ensue. The printing frame and accessories should be kept well ai 'ed and free from damp, in order that Murring may be avoided. PHOTOGRAPHY Exposure to the sun is not necessary for printing, but when the paper and film are firmly fixed in the frame, a spot should be selected where the light is steady. The frame should then be placed at an angle of 30 degrees toward the point from which the light comes. The shadow of a building often affords a suitable place for the frame, and window-sills are commonly used to stand the frame upon. The face of the frame should be placed opposite to the sky at the angle stated, and care taken that the sun does not strike the frame, as it will ruin the proofs by casting shadows on them. When the frame is placed in sunlight the glass should be covered with tissue- paper, and particular notice taken that there are no pinholes in the film, because they will undoubtedly cause markings on the print. Skill in printing can only be acquired with practice and familiarity with materials used, as there are some papers which print much more rapidly than others. Allow- ance must be made for the subsequent ton- ing and fixing, which will have the effect of further lightening the print. A good rule is to first print to the finished shade and then allow a little for toning out. Where there is an unequal amount of light and shade in a negative, it should be printed darker. This rule also holds with a thin, dense negative. It will be necessary to open the frame to see how far the printing has proceeded. Care should be taken to shield the prints from a direct light when this is done. When all the detail in the more obscure portions of the negative is visible on the proof, the printing may, as a rule, be con- sidered dark enough, and the proofs should be placed in a light-proof box which is en- tirely free from dust. When, through ac- cident, a good negative has not been ob- tained, and it is not possible to obtain one, it sometimes becomes necessary to use the best taken. In this case, there are many ways of improving the negative so that a fairly satisfactory result can be obtained. When a negative is weak, the gelatino- citro-chloride paper is the best to print upon. In order to strengthen a weak negative place two sheets of thin white tissue-paper at its back, so as to prevent the light from striking it too strongly. This will secure a better result than could come from too rapid printing. Negatives can sometimes be colored for the purpose of equalizing the lights and shadows, but in that case must never be exposed to direct sunlight. Where there is too dense a shadow on certain parts of a portrait, they may be lightened with yellow paint or Prussian blue Errors in focusing may often be palliated by careful trimming. It will generally be found necessary to trim the print in order to get it in proper shape for mounting. There will either be . too much fore or back ground, odd spacing at the sides and other irregularities which the judicious use of the trimming- knife will overcome. TONING AND FIXING Fortunately there are ready-toned papers now and the amateur is not compelled to master the rather difficult process of ton- ing, unless from a desire to thoroughly understand all details. Toning is a very, delicate operation, and undoubtedly a few unfortunate experiments will precede the accomplishment of expert results. For the ready sensitized paper, which it is probable the amateur will use, the borax bath is recommended. This is made from the following formula: Gold chloride, I grain ; borax, 100 grains ; water, 10 ounces. It should be made about an hour before using. Purple tints can be ob- tained from this toning, but not blue or cold tones. The prints should not be al- lowed to remain in the solution too long, as otherwise the action of the chemicals will produce the opposite results to those desired. The best rule to follow is to watch the whites in the print, and as soon as bleaching or a bluish tinge commences to show, to take them out, as the shadows will be already sufficiently toned. The process of toning can be stopped in gelatine prints when they are taken from the bath by putting a handful of salt into the toning bath and redipping them. The toning bath for gelatine papers is made as follows : Gold chloride, 2 grains ; sulpho- cyanide of ammonium, 30 grains; water, 16 ounces. Toning by gaslight is often preferred by those who use papers which have been sensitized by themselves. Toning after fixing is resorted to by some photographers. The process is as fol- lows : Take three ounces of hypo and dis- solve in twenty ounces of water to make the fixing bath. In this immerse the prints for ten minutes. Then wash them for two hours. Take a grain of gold chloride and increase it with water to one ounce. For PHOTOGRAPHY 369 one minute immerse the prints in this and then remove to the ordinary toning bath. Be careful to watch the toning by reflected light, and, when perfect, wash the prints for another hour and they will be ready for enamelling or burnishing. Among the many kinds of paper made for direct printing from negatives, we find two distinct classes: (a) the printing-out, and (&) the developing. In the 'first class are such papers as Solio, Maximo, Plati- num, and blue-print, each of which is to be treated in accordance with the written directions accompanying the package con- taining it. In the second class are the devel- oping papers, which show no effect of the contact with light, until placed in the developing solution. Then the image ap- pears at once, constantly increasing until the required density is attained. Progress may be checked at any point by placing the print in water made slightly acid by using Yz ounce of acetic acid in i quart of water. The print is then placed in the fixing bath for about ten minutes, after which it is washed in running water for about one hour. Among such papers are the Velox, Cyko, Argo, etc., each of which is treated in accordance with the printed directions ac- ;ompanying the package. All of them may be used to print by artificial light. A good general formula for use with any of these papers may be made as fol- lows : Metol 8 grains Soda sulphite (crystals) 240 grains Hydroquinone 31 grains Carbonate of soda (crystals).. .400 grains Water 10 ounces To this may be added about 6 drops of a 10 per cent solution of bromide of potash. Should prints become stained or show black lines, the effect may be renewed by the use of Oronol 1-2 ounce Water I 1-2 ounces An overexposed print may also be cleared by the use of this same solution. It should be applied to the face of the print with a piece of cotton or a camel's-hair brush. For a fixing bath use Soda hyposulphite i ounce Water 4 ounces ENAMELLING The prints can be taken direct from the bath. See that the enamelling plate is clean, free from scratches, and has a brilliant surface. Warm the plate slightly and rub roughly over it a piece of pure beeswax. With a dry, soft flannel rag warm the plate until the wax melts. With the rag rub it all over the plate until every particle of the glass is covered. Being sure of this, commence rubbing the wax off again on the flannel. Rub lightly, in a circular direction, and evenly distribute all over the plate. When the wax has almost disappeared from the glass, take a clean flannel and give it a final polishing. Stop as soon as the wax has become invisible over the entire surface of the glass, which will then really be covered by a thin film of wax. The glass is now in perfect condition, and the prints, after being allowed to drip for a few minutes, should be laid, face downward, one at a time, on the plate glass. Press them firmly into contact with it and use a squegee to remove any air-bells. Then stand the glass on end in a dry, warm place, and as the prints dry they will gradually drop off, each one being beauti- fully polished. If any of the prints stick, they can be removed by loosening the edges with a knife. MOUNTING The final process of mounting is one requiring only care and cleanliness. There are any number of good mountants in the market, although it may be well to give a formula in case one may desire to make his own. Dissolve one ounce of gum arabic in three ounces of water and mix in a mortar with one ounce of starch. Heat in a dish until clear. When the mountant is ready for use, lay the prints face downward upon some oiled paper and carefully apply the liquid to the back. Then place it on the mount or card- board and squegee it so as to make sure of its adhering firmly. Laid on top of each other with glass plates and small blocks of wood between, the cards soon dry and are sure to be perfectly flat when un- packed. We now have our photograph ready for any purpose, having gone through all the various processes necessary to per- fect it. OUTDOOR PORTRAITURE In taking a portrait out of doors, the sitter should be placed so as to face the north, out of the direct sunshine. Em- ploy a friend to hold a large umbrella at 870 PHOTOGRAPHY such an angle as will shade one side of the sitter's face and the top of head. The exact position for the umbrella can be as- certained by finding at what angle a good modelling of the features is obtainable. For a background an old yellow blanket, kept moving while the exposure is made, will serve very well, and a good picture can be obtained with little trouble. In landscape photography, the easiest method to pursue, until one desires to attempt more ambitious things, is what photographers term "natural focusing." The main point of this is to focus the principal object in the view, allowing all others to be subordinate to it. The result is a picture exactly representing the scene as it appears to the naked eye. The rules given concerning exposures, according to the laws regulating the foci, will prove safe for general work. Objects in motion can be photographed successfully by observing the position which may be denned as essentially character- istic. It is to seize this that the opera- tor must watch, making an exposure just at the moment. When the position of the object is oblique, either from or toward the camera, results may be obtained more easily and satisfactorily. This rule should always be remembered in photographing animals, vehicles, or vessels in motion. The shorter the exposure the better the results. In marine negatives, the composition should be the reverse of that for a land- scape, because the more spirited it is the more pleasing the result Care should be taken not to overexpose the plate or blur- ring will result, because the reflected light on the water is so much stronger than that found in landscapes. In this class of pic- tures, the shorter the exposure the better. The way that fancy pictures are made and tricks performed with the camera may be worth mentioning. A square piece of black paper is placed in front of the lens at a distance equal to three-eighths of the back focus, so as to hide half the range of the lens. One exposure is made, and the piece of paper is then turned over so as to cover the other half of the range. Then another exposure is taken, any objects in the exposed part of the range having been meanwhile transferred to the other half be- fore the lens was uncapped. Care should be taken not to move the instrument while the exposures are being" made. This is the way in which spirit photographs are ob- tained. The beginner will do well to bear in mind the different conditions in regard to photographing m summer and winter. Quicker plates, as a rule, will be found more advantageous in the winter and a larger stop can be used on the camera. In developing plates or films it will be found advisable to warm up the developer slightly in very cold weather, so that it will work on the negatives more quickly and effectively. ARCH! EC PURE ARCHITECTURE, or the art of planning and raising edifices, ap- pears to have been among the earliest inventions. The first habitations of men were such as nature afforded, with but little labor on the part of the occupant, and sufficient to supply his simple wants grottos, huts, and tents. In early times, the country of Judea, which is mountainous and rocky, offered cavernous retreats to the inhabitants, who accordingly used them instead of artificial places of shelter. From various passages in Scripture, it appears that these caves were often of great extent, for, in the sides of the mountain of Engedi, David and six hundred men concealed themselves. In the course of time, art was em- ployed to fashion the rude cavernous retreats, and to excavate blocks by which rude buildings were compiled in more convenient situations. The progress of architecture, however, from its first dawn, differed in almost every different locality. Whatever rude structure the climate and materials of any country obliged its early inhabitants to adopt for their temporary shelter, the same structure, with all its prominent features, was afterward kept up by their refined and opulent posterity. From the cause now mentioned the Egyptian style of building had its origin in the cavern and mound ; the Chinese architecture, with its pavilion roofs and pointed minaret, is molded from the Tartar tent; the Grecian is derived from the wooden cabin; and the Gothic from the bower of trees. It is evident that necessity as much as choice or chance led to the adoption of the different kinds of edifices. After mankind had learned to build houses, they commenced the erec- tion of temples to their gods, and these they made still more splendid than private dwellings. Thus architecture became a fine art, which was first displayed on the temples, afterward on the habitations of princes and public buildings, and at last became a universal want in society. Traces of these eras of advancement in the art of erecting buildings are found in various quarters of the globe, especially in Eastern countries, where the remains of edifices are discovered of which fable and poetry can alone give any account. The most remarkable of these vestiges of a primi- tive architecture are certain pieces of masonry in the island of Sicily as well as in some other places, called the works of the Cyclops, an ancient (3713 372 ARCHITECTURE and fabulous race of giants, mentioned by Homer in his Odyssey. By whom these walls were actually erected is unknown. Of the progressive steps from comparative rudeness to elegance of design, history affords no certain account, and we are often left to gather facts from merely casual notices. The most ancient nations known to us, among whom architecture had made some progress, were the Babylonians, whose most celebrated buildings were the temple of Belus, the palace and hanging gardens of Semiramis; the Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splendid buildings; the Phoenicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, Aradus, and Sarepta, were adorned with equal magnificence; the Israelites, whose temple was considered as a wonder of architecture; the Syrians and the Philistines. No architectural monument of these nations has, however, been transmitted to us; but we find subterraneous temples of the Hindoos, hewn out of the solid rock, upon the islands Elephanta and Sal- sette, and the mountains of Ellora. These temples may be reckoned among the most stupendous ever executed by man. The circuit of the excavations is about six miles. The temples are 100 feet high, 145 feet long, and 62 feet wide. They contain thousands of figures, appearing, from the style of their sculpture, to be of ancient Hindoo origin. Everything about them, in fact, indicates the most persevering industry in executing one of the boldest plans. VARIOUS STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE EGYPTIAN STYLE OF ARCHI- TECTURE ALL the architectural remains of an- cient times sink into insignificance when compared with those of Egypt. The obelisks, pyramids, temples, palaces, and other structures of this country, are on the grandest scale, and such as could only have been perfected by a people considerably ad- vanced in refinement. The elementary fea- tures of Egyptian architecture were chiefly as follows: i. Their walls were of great thickness, and sloping on the outside. This feature is supposed to have been derived from the mud walls, mounds, and caverns of their ancestors. 2. The roofs and cov- ered ways were flat, or without pediments, and composed of blocks of stone, reaching from one wall or column to another. The principle of the arch, although known to the Egyptians, was seldom if ever employed. 3. Their columns were numerous, close, short, and very large, being sometimes ten or twelve feet in diameter. They were generally without bases, and had a great va- riety of capitals, from a simple square block, ornamented with hieroglyphics or faces, to an elaborate composition of palm-leaves, not unlike the Corinthian capital. 4. They used a sort of concave entablature or cor- nice, composed of vertical flutings or leaves, and a winged globe in the centre. 5. Pyr- amids, well known for their prodigious size, and obelisks, composed of a single stone, often exceeding 70 feet in height, are structures peculiarly Egyptian. 6. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in stone, and sculptures in outline of fabu- lous deities and animals, with innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which belong to this style of architecture. The main character of Egyptian archi- tecture is that of great strength with ir- regularity of taste. This is observable in the pillars of the temples, the parts on which the greatest share of skill has been lavished. Figures i 4 are examples. In these columns we may notice that sturdiness is the prevailing characteristic. The design has been the support of a great weight, and that without any particular re- gard to proportion or elegance, either as a whole or in parts. When assembled in rows ARCHITECTURE 373 or groups, the columns had an imposing effect, because, from their height and thick- ness, they filled the eye and induced the idea of placid and easy endurance. In FIG. i. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. Examples of Egyptian Columns. FIG. 5. The Facade of an Egyptian Temple. Figure 5, which represents the exterior of a temple, this simple and imposing character is conspicuous. GREEK STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE From Egypt, the architectural art spread to Greece, where it passed from the gigan- tic to the chaste and elegant. The period in which it flourished in the greatest per- fection was that of Pericles, about 44 be- fore Christ, when some of the finest temples at Athens were erected. After this, it de- clined with other arts, and was carried to Rome, where, however, it never attained the same high character. Before describing the various orders of Grecian and Roman architecture, it will be advantageous to ex- plain the terms ordinarily employed in ref- erence to the component parts of buildings. EXPLANATION OF TERMS The front or faqade of a building, made after the ancient models, or any portion of it, may represent three parts, occupying dif- ferent heights : The pedestal is the lower part, usually supporting a column ; the single pedestal is wanting in most antique struc- tures, and its place is supplied by a stylo- bate ; the stylobate is either a platform with steps, or a continuous pedestal, supporting a row of columns. The lower part of a finished pedestal is called the plinth; the middle part is the die, and the upper part the cornice of the pedestal, or surbase. The column is the middle part, situated upon the pedestal or stylobate. It is commonly detached from the wall, but is sometimes buried in it for half its diameter, and is then said to be engaged. Pilasters are square or flat columns attached to walls. The lower part of a column, when distinct, is called the base; the middle, or longest part, is the shaft; and the upper or orna- mented part, is the capital. The swell of the column is called the entasis. The height of columns is measured in diameters of the column itself, taken always at the base. The entablature is the horizontal con- tinuous portion which rests upon the top of a row of columns. The lower part of the entablature is called the architrave or epistylium. The middle part is the frieze, which, from its usually containing sculp- ture, was called zophorus by the ancients. The upper or projecting part is the cornice. A pediment is the triangular face produced by the extremity of a roof. The middle or flat portion inclosed by the cornice of the pediment is called the tympanum. Ped- estals for statues, erected on the summit and extremities of a pediment, are called acroteria. An attic is an upper part of a building, terminated at top by a horizontal line instead of a pediment. The different moldings in architecture are described from their sections, or from the profile which they present when cut across. Of these, the torus is a convex molding, the section of which is a semicircle, or nearly so; the astragal is like the torus, but smaller; the ovalo is convex, but its outline is only the quarter of a circle; the echinus resembles the ovalo, but its outline is spiral, not cir- cular; the scotia is a deep concave molding; the cavetto is also a concave, and occupy- ing but a quarter of a circle; the cymatium is an undulated molding, of which the upper part is concave and the lower convex; the ogee or talon is an inverted cymatium; the fillet is a small square or flat molding. In architectural measurement, a diameter means the width of a column at the base. A module is half a diameter. A minute is a sixtieth part of a diameter. In representing edifices by drawings, ar- chitects make use of the plan, elevation, section, and perspective. The plan is a map or design of a horizontal surface, 374 ARCHITECTURE showing the ichnographic projection, or groundwork, with the relative position of walls, columns, doors, etc. The elevation is the orthographic projection of a front or vertical surface; this being represented, not as it is actually seen in perspective, but as it would appear if seen from an infinite distance. The section shows the interior of a building, supposing the part in front of an intersecting plane to be removed. The perspective shows the building as it ac- tually appears to the eye, subject to the laws of scenographic perspective. The three former are used by architects for purposes of admeasurement; the latter is used also by painters, and is capable of bringing more than one side into the same'view, as the eye actually perceives them. As the most ap- proved features in modern architecture are derived from buildings which are more or less ancient, and as many of these buildings are now in too dilapidated a state to be easily copied, recourse is had to such initiative res- tc rations, in drawings and models, as can be made out from the fragments and ruins which remain. In consequence of the known sim- plicity and regularity of most antique edi- fices, the task of restoration is less difficult than might be supposed. The groundwork, which is commonly extant, shows the length and breadth of the building, with the posi- tion of its walls, doors, and columns. A single column, whether standing or fallen, and a fragment of the entablature, furnish data from which the remainder of the colon- nade, and the height of the main body, can be made out. Grecian temples are well known to have been constructed in the form of an oblong square or parallelogram, having a colon- nade or row of columns without, and a walled cell within. The part of the col- onnade which formed the front portico was called the pronaos, and that which formed the back part the posticus. There were, however, various kinds of temples, the styles of which differed; thus, the prostyle had a row of columns at one end only; the amphiprostyle had a row at each end; the peripteral had a row all round, with two inner ones at each end ; and the dipteral had a double row all round, with two inner ones at each end, making the front three columns deep. The theatre of the Greeks, which was afterward copied by the Romans, was built in the form of a horseshoe, being semicir- cular on one side and square on the other. The semicircular part, which contained the audience, WJM, filled with concentric seats, ascending from the centre to the outside. In the middle or bottom was a semicircular floor, called the orchestra. The opposite, or square part, contained the actors. With- in this was erected, in front of the audience, a wall, ornamented with columns and sculp- ture, called the scena. The stage or floor between this part and the orchestra was called the proscenium. Upon this floor was often erected a movable wooden stage, called by the Romans pulpitum. The an- cient theatre was open to the sky, but a temporary awning was erected to shelter the audience from the sun and rain. ORDERS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE Aided, doubtless, by the examples of Egyptian art, the Greeks gradually im- proved the style of architecture, and origi- nated those distinctions which are now called the "Orders of Architecture." By this phrase is understood certain modes of proportioning and decorating the column and its entablature. They were in use dur- ing the best days of Greece and Rome, for a period of six or seven centuries. They were lost sight of in the dark ages, and again revived by the Italians at the time of the restoration of letters. The Greeks had three orders, called the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. These were adopted and modified by the Romans, who also added two others called the Tuscan and Compo- site. THE DORIC ORDER. This is the earliest of the Greek orders, and we see in it a noble simplicity on which subsequent orders were founded. One of the most correct examples is that given in Figure 6. The shaft of the Doric column had no base, ornamental or otherwise, but rose directly from the smooth pavement or stylobate. It had twenty flutings, which were superficial, and separated by angular edges. The perpen- dicular outline was nearly straight. The Doric capital was plain, being formed of a few annulets or rings, a large echinus, and a flat stone at top called the abacus. The architrave was plain; the frieze was inter- sected by oblong projections called tri- glyphs, divided into three parts by vertical furrows, and ornamented beneath by guttx, or drops. The spaces between the triglyphs were called metopes, and commonly con- tained sculptures. To have a just idea of the Doric, therefore, we must go back to the pure Grecian era. The finest examples are those of the temple of Theseus and the Parthenon (Figure 7) at Athens. The Par- ARCHITECTURE 375 thenon, which is now a complete ruin, has formed a model in modern architecture. It was built by the architect Ictinus, during the administration of Pericles, and its dec- orative sculptures are supposed to have been executed under direction of Phidias. The platform or stylobate consists of three steps, the uppermost of which is 227 feet in length FIG. 6. FIG. 8. FIG. 9. Doric, Ionic and Corinthian Columns. and 101 in breadth. The number of col- umns is eight in the portico of each front, and seventeen in each flank, besides which there is an inner row of six columns, at each end of the cell. THE IONIC ORDER. In this order the shaft begins to lengthen, and to possess a degree of ornament, but still preserving a great degree of simplicity of outline. In the best examples, as represented in Figure 8, the FIG. 7. Facade of the Parthenon at Athens. column was eight or nine diameters in height. It had a base often composed of torus, a scotia, and a second torus, with in- tervening fillets. This is called the Attic base. Others were used in different parts of Greece. The capital of this order con- sisted of two parallel double scrolls, called volutes, occupying opposite sides, and sup- porting an abacus, which was nearly square, but molded at its edges. These volutes have been considered as copied from ringlets of hair, or perhaps from the horns of Jupi- ter Ammon. The Ionic entablature con- sisted of an architrave and frieze, which were continuous or unbroken, and a cornice of various successive moldings, at the lower part of which was often a row of dentels, or square teeth. The examples at Athens of the Ionic order were the temple of Erec- theus, and the temple on the Ilissus, both now destroyed. Modern imitations are common in public edifices. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. This was the lightest and most highly decorated of the Grecian orders. The base of the column resembled that of the Ionic, but was more complicated. The shaft was often ten di- ameters in height, and was fluted like the Ionic. The capital was shaped like an in- verted bell, and covered on the outside with two rows of leaves of the plant acanthus, above which were eight pairs of small vo- lutes. Its abacus was molded and concave on its sides, and truncated at the corners, with a flower on the centre of each side. The entablature of the Corinthian order re- sembled that of the Ionic, but was more complicated and ornamented, and had, un- der the cornice, a row of large oblong pro- jections, bearing a leaf or scroll on their under side, and called modillions. No ves- tiges of this order are now found in the remains of Corinth, and the most legitimate example at Athens is in the choragic monu- ment of Lysicrates. The Corinthian order was much employed in the subsequent struc- tures of Rome and its colonies. The finest Roman example of this order is that of three columns in the Campo Vaccina, at Rome, which are commonly considered as the remains of the temple of Jupiter Stator. CARYATIDES. The Greeks sometimes de- parted so far from the strict use of the orders as to introduce statues, in the place of columns, to support the entablature. Statues of slaves, heroes, and gods appear to have been employed occasionally for this purpose. The principal specimen of this kind of architecture which remains is in a portico called Pandroseum, attached to the temple of Erectheus at Athens, in which statues of Carian females, called Caryat- ides, are substituted for columns. ROMAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE Roman architecture possessed no origi- nality of any value; it was founded on 376 ARCHITECTURE copies of the Greek models, and these were modified to suit circumstances and tastes. The number of orders was augmented by the addition of the Tuscan and Composite. TUSCAN ORDER. This order is not unlike the Doric, and is chaste and elegant. As represented in Figure 10, the shaft had a simple base, ornamented with one torus, and an astragal below the capital. The proportions were seven diameters in height. Its entablature, somewhat like the Ionic, consisted of plain running surfaces. THE COMPOSITE ORDER. Of this there were various kinds, differing less or more either in the ornaments of the column or in the entablature. The simplest of this hybrid or- der was that which we represent in Figure ii, which may be observed to combine parts and proportions of the Doric, the Ionic, and the Tuscan. The temples of the Romans sometimes resembled those of the Greeks, but often FIG. ii. FIG. 12. FIG. 10. Types of Roman Columns. .differed from them. The Pantheon, which is the most perfectly preserved temple of the Augustan age, is a circular building, lighted only from an aperture in the dome, and having a Corinthian portico in front. The amphitheatre differed from the theatre, in being a completely circular or rather elliptical building, filled on all sides with ascending seats for spectators, and leaving only the central space, called the arena, for the combatants and public shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous structure of this kind. The aqueducts were stone canals, supported on massive arcades, and convey- ing large streams of water 'for the supply of cities. The triumphal arches were com- monly solid oblong structures ornamented with sculptures, and open with lofty arches for passengers below. The edifice of this kind most entire in the present day is the PIG. 13. The Arch of Constantine at Rome. triumphal arch of Constantine, at Rome, represented in Figure 13. The basilica of the Romans was a hall of justice, used also as an exchange or place of meeting for merchants. It was lined on the inside with colonnades of two stories, or with two tiers of columns, one over the other. The earliest Christian churches at FIG. 14. Roman Arches. Rome were sometimes called basilicae, from their possessing an internal colonnade. The monumental pillars were towers in the shape of the column on a pedestal, bearing a statue on the summit, which was ap- proached by a spiral staircase within. Sometimes, however, the column was solid. The thermae, or baths, were vest struc- tures, in which multitudes of people could bathe at once. They were supplied with warm and cold water and " fitted up with numerous rooms for purposes of exercise and recreation. ITALIAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE After the dismemberment of the Roman Empire, the arts degenerated so far lhat a custom became prevalent of erecting new buildings with the fragments of old ones, which were dilapidated and torn down for ARCHITECTURE 377 the purpose. This gave rise to an irregular style of building, which continued to be imitated, especially in Italy, during the dark ages. It consisted of Grecian and Ro- man details, combined under new forms, and piled up into structures wholly unlike the unique originals. Hence the names Graeco-Gothic and Romanesque architec- ture have been given to it. After this came the Italian style, which was professedly a revival of the classic styles of Greece and Rome, but adapted to new manners and wants a kind of transition from ancient to modern times. Its great master was An- drea Palladio, a Venetian (born 1518 died 1580). There is considerable variety and beauty in the foliate and other enrichments of an architectural character in many structures in Italy, but very little ornament enters into the columnar composition of Italian architecture. Friezes, instead of being sculp- tured, are swollen ; the shafts of columns are very seldom fluted, and their capitals are generally poor in the extreme; mold- ings are indeed sometimes carved, but not often; rustic masonry, ill- formed festoons, and gouty balustrades for the most part supply the place of chaste and classic orna- ments. The ancient Tartars and wandering shep- herds of Asia appear to have lived from time immemorial in tents, a kind of habi- tation adapted to their erratic life. The Chinese have made the tent the elemen- tary feature of their architecture; and of FIG. 15. Type of Chinese Pagoda. their style any one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon common China ware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper side, as if made of canvas instead of wood. A Chinese por- tico is not unlike the awnings spread over shop-windows in summer time. The veran- da, sometimes copied in dwelling-houses, is a structure of this sort. The Chinese towers and pagodas have concave roofs, like awn- ings, projecting over their several stories. A representation of this barbaric style of erection is given in Figure 15. Such struc- tures are built with wood or brick; stone is seldom employed. SARACENIC, MOORISH, AND BYZAN- TINE The Arabs, or Saracens, as they are more usually called, and the Moors, introduced into Spain certain forms of architecture FIG. 16. Example of Saracenic Arch. which differed considerably from the Gre- cian in appearance, though founded on its remains in Asia and Africa. The chief pe- culiarity of this architecture was the form of the arch ; the Saracens are understood to have made it of greater depth than width, thus constituting more than half a circle or ellipse, and therefore unphilosoph- ical and comparatively insecure (Figure 16) ; while the Moorish style was principally dis- tinguished by arches in the form of a horse- shoe or a crescent. We associate with these styles another, which arose at Constantinople, called the Byzantine, likewise formed on the remains of Grecian art, and partaking of a slightly Eastern character. It became known in western Europe along with the Lombard, another degenerate Grecian style, about the ninth and tenth centuries. GOTHIC OR POINTED STYLE The term Gothic is a modern error, which, being now impossible to correct, is suffered to remain as the generally distin- 378 ARCHITECTURE guishing appellation of the kind of archi- tecture possessing pointed arches. This style originated in Germany about the mid- dle of the thirteenth century, and was zeal- ously pursued as the leading fashion for ecclesiastical structures all over Europe. Executed by a class of skilled artisans, who wandered from country to country, the finest specimens of the pointed style are the cathedrals of Strasburg, Cologne, and Ant- werp, and the splendid abbeys of Melrose and Westminster. In this fanciful and picturesque style of architecture, the slender columns, always united in groups, rise to a lofty height, re- sembling the giants of the grove, in whose dark shade the ancient Teuton used to build his altar. In the obscure depth of the dome, PIG. 17. Interior of a Gothic building, showing groin- ing in the roof and Gothic Arches. the mind is awakened to solemn devotional feelings. When the circular arch totally disap- peared in 1220, the Early English style com- menced. The windows of this style were at first very narrow in comparison with their height; they were called lancet- shaped, and were considered very elegant; two or three were frequently seen together, connected by dripstones. In a short time, however, the windows became wider, and divisions and ornaments were introduced. Sometimes the same window was divided into several lights, and frequently finished at the top by a light in the form of a loz- enge, circle, trefoil, or other ornament. About the year 1300, the architecture be- came more ornamental, and from this cir- 'cumstance received the name of the Deco- rated English style, which is considered the most beautiful for ecclesiastical buildings. The transition from the Decorated to the Florid or Perpendicular style was very grad- ual. Ornament after ornament was added, till simplicity disappeared beneath the ex- travagant additions; and about the year 1380, the architecture became so overloaded and profuse, that it obtained the title of Florid, which by some persons is called the Perpendicular, because the lines of division run in upright or perpendicular lines from top to bottom, which is not the case in any other style. DEFINITIONS OF PARTS Gothic architecture being for the most part displayed in ecclesiastical edifices, it may be of service to explain the usual plan of construction of these buildings. A church or cathedral is commonly built in the form of a cross, having a tower, lan- tern, or spire erected over the place of intersection. The part of the cross situ- ated toward the west is called the nave. The opposite or eastward part is called the choir, and within this is the chancel. The transverse portion, forming the arms of the cross, is called the transept, one limb being called the northern and the other the southern transept. Generally, the nave is larger than the choir. If the nave, choir, and transepts be all of the same dimensions, the form is that of a Greek cross. When the nave is longer than the other parts, forming a cross of an ordinary shape, the edifice is said to be in the form of a Latin cross. The different open parts usually receive the name of ailes or aisles from a word signifying a wing; the nave or largest open space is called the main aisle. Originally, the floors of all such edifices were open and unen- cumbered with fixed pews or seats, and, as the floors were ordinarily of mosaic or tes- selated pavement, the effect was exceedingly grand. The roofing of Gothic churches is of stone, in the form of groins, in which the arches are poised with intersecting points, and the whole skilfully adjusted so as to bear on the side rows of pillars. Any high building erected above the roof is called a steeple; if square-topped, it is a tower; if long and acute, a spire; and if short and light, a lantern. Towers of great height in proportion to their diameter are called turrets. The walls of Gothic churches, on which the outer strain of the roof arches ulti- mately rests, require to be of great strength ; ARCHITECTURE 379 and the imparting of this necessary degree of resistance without clumsiness is the glory of this style of architecture. The plan adopted is to erect exterior buttresses (Fig- ure 18). These rise by gradations from a broad basis to narrow pointed pinnacles, and, placed opposite the points of pressure, se- FIG. 18. Exterior Buttress of a Gothic edifice. cure, without the slightest appearance of clumsiness, the general stability of the building. Slanting braces, which spring from the buttresses to the upper part of the roof, are called flying buttresses ; such, however, are not always required in those modern edifices in which the roof is of wood and lead. The summit or upper edge of the wall, if straight, is called a parapet; if indented, a battlement. Gothic windows were corn- North Traaespi. Choir. South Transept. FIG. 19. Plan of a Gothic Church. monly crowned with an acute arch; they were long and narrow, or, if wide, were di- vided into perpendicular lights by mullions. The lateral spaces on the upper and outer side of the arch are spandrelles; and the ornaments in the top, collectively taken, are the tracery. An oriel, or bay window, is a window which projects from the general surface of the wall. A wheel, or rose win- dow, is large and circular. A corbel is a bracket or short projection from a wall, serving to sustain a statue or the spring- ing of an arch. The Gothic term gable indicates the erect end of a roof, and an- swers to the Grecian pediment, but is more acute. NORMAN, TUDOR, AND MODERN GOTHIC Throughout England may be seen many aged castles, some still in a state of good preservation, but the greater number in ruins, and occupying, with their picturesque remains, the summit of a rising ground or rocky precipice. These castles are of a style which prevailed during the feudal ages in Europe, and was taken to that country by the Normans, who erected them as fastnesses, into which they might retire and oppress the country at pleasure. The feudal castles in England, like those on the Rhine, consisted for the most part of a single strong tower or keep, the walls of which were from six to ten feet thick, and the windows only holes of one or two feet square, placed at irregular intervals. The several floors were built on arches, and the roof was flat or battlemented, with notches in the parapet, from which the in- habitants or retainers of the chieftain might defend themselves with instruments of war. The accommodations for living were gen- erally mean, and what would now be called uncomfortable. Around or in front of the main tower there was usually a courtyard, protected by a high wall, and the arched entrance was carefully secured by a falling gate or portcullis. Outside, there was in many cases a regular wet ditch or fosse. Castles of greater magnitude consisted of two or more towers and inner buildings, in- cluding a chapel and offices for domestics, and stables for horses and other animals. Some of them were on a great scale, and possessed considerable grandeur of design. As society advanced and civil tranquillity was established, these military strengths gradually assumed a character of greater elegance and less the appearance of de- fence. The wet ditch disappeared, and was superseded by a lawn or shrubbery. In- stead of the drawbridge and portcullis, there was a regular approach and a gate of or- dinary construction. The windows became larger, and were fitted with glass frames, and stone was abandoned for the greater comfort of wooden floors. Instead, also, of 380 ARCHITECTURE a bare region around, in which no foe might lurk, gardens were established, and a long avenue of trees led to the front of the modernized mansion. In some instances, the pepper-box turrets at the upper cor- ners of the building remained. Of the class of structures that sprung up in this period of transition, which in England we may refer to the fifteenth and sixteenth, and in Scotland to the seventeenth cen- turies, there are several highly interesting remains. These edifices of the nobility and gentry were no longer called castles; they took the name of halls, and as such had at- tained so great a pitch of magnificence in the reigns of Henry VIII and Elizabeth as to have subsequently given a name to a new style the Tudor or Elizabethan. Lat- terly, and with no very distinct, reference to any particular period, this remarkable fashion of building has been pretty gen- erally called the old English style of archi- tecture. One of the best existing specimens of the Tudor era of architecture is Haddon Hall in Derbyshire, the property of the Duke of Rutland. MODERN BRITISH ARCHITECTURE During the sixteenth century, an extraor- dinary effort was made in Italy to restore the purity of Grecian architecture ; and in this attempt Palladio was followed by the not less eminent Michelangelo Buo- narotti, who, at an advanced age, in 1546, undertook the continuation of the building of St. Peter's at Rome, a work on which the greatest splendors of the Italian style are lavished. Into England, this revived taste for the Grecian was introduced at the beginning of the seventeenth century by Tnigo Jones, to whose contemptuous ob- servations on the German or Pointed Style th term Gothic has been traced; and after his decease, the Grecian, or more properly the Italianized Grecian, was perpetuated on a scale still more extensive by Sir Chris- topher Wren. The edifices erected by this great master are characterized by the finest taste, and his spires in particular are models of elegance. The greatest work of Wren was St. Paul's Cathedral in London, in which the Italian is seen in all its glory. The eighteenth century was an era of de- cline in architectural taste. Every other style merged in that of a spiritless and often mean Grasco-Italian, out of which the architects of the nineteenth century have apparently had a difficulty to emerge. Latterly, there has been a revival in England of a purer kind of Grecian, and also, as we have al- ready said, of old English, and the Gothic or Pointed Style, and in most instances with good effect. It is only to be lamented that, by the manner in which state patronage is distributed in this branch of the fine arts, some of the largest and most expensive structures Buckingham Palace and the National Gallery, for example have been erected on the poorest conceptions of the Grecian style, and with a general effect far from pleasing. In Paris, there now exist some modern structures after correct Gre- cian models, which can not be too highly praised ; we would, in particular, instance the building called the Madeleine, the Bourse, and the interior of the church of Ste. Genevieve, which are exceedingly wor- thy of being visited by young and aspiring architects. Of the superb buildings springing up on all sides of this vast continent, it is unneces- sary to speak. Those already in existence, notably in Washington, are admirable copies of the great Greek and Roman periods. The so-called Queen Anne style, which became popular about 1876, soon died out. STEAM-ENGINES PROBABLY the most important as well as one of the earliest achieve- ments of modern science was the invention and perfection of the practical steam-engine. This machine operates upon the principle that has been familiar from the ancient times, namely, that gases subjected to heat tend to expand, and, in so doing, to develop a certain force or energy, which, under certain circumstances, can have destructive effects, but, when properly confined and used, become a most efficient prime mover for machinery of all descriptions. Indeed, the fundamental fact demon- strated in all forms of heat engine is that the molecules composing gases, liquids, and solids are so influenced by heat as to be violently forced apart, thus producing expansion or increase in actual bulk, and, at the same time, generating a force or pressure proportionate to the amount of heat actually at work. Among the earliest attempts to utilize the energy thus developed is found in the primitive contrivance known as the eolipyle, which was in- vented by a certain philosopher named Hero, a citizen of Alexandria, Egypt, about 300 B.C. It consists of a hollow metal ball mounted on trunnions, so as to revolve freely on one diameter, and having on another diameter, at right angles to the first, two tubulures, or bent nozzles, which allow the vapor to escape in opposite directions. When the hollow ball is partially filled with water and subjected to a flame, steam is generated, and, by its escape in two opposite directions through the tubulures, causes the ball to revolve on its axis by reaction of the steam pressure against the air. Such a device as this is, of course, worthless from the point of view of modern mechanics, and it seems strange indeed at the present day that in the thir- teenth century a certain Verbrest, a learned Jesuit priest and philosopher, attempted to use an eolipyle to propel a horseless carriage. It is needless to say he was unsuccessful. The first step toward the steam-engine, as we have it to-day, was made about 1710-11, when Thomas Newcomen of Devonshire, England, invented a steam-actuated mechanism for pumping water from mines, and called it a "fire-engine." It consists of a disk-shaped piston arranged to slide in a hollow cylinder, and transmit its motions under power impulse through (381) 25 382 STEAM-ENGINES a piston-rod and chain to a walking-beam. His contribution is the cylinder and piston, although, owing to an imperfect understanding of the properties of steam, he arranged to have the real power stroke from the atmospheric pressure, leaving for the steam no more important function than a creation of a vacuum by its condensation. In order to accomplish this result, the bottom of the cylinder was connected to the boiler by a small tube closed by a cock. On opening the cock steam rushed into the cylinder and so far disturbed the balance between the piston and the counterpoise on the piston, side of the walking-beam, that the piston was raised and travelled the entire distance to the top of the cylinder; the counterpoise, meantime, FIG. I. Diagram of the Newcomen pumping engine. The cylinder K has the sliding piston L, which is forced upward by steam admitted from boiler Q by cock M. By opening cock O, water is admitted from the tank F through the pipe N, and the steam being condensed, producing a vacu- um, the resulting water escapes through pipe P into the cistern R. The piston L is then forced downward by atmospheric pressure. The piston is connected by rod J and chain H to the walking beam D at G. On the opposite end of the walk- ing beam is the chain A, attached to the counter- poise B on the pump rod C C. The counterpoise acts to make the downetroke of the pump rod when the steam beneath the piston disturbs the equilib- rium of the engine, but is raised again when the pressure of the atmosphere acting against the vacu- um forces the piston down into the cylinder. pulling' down the pump-rod attached to the walking-beam. This operation was called the "out-door** stroke and furnished the sole condition in which the steam seemed to be used for any dynamic effort. Its power efficiency was limited, however, since it had a pressure of never more than between 2 and 4 pounds to the square inch. The real power stroke was made by taking- advantage of the full pressure of the atmosphere, which is approximately 15 pounds to the square inch above a vacuum. This was done as follows: The steam inlet valve was closed by hand and another small cock was opened, admitting water t>>>.< 5 !f| oooo 460.000 211600.0 .051 19929.7 430 000 409.640 167804 9 .063 i 5804 . 9 262 00 364.800 133079 o .080 12534.2 208 o 324.950 105592-5 .101 9945-3 165 I 289 300 83694-49 .127 7882.8 130 257.630 66373.22 .160 6251.4 103 3 229.420 52633.53 .202 4957-3 81 4 204.310 41742-57 .254 3931-6 65 181.940 33102.16 .321 3H7 8 52 162.020 26250.48 -404 2472.4 I 144.280 20816.72 509 1960.6 3* 8 128.490 16509.68 -643 1555 26 9 114.430 13094.22 .811 1233-3 20 10 101.390 10381 57 1.023 977-8 16 II 90.742 8234.11 1.289 775-5 13 12 80.808 6529.93 1.626 615.02 IO.9 *3 71.961 a 048 488 25 8.1 14 64.084 4106.75 2.585 386.80 6.4 15 57-068 3256.76 3-177 306.74 5-1 16 50.820 2582:67 2*3 25 4.0 7 45 257 2048. 19 5-183 192. 9 18 40.303 1624.33 6.536 152.99 *-S 9 35-390 1251-45 8 477 117.96 1.96 20 31.961 1021.51 10 394 96.21 i 60 21 28.462 810.09 13.106 76.30 1.28 22 25-347 642.47 16.525 60.51 i. 08 23 22 571 509-45 20.842 47.98 .80 24 20. 100 404 01 26.284 38-05 -63 25 17.900 320.41 33 135 30.18 SO 26 15.940 254.08 41.789 23.93 40 27 14.195 201.49 52.687 18.9$ 31 8 12.64! 159-79 66-445 15.05 25 29 11.257 126.72 83.752 14.94 .20 3 IO.O25 100.50 105 641 9.466 .16 3' 8.928 79-71 133-191 7.508 13 3 2 7-950 63.20 168.011 5.952 .098 33 7.080 50-13 211.820 4.7*1 .078 34 6.304 39-74 267.165 3.743 .062 35 5.614 31.52 336.81 2.969 .049 36 5 .000 25.00 424.65 2-355 , .039 37 4-453 19.83 535 33 1.868 -o 3 r 38 3-95 15.72 675.22 1.481 .' .025 39 3-531 12.47 851 789 1-174 ; .020 3-144 9.88 1074.11 -931 : .015 VARIETIES OF CIRCUIT The discussion of resistance brings us logically to the subject of circuits, upon the arrangement of which very much de- 410 *IRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY pends in all branches of electrical work. In general, there are two varieties of elec- trical circuit the series and the parallel or multiple. As shown by the accompanying diagrams, the arrangement of the series cir- Galvanic Cell and Series Circuit. cuit consists in coupling the cells, lamps or other apparatus in tandem, as it were, so that the current passes through each and all in making the round of the circuit. In the parallel or multiple circuit, the cells, or ether apparatus, are on bridges between the X6666 Galvanic Cell and Multiple Circuit. leads, or wires, the negative poles of all being connected to one lead, the positives to the other. So much for the arrangement of the two varieties of circuit. Their electrical qualities may be summed in the following rules : RESISTANCE IN CIRCUITS (1) In a series circuit the total resistance is equal to the resistance of the line wires, plus the combined resistances of the cells or other apparatus. The effective electrical pressure of a battery of cells in series is equal to the sum of the combined voltages of all the cells, although the resistance is greater, thus reducing the current. (2) In a parallel or multiple circuit the total resistance is equal to the resistance of the line wire plus the number of ohms found by dividing the resistance of one cell or other piece of apparatus by the number of such cells or other apparatus. The total E.M.F. of a battery of cells in multiple is equivalent to the E.M.F. of one cell form- ing it. To illustrate these principles, let us sup- pose that on a given circuit the outside re- sistance, including wires and all other ap- paratus, is 8 ohms; that the battery is composed of four chemical cells, each giving a pressure of 1.5 volts, with an internal resistance of 2 ohms apiece. Then, with the cells in series, we have a total resistance of 16 ohms, a total voltage of 6, and, by Ohm's Law, a current strength expressed by 6 -7- 1 6 = .375 ampere. If in the same circuit of 8 ohms outside resistance the same four cells be connected in multiple, we find the resistance thus: 2 -T- 4 = .5 ; total resistance 8.5 ohms. Total E.M.F., 1.5 volts; current, by Ohm's Law, is 1.5 -7-8.5 = .176 ampere. SERIES-MULTIPLE CIRCUITS There is still a third way of arranging a battery of cells in a circuit. It is called series-multiple, and is really a combination of the two other varieties of circuit. Thus, with the four cells already mentioned, we Galvanic Cells in Series-Multiple. may form a series-multiple circuit by con- necting two cells in series, and arranging the couple on a bridge between the leads; arranging the other two cells in precisely similar manner. Then, remembering the resistance and voltage of each cell, as al- ready given, we understand that the re- sistance of each couple is 2 + 2 = 4 ohms, and that the voltage of each couple is I -5~l~ I -5 = 3 volts. But, because each pair of cells is on a bridge in multiple the total internal resistance of the battery is as the ratio between the resistance of one couple and the number of couples which is 4-7-2 = 2 ohms or, in this case, equal to the resistance of one cell. In regard to voltage the law of batteries in multiple ap- plies; the total pressure being equal to the FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY 411 pressure of one couple, or 1.5 + 1.5=3. Hence, the total circuit resistance being 8 + 2 = 10 ohms, we have, by Ohm's Law, a current of 3-7- *o=.3 ampere. GALVANIC CELLS IN CIRCUIT In regard to the arrangement of cells in battery suitable for any given circuit, it may be said that there are a number of points to be taken into consideration the resistance of the circuit, the current strength required and the economy of the battery. With a very high external resistance (i.e. resistance in the circuit outside the battery) the greatest current may be obtained with the cells in series, as already seen, although an added internal resistance is necessarily involved. This is the least economical ar- rangement, however, since the greater ex- penditure of current involves a more rapid deterioration of the cells. Altogether the Two Galvank Cells in Series. most effective arrangement is to construct the battery of a sufficient number of cells to make the total of internal resistances equal to the external resistance of the cir- cuit. However, the end of economy is best attained when the internal resistance of each cell is low ; since by this means a cor- respondingly small portion of the energy is consumed in heating its own resistance. This gives a good current strength with slow deterioration of the elements. That different makes of cell differ in internal resistance, as also in exact voltage-equiva- lent, we shall learn later. LAMPS, MOTORS, ETC., IN CIRCUIT Just as the highest pressure and the greatest current may be obtained with a battery of cells in series, also the greatest internal resistance, so also a greater cur- rent and a greater pressure are required to operate lamps, motors, and other electrical apparatus connected in ? tt ies. There is also on electrical circuits, particularly when mag- netic devices motors, etc. are used, sev- eral varieties of "false resistance, ' ' prominent among which is the so called counter-elec- tromotive force (C.E.M.F.), which, as sev- eral authorities remark, "behaves precisely like a pressure exerted in the opposite direc- tion." It follows, therefore, that apparatus in series with the battery involves a greater expenditure of electrical energy and a lower efficiency than when in multiple. Indeed, it is by no means uncommon in using elec- trical motors for certain purposes (as e.g. on automobiles) to vary the connections to circuit so as to have the field and armature in series for low speed, and in multiple for higher speed. This brings tts to the fundamental laws regarding the arrangement of circuits: (1) With electrical apparatus in series their total resistance is the sum of the in- dividual resistances. (2) With electrical apparatus in multiple their total resistance is as their conductances . A moment's reflection will show that this latter rule is merely a restatement of the one already given for batteries. Thus, if we have loo 16-candle-power incandescent lamps in multiple on a no- volt circuit each lamp having a resistance of 246 ohms, hence consuming current at the rate of .447 ampere, or 3.07 watts per candle-power the total lamp resistance is equivalent to the voltage divided by the total conductance inamperes. Thus, IIO-T-(. 447X100) = 2.46, which is the same as dividing the resistance of one lamp by the number of lamps, or 246-7-100 = 2.46. This condition is per- fectly in accord with Ohm's Law, which makes the resistance in a circuit equivalent to the voltage divided by the current. Thus, if one lamp requires .447 ampere to light it, 100 lamps will require 44.7 amperes, and if the pressure between the terminals of the circuit is no volts, we have 110-7-44.7=2.46 ohms, as before. The same solutions apply to multiple circuits containing motors or other electrically operated machines. WIRING A MULTIPLE-CIRCUIT In order to find the proper size of wire for use on a multiple circuit, the following rule is given: 1 i ) Take twice the unit resistance of the given metal at an average temperature. (2) Multiply this figure by the total length of the circuit, and by the number of lamps bridged between the leads. (3) Divide the product by the resistance of one lamp lighted. 412 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY (.4) Determine the percentage of loss, or drop in potential, and subtract it front 100. (5) Divide the product by the same figure expressing percentage of loss. (6) Multiply the two quotients together to find the sise of the wire in circular mils. If, for example, we have a circuit of 100 feet total length between terminals; 50 lamps to be connected in multiple; each having a resistance of 246 ohms hot; sup- posing that the percentage of loss is to be 10 per cent, then, as already explained, we find the unit resistence for copper wire at the average temperature of 75 Fahrenheit (23.8 Centigrade), as follows: R = 9.59 X (.00388 X 23.8 + i)= 10.47 + Then, we find the circular mils as follows: CM _ 20.94 X 100 X 50 X loo 10 10 = 425-03 246 X 9 = 3825.27 Reference to the wiring table will show that No. 14 copper wire is the size nearest to the required figure. THE THREE-WIRE CIRCUIT Another form of circuit that should be explained is the three-wire circuit frequently used for electric lamps. In this arrange- ment two dynamos are coupled in series, the leads on either side being extended through the entire length of the circuit. Instead, however, of simply arranging the lamps on bridges, or in multiple, a third Diagram of a Three-Wire Circuit. wire is connected to the length of conduc- tor between the terminals of the two dynamos, and the bridges are arranged be- tween it and the other two wires on either side. Such bridges are supposedly ar- ranged directly across the circuit between the two main leads, topping the third wire at points midway in their lengths. In calculating the electrical conditions with such a circuit arrangement, the re- sistance is estimated precisely as in the series-multiple. Thus, if each complete bridge contains two lamps in series, their joint resistance would be, let us say, 246 ohms X 2 = 492 ohms. If there are too lamps in the circuit, or 50 2-lamp bridges, the total resistance will be 492 -r- 50 = 9.84 ohms, or four times the ohmage already found for the same number of lamps in multiple. Not estimating the outside re- sistance of the circuit leads, we may calcu- late the amount of current required, as fol- lows : Since two dynamos are coupled in series, the voltage is 110X2 = 220 volts. Therefore, the total current required is 220-^9.84 = 22.35 amperes, or one-half the figure found for a multiple circuit. Since the total lamp resistance is four times greater on a three-wire circuit, as compared with another of the same dimensions, the resistance of the positive and negative wires must be four times greater, which means that each wire has one-quarter the cross- section required for a multiple circuit. Such voltages as we have supposed to be used in the lamp circuits just discussed can be produced only by a dynamo electrical generator. Indeed, as already suggested, < the invention of this machine was the real beginning of electrical lighting, as also of / commercial motors, and all the manifold uses which electricity serves at the present day. As the dynamo involves the under- standing and use of electrical quantities not yet explained, it will be described after the theory of primary chemical cells and the properties of circuits have been set forth. GALVANIC BATTERIES The primary electrical cell is so called in distinction from the "secondary" cell, ac- cumulator or "storage cell," as being an original source of energy. The simplest form of this apparatus has already been described a sheet of zinc and a sheet of copper, immersed in a jar filled with a solu- tion of sulphuric acid, and connected to- gether by an outside wire. In such a cell the zinc is attacked by the acid and gradu- ally consumed, but the generation of current does not begin until the circuit of the out- side wire is closed, thus making a complete path from one electrode back to the other, over the wire. Previous to the closing of the circuit no particular obvious changes take place be- yond the accumulation of bubbles of hydro- gen on the surface of the copper electrode. The hydrogen is liberated as the oxygen in FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY 413 the solution, or electrolyte, combines with the zinc. On the closure of the circuit the operation of consuming the zinc is greatly accelerated, a condition of electrical poten- tial being immediately established and a constant flow of current resulting. The chemical activity is equally marked, consist- ing, according to the accepted theory in the "polarization" of the molecules composing the solution, so that there is a regular and orderly rotation from one electrode to the other, the oxygen of each being liberated at the zinc plate, to unite with it, and the hydrogen atoms being carried across to the copper surface, there to be deposited in the form of minute bubbles in great numbers. Of course the process can not continue for a very extended period before the accumu- lation of hydrogen will completely cover the copper, thus greatly increasing the in- ternal resistance. For this reason, a prac- tical cell requires the use of some substance to act as a "depolarizer," which is to say an absorbent of hydrogen. In the most familiar form of zinc-copper cell, the Daniell "crow-foot," so familiar in telegraphy, the zinc electrode is a piece cast into the shape of a hand or claw, with several fingers ex- tended, and is fixed at the upper part of the jar. The copper electrode consists of several sheets placed at the bottom of the cell, with copper sulphate crystals ("blue vitriol") between; this latter material serv- ing to depolarize the negative, or copper, electrode as the process of current-genera- tion proceeds. Were it not for this the current would soon cease altogether, and the cell be rendered useless. INTERNAL RESISTANCE Having explained the general principles that apply in all forms of chemical primary cell, we may proceed to the discussion of internal resistance. In the first place, we may note that the voltage of a single primary cell of given pattern and construction will always be the same, no matter what the size. Although two cells connected in series may have a smaller area of active metal electrode surface than another larger cell of the same make, the two cells will give twice as much voltage as the larger more exactly, twice the voltage divided by the combined internal resistances. The only ad- vantage to be gained in making a cell larger is that its internal resistance is thus dimin- ished. If we could make a cell sufficiently large, the internal resistance might be re- duced to a negligible figure. The cost would be greater, however, than the advantage; since we would get no more power out of the greater consumption of element. The electrolyte, or liquid solution, fur- nishes another necessary source of resistance. Water, although a recognized conductor of current, has a very high resistance, regis- tering, according to best authorities, 2,650,- 000,000 microhms, or 2,650 ohms, per cubic centimetre at the temperature of greatest density. The addition of an acid, such as sulphuric or hydrochloric, operates to re- duce the resistance within limits. Thus, in a zoo-part solution, 5 parts sulphuric acid and 95 parts water, the resistance is only 4.86 ohms per cubic centimetre; in a 30 per cent solution, of 70 parts water, the resistance is 1.37 ohms ; in a 50 per cent solution, equal parts of water and acid, the resistance is 1.25 ohms. Beyond this point, however, the ohmage again rises rapidly, until with 80 per cent of acid, the resistance is once more about the same as with only 5 parts. It might seem, therefore, that within limits the proportions of acid and water could be regulated to secure a low resistance. But we must not forget that such an arrangement would also hasten the consumption of the zinc element, and thus prove more expensive than a high resistance. From what has just been said, it is fairly evident that the only really practical meth- ods of keeping the internal resistance of a chemical cell within reasonable figures is to adopt such constructions as shall combine high pressures with good economy. Such results may be obtained either (i) by using as active elements substances of widely dif- fering potential, (2) by providing to prop- erly depolarize the cell. "NATURAL POTENTIALS" In a chemical cell the fundamental con- sideration is the natural potential of the substances used in its construction. By natural potential we may understand the varying property, as between two different substances, of receiving and containing an electrical charge. Substances differ in this particular as in their capacity for conduct- ing current or heat. Indeed, the recogni- tion of this fact was the real beginning of electrical science. When Galvani observed that the legs of a frog hung upon a copper hook, so as to touch a bar of iron, were caused to twitch convulsively, he had really discovered this fact. Subsequent investiga- tions have proved that there is a regular series of substances, so arranged according to potential that, when brought into contact, an electrical discharge occurs. As previously 27 414 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY suggested, the current differs from the mo- mentary discharge, or "shock," only in being continuous. The first step in the generation of cur- rent, therefore, is to immerse two substances of differing potential in a suitable acid so- lution, then to join them, outside the solu- tion, by a wire that passes through any apparatus to be affected by current, and completes a circuit. Accordingly, we find that the flow of energy, through the acid solution, is from the high-potential sub- stance to the low-potential substance, and, through the outside wire, from the low- potential substance to the high-potential sub- stance. Such common substances are in regular order: I Zinc 1 1. 2 Tin 10. 3 Lead 9. 4 Iron 8. 5 Nickel 7. 6 Antimony 6. L :; S* 7 Copper 5. 8 Silver 4. 9 Gold 3. io Platinum 2. 1 1 Graphite I . Understanding that the flow of energy is in the indicated conditions from the sub- stance having the lower number to that having the higher, we see the entire theory of the Galvanic cell at a glance. It shows that, while the zinc electrode is positive within the acid, it is negative outside it : hence the zinc is the negative pole of the cell, and the current returns into the solu- tion at the point at which the circuit wire is joined to it. OPEN-CIRCUIT CELLS Because, as the above table shows, there is a greater difference in potential between zinc and carbon than between zinc and cop- per, we may understand why most com- mercial cells at the present have the zinc and carbon elements. This variety of cell is also of the so-called open-circuit type. An open-circuit cell is one that may be used intermittently and left with the circuit open for indefinite periods, without injury. A zinc-copper closed-circuit cell, like the Daniell "blue-stone," already described, rap- idly deteriorates when the outside circuit is open ; the acid simply eating out the zinc, without performing useful work. If, there- fore, it is used for any purpose where cur- rent is required only occasionally, a resist- ance equal to or greater than the working load should be switched into the circuit during periods when current is not needed. No cell should ever be left on closed cir- cuit without a good-sized resistance on the outside circuit wire; since this condi- tion, known as short-circuiting, is one of the most fertile occasions of deterioration. Resistance is a necessary condition to prac- tical electrical activity. Apart from the fact that zinc and carbon are the typical elements in open-circuit cells, the essential constructional difference be- tween the two lies in the nature and action of the depolarizer. In the typical closed- circuit cell the Daniell "blue-stone" the depolarizer, sulphate of copper, acts con- stantly to absorb the hydrogen gas on the surface of the copper plates as rapidly as collected. In open-circuit cells, on the con- trary, the depolarizer acts only when the circuit is open. Thus, such a cell can gen- erate effective current only for a limited interval ; requiring a period of rest, in or- der to "recuperate," or depolarize. The typical open-circuit cell is the Le- clanche, so widely known in telephone and electric bell work. In this cell the zinc is in the form of a pencil or rod ; the carbon, in the form of a plate ; the exciting liquid, or electrolyte, a solution of sal-ammoniac in water, and the polarizer dioxide of man- ganese. The manganese is either contained in a porous earthenware cup or is in the form of bricks, or "prisms," mixed with carbon and other substances. There arc very many cells, constructed on the same general principles. In one of these the de- polarizer is contained in a porous carbon vessel, which also serves as the negative electrode. In several others, the depolarizer is dispensed with the end being attained by enlarging the surface of the carbon in proportion to that of the zinc. This is a good plan in securing simplicity of construc- tion, also in giving a good-sized voltage with a minimum of internal resistance. Hitherto we have discussed the proper- ties of electrical circuits solely with ref- erence to the conduction of current, as it flows between points of differing potential. In its passage through a continuous con- ducting circuit, a current is able to effect profound chemical changes; to transfer metals, atom by atom, through an electro- lytic solution, as in electro-plating and electrotyping; to produce heat where suffi- cient resistance is interposed; to produce light, where there is a gap between carbon terminals, or where a high-resistance con- FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY 415 ductor is inclosed fin a vacuum, and to give rise to other physical and therapeutic effects. All this variety of activities tells us noth- ing, however, about the other influences con- stantly at work on a current-carrying con- Whirl of Forcf Around a Live Wire. ductor. To take the matter at its root, we find by experiment that when current is flowing along the length of a wire, there are activities manifested constantly at right angles to it. These take the form of con- centric circles of force, as may be proved by passing the wire through a hole in a piece of cardboard, and dusting iron filings around it. Furthermore, the insulation that effectually confines the current to the wire conductor, preventing its spread to other conducting substances that happen to come LAWS OF INDUCTION This fact may be proved by a simple ex- periment. Let us suppose that we have a circuit of wire whose terminals are con- nected to the poles of a Galvanic cell, allow- ing current to flow through it, as soon as it is closed. If we have also another cir- cuit of wire containing no battery, but hav- ing its terminals connected to a galvanom- eter, or current-indicator, we have all the apparatus necessary for demonstrating the phenomenon known as induction. This may be done as follows : If in the first circuit we have a finger key that may be operated to close or open it at pleasure, allowing cur- rent to flow between the poles of the cell, or cutting it off, we will learn from the galvanometer that immediately upon the closure of the first circuit, a momentary current will flow in the second circuit in j the opposite direction; also, that, when the first circuit is opened again, another, but Arrangement of Force Around a Live Wire. into contact with it, does not restrict these forces that surround the wire, like so many continuous rings of activity, one within an- other. Diagram of Electrical Induction. weaker, momentary current will flow in the second circuit, but in the same direction as in the first. Now, suppose we call the first, or current-carrying, circuit, A, and the sec- ond circuit, B, we will find that the laws governing current induction may be summed up in these statements: (,i) Increasing the strength of the cur- rent in A increases the strength of the cur- rent in B, flowing in the opposite direction to the current in A. (2) Decreasing the strength of the cur- rent in A decreases the strength of the cur- rent in B, also causing it to flow in the same direction as the current in A. (3) If we move the current-carrying wire, A, nearer to B, we induce a strong current in the opposite direction; if we move it further from B, we induce a weak current in the same direction. (4) If the wire used in circuit A is thicker than that used in B, the current induced in B will show a greater E.M.F. 416 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY than that in A. Conversely, if the wire used in A be thinner than that used in B, the induced current will show a lower E.M.F. than that in A. In the same manner, if a circuit including a galvanometer be arranged in the form of a coil, and a magnetized bar be introduced into the "eye" of the coil, the same phenom- ena will be observed. Also, if a compass needle be placed near a current-carrying wire, it will point with its positive pole in the direction in which the current moves in Effect of Induction on a Magnetized Needle. the wire, being drawn from the north. Just as the activity in a magnetized bar can in- duce a current in a closed circuit of wire, so, when a wire is wound about an iron or steel bar, the current passing through it will cause it to become a magnet. MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM Magnetism is nearly the most important factor in present-day electrical activity forming the basis of the dynamo generator and motor, as well as of the telegraph and telephone industries. The number of de- vices, based upon the simple principle of inclosing a bar of iron in a coil, or helix, of insulated wire, is surprisingly large. At the start, however, we must under- stand definitely that the essential difference in simple voltaic induction, between two circuits of wire, as just explained, and mag- netic induction by which the current in a helix of wire imparts magnetic properties to a bar of iron, lies in the fact that the former is only momentary, at the closure or opening of the "live" circuit, while the second exerts its influence so long as cur- rent flows in the helix. If the bar is of soft iron the magnetism ceases when the current in the helix ceases ; if it is of hard- ened steel a permanent magnet is produced the magnetic properties lasting after the current and helix have been withdrawn. Every magnet has, to use general terms, a positive and a negative, or a north and a south, pole. The difference may be readily discovered by experiment. Thus, if tjje north pole of one magnet be brought near to the south pole of another, there will be mutual attraction and a tendency to come together; but, if two north poles or two south poles be brought together, there will be repulsion, or a tendency to fly apart. This fact may be readily explained by the theory that the magnetic force induced in a bar of iron by the current flowing in a helix follows the direction of the inducing current. At the positive, or north, pole, the movement is in a direction contrary to the hands of a clock if we look at the end of the bar and at the negative, or south, pole in the same direction as the hands of a clock. Thus, as may be under- stood on reflection, if the opposite poles of two magnets be brought together, the direc- tion of rotation is continuous, and energy from one flows into the other, causing the phenomenon of "attraction" ; while, with the bringing together of the like poles of two magnets the movements in the two are contrary, hence allowing no transfer of en- ergy, and causing the phenomenon of "re- pulsion." POLARITY OF MAGNETS The position of the poles of a magnet may thus be determined by the direction of winding the coil or helix. If this is wound in the direction in which a clock's hands move, or from left to right, the north pole is at the end opposite to that at which the current enters. If it is wound in the direction opposite to that in which a clock's hands move, the north pole is at the same end at which the current enters. This fact is important in telegraphy and some other branches, enabling the construction of dif- ferentially-wound magnets having two wind- ings in opposite directions. POWER OF MAGNETS The strength, or pulling-power, of a mag- net depends broadly upon the number of ampere-turns in the helix, or the number of turns given to a wire that can carry one ampere of current. Magnets are wound with a number of superposed layers, gener- ally to a depth equal to the diameter of the core, or iron bar in the centre of the coil. The finer the wire the greater the number of turns, consequently the greater the mag- netic effect, in spite of the fact that a fine wire has a greater resistance than a thick wire. The explanation is simple: Winding with a large number of turns of fine wire allows more magnetic circles of force to FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY 417 act upon the core; while winding with the same number of turns of thick wire would quickly place the core out of reach of the circles of force of the outer turns, which would thus be rendered useless in affecting it. Within limits, then, the strength of a magnet properly wound is determined by the strength of the current in the helix, giving a greater or less intensity of mag- netic activity at right angles to the wire. This fact holds within limits because too great a current would tend to heat the wires and burn out the insulation. Thus, very powerful magnets must be made with large cores wound with proportionately heavy MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE Just as the fundamental fact connected with an electrical circuit is a flow of en- ergy, or current, from the point of high potential to that of low potential, so in a magnet there are lines of force constantly acting between the poles, and, with a straight are supposed to represent the lines of force, or the direction of the current, as it leaves the north pole and re-enters at the south. If we place one pole of a magnet under a card holding iron filings, these filings ar- range themselves as rays, or straight lines starting from a common centre. MAGNETIC UNITS In treating and measuring magnets and magnetic strength, we are introduced to a new series of quantities and units, as fol- lows : (1) Magneto-motive force (M.M.F.), whose unit is the gilbert. (2) Magnetic current, or flux, whose unit is the maxwell. (3) Magnetic resistance, or reluctance, whose unit is the oersted. (4) Magnetic density, or intensity, whose unit is the gauss. The gilbert is the amount of magnetizing force developed by a current of .7958 am- pere flowing through one ampere-turn of V VI Polarity of Bar Magnets and Directions of Windings. bar magnet forming series of arcs between the two. If we take a permanent bar mag- net and place it near a quantity of iron filings we will find that these will be at- tracted to both poles, and will adhere there with considerable force. But toward the centre of the bar we will see very few. This indicates that there is some system in the magnetic power of attraction, and that it is not the same at all points. If now we place over the bar magnet a plate of glass or a sheet of stiff paper, and on it dust a quantity of iron filings, we will find the filings starting out from either pole, and at points midway between, de- scribing arcs or parts of circles, over the bar, and meeting in the middle of the "field." The lines thus described by the filings wire wound on the iron core. Consequently, a current of one ampere will give 1.257 gil- berts M.M.F. CALCULATING FOR MAGNETS The number of ampere-turns in a solenoid is the product of the number of complete convolutions by the number of amperes car- ried on the wire. Thus, with 100 turns of wire adjusted to carry 3 amperes at a given voltage, we would have 300 ampere-turns. If the voltage is doubled, we have twice the amperage, hence 600 ampere-turns. If it is half as great, we have only half the amperage, hence only 150 ampere-turns. In order, therefore, to find the number of gilberts developed in a given magnet, we take one-tenth the product of 4 multiplied 418 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY by 3.14159 and multiply it by the number of ampere-turns. The figure, 3.14159, is the ratio between the circumference and di- ameter of a circle thus the circumference of every circle is 3.14159 times its diameter. Since wire wound about an iron core is cir- cular in section, it is necessary to use this figure in determining the relation between the force moving on the circumference this is the electric current and the force acting at right angles to it. Then, taking a helix of 300 ampere-turns, as above, we have: (4 X 3.14159 -3- 10) X 300 = 377.1 gilberts. The calculation of reluctance and flux de- pends largely upon experiment, determining the permeability, susceptibility, and other properties of the iron used in the cere. In general, however, reluctance, like electrical resistance, increases with the length and decreases with the area of the core. The flux, like electric current in Ohm's Law, varies directly with the M.M.F. and in- versely with the reluctance. DYNAMOS AND MOTORS The facts already explained will enable us to get a clear idea of the operation of elec- trical dynamos and motors. These machines consist essentially of double or multiple-pole Simplest Possible Dynamo. electro-magnets, between the poles of which is placed a rotating wire-wound armature. An accompanying figure, showing the sim- plest possible form of dynamo, gives all the essential points of the machine. Here we have the north pole, N, and the south pole, 5, of an electro-magnet. Between the pole pieces is a rotating spindle turned by a handle, and carrying a single turn of wire, A, the ends of which are attached to the two-part commutator shown near the handle. In this figure the loop of wire would be called the "armature," and the greatest dif- ference between this simple machine and the powerful dynamos used to produce currents to move street cars and supply electric lights is in the construction of the armature. In the latter, instead of a simple loop of wire, there are a great number of such loops or of coils, wound on a "drum," or "ring," and running at right angles to the magnetic lines of force. The rule is that, electro- motive force (E.M.F.) generated by any dynamo, is in proportion to the number of turns of wire about the "core," or frame- piece, of the rotating armature; and, within certain limits, to the speed with which the armature is revolved In the next figure is shown a diagram of one method of winding a ring armature and Ring Armature and Four-Part Commutator. attaching the terminals of the several coils to the segments of a four-part commutator. The next figure shows such an armature in position between the pole pieces, the lines of magnetic force being indicated by the dotted lines across the end of the armature. The connections of the coil to the commu- tator segments are also shown, and the brushes, for taking off the current resting on the periphery of the commutator. On rotating the armature on its spindle the Armature in position between the field-poles of a dynamo, showing lines of force (dotted), direc- tion of rotation, and the arrangement of brushes on a two-part commutator. condition follows that is shown in the next figure. The lines of force are greatly de- flected as indicated by the broken lines in this cut, and by the turning of the armature a very intense excitement of the "field" is FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY 419 created. From this excitement a current results, whose strength for work is in pro- portion to terms of the rule quoted above. OPERATION OF A DYNAMO The effect produced by the revolving of the armature of a dynamo is that the arma- ture itself is transformed into an electro- magnet, having two north poles and two south poles, points for the exit and entrance of the current, respectively. These poles alternately exert an attracting and repel- ling force on the magnetic field, and hence continually distort the magnetic lines of force. The result is a constant shifting of the neutral points, and a continual series of alternate attractions and repulsions at the active points. These rapid changes, de- manding a constant readjustment of the magnetic lines, transform the magnetic movements among the molecules into elec- trical energy, which emerges in the form of a current at the terminals of the arma- ture winding attached to the segments of Distortion of the lines of force in a two-pole dynamo, showing induced polarity of the armature. the commutator, being conveyed to the out- side circuit by flat pieces, called brushes, which rest against the commutator, as shown in a former figure. Of course the cycle of operations already described involve that an alternating cur- rent is produced, one that moves first in one direction then in the other. However, by using a commutator of 2, 4, or any larger number of parts, and by placing the brushes at a certain point, on what is called the "diameter of commutation," the effect of a continuous direct current is obtained. If a dynamo is to generate an alternating current, the terminals of the armature wind- ing are attached each to a separate collec- tor ring, instead of to the segments of a commutator. A brush then rests on each ring, and the current flows in one direction or the other over the outside circuit, ac- cording to the position of the rotating arma- ture, which causes a continual fluctuation from maximum to minimum in the current generated in its winding. If three collector rings are used, and proper connections are made to the armature winding, a three-phase current may be produced, which, of course, requires a three-wire circuit. Alternating and polyphase currents are useful in power transmission, being capable of traveling to greater distances than a direct current, with- out serious impairment of power. DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS An electric motor is in all essential par- ticulars identical with a dynamo, except for the fact that a current, led to the windings of both field magnets and armature, pro- duces a rotation of the armature, on ac- count of the conditions already described above. A dynamo may be run as a motor with no other changes than shifting the brushes to a backward lead which is to say, plac- ing them at opposite ends of a diameter toward, instead of away from, the direction of rotation at an angle from the theoretical diameter of commutation, which is at 90 degrees to the magnetic lines of force. In a dynamo, as just explained, the rotation of the armature, cutting across the lines of force between the field magnets, tends con- stantly to increase the electromotive force of the current generated in the armature coils, with the result of strengthening the field, or, as the term is, increasing the num- ber of magnetic lines. In this process a counter-electromotive force is constantly generated as the speed of rotation in- creases. In a motor, on the other hand, the current is supplied to both the armature and the field magnets, and, giving them both polarity, sets up an attractive force between them, thus producing rotation of the arma- ture. Consequently, in a motor the mag- netic drag, which tends to retard the rota- tion of a dynamo armature, is the real driv- ing force, exerting a rotative pull upon the current carrying wires of the armature coil and upon any protruding portions of its core. Another operative difference lies in the fact that, while the C.E.M.F. generated by rotation of a dynamo moves in the same direction as the current, that generated in a motor moves in the opposite direction. Consequently, in a motor the C.E.M.F. in- creases (i) with increased strength of field and (2) with increased speed of armature rotation. With a series-wound motor, there- fore, an increased rotation involves a smaller absorption of energy from the electrical source, on account of the increased gen- eration of C.E.M.F., and, when working under a heavy load, necessitating a reduc- tion in speed, less C.E.M.F. is generated and more energy is absorbed. 420 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY CALCULATING AN ELECTRIC MOTOR In calculating the power of a motor, we must remember that the force at work produces rotation of the armature, and is, therefore, called the torque, or twisting force. Such a force is able to raise a given weight suspended to a cord wound around a pulley on the shaft. On this account it is measured in terms of foot-pounds, as in- dicating an amount of energy able to move so many pounds through so many feet. Furthermore, the time occupied in this work is important, since a greater power can raise a given weight more rapidly than a smaller power. Thus, if we have a motor that can exert a working torque of 100 foot-pounds at a rotative speed of 50 revo- lutions per second, we can find its power in foot-pounds by multiplying the product of these two quantities by twice the ratio be- tween the circumference and diameter of a circle (3.141592). Thus: loo X 50 X 6.283184 = 31415.92 foot-pounds. This divided by 550 gives 57.12 horsepower. More complicated formulae are neces- sarily used in exact calculations, but this is fundamental. EFFICIENCY OF MOTORS The efficient power of an electric motor depends upon the torque, or twisting power, exerted upon the spindle of the armature, causing it to rotate. Furthermore, the amount of torque, or the efficient twisting force expressed in foot-pounds, depends upon the amount of flux in the armature core, and that, upon the current strength circulating in its coils ; consequently, also, upon the number of wires wound upon its circumference. On the other hand, although a high-powered motor armature rotates less rapidly than one of lower power, the effi- cient output of a given motor is, within proper limits, in direct ratio to the number of revolutions per minute of its armature, consequently, within its limits, to the im- pressed E.M.F. Thus the speed, and con- sequently also the power, of a stationary motor may be varied by throwing in re- sistance through the full capacity of the rheostat, thus decreasing the kilowatt in- put. Also, a motor that, from some in- herent peculiarity of its construction or ma- terials, runs at low speed, at a given pres- sure, for a given power, if wound for a higher speed, will give a higher power equivalent, while another motor, running at an unusually high speed for its power effi- ciency, is working at its full capacity. POWER AND SPEED OF MOTORS The power efficiency of a well-built elec- tric motor varies directly, within definite limits, as its weight. Thus, as given by several authorities, a ^-horsepower motor should weigh about 100 pounds, or 200 pounds per horsepower, while a 5-horse- power motor should weigh about 600 pounds, or 120 pounds per horsepower, and a i5-horsepower about 1,500 pounds, or 100 pounds per horsepower, which seems to be the general ratio for all powers above that. It is thus evident that, while the higher powers involve greater weights, and the higher efficiencies involve greater speeds, the weight per horsepower and the speed of ro- tation both decrease with the higher rating of the motor. Similarly, the characteristic normal speeds, estimated as revolutions per minute of the armature spindle, decrease with the higher ratings. A ^-horsepower motor should run normally at about 1,300 revolutions per minute, or at a ratio of 2,600 revolutions per horsepower; the 5- horsepower motor, at 900 revolutions, or 180 per horsepower, and the is-horsepower mo- tor, at 750 revolutions, or 50 per horse- power. With higher powered motors the normal speed decreases on a constantly smaller ratio. Thus, a 25o-horsepower mo- tor runs normally at about 425 revolutions, or at a ratio of 1.7 per horsepower. As may readily be inferred from the data already given, the efficiency of an electric motor increases directly with its power. Thus, in the broad average, motors of low power consume about one kilowatt of in- put current per horsepower of output, al- though the rule rapidly fails with increas- ing powers, until the horsepower output is in excess of the kilowatt input which is to say, the internal resistance of the motor is decreased until the efficiency reaches as high as ninety per cent or slightly above. Thus if a well-designed 6-horsepower motor requires an input current of about six kilo- watts, or 6,000 watts, which is approximately equivalent to 8 horsepower, its operation represents only 4,476 warts, or 74.6 per cent efficiency. As a rule the efficiency, rep- resented by the input and the output of smaller motors, is much lower. Thus, a small fan motor yields, on an average, less than forty per cent efficiency; a 2-horse- power motor represents about sixty per cent; and a zoo-horsepower motor about FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY 421 ninety per cent, or approximately an out- put of 74.6 kilowatts to an input of 82.9. ELECTRIC STORAGE BATTERIES An electric storage battery, or accumu- lator, is an instrument capable of being so affected by an electric current passed through it that certain chemical transformations are electrolytically produced, which will occa- sion the giving-off of a current, so soon as the original source is disconnected and a circuit is closed through any other suitable devices. For these reasons it is more cor- rectly to be described as a "secondary bat- tery," deriving its power to produce current Section through a small storage cell, showing one plate in position. Numbered parts are: posi- tive binding post (i), attached to plate shown; negative binding post (2), attached to plate at rear of that shown; rubber stopper of cell (3); vent tube (4) ; outer metal case (5) ; lead lining of case (6) ; hard rubber insulator (7) ; positive element or plate (8) ; negative element or plate at its rear (9); sealing of cell (10); hard rubber jar (n); terminal of all positive plates (12); terminal of all negative plates (13); the fluid or electrolyte (14). from impressed conditions, rather than from the differing specific potentials of two nat- ural substances as, for example, copper and zinc as in the typical galvanic or chemical primary cell. When, however, the required conditions are thoroughly im- pressed by an outside agent, the internal reactions of a secondary cell are very sim- ilar to, although nearly the reverse of, those observed in a primary cell, resulting in both cases in the production of a current. In the secondary battery the electrolytic process, by which the active surfaces of two plates are continuously consumed in produc- ing a current on the outside circuit, depends upon the use of different chemical substances on the surface of two plates of lead this is the substance most commonly used, al- though some others have been found par- tially suitable and electro-chemically re- storing the normal conditions, when the exhaustion has sufficiently progressed. Were it practicable to thus restore, or "recharge," an ordinary copper-zinc primary cell, we would have precisely the conditions theo- retically occurring in the secondary battery, except for the fact that the latter seems to be a complete reversal of the former, show- ing the action on the outside wire that the primary shows in the electrolyte. Thus, in the operation of the secondary cell, we find that the positive plate is the one at- tacked by the oxygen, while the hydrogen unites with the negative. In both varieties of cell, however, the strength and pressure of the current depend principally upon the ability of the compo- nents of the decomposing electrolyte to unite with the substance of the electrodes. This is shown in the action of the earliest type of "storage battery" if we may so term this device in which two sheets of platinum or silver were partially immersed in an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid. By connecting the two plates to the poles of an active galvanic cell, a distinct elec- trolysis was set up, which resulted in an accumulation of oxygen bubbles on the sur- face of the anode and of hydrogen bubbles on the .surface of the cathode. When the surfaces have thus been covered, the pri- mary cell may be disconnected, and on closing a circuit between the two immersed plates a weak current will be observed to flow from the plate, used as the anode in this experiment, to that used as the cathode, such current continuing until the recompo- sition of the water is complete. Because, however, oxygen can not attack, or unite with, silver or platinum, under such condi- tions, the current is weak and of short duration. PRACTICAL SECONDARY BAT- TERIES In order to obtain a practical secondary battery, the first requirement is that we use two plates of some metal that may be readily attacked by the separated compo- nents of the electrically decomposed solu- tion. Hitherto lead has been found to be the most advantageous substance for a commercial cell. 422 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY In passing a current through a cell com- posed of two lead plates, the resulting electrolysis is evidenced by the collection of bubbles at the cathode and by the chem- ical modification of the anode, whose sur- face, under the action of the oxygen thus liberated, becomes transformed into lead peroxide. The operation of "charging" such a cell may be continued until it begins "gasing/' at which point the limit has been reached, and it is ready to give off a brief and weak current, during the recomposi- tion of the water, as in the case of the sil- ver or platinum cell described above. The problem of increasing the current strength and pressure of a storage battery is, therefore, in brief, how the surfaces of the plates exposed to the electrolyte may be increased, in order to permit the formation of a greater quantity of lead peroxide, and the absorption of a larger proportion of hydrogen gas. This condition obviously holds good, since, if the surplus hydrogen is allowed to escape into the atmosphere, the recomposition of water, on which the current depends, can not take place. There are, accordingly, two distinct types of bat- tery, distinguished primarily by the method adopted in increasing the active surfaces. They are usually designated by the names of their original inventors, as the Plante and the Faure types. PLANTE AND FAURE CELLS In the original Plante cell smooth lead plates were used, as in the experimental device described above. The charging sur- face of the two was then increased by a process of "forming," which was conducted in the following manner: A current was sent through the cell by connecting one plate, A, to the positive terminal of a dyna- mo, and the other, B, to the negative pole. As soon as the charging was complete, the cell was discharged, or nearly so, and it was again connected up to the dynamo in reversed direction, B serving as the anode and A as the cathode. By repeated charg- ings, dischargings and reversals, the sur- faces of both plates were so thoroughly at- tacked by the liberated oxygen as to as- sume a porous or spongy appearance. Thus a larger quantity of both oxygen and hydro- gen could reach the metal before the charg- ing limit was attained. Cells formed in this manner gave an efficiency rating of 7.5 ampere-hours per pound of lead, but pre- sented the difficulty, shared by virtually all commercial secondary batteries, that an in- crease of output-efficiency involves a cor- respondingly brief duration of usefulness : the plates rapidly became thoroughly rot- ten and had to be replaced. The Faure, or pasted, battery was origi- nally devised to overcome the difficulty of increased efficiency at the expense of dura- bility. Its fundamental theory is to con- struct the positive and negative plates on different lines, chemically. Thus, he ap- plied the required chemical substances di- rectly to the surfaces of the plates red lead to the positive plate, and litharge, or lead monoxide, to the negative. These ac- tive substances are attached to the plates by depositing them in suitable scratches, indentations, or perforations. Thus, the many varieties of this type of cell are dis- tinguished primarily by the manner of mak- ing the grids and applying the active ma- terial. The composition of the paste also differs among them. DISCHARGING A STORAGE CELL In discharging a storage battery, several chemical changes are brought about. Thus the oxygen in the electrolyte begins to at- tack the spongy surface of the negative plate, releasing hydrogen, by the action of which the lead peroxide of the positive plate is reduced to monoxide and the ox- ides on both to sulphates. In charging again these conditions are reversed, the sul- phate on the negative plate being changed to metallic lead, and that on the other to peroxide. In either case the series of chem- ical reactions and changes continue until the entire exposed surface has been at- tacked. If charging is continued beyond this point the fact is evidenced by the giv- ing-off of gas in the shape of bubbles on the surface of the electrolyte, as in the primitive platinum battery previously de- scribed. Several general rules are adopted in charging. In the first place, the voltage of the charging generator should be about ten per cent higher than that of the battery it- self in discharging. Thus, for a battery of one hundred volts a charging current of one hundred and ten volts is generally used. In averaging the rates specified by the vari- ous manufacturers, the amperage of a nor- mal charging current should be about one- eighth that of the battery itself in discharg- ing. Thus, a 400 ampere-hour battery is normally charged with a current of fifty amperes for 8 hours, although any cell may be charged in a shorter period by follow- ing instructions furnished by the manufac- turers. FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY 423 CAPACITY OF STORAGE CELLS The output, or discharge, capacity of a fully charged secondary cell is estimated in ampere-hours, generally at the 8-hour rate of discharge. Such a cell, however, may be discharged at any rate with a slight increase in amperage as the rate is raised. Thus a certain cell, rated at 800 ampere- hours, gives loo amperes of current at the 8-hour discharge, 140 at the 5-hour dis- charge, 200 at the 3-hour, and 400 at the i-hour. The output of a storage cell, as estimated in ampere-hours, gives a fair indication of its efficiency, since the standard cell is con- structed to register between 2 and 2.5 volts at full charge. Various rules have been given for calculating the current output, for example, giving between 7 and 8 am- pere-hours per pound of lead, or about 6 ampere-hours per square foot of positive plate surface. Neither rule is conclusive, however giving too high a rating for some makes and too low a rating for others since the manner of constructing the cell and the nature of the active material em- ployed are important factors in modifying the efficient strength in current. Such fig- ures would also indicate merely the amper- age at a given rate of discharge, as the above figures indicate. Theoretically, the most authoritative rule gives 40.24 ampere- hours per pound of lead sulphate, making the assumption that the entire active ma- terial of both plates is transformed into this substance in discharging, which is never accomplished in practice. The earlier Plante cells yielded a current of 7^2 amperes per pound of metallic lead, which is a fair aver- age for its genus to the present time. ALTERNATING CURRENTS Most of what has been said in the present article refers to direct current electricity. There is another variety, however, known as the alternating current, which has a wide significance in modern electrical engineer- ing. We have already learned that in di- rect-current apparatus the circuit has a posi- tive and a negative pole or terminal, the current emerging from the source at the former and re-entering it at the latter. This is necessarily the case with the en- ergy generated in a galvanic or chemical cell. With an alternating current the move- ment is first from one terminal and then from the other, each being in turn the posi- tive and the negative. The movement of such a current may be graphically repre- sented by a straight line, from a point of which an irregular arc is drawn to another point further on. This represents the rise and gradual fall of potential in the current moving in one direction. From the latter point another similar irregular arc is drawn under the line, indicating the gradual rise and fall of potential of the current moving in the opposite direction. In these two arcs, drawn between three points on the line, we have what is technically known as a complete "cycle," or the interval between the points at which the current again moves in the direction taken at the start. Thus, calling the three points A, B, and C, we find that an arc begun at C would be above the line again, etc. There are several varieties of alternating current, differing, as the saying is, in phase. Thus the simple alternating current just mentioned is the monophase, or single phase. There is also the two-phase or quarter- phase current and the three-phase. The two-phase current may be compared to two single-phase currents on the same circuit, the second beginning at approximately the highest point of the first. It requires four wires to conduct it The three-phase cur- rent may be compared to three single-phase currents, following one another at, say, one- third of a phase apart. It requires three wires to conduct it. All alternating cur- rents move in certain frequencies, which is to say perform so many complete cycles per second. The standard three-phase cur- rent used in power transmission is 125 cy- cles. The standard single-phase current for electric lighting is 60 cycles. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY THE term "wireless telegraphy" is commonly applied to a system of signaling through space by means of electric waves. In 1864 Clerk Maxwell published his electro-magnetic theory of light, and predicted the existence of electric waves similar to light waves. In 1888 they were discovered experimentally by Heinrich Hertz at the University of Berlin. When a spark jumps across a gap between two conducting surfaces, such as two metal balls, the electric charge of the two bodies oscillates back and forth and sends off into space ether waves, which travel with the speed of light. They differ from light waves only in being much longer, as they are from half an inch to many feet in length, while light waves are between 15 to 29 millionths of an inch long. These waves can be reflected by metals ; refracted by prisms and lenses of wax ; polarized by wood ; and diffracted, just like light waves. They pass through wood, earth, stone, and such materials, but metals are opaque to them. When emitted from the summit of the aerial wire, or antenna, of a space-telegraphy apparatus, these waves move out in ever enlarging concentric circles, resembling nothing more closely than the effect on the surface of a pond produced by throwing a stone into the water. According to the most exact estimates, they vibrate at the rate of 230,000,000 per second, traveling outward from the emitting source, in all directions, at the rate of 186,400 miles per second. When such electric waves strike a circuit of wire with the ends nearly touching, or two pieces of metal at the extremities of a gap in a circuit, a spark passes across the gap. A still better apparatus for detecting the presence of electric waves is the coherer, invented in 1897 by Guglielmo Marconi, which has made wireless telegraphy practicable. This is a small glass tube exhausted of air and filled with fine filings of nickel and silver. In the ends are silver plugs which come within about one millimetre of meeting. The Marconi apparatus, as now used, consists of a wire reaching as high as possible into the air, usually suspended from a mast. This is connected with an induction coil having a spark gap, and when the spark passes the electric waves are sent out in all directions. The receiving apparatus is the coherer already described, in circuit with a battery and an electric bell, sounder, or telephone. When the electric waves from the oscillator reach the coherer it becomes a conductor, the circuit is completed, and the signal is given (424) WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY 425 There are other methods of electric signaling without wires which may become practically developed. W. H. Preece in England has sent messages several miles by two methods conduction and induction. In the first the current is sent through the earth itself, and in the second a body charged with electricity induces the opposite charge in a similar body at a distance. WORKING along the lines of a theory propounded by Prof. Joseph Henry, Hermann von Helmholtz, and several other electrical authorities, Dr. Heinrich Hertz demonstrated by a series of elaborate ex- periments that the discharge, or "shock," from a Leyden jar, or other form of con- denser, is not a merely direct passage of energy from a point of high potential to one of lower potential, but consists rather in a "series of rapidly surging waves, oscillating until equilibrium is established." The same holds true for the effects given off from a momentary current in an electric circuit. In conducting his experiments he made use of the form of oscillator now almost uni- versally employed in wireless telegraphy ap- paratus a Ruhmkorff coil giving a very high-tension current in its secondary wind- ing, the two poles of the secondary circuit ending in two highly polished brass balls. These two brass balls, the distance between which is adjustable, are held on the ends of rods holding sliding spheres, D, D. By altering the positions of these spheres, the oscillator may be tuned tc the resonator. This resonator is a coil or open circuit, whose two terminals also end in brass knobs. With such a resonator, adjusted to the wave lengths given off by any particular oscillator, and placed within the discovered area of effect, the discharge will be fol- lowed by a spark between its knobs. The fact of wave motion was demonstrated by *he fact that in some positions, near to the coil, no effect was noticeable, while at others, further from it, a spark was ob- tained thus establishing the fact of loops and nodes. That these waves, like those of light, could be reflected, Hertz demon- strated by the use of polished concave metal mirrors, arranging his oscillator and resona- tor each in front of one of the mirrors. By placing the coil in front of a similar mirror with a prism of pitch at a determined dis- tance, the fact of refraction of the waves was also demonstrated with the resonator, although in this experiment, 'as in the others, the dimensions of the resonator which is to say, the total length of wire forming the FIG. i. Diagram of an induction coil and at- tachments of the type employed on wireless teleg- raphy circuits. The parts are the battery (B) ; the iron core (/) composed of a bundle of wires; the primary winding (PP) connected to the ter- minals of the battery through the switch; the sec- ondary winding (SS) wound over the primary; the iron hammer of the magnetic vibrater (H) ; the back stop of the vibrater (0) that adjusts the amplitude of the vibrations, breaking the primary circuit so many times per second, accord- ing to adjustment at O, thus enabling an induced alternating current in the secondary winding. The terminals of the secondary are led out to either side of a gap, across which a spark may arch, in length, according to the tension in the sec- ondary. A condenser (C C') is bridged be- tween the leads of the primary circuit, being charged and discharged at each make and break, thus demagnetizing the core and allowing greater frequency of alternation in the secondary. coil of its open circuit must be in propor- tion with the wave lengths of the reflected vibrations, a principle still recognized in 426 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY the various devices for obtaining syntonic, or tuned, effects between two wireless tele- graph stations. Although the Hertz open-circuit resona- tor, when attuned to the proper undulatory amplitude, can reveal the presence of a Hertzian wave of its own vibratory fre- quency exhibiting the phenomenon found in a high-tension secondary coil, a spark between the terminals it is not used as a receiving instrument in any system of wire- less telegraphy. In receiving the impulses transmitted across a distance without wires, another principle in which again light and Hertzian waves resemble one another is utilized. This is the discovered ability of both varieties of wave force, under given conditions, to modify the resistance of an electrical circuit. In. the case of light this fact is demonstrated in the interesting proc- jss of radiophony, or the transmission of articulate speech and other sounds by . a luminous ray. A ray of light reflected from a mirror, through a lens, upon a polished diaphragm, against which speech or other sounds are led through a mouthpiece, may be so varied in intensity, by the superposed frequencies of sounds striking the dia- phragm, that, being focused upon a cell of selenium included in a live electric circuit, it can vary the resistance of the circuit, so as to permit a reproduction of the sounds in a telephonic receiver. The involved prin- ciple of variant resistance is the same as is applied in the carbon telephone transmit- ter, and enables it to convey to line the ex- act vibrations of vocal and other sounds. In practical space-telegraphy an instru- ment known as a "coherer" is employed, to operate on precisely the same principle on being affected by Hertzian impulses name- ly, to modify the resistance of an electrical circuit. The coherer, as used by Marconi, is a modification of the apparatus called the "Branly tube." It consists of a vacuous glass tube at either end of which enter the conducting wires of the circuit. Each of these wires is joined to a silver plug, and the space between them is loosely filled with nickel filings. In normal condition the resistance to the electrical current offered by this device may be equal to several megohms, but, under the influence of mag- netic force, or when exposed to the action of a Hertzian wave, the resistance is in- stantly lowered, being estimated, perhaps, only in units or tens of ohms. The con- ductivity thus produced continues after the cessation of the affecting impulse, or until the tube is tapped lightly, which act "deco- heres" it. For this reason the decoherer is an essential part of all Hertzian telegraphic apparatus. In all systems of space-telegraphy to the present time the tall aerial wire, or antenna, is an essential feature. This wire is carried into the air on a pole or mast, the height of this, relatively at least to other parts of the apparatus, having a very definite effect on the distance of the transmission, also on the selective efficiency, as will be presently explained. Of the three prominent sys- tems, the Marconi, the Slaby-Arco, and the Braun, the first two earth the extremity of the secondary circuit extension opposite to FIG. 2. Diagram of the Hertz oscillator and resonator as used in wireless telegraphy. A is the primary circuit including battery and hand key; B, the secondary circuit, including the spark gap C and the adjusting balls, D D. E is the resonator. Dotted arrows show the directions of the alternating induced currents. the aerial wire. The Braun system avoids this feature, with several resulting advan- tages, according to published claims. The general features of a Marconi non- selective space-telegraphing apparatus are shown in Fig. 3. Here, as may be readily seen, the transmitting apparatus is essen- tially a Hertz oscillator with one extremity, A, of the oscillator circuit extended ver- tically into the air; the other, B, grounded. The key, C, for closing the primary circuit of the coil, is used to tap out the Morse sig- nals, which are transmitted through space in the form of successive undulations. At the receiving station the coherer, C, is in- cluded in series between the aerial, A, and the ground, B. It is also included in the circuit of the battery, D, with the inductive resistances, or reactance coils, E E, con- nected to its terminals for the purpose of WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY 427 preventing the Hertzian impulses from leak- ing into the battery circuit. At each mo- ment of coherence the immense resistance of the coherer is broken down and current from battery, D, moving unobstructed, en- ergizes the relay, F, closing the circuit of battery, G. Current from this battery ener- gizes the sounder, H, delivering the Morse messages, also the magnet, K, operating the decoherer, and causing its clapper, L, to lightly tap the coherer tube. Bridged upon this circuit are the non-inductive resistances, M and N, which act to prevent sparking at the sounder and decoherer contacts. An- other such coil, P, is similarly run parallel to the relay, F. The apparatus arrangements thus shown agree in all essential particulars with those used by Marconi to the present time, and, with such variations as can increase the message-carrying power of the vibrations, are adequate to all requirements in short- distance space-telegraphy. Indeed, the most important differences between the Marconi and other systems are found, not in the methods of transmitting and receiving, but in the peculiar devices adopted to at- tain the end of selective, or syntonic, sig- naling through space. That this problem is by no means a simple one is evidenced FIG. 3. Diagram of the transmitting (7) and receiving (77) stations of a Marconi wireless telegraph circuit. In I, A is the aerial wire; B, the grounded wire; C, the Morse telegraph key in primary circuit. In 77, A and B same as be- fore; C, the coherer; D, battery in circuit with coherer; E E, inductive resistances; F, relay closing circuit of battery, G; 77, the sounder; K, magnet of decoherer. L; M. N, P, non-inductive resistances to prevent sparking. by the number of widely divergent methods adopted by experimenters in their efforts to perfect its solution. To the casual student the most imme- diate expedient would seem to be found in making the aerial wires of different lengths, using a given length for transmitting sig- nals to a receiving station with the same length, thus securing, so far as musical analogy holds good, a common amplitude and frequency between the two. That this consideration has a very definite bearing on the matter can not be denied, but, taken by itself, it is not sufficient to all requirements. Mr. Marconi explains this fact in the_ fol- lowing words : "A dead-beat radiator i.e., one that does not give a train or succession of electrical oscillations is not suitable for tuned cr syntonic space-telegraphy. ... A transmitter consisting of a vertical wire FIG. 4. Transmitter station of Marconi wire- less telegrah, equipped with combined cylinder and transformer apparatus for syntonic selective sig- naling. discharging through a spark-gap is not a persistent oscillator. Its electrical capacity is comparatively so small and its capability of radiating waves so great that the oscil- lations which take place in it must be con- siderably damped. In this case, receivers or resonators of a Considerably different period or pitch will respond and be affected by it." With the obvious aim of increasing the oscillatory power of the transmitter, Mar~ coni devised the double cylinder arrange- ment, shown in Fig. 4. Two concentric metal cylinders were used, the inner one connected to earth, the outer to the an- tenna, with the oscillator circuit bridged between. In explaining the theory of this apparatus, Mr. Marconi says : "One neces- sary condition of this system is that the in- ductance of the two conductors should be unequal, it being preferable that the large inductance should be joined to the non- earthed conductor. I assume that in order to radiate the necessary amount of energy, it is essential that there should be difference in phase of the oscillations in the two conduc- tors, as otherwise their mutual effect would be to neutralize that of each other." With the first experimental use of such an appara- tus, using cylinders seven meters in height, he states that the "signals were not inter- fered with or read by other wireless teler- graph installations worked by my assistants WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY or by the Admiralty in the immediate vi- cinity," between St. Catherine's, Isle of Wight, and Poole, a distance of three miles. Such a system is thus selective, in the sense that it secures exclusiveness. In order to secure complete selectiveness between a large number of stations, so equipped, it would be necessary, of course, to vary the apparatus in regard to its capacity, oscilla- tory frequency, and amplitude of vibra- tions emitted and received. Another selective device consists in the use of a double-wound transformer, or "Tesla coil"; the primary winding being included in circuit with the spark coil secondary and a condenser, with the os- cillator on a bridge, and the secondary be- ing connected on the one side to the aerial wire, on the other to the ground. In the re- ceiving station a similar transformer was interposed between the aerial and the co- herer, which latter was included in the circuit of the secondary winding, other arrangements being virtually the same as in non-selective receiving apparatus. On the point of adjusting this apparatus, Mr. Marconi says: "The period of oscillation of the vertical conductor can be increased by introducing turns of wire, or decreased by diminishing their number, or by introducing a condenser in series." It is essential, how- ever, that the two electrical circuits of the transmitter should be tuned to the same period, or octave, of electrical oscillations, which is to say, that there should be a predetermined fixed relation between the number of turns in the transformer pri- mary and secondary. The condenser bridged on the coherer circuit has the effect of mak- ing the tuning more marked, "by increas- ing the capacity of the secondary resonating circuit of the transformer." Briefly de- scribed, the peculiar resonance of any given selective station is proportionate to the windings, with which, as in the Braun system, the oscillatory intensity may be stepped up or stepped down. AUTOMOBI ES THE automobile, or self-propelled road carriage, is one of the most conspicuous facts of present-day life. We see it in all forms, from the light motor-driven bicycle to the five-ton truck or large pas- senger omnibus. Although automobiles have geen built and used in America only during the last six or eight years, it is a remarkable fact that they really antedate the railroad. As long ago as 1769, a certain Captain Cugnot of the French army built a steam carriage for use with artillery. It was an awkward, topheavy affair, having a single front wheel hung on a fork, so as to be turned by a steering wheel, and at the same time driven by a primitive sort of engine whose steam was drawn from the huge kettle-like boiler made to swing with the front wheel. Although a great curiosity in his time, as also at the present day (it is still preserved in a museum in Paris), it could only make about three miles an hour on the very best roads, and would fall head- long down every bank if the driver were not both strong and careful. During the early years of the nineteenth century a number of engineers, particularly in England, actually built and operated heavy steam car- riages of large power. Some of these could make a speed as high as twenty miles an hour, carrying a dozen or twenty passengers, and weighed several tons. Indeed, the industry increased so rapidly that steam road carriages were for some years formidable rivals of the then newly invented railroad locomotive. What the result would have been if Parliament had not made the law in 1845 reserving the highways for horse carriages we can not say. We know, however, that this was the reason that noth- ing was done in the way of perfecting these vehicles for nearly fifty years. To be sure an occasional enterprising engineer would build a steam carriage that was both heavy and slow-going, but the day of modern automobiles did not arrive until the last decade of the nineteenth century.. In 1885 Gottlieb Daimler of Cannstatt, Germany, invented the high-speed, internal-combustion engine, operated by the gas of gasoline or other spirit. He fitted this motor to a tricycle, and later to a four-seated car- riage, thus making the first step in the direction of the modern gasoline vehicle which is so familiar a sight in all parts of the world at the present time. The next or more important stages in the evolution of the auto- mobile were due to the labors of the French engineers, Panhard-Levassor, the Peugeots, Mors, and others who operated under Daimler's rights in (429) 28 430 AUTOMOBILES France, and eventually brought the motor vehicle to its present high perfection. Meantime, in 1889, another French engineer, Leon Serpollet, had invented his famous flash boiler, or steam generator, consisting of several coils of flattened steel tubing, which, heated over a fire, would instantly vaporize water injected through them. Since this apparatus was both safe and efficient, it was very well suited for a light and compact steam carriage, and for this purpose he used it. Since the practical per- fection of the electrical storage battery the electric automobile has also appeared. MOTOR VEHICLES BRIEFLY DISCUSSED THE THREE TYPES OF VEHICLE THERE are at the present time three types of motor vehicle steam, gasoline, and electrical. Steam carriages are necessarily complicated and difficult to manage by per- sons not skilled in the theory of the steam- engine. While there is little or no danger of exploding, there is constant trouble from the boilers burning out, due to allowing the water to sink to too low a level. This is an accident due to carelessness and insufficient knowledge of the machine. The safety of cause one or more of the flues to collapse, thus putting out the fire, and allowing all steam to escape through the bottom of the boiler. This is a startling occurrence, but by no means a dangerous one, and saves the life of the passenger at the expense of a set of new flues. Because of the constant dan- ger of break-downs, burning-out, and defec- tive valves in a steam carriage with an un- skilled driver, the gasoline machine is al- ways growing in popularity. It is easier to manage, has no boiler, requires no furnace^ A steam runabout a familiar type light American automobile. automobile boilers may be easily explained. The shell is generally made of steel, while the flues passing through the crown plates at either end are of copper. Since at high temperatures steel expands more rapidly than copper, the result of overheating with the small amount of water in the boiler will be simply that the excess of pressure will may be started by turning a crank, and stopped by throwing out a clutch connecting the motor to the driving-wheels. As for the electric carriage, its sphere of usefulness is confined to city traffic or to very short tours out of town, since its radius of travel is limited to the capacity of its storage bat- teries of one charge of current. Thus few AUTOMOBILES 431 A typical gasoline touring car. This is modeled on French lines, and represents a type of carriage that is followed by very many American manufacturers. The motor is beneath the sloping bonnet over the for- ward axle, and drives to a transverse coun- tershaft, which is connected by chains and sprockets to the two rear wheels. electrical vehicles can travel more than 25, or at most, 40 miles before the batteries must be charged again. THE DIFFERENTIAL GEAR It may be said that the motor carriage resembles a horse carriage only in the fact that it runs on four wheels and has the same kind of a body. For its successful operation it requires several apparatus that have never been used on any other type of vehicle. In the first place, in order to trans- mit power to the two rear wheels, it is necessary that a device known as the dif- ferential gear be placed on the rear axle. Briefly described, a differential gear is a machine that can enable the two driving- wheels to turn at different speeds. This is necessary when the carriage has to turn a corner, for if both the wheels were always moving at the same speed, the vehicle could turn only on a very large curve, such as is necessary to use in railroad tracks. This, of course, would make it impossible to turn a street corner, or to get out of the way of another vehicle in the same road. How the differential gear works may be easily understood from a brief description. The rear axle in most automobiles turns around with the power transmitted from the engine. The two wheels are keyed fast to it, instead of being hung loose on a boss, as in horse carriages. In order to arrange the differential gear the rear axle is divided in the centre, and to each end is keyed a bevel gear or toothed wheel. Between these two bevel gears is hung the sprocket, and on several of its spokes are bevel pinions, meshing with the two bevel gears just de- scribed. When the carriage is driving straight ahead the bevel pinions are held fast between the teeth of the gears and do not turn on their axes. They thus act to carry both halves of the divided axle shafts. As soon, however, as the steering wheels make a movement to turn the carriage one of the driving wheels becomes a pivot or centre, around which the other moves. It thus offers a resistance against the forward movement imparted to the sprocket, and the bevel pinions, let on to its spokes, im- mediately begin to turn on their axes, trav- eling over the face of one gear, while still imparting movement to the other. Thus the movements of the wheel are perfectly compensated; the one continuing to move at full speed while the other is revolving very slowly or is entirely stationary. STEERING APPLIANCES In steering the motor carriage it is neces- sary to have pivoted stud axles, as they are called, instead of the swinging front axle, as in horse carriages, with wheels arranged to cut under the body. Briefly described, these axles consist of short bosses, which are hinged at either extremity of a rigid axle shaft, so as to swing the connected wheels backward or forward as the driver may de- sire. The steering mechanism is very sim- ple. Each one of the stud axles carries an arm at right angles to its length, and these 432 AUTOMOBILES two arms are connected across the width of the carriage by a link bar. The link steer- ing lever may be connected by suitable ar- rangements so as to give the two wheels on their pivot inclination to the left or right From the fact that the steering is usually accomplished with the front wheels and the driving by the rear* wheels, it is easy to see that when the former are inclined in any direction the movement given by the latter will turn the carriage round m the arc in- dicated by the inclination of the front wheels. In order, however, to prevent the wheels from skidding or slipping sidewise, when attempting to turn, it is necessary to would otherwise be imparted to the body and running gear, greatly to the disturb- ance of the machinery and the annoyance of the passengers. AUTOMOBILE UNDERFRAMES It is also necessary to have a flexible un- derframe, in order that nothing may be strained or broken in passing over uneven road surfaces or along the side of slopes. Regarding the springs that are necessary it may be stated briefly that they must be longer and more yielding than those used with horse carriages. The reason is that they must be able to bear all the jolts and An electric cab of familiar type. The batteries are contained in the box under the body, and the motors are hung on the "dead" rear axle, driving to the wheels direct arrange the front wheels so that they will describe concentric arcs in turning. Were this not done the turning would be ex- tremely uncertain, even when no accident occurred. RUBBER TIRES In order to secure good traction on ordi- nary streets and roadways, it is necessary to use rubber tires, either solid or pneu- matic. This saves a good deal of power that would otherwise be wasted, since the effect of the rubber surface is to take a firm grip of the surface of the road, thus allowing all the power to be used in turn- ing the wheels, rather than overcoming use- less resistance. Pneumatic tires have the further advantage of a resilient support, saving the passengers from many of the shocks of travel on an uneven road that shocks of travel at high speed, and at the same time absorb the vibrations of the motor. SPEED CHANGING In regulating the speed of an automobile there are several things to be considered, since the driver should always keep before his mind the old maxim that an increase of speed generally means a decrease of power. Consequently he will find that in attempting to travel over a heavy road or up a steep hill, it is easier to move on the low speed than on a high one, provided that any form of mechanical speed changer is used. With steam-engines the speed and power are varied at the same time by changing the point of cut-off by the link, or by regulating the inlet of steam with the throttle. With gasoline engines the speed AUTOMOBILES 433 may be varied over a wide range by throt- tling, which operates by regulating the amount of fuel charge admitted to the com- bustion space, or by changing the ratio of gas and air passing from the carburetter. With electric vehicles the situation is some- what different, since the speed and power of an electric motor, within certain limits, are in direct ratio. Thus, although very few electric vehicles are driven through more than a single reduction, it is necessary to change the speed and power by changing the pressure of the batteries. This is done by varying the couple of the battery units from multiple connection to series. All gas- oline vehicles are provided with a device known as the speed-changing gear which affords a ready means for varying the speed without throttling the motor, also for re- versing the travel of the carriage. Such a device consists either of sliding spur gears or of some arrangement of sun and planet wheels, whose relative movements are regulated by band and drum clutches. Such a change-speed gear, which is used on a well-known make of American motor carriage, is shown in the accompanying illustration. The use of such gears as the only means of varying the speed of a motor carriage is by no means economical, since the power output of the engine is always the same, whether the carriage be travel- ing at the lowest or highest speed. The best practice with a three-speed gear, which is the most usual form, is to start the car- riage by throwing on the clutch at low gear, and when it has fairly begun shift to inter- mediate gear and vary the speed by throt- tling. It is necessary to use the low gear only when ascending hills or passing through heavy places in the road. At such times the power is the principal considera- tion, and the speed only secondary. SPEED CHANGING IN ELECTRIC CARS In the typical electric automobile the armature shaft is direct-connected with a spur pinion, meshing with an internal or external gear attached to the road wheel. This is the general practice where two motors one for each drive wheel are used, in which case the act of making long turns retards the rotation of one motor's arma- ture, causing the motor to "act as a dyna- mo," since its C.E.M.F. overbalances the E.M.F. of the battery. Other makes of car- riage have a single motor arranged to drive a countershaft containing a differential gear, or to drive direct on the differential drum of a centre-divided "live" axle. In practical^ all carriages reversal is accomplished by a rotary switch, which changes the direction of the current flowing to the armatures, the re- versal being invariably accomplished after throwing on the lowest speed combination. Braking is usually accomplished by shoe or hand brakes after the power has been dis- A typical American speed-changing gear. The motor fly-wheel, Q, is on a shaft carrying keyed gears, A and B, sprocket, C, and gear, D, turn loose on the shaft. By throwing on the friction clutch, G, the friction disks, E and E, are pressed together, and the sprocket drives from the main shaft, giving the high speed forward. By throw- ing in clutch, H, gear, A, drives K, and L drives D, giving the low speed forward. By throwing in clutch, M, gear, B, drives N through idler, P t and L drives D and sprocket, C, in the reverse direction. Thus one backward and two forward speeds are obtained. connected, although in emergencies the switch is often reversed and the high speed thrown in. Speed changes are accomplished by vary- ing the connections of the batteries between the series and parallel arrangements; the range of speeds and pressures thus made available varying only with the number of battery units used. It is a common practice, particularly with a few units, to use a varia- ble rheostat to still further increase the range; while, when two motors are nsed, 484 AUTOMOBILES it is customary to vary the connections of the field windings, sometimes also of the armatures, between series and parallel ar- rangements. Thus, with a two-unit battery supplying energy to two motors, three possible speed combinations are available. The first, or lowest, speed has the two battery units con- nected in parallel and the fields of the two motors in series-parallel, thus reducing the E.M.F. of the battery and the intake ca- pacity of the motors each one-half. The second speed has the two battery units in series and the fields in series-multiple, thus giving three-quarter efficiency. The third, or highest, speed, has the battery units in series and the fields in multiple, thus giving full power. Of course, the effect of connecting the battery units in series, or "in quantity" as the English have it, is to give a cumulative effect to the E.M.F., thus increasing the pressure to a figure equivalent to the sum of the individual unit voltages ; by con- necting the four units into series-multiple this total figure for E.M.F. is halved, and by connecting them in parallel it is quartered, or made equivalent merely to the voltage of each unit. The opposite efficiency effects are obtained by connecting the motors. In series the C.E.M.F. of the armatures is cumulatively exerted on the line, thus halving the efficiency of the battery pres- sure; in multiple, it is reduced to unity, thus allowing full effect to the battery pressure. The storage cells used in automobiles con- tain either five or seven plates, and vary in weight between thirty-five and sixty pounds each. Their output capacity ranges be- tween 200 and 300 ampere-hours. Taking such a four-unit battery, consisting of 44 cells, of 300 ampere-hour capacity each, and of 49.5 pounds weight each, the series ar- rangement would give a pressure of 88 volts, the series-parallel of 44 volts, and the paral- lel of 22 volts. With a well-constructed 6- horsepower motor, the highest pressure ar- rangement should give 1,250 revolutions per minute, the second, 600 revolutions, and the third, 300 revolutions. Such a battery, how- ever, would weigh 2,178 pounds. GAMES OF CARDS THE most familiar of parlor games are played with suit cards, which have been in common use for centuries. The exact origin of cards is uncertain, but it is certain that their use dates from a very remote period. Many of the games are also very ancient, at least in their general principles. Cards have been used not only for social games, but also for gambling and as a means of divination, or fortune-telling. There is no use of condemning them, however, on this account, since gambling and fortune- telling can be done with any kind of apparatus. It is better to learn to re- gard cards as a means of innocent amusement than to associate them wholly with the evil ends for which some people use them. Card-playing was first put upon a scientific basis by the writings of Edmund Hoyle, whose treatise on whist is one of the classics of the English language. Many new games have arisen since he wrote (in 1743), but whist still holds first place in the estimation of most card-players. RULES AND TERMS IN PLAYING WHIST LONG WHIST is played by four per- sons, with a complete pack of fifty-two cards. The four players divide themselves into two parties, each player sitting oppo- site his partner. This division is usually accomplished by what is called cutting the cards, the two highest and the two lowest being partners; or the partnership may be settled in any other way that may be de- cided on. The holder of the lowest card is the dealer. But previous to their being dealt, the cards are "made" that is, shuf- fled by the elder hand, and "cut" by the younger hand. The undermost card in the pack, after it has been shuffled and cut, is the "trump." THE PLAY. The whole pack is now dealt out card by card, the dealer beginning with the player on his left, the elder hand. The last card the trump is then turned face upward on the table, where it remains till the first trick is won. The deal completed, each player takes up his allotted thirteen, and arranges them in his hand according to the several suits the Hearts, Clubs, Spades, and Diamonds by themselves in their regular order. The elder hand now leads or plays a card. His left-hand adver- sary follows, then his partner, and last of all his right-hand adversary. Each player must "follow suit," if he can, and the highest card of the suit led wins the "trick" ; or if any player can not follow suit, he either passes the suit: that is, plays some card of another suit, or trumps: that is, plays a card of the same suit or denomi- (435) 436 GAMES OF CARDS nation as the turned-up card. Thus, we will suppose the first player leads a nine of spades, the second follows with a ten, the third, who perhaps holds two high cards, plays a queen, and the last a two or a three. The trick would then belong to the third player, who won it with his queen. The winner of the trick then leads off a card, and the others follow as before, and so on till the thirteen tricks are played. A second deal then takes place as before, and so the game proceeds till one or the other side has obtained ten tricks, which is game. The order and value of the cards in whist is as follows: Ace is highest in play and lowest in cutting. Then follow king, queen, knave, ten, nine, eight, seven, six, five, four, three, two, the lowest. SCORING. But there are other ways of scoring points besides tricks. The four court cards of the trump suit are called honors; and the holders of four score four toward the game; the holders of three score two; but if each player or each set of partners hold two, then honors are said to be divided, and no points are added to the game on either side. Thus, A and C (partners) have between them the ace, knave, and queen. At the end of the deal or round, they say and score two by hon- ors; or, B and D hold ace and king only, while A and B have queen and knave in their hands ; then the honors are divided. All tricks above six score to the game. All honors above two score in the way ex- plained two points for three -honors, four points for four honors. There being thirteen tricks which must be made in each round or deal, it follows that seven points may be gained, which, with the four honors, would finish the game in a single deal. This stroke of good for- tune is, however, seldom attained. It is much more likely that four or five deals are made before the game is won. As we have explained, ten points is game in long whist. In short whist, which is the ordinary game cut in half, five points win. But if either side get up to nine points, then the holding of honors is of no advantage. In the language of the whist-table, at nine points honors do not count. But at eight points, the player who holds two honors hi his hand has what is called the privilege of the call. That is, he may ask his partner if he has an honor "Can you one?" or "Have you an honor?" If the partner asked does hold the requisite court card, the honors may be shown, the points scored, and the game ended. But the inquiry must not be made by the player holding the two honors till it is his turn to play, nor must the holder of a single honor inquire of bis partner if he has two. Nor does the holding of four honors en- title the partners to show them at any stage of the game except at eight points. To put the matter epigrammatically, at six or seven points, tricks count before honors; at eight points, honors count before tricks. At nine points, honors do not count. It must be understood, however, that, in or- der to count honors at eight points, they must be shown before the first trick is turned, or they can not be claimed till the round is completed. Thus it might hap- pen that the partners at eight points, hold- ing the honors between them, and neglect- ing to show them, would be beaten, even though the other side wanted three or four tricks for the game. A single game is won by the side which first obtains the ten points by a majority of one, two, three, or four points. A double game is made when one side obtains ten points before the other has scored five. A lurch or triplet is won by obtaining ten points to nothing on the other side. A rubber is two games won out of three. The points of a rubber are reckoned thuswise : For the single game, one point ; for the double, two points; and for the rub, two points. Thus it is possible to ob- tain six points in one rubber namely, two doubles and the rub. A Iwrch or triplet is in some companies reckoned for three points. Generally, how- ever, a lurch is only counted as a double game where triplets are counted ; it is pos- sible, therefore, for the winners to obtain eight points. A slam is when the whole thirteen tricks are won in a single hand. The game is usually marked on the table by coins or counters, or by the holes in a cribbage-board. Many pretty little con- trivances have been invented as whist- markers. TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN WHIST ACE. Highest in play, lowest in cutting. BLUE PETER. A signal for trumps, allow- able in modern play. This term is used when a high card is unnecessarily played in place of one of lower denomination, as a ten for a seven, a five for a deuce, etc. GAMES OF CARDS 437 BUMPER. Two games won in succession before adversaries have won one; that is, a rubber of full points five at long whist, eight at short. CUT. Lifting the cards, when the upper- most portion (not fewer than three) is placed below the rest. The pack is then ready for the dealer. CUTTING-IN. Deciding the deal by each player taking up not fewer than three cards, and the two highest and two lowest be- come partners. In case of ties, the cards must be cut again. CUTTING-OUT. In case of other person or persons wishing to play, the cut is adopted as before, when the highest (or lowest, as may be agreed on) stands out of the game, and does not play. CALL, THE. The privilege of the player at eight points asking his partner if he holds an honor "Have you one?" The partners having eight points are said to have the call. When each side stands at eight, the first player has the privilege. No player can call till it is his turn to play. DEAL. The proper distribution of the cards, from left to right, face downward. DEAL, MIS-. A misdeal is made by giving a card too many or too few to either player; in which case the deal passes to the next hand. DEAL, FRESH. A fresh or new deal, ren- dered necessary by any violation of the laws, or by any accident to the cards or players. DOUBLE. Ten points scored at long whist before adversaries have obtained five ; or in short whist, five before three. ELDER-HAND. The player to the left of the dealer. FACED CARD. A card improperly shown in process of dealing. It is in the power of adversaries in such cases to demand a new deal. FINESSING. A term used when a player endeavors to conceal his strength, as when, having the best and third best (as ace and queen), he plays the latter, and risks his ad- versary holding the second best (the king). If he succeed in winning with his queen, he gains a clear trick, because, if his ad- versary throws away on the queen, the ace is certain of making a trick. The term finessing may be literally explained by say- ing a player chances an inferior card to win a trick with while he holds the king card in his hand. FORCING. This term is employed when the player obliges his adversary or partner to play his trump or pass the trick. As, for instance, when the player holds the last two cards in a suit, and plays one of them. HAND. The thirteen cards dealt to each player. HONORS. Ace, king, queen, and knave of trumps, reckoned in the order here given. JACK. The knave of any suit. KING CARD. The highest unplayed card in any suit; the leading or winning card. LEAD, THE. The first player's card, or the card next played by the winner of the last trick. LONG TRUMPS. The last trump card in hand, one or more, when the rest are all played. It is important to retain a trump in an otherwise weak hand. LOOSE CARDS. A card of no value, which may be thrown away on any trick won by your partner or adversary. LONGS. Long whist, as opposed to short. LURCH. The players who make the double point are said to have lurched their adversaries. LOVE. No points to score. Nothing. MARKING THE GAME. Making the score apparent, with coins, etc., as before ex- plained. No GAME. A game at which the players make no score. OPPOSITION. Side against side. POINTS. The score obtained by tricks and honors. The wagering or winning pe- riods of the game. QUARTE. Four cards in sequence. QUARTE MAJOR. A sequence of ace, king, queen, and knave. QUINT. Five successive cards in a suit; a sequence of five, as king, queen, knave, ten, and nine. RENOUNCE. Possessing no card of the suit led, and playing another which is noi. a trump. REVOKE. Playing a card different from the suit led, though the player can follow suit. The penalty for the error, whether made purposely or by accident, is the for- feiture of three tricks. RUBBER. The best two of three games. RUFFING Another term for trumping a suit other than trumps. SEQUENCE. Cards following in their nat- ural order, as ace, king, queen, two, three^ four, etc. There may, therefore, be a se- quence of four, five, six, and so on. SINGLE. Scoring, at long whist, ten tricks before your adversaries have scored five. SEE-SAW. When each partner trumps a suit. For instance, A holds no diamonds, 438 GAMES OF CARDS and B no hearts. When A plays hearts, B trumps and returns a diamond, which A trumps and returns a heart, and so on. SCORE. The points gained in a game or rubber. SLAM. Winning every trick in a round. SHORTS. Short whist as opposed to long. TENACE. Holding the best and third best of any suit led when last player. Holding tenace, as king and ten of clubs. When your adversary leads that suit, you win two tricks perforce. [Tenace minor means the second and fourth best of any suit] TREBLE. Scoring five (at short whist) before your adversaries have marked one. TERCE. A sequence of three cards in any suit. TERCE MAJOR. Ace, king, and queen of any suit held in one hand. TRICKS. The four cards played, includ- ing the lead. TRUMP. The last card in the deal; the turn-up. TRUMPS. Cards of the same suit as the turn-up. TIES. Cards of like denomination, as two kings, queens, etc. Cards of the same number of pips. TRUMPING SUIT. Playing a trump to any other suit led. UNDERPLAY. Playing to mislead your adversaries; as by leading a small card though you hold the king card of the suit. YOUNGER HAND. The player to the right of the dealer. SHORT RULES FOR FIRST HAND OR LEAD (i.) Lead from your strong suit, and be cautious how you change suits; and keep a commanding card to bring it in again. (2.) Lead through the strong suit and up to the weak, but not in trumps, unless very strong in them. (3.) Lead the highest of a sequence; but if you have a quart or quint to a king, lead the lowest. (4.) Lead through an honor, particularly if the game be much against you. (5.) Lead your best trump, if the ad- versaries be eight, and you have no honor; but not if you have four trumps, unless you have a sequence. (6.) Lead a trump if you have four or five, or a strong hand; but not if weak. (7.) Having ace, king, and two or three small cards, lead ace and king, if weak in trumps, but a small one if strong in them. (8.) If you have the last trump, with some winning cards, and one losing card only, lead the losing card. (9.) Return your partner's lead, not the adversaries' ; and if you have only three originally, play the best; but you need not return it immediately, when you win with the king, queen, or knave, and have only small ones, or when you have a good se- quence, have a strong suit, or have five trumps. (10.) Do not lead from ace queen, or ace knave. (11.) Do not lead an ace, unless you have a king. (12.) Do not lead a thirteenth card, un- less trumps be out. (13.) Do not trump a thirteenth card, unless you be last player, or want the lead. (14.) Keep a small card to return your partner's lead. (15.) Be cautious in trumping a card when strong in trumps, particularly if you have a strong suit. (16.) Having only a few small trumps, make them when you can. (17.) If your partner refuses to trump a suit, of which he knows you have not the best, lead your best trump. (18.) When you hold all the remaining trumps play one, and then try to put the lead in your partner's hand. (19.) Remember how many of each suit are out, and what is the best card left in each hand. (20.) Never force your partner if you are weak in trumps, unless you have a re- nounce, or want the odd trick. (21.) When playing for the odd trick, be cautious of trumping out, especially if your partner be likely to trump a suit; make all the tricks you can early, and avoid finessing. (22.) If you take a trick, and have a sequence, win with the lowest. FOR SECOND HAND (23.) With king, queen, and small cards, play a small one, when not strong in trumps. But if weak, play the king. With ace, king, queen, or knave, only, and a small card, play the small one. FOR THIRD HAND (24.) With ace and queen, play her majesty, and, if she wins, return the ace. In all other cases the third hand should play his best card when his partner has led a low one. It is a safe rule for the third hand to play his highest GAMES OF CARDS 439 FOR ALL THE PLAYERS (25.) Fail not, when in your power, to make the odd trick. (26.) Attend to the game, and play ac- cordingly. (27.) Hold the turn-up card as long as possible, and so keep your adversaries from a knowledge of your strength. (28.) Retain a high trump as long as you can. (29.) When in doubt win the trick. (30.) Play the game fairly and keep your temper. CUTTING IN (31.) The highest two are partners against the lowest two. (32.) Less than three cards is not a cut. [If fewer than three cards Be cut off the pack, the player so cutting must replace the cards, and cut again.] (33.) In cutting, the ace is lowest. (34.) Ties must cut again. (35.) After the pack is cut, no fresh cards can be called for in that deal. (36.) If a card be exposed, a new cut may be demanded. (37.) All cutting-in and cutting-out must" be by pairs. (38.) The right-hand adversary cuts to the dealer. SHUFFLING (39.) The cards must be shuffled above the table. (40.) Each player has a right to shuffle the cards, the dealer last. DEALING (41.) The cards must be dealt one at a time, commencing with the player to the left of the dealer. (42.) In case of a misdeal, the deal passes to the next player. [The following are misdeals: A card too many or too few given to either player. An exposed card. Looking to the trump card before it is turned up in the regular order of play. Deal- ing the cards with the pack not having been cut. The trump card dropped out of turn. A faulty pack. In every case, except the last, the deal is lost if a fresh deal be claimed by opponents. A card faced by any other than the dealer is not subject to penalty.] (43.) The dealer must not touch the cards after they have left his hand, but he is allowed to count those remaining undealt if he suspects he has made a misdeal. (44). The trump card must be kft on the table, face upward, till the first trick is turned. [If it is not then taken up, however, it can be treated as an exposed card, and called at any part of the game, provided that no revoke be made by playing it] (45). One partner may not deal for an- other without the consent of opponents. THE GAME (46). Any card played out of turn can be treated as an exposed card and called, provided no revoke be thereby caused. [Thus, a player who wias a trick plays another card before his partner plays to the trick. The second card becomes an exposed card.] (47.) If the third player throws down his card before the second, the fourth player has a right also to play before the second; or, if the fourth hand play before the second or third, the cards so played must stand, and the second be compelled to win the trick if he can. (48.) No player but he who made the last trick has a right to look at it after it has been turned. (49.) A trump card played in error may be recalled before the trick is turned. [But if the playing of such trump cause the next player to expose a card, such last exposed card can not be called.] (50.) If two cards be played, or if the player play twice to the same trick, his op- ponents can elect which of the two shall remain and belong to the trick. Provided, however, that no revoke be caused. [But if the trick should happen to be turned with five cards in it, adversaries may claJm a fresh deal.] (51.) A player, before he throws, may require his partner to "draw his card," or he may have each card in the trick claimed by the players before the trick is completed. [The proper way is to say, "Draw your cards," as then the chance of partner claiming the wrong one is lessened.] (52.) If two players answer the lead to- gether, the one whose turn it was to play can call the other card in the next or fol- lowing trick as an exposed card. (53-) No player is allowed to transfer his hand to another without the consent of his adversaries. (54.) A hand once abandoned and laid down on the table can not be taken up again and played. (55.) If a player announce that he can win every trick, adversaries may call his cards. THE REVOKE .(56.) The penalty for a revoke is the forfeiture of three tricks. If a revoke be made, the adverse party may add three to their score by taking them from their opponents, or they may reduce your score by three. 440 GAMES OF CARDS Cln order ta more fully explain the intent of a revoke: "If a suit is led, and any one of the players, having a card of the same suit, shall play another suit to it that constitutes a revoke. But if the error be discovered be- fore the trick is quitted, or before the party having so played a wrong suit, or his partner, shall play again, the penalty only amounts to the cards being treated as exposed, and being liable to be called."] (57.) If a player revoke, and before the trick is turned discovers his error, adver- saries may call on him to play his highest or lowest card of the suit led, or they may call the card exposed at any time when such call will not lead to another revoke. (58.) No revoke can be claimed till the trick is turned and quitted, or the revoker's partner has played again. (59-) When a revoke is claimed, the cards must not be mixed, under forfeiture of the game. (60.) The player or partners against whom a revoke is established can not claim the game in that deal. (61.) No revoke can be claimed after the cards are cut for the next game. (62.) When a revoke has occurred on both sides, there must be a new deal. (63.) The proof of a revoke is with the claimants, who may examine each trick on the completion of the round. CALLING HONORS (64.) Honors can not be counted unless they are claimed before the next deal. No omission to score them can be rectified after the cards are packed, but an over- score can be deducted. (65.) Honors can only be called at eight points, and then only by the player whose turn it is to play. [It is quite usual to omit calling honors when the game is pretty certain, but the shortest and fairest plan is for the player holding two honors to ask, "Can you one?" when, if your partner holds one, the game is at an end.] (66.) At nine points honors do not count. (67.) Four honors in one or both part- ners' hands count four to the game; three honors, two. Two honors on each side are not scored, but are said to be divided. THE SCORE (68.) If both partners score, and a dis- crepancy occur between them, adversaries may elect which score to retain. (69.) The score can not be amended after the game is won and the cards packed. INTIMATIONS BETWEEN PARTNERS (70.) A player may ask his partner, "What are trumps?" or, "Can you folio* suit?" "Is there not a revoke?" Or he may tell him to draw his card. All other intimations are unfair. (71.) Lookers-on must not interfere un- less appealed to. THE LEAD FIRST HAND Begin with the suit of which you have the greatest number; for, when trumps are out, you will probably make the tricks in it. If you hold equal numbers in different suits, begin with the strongest; it is the least liable to injure your partner. Sequences are always eligible leads; they support your partner's hand without injur- ing your own. Lead from king or queen rather than from a single ace; for, since your oppo- nents will lead from contrary suits, your ace will be powerful against them. Lead from king rather than queen, and from queen rather than knave; for the stronger the suit, the less is your partner endangered. Do not lead from ace queen, or ace knave, till you are obliged; for, if that suit be led by your opponents, you have a good chance of making two tricks in it In sequences to a queen, knave, or ten, begin with the highest, and so distress your left-hand adversary. With ace, king, and knave, lead the king; if strong in trumps, you may wait the re- turn of this suit, and finesse the knave. With ace, queen, and one small card, lead the small one; by this lead, your partner has a chance of making the knave. With ace, king, and two or three small cards, play ace and king if weak, but a small card if strong, in trumps; when strong in trumps, you may give your part- ner the chance of making the first trick. With king, queen, and one small card, play the small one; for your partner has an equal chance to win, and there is little fear of your making king or queen. With king, queen, and two or three small cards, lead a small card if strong, and the king if weak, in trumps; strength in trumps entitles you to play a backward game, and to give your partner a chance of winning the first trick. But if weak in trumps, lead the king and queen, to secure a trick in that suit. With ace, with four small cards, and no other good suit, play a small one if strong in trumps, and the ace if weak; strength in trumps may enable you to make one or two of the small cards, although your partner can not support your lead. GAMES OF CARDS 441 With king, knave, and ten, lead the ten ; if your partner has the ace, you may prob- ably make three tricks, whether he pass the ten or not. With king, queen, and ten, lead the king; for, if it fail, by putting on the ten, upon the return of the suit from your partner, you may make two tricks. With queen, knave, and nine, lead the queen; upon the return of that suit from your partner, by putting on the nine, you make the knave. SECOND HAND With ace, king, and small ones, play a small card if strong in trumps, but the king if weak. Otherwise your ace or king might be trumped in the latter case. Ex- cept in critical cases no hazard should be run with few trumps. With ace, queen, and small cards, play a small one ; upon the return of that suit you may make two tricks. With ace, knave, and small cards, play a small one; upon the return of that suit you make make two tricks. With ten or nine, with small cards, play a small one. By this plan you may make two tricks in the suit. With king, queen, ten, and small cards, play the queen. By playing the ten on the return of the suit you stand a good chance of making two tricks. With king, queen, and small cards, play a small card if strong in trumps, but the queen if weak in them; for strength in trumps warrants a backward game. It is advantageous to keep back your adver- saries' suit. With a sequence to your highest card in the suit, play the lowest of it, for by this means your partner is informed of your strength. With queen, knave, and small ones, play the knave, because you will probably secure a trick. With queen, ten, and small ones, play a small one, for your partner has an equal chance to win. With either ace, king, queen, or knave, with small cards, play a small one ; your partner has an equal chance to win the trick. With either ace king, queen, or knave, with one small card only, play the small one, for otherwise your adversary will finesse upon yon. If a queen of trumps be led, and you hold the king, put that on; if your partner hold the ace, you do no harm; and if the .king be taken, the adversaries have played two honors to one. If a knave of trumps be led, and you hold the queen, put it on; for, even at the worst, you bring down two honors for one. If a king be led, and you hold ace, knave, and small ones, play the ace, which can only make one trick. The third hand plays high. With ace and king, play the ace and im- mediately return the king. It is not neces- sary that you should keep the command of your partner's hand. With ace and queen, play the ace and return the queen. By this means you make a certain trick, though it is sometimes policy to play the queen. Your partner is, how- ever, best supported by the old-fashioned method. With ace and knave, play the ace and re- turn the knave, in order to strengthen your partner's hand. With king and knave, play the king; and if it win, return the knave. Play the best when your partner leads a small card, as it best supports him. If you hold ace and one small card only, and your partner lead the king, put on the ace, and return the small one; for, other- wise, your ace may be an obstruction to his suit. If you hold king and only one small card, and your partner lead the ace, when 'the trumps are out, play the king; for, by put- ting on the king, there will be no obstruc- tion to the suit. FOURTH HAND If a king be led, and you hold ace, knave, and a small card, play the small one; for supposing the queen to follow you will prob- ably make both ace and knave. When the third hand is weak in his part- ner's lead, you may often return that suit to great advantage; but this rule must not be applied to trumps, unless you are very strong indeed. Never neglect to secure the trick if there is any doubt about the game. If you hold the thirteenth trump, retain it to make a trick when your partner fails in his -lead. If you stand in the nine holes, make all the tricks you can ; but at the same time be careful. Watch the game narrowly, and look well to your partner's lead. 442 GAMES OF CARDS LEADING TRUMPS Lead trumps from a strong hand, but never from a weak one; by which means you will secure your good cards from being trumped. Never trump out with a bad hand, al- though you hold five small trumps; for, since your cards are bad, you only bring out your adversaries' good ones. If you hold ace, king, knave, and three small trumps, play ace and king; for the probability of the queen falling is in your favor. If you hold ace, king, knave, and one or two small trumps, play the king, and wait the return from your partner to put on the knave. By this plan you may win the queen. But if you have particular reasons to ex- haust trumps, play two rounds, and then your strong suit. If you hold ace, king, and two or three small trumps, lead a small one, with a view to letting your partner win the first trick; but if you have good reason for getting out trumps, play three rounds, or play ace and king, and then your strong suit. If your adversaries are eight, and you hold no honor, throw off your best trump; for if your partner has not two honors, you lose the game. But if he should hap- pen to hold two honors as he probably would you have a strong commanding game. Holding ace, queen, knave, and small trumps, play the knave; by this means, the king only can make against you. Holding ace, queen, ten, and one or two small trumps, lead a small one; this will give your partner a chance to win the first trick, and keep the command in your own hand. Holding king, queen, ten, and small trumps, lead the king; for, if the king be lost, upon the return of trumps you may finesse the ten. Holding king, knave, ten, and small ones, lead the knave ; it will prevent the adver- saries from making a small trump. Holding queen, knave, nine, and small trumps, lead the queen ; if your partner hold the ace, you have a chance of making the whole suit. Holding queen, knave, and two or three small trumps, lead the queen. Holding knave, ten, eight, and small trumps, lead the knave; on the return of trumps, you may finesse the eight. Holding knave, ten, and three small trumps, lead the knave; this will most dis- tress your adversaries, unless two honors are held on your right hand, the odds against which are about three to one. Holding only small trumps, play the high- est; by which means you support your part- ner. Holding a sequence, begin with the high- est; thus your partner is instructed how to play his hand, and can not be injured. If any honor be turned up on your left, and the game much against you, lead a trump as soon as you can. If you do this you may probably retrieve an almost lost game. In all other cases it is dangerous to lead through an honor without you are strong in trumps, or have an otherwise good hand. All the advantage of leading through an honor lies in your partner finessing. If the queen be turned up on your right, and you hold ace, king, and small ones, lead the king. Upon the return of trumps finesse, unless the queen falls. Otherwise the queen will make a trick. With the knave turned up on your right, and you holding king, queen, and ten, the best play is to lead the queen. Upon the return of trumps play the ten. By this style of play you make the ten. If the knave turn up on your right, and you hold king, queen, and small ones, it is best to lead the king. If that come home, you can play a small one, for the chance of your partner possessing the ace. If knave turn up on your right, and you have king, queen, and ten, with two small cards, lead a small one. Up'on the return of trumps, play the ten. The chances are in favor of your partner holding an honor, and thus you make a trick. If an honor be turned up on your left, and you hold only one honor with a small trump, play out the honor, and then the small one. This will greatly strengthen your partner's hand, and can not injure your own. If an honor be turned up on the left, and you hold a sequence, lead the highest; it will prevent the last hand from injuring your partner. If a queen be turned up on the left, and you hold ace, king, and a small one, lead the small trump; you have a chance for winning the queen. If a queen be turned up on your left, and you hold knave, with small ones, lead the knave; for the knave can be of no service, since the queen is on yoar left. If an honor be turned up by your partner, and you are strong in trumps, lead a small one; but if weak in them, lead the best GAMES OF CARDS 443 you have. By this means the weakest hand supports the strongest. If an ace be turned up on the right, and you hold king, queen, and knave, lead the knave; it is a secure lead. If an ace be turned up on the right, and you hold king, queen, and ten, lead the king ; and upon the return of trumps, play the ten. By this means you show strength to your partner, and probably make two tricks. If a king be turned up on the right, and you hold queen, knave, and nine, lead the knave, and upon the return to trumps, play the nine : it may prevent the ten from mak- ing. If a king be turned up on your right, and you hold knave, ten, and nine, lead the nine; upon the return of trumps, play the ten. This will disclose your strength in trumps to your partner. If a queen be turned up on the right, and you have ace, king, and knave, lead the king. Upon the return of trumps, play the knave, which makes a certain trick. HOW TO PLAY WHEN YOU TURN UP AN HONOR If you turn up an ace, and hold only one small trump with it, if either adversary lead the king, put on the ace. But if you turn up an ace, and hold two or three small trumps with it, and either adversary lead the king, put on a small one ; for, if you play the ace, you give up the command in trumps. If you turn up a king and hold only one small trump with it, and your right-hand adversary lead a trump, play a small one. If you turn up a king, and hold two or three small trumps with it, if your right- hand adversary lead a trump, play a small one. If you turn up a queen or knave, and hold besides only small trumps, if your right-hand adversary lead a trump, put out a small one. If you hold a sequence to the honor turned up, play it last. HOW TO PLAY FOR THE ODD TRICK Never trump out if you can avoid it, for you can hardly be sure of the other three hands. If your partner, by hoisting the blue peter, or by any other allowable intimation, shows that he has means of trumping any suit, be cautious how you trump out. Force your partner, if strong in trumps, and so make all the tricks you can. Make tricks early in the game, and be cautious in finessing. With a single card of any suit, and only two or three small trumps, lead the single card. RETURNING PARTNER'S LEAD In the following cases it is best to return your partner's lead directly: When you win with the ace, and can re- turn an honor; for then it will greatly strengthen his hand. When he leads a trump, in which case return the best remaining in your hand un- less you hold four. An exception to this arises if the lead is through an honor. When your partner has trumped out; for then it is evident he wants to make his strong suit. When you have no good card in any other suit; for then you are entirely depen- dent on your partner. In the following instances it is proper that you should NOT return your partner's lead immediately: When you win with the king, queen, or knave, and have only small cards remain- ing. The return of a small card will more distress than strengthen your partner's hand. When you hold a good sequence; for then you may make tricks and not injure his hand. When you have a strong suit. Leading from a strong suit is a direction to your partner and can not injure him. When you have a good hand ; for in this case you have a right to consult your own hand, and not your partner's. When you hold five trumps ; for then you are warranted to play trumps if you think it right. When, in fine, you can ensure two or three tricks, play them, and then return the lead. With a leading hand, it is well to play your own game. THE FINISH The most important part of a game at whist is the finish the last two or three tricks. Be careful how you play, or you may make a bad ending to a good begin- ning. LOOSE CARD. If you hold three winning cards and a loose one, play the latter, and trust to your partner. LOOSE TRUMP AND TENACE. Holding these, play the loose trump. KING AND THE LEAD. If you hold a king, and a loose card, the best plan is to play the last, so that your partner may lead up to your king. LONG TRUMPS. If you hold three, it is best to lead the smallest; by this means you 444 GAMES OF CARDS give your partner a chance of making tricks, and still hold a commanding card in your own hand. It is not well to play out the king card. THIRD HAND WITH KING, ETC. "Suppos- ing," says Coelebs, "ten tricks being made, you remain with the king, ten, and another. If second hand plays an honor cover it; otherwise finesse the ten for a certain trick. If you want two tricks play your king." RUNNING A CARD. The same authority says : "With such cards as knave, nine, eight, against ten guarded, by 'running' the eight you make every trick." STRENGTH IN TRUMPS The following hands are given by Hoyle to demonstrate what is known as being strong in trumps : Ace, king, and three small trumps. King, queen, and three small trumps. Queen, ten, and three small trumps. Queen and four small trumps. Knave and four small trumps. Five trumps without an honor must win two tricks if led. FORCING YOUR PARTNER You are justified in forcing your partner if you hold Ace and three small trumps. King and three small trumps. Queen and three small trumps. Knave and four small trumps. Five trumps. CALCULATIONS ON HANDS HELD At long whist. It is about five to four that your partner holds one card out of any two. Five to two that he holds one card out of any three. Two to one that he does not hold a cer- tain named card. Three to one that he does not hold two out of three named cards in a suit. Three to two that he does not hold two cards out of any four named. Five to one that your partner holds one winning card. Four to one that he holds two. Three to one that he holds three. Three to two that he holds four. Four to six that he holds five. SHORT WHIST, DUMMY, ETC. THE LAWS OF SHORT WHIST (i.) The game consists of five points. One point scored saves the triple game; three points, a double. The rubber is reck- oned as two points. [Eight points may therefore be gained in a sin- gle rubber.] (2.) Honors can not be "called" at any part of the game, and do not count at the point of four. [In all other respects, honors are reckoned as in long whist.] (3.) The highest two and lowest two are partners, the lowest cut having tne deal. [The cards are to be shuffled and cut in pre- cisely the same way as in the old-fashioned game.] (4.) An exposed card necessitates a fresh deal. (5.) In cases of misdeal, the deal passes to the next player. [Misdeals occur from precisely the same causes as in long whist, and need not, therefore, be stated.] (6.) No questions as to either hand can be asked after the trick is turned. [Nor are any questions except those admissible in the other game to be asked.] (7.) Any card played out of turn, or shown accidentally, can be called. (8.) A revoke is subject to the penalty of three tricks. [Taken as in long whist.] (9.) The side making the revoke remains at four, in whatever way the penalty be enforced. It is not necessary to dilate upon the best method of playing each separate hand at this game, because whatever is useful and true at long whist is equally useful and true at short whist. The only advantage of the short game lies in the more forcible use that can be made of trumps. "Trumps," says Carleton, "should be your rifle com- pany; use them liberally in your manoeu- vres ; have copious reference to them in finessing, to enable you to maintain a long suit. Should you be weak in trumps, ruff a doubtful card at all times; with a com- mand in them, be very chary of that policy. Let your great principle always be to keep the control of your adversaries' suit, and leave that of your partner free. If you see the probable good effect of forcing, de- cide which of your adversaries you will as- sail, but do not attempt them both at once. Let it be the stronger if possible. When you force both hands opposed to you, one throws away his useless cards ; while the chance is, the other makes trumps that, under other circumstances, would have been sacrificed." GAMES OF CARDS 445 DUMMY, OR THREE-HANDED WHIST This game is precisely the same as long whist, only that one player takes two hands, one of which he holds in the usual man- ner, and the other he spreads open on the table. The rules are the same. ANOTHER GAME is played by three per- jons, in which two nines and fours, and one of the five is cast out from the pack, and each player plays on his own account. A THIRD WAY of playing three-handed whist is to reject the fourth hand alto- gether, and allow it to remain unseen on the table. Each player then takes the miss, or unseen hand, in exchange for his own, if he thinks fit. Each player stands on his cards, and the best hand must win. There is, however, room for finesse, and the plaver who sees two hands the miss, and that first dealt to him has an undeniable ad- vantage. TWO-HANDED WHIST This game is either played as double dummy, by exposing two hands and playing as with four players, or by rejecting two hands and each player making the best he can of his own hand. In these games each honor counts as one point in the game. There is but small room for skill in any of the imperfect whist games, and the player who is acquainted with the real old-fash- ioned game need not be told how to play his cards at dummy or French humbug. At best these games are inferior to cribbage, ecarte, all-fours, or any of the regular two-handed games. EUCHRE, ITS RULES AND VARIATIONS EUCHRE is played with a pack of thirty- two cards, all below the seven being rejected. Two, three, or four persons may play, but the four-handed game is the best. THE DEAL The players having cut for deal, the pack is shuffled and the player to the right of the dealer cuts. The deal is executed by giv- ing five cards to each player. The dealer gives two cards at a time to each in rota- tion, beginning with the player to his left; he then gives three cards at a time to each, or vice versa. In whichever manner the dealer commences to distribute the cards, he must continue; he must not deal two to the first, three to the next, and so on. After each player has received five cards, the dealer turns up the next card for trumps, and places it face upward on top of the stack. The right to deal passes successively to the left. At the outset of the game each player cuts for the deal, and the lowest cut deals. In a tie, the parties tied cut again. The players cutting the highest two cards play against those cutting the lowest two. In cutting, the ace is lowest, and the other cards rank as at whist. Should a player expose more than one card, he must cut again. The cards may be shuffled by any player who demands that privilege, but the dealer has always the right to shuffle last. The cards must be cut by the right-hand opponent before they are dealt. A cut must not be less than four cards re- moved from the top, nor must it be made so as to leave less than four cards at the bot- tom ; and the pack must be put on the table for the cut. RANK The cards in suits, not trumps, rank as at whist, the ace being the highest, the seven the lowest. When a suit is trump, the cards rank differently. The knave of the suit turned up is called the right bower, and is the highest trump. The other knave of the same color (black or red, as the case may be) is called the left bower, and is the next highest trump. ORDER UP, ASSIST, PASS, AND TAKE UP When the trump is turned, the player to the left of the dealer examines his hand to determine his plans. He may either order up the trump, or pass. If he thinks his cards are strong enough to win three tricks, he says, "I order it up." The dealer then discards one card from his hand, and puts it under the stack face downward, and the trump, card belongs to the dealer, instead of the card he discarded. If the eldest hand is not satisfied with his cards, he says, "I pass." If the eldest hand pass, the partner of the dealer then has the option of declaring what 29 446 GAMES OF CARDS he will do, and he may either assist his partner, or pass. If his hand is strong enough, with the help of the trump his part- ner has turned, to win three tricks, he says, "I assist," and his partner discards as be- fore, and the trump card belongs to him. If the partner of the dealer has a weak hand, he says, "I pass," and the third player, that is, the player next to the right of the dealer, has the option of saying what he will do. The third player proceeds exactly as the eldest hand, and, if he pass, the dealer has the next say. If all the other players pass, the dealer may either take up the trump or pass. If his hand is strong enough to take three tricks, he says, "I take it up." The dealer then discards the weakest card from his hand, and takes the trump card instead. If the dealer has a weak hand, he says, "I turn it down," and, at the same time, places the trump card face up under the stack. If the dealer turns down the trump, the eldest hand has the option of naming any suit (except the one turned down) for trumps, or of passing again. If he pass, he says, "I pass the making." If the eldest hand pass the making, the partner of the dealer then has the option of making the trump, and so on in rotation up to and including the dealer. If all the players, including the dealer, de- cline to make the trump, a fresh deal takes place, and the eldest hand deals. If either side -adopt (play with the suit turned up for trump) or make the trump, the play of the hand commences. When the trump is made of the same color as the turn up (that is, black, if the turn up is black, or red, if it is red), it is called making it next in suit. If the trump is made of a different' color from the turn up, it is called crossing the suit. WHEN TO PLAY ALONE If a player holds a hand so strong that he has a reliable hope of taking all five tricks without the assistance of his partner, he may play alone. If he plays without his partner, he says, "I play alone." His part- ner then places his cards face downward on the table, and makes no sign. If the eldest hand order up, or make the trump, either he or his partner may play alone. If the dealer's partner assist, or make the trump, either he or the dealer may play alone. If the player to the right of the dealer order up or make the trump, he may play alone (but his partner can not). If the dealer take up or make a trump, he may play alone (but his partner can not). A player can not play alone after having passed a trump, or passed the making of a trump. A player can not play alone when the opposing side adopt or make the trump; nor can he play alone unless he announce his intentions to do so before he or the opposing side make a lead. THE PLAY The eldest hand leads a card and each player in rotation plays a card to the lead. The four cards thus played constitute a trick. A player must follow suit if he can, but if not able to follow suit he may play any card he chooses. The highest card of the suit led wins the trick; trumps win all other suits. The winner of the trick leads to the next, and so on until the five tricks are played. THE SCORE The game is five points, although of late it has become customary to play games f ten points. If the side who adopt, or make a trump, win all five tricks, they make a march, and score two. If they win three tricks, they make the point, and score one. Four tricks count no more than three tricks. If they fail to take three tricks they are euchred, and the opposing side scores two points. When a player plays alone and takes all five tricks, he scores four points. If he takes three tricks he scores one point. If he fails to take three tricks he is euchred, and the opposing side scores two points. By some rules, to euchre a lone hand counts the opposing side four points. Cards are used in marking game. The face of the three being up, and the face of the four down on it, counts one, whether one, two, or three pips are exposed; the face of the four being up, and the three over it, face down, counts two, whether one, two, three, or four of the pips are shown; the face of the three uppermost counts three; and the face of the four up- permost counts four. GOLDEN MAXIMS Never lose sight of the state of the game. When you are four and four, adopt or make the trump upon a weak hand. When the game stands three to three, GAMES OF CARDS 447 reflect before you adopt or make a trump upon a weak hand, for a euchre will put your adversaries out. When you are one and your opponents have scored four, you can afford to try and make it alone upon a weaker hand than if the score were more in your favor. When you are eldest hand, and the score stands four for you and one for your op- ponents, do not fail to order up the trump, to prevent them from playing alone. This is called a "bridge." You need not do this if you hold the right bower, or the left bower guarded. Never trump your partner's winning cards, but throw your losing and single cards upon them. If your partner adopts or makes the trump, and you hold the right or left bow- er alone, ruff with it as soon as you can pet the opportunity. When playing second, be careful how you ruff a card of a small denomination the first time round, for it is an even chance , that your partner will be able to take the trick if you let it pass. Throw away any single card lower than an ace, so that you may ruff the suit you throw away when it is led. When your partner assists, and you hold a card next higher to the turn-up card, ruff with it when an opportunity occurs, for by so doing you give your partner information of value. When you are in the position of third player, ruff with high or medium trumps. When your partner leads a lay ace, and you have none of that suit, do not trump it; but if you have a single card, throw it away upon it. When second hand, if compelled to follow suit, head the trick if possible, to strengthen your partner's game. When you can not follow suit or trump, dispose of your weakest card. When opposed to a person playing it alone, be careful how you separate two cards of the same suit. Be cautious how you separate your trumps when you hold the left bower guarded. When it comes your turn to say what you will do, decide promptly, saying, "I pass," "assist," etc., at once. In discarding, endeavor to keep as few suits as possible. EUCHRE WITH THE JOKER A euchre pack is usually accompanied by a specimen blank card, which has given rise to this amusing variety of the game of euchre. It is called "the joker," or highest trump card, and ranks above the right bower. If this "joker" should happen to be turned for trump, the dealer must turn up the next card to determine the trump suit. In all other particulars the game is played in the same manner as the regular game of euchre. TWO-HANDED EUCHRE The rules of the four-handed game apply equally to two-handed euchre. The player, remembering that he has but a single hand to contend against, may play, or even order up, if he has a reasonable _ hope of making three tricks. MISDEALS A card too many or too few given to either player. Dealing the cards when the pack has not been properly cut; the claim for a misdeal in this case must be made before the trump card is turned, and before the adversaries look at their cards. Whenever a misdeal is attributable to any interruption by the adversaries, the deal will not be forfeited. If, during the deal, a card be exposed by the dealer or partner, should neither of the adversaries have touched their cards, the latter may claim a new deal, but the deal is not lost. If, during the deal, the dealer's partner touch any of his cards, the adversaries may do the same without losing their privilege of claiming a new deal should chance give them that option. If an opponent displays a card dealt, the dealer may make a new deal, unless he or his partner have examined their own cards. If a deal is made out of turn, it is good, provided it be not discovered before the dealer has discarded, and the eldest hand has led. If a card is faced in dealing, unless it be the trump card, a new deal may be de- manded, but the right to deal is not lost. If the pack is discovered to be defective, by reason of having more or less than thirty- two cards, the deal is void; but all the points before made are good. The dealer, unless he turn down the trump, must discard one card from his hand and take up the trump card. The discard is not complete until the dealer has placed the card under the pack; and if the eldest hand makes a lead before the discard is complete, he can not take back the card thus led, but must let it re- main. The dealer, however, may change 448 GAMES OF CARDS the card he intended to discard and substi- tute another, or he may play alone, notwith- standing a card has been led. After the dealer has quitted the discarded card, he can not take it back under any circunv stances. After the discard has been made, the dealer may let the trump card remain upon the table until it is necessary to play it. After the trump card has been taken in hand, no player has a right to demand its denomination, but he may ask what card is trump, and the dealer must inform him. Should a player play with more than five cards, or the dealer forget to discard or omit to declare the fact before three tricks have been turned, the offending party is de- barred from counting any points made in that deal, under these circumstances. Should the adverse side win, they may score all the points they make. PLAY OUT OF TURN, AND EXPOS- URE OF CARDS All exposed cards may be called, and the offending party compelled to lead or play the exposed card or cards when he can legally do so, but in no case can a card be called if a revoke is thereby caused. EXPOSED CARDS Two or more cards played at once. If a player indicates that he holds a certain card in his hand. Any card that is dropped with its face upward. All cards exposed, by accident or otherwise, so that an opponent can distinguish and name them. If any player lead out of turn, his ad- versaries may demand of him to withdraw his card, and the lead may be compelled from the right player, the card improperly led be treated as an exposed card, and called at any time during that deal, provided it causes no revoke. If any player lead out of turn, and the mislead is followed by the other three, the trick stands good; but if only the second, or the second and third, have played to the false lead, their cards, on discovery of their mistake, are taken back, and there is no penalty save against the original of- fender, whose card may be called. If a player play out of turn, his oppo- nents may compel him to withdraw his card, and the card so played may be treated as an exposed card, and called at any time during that deal, provided no revoke is thereby caused. If any player trump a card in error, and thereby induce an opponent to play other- wise than he would have done, the latter may take up. his card without penalty, and may call upon the offender to play the trump at any period of the hand. If two cards be played, or if the player play twice to the same trick, his opponent can elect which of the two shall belong to the trick, provided, however, that no re- voke be caused. If a player, imagining that he can take every trick, or for any other reason, throw down his cards upon the table with their faces exposed, the adverse side may call each and all of the cards so exposed, as they may deem most advantageous to their game, and the delinquent party must play the exposed cards accordingly. This, how- ever, in the case of a lone hand only. REVOKE When a revoke takes place, the adverse party are entitled to add two points to their score. If a suit is led, and any one of the play- ers, having a card of the same suit, shall play the card of another suit to it that constitutes a revoke. But if the error be discovered before the trick is quitted, or before the party having so played a wrong suit, or his partner, shall play again, the penalty only amounts to the cards being treated as exposed, and being liable to be called. When the player who has made a re- voke corrects his error, his partner, if he has played, can not change his card played; but the adversary may withdraw his card and play another if he elects to do so. When a revoke is claimed against ad- versaries, if they mix their cards, or throw them up, the revoke is taken for granted, and they lose the two points. No party can claim a revoke after cutting for a new deal. A revoke on both sides causes forfeit to neither; but a new deal must be made. If a player makes a revoke, his side can not count any point or points made in that hand. A party, refusing to play an exposed card on call, forfeits two to his opponents. MAKING THE TRUMP, PLAYING ALONE Any player making a trump can not change the suit after having once named it; and if he should by error name the suit previously turned down, he forfeits his right to make the trump, the privilege pass- ing to the next eldest player. 449 A player may only play alone when he orders up, takes up, or makes a trump ; or when his partner assists, orders up, or makes a trump. He can not play alone with a trump he has passed, or with a trump the making of which he has passed ; nor can he play alone after a lead has been made either by himself or by his opponents. A pla*yer can not play alone when he or his partner is ordered up by an opponent, or when the opposite side adopt or make the trump. When a player, having the right to play alone, resolves to do so, his partner can not thereafter supersede him, and play alone instead. When a player announces that he will go it alone, his partner must place his cards upon the table face downward, and should the latter expose the face of any of his cards, either by accident or design, his op- ponents may compel him to play or not to play with his partner, at their option. A player who goes alone must announce his intention in a clear and audible tone, so that no doubt can be entertained of his de- sign. ' DELICATE HINTS BETWEEN PARTNERS If a partner indicates his hand by words or gestures to his partner, directs him how to play, even by telling him to follow the rules of the game, or in any way acts out of order, the adversary scores one point. If a player, when his side is at a bridge, call the attention of his partner to the fact, so that the latter orders up, the latter for- feits the right to order up, and either of the opponents may play alone, if they choose so to do. No player has a right to see any trick but the one last turned. THE NATIONAL GAME OF DRAW POKER iT requires a pack of fifty-two cards to play this game, and any number of persons from two to six. THE DEAL Before the dealer begins to deal the carde, the player next to his left, who is called the ante-man, or age, must deposit in the pool an ante not exceeding one- half the limit previously agreed upon; this is called a blind. The deal is executed by giving five cards to each player, one at a time, beginning with the player to the left of the dealer. THE ORIGINAL HAND After the cards have been dealt the play- ers consult their hands, and each player, in rotation, beginning with the player to the left of the age, determines whether he will go in or not. Any player who decides to go in that is, to play for the pool must put into the pool double the amount of the ante, except the player holding the age, who contributes the same amount as his original ante. Those who declare they will not play throw their cards, face downward, upon the table in front of the next dealer. Any player, when it is his turn, and after making the ante good, may raise, i. e., in- crease the an*", any amount within the .limit of the game ; the next player, after making good the ante and raise, may then also raise it any amount within the limit; and so on. Each player as he makes good and pays a share that equalizes his with the other players who are in before him, may thus increase the ante if he chooses, compelling the others to pay up that in- crease, or abandon their share of the pool. Each player who raises the ante must do so in rotation, going round to the left, and any player who remains in to play must put in the pool as much as will make his stake equal to such increase, or abandon everything which he has al- ready contributed to the pool. STRADDLE When betting upon the original hand, the straddle may be introduced. The strad- dle is nothing more than a double blind. The straddle does not give a player the age, it only gives him the first oppor- tunity to be the last in before the draw; that is, the player to the left of the last straddler,. after looking at his hand, and be- fore the draw, must be the first to declare whether he will make good the straddle, and so on, in rotation, up to the player who made the last straddle. After the draw, the player to the left of the age must make the first bet, provided he remains in. 460 GAMES OF CARDS FILLING THE HANDS When all are in who intend to play, each player has the right to draw any number of cards he chooses, from one to five, or he can retain the cards originally dealt to him. If a player draws cards, he must discard a like number from his hand previous to drawing, and the rejected cards must be placed face downward upon the table near the next dealer. The dealer asks each player in rotation, beginning with the holder of the age, how many cards he wants, and, when the player has discarded, he gives the number re- quested from the top of the pack. When the other hands have been helped, the deal- er, if he has "gone in," and wants cards, then helps himself last. BET, RAISE, AND CALL When all the hands are filled, the player to the left of the age has the first say, and he must either bet or retire from the game, forfeiting what he has already staked. The same with all the other players, in rotation, up to the age. When a player makes a bet, the next player must either see him that is, put in the pool an equal amount, or go better that is, make the previous bet good, and raise it any amount not exceeding the limit; or he must retire. This continues either until some one player drives all the others out of the game, and takes the pool without showing his hand ; or until all the other players who remain in see the last raise (no one going better) and call the player who made the last raise. In this event, that is, when a call is made, the players remaining in all show their hands, and the strongest hand takes the pool. If all the players pass, up to the age, the latter takes the pool, and the deal ends. VALUE ONE PAIR. If two players each hold a pair, the higher pair wins; if the two are similar, the highest remaining card wins. Two PAIRS. If the players each hold two pairs, the highest pair wins. If the two pairs are similar, the player whose remain- ing card is the highest wins. TRIPLETS. Three cards of the same de- nomination, not accompanied by a pair. The highest triplet wins. Triplets beat two pairs. A STRAIGHT. A sequence of five cards not all of the same suit. An ace may either begin or end a straight. If more than one player holds a straight, the straight headed by the highest card wins. A straight will beat triplets. A FLUSH. Five cards of the same suit, not in sequence. If more than one player holds a flush, the flush containing the highest card wins; if the highest cards tie, the next highest cards in those two hands win, and so on. A flush will beat a straight, and, consequently, triplets. A FULL. Three cards of the same de- nomination and a pair. If more than one player holds a full, the highest triplets win. A full will beat a flush. FOURS. Four cards of the same denomi- nation, accompanied by any other card. If more than one player holds fours, the high- est fours win. When straights are not played, fours beat a straight flush. A STRAIGHT FLUSH A sequence of five cards, all of the same suit. If more than one player holds a straight flush, the win- ning hand is determined in the same man- ner as the straight, which see. When none of the foregoing hands are shown, the highest card wins; if these tie, the next highest in those two hands, and so on. If, upon a call for a show of hands, it occurs that two or more parties interested in the call hold hands identical in value, and those hands are the best out, the parties thus tied must divide the pool, share and share alike. THE TECHNICAL TERMS AGE. Same as eldest hand. ANTE. The stake deposited in the pool by the age at the beginning of the game. BLAZE. This hand consists of five court cards, and, when it is played, beats two pairs. BLIND. The ante deposited by the age previous to the deal. The blind may b' doubled by the player to the left of the eld- est hand, and the next player to the left may at his option straddle this bet; and so on, including the dealer, each player doubling. The player to the left of the age alone has the privilege of the first straddle, and if he decline to straddle, it debars any other player coming after him from doing so. To make a blind good costs double the amount of the ante, and to make a straddle good costs four times the amount of the blind. Each succeeding straddle costs double the preceding one. CALL. When the bet goes round to the last bettor, a player who remains in, if he does not wish to see and go better, GAMES OF CARDS 451 simply sees and calls, and then all those playing show their hands, and the highest hand wins the pool. CHIPS. Ivory or bone tokens, represent- ing a fixed value in money. DISCARD. To take from your hand the number of cards you intend to draw and place them on the table, near the next dealer, face downward. DRAW. After discarding one or more cards, to receive a corresponding number from the dealer. ELDEST HAND, OR AGE. The player im- mediately at the left of the dealer. FILLING. To match, or strengthen the cards to which you draw. FOUL HAND. A hand composed of more or less than five cards. GOING BETTER. When any player makes a bet, it is the privilege of the next player to the left to raise him after making good the amount already bet by his ad- , versary, to make a still higher bet. GOING IN. Making good the ante of the age and the straddles (if any) for the privilege of drawing cards and playing for the pool. LIMIT. A condition made at the begin- ning of a game, limiting the amount of any single bet or raise. MAKING GOOD. Depositing in the pool an amount equal to any bet previously made. This is done previous to raising or calling a player, and is sometimes called seeing a bet. ORIGINAL HAND. The first five cards dealt to any player. PAT HAND. An original hand not likely to be improved by drawing, such as a full, straight, flush, or pairs. PASS. "I Pass," signifies that a player throws up his hand and retires from the game. JACK POTS. Comes from out West. See page 453. RAISING A BET. The same as going bet- ter. SAY. When it is the turn of any player to declare what he will do, whether he will bet, or pass his hand, it is said to be his say. SEEING A BET. Synonymous with mak- ing good. STRADDLE. Refer to Blind. TABLE-STAKES. A table-stake signifies that each player places his stake where it may be seen, and that a player can not be raised more than he has upon the table ; but, at any time between deals, he may in- crease his stake from his pocket, or he may put up any article for convenience's sake, say a key, and state that that makes his stake as large as any other player's, and he is then liable to be raised to any amount equal to the stake of any other player, and must make good with cash. When playing table-stakes, if a player have no money on the table, he must put up or declare his stake previous to raising his hand, and, fail- ing to do this, he must stand out of the game for that hand. THE LAWS CUT AND DEAL (i.) The deal is determined by casting one card to each player, and the lowest card deals. (2.) In casting for the deal, the ace is lowest and the king highest. Ties are de- termined by cutting. (3.) The cards must be shuffled above the table; each player has a right to shuffle the cards, the dealer last. (4.) The player to the right of the dealer must cut the cards. (5.) The dealer must give each player one card at a time, in rotation, beginning to his left, and in this order he must de- liver five cards to each player. (6.) If the dealer deals without having the pack properly cut, or if a card is faced in the pack, there must be a fresh deal. The cards are reshuffled and recut, and the dealer deals again. (7.) If a card be accidentally exposed by the dealer while in the act of dealing, the player to whom such card is dealt must accept it as though it had not been ex- posed. (8.) If the % dealer give to himself, or either of the other players, more or less than five cards, and the player receiving such a number of cards discover and an- nounce the fact before he raises his hand, it is a misdeal. (9.) If the dealer give to himself, or either of the other players, more or . less than five cards, and the player receiving such improper number of cards lift his hand before he announces the fact, it is not a misdeal, and the player must retire from the game for that hand. (10.) After the first hand the deal pro- ceeds m rotation, beginning with the player to the left of the dealer. DISCARD AND DRAW (11.) After the deal has been completed, each player who remains in the game may discard from his hand as many cards as 452 GAMES OF CARDS he chooses, or his whole hand, and call upon the dealer to give him a like number from the top of those remaining in the pack. The eldest hand must discard first, and so in regular rotation round to the dealer, who discards last. All the players must have discarded before any party is helped. (12.) Any playei, after having asked for fresh cards, must take the exact number called for; and after cards have once been discarded they must not again be taken in hand. (13.) Any player, previous to raising his hand or making a bet, may demand of the dealer how many cards he drew, and the latter must reply correctly. By raising his hand, or making a bet, the player forfeits the right to inquire, removing the obliga- tion to answer. (14.) Should the dealer give any player more cards than the latter has demanded, and the player discover and announce the fact before raising his cards, the dealer must withdraw the superfluous cards and restore them to the pack. But if the player raise the cards before informing the dealer of the mistake, he must retire from the game during that hand. (15.) Should the dealer give any player fewer cards than the latter has discarded, and the player discover and announce the fact previous to lifting the cards, the dealer must give the player from the pack suffi- cient cards to make the whole number cor- respond with the number originally de- manded. If the player raise the cards be- fore making the demand for more, he must retire from the game during that hand. (16.) If a player discard and draw fresh cards to his hand, and while 'serving him the dealer expose one or more of the cards, the dealer must place the exposed cards upon the bottom of the pack, and give to the player a corresponding number from the top of the pack. BET, CALL, AND SHOW (17.) In opening the pool, the age makes the first ante, which must not exceed one- half the limit. After the cards are dealt, every player in his proper turn, beginning with the player to the left of the age, must make this ante good by depositing double the amount in the pool, or retire from the game for that hand. (18.) After the cards have been dealt, any player, in his proper turn, beginning with the player to the left of the age, after making good the age's ante, may raise the * same any amount not exceeding the limit of the game. (19.) After the hands are filled, any player who remains in the game may, in his proper turn, beginning with the player to the left of the age, bet or raise the pool any amount not exceeding the limit of the game. (20.) After the draw has been made, the eldest hand or age has the privilege of deferring his say ' until after all the other players have made their bets, or passed. The age is the last player to declare whether he will play or pass. If, however, the age pass out of the game before the draw, then the next player to his left in the game after the draw must make the first bet; or, failing to bet, must pass out. (21.) If a player, in" his regular turn, bet, or raise a bet any amount not ex- ceeding the limit of the game, his adver- saries must either call him, go better, or retire from the game for that hand. (22.) When a player makes a bet he must deposit the amount in the pool. (23.) If a player makes good, or sees a bet, and calls for a show of hands, each player must show his entire hand to the board, the caller last, and the best poker hand wins the pool. (24.) If a player bets, or raises a bet, and no other player goes better or calls him, he wins the pool and can not be compelled to show his hand. (25.) Upon a show of hands, if a player miscall his hand, he does not lose the pool for that reason, for every hand shows for itself. (26.) If a player pass or throw up his hand, he passes out of the game, and can not, under any circumstances whatever, participate further in that game. (27.) Any player betting with more or less than five cards in his hand loses the pool, unless his opponents all throw up their hands before discovering the foul hand. If only one player is betting against the foul hand, that player is entitled to the ante and all the money bet ; but if there are more than one betting against him, then the best hand among his opponents is entitled to the pool. (28.) If a player makes a bet, and an ad- versary raises him, and the player who made the previous bet has not money suffi- cient to see the raise, he can put up all the funds he may have and call for a show for that amount. (29.) None but the eldest hand (the age) has the privilege of going a blind. The GAMES OF CARDS 453 party next and to the left of the eldest hand may double the blind, and the next player straddle it, the next double the straddle, and so on, but the amount of the straddle, when made good, must not exceed the limit of the game, (30.) A player can not straddle a blind and raise it at the same time, nor can any player raise a blind before the cards are dealt. (31.) If the player to the left of the age decline to straddle a blind, he prevents any other player from doing so. JACK-POT This is played as follows : When all the players pass up to the blind hand, the latter allows his blind to remain in the pot, and each of the other players deposits a similar amount. The blind now deals, and any player in his regular turn may open or break the pot, provided he holds a pair of jacks or better, but a player is not compelled to do so, this being entirely optional. Each player in turn, commencing with the one at the left of the dealer, declares whether he can and will open the pot. If no player open the pot, then each player deposits in the pool the same amount that was previously contributed, and the deal passes to the next player. The same per- formance or mode of action will continue until some player holds the necessary cards, and is willing to break the pot A player may break the pot for any amount within the limits of the game, and each player in turn must make the bet good, raise it, or retire. After all the players who determine to go in have made good the bet of the player who opened the jack-pot, and the hands t have been filled, then the opener of the pot makes the first bet. If all pass up to the player who broke the pot, the latter takes the pool, and can only be compelled to show the jacks, or better, necessary to break the pot. A player who breaks the pot on a pair, may split the pair in order to draw to a four flush or straight; but, if he does so, he must lay the discard to one side, separate from any other cards, so that after the result has been determined he may satisfy the other players that he broke the pot with a correct hand. If this precaution is not observed, and attention is called to it, the delinquent is subject to deposit in the pool, as penalty, twice the amount of his original bet. If no player come in exc^t the one who broke the pot on an insufficient hand, a new hand must be dealt, and the penalty added to the pot. STRAIGHT POKER Straight poker, which is sometimes called Bluff, is played with a pack of fifty-two cards. The same rules as those of draw poker govern it. It differs from the latter game in the following particulars only: (i.) The winner of the pool has the deal. (2.) Each player antes before the cards are cut for the deal. (3.) Any player may pass with the privilege of coming in again, provided no player preceding him has made a bet. (4.) No player is permitted to discard qr draw any cards. (5.) When all the players pass, the eldest hand deals, and each player deposits an- other ante in the pool, thus making what is termed a "double-header." When a mis- deal occurs, the rule is the same. WHISKEY POKER Each player contributes one chip to make a pool, and the same rules govern as at draw poker, save that the strongest hand you can get is a straight flush. Five cards are dealt to each player, one at a time, and an extra hand is dealt on the table, which is called the widow. The eldest hand then examines his cards, and if, in his judg- ment, his hand is sufficiently strong, he passes. The next player then has the privilege of the widow, and, supposing him to take it, he then lays his discarded hand (that which he relinquishes for the widow) face up in the centre of the table, and the next player to the left selects from it that card which suits him best in filling his hand, and so on all around the board, each player discarding one card and picking up another, until some one is satisfied, which he signifies by knocking upon the table. When this occurs, all the players around to the satisfied party have the privilege of one more draw, when the hands are shown, and the strongest wins. If any player knocks before the widow is taken, the widow is then turned face up, and each player from him who knocks has but one more draw. Should no one take the widow, but all pass to the dealer, he then turns the widow, and all parties have the right to draw until some one is satisfied. 454 GAMES OF CARDS THE POPULAR GAME OF BRIDGE IN its funadamental principles, Bridge is the same as Single Dummy Whist, with several variations and additions. The game is played by four persons, or two pairs of partners, as in whist. The cards are shuffled, cut, and dealt pre- cisely as in whist, except that the last card is not turned up for trump; the dealer hav- ing the right to name the trump suit, or announce "no trumps," if his hand seems sufficiently good to take over six tricks. This privilege may also be transferred to his partner if he wishes. The eldest hand, or his partner, has the right to double; the dealer and his part- ner having then the right to "redouble," and so on, until satisfied. Each "double" oper- ates to render the value of each trick-point twice as great as before. After the eldest hand has led the first card, the dealer's partner spreads his hand, face upward, on the table, allowing the dealer to play both hands, as in Dummy Whist. Each trick is taken by the part- ners who capture it, and all trick-points over six are scored by the winning part- ners. Thirty trick-points win the game. Two games out of three win the rubber. If the first two games are won by the same two partners, the third is not played. Trick- points alone win a game, and must always be considered apart from all other points in the game. Trick-points differ in value according to the suit that is trump; their values being always multiplied by 2 in doubling, and by 2 again in redoubling. This is explained in Law 3. In addition to these, there are various other points that count but do not score, as the product of the trick value of the suit by the number in each case. Thus, if a player and his partner hold four honors, when spades are trumps, it counts 8; when clubs are trumps, 16; when diamonds are trumps, 24; when hearts are trumps, 32, as explained in Law 2. Five honors score in similar fashion; while five honors in one hand score 20, 40, 60, or 80, according to the suit being the product of the trick value of the suit by 10. Similarly, four honors in one hand score 16, 32, 48, or 64, according to the suit; five honors, one of which is in the partner's hand, score 18, 36, 54, or 72, according to the suit. Three honors between two partners, however, score 4, 8, 12, or 16, according to suit. If the game is played without trumps, as already explained, each trick above six scores 12, but, since only the aces count as honors, the figures just given can not ap- ply. However, three aces held by two partners count 30; four aces, 40, and four aces in one hand, 100. Additional points may be counted for partners by what are known as Slam and Chicane, as explained in Laws 7 and 8. Also, when partners win a rubber, 100 points are counted in their favor, in addition to all other advantages gained by them. THE LAWS OF BRIDGE THE RUBBER (l.) A rubber is the best of three games. A third game is not played in case the same partners have won the first two games. SCORING (2.) A game consists of not less than 30 trick-points obtained by tricks alone, exclu- sive of all other points that may be scored for Honors, Chicane, or Slam. Trick-points, and all the other points scored, are to be added together when the rubber is con- cluded. (3.) Each trick above six counts 2 trick- points when spades are trumps ; 4, when clubs are trumps ; 6, when diamonds are trumps ; 8, when hearts are trumps, and 12, when no trumps have been declared. (4.) Honors consist of ace, king, queen, jack, and ten of the trump suit. When "no trump" has been declared, the trumps are only four of the aces. The scores for honors are reckoned upon the original value of the trick-points. The value of honors is not affected by doubling or redoubling. (5.) Honors in trumps are reckoned as follows : (a) If a player and his partner jointly hold five honors, they score for honors five times the original value of the trump-suit trick-points; (&) if a player am* his partner hold four honors, they score for honors four times the original value of the trump-suit trick-points; (c) if they hold three honors, they score for honors twice the original value of the trump-suit GAMES OF CARDS 455 trick-points; (rf) if a player holds in his own hand five honors of the trump suit, he and his partner score ten times the original value of the trump-suit trick-points. If a player in his own hand holds four honors of the trump suit, he and his partner score eight times the value of the trump- suit trick-points. If the player's partner hold the fifth honor, they score in addition the single value of the trump-suit trick- points. (6.) Honors, when no trump has been declared, are reckoned as follows: (a) If the player and his partner jointly hold four aces, they score for honors 40 points; (b) if they jointly hold three aces, they score 30 points; (c) if a player holds the four aces in his own hand, he and his partner score loo points. (7.) Chicane is when a player holds no trumps in his hand. When he and his part- ner score for the chicane, the original value of the trump-suit trick-points are unaltered by doubling or redoubling. If the partner of the player who has chicane has honors to score, the trick-points above named are added to his score for honors. If the oppo- nents score honors, the trick-points are de- ducted from their score for honors. (8.) Slam is when a player and his part- ner take all thirteen tricks; they score for Grand Slam 40 points. (9.) If they take twelve tricks, they score for Little Slam 20 points. (10.) At the conclusion of a rubber, 100 additional points are added to the score of the winning partners. (n.) The total scores for trick-points, honors, and all other points gained by each side, are added together, and the differ- ences between the total represents the num- ber of points to be paid to the winning partners by the losing partners. (12.) If an erroneous score affecting tricks should occur, such mistake can be rectified at any time prior to the conclusion of the round or play to a deal in which it occurs. A round is not concluded until the last card of the next following deal has been dealt, or until, in case of the last game of the rubber, the score has been finally made up. (13.) If an erroneous score affecting honors, chicane, or slam should occur, the mistake may be corrected at any time before the score of the rubber has been finally made up. (14.) Cutting-in, Cutting-out, Entry, Re- entry, and Dealing are subject to the same laws as hold in Whist A NEW DEAL (15.) There must be a new deal under all the following circumstances: (a) If, during a deal, or during the play of the hand, the pack be proved to be incorrect or imperfect; (&) if any card be faced in the pack; (c) if any player has more or less than thirteen cards; ( veG OB, 60 01. J?i. o o* o* *-* K.6. K.J. K K3- K. rO fa 8-31 R.fl7 KKV7 9HT! KB-3- K.B.q K.Kl-5. K-Ki.4. 9-nm K Kl.3. K.Kt K.R.8. K.R.,. KR:. ran KR.3. the above means avails to place him beyond the range of the attacking pieces. When a checkmate is obtained, the game is at an end, that being the sole object. Discovered Check is when the player moves a pawn or piece from before an- other piece, thereby opening or "discov- ering" check; e.g., the black rook may be on a line with the opposing king, the only intervening piece being a black pawn. The removal of this pawn is said to "discover check." Double Check is when check is discovered as above, the king being also attacked by the piece moved. Perpetual Check is when the king of one of the players can be checked almost at every move, and when he has little else to do but move out of check. When the game has reached this stage, the weaker player may demand that checkmate shall be given in a certain number of moves, in default of which it may be declared a drawn game. (See Law 13.) Drawn Game. A drawn game may arise from several causes : 1. As abve. 2. Stalemate. (See "Stalemate.") 3. Equal play. "Between very good players," remarks Phillidor, "it sometimes happens that the equipoise in force and po- sition is constantly sustained in the open- ing, in the intermediate stages, and in the last result; when either all the exchange- able pieces have been mutually taken, or the remaining forces are equal as a queen against a queen, a rook against a rook, with no advantage in position, or the pawns are mutually blocked up." 4. Absence of mating power, i.e., when neither player possesses the force requisite to obtain a checkmate. ("See "Mating Power.") 5. Unskilful use of a sufficiently strong force. If one player is superior in force to his adversary, and possesses the requisite mating power, the game may still be drawn by the unskilful use of that superiority. If he can not effect a checkmate in fifty moves it may be declared a drawn game. Stalemate describes that state of the game when one of the players has nothing left but his- king, which is so placed that, although not in check, he can not move without going into check. Castling is a double operation, accom- plished by moving the king and one of the rooks at the same time. When the removal of the bishop and the knight on the one side, or of the bishop, knight, and queen on the other, has cleared the intervening squares, the king may castle with either of his rooks. If it should be done on the king's side of the board, the king is to be placed on the knight's square, and the rook on the bishop's; if in the queen's section, the king must be moved to the bishop's square, and the rook to the queen's. In other words, the king, in either case, must move two squares, and the rook be placed on the opposite side of him to that on which he stood before. En Prise. A piece is said to be en prise when under attack. En Passant (in passing). If your adver- sary has advanced one of his pawns to the fifth square, and you move one of your pawns in either of the adjoining files two squares, he is entitled to take your pawn, en passant, as though you had only moved it one square. This peculiar mode of cap- ture can only be effected by pawns. Ranks and Files. The lines of squares running from left to right are known as GAMES OF SKILL 463 ranks, and those perpendicular to them, run- ning from one player to the other, are called files. Passed and Isolated Pawns. A pawn is said to be "passed" when it is so far ad- vanced that no pawn of the adversary's can oppose it. An isolated pawn is one that stands alone and unsupported. Doubte Paroon. Two pawns on the same file. " J'adoube" (signifying 7 adjust or I ar- range) is the expression generally used when a player touches a piece to arrange it without the intention of making a move. Perhaps it is not absolutely necessary that he should say "J'adoube," but he must at any rate use an equivalent expression. To Interpose. This term explains itself. If your king or one of your pieces is at- tacked, and you move another of your pieces between the attacking piece and the piece attacked, either for the purpose of covering check, or as a means of protection, or with any other object, you are said to "inter- pose." Winning the Exchange. You are said "to win the exchange" when you gain a rook for a bishop, a bishop for a knight, or, in short, whenever you gain a superior piece by giving an inferior. Queening a Pawn. You are said to "queen a pawn" when you advance it to the eighth square on the file. You may then claim a queen or any other piece in exchange for it. Formerly the rule was, that you might sub- stitute for it any piece you had previously lost, but according to the modern game three or more rooks, or bishops, or knights may be obtained in this way. Gambit. This term, which is derived from the Italian, describes an opening in which a pawn is purposely sacrificed at an early stage of the game, in order subse- quently to gain an advantage. Several gambits are distinguished by the names of their inventors, such as the Cochrane gam- bit, the Muzio gambit, the Salvio gambit, etc?; there are also the bishop's gambit, the queen's gambit, etc. Mating Power. Force requisite to bring about a checkmate : a king and queen against king and two bishops, king and two knights, king and bishop and knight, or against king and rook, can effect checkmate. King and two bishops can mate against king and bishop, or king and knight. King with two bishops and knight can mate against king and rook. King with rook and bishop can mate against rook and king. King can al- ways draw against king and bishop, or king and knight. King and rook against either u king and bishop, or king and knight, makes a drawn game, etc. LAWS OF THE GAME The following laws are in force in all the principal clubs in this country: 1. If a player touch one of his men, un- less for the purpose of adjusting it, when he must say "J'adoube" (see Law 4), or it being his turn to move, he must move the piece he has so touched. [Walker gives the following remarks on this law: "When you touch a piece with the bona fide intention of playing it, the saying J'adoube will not exonerate you from com- pleting the move. A chess-player's meaning can not be misunderstood on the point; and were it otherwise, you might hold a man in your hand for five minutes, and then saying 'J'adoube,' replace it, and move elsewhere."] 2. If the men are not placed properly at the beginning of the game, and this is dis- covered before four moves have been made on each side, the game must be recom- menced. If the mistake should not be found out till after four moves have been made, the game must be proceeded with. 3. Where the players are even, they must draw lots for the first move, after which they take the first move alternately. When a player gives odds, he has the option of making the first move, and the choice of men in every game. [In giving odds, should it be agreed upon to give a pawn, it is customary to take the K. B. P. If a piece is to be given, it may be taken from either the king's or queen's side.] 4. If a player should accidentally or other- wise move or touch one of his men without saying "J'adoube," his adversary may com- pel him to move either the man he has touched or his king, provided the latter is not in check. 5. When a player gives check, and fails to give notice by crying "Check," his adversary need not, unless he think proper, place his king out of check, nor cover. [If it is discovered that the king is in check, and has been so for several moves past, the players must move the men back to the point at which they stood when check was given. If they can not agree as to when check was first given, the player who is in check must retract his last move, and de- fend his king.] 6. The player who effects checkmate wins the game. 7. Stalemate constitutes a drawn game. 8. So long as you retain your hold of a piece you may move it where you will. 164 GAMES OF SKILL 9. Should you move one of your adver- sary's men instead ol your own, he may compel you to take the piece you have touched, should it be en prise, or to replace it and move your king; provided, of course, that you can do so without placing him in check, 10. Should you capture a man with one that can not legally take it, your adversary may compel you either to take such piece (should it be en prise) with one that can legally take it, or to move the piece touched ; provided that by so doing you do not dis- cover check, in which case you may be di- rected to move your king. 11. Should you move out of your turn, your adversary may compel you either to retract the move, or leave the piece where you placed it, as he may think most advan- tageous. 12. If you touch the king and rook, in- tending to castle, and have quitted hold of the one piece, you must complete the act of castling. If you retain your hold of both, your adversary may compel you to move either of them. 13. The game must be declared to be drawn should -"ou fail to give checkmate in fifty moves, when you have King and queen against king. King and rook against king. King and two bishops against king. King, bishop, and knight against king. King and pawn against king. King and two pawns against king. King and minor piece against king. 14. Drawn games of every description count for nothing. 15. Neither player may leave a game un- finished, nor leave the room without the permission of his adversary. 16. Lookers-onr are not permitted to speak, nor in any way express their approbation or disapprobation while a game is pending. 17. In case a dispute should arise on any point not provided for by the laws, a third party must be appealed to, and his decision shall be final. HINTS FOR COMMENCING THE GAME To open the game well, some of the pawns should be played out first. The royal pawns, particularly, should be advanced to their fourth square; it is not often safe to advance them further. The bishop's pawn should also be played out early in the game ; but it is not always well to advance the rook's and knight's pawns too hastily, as these afford an excellent protection to your king in case you should castle. Phillidor describes pawn-playing as "the soul of chess." When they are not too far ad- vanced, and are so placed as to be mutually supporting, they present a strong barrier to the advance of your adversary, and prevent him from taking up a commanding position. If you play your pieces out too early, and advance too far, your adversary may oblige you to bring "hem back again by advancing his pawns upon them, and you thus lose time. Do not commence your attack until you are well prepared. A weak attack often re- sults in disaster. If your attack is likely to prove successful, do not be diverted from it by any bait which your adversary may purposely put in your way. Pause, lest you fall into a snare. Beware of giving check uselessly i.e., unless you have in view the obtaining of some advantage. A useless check is a move lost, which may, particularly between good players, decide the game. It is generally injudicious to make an ex- change when your position is good, or when, by so doing, you bring one of your adver- sary's pieces into good play. Never make an exchange without considering the conse- quences. When your game is crowded and ill arranged and your position inferior, it is advantageous to exchange. Sometimes also, when you are much superior in force, it is worth your while to make an equal exchange. The operation of castling often relieves a crowded game. A lost opportunity of cas- tling, or castling at the wrong time, is a dis- advantage which may be turned to account by your adversary. Never put your queen before your king in such a way that your adversary may bring forward a bishop or rook and attack her, and the king through her. In such a case, unless you can interpose another piece, you will inevitably lose your queen. It is good play to "double" your rooks i. e., to make them mutually supporting. Don't bring your rooks into active pla> soon. They can generally operate most ef- fectively at a distance, and they are there- fore of most value toward the end of a game, when the board is comparatively clear. From time to time take a review of the game. Although an incurably tedious player is a general nuisance, it is mere folly to play without "knowing the reason why." To take an occasional review of the game gets you into a systematic habit. When near the close, take notice of the position of your ad- versary's pawns, and if you find that you can queen before him, make all haste to do so; GAMES OF SKILL 465 if not, attack his pawns so as to prevent him from queening. If your adversary possesses a decided advantage, look out for a means of drawing the game. Do not stick to one opening, but learn as many as you can. Always be willing to accept odds of a bet- ter player, so that the game may be inter- esting to him. If you should lose, it is nat- ural that you should feel inwardly chagrined, but do not let your disappointment be per- ceived. "Keep your temper" is a golden rule. Do not give up the game before you are quite sure it is lost. On the other hand, you should not too hastily jump to the con- clusion that you have won it. It is necessary that you should occasion- ally study some of the best book games, but without actual practice proficiency can sel- dom be attained. Endeavor to understand the reasons which lead to your adversary's moves, and take measures accordingly. "OPENINGS" OF GAMES. The principal openings are the king's gambit, the queen's gambit, the king's knight's opening, the king's bishop's opening, etc. From these spring the various gambits, known as the Evans, the Muzio, the Cunningham, the Allgaier, the Cochrane, the Giuoco piano, etc., most of them deriving their names from the inventors. All these gambits have a va- riety of subdivisions, and openings not founded on them are termed irregular open- ings. We shall, after denning each of the most celebrated of these openings, give il- lustrations of them. The King's Gambit. In this gambit, the first player advances his KB. P. two squares at his second move. The Queen's Gambit is when the first player, at his second move, advances his Q. B. P. two squares. King's Bishop's Gambit is so styled be- cause the first player brings out the K. B. at his second move. King's Knight's Gambit. In this much- used opening the first player brings out his K. Kt. at his second move. The Evans Gambit, so styled from its in- ventor, Captain W. D. Evans, R. N., is when the player advances Q. Kt. P. two at his fourth move, and sacrifices it, with the object of recovering at least its equivalent, at the same time obtaining a decided lead. Besides the above, there are the queen's pawn-two-opening, the queen's bishop's pawn's opening, the Lopez gambit, the king's pawn-one-opening, the queen's counter-gam- bit, the king's rook's pawn's gambit, the Allgaier gambit, the Muzio gambit, the Cochrane gambit, the Cunningham gambit, the bishop's gambit, the Damian's gambit, the Greco counter-gambit, etc., etc. In an article of such limited scope as the present, it would be impossible to treat at any length upon every one of these openings. We shall therefore content ourselves with making a selection which will be at once in- teresting and suitable for beginners. In every case we have preferred to give those variations which are considered' the best and most legitimate, believing that the study and practice of such positions- will be more ad- vantageous to the learner than giving, as some writers do, inferior play and positions, and then afterward giving the correct ones. The King's Gambit. White. Black. 1. K. P. 2. i. K. P. 2. 2. K. B. P. 2. 2. P. takes P. 3. K. Kt. to B. 3. 3. K. Kt. P. 2. 4. K. B. to Q. B. 4. There has been much difference of opin- ion as to the move which black should now make. Some writers prefer advancing K. Kt. P., while Walker and a whole host of authorities think it better to place the K. B. at Kt. second : "Although," says Walker, "playing the pawn is productive of more brilliant situations." He advises both moves for practice. King's Bishop's Opening. This opening is considered by the great chess master, Phillidor, as the very finest opening for the first player, as it brings out the bishop at the second move, and immediately attacks black's K. B. P., his weakest point. From this opening spring some of the finest and most difficult combinations known. It com- mences thus : White. i. K. P. to K. 4. Black. i. P. to K. 4. 2. K. B. to Q. B. 4. 2. K. B. to Q. B. 4 (best). 3. P. to Q. B. 3. 3. Q. to K. 2 (good). 4. K. Kt. to B. 3. Some prefer to play the Kt. to K. 2, but in our opinion this is not so good as to B. 3, because in the former case black could take K. B. P. with his bishop (check) ; and if white K. takes bishop, black queen gives check at her B. 4, and white loses bishop. White. Black. 4. K. Kt. to B. 3. 5. Q. to K. 2. s- P- to Q. 3. 6. P. to Q. 3. 6. P. to Q. B. 3. If black plays his Q. B., pinning Kt., white will advance R. P., which will cause black either to retire bishop (which will be los- ing time) or force an exchange, which will open the game to white's queen. Therefore it will be better for black to play P. to Q. B. 3, as we have given it, which will leave the game pretty equal up to this point. If 466 GAMES OF SKILL black, at his third move, replies as follows which is an inferior move then the game proceeds thus : White. Black. 3. K. Kt. to B. 3. 4. P. to Q. 4. 4- P. takes P. 5. P. to K. 5. 5- Kt. to K. 5. 6. Q. to K. 2. 6. Kt. to Kt. 4. 7. P. to K. B. 4. 7. Kt. to K. 3. 8. P. to K. B. 5. If black now play 8. Kt to K. B., white has the best of the game, and ought to win ; but if black play Kt. to Kt. 4, white will play Q. to K. R. 5, and then P. to K R. 4. If white at his third move should play Q. to K. 2, attacking K B. P. and threaten- ing ch. with Q. and capture of bishop, and if black advance Q. P. one, it may then be- come the Ruy Lopez gambit by white play- ing as his fourth move P. to K. B. 4. If the gambit referred to be not properly met, it leads to strong positions of attack. It is better for the second player to refuse the pawn offered. King's Knight's Opening. This is a sound opening, and has been largely treated upon by many writers. Some 'fine situations spring from it. At the second move, white directly attacks K. P. with K. Kt. We will give the opening, and a few brief remarks thereon, together with a game arising from it: White. Black. 1. P. to K. 4. i. P. to K. 4. 2. K. Kt. to B. 3. For black, in reply to this, to move P. to K B. 3, would only show weak play, and would enable white to win in a few moves, or at any rate to obtain a rook and a pawn in exchange for a knight. Black's best an- swer is the following: 2. Q. Kt. to B. 3. Black thus defends his pawn, and has the advantage of a counter-attack. King's Knight's Gambit. This is a varia- tion of the king's gambit, brought about by white at his fourth move advancing the K. R. P. before bringing out his K B. This variation brings out some fine play, but is not so strong for the first player as the king's gambit proper. The Allgaier gambit springs from this opening. White. Black. 1. P. to K. 4. i. P. to K. 4. 2. P. to K. B. 4. 2. P. takes P. 3. K. Kt. to B. 3. 3. P. to K. Kt. 4. 4. P. to K. R. 4. 4. P. to K. Kt. 5 (best). 5. K. Kt. to K. 5. By white's last move the game emerges into the Allgaier. Black's best move now is 5. P. to K. R. 4. 6. K. B. to Q. B. 4. 6. R. to K. 2. This move of black's is considered better than K Kt. to R. 3. 7. P. to Q. 4. 7. P. to Q. 3. 8. Kt. to Q. 3. 8. K. B. P. advances. If white now plays K. Kt. P., black has the best of the game by keeping the gambit pawn. If white attacks queen with bishop, black will give check with pawn, and have the stronger game. Most authorities con- sider this opening weak for the first player. The Allgaier Gambit. This opening, the invention of a noted German from whom It takes its name, arises out of the king's knight's gambit, as detailed in the preceding paragraph. It is not a safe opening, al- though, if successful, it will prove a strong one. When properly met, the siege is soon raised, and the second player will stand in the better position. It is, however, a fine opening, and requires cautious play on both sides. It is as follows : White. Black. 1. P. to K. 4. i. P. to K. 4. 2. P. to K. B. 4. 2. P. takes P. 3. K. Kt. to B. 3 3- P. to K. Kt 4. 4. P. to K. R. 4 . 4. P. to K. Kt. 5. 5. K. Kt. to Kt. 5. White's fifth move constitutes the Allgaier gambit, white intending to sacrifice the knight if attacked by the pawns. Black may reply in several ways, but in our opin- ion his best move is the following : 5. P. to K. R. 3. Black by this move wins the knight. 6. Kt. takes K. B. P. 6. K. takes Kt 7. Q. takes P. 7. K. Kt. to B. 3. 8. Q. takes B. P. The last move is much better than giving check with the bishop, which would only have the effect of involving white's game. Walker says, "No better move can be played at this crisis." It will be good prac- tice for the student to continue the above opening, and exercise his ingenuity by finish- ing the game. The Muzio Gambit. This is another va- riation of the king's gambit, and is produced by white offering to sacrifice knight in or- der to gain a strong attacking position. II is the invention of Signer Muzio, an Italian player of some eminence. Walker says this may be classed as the most brilliant and critical opening known, and recommend! the student to play it at every opportunity; he also throws out the warning that an incor- rect move may irrecoverably lose the game. The defence is most difficult to discover in actual play. White. Black. 1. P. to K. 4. i. P. to K. 4. 2. P. to K. B. 4. 2. P. takes P. 3. K. Kt. to B. 3. 3. P. to K. Kt 4. 4. K. B. to Q. B. 4. 4. K. Kt. P. advances. 5. Castles. This move constitutes the gambit; for, in- stead of white withdrawing his Kt., or mov- ing it to Q. 4, he allows it to remain and be GAMES OF SKILL 467 taken. It now rests with black whether he will accept the gambit. Walker says he can not do better. 5. P. takes Kt. 6. Q. takes P. 6. Q. to K. B. 3 (best). This last move is Sarratt's defence, which is clearly shown to be the best. '7. K. P. advances. 7. Q. takes K. P. This is black's best move, for, if he does not take P., white at once obtains the advan- tage by playing P. to Q. 2, defending K. P. If black play Q. to Kt. 3 (ch.), white moves K. to R. sq., and ought to win. The Scotch Gambit, or Queen's Pawn Two Opening. This gambit has a fine, dash- ing attack, and one of its advantages is, that in case it should miscarry, the disaster is comparatively slight. "It is," as Walker says, "one of the most attacking yet safe methods of commencing the game which can possibly be adopted." Again, "It is alike fertile in resource and safe in results." White. Black. T. P. to K. 4. i. P. to K. 4. 2. K. Kt. to B. 3. 2. Q. Kt. to B. 3. 3. P. to Q. 4. The third move of white gives it the name of the Queen's Pawn Two Opening. White plays the pawn for the purpose of opening the game, especially for his bishops. Black may now take the pawn either with his P. or Kt. We will suppose him to do the for- mer, which we consider best : 3. P. takes P. 4. K. B. to Q. B. 4. Some players now give black's fourth move as B. to Q. Kt. 5 (ch.) ; but this is a decidedly bad move, and with an indifferent player would lose the game. Black's best move is that introduced by Macdonnell, and described by Walker as a sound defence. We give it below: 4 . Q. to K. B. 3. White may now castle, or play P. to Q. B. 3; either of which is better than Kt. or B. to K. Kt. 5. HOW TO FINISH THE GAME Having now considered the "Hints for Commencing the Game," and studied most of the principal openings, we must say a few words with regard to finishing the game. It is often very difficult to checkmate when you have a king, bishop, and knight against a king. Although possessing the requisite mating power, good players have often failed to accomplish the mate within the stipulated fifty moves. The only way in which it can be done is by driving the ad- verse king to a corner commanded by your bishop. The better to convey our meaning, we give an illustration. Suppose the men to be placed thus : White K. at K. B. 6. " K. B. at K. B. 5. " Kt. at K. Kt. 5. Black K. at K. R. sq. Then, in eighteen moves, white may effect checkmate : White. 1. Kt. to K. B. 7 (ch.). 2. B. to K. 4. 3. B. to K. R. 7. 4. Kt. to K. 5. 5. Kt. to Q. 2. 6. K. to K. sq. 7. K. to Q. 6. 8. B. to K. Kt. 6 (ch.). 9. Kt. to Q. B. 5. 10. B. to B. 7. 11. Kt. to 12. K. to 13. K. to 14. B. to 15. Kt. to Black. 1. K. to Kt. sq. 2. K. to K. B. sq. 3. K. to K. sq. 4. K. to K. B. sq. 5. K. to K. sq. 6. K. to Q. sq. 7. K. to K. sq. 8. K. to Q. sq. 9. K. to 10. K. to Kt. 7 (ch.). ii. K. to B. 6. 12. K. to Kt. 6. 13. K. to 6 (ch.). 14. K. to _ B. 5. 15. K. to 16. B. to Q. 7. 16. K. to 17. Kt. to Q. R. 6 (ch.). 17. K. to 1 8. B. to Q. B. 6, checkm. As will be observed from the above ex- ample, one of the important objects is never to let the king escape into the middle of the board. In our division on checkmate we should not omit to give the "Fool's Mate" and the "Scholar's Mate." The former shows that it is possible to effect mate in as few as two moves. It is easy to understand why it should be named the "fool's mate" ; but why a checkmate which may be effected in four moves should be termed "scholar's mate" is probably less capable of explanation. Fool's Mate. Black. 1. K. P. 2. 2. Queen mates. White. 1. K. Kt. P. 2 sq. 2. K. B. P. i sq. Scholar's Mate. White. 1. K. P. 2. 2. K. B. to Q. B. 4. 3. Q. to K. R. 5. Black. 1. K. P. 2. 2. K. B. to Q. B. 4. 3- Q. P. i. 4. Q. takes K. B. P., giving "scholar's mate." King and Queen against King. Several examples of this checkmate might be given, but the one below will probably be suffi- cient. The principal point upon which the learner need be warned is against allowing his adversary to effect stalemate. Suppose the pieces to be placed thus: White king at K. sq. " queen at Q. B. sq. Black king at Q. 3. The game may then proceed as follows : White. 1. Q. to K. Kt. 5. 2. K. tO K. 2. 3. K. to K. 3. 4. K. to K. 4. 5. Q. to K. Kt. 6. 6. K. advances. 7. Q. mates. Black. 1. K. to K. 4. 2. K. to Q. 3. 3. K. to K. 3. 4. K. to Q. 3. 6. 468 GAMES OF SKILL King and Queen against King and Rook. Suppose the men to be placed thus: White king at K. B. 3. " queen at K. sq. Black king at K. R. 7. " rook, at K. Kt 7, supposing white to have the first move, the game may be completed In three moves : White, to K. 5 (ch.). j. to Q. R. (ch.). _ !. to K. sq., and wins. Black. 1. K. to R. 8. 2. K. moves. RULES FOR PLAYING DRAUGHTS OR CHECKERS DRAUGHTS is played on the same board as chess, the men, however, be- ing placed entirely on squares of one color. There are twelve men on each side, ar- ranged on the squares from I to 12 and from 21 to 32. The two squares marked i and 5, and 32 and 28, are called the double corners, and these must always be on the right hand of the player, while the left-hand lowest squares, 4 and 29, must always be on the left-hand side. Having placed the men, the first move is arranged between the players by lot. The men move one square at a time ; thus, the man on 22 can move either to 18 or 17; the man on 23 can move either to 19 or 18. The men can only move forward, not back- ward, until they have succeeded in reaching the bottom row of the adversary's squares, when they are crowned by having a second man placed above them. They are then termed kings, and can move either forward or backward as desirable. A man may take an opponent's man by leaping over him and taking up the vacant square beyond him, the piece taken being removed from the board. A man may take two or three men at one move, provided he can leap over each in succession. To understand this, place a white man at 18, n, and 25, and a black man at 29, all other pieces being removed from the board. The Wack man can move and take the three white men, as he can leap to 22, 15, and 8, thus taking the .men on squares 18, n, and 25. A king can take both backward and forward any number of men, as long as a square is open. Thus, place a white man on 25, 26, 27, 19, 10, 9, and 17. A black king at 29 could take all these men at once, for Ke could leap from 29 to 22, taking 25 man; to 31, taking 26; to 24, taking 27 ; to 15, taking 19 ; to 6, tak- ing 10; to 13, taking 9; and to 22, taking 17, and taking all these in one move. If a man take other men, and in the tak- ing reach the bottom row, he can not go on taking, as a king, until the adversary has moved. Example. Place a white man at 24, 7, 16, and 8, a black man at 28. The black man takes 24 by leaping to 19, takes 16 by leaping to 12, takes 8 by leaping to 3, and is there crowned; but can not leap to 10, thus taking the man at 7, until the adver- sary has moved. The game is won when all the adversary's men are either taken or blockaded so that they can not move, and it is drawn when two kings or less remain able to move, in spite of the adversary. LAWS. The following are the established laws of the game, which should be learned by every person who is desirous of becoming a draught-player. RULES OF THE GAME The chief laws for regulating the game of draughts are as follows: 1. Each player takes the first move al- ternately, whether the last game be won or drawn. 2. Any action which prevents the adver- sary from having a full view of the men is not allowed. 3. The player who touches a man must play him. 4. In case of standing the huff, which means omitting to take a man when an op- portunity for so doing occurred, the other party may either take the man, or insist upon his man, which has been so omitted by his adversary, being taken. 5. If either party, when it is his turn to GAMES OF SKILL 469 move, hesitates above three minutes, the other may call upon him to play; and if, after that, he delay above five minutes longer, then he loses the game. 6. In the losing game, the player can in- sist upon his adversary taking all the men in case opportunities should present them- selves for their being so taken. 7. To prevent unnecessary delay, if one color have no pieces but two kings on the board, and the other no piece but one king, the latter can call upon the former to win the game in twenty moves : if he does not finish it within that number of moves, the game to be relinquished as drawn. 8. If there are three kings to two on the board, the subsequent moves are not to ex- ceed forty. ADVICE. The men should be kept as much as possible in a wedge form toward the centre of the board. Avoid moving a man on the side square, for, when there, he is deprived of half his power, being able to take in one direction only. Consider well before you touch a man, for a man once touched must be moved. Avoid the cowardly practice of moving a man, and then, when you discover by your adversary's move that you have committed an error, taking your move back. Stand the consequences though the game be lost, and next time you will be more careful. A game, even if won after replacing a man, is unsatisfactory, and not to be counted a victory, and often leads to disputes. The rules are made to avoid all argument and dispute, and the more closely, therefore, you obey these, the more harmonious will be your games. GAMES Draughts is a game in which one is par- ticularly called upon to estimate the skill and style of play of one's adversary. One person may very easily be drawn into a trap, where another more cautious could not be thus defeated. Again, a too cautious player may be defeated by a dashing move, where- as another opponent would win the game in consequence. We will now give one or two examples of games, calling attention to the points in each. The men are supposed to be arranged as before mentioned white's men from 21 to -32, black's from i to 12. Black moves first. White. 22 to l8. 25 to 1 8 (takes). 29 to 25. Now, at this point of the game, if white were a very young or incautious player, he might be easily tempted into a false move by Black, ii to 15. 15 to 22 (takes). 8 to 11. black moving n to 16, for white, seeing a supposed advantage in position, might move 24 to 20. Let us suppose these moves to have been made, and black wins at once, for, moving 3 to 8, he compels white to take 20 to n, and then, with a man at 8, takes u, 18, and 25, and procures a king at 29, thus gaining a majority of two men, an advan- tage equivalent to the game, for, by ex- changing man for man on every occasion, he would soon reduce the odds to 4 to 2, or 2 to o. If, however, black play a more cautious game, he should move 4 to 8. White again might lose the game if he moved either 24 or 23 to 19, for black would respond by 10 to 15, when white must move from 19 to 10, black from 6 to 29, taking these men as before. Black's best move is, perhaps, 25 to 22. At this period of the game exchanges of men usually take place, the object being an advantage of position, as follows : Black. White. 9 to 14. 18 to 9. 5 to 14. 24 to 20. 6 to 9. 22 to 18. 1 to 5. 28 to 24. Up to the present time no great advan- tage is gained on either side, the game being, perhaps, slightly in favor of black, who may cause a separation in white's men by the following : Black. 9 to 13. 5 to 14. White may reply by 33 to 1 8. Then, 14 to 23. 27 to 18. Now, unless black moves 2 to 6, or 10 to 15, white could procure a king as follows: Suppose black had moved 12 to 16, then white 18 to 14, Black. White. 10 to 17. 21 to 14. and whatever black now does, white must procure a king. It is under such conditions as these that the acute player often wins a game; for we shall find that the eagerness for gaining this king may cause white to be in a difficult position. Carrying on the game under this supposition, we have Black. White. 16 to 19. 24 to 15. 11 to 18. 13 to 9. 8 to 11. 9 to 5. 18 to 22. 26 to 17. 13 to 22. 5 to i (king). 2 to 6. i to 10. 7 to 14. 32 to 28. 14 to 17. 28 to 24. 3 to 8.* 31 to 27. 8 to 12. 27 to 23. * This move of black's will very likely lose him a man, or, at least, allow his adversary to make a king rapidly. White. 18 to 9. 470 GAMES OF SKILL Black must now lose a man, and therefore the game, as follows: Black. White. aa to 26, or 17 to 21. 23 to 18. 26 to 31, or 22 to 25. 19 to 15, and white wins The Double Corners. When there is one king against two, the rule is that the game is drawn unless it be won in at least twenty moves. If the player does not know how to block up in the double corners, this may easily be a drawn game. We will now show the moves for blocking in the double cor- ners, giving the case that will require the greatest number of moves. Black's kings at I and 5; white's at 10. Black. White. 5 to 9,. 10 to 15. 9 to 14. 15 to 19. 14 to 18. 19 to 24. 18 to 23. 24 to 28 (reaches i to 6. ' 28 to 32. double 6 to 10. 32 to 28. corner.) 10 to 15. 28 to 32. 15 to 19. 32 to 28. 23 to 27. 28 to 32. 19 to 23. 32 to 28. 27 to 32. 28 to 24. 23 to 18. 24 to 19. 32 to 28. 19 to 16. 18 to 15. 1 6 to 20. 15 to n, and wins in 15 moves. Had black moved from 15 to 19 at last, white could have gone to 24, and the game would have been prolonged. There is no position on the board where two kings can not defeat one in fifteen moves. It is usual with two experienced players to pronounce the game drawn when there are two kings only on each side, one of which is enabled to reach the double cor- ners. There are, however, two or three chances of catching an incautious player. The following example will serve to il- lustrate cases. White's positions are king at 28 and at 30; black's at 24 and 19. Black moves. Black. White. 24 to 27. 28 to 32. 19 to 23. 30 to 26. 23 to 30. 32 to 23. 30 to 25. 23 to 26. 25 to 30. 26 to 22, and wins. Another case may be tried with caution, and it is as follows, two kings each : black at 15 and 23; white at 16 and 25. White moves. White. Black. 25 to 22. 23 to 1 8. 1 6 to ii. 1 8 to 25. 11 to 18, and wins next move by blocking. These aje not positions likely to entrap very good players, but succeed very often with average hands. The game in these instances resulted in the winner having what is called "the move." To ascertain whether you have the move of any one of your adversary's men, examine the situation of each. If your opponent has a black square at a right angle under his man, you have the move, and vice vers&. Draughts is in reality a deeply interesting game, and one that is very rarely appre- ciated. THE LOSING GAME OF DRAUGHTS The losing game of draughts is rarely un- derstood, and therefore rarely appreciated. We believe that "there is even more fore- sight required in the losing than in the winning game of draughts, for it is equally necessary to see several moves ahead, and the game may be almost instantly lost by a thoughtless move. To win at the losing game we must com- pel our adversary to take all our men, and the novice usually commences by losing as many men as possible. This proceeding is an error; the player has the advantage who has the most men on the table, a$ will be instanced by one or two examples. Suppose white to have a king on each of the four squares, I, 2, 3, 4; black, one on 31. First, we will suppose that white commences thus: White. Black. 4 to 8. 31 to 27. 3 to 7. 27 to 23. a to 6. 23 to 18. i to 5. Black must now retreat, for, if he moves to 14 or 15, the game is lost, as he may be com- pelled to take each of his opponent's men in succession. Thus, suppose he move to 14 : White. Black. 5 to 9. 14 to 5. 6 to 9. 5 to 14. 7 to 10. 14 to 7. 8 to 1 1 and wins. Thus black's move must be a retreat in an- swer to white's i to 5. Then, White. 5 to 9. 6 to 14. to 1 8. i i Black. 18 to 22. 22 tO 26. 26 to 31. 31 to 27. At this point, if white advanced from 18 to 23 to be taken, he would lose the game un- less very careful, as the lost man would have the move against him. His best move, there- fore, would be 18 to 25. If black moves to 24, he loses. Black had better move to 32, and white 6 to 10. Black. 32 to 28. 28 to 32. 32 to 28. 28 to 19. 19 to 3. White. 8 to ii. .15 to 19. 19 to 24. 10 to 15. 1 1 to 7, and wins. We will now point out the best "traps" for the losing game. Suppose white's men to be placed from 21 to 32. If then we can secure one of the adversary's men at 21, we are almost cer- GAMES OF SKILL tain to lose all our men first, and thus to win the game, for, by keeping this man blocked until required, he can be made use of at the right time. Let us take an ex- ample, white moving first. White. Black. 22 to 18. 9 to 14. 18 to 9. 5 to 14 (Very bad 21 to 17. 14 to 21. play; this 24 to 20. ii to 1 6. ought to 20 to ii. 7 to 1 6. have been 23 to 18 (Not acood i to 15. 6tois.) 1 8 to ii. move, but 8 to 15. 28 to 24. will serve 15 to 19. 24 to 15. to ill us- 6 to 10. 15 to 6. trate the i to 10. 26 to 22. advantage 4 to 8. 27 to 23. of man at 16 to 19. 23 to 16. 21.) 12 to 19. 22 to 18. 10 to 15. 18 to 4. 3 to 8. 4 to ii. 2 t 7. II tO 2. White now has six men on the board, while black has only two; but white can reduce this number at any time by moving 30 to 26. Black can only move 19 to 24 or to 23. Suppose he move it to 23, then it will be better for white to reduce black to one as follows: White. 31 to 27. 30 to 23. 29 to 25. 32 to 28. 28 to 24. Black. 23 to 26. 21 tO 3O. 30 tO 21. 21 tO 17. 17 to 14. If black move to 18, 10, or 9, he loses at once, so 14 to 17 is the best move. If white move 27 to 23 he loses the game, for black would move 17 to 22, from which white could not escape. Hence the game ( would be best played by White. 2 to 6. 6 to 10. 10 to 14. 14 to 17. Black. 17 tO 21. 21 to 25. 25 to 30. The game might now be prolonged, but still to win the losing game with the four against one is almost a certainty, as it can only be lost by an oversight. RULES FOR VARIOUS GAMES WITH DOMINOES AFTER the dominoes have been well shuffled, each player draws one, and he who draws the domino containing the smallest number of pips wins "the down" ; in plainer English, he wins the privilege of playing first. Sometimes a different method of deciding who shall have "the down" is adopted. One of the players draws a dom- ino, and without showing it, asks if it is odd or even. If the adversary guesses right he wins "the down" ; if, on the contrary, he guesses wrong, he loses it. The latter method is the more common of the two. A third method Is in use on the Continent. The person holding the highest double has the "pose," or "down," and he commences by playing that domino. If there should be no doubles, then the person holding the highest domino has the pose. However, it is quite immaterial which of these plans is adopted. The dominoes having been shuf- fled, each player takes six or seven, as may be agreed upon. If it is found that one of the players has drawn more than the number agreed upon, his adversary withdraws the extra number, and puts them back on the heap, keeping the face downward, of course. Each player then takes up his dominoes, and the first player commences by putting down one of his dominoes, after which his adversary joins one to it, containing on one of its sections the same number of pips as are marked upon adjoining section of the domino first played. They thus play alternately till the game may become so "blocked" that one of the players can not "go." His adversary will then continue to play as long as there is an end open. If he should succeed in getting rid of all his men he wins the game ; but if the game should be blocked at both ends before either player has played out, they compare the aggregate number of pips on all the dominoes in each hand, and who- ever has the smallest number wins the game. GENERAL MAXIMS 1. Endeavor to play so as to ^keep both ends open, so that you may be sure of being able to "go" next time. 2. Play out your heavy dominoes first, be- cause, if the game becomes blocked, you will then have fewer pips to count. 3. Contrive to play so that the numbers at both ends shall be those of which you hold the most. By this means you may often block your adversary till you are played out. 4. If you have made both ends alike, and your adversary plays, follow him at tnat end, as the chances are that he can not go at the other, which you may keep open for yourself until you are unable to play at his end. 5. It is sometimes an advantage to hold heavy dominoes, as they not infrequently enable you to obtain what is called a good 472 GAMES OF SKILL "follow"; and if your adversary should hold none but low dominoes, he would not be able to go, thus enabling you to play five or six times consecutively, or even to play out. 6. When you have sole command over both ends you are generally in a position to "block" the game or not, as you think most expedient for your own game. In such a case, you must be guided by the number of dominoes you hold compared with those in your adversary's hands ; and another ele- ment for your consideration would be whether yours are light or heavy. If they are light, and fewer in number than your ad- versary's, of course your best policy is to close the game at once and count. But in this you must learn to calculate from your adversary's style of play whether his hand is light or heavy. 7. At the commencement of the game it is better to have a variety in hand. 8. If you hold a "double," with two of the same number, it is better to play the double before either of the others. Sometimes you will be obliged to play one, in which case you must endeavor to force the double. 9. If you hold a double, and one other of the same number, play both consecutively; but if you are unable to do that, endeavor, at any rate to let the double go first. 10. In playing against "the down," en- deavor to deceive your opponent by playing a domino or two at each end indifferently. This is better than playing to his last dom- ino, as it leads him to believe you can not go at that end, while at the same time you may be simply keeping both ends open. 11. If your adversary has possession of one end, make the other of a number of which you hold several, with a view of forc- ing him to play at his end, and shutting it against the* dominoes he was keeping it for. 12. If you hold several doubles, wait till your adversary makes the number for them in preference to making them for yourself; otherwise, a good player will see what you are aiming at, and will block the double. But if you hold a double with several dupli- cates, and can bring that number at both ends, do so. 13. If your adversary can not go at one end, and you hold the double of that end, it is better that you should play at the other as long as you can. When you are blocked at that end, you may then play your double, and your adversary will then in most cases be obliged to open the other end for you. 14. It is generally considered that a light hand, yet with no number missing, is the best fo'r ordinary play. The following, for example, would be a very fine hand: 6 3> 5 4, 2 i, i o, 2 o, o o. An example of a bad hand would be : 66, 55, 62, 22, 21, i i ; but the worst possible hand would be the following: 6 6, 5 5, 4 4, 3 3 2 2, i i. The latter, however, would seldom occur in actual play. 15. It does not necessarily follow that be- cause a hand is heavy it must therefore lose. Provided it is equally varied, it has an equal chance of success with a light hand. The disadvantage of a heavy hand is shown when the game becomes blocked, and has to be decided by counting. 16. In leading "the down" from a hand consisting of a high double and several light dominoes, lead the double, and afterward endeavor to obtain command of both ends. Suppose, for example, you hold the follow- ing hand : 55, 22, 23, 24, i o, 50 ; it would be better to play the 5 5, as your other double can be forced by the aid of the 2 4 and 2 3 17. It will at all times be found a difficult thing, in an equal game and between equal players, for the second player to win. 18. Endeavor to bring both ends as often as you can to a number of which you have several duplicates, for by that means you may block your adversary. 19. In blocking the game, you must be cautious that you do not block it to your- self, and leave it open to your adversary. 20. During the game look over the domi- noes which have been played, so that you may calculate what numbers are likely to be soon run out, and what numbers your oppo- nent is likely to be short of. 21. Do not push the game to a block if you hold a heavy hand, but play out your heaviest first, and keep both ends open. 22. Use your judgment freely. It is not always the best policy to adhere too strictly to the rules laid down in books. In fact, a wily player will oftentimes find it expe- dient to play a speculative, eccentric game, apparently quite at variance with the ordi- nary "laws." 23. Keep perfectly quiet, attentively watch your opponent's moves, and prevent him, if you can, from obtaining an insight into your play. 24. Last (though not least), don't lose your temper. ALL FIVES This game stands next in popularity to the preceding one. The same number of dominoes are taken, or as many as may be agreed upon, and in many points it is similar. The object of the game is to con- trive so to play that the aggregate number GAMES OF SKILL 473 of pips on the dominoes at both ends shall number 5, 10, 15, or 20. If they number 5, the player who makes the point counts one; if 10, two; if 15, three; if 20, four. In order to make our meaning clearer, we give an illustration. Suppose that at one end there is o o, and at the other a five. The next player then plays 5 5 to the single five, and scores two, because the aggregrate num- ber of pips on the dominoes at both ends is ten. If the opponent should follow up by playing the o 5 to the o o, he, of course, scores three. To give another illustration. Suppose at one end is 6 6, and the next player places at the other end 4 4, he scores four for making twenty. If the game becomes blocked, he who holds the least number of pips counts one. The custom as to what number shall be "up" is different in different parts of the country. In some places it is ten; in others fifteen ; in others again, twenty. The num- ber ought to be agreed upon at the com- mencement of the game. In our opinion it adds to the interest of the game to select the lower numbers. Sometimes the game is so played that he who makes five counts five; ten is made to count ten, and so on ; but in that case not fewer than 50, and not more than 100, points should constitute the game. As we have shown, the material point in which this game differs from the previous one is that you count the fives, from which circumstance it derives its name. The next best thing to making fives your- self is to prevent your adversary from doing so; and when you do give him the opportu- nity of making a point it should only be in order that you may make two or three points yourself. When your adversary fails to avail him- self of a good chance, you may presume that he does not hold such and such dominoes, and from that and like indications, which you must carefully store up in your mem- ory, you will be able to form a tolerably accurate estimate of his hand. You should never omit to turn these indications to good account. There is only one domino in the whole pack which can be led without the next player being able to make a point from it; namely, 2 3. Always lead that if possible. If you must play one of two dominoes, either of which you fear your adversary will turn to his account, of course you must play that by which you think you will be likely to lose the least. It is good practice occasionally to take a survey of the game as far as it has gone, not only in order to refresh your memory as to what has been played, but also that you may form an opinion, if possible, of what your opponent's "little game" is. If there are good grounds for coming to the conclusion that he holds heavy numbers while you hold light ones, block up the game as speedily as you can, and proceed to count. To understand your opponent's hand is a most important matter, and we do not think we have insisted on it too much. Good players will tell you that they have won many games by watching closely the oppo- nent's moves, and drawing therefrom in- ferences respecting the dominoes he hold* in hand. We need not add, the greatest caution must be used in forming these inferences. THE DRAWING GAME The same number of dominoes are used, and the lead is drawn for in the same man- ner in this as in the previously described games. The difference is that when a player can not go, he must draw a domino from the pack. If he can not then go, he must draw another, and so on until he is able to con- tinue the game. He who plays out first, or, in case the game becomes blocked, he who holds the smallest number of pips, wins. The French have a different way of play- ing this game. The player who holds the highest double, or, in the event of there be- ing no double, the highest domino, has the Pose or lead. The second player, should he be unable to go, may draw all the remaining dominoes except two, which must remain untaken. If he leave more than two, the first player, should he require them in order to continue the game, may appropriate the surplus, still leaving two on the table. If a player can not go, it is compulsory that he draw till he gets hold of a domino that will enable him to continue the game. Each player may take the pose alternately, or the winner in the first instance may re- tain it, as agreed upon. The French method of counting is also different. When a player has played out, he counts the pips in his opponent's hand, and scores them to his own account. In case the game should become blocked, the player holding the fewest pips scores the number of pips in his adversary's hand to his own account, each pip counting one. A game consists of from 20 to zoo points, according to agreement. 474 GAMES OF SKILL With respect to the English method of playing this game, the general instructions and maxims given on the other games apply equally to this. But a few words must be added with regard to the French play. He who has the highest double is compelled to play first, and can not draw any more dom- inoes until it is his turn to play again, but his opponent may draw all but two, which two must remain untaken during that game. But the second player should not draw more than half the dominoes, unless really com- pelled by the badness of his hand, as by this means it will leave a chance of his oppo- nent having as many to draw. A good player at times might be justified in taking all but two, for by the calculation and judg- ment obtained by having them, he might be enabled to play them all before his oppo- nent could play his five or six dominoes, as the case may be. Should the second player hold a good hand, comprising dominoes of every denomination, he should not draw un- til compelled. If he should happen to draw high doubles, he ought to continue to draw until he holds several of that number. It is not always the player holding the greatest number who gets out first, because as he has some of almost every denomina- tion, his adversary will keep playing to him, and the odds are that he (the adversary) will be able to play out first. Still, in many games, the one holding the largest number of dominoes possesses this advantage, that he has the power to keep both ends open to himself, but closed to his opponent, and he may thus run out. In order to be able to play out first with the largest number (supposing that only two dominoes remain untaken), you should by all means, and in the first place, endeavor to ascertain what those two are. You may arrive at this in two ways. Suppose you hold so many of a particular number that with those already played they make six out of the seven of that denomination, you must by all means keep playing them. As an illustration, we will suppose you hold in your hand four threes, and that two other threes have already been played. Now, if you play your threes, and your ad- versary, not being able to play to them, be- comes blocked, it is quite clear that one of the dominoes on the table is a three. Then, if those you hold in your hand are 3 2, 4 3, 3 6, and 3 3, and you find among the dominoes played 3 o and 3 i, it is, of course, quite safe to conclude that the domino which is left is the 3 5. The second plan is this. If during the course of the game you have given your op- ponent opportunities of playing a certain double which you do not yourself hold, you may be certain that it is one of the left dominoes. A little experiment, in order to test the nature of your adversary's hand, so as, how- ever, not materially to injure your own, would often be found more expedient than groping all the while, as it were, in the dark. By carefully looking over your own hand, you may judge pretty correctly as to whether your adversary's is light or heavy. It is only by taking into account all these and other nice points that a player can pos- sibly be successful. Having formed an idea of your opponent's hand, you should make it an object to "run out," or play so that he may be blocked, or that he may be obliged to leave both ends open for you to play out. Having given some instructions to the player who holds the larger number of dom- inoes, we must now proceed to give a few hints to the lesser hand. If, holding the lesser hand, you can con- trive to play a few moves at first without being blocked, you ought to be pretty sure of winning; because, by that time, your hand will have become so disproportionately small that your opponent will have some difficulty in preventing you from playing out without blocking himself. This, therefore, must be one of your main objects. If the game goes pretty equal, bring out your strong suits. Wherever you are short of a particular suit, if you find that many of that number have already been played, you need not fear that your adversary will be able to block you in regard to it, for you will, of course, infer that they are as scarce in his hand as in your own. Endeavor to bring these rules to bear, reserving to your discretion as to whether you should in any wise depart from them, or use such modi- fications as the contingencies of the moment require. THE MATADORE GAME This is a foreign game, and each player takes only three dominoes. You can oly play when your domino, added to the one previously played, would make seven. Those dominoes which themselves make that num- ber are termed "matadores," and may be played at any time, regardless of the num- bers played to. The double blank is also a matadore. The matadores, therefore, are four in number, viz. : 6 i, 5 2, 4 3, o o. The highest domino leads, and if the next player can not go, he must draw from the GAMES OF SKILL 475 heap until he can. He must cease, however, to draw when there are only two dominoes left. He who plays out first wins, and if the game is blocked, he who holds the least number of pips counts those held by his op- ponent, and scores them to his own game. The number of points constituting the game is subject to agreement; it varies from 26 to loo. MAXIMS FOR PLAYING THE MAT- ADORE GAME This game differs widely from any of the other varieties of dominoes. The element of chance is more largely introduced. The player who happens to obtain more mata- dores than the other is almost certain of winning, provided the parties be pretty even- ly balanced in skill and experience. The blanks are very valuable at this game the double blank being the most valuable of all the matadores. It is impossible to make a seven against a blank, so that if you hold blanks you may easily block the game and count. When you have the worst of the game, and indeed at other times as well, guard against your adversary's blanks, and prevent him from making them; which you may do by playing only those dominoes which fit with the blanks already down. Never play a blank at the pose unless you have a matadore or a corresponding blank. Keep back your double blank till your op- ponent makes it blanks all; you can then force him to play a matadore, or compel him to draw till he obtains one. It is better to have .a mixed hand. DOMINO POOL This game is played either by partners or by separate players. If played singly by three or four players, each must draw a domino, and he who draws the highest num- ber ot pips but one sits on the left of him who draws the highest, the next highest to the left of the second, and so on. If the game is played by partners, the two lowest are partners and the two highest. The part- ners must sit opposite to each other. The players must draw afresh at each game, and the stake to be played for, called the "pool," must be placed on the table. Each player takes five dominoes, and he who holds the highest leads. When one player can not go, the next in turn plays, and so on. The maxims given in reference to the English game apply equally to this. The game is scored in the following man- ner : When one player has played out, the one keeping the score counts the number of pips on each player's remaining dominoes, and puts down the number under each of their names or initials respectively. The same is done if a player can not go. When the number of any one player reaches 40, 50, or loo, or any limit previously agreed upon, he is out of the game ; but he comes in again by what is called "starring." In other words, he must pay over again the amount he originally put into the pool. The method of "starring" is the same as at billiards, from which the game is taken. He who "stars" recommences at the number which the player holds who is in the worst posi- tion. Suppose, for example, there were three players one at 20, one at 40, and the other at 6b, 100 being up, the player who "stars" must recommence at 6b. He can only "star" once, and that must be at the time he is out. Each player has the option of "starring," except the last two, who must divide the pool, or they may agree to play it out. Still, unless an agreement to play out is made beforehand, the last two must divide. INSTRUCTIONS FOR PLAYING DOMINO POOL When this game is played by separate players, and one becomes greatly ahead, the other three can combine, so as to render his chance of winning uncertain. The necessity of this combination is clear. If he is al- lowed to win, the competition for that game is over; but if, by combining, the other players can keep him back a little, they ob- tain for themselves a better chance of suc- cess. The player who is ahead will also do his best to throw obstacles in the way of the player in the next best position, as he be- comes a dangerous competitor. The two in the worst position will in like manner combine against the two ahead. The neces- sity for this combination does not arise till the game is somewhat advanced, as at the beginning all the players are on a level ; and the relative position of the others is of no moment till the game becomes advanced. It is of very little use for one player to attempt to stop the progress of another who is too far ahead, unless the others combine with him. If, through ignorance or anything else, they continue to play for their own hands, you must do likewise. Although, if you at- tempted by yourself to stop the player who was ahead of you, you might succeed, that success might be purchased at the risk of your own chance in the game. As in this game you have only five dominoes out of twenty, your power of influencing the game is very much diminished, and there is not 476 GAMES OF SKILL quite so much scope for the exercise of your judgment as in other single games where you hold six dominoes out of twelve. Your opponents are sure to hold some of the re- maining numbers in which you are strong; so that the injury you can in other games inflict by having a preponderance of a par- ticular number will be greatly diminished here. Therefore it is scarcely worth your while endeavoring to retard your opponent's game when you have three of a number, un- less some of that number have already been played; because, if you keep those numbers until you are called upon to play them, you will do infinitely more toward crippling their game than if you were to lead from them. On the other hand, should you hold more than three of a particular number, do not wait for this chance, but lead it on the first opportunity. If you find that you and one of the other players hold nearly all of a par- ticular number, combine with him, in order to exhaust the hands of the other two. In doing this you are of course only studying your own interest. It is better to adopt this plan when you have reason to believe you are already on the safe side. If you hold one or two doubles, with duplicates of either, retain the latter until you first get rid of the doubles ; but if you hold three or four duplicates along with a double, play the duplicates at once, as you will be able by your own hand to force the double at any time. If you are short in any particular number, get rid of your heavy dominoes as quickly as possible. In playing off you may lead with a light domino, if you hold one or more of the number ; but if not, you must lead a higher domino, in order to diminish the number of pips in your hand. If you hold a heavy hand with high doubles, or a hand which admits of little or no variety, or without any particular preponderance, you must play a safe game, and sustain as little loss as you possibly can under the cir- cumstances. Endeavor to balance the infe- riority of your hand by drawing the other players along with you. When there are only three players left, and one is greatly ahead, while another has starred, it should be the object of the third player to prolong the game as much as pos- sible, as he still has a chance to star. When two players are in advance, the two behind must avoid embarrassing each other in their combinations against the other two. It is better for them to use their joint ef- forts against one at a time, as the attack, if 'concentrated in that way, would be stronger and more effectual. Should one of the ad- vanced players get embarrassed, endeavor to embarrass him still more, for you may be sure his competitor will not assist him. It will be perfectly understood, however, that, in playing with partners, the object of each partner will be to play as much as pos- sible into his partner's hands and to cripple his opponents. If it is your lead and you have a good hand, you must try and win with it, regardless of your partner's position. So, on the other hand, if it is your part- ner's down, and you have a bad hand, you must be content to sacrifice your own chance in order to increase his. In the partner's game it is generally good play to lead from a strong suit, for, as this is a generally un- derstood rule, your partner will accept the hint, and will not fail to "return your lead," or, in other words, to play into your hands as much as possible. If you hold some doubles, with others of the same number, you may contrary to the single game play the latter first if it suits your hand, as your partner will be sure to assist in getting out your doubles. We might continue these directions and hints ad infinitwn, but experience, after all, is the best teacher; and recommending the learner to practice assiduously and play carefully we dismiss this portion of our subject. THE WHIST GAME This game resembles in some points the game of cards from which it takes its name. It is played by four persons two partners on each side. The partners, as usual, sit opposite to each other. The whole of the dominoes are taken seven by each player. It is best to lead from your strongest suit. By this and such other indications you will enable your partner to form an opinion as to your hand, by which he will be guided very much in his play, and as the game proceeds each must tax his recollection as to who played such and such a domino, and how the game stood at that particular time, so as to form a judgment as to the motive of such play, etc. The general instructions given in the previous pages will apply in great measure to this game, particularly those given in reference to the Pool Game. THE FOUR GAME In this game, which is played by four per- sons, each player takes seven dominoes ; and he who plays out first, or, if the game be- comes blocked, holds the least number of pips, wins the hand, and draws a certain stake from the other three. Very little in the way of instruction is re- GAMES OF SKILL quired in this game. If you have the pose, you should play out as far as possible, and then endeavor to block the game. Endeavor to keep your hand even, so as to be ready at any number, or (and in this you must be guided by the nature of your hand) play to keep your strongest suit in hand until those of the same suit held by other players are out. By this means you may oftentimes be able to play out or shut the game, as you find most expedient. SEBASTOPOL GAME This game is played by four players, each taking seven dominoes. The player holding the double six plays it, and takes the lead. Each player must play a six to it. He who can not loses the turn. The dominoes are played in the form of a cross the first round, after which the players alternately play at either of the four ends. He who has the last domino, or, in the event of more than one player being left with dominoes when the game is shut, he who holds the greatest number of pips, pays a certain amount to the winners. Endeavor to get rid of your heavy domi- noes, and put obstacles in the way of your adversaries running out. TIDDLE-A-WINK GAME This is a very amusing game, and suit- able for a round party. If six or more play, each takes three dom- inoes. The 6 6 is then called for, as in the French game, and the person holding it leads with it. If it is not out, the next highest double is called forth, and so on downward until a start is made. In this game, he who plays a double, either at the lead or at any other part of the game, is entitled to play again if he can thus obtaining two turns instead of one. The game then proceeds in the ordinary way, and he who plays out first cries "Tiddle-a- wink !" having won. In the event of the game being blocked, he who holds the low- est number of pips wins. PARLOR MAGIC THE ability to perform successfully even the simplest tricks included under the general head of magic is an art that must be carefully learned and practiced. It includes not only the knowledge of how a thing is done, but also the knowledge of how to do it yourself. As we progress in this world, we learn that these two things, which very many people suppose to be identical, are as far apart as good and evil, or as East and West. In no branch of art and science do we need the lesson more than in what is known as "magic," or sleight-of-hand. In the following treatise only such tricks will be noticed as are of a nature suitable for production, without complicated apparatus, and, as far as possible, require very little practice. The expression, "little practice," however, is strictly relative: there is no "royal road" to mystic knowledge. A celebrated magician, being asked for three rules to apply to magic, re- plied: "First, practice; second, practice; third, practice." Another rule of importance is never to tell your audience beforehand what you are about to do.- Forewarned is forearmed. Even expert magicians are de- ceived by a new trick; not knowing what is to be done, they can not tell where to watch, being, therefore, as much mystified at its completion as the merest layman would be. Every trick should be clothed, as it were, with appropriate talk, called by magicians "patter." This should not be too lengthy; only long enough to explain the point of the trick, and to hold the interest of the audience. The performer should carefully cultivate a smooth and finished manner, which is a large part of the science of misdirection, which is the real foun- dation of all sleight-of-hand. By misdirection, it will be understood, is intended the art of causing the audience to look at the wrong place, when the critical point of a trick is reached. To this end, the performer should practice using the hands without looking at them; since the attention of an audience will always follow the performer's eyes. If he himself watches his hands, while mak- ing any movement he does not wish the spectators to see, they will infal- libly look at his hands also. So far as is possible, arrange your programme so that one trick will logically follow another. Furthermore, rehearse each trick carefully before performing it at all. (478) PARLOR MAGIC 479 SIMPLE TRICKS WITH CARDS A FEW preliminary hints are necessary in order to enable an amateur to perform the tricks he attempts with effect and success. A conjurer should always be able to "palm" well. That is done by holding a coin in the fingers, and by a quick move- ment passing it into the middle or palm of the hand, and, by contracting the muscles on each side of the hand, to retain it there, making the hand appear open and as though nothing were in it. After a little practice this will become comparatively easy, but it will require the exercise of great per- severance in order to become perfect. The pains, however, will be well bestowed, as this is one of the principal means by which prestidigitators deceive their audiences. MAKING THE PASS In many of the tricks with cards it is necessary to "make the pass," as it is termed, which is a very neat and simple movement. The operator shows a card, which he wishes his audience to believe he can change by simply using the mysteri- ous words "Presto, begone !" While, how- ever, he is saying these words, he gives a Right hand. Bottom. Little finger. sharp blow on the pack he holds in his hand, and at the same time slips the card under the pack and takes off the top one, or vice versa. Practice, in this as in other matters, will impart great dexterity to the operator; and, as the hand can be trained to move more quickly than the eye can see, he will be able to go through the move- ment without it being perceived by his audience. The following mode of "making the pass" should be well studied: Hold the pack of cards in your left hand so that the palm of your hand may be under the cards ; place the thumb of that hand on one side of the pack, and the first, second, and third fingers on the other side, and your little finger be- tween those cards that are to be brought to the top and the rest of the pack. Then place your right hand over the card in such a manner that the thumb may be at 5, the forefinger at 6, and the other fingers at 7, as in the above figure : The hands and the two portions of the pack being thus disposed, you draw off the lower cards confined by the little finger and the other parts of the right Hand, and place them with an imperceptibly quick motion on top of the pack. But before you attempt any of the tricks that depend upon "making the pass" you must have great practice, and be able to perform it so dexterously and expeditiously that the eye can not detect the movement of the hand, or you may, instead of de- ceiving others, expose yourself. FORCING A CARD In card tricks it is frequently necessary to "force a card," by which you compel a person to take such a card as you think fit, while he imagines he is taking one at haphazard. The following is, perhaps, the best method of performing this trick: Ascertain quietly, or while you are amus- ing yourself with the cards, what the card is which you are to force; but either keep it in sight, or place the little finger of your left hand, in which you have the cards, upon it. Next, desire a person to select a card from the pack, for which purpose you must open them quickly from left to right, spreading the cards backward and forward so as to perplex him in making his choice, and when you see him about to take one, open the pack until you come to the one you intend him to take, and just at the moment his fingers are touching the pack let its corner project invitingly a little for- ward in front of the others. This will seem so fair that in nine cases out of ten he will take the one so offered, unless he is himself aware of the secret of forcing. Having by this method forced your card, you request him to examine it, and then give him the pack to shuffle, which he may do as often as he likes, for you are of course always aware what card he has taken. A perfect acquaintance with the 480 PARLOR MAGIC art of forcing is indispensably necessary before you attempt any of the more diffi- cult card tricks. TO TELL A CARD BY SMELLING IT A very clever trick, and one which never fails to excite astonishment at an evening party, is to select all the court cards when blindfolded ; but before commencing it, you must take one of the party into your con- fidence, and get him to assist you. When all is arranged, you may talk of the strong sense of smell and touch which blind peo- ple are said to possess, and state that you could, when blindfolded, distinguish the court cards from the rest, and profess your willingness to attempt it. The process is this : After you have satisfied the company that your eyes are tightly bound, take the pack in your hands, and holding up one of the cards in view of the whole company, feel the face of it with your fingers. If it is a court card, your confederate, who should be seated near to you, must tread on your toe. You then proclaim that it is a court card, and proceed to the next. Should you then turn up a common card your confederate takes no notice of it, and you inform the company accordingly; and so on until you have convinced the com- pany that you really possess the extraor- dinary power to which you laid claim. TO CHANGE A CARD BY WORD OF COMMAND It at first sight seems singular that any one should be able even to appear to change a card by word of command; yet it can easily be done, and under different titles, and with slight variations, the trick is con- stantly performed in public. To do it, you must have two cards alike in the pack say, for example, a duplicate of the king of spades. Place one next to the bottom card, which we will suppose to be the seven of hearts, and the other at the top; shuffle the cards without displacing these three, and then show one of the company that the bottom card is the seven of hearts. This card you dexterously slip aside with your finger, so that it may not be perceived, and taking the king of spades from the bottom, which the person supposes to be the seven of hearts, lay it on the table, telling him to cover it with his hand. Shuffle the cards again without displacing the first and last cards, and shifting the other king of spades from the top to the bottom, show it to an- other person. You then contrive to remove the king of spades in the same manner as before, and taking the bottom card, which will then be the seven of hearts, but which the company will still suppose to be the king of spades, you lay that also on the table, and tell the second person to cover it with his hand. You then command the cards to change places, and when the two parties take off their hands, they will see, to their great astonishment, that your com- mands are obeyed. "TWIN CARD" TRICK Another trick performed by means of "twin," or duplicate, cards, as in the pre- vious case, is to show the same card appar- ently on the top and at the bottom of the pack. One of these duplicate cards may be easily obtained; in fact, the pattern card, which accompanies every pack, may be made available for that purpose. Let us suppose, then, for a moment, that you have a dupli- cate of the queen of clubs. You place both of them at the bottom of the pack, and make believe to shuffle them, taking care, however, that these two keep their places. Then lay the pack upon the table, draw out the bottom card, show it, and place it on the top. You then command the top card to pass to the bottom, and, on the pack being turned up, the company will see with surprise that the card which they had just seen placed upon the top is now at the bottom. THE VANISHING CARD Another good trick is thus performed: Divide the pack, placing one-half in the palm of the left hand, face downward; and, taking the remainder of the pack in the right hand, hold them between the thumb and first three fingers, taking care to plact the cards upright, so that the edges of those in your right hand may rest upon the back of those in the left, thus forming a right angle with them. In this way the four fingers of the left hand touch the last of the upright cards in your right hand. It is necessary that the cards should be placed in this position, and that once being at- tained, the rest of the trick is easy. These preliminaries having been gone through, one of the company, at your request, examines the top card of the half-pack that rests in the palm of your left hand, and then re- places it Having done this, you request him to look at it again, and, to his astonish- ment, it will have vanished, and another card will appear in its place. In order to accomplish this, having assumed the posi- tion already described, you must damp the PARLOR MAGIC 481 tips of the four fingers that rest against the last card of the upright set in your right hand. When the person who has chosen a card replaces it, you must raise the up- right cards in your right hand very quickly, and the card will then adhere to the damped fingers of you* left hand. As you raise the upright cards, you must close your left hand skilfully, and you will thereby place the last of the upright cards which, as we have explained, adheres to the fingers of your left hand upon the top of the cards in the palm of your left hand, and when you request the person who first examined it to look at it again, he Will observe that it has been changed. Rapidity and manual dexterity are required for the performance of this capital sleight-of-hand trick. TO SEND A CARD THROUGH THE TABLE Request one of the company to draw a card from the pack, examine it, and then return it. Then make the pass or, if you can not make the pass, make use of the long card and bring the card chosen to the top of the pack, and shuffle by means of any of the false shuffles before described, without losing sight of the card. After shuffling the pack several times, bring the card to the top again. Then place the pack on the table, about two inches from the edge near which you are sitting, and hav- ing previously slightly dampened the back of your right hand, you strike the pack a sharp blow, and the card will adhere to it. You then put your right hand very rapidly underneath the table, and taking off with your left hand the card which has stuck to your right hand, you show it to your au- dience, who will at once recognize in it the card that was drawn at the commence- ment of the trick. You must be careful while performing this trick not to allow any of the spectators to get behind or at the side of the table, but keep them directly in front, otherwise the illusion would be discovered. TO KNOCK ALL THE CARDS FROM A PERSON'S HAND EXCEPT THE CHOSEN ONE With a little care a novice may easily learn this trick. It is not new, and is called by some the "Nerve Trick." Force a card, and request the person who has taken it to return it to the pack and shuffle the cards. Then look at the card yourself, and place the card chosen at the bottom of the pack. Cut them in two, and give him the half containing his card at the bottom, and re- quest him to hold it just at the corner be-< tween his finger and his thumb. After tell- ing him to hold them tight, strike them sharply, and they will all fall to the ground except the bottom one, which is the card he has chosen. An improvement in this trick is to put the chosen card at the bottom of the pack and turn the face upward, so that when you strike, the card remaining will stare the spectators in the face. TO TELL THE NAME OF A CARD THOUGHT OF One of the company must, at your re- quest, draw seven or eight cards promiscu- ously from the pack, and select one from among them as the card he desires to think of. He then returns them to the pack, and you, either by shuffling or in any other way which will not be noticed, contrive to pass the whole of them to the bottom of the pack. You then take five or six cards off the top of the pack, and throw them on the table face upward, asking if the card thought of is among them. While the person is ex- amining them you secretly take one card from the bottom of the pack and place it on the top; and when he tells you that the card he thought of is not in the first parcel, throw him five or six more, including the card you have just taken from the bottom the denomination and suit of which it is presumed you have taken the opportunity to ascertain so that should he say that his card is in the second parcel, you will at once know which card is indicated, and in order to "bring it to light," you may make use either of the two foregoing tricks, or any other you think proper. TO TELL THE NAMES OF ALL THE CARDS BY THEIR WEIGHTS The pack having been cut and shuffled to the entire satisfaction of the audience, the operator commences by stating that he un- dertakes, by poising each card for a moment on his fingers, to tell not only the color, but the suit and number of spots, and, if a court card, whether it be king, queen, or knave. For the accomplishment of this most amusing trick we recommend the fol- lowing directions : You must have two packs of cards exactly alike. One of them we will suppose to have been in use during the evening for the performance of your tricks ; but in addition to this you must have a second pack in your pocket, which you must take care to arrange in the order here- 482 PARLOR MAGIC inafter described. Previous to commencing the trick you must take the opportunity of exchanging these two packs, and bringing into use the prepared pack. This must be done in such a manner that your audience will believe that the pack you introduce is the same as the one you have been using all the evening, which they know has been well shuffled. The order in which the pack must be arranged will be best ascertained by committing the following lines the words in italics forming the key: Eight kings threa-ten'd to save, Eight, king, three, ten, two, seven, Nine fair ladies for one sick knave, Nine, five, queen, four, ace, six, knave. These lines thoroughly committed to memory will be of material assistance. The alliterative resemblance will in every instance be a sufficient guide to the card indicated. The order in which the suits should otherwise be committed to memory viz., hearts, spades, diamonds, clubs. Hav- ing sorted your cards in accordance with the above directions, your pack is "pre- pared" and ready for use; and when you have successfully completed the exchange, you bring forward your prepared pack, and hand it round to be cut. The pack may be cut as often as the audience pleases, but always whist fashion i.e., the lower half of the pack must be placed upon the upper at each cut. You now only want to know the top card, and you will then have a clew to the rest. You therefore take off the top card, and holding it between your- self and the light, you see what it is, saying at the same time, by way of apology, that this is the old way of performing the trick, but that it is now superseded. Having once ascertained what the first is, which, for ex- ample, we will suppose to be the king of diamonds, you then take the next card on your finger, and poise it for a moment, as if you were going through a process of mental calculation. This pause will give you time to repeat to yourself the two lines given by which means you will know what card comes next. Thus : "Eight kings threa- ten'd to," etc. ; it will be seen that the three comes next. THE QUEEN'S DIG FOR DIAMONDS Taking the pack in your hands, you sep- arate from it the four kings, queens, knaves, and aces, and also four common cards of each suit. Then laying the four queens, face upward, in a row on the table, you com- mence telling your story somewhat after this fashion: "These four queens set out to seek for diamonds. [Here you place any four cards of the diamond suit half over the queens.] As they intend to dig for diamonds, they each take a spade. [Here lay four common spades half over the diamonds.] The kings, their husbands, aware of the risk they run, send a guard of honor to protect them. [Place the four aces half over the spades.] But fearing the guard of honor might neg- lect their duty, the kings resolve to set out themselves. [Here lay the four kings half over the four aces.} Now, there were four robbers, who, being apprised of the queens' intentions, determined to waylay and rob them as they returned with the diamonds in their possession. [Lay the four knaves half over the four kings.] Each of these four robbers armed himself with a club [lay out four clubs half over the knaves] ; and as they do not know how the queens may be protected, it is necessary that each should carry a stout heart." [Lay out four hearts half over the knaves.] You have now exhausted the whole of the cards with which you commenced the game, and have placed them in four col- umns. You take the cards in the first of these columns, and pack them together, be- ginning at your left hand, and keeping them in the order in which you laid them out. Having done this, you place them on the table, face downward. You pack up the second column in like manner, lay them on the first, and so on with the other two. The pack is then handed to the company, who cut them as often as they choose, pro- vided always that they cut whist fashion. That done, you may give them what is termed a shuffle-cut; that is, you appear to shuffle them, but in reality only give them a quick succession of cuts, taking care that when you are done a card of the heart suit remains at the bottom. You then begin to lay them out again as you did in the first instance, and it will be found that all the cards will come in their proper order. MYSTERIOUS DISAPPEARANCE OF THE KNAVE OF SPADES Fixing your eye upon the stoutest-looking man in the room, you ask him if he can hold a card tightly. Of course he will an- swer in the affirmative; but if he should not, you will have no difficulty in finding one who does. You then desire him to stand in the middle of the room, and hold- ing up the pack of cards, you show him the bottom one, and request him to state what PARLOR MAGIC 483 card it is. He will tell you that it is the knave of spades. You then tell him to hold the card tightly and look up at the ceiling. While he is looking up you ask him if he recollects his card; and if he answer, as he will be sure to do, the knave of spades, you will reply that he must have made a mis- take, for if he look at the card he will find it to be the knave of hearts, which will be the case. Then handing him the pack, you tell him that if he will look over it, he will find his knave of spades somewhere in the middle of the pack. This trick is extremely simple and easy of accomplishment. You procure an extra knave of spades, and cut it in half, keeping the upper part, and throwing away the lower. Before showing the bottom of the pack to the company, get the knave of hearts to the bottom, and lay over it, unperceived by the company, your half knave of spades; and under pretence of holding the pack very tight, you put your thumb across the mid- dle, so that the joining may not be seen, the legs of the two knaves being so similar that detection is impossible. You then give him the lower part of the knave of hearts to hold, and when he has drawn the card away hold your hands so that the faces of the cards will be turned toward the floor. As early as possible you take an oppor- tunity of removing the half knave. SLEIGHT-OF-HAND WITH SIMPLE APPARATUS A CHEAP WAY OF BEING GEN- EROUS YOU take a little common white or bees' wax, and stick it on your thumb. Then, speaking to a bystander, you show him a dime, and tell him you will put the same into his hand; press it down upon tHe palm of his hand with your waxed thumb, talking to him the while, and looking him in the face. Suddenly take away your thumb, and the coin will adhere to it; then close his hand, and he will be under the impression that he holds the dime, as the sensation caused by the pressing still remains. You may tefl him he is at liberty to keep the dime; but on opening his hand to look at it he will find, to his astonish- ment, that it is gone. THE FAMOUS MOUNTEBANK TRICK In the days when merry-andrews and mountebanks met with a hearty welcome on every village green, no conjuring trick was more popular than this; yet there are few that can be performed with less difficulty. You first of all procure a long strip of paper, or several smaller strips pasted together, two or three inches wide. Color the edges red and blue, and roll up the paper like a roll of ribbon. Before doing so, however, securely paste a small piece of cotton at the end you begin to roll. Then, when the proper time has arrived, you take hold of this cotton, and begin to pull out a long roll which very much re- sembles "a barber's pole." In order to per- form this trick with good effect, have be- fore you some paper shavings, which may easily be procured at any bookbinder's, and commence to appear to eat them. The chewed paper can be removed each time a fresh handful is put into the mouth; and when the proper time and opportunity have arrived, put the roll into the mouth, and pull the bit of cotton, when a long roll comes out, as before described, to the as- tonishment of the audience. A more elegant but similar feat is the following, which we will style BRINGING COLORED RIBBONS FROM THE MOUTH Heap a quantity of finely carded cotton wool upon a plate, which place before you. At the bottom of this lint, and concealed from the company, you should have several narrow strips of colored ribbons, wound tightly into one roll, so as to occupy but little space. Now begin to appear to eat the lint by putting a handful in your mouth. The first handful can easily be removed and returned to the plate unobserved while the second is being "crammed in." In doing this, care should be taken not to use all the lint, but to leave sufficient to conceal the roll. At the last handful, take up the roll and push it into your mouth without any lint; then appear to have had enough, and look in a very distressed state, as if you were full to suffocation; then put your hands up to your mouth, get hold of the end of the riBbon, and draw, hand over hand, yards of ribbon as if from your stom- ach. The slower this is done, the better the effert. When one ribbon is off the roll your tongue will assist you in pushing an- 484 PARLOR MAGIC other end ready for the hand. You will find you need not wet or damage the ribbons in the least. This is a trick which is fre- quently performed by one of the cleverest conjurers of the day. CATCHING MONEY FROM THE AIR The following trick, which tells wonder- fully well when skilfully performed, is a great favorite with one of our best-known conjurers. So far as we are aware, it has not before been published. Have in readi- ness any number of silver coins, say thirty- four; place all of them in the left hand, with the exception of four, which you must palm into the right hand. Then, obtaining a hat from the audience, you quietly put the left hand with the silver inside; and while playfully asking if it is a new hat, or with some such remark for the purpose of diverting attention, loose the silver, and at the same time take hold of the brim with the left hand, and hold it still so as not to shake the silver. Now address the au- dience, and inform them that you are going to "catch money from the air." Ask some person to name any number of coins up to ten, say eight. In the same way you go on asking various persons, and adding the numbers aloud till the total number named is nearly thirty; then looking round as though some one had spoken another number, and knowing that you have only thirty-four coins, you must appear to have heard the number called which, with what has already been given, will make thirty- four; say the last number you added made twenty-eight, then, as though you had heard some one say six, "and twenty-eight and six make thirty-four Thank you, I think we have sufficient." Then, with the four coins palmed in your right hand, make a catch at the air, when they will chink. Look at them, and pretend to throw them into the hat, but instead of doing so palm them again; but, in order to satisfy your audience that you really threw them into the hat, you must, when in the act of palm- ing, hit the brim of the hat with the wrist of the right hand, which will make the coins in the hat chink as if they had just fallen from the right hand. Having repeated this process several times, say, "I suppose we have sufficient," empty them out on to a plate, and let one of the audience count them. It will be found that there are only thirty, but the number which you were to catch was thirty-four. You will therefore say, "Well, we are four short ; I must catch just four, neither more nor less." Then, still having four coins palmed in your right hand, you catch again, and open your hands, saying to the audience, "Here they are." THE DISAPPEARING QUARTER This is a very mystifying trick, yet one of the simplest to perform. Secure an old- fashioned whiskey glass, a thick one with the outside of the lower half or third heav- ily chased The inside of the bottom of the glass should be about the size of a twenty-five cent piece. Go to an optician and get him to cut you a piece of glass of a circumference that will just fit in the bot- tom of the whiskey glass. Appear before the spectators with a handkerchief thrown over your left sleeve, the whiskey glass in your left hand, and the glass disk con- cealed in the palm of your right hand. From a pitcher or decanter pour a little water into the glass and set it on the table. Ask one of the company to step forward. Tell him that you wish him to supply you with a quarter, first marking it so that he can identify it Then take the quarter in your right thumb and finger, holding it up that all may see. Ask the man who sup- plied the quarter to take the whiskey glass in his left hand. Holding the quarter in sight of the audi- ence, take the handkerchief with your left hand and place the middle of it over your right thumb and finger. To all appearances you take the quarter up in the middle of the handkerchief, but as a matter of fact you take the glass disk instead, allowing the marked quarter to fall into your palm. Now you hand the handkerchief to the man who has loaned you the quarter, asking him to take it with his right hand and hold it over the whiskey glass. You ask him to hold the quarter by the rim, and he is sure, of course, that he thus holds the coin. Back away ten or fifteen feet, telling him that when you give the word he is to let go of the coin. When sufficiently far from your dupe, exclaim : "One, two, three. Drop it!" He lets go of the "coin," which falls into the glass with a noise that every one in the room hears. Ask him to remove the handkerchief, and he will be amazed to discover that there is no quarter in the glass, though he knows very well that he dropped it there. Next direct him to ex- amine the handkerchief. This performance, of course, throws no light on the mystery of the coin's disappearance. Even if he were to pour the water out of the whiskey glass, the force of suction would keep the glass disk in place at the bottom of the glass. PARLOR MAGIC 485 Suddenly, without having gone near your dupe, hold up the quarter, let every one see it, and then ask your dupe whether he can identify it. Do not repeat this trick, but proceed im- mediately to something else. It will be understood, now, why the whiskey glass must be a thick one, in order to conceal the fact, after the trick has been performed, that the glass has really a double bottom. THE FLYING QUARTER This is a purely sleight-of-hand trick, but it does not require much practice to be able to do it well and cleverly. Take a quarter between the forefinger and thumb of the right hand; then, by a rapid twist of the fingers, twirl the coin by the same motion that you would use to spin a tee- totum. At the same time rapidly close your hand, and the coin will disappear up your coat sleeve. You may now open your hand, and, much to the astonishment of your audience, the coin will not be there. This capital trick may be varied in a hun- dred ways. One plan is to take three quar- ters, and concealing one in the palm of your left hand, place one of the others be- tween the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, and the third between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. Then give the coin in the right hand the twist already described, and closing both hands quickly it will disappear up your sleeve, and the left hand on being unclosed will be found to contain two quarters. Thus you will make the surprised spectators believe that you conjured the coin from your right hand to the left. The following very clever trick was a favorite with M. Houdin, and was per- formed by him at St. James's Theatre, where it drew forth a good deal of ad- miration. When known, however, it ap- pears like a great many other tricks, ex- tremely simple and easy. Procure two or three large plumes or feathers, or a lot tied together. Take off your coat, and hold one lot in each hand, so that the plumes will lie in a parallel line with the arms. Put your coat on again, and press the feathers into small compass. Ask some one to lend you a large silk handkerchief, throw it over one hand and part of the arm, and with the other quickly draw the feathers from that arm. The plumes, being released from their imprisonment, will spread out and resume their bulky appearance, and the on- lookers will be completely baffled as to where they could have come from. Then repeat the process with the other arm. THE BORROWED QUARTER IN. THE WORSTED BALL This easily performed trick should be in the repertoire of every amateur magician. A large ball of worsted is obtained, and a marked quarter having been borrowed from the audience, the worsted is unwound, and out falls the quarter, which but a moment before was supposed to be in the hands of the operator. It is done in this way: Pro- cure a few skeins of thick worsted; next, a piece of tin in the shape of a flat tube> large enough for the coin to pass through, and about four inches long. Then wind the worsted on one end of the tube to a good- sized ball, having a quarter of your own in your right hand. You may now show the trick. Place the worsted anywhere out of sight, borrow a marked quarter, and taking it in your left hand, you put the one in your right hand on the end of the table furthest from the company. While so doing, drop the marked quarter into the tube, pull the tube out, and wind a little more worsted on in order to conceal the hole. Then put the ball into a tumbler, and taking the quarter you left on the table, show it to the company (who will imagine it to be the borrowed quarter), and say "Presto! fly! pass!" Give the end of the ball to one of the audience and request him to unwind it, and on that being done the money will fall out. THE INK AND FISH TRICK This trick, originally introduced by M* Houdin, has been performed by every wiz- ard since. A large goblet is placed on the table, containing apparently several pints of ink. A small quantity of ink is taken out with a ladle, and being poured out into a plate, is handed round to the company to satisfy them that it is really ink. A handkerchief is then covered over the gob- let, and upon being instantly withdrawn, reveals the glass now full of water, ill which swim gold and silver fish. The trick 1 is thus performed : A black silk lining is placed inside the goblet, and kept in its place by a wire ring. It thus forms a bag without a bottom, as it were, and when wet adheres close to the glass in which are the water and the fish. The next part of the deception is the ladle, which must be capable of containing as much ink as will PARLOR MAGIC induce the audience to believe that it was got from the goblet before them. The ink must be concealed in the handle of the ladle, so that when it is lying on the table it will not be perceived; but on being ele- vated, it must run into the ladle through a small aperture made for the purpose. The black silk is easily withdrawn by the thumb and finger at the time the handkerchief is removed. It must be concealed within the folds of the handkerchief. SILVER CHANGED TO GOLD FLY- ING MONEY Before commencing this trick you must provide yourself with two quarters and a half eagle, and one of the quarters must be concealed in the right hand. Lay the other quarter and the half eagle on the table, in full view of the audience. Now ask for two handkerchiefs, then take the half eagle up and pretend to roll it in one of the handkerchiefs; but instead of that roll up the quarter, which you had concealed in the right hand, and retain the half eagle. Then give the handkerchief to one of the company to hold. Now take the quarter off the table, and pretend to roll that up in the second handkerchief, but put up the half eagle instead. Give this handkerchief to a second person and bid him "hold it tight," while you command the half eagle and the quarter to change places. On the handkerchiefs being opened, the coins will appear to have obeyed your command. THE "TWENTY CENTS" TRICK This trick may be performed with any number of either quarters, half eagles, or half dollars ; but, following the traditional rule, we will suppose that you borrow at random twenty cents from the company and display them on a plate, having previously concealed five other cents in your left hand. You take the cents from the plate into the right hand, mix them with the concealed five, and then give them to one of the com- pany to hold. You then ask the possessor to return five to you, which he will do, under the supposition that he only retains fifteen, while in reality he retains twenty. You must now have another cent palmed in your right hand, so that when you give the five cents to another person to hold, you add one to the number, and in reality put six into his hands. You then ask him, as in the previous case to return one to you, re- minding him, as you receive it, that he has only four left. Then pretending to put the cent you have just received into your left hand, you strike the left hand with your magic wand, and bid the coin you are sup- posed to be holding to fly into the closed hand of the person holding five, or, as he supposes, four cents. On unclosing his hand he will find it to contain five cents, and he will believe that you transferred one of them thither. Now, taking the five cents, you must dexterously pass them into the left hand, and bid them fly into the closed hand of the person holding the supposed fifteen; and he, in like manner, will be as- tonished to find, on unclosing his hand, that it contains twenty cents instead of, as he supposed, fifteen. THE MYSTERIOUS BAG Mr. Philippe, when appearing before his wonder-struck audiences, used to excite the most profound amazement by means of a mysterious bag, from which he produced nearly every conceivable thing, from a mouse-trap to a four-post bedstead; and its capacity was so prodigious, that it swal- lowed even more than it produced. Sim- ilar but less pretentious is the one which we give under the title of "The Mysterious Bag." Make two bags, each about a foot long and six inches wide, of some dark ma- terial, and sew them together at the edge, so that one may be inside the other. Next make a number of pockets, each with a cover to it, which may be fastened down by a slight elastic band. Place these about two inches apart, between the two bags, sewing one side of the pocket to one bag and the other side to the other. Make slits through both bags about an inch long, just above the pockets, so that you can put your hand in the bags ; and by inserting your thumb and finger through these slits you may obtain entrance to the pockets, and bring out of them whatever they contain. It is, of course, necessary that a variety of articles should be put in the pockets. Be- fore commencing the trick you may turn the bag inside out any number of times, so that your audience may conclude that it is quite empty. You can then cause to appear or disappear any number of articles of a light nature, much to the amusement of your audience. TO MAKE A DIME DISAPPEAR AT COMMAND This simple and well-known but often amusing trick enables the operator to cause a small coin to disappear after it has been wrapped up in a handkerchief. Borrow a dime or a small coin, or use one of your PARLOR MAGIC 487 own, and secretly place a small piece of soft wax on one side of it; then spread a pocket-handkerchief on a table, and taking up a coin, show it to your audience, being very careful not to expose the side that has the wax on it. Having done this, place the coin in the centre of the handkerchief, so that the wax side will adhere. Then bring the corner of the handkerchief over, and completely hide the coin from the view of the spectators. All this must be carefully done, or the company will perceive the wax on the back of the coin. You must now press very hard on the coin with your thumb, in order to make it adhere. When you have done this, fold over successively the other corners, repeating the operation a second time, and leaving the fourth corner open. Then take hold of the handkerchief with both hands at the open part, and slid- ing your finger along the edge of the same, it will become unfolded, and the coin ad- hering to the corner of the handkerchief will, of course, come into your right hand; then detach the coin, shake out the hand- kerchief, and to the great astonishment of the company the coin will have disappeared. In order to convince your audience that the coin is still in the handkerchief after you have wrapped it up, you can drop it on the table, when it will sound. THE TWO KINGS This trick produces both merriment and mystification, it is to be performed while a friendly party is seated around a table. If you are fortunate enough to be a mar- ried man your wife may serve as your con- federate; otherwise any one of your friends whom you have trained sufficiently well will answer. Run through the pack of cards, selecting the king of spades and the king of clubs, explaining that you do this because they are both black, and that this fact will save confusion. Now, after shuffling the remaining cards of the pack, divide them into two approximately even packs, placing each face down on the table. Throw also the two black kings face down. Now, ris- ing, say: "I am going to take one of these packs in my left hand [suiting the action to the word], and in my right hand I will take one of the kings, which, as you will see, is the king of spades. Pardon me for turning my back, I wish to shuffle the king of spades [if that happens to be the one of the two] most thoroughly into this pack." Turn your back and shuffle, taking plenty of time about it. While your back is turned your confederate, with a sly wink at your audience, takes the top card off the remain- ing pack and places it on the table, in the same place where you have left the inverted king of clubs lying, placing the king of clubs on top of the inverted pack. When you have finished shuffling and turn back you will probably see a good deal of poorly suppressed merriment on the faces of your audience. Pretend not to see this, but, lay- ing down the pack that you have just shuf- fled, pick up the other pack in the left hand, and in the right the card that has been substituted by your confederate for the king of clubs. Seating yourself at the table, pick up that substituted card, saying to the spec- tators : "I have in my right hand, as you will see, the king of clubs." Of course they will see that you have nothing of the sort, and probably some one will break out into uncontrollable merriment at thought of the "sell" that is being played upon you. If this should happen, merely say: "Oh, don't worry. I have performed this feat hundreds of times, and have never yet failed in it." This is likely to produce a general roar of laughter, your confederate being the only one who seems able to keep a straight, de- mure face. If you are laughed at by all hands, pretend to be annoyed at their want of confidence in your skill, and say, hur- riedly, again holding up the substituted card : "This king of clubs [more laughter from your audience] I am going to place in the middle of the second pack." Do so, and, retaining that second pack in your hand, face down, seat yourself behind the table, pick up the first pack, containing the king of spades, and place that face down, on top of the other pack, keeping the two packs separate by the sly insertion of your little finger between them. The end of the com- bined pack that shows through your hand to the audience will appear to be closed, and no one will detect the fact that at the other end the two packs are separated by your little finger. Now begin dealing off the top of the first pack, saying: "The first black king that I bring up will be, of course, the king of spades. Wonderful as it may seem, the very next card to it will be the king of clubs." [More giggles from some of the spectators, who realize how nicely you are being fooled.] Turning the cards off, quite slowly, and one at a time, laying them face upward, you finally turn up the king of spades. "Ah, here is the king of spades," you exclaim, "and the next card, of course, will be the king of clubs." At the same time you carelessly flip up the cor- ner of the next card, allowing those opposite to you to see that the next card is not the 188 PARLOR MAGIC king of clubs. There will be renewed mer- riment, at which you look intensely aston- ished, and somewhat indignant, also remark- ing, protestingly : "But I know that the next card is the king of clubs. I tell you I have never failed in this trick yet." Some one in the party will want to make a wager that the next card turned up will not be the king of clubs. Calmly accept the wager, and as many more as are offered. While talking, let your two hands fall carelessly below the edge of the table for an instant, still look- ing into the eyes of your tormentors. In- stantly "slip" the packs separated by your little finger, and change their positions, so that the lower pack, with the king of clubs uppermost, will now be on top. Raise your left hand above the table again, taking pains to do it in such a manner as not to arouse suspicion. As soon as the fun and wagers are over with, lay the pack on the table, face down as before, and say: "Will some one else kindly take off the next card and show the company what it is?" Some one will turn the card amid roars of laughter, which will suddenly change to looks of amazement, when it is discovered that the next card really is the king of clubs. It will speedily dawn upon all that your confederate has duped them, and the confederate will probably have to beat a hasty, laughing retreat. Of course, you can not honorably collect the wagers. THE TRAVERSING RING Provide yourself with a silk handkerchief and a small ring. With a needleful of silk, doubled, sew the ring to the middle of the handkerchief, but let it be suspended by the silk within an inch or two of the bottom of the handkerchief. When the handker- chief is held up by the two corners, the ring must always hang on the side facing the conjurer. The handkerchief may now be crumpled up to "show all fair." Obtain a ring from one of the company, and retain it in the hand with which you receive it, but pretend to pass it to the other. Then pretend to wrap it up in the handkerchief, and taking hold of the other ring through the folds, request some one to hold it. Ask them if they can feel it, and as soon as they are satisfied that this is the identical ring which you borrowed, you put a plate on the table, and request the person holding the handkerchief to place both it and the ring on the plate. You then inform the com- pany that you will cause the. ring to pass through the plate and table into a little box, which you show round, and which you will place under the table. You can easily slip the ring in as you are doing so. Then partly unwrap the handkerchief, so that the ring will chink upon the plate, and with the words, "Quick! change 1 begone!" or some expression of similar import, take the handkerchief by two corners, and put it in your pocket, saying, "It is now in the box." You then request some one to pick it up and take out the ring. THE COOKING HAT Have cakes or pudding previously made, and procure a jar or doctor's gallipot, and a tin pot, made straight all the way up, with the bottom half way down, so that both ends contain exactly the same quan- tity. The ready-made pancakes are pre- viously put into the one end of this pot, which must be dexterously slipped into the hat. Then take some milk, flour, eggs, etc., and mix them up in the jar. Having done so, deliberately pour the mixture into the hat, taking care that the pot previously de- posited there receives it. Put the jar down into the hat, press it on the tin pot, which exactly fits inside the jar, and brings away the pot containing the mixture, leaving the pancakes, which you pretend to fry over the candle, using the hat as a frying-pan. Then turn out the pudding or pancakes, show that the hat remains unsoiled, and restore it to its owner. AN AVIARY IN A HAT This excellent but well-known trick re- quires the assistance of a confederate. A hat is borrowed as before from one of the audience, and turned round and round to show there is nothing in it. It is then laid on the operator's table, behind a vase or some other bulky article; after which, as if a new idea had occurred to you, perform some other trick, during which the confed- erate removes the borrowed hat, substitut- ing one previously prepared. This substi- tuted hat is filled with small pigeons, placed in a bag with a whalebone or an elastic mouth, which fits the inside of the hat. The bag containing the birds is covered with a piece of cloth, with a slit in the top. The operator, taking up the hat, puts his hands through the slit, and takes out the birds one by one, till all are free. The hat is then placed on the table, for the ostensible purpose of cleaning it before handing it back, and the confederate again changes the hats, having in the interim fitted the bor- rowed hat with a bag similar to the other, and also filled with pigeons. This having PARLOR MAGIC 489 been done, you call out to your confederate, and request him, so that all your audience may hear, to "Take the gentleman's hat away, and clean it." He takes it up, and peeps into it, saying, "You have not let all the birds away," upon which, to the sur- prise and amusement of the spectators, you produce another lot of birds as before. In brushing the hat previous to restoring it to the owner, the bag may be adroitly removed. A BANK-NOTE CONCEALED IN A CANDLE Ask some one to lend you a bank-note, and to notice the number, etc. You then walk up to the screen behind which your confed- erate is concealed, pass the note to him, and take a wax or composite candle. Then turning to the audience, you ask one of them a boy would be preferred to step up on the platform. At your request he must cut the candle into four equal parts. You then take three of them, and say you will perform the trick by means of them, passing the fourth piece to the other end of the table, where your confederate has already rolled up the note in a very small compass, and thrust it into a hollow bit of candle, previously made ready. You take up this piece, and, concealing it in your hand, you walk up to the boy, and appear accidentally to knock, one of the bits of candle out of his hand, and while you are stooping to pick it up off the floor, you change it for the bit which contains the note. You then place it on the table, and say to the audience, "Which piece shall I take right or left?" If they select the one which contains the note, ask the boy to cut it carefully through the middle, and to mind that he does not cut the note. When he has made a slight incision, tell him to break it, when the note will be found in the mid- dle. If the audience select the piece which does not contain the note, you throw it aside, and say that the note will be found in the remaining piece. When this is done with tact, the audience will naturally be- lieve that they have really had the privilege of choosing. THE DOLL TRICK The Doll Trick, although common in England and at every fair throughout the United States, is without exception one of the best sleight-of-hand tricks that was ever performed, and must not be omitted here. The conjurer produces a wooden painted doll, about six inches long; he then places it in a bag of very dark material, and tells his story. "The little traveler, ladies and gentlemen, you see before you is a won- derful little man who has been all over the world; but as he has grown older he has become very nervous. One evening lately, at a small cabaret in the south of France, he was stating how nervous he was and how much he dreaded being robbed, when a Jew who sat in a corner of the room undertook to impart to him the means of making himself invisible at any moment, for a sum to be agreed upon. The bar- gain was struck, the money paid, and the Jew placed at his disposal a small skull- cap, which, as soon as it was placed upon his head, rendered him at once invisible ; and I will now show you, ladies and gen- tlemen, the power possessed by this cap." The doll is then introduced into the bag, which has a small opening at the smaller end sufficiently large to admit of the doll's head passing through it. When the head has been shown, the lower part of the bag is turned over the doll and its body shown, "so that there can be no deception !" The conjurer then says (still holding the head above the top of the bag), "I will now show you the wonderful cap by which the old gentleman is at once rendered invisible;" and producing it from his pocket, he places it upon the head of the doll for a moment, and then removes it; the head then disap- pears in the bag, which is then turned in- side out, and no trace of the doll can be perceived, though the bag be thrown on the floor, stamped upon, etc. And now for the secret and the method of performing this really surprising though very simple trick. The head is removable and only fastened to the neck by a peg about three-quarters of an inch long; the bag or dress is made full at the bottom, i.e., about the size of a hat, and has an opening at the top just large enough to allow the doll's head to pass through it; at the lower edge of this bag must be made a small pocket, just large enough to contain easily the doll, and on the outside of the bag must be a red streak, by way of ornament, coming from the top directly down to the pocket, so that it may be seen exactly where the pocket is. This side of the bag must be held nearest to the performer. In performing the trick the doll is in- troduced at the bottom of the 'bag, and passed upward until the head is shown through the opening at the top; and when the performer says, "I will now show you the cap," he, holding the head of the doll in his left hand, quickly passes the body into his pocket, where he has the cap, which he produces, leaving the body in its place. 490 PARLOR MAGIC He then for a moment places the cap on the doll's head, and replaces it in his pocket; then placing his right hand in the bag, he slowly draws down the head, which he slips into the small pocket in the bag, and shows his hand open and empty. He then catches hold of the lower edge of the bag at the pocket, holding, of course, the head of the doll in his hand, and strikes the bag against the table, ground, etc., and says, "I told you the old gentleman would become invisible." He then says, "I will try to bring him back again;" and introducing his hand into the bag, he takes the head from the pocket and shows it through the opening at the top of the bag, and retaining it in his hand, he throws the bag on the floor and tramples upon it. If well done, we consider this trick, though common, one of the best that is performed. It will be as well to have two dolls made exactly alike, one with the head fixed, to be handed round, and the other with the movable head to be used in the trick. We sometimes use a pocketless dress, and "palm" the head. TO PASS A DIME THROUGH A TABLE This trick, like the preceding one, is very amusing, and if well, and what we may call cleanly, done, is really very astonishing. The conjurer, seating himself at a table, borrows two articles of any kind sufficiently small to be concealed in the hands; these he places on the edge of the table before him, and says, "I take this one, as you see, in my right hand, and hold it at arm's length, and the other I take in my left hand my hands never meet. I now place my left hand un- der the table and my right hand above it, and upon my giving the word 'Pass !' the dime which you saw me take in my right hand will pass through the table to the ball of cotton in my left, which you see is the case." This trick is very easy of accomplishment, if but a little time and patience be bestowed upon it. The dime, piece of India-rubber, or any other small article must be placed on the edge of the table, and the fingers must be placed over it exactly the same way as if it were really desired to take it in the hand ; but instead of doing so the fingers merely push it over the edge of the table, and, the knees of the performer being closed, it falls into his lap. It is then picked up with the left hand, and the right hand being brought sharply upon the upper sur- face of the table, the dime appears to have passed through it. THE CUP AND CENT This too, if well performed, is a most as- tounding trick. Three coins of one cent each are shown, and a small cap or cup. The cents are thrown on the table, picked up again, arranged one on the other, and the cap placed over them. A hat is then introduced, and shown to be empty; this is then held in the left hand under the table, the cap removed with the right hand, the cents shown and recovered. The conjurer then says, "Pass !". when the cents are heard to fall in the hat; the cap on the table is raised, and they are gone, and in their place a small die or three-cent piece appears. The cents are then taken in the left hand, held under the table, and commanded to pass; and on raising the cap they again appear beneath it. This trick is very simple though ingen- ious, and the solution of it is as follows. The cap is of leather or any similar stiff material, and made to fit over three coins of one cent each easily; and. the "trick" cents are six riveted together, the upper one being entire, but the other five being turned out, leaving nothing but their outer rims. Three coins of one cent each are shown, as also the cap; and after showing the cents, while gathering them in the hand, "palm" them and place the "trick" cents (inside of which is the die) on the table, and cover them with the cap. Then taking the hat in the left hand, command the cents to pass, and at the word drop the genuine cents into the hat, at the same time raising the cap on the table, and by pinching the sides of it rather tightly the "trick" cents are raised with it, and the die or three cent-piece ap- pears then covering the die or three cent- pieces with the cap and the "trick" cents concealed in it, show the genuine cents in the hat, and command them to return; and holding the genuine cents in the left hand, lift the cap, and the cents again appear. Then taking the cap in the right hand, adroitly drop the "trick" cents into it and tender the cap for scrutiny. The tablecloth should be a thick and soft one, to prevent the spectators from hearing the die fall as the "trick" cents are placed on the table. THE SHOWER OF SUGARPLUMS This is a capital finale to an evening's amusement, particularly with young chil- dren. A small bag, capable of holding about a pint, must be made of a piece of figured calico, of a conical shape, but open at the bottom or larger end, on each side PARLOR MAGIC 491 of which must be inserted a flat thin piece of whalebone; at the upper or smaller end must be a small hook made of wire a lady's hairpin will answer the purpose per- fectly. The trick is performed in this way: The bottom of the bag must be opened by pressing the opposite ends of the two pieces of whalebone, when, of course, they will bend and divide, and the bag must then be filled with sugarplums, care being taken to put the small bonbons at the top of the bag, and the large ones at the bottom next the whalebone, which will prevent the small ones from falling out The bag when filled must on the first opportunity be sus- pended by its hook at the back of a chair having a stuffed back, so that it can not be seen. When the trick is to be performed, a large handkerchief must be shown, with a request that it may be examined. It is then laid over the back of the chair. A little girl must then be asked if she is afraid of being out in the rain, and on her answer- ing in the negative she must be requested to kneel down in the middle of the room. The performer must then place his left hand on the handkerchief, and feeling the hook which supports the bag, he raises it with the handkerchief, and holds it above the little girl's head; then passing his right hand from the fourth finger and thumb of the left hand which hold the handkerchief and bag, downward, he can easily feel the bottom of the bag, and on pressing the op- posite ends of the whalebone, they bend and open, and the contents of the bag of course fall out in a shower, and a general scramble among the children takes place. THE VANISHING DIME Take a sheet of absolutely fresh Manila paper that has not been creased or punc- tured. The size of this sheet should be at least 12 by 18 inches, and the paper should be . rather heavy. Next take a goblet of cylindrical shape. Cut a piece of the same kind of Manila paper into a square a little larger than the mouth of the glass. Deli- cately apply a very little mucilage all around the rim of the glass, taking care not to let any of it get on the sides. Now press the mouth of the glass firmly against the small square of paper, causing the paper to ad- here to the rim of the glass. After a min- ute take a sharp-pointed penknife and trim the paper closely around the rim until the paper that adheres to the mouth of the glass just covers the mouth, with no pro- jecting edges or points. Take another piece of Manila paper and fold it into a long cylinder that will j ust fit over the inverted glass. Close the top of this paper cylinder by folding it over. Place the large sheet of Manila paper on the table. On one edge of the sheet of paper place the glass, in- verted, and no one, looking through the glass, will detect the fact that there is a thickness of paper glued to the mouth of the glass. Borrow a dime from one of the company. Place this upon the sheet of Manila paper, and next hand the paper cyl- inder to the spectators to inspect. Taking back the cylinder, place it over the glass. Now, lifting glass and cylinder together, place the glass over the dime. Call atten- tion to the fact that in so doing you are not touching the dime, which, as every one will know, must now be under the glass. Lift the cylinder from over the glass, and the spectators, looking through the glass, will be puzzled at observing that the dime no longer appears to be there. Almost im- mediately replace the cylinder over the glass, lifting both, and the dime is there where the spectators last saw it. Of course, while the glass is over the dime, the paper glued to the mouth of the glass prevents its being seen. Repeat this trick two or three times quick- ly, and then remove the apparatus, proceed- ing to some other trick. It goes without saying that the performer must not allow any one to lift the glass to examine it, or the trick will be at once comprehended Preventing curious spectators from exam- ining parts of your apparatus that you do not wish them to see is one of the arts of a sleight-of-hand performer, and is born of tact. THE PENKNIFE AND QUARTER TRICK This is a most ingenious trick, and is done in this way. Mounting a table, stick the penknife by its point into the ceiling, but only sufficiently to support it. Then after a deal of examination of its position, etc., place a piece of brown paper on the floor, on which put the quarter, and then say you will undertake to place the quarter so exactly under it that, when dislodged, the knife shall fall upon it. When wonder is excited, and it is declared to be impos- sible, call for a glass of water ; then mount- ing on the table, dip the penknife in the water and withdraw the glass; a drop of water will soon fall on the paper, and on that very spot place the quarter. You then strike the ceiling with your fist, when the 492 PARLOR MAGIC knife will fall, of course, on the quarter. The knife chosen for the purpose should be one having rather a heavy pointed han- dle, as the drop of water will then fall from the most central point. TO PRODUCE A CANNON-BALL FROM A HAT A ball must be turned out of any kind of soft light wood, and must have a hole bored in it large enough to admit the middle fin- ger, and it should be painted black. The trick is performed in this way: On the front of the conjuring table, i.e., the side next the spectators, should be placed a few layers of books, high enough to conceal from view the ball or any other apparatus with which it is intended to perform. On the side of the books next the performer the ball should be placed, with the hole in it toward him. The hat should be placed on the books on its side on the left-hand end of the table, with its crown next the spec- tators. When the trick is to be performed the hat should be shown to be entirely empty, and then returned to its position on the books; then, having placed a hat- brush or silk handkerchief at the right hand of the table, say, "This trick can not be performed unless the hat is perfectly smooth," and while leaning to the right to reach the brush or handkerchief, which di- verts attention to that end of the table, the middle finger of the left hand must be placed in the hole in tfie ball, which is thus slipped into the hat, which must then be carefully brushed and held crown upper- most. The brush should then be put down, and the right thumb placed on the rim of the hat, with the fingers extended uuder- neath so as to support the ball in the hat, and the left hand should then be placed in the same position, and the hat, with the ball in it, carried and placed upon another table. A small ball must then be produced, and a boy asked if he thinks he can hold it in his mouth, and told to try. The ball is then taken in the right hand, pretended to be thrown against the hat, "palmed," and concealed in the pocket. The boy should then be asked if he will again take the ball in his mouth, and while opening it the cannon-ball is suddenly taken from under the hat and placed in front of his face. ETIQUETTE ETIQUETTE may be defined as the minor morality of life. Its laws, like all other social laws, are the accumulated results of the wisdom and experience of many generations. They form a code with which every educated person is bound to be acquainted. The word, etiquette, is from the French, and means, in brief, a ceremonial, also something that is "labeled," or designated. Properly understood, it is as necessary to the well-being of people as are the greater questions of be- havior, commonly included under the head of morality. If a man does an immoral thing something that injures both himself and others he is very properly avoided by all who know of it. Similarly, if he pays no heed to the minor amenities of life, if he ignores the rules of custom that indicate what is due to others in the way of treatment, respect, and considera- tion, he is justly considered uncouth and boorish. To be sure, customs differ among the various nations, and what is considered perfectly polite in one country is the essence of rudeness in another. Thus, in Japan, it is said, that in visiting a man at his house, it is considered a breach of all laws to take any notice whatever of his wife or other female relatives unless the host sees fit to present them.. Such foreign customs need not be considered until one goes abroad. "While we are in Rome we behave as the Romans do," and, if we wish to stand well with our fellows, we must know "what is done." INTRODUCTIONS rO introduce persons who are mutually unknown is to undertake a serious responsibility, and to certify to each the respectability of the other. Never under- take this responsibility without, in the first place, asking yourself whether the persons are likely to be agreeable to each other; nor, in the second place, without ascertain- ing whether it will be acceptable to both parties to become acquainted. Always introduce the gentleman to the lady never the lady to the gentleman. The chivalry of etiquette assumes that the lady is invariably the superior in right of her sex, and that the gentleman is honored in the introduction. Never present a gentleman to a lady with- out first asking her permission to do so. When you are introduced to a gentle- man, never offer your hand. When intro- duced, persons limit their recognition of each other to a bow. , Persons who have met at the house of a mutual friend without being introduced should not bow if they afterward meet else- (493) 32 494 ETIQUETTE where. A bow implies acquaintance; and persons who have not been introduced are not formally acquainted. This rule is only general, however, and people may act as they feel inclined. If you are walking with one friend, and presently meet with, or are joined by, a second, do not commit the too frequent error of there and then introducing them to each other. In your own house you have the right to introduce two visitors, who may be stran- gers, at your own discretion, whether they care to continue the acquaintance or not. If you consider such persons qualified to be equally your friends you are justified in so doing. A good rule, however, is not to bring people together deliberately who would certainly be uncongenial. There are some exceptions to the eti- quette of introduction. At a ball, or evening party where there is dancing, the mistress of the house may introduce any gentleman to any lady without first asking the lady's permission. But she should first ascertain whether the lady is willing to dance; and this out of consideration for the gentleman, who may otherwise be refused. No man likes to be refused the hand of a lady, though it be only for a quadrille. A sister may present her brother, or a mother her son, without any kind of pre- liminary. Friends may introduce friends at the house of a mutual acquaintance; but, as a rule, it is better to be introduced by the mistress of the house. Such an introduc- tion carries more authority with it Introductions at evening parties are now almost wholly dispensed with. Persons who meet at a friend's house are ostensibly upon an equality, and pay a bad compli- ment to the host by appearing suspicious and formal. Some old-fashioned country hosts still persevere in introducing each new-comer to all the assembled guests. It is a custom that can not be too soon abol- ished, and one that places the last unfortu- nate visitor in a singularly awkward posi- tion. All that she can do is to make a semi- circular courtesy, like a concert singer be- fore an audience, and bear the general gaze with as much composure as possible. An introduction given at a ball for the mere purpose of conducting a lady through 8 dance does not give the gentleman any right to bow to her on a future occasion. If he commits this error, she may remem- ber that she is not bound to see, or return, hit salutation. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION Do not lightly give or promise letters of introduction. Always remember that when you give a letter of introduction you lay yourself under an obligation to the friend to whom it is addressed. Always ask yourself whether the person introduced will be an acceptable acquaintance to the friend addressed in your letter. If the stranger is in any way unsuitable in habits or temperament, you inflict an annoyance on your friend instead of a pleasure. In questions of introduction never oblige one friend to the discomfort of another. Those to whom letters of introduction have been given should send them to the person to whom they are addressed, and in- close a card. Avoid delivering a letter of introduction in person. It places you in the most undignified position imaginable, and compels you to wait while it is being read, like a servant who has been told to wait for an answer. If, on the other hand, a stranger sends you a letter of introduction and her card, you are bound by the laws of politeness and hospitality, not only to call at the earliest opportunity, but to follow up that attention with others, as may seem suitable. A letter of introduction should be given unsealed, not alone because your friend may wish to know what you have said of him or her, but also as a guarantee of your own good faith. As you should never give such a letter unless you can speak highly of the bearer, this rule of etiquette is easy to observe. By requesting your friend to fasten the envelope before forwarding the letter to its destination, you tacitly give permission to inspect its contents. VISITING, MORNING CALLS, CARDS A "morning" visit should be paid be^ tween the hours of 2 and 4 P.M. in winter, and 2 and $ in summer. Visits of ceremony should be short. Even if the conversation should become ani- mated, beware of letting your call exceed half an hour's length. It is always better to let your friends regret rather than desire your withdrawal. On returning visits of ceremony you may, without impoliteness, leave your card at the door without going in. Do not fail, however, to inquire if the family be well. Should there be daughters or sisters re- siding with the lady upon whom you make a first call, or a call after an entertainment at the house, a card is left for each, and at departure a card for the host ETIQUETTE 495 Under other conditions cards are no longer left for each member of the family. A married woman making the first call of the season leaves her husband's card and her own; thereafter she leaves two of her husband's. Unless when returning thanks for "kind inquiries," or announcing your arrival in, or departure from, town, it is not consid- ered respectful to send round cards by a servant. Leave-taking cards have P. P. C. (pour prendre conge) written in the corner. Some use P. D. A. (pour dire adieu). The visiting cards of gentlemen are half the size of those used by ladies. Autographic facsimiles for visiting cards are affectations in any persons but those who are personally remarkable for talent, and whose autographs, or facsimiles of them, would be prized as curiosities. Visits of condolence are paid within the week after the event which occasions them. Personal visits of this kind are made by relations and very intimate friends only. Acquaintances should leave cards with nar- row mourning borders. On the first occasion when you are re- ceived by the family after the death of one of its members, it is etiquette to wear slight mourning. When a gentleman makes a morning call, he should never leave his hat or riding- whip in the hall, but should take both into the room. To do otherwise would be to make himself too much at home. The hat, however, must never be laid on a table, piano, or any article of furniture; it should be held gracefully in the hand. If you are compelled to lay it aside put it on the floor. Umbrellas should invariably be left in the hall. Never take favorite dogs into a drawing- room when you make a morning call. Their feet may be dusty, or they may bark at the sight of strangers, or, being of too friendly a disposition, may take the liberty of lying on a lady's gown, or jumping on the sofas and easy-chairs. Where your friend has a favorite cat already established before the fire, a battle may ensue, and one or both of the pets be seriously hurt. Besides, many persons have a constitutional antipathy to dogs, and others never allow their own to be seen in the sitting-rooms. For all or any of these reasons a visitor has no right to inflict upon his friend the society of his dog as well as of himself. Neither is it well for a mother to take young children with her when she pays morning visits; their presence, unless they are unusually well trained, can only be pro- ductive of anxiety to both yourself and your hostess. She, while striving to amuse them, or to appear interested in them, is secretly anxious for the fate of her album, or the ornaments on her etaghe; while the mother is trembling lest her children should say or do something objectionable. If, when you call upon a lady, you meet a lady visitor in her drawing-room, you should rise when that lady takes her leave. If other visitors are announced, and you have already remained as long as courtesy requires, wait till they are seated, and then rise from your chair, take leave of your hostess, and bow politely to the newly ar- rived guests. You will, perhaps, be urged to remain, but, having once risen, it is al- ways best to go. There is always a certain air of gaucherie in resuming your seat and repeating the ceremony of leave-taking. If you have occasion to look at your watch during a call, ask permission to do so, and apologize for it on the plea of other ap- pointments. In receiving morning visitors, it is not necessary that a lady should lay aside the employment in which she may be engaged, particularly if it consists of light or orna- mental needlework. Politeness, however, requires that music, drawing, or any occu- pation which would completely engross the attention, be at once abandoned. You need not advance to receive visitors when announced, unless they are persons to whom you are desirous of testifying par- ticular attention. It is sufficient if a lady rises to receive her visitors, moves forward a single step to shake hands with them, and remains standing till they are seated. When your visitors rise to take leave you should rise also, and remain standing till they have quite left the room. A lady should dress well, but not too richly, when she pays a morning visit. CONVERSATION Let your conversation be adapted as skil- fully as may be to your company. Some men make a point of talking common- places to all ladies alike, as if a woman could only be a trifler. Others, on the con- trary, seem to forget in what respects the education of a lady differs from that of a gentleman, and commit the opposite error of conversing on topics with which ladies are seldom acquainted. A woman of sense has as much right to be annoyed by the one, as a lady of ordinary education by the 496 ETIQUETTE other. You can not pay a finer compliment to a woman of refinement and esprit than by leading the conversation into such a channel as may mark your appreciation of her superior attainments. In talking with persons of ordinary edu- cation, avoid political, scientific, or com- mercial topics, and choose only such sub- jects as are likely to be of interest to them. Do not use a classical quotation in the presence of ladies without apologizing for or translating it. Even this should only be done when no other phrase would so aptly express your meaning. Whether in the presence of ladies or gentlemen, much display of learning is pedantic and out of place. There is a certain distinct but subdued tone of voice which is peculiar to only well- bred persons. A loud voice is both dis- agreeable and vulgar. It is better to err by the use of too low rather than too loud a tone. Remember that all "slang" is vulgar. Do not pun. Puns, unless they rise to the rank of witticisms, are to be scrupu- lously avoided. Long arguments in general company, however entertaining to the disputants, are tiresome to the last dsgree to all others. You should always endeavor to prevent the conversation from dwelling too long upon one topic. Religion is a topic which should never be introduced in society. It is the one sub- ject on which persons are most likely to differ and least able to preserve temper. Never interrupt a person who is speaking. It is considered extremely ill-bred when two persons whisper in society, or con- verse in a language with which all present are not familiar. If you have private mat- ters to discuss, you should appoint a proper time and place to do so, without paying others the ill compliment of excluding them from your conversation. If a foreigner be one of the guests at a small party, and does not understand En- glish sufficiently to follow what is said, good-breeding demands that the conversa- tion shall b carried on in his own lan- guage. If at a dinner-party, the same rule applies to those at his end of the table. If upon the entrance of a visitor you carry on the thread of a previous conver- sation, you should briefly recapitulate to him what has been said before he arrived. Always look, but never stare, at those with whom you converse. In order to meet the general needs of conversation in society, it is necessary that a man should be well acquainted with the current news and historical events of at least the last few years. Never talk upon subjects of which you know nothing, unless it be for the purpose of acquiring information. Many young men imagine that because they frequent exhibitions and operas they are qualified judges of art. No mistake is more egregious or universal. Those who introduce anecdotes into their conversation are warned that these should invariably be "short, witty, eloquent, new, and not far-fetched." Scandal is the least excusable of all con- versational vulgarities. In order to talk well three conditions are indispensable, namely, tact, a good mem- ory, and a fair education. Remember that people take more interest in their own affairs than in anything else which you can name. If you wish your conversation to be thoroughly agreeable, lead a mother to talk of her children, a young lady of her last ball, an author of his forthcoming book ; or an artist of his exhibition picture. Having furnished the topic, you need only listen ; and you are sure to be thought not only agreeable, but thoroughly sensible and well-informed. Be careful, however, on the other hand, not always to make a point of talking to persons upon general matters relating to their profession. To show an interest in their immediate concerns is flattering; but to converse with them too much about their own art looks as if you thought them ignorant of other topics. To listen well is almost as great an art as to talk well. It is not enough only to listen. You must endeavor to seem inter- ested in the conversation of others. Do not be always witty, even though you should be so happily gifted as to need the caution. To outshine others on every occa- sion is the surest road to unpopularity. ON THE STREET A well-bred man must entertain no re- spect for the brim of his hat. "A bow," says La Fontaine, "is a note drawn at sight." You are bound to acknowledge it immediately, and to the full amount. True politeness demands that the hat should be quite lifted from the head. On meeting friends with whom you are likely to shake hands remove your hat with the left hand in order to leave the right hand free. 497 If you meet a lady in the street whom you are sufficiently intimate to address, do not stop her, but turn round and walk be- side her in whichever direction she is going. When you have said all that you wish to say, you can take your leave. If you meet a lady with whom you are not particularly well acquainted, wait for her recognition before you venture to bow to her. In bowing to a lady whom you are not going to address, lift your hat with that hand which is furthest from her. For in- stance, if you pass her on the right side, use your left hand; if on the left, use your right. If you are on horseback and wish to con- verse with a lady who is on foot, you must dismount and lead your horse, so as not to give her the fatigue of looking up to your level. Neither should you subject her to the impropriety of carrying on a conversa- tion in a tone necessarily louder than is sanctioned in public by the laws of good breeding. When you meet friends or acquaintances in the streets, at the exhibitions, or any public places, take care not to pronounce their names so loudly as. to attract the at- tention of the passers-by. Never call across the street; and never carry on a dia- logue in a public vehicle unless your in- terlocutor occupies the seat beside your own. In walking with a lady, take charge of any small parcel, parasol, or book with which she may be encumbered. RIDING AND DRIVING In riding, as in walking, give the lady the wall. If you assist a lady to mount, hold your hand at a convenient distance from the ground that she may place her foot in it. As she springs, you aid her by the impetus of your hand. In doing this, it is always better to agree upon a signal, that her spring and your assistance may come at the same moment. For this purpose there is no better form than the old dueling one of "one, two, three." When the lady is in the saddle, it is your place to find the stirrup for her, and guide her left foot to it. When this is done, she rises in her seat and you assist her to draw her habit straight. Even when a groom is present, it is more polite for the gentleman himself to perform this office for his fair companion; as it would be more polite for him to hand her a chair than to have it handed by a servant. If the lady be light, you must take care not to give her too much impetus in mount- ing. We have known a lady nearly thrown over her horse by a misplaced zeal of this kind. If a gate has to be opened, we need hardly observe that it is your place to hold it open till the lady has passed through. In driving, a gentleman places himself with his back to the horses, and leaves the best seat for the ladies. When the carriage stops, the gentleman should alight first, in order to assist the lady. To get in and out of a carriage grace- fully is a simple but important accomplish- ment. If there is but one step, and you are going to take your seat facing the horses, put your left foot on the step, and enter the carriage with your right in such a manner as to drop at once -into your seat. If you are about to sit with your back to the horses, reverse the process. As you step into the carriage, be careful to keep your back toward the seat you are about to occupy, so as to avoid the awkwardness of turning when you are once in. A gentleman can not be too careful to avoid stepping on ladies' dresses when he gets in or out of a carriage. He should also beware of shutting them in with the door. DRESS FOR WOMEN To dress well requires taste, good sense, and refinement. It may almost be classed as one of the fine arts, and is certainly one of those arts the cultivation of which is indispensable to any person moving in society. Very clever women are too fre- quently indifferent to the graces of the toilette ; and women who wish to be thought clever affect indifference. In the one case it is an error, and in the other a folly It is not enough that a woman should be clever, or well-educated, or well-born. To take her due place in society, she must know how to enter a room, how to per- form a graceful salutation, and how to dress. Of these three important qualifica- tions, the most important, because the most observed, is the latter. Let your style of dress always be ap- propriate to the hour of the day. To dress too finely in the morning, or to be seen in a morning dress in the evening, are equally vulgar and out of place. Light and inexpensive materials are fittest 498 ETIQUETTE for morning wear; dark silk dresses for the promenade or carriage ; and low dresses of rich or transparent stuffs for the dinner and ball. A young lady can not dress with too much simplicity in the early part of the day. A morning dress of some simple ma- terial, and delicate whole color, with col- lar and cuffs of spotless linen, is, perhaps, the most becoming and elegant of morning toilettes. Never dress very richly or showily in the street. It attracts attention of no enviable kind, and is looked upon as a want of good breeding. In the carriage a lady may dress as elegantly as she pleases. With respect to ballroom toilettes, its fashions are so variable, that statements which are true of it to-day may be false a month hence. Rich colors harmonize with rich brunette complexions and dark hair. Delicate col- ors are the most suitable for delicate and fragile styles of beauty. Very young ladies are never so suitably attired as in white. Ladies who dance should wear dresses of light and diaphanous materials, such as tulle, gauze, crape, net, etc., over colored silk slips. Silk dresses are not suitable for dancing. A married lady who dances only a few quadrilles may wear a decollete silk dress with propriety. Very stout persons should never wear white. It has the effect of adding to the bulk of the figure. Black and scarlet, or black and violet, are worn in mourning. However fashionable it may be to wear very long dresses, those ladies who go to a ball with the intention of dancing, and enjoying the dance, should cause their dresses tc be made short enough to clear the ground. It is better to accept this slight deviation from fashion than to ap- pear for three parts of the evening in a torn and pinned-up skirt. Well-made shoes, whatever their color or material, and faultless gloves, are indis- pensable to the effect of a ballroom toilette. Jewelry hi the ballroom is a matter of taste. Beautiful flowers are the loveliest ornaments that a lady can wear on these occasions. At small dinner parties, low dresses are not so indispensable as they were held to be some years since. High dresses of trans- parent materials, and low bodices with fichus of lace, are considered sufficiently full dress on these occasions. At large dinners only the fullest dress is appro- priate. Very young ladies should wear but little jewelry. Pearls are deemed most appropri- ate for the young and unmarried. Diamonds, pearls, rubies, and all trans- parent precious stones, belong to evening dress, and should on no account be worn before dinner. In the morning let your rings be of the more simple and massive kind ; wear no bracelets ; and limit your jewelry to a good brooch, gold chain, and watch. Your diamonds and pearls would be as much out of place during the morning as a low dress, or a wreath. It is well to remember in the choice of jewelry that mere costliness is not always the test of value; and that an exquisite work of art, such as a fine cameo, or a natural rarity, such as black pearl, is a more distingue possession than a large bril- liant which any rich and tasteless vulgarian can buy as easily as yourself. Of all pre- cious stones, the opal is one of the most lovely and least commonplace. No vulgar woman purchases an opal. She invariably prefers the more showy ruby, emerald, or sapphire. A true gentlewoman is always faultlessly neat. No richness of toilette in the after- noon, no diamonds in the evening, can atone for unbrushed hair, a soiled collar, or un- tidy slippers at breakfast. Never be seen in the street without gloves. Your gloves should fit to the last degree of perfection. In these days of public baths and uni- versal progress, we trust that it is unnec- essary to do more than hint at the neces- sity of the most fastidious personal cleanli- ness. The hair, the teeth, the nails, should be faultlessly kept; and a muslin dress that has been worn once too often, a dingy pocket-handkerchief, or a soiled pair of light gloves, are things to be scrupulously avoided by any young lady who is ambi- tious of preserving the exterior of a gentle- woman. Your shoes and gloves should always be faultless. Perfumes should be used only in the even- ing, and then in moderation. Let your per- fumes be of the most delicate and rechercht kind. Nothing is more vulgar than a coarse, ordinary scent; and of all coarse, ordinary scents, the most objectionable are musk and patchouli. Finally, every lady should remember that to dress well is a duty which she owes to society; but that to make it her idol is to commit something worse than a folly. Fash- ion is made for woman; not woman for fashion. ETIQUETTE 499 DRESS FOR MEN A gentleman should always be so well dressed that his dress shall never be ob- served at all. Does this sound like an enigma? It is not meant for one. It only implies that perfect simplicity is perfect elegance, and that the true test of taste in the toilet of a gentleman is its entire har- mony, unobtrusiveness, and becomingness. If any friend should say to you, "What a handsome waistcoat you have on!" you may depend that a less handsome waistcoat would be in better taste. If you hear it said that Mr. So-and-So wears superb jewelry, you may conclude beforehand that he wears too much. Display, in short, is ever to be avoided, especially in matters of dress. The toilette is the domain of the fair sex. Let a wise man leave its graces and luxuries to his wife, daughters, or sisters, and seek to be himself appreciated for something of higher worth than the stud in his shirt or the trinkets on his chain. To be too much in the fashion is as vul- gar as to be too far behind it. No really well-bred man follows every new cut that he sees in his tailor's fashion-book. In the morning wear frock coats, double- breasted waistcoats, and trousers of light or dark colors, according to the season. In the evening, though only in the bosom of your own family, wear only black, and be as scrupulous to put on a dress coat as if you expected visitors. If you have sons, bring them up to do the same. It is the observance of these minor trifles in domes- tic etiquette which marks the true gentle- man. For evening parties, dinner parties, and balls, wear a black dress coat, black trousers, black silk or cloth waistcoat, white cravat, white or gray kid gloves, and thin patent leather shoes. A black cravat may be worn in full dress, but is not so elegant as a white one. Let your jewelry be of the best, but the least gaudy description, and wear it very sparingly. A single stud, a gold watch and guard, and one handsome ring, are as many ornaments as a gentleman can wear with propriety. For a ring, the gentleman of fine taste would prefer a precious antique intaglio to the handsomest diamond or ruby that could be bought. Unless you are a snuff-taker, never carry any but a white pocket-handkerchief . If in the morning you wear a long cravat, fastened by a pin, be careful to avoid what may be called alliteration of color. We have seen a turquoise pin worn in a violet-colored cravat, and the effect was frightful. Choose, if possible, complementary colors, and their secondaries. For instance, if the stone in t your pin be a turquoise, wear it with brown, or crimson mixed with black, or black and orange; if a ruby, contrast it with shades of green. The same rule holds good with regard to the mixture and contrast of col- ors in your waistcoat and cravat. Thus, a buff waistcoat and a blue tie, or brown and blue, or brown and green, or brown and magenta, green and magenta, green and mauve, are all good arrangements of color. Colored shirts ma" be worn in the morn- ing ; but they should be small in pattern and quiet in color. MORNING AND EVENING PARTIES The morning party is a modern invention. It was unknown to our fathers and mothers, and even to ourselves till quite lately. A morning party is given during the months of June, July, August, September, and some- times October. It begins about four o'clock and ends about seven, and the entertain- ment consists for the most part of conver- sation, music, and (if there be a garden) croquet, lawn tennis, etc. The refreshments are given in the form of a dejeuner a la fourchette. Receptions are held during the winter season. Elegant morning dress, general good man- ners, and some acquaintance with the topics of the day and the games above named, are all the qualifications especially necessary to make you agreeable at a morning party, and "At Homes" ; music and elocution at re- ceptions. An evening party begins about nine o'clock P.M., and ends about midnight, or somewhat later. Good breeding neither de- mands that you should present yourself at the commencement, nor remain till the close of the evening. You come and go as may be most convenient to you, and by these means are at liberty, during the height of the season when evening parties are nu- merous, to present yourself at two or three houses during a single evening. When your name is announced, look for the lady of the house, and pay your respects to her before you even seem to see any other of your friends who may be in the room. At very large and fashionable re- ceptions, the hostess is generally to be found near the door. Should you, however, find yourself separated by a dense crowd of guests, you are at liberty to recognize those who are near you, and those whom you en- 600 ETIQUETTE counter as you make your way slowly through the throng. If you are at the house of a new ac- quaintance and find yourself among entire strangers, remember that by so meeting un- der one roof you are all in a certain sense made known to one another, and should, therefore, converse freely, as equals. To shrink away to a side-table and affect to be absorbed in some album or illustrated work ; or, if you find one unlucky acquaintance in the room, to fasten upon her or him, like a drowning man clinging to a spar, are gau- cheries which no shyness can excuse. At an evening party do not remain too long in one spot. To be afraid to move from one drawing-room to another is the sure sign of a neophyte in society. If you have occasion to use your hand- kerchief, do so as noiselessly as possible. To blow your nose as if it were a trom- bone, or to turn your head aside when using your handkerchief, are vulgarities scrupulously to be avoided. Never stand upon the hearth with your back to the fire or stove, either in a friend's house or your own. Never offer any one the chair from which you have just risen, unless there be no other disengaged. If, when supper is announced, no lady has been specially placed under your care by the hostess, offer your arm to whichever lady you may have last conversed with. If you possess any musical accomplish- ments, do not wait to be pressed and en- treated by your hostess, but comply imme- diately when she pays you the compliment of inviting you to play or sing. Remember, however, that only the lady of the house has the right to ask you. If others do so, you can put them off in some polite way; but must not comply till the hostess herself invites you. Be scrupulous to observe silence when any of the company are playing or singing. Re- member that they are doing this for the amusement of the rest; and that to talk at such a time is as ill-bred as if you were to turn your back upon a person who was talking to you and begin a conversation with some one else. If you are yourself the performer, bear in mind that in music, as in speech, "brevity is the soul of wit." Two verses of a song, or four pages of a piece, are at all times enough to give pleasure. If your audience desire more they will ask for it; and it is infinitely more flattering to be encored than to receive the thanks of your hearers, not so much in gratitude for what you have given them, but in relief that you have left off. You should try to suit your music, like your conversation, to your company. A solo of Beethoven's would be as much out of place in some circles as a comic song at a Quaker's meeting. To those who only care for the light popularities of the season, give Verdi, Suppe, Sullivan, or Offenbach, To connoisseurs, if you perform well enough to venture, give such music as will be likely to meet the exigencies of a fine taste. Above all, attempt nothing that you can not execute with ease and precision. If you sing comic songs be careful that they are of the most unexceptionable kind, and likely to offend neither the tastes nor prejudices of the society in which you find yourself. If the party be of a small and social kind, and those games called by the French les jeux innocents are proposed, do not object to join in them when invited. It may be that they demand some slight exercise of wit and readiness, and that you do not feel yourself calculated to shine in them ; but it is better to seem dull than disagreeable, and those who are obliging can always find some clever neighbor to assist them in the moment of need. The game of "conse- quences" is one which unfortunately gives too much scope to liberty of expression. If you join in this game, we can not too earnestly enjoin you never to write down one word which the most pure-minded woman present might not read aloud with- out a blush. Jests of an equivocal char- acter are not only vulgar, but contemptible. Impromptu charades are frequently or- ganized at friendly parties. Unless you have really some talent for acting and some readi- ness of speech, you should remember that you only put others out and expose your own inability by taking part in these enter- tainments. Of course, if your help is really needed and you would disoblige by refus- ing, you must do your best, and by doing it as quietly and coolly as possible, avoid be- ing awkward or ridiculous. Should an impromptu polka or quadrille be got up after supper at a party where no dancing was intended, be sure not to omit putting on gloves before you stand up. It is well always to have a pair of white gloves in your pocket in case of need; but even black are better under these circumstances - than none. Even though you may take no pleasure in cards, some knowledge of the etiquette and rules belonging to the games most m ETIQUETTE 501 vogue is necessary to you in society. If a fourth hand is wanted at euchre, or if the rest of the company sit down to a round game, you would be deemed guilty of an im- politeness if you refused to join. The games most commonly played in so- ciety are euchre, bridge, draw-poker, and whist. Never let even politeness induce you to play for high stakes. Etiquette is the minor morality of life; but it never should be al- lowed to outweigh the higher code of right and wrong. In retiring from a crowded party it is unnecessary that you should seek out the hostess for the purpose of bidding her a formal good-night. By doing this you would, perhaps, remind others that it was getting late, and cause the party to break up. If you meet the lady of the house on your way to the drawing-room door, take your leave of her as unobtrusively as possible, and slip away without attracting the atten- tion of her other guests. ETIQUETTE OF THE BALLROOM On entering the ballroom, the visitor should at once seek the lady of the house, and pay his respects to her. Having done this, he may exchange salutations with such friends and acquaintances as may be in the room. If the ball be a public one, and a gentle- man desires to dance with any lady to whom he is a stranger, he must- apply to a member of the floor committee for an intro- duction. Even at private balls, no gentleman can invite a lady to dance without a previous introduction. This introduction should be effected through the lady of the house or a member of her family. No lady should accept an invitation to dance from a gentleman to whom she has not been introduced. In case any gentle- man should commit the error of so inviting her, she should not excuse herself on the plea of a previous engagement or of fatigue, as to do so would imply that she did not herself attach due importance to the neces- sary ceremony of introduction. Her best reply would be to the effect that she would have much pleasure in accepting his invita- tion if he would procure an introduction to her. This observation may be taken as applying only to public balls. At a private party the host and hostess are sufficient guarantees for the respectability of their guests; and although a gentleman would show a singular want of knowledge of the laws of society in acting as we have sup- posed, the lady who should reply to him as if he were merely an impertinent stranger in a public assembly-room would be imply- ing an affront to her entertainers. The mere fact of being assembled together under the roof of a mutual friend is in itself a kind of general introduction of the guests to each other. To attempt to dance without a knowledge of dancing is not only to make one's self ridiculous, but one's partner also. No lady or gentleman has a right to place a partner in this absurd position. Never forget a ballroom engagement. To do so is to commit an unpardonable offence against good breeding. It is not necessary that a lady or gen- tleman should be acquainted with the steps in order to walk gracefully and easily through a quadrille. An easy carriage and a knowledge of the figure is all that is requisite. A round dance, however, should on no account be attempted without a thor- ough knowledge of the steps and some pre- vious practice. No person who has not a good ear for time and tune need hope to dance well. At the conclusion of a dance the gentle- man bows to his partner, and either prom- enades with her round the room or takes her to a seat. Where a room is set apart for refreshments he offers to conduct her thither. At a public ball no gentleman would, of course, permit a lady to pay for refreshments. Good taste forbids that a lady and gentleman should dance too fre- quently together at either a public or private ' ball. Engaged persons should be careful not to commit this conspicuous solecism. If a lady happens to forget a previous en- gagement, and stands up with another part- ner, the gentleman whom she has thus slighted is bound to believe that she has acted from mere inadvertence, and should by no means suffer his pride to master his good temper. To cause a disagreeable scene in a private ballroom is to affront your host and hostess, and to make yourself absurd. In a public room it is no less reprehensible. Always remember that good breeding and good temper (or the appearance of good temper) are inseparably connected. Young gentlemen are earnestly advised not to limit their conversation to remarks on the weather and the heat of the room. It is to a certain extent incumbent on them to do something more than dance when they invite a lady to join a quadrille. If it be only upon the news of the day, a gentleman 502 ETIQUETTE should be able to afford at least three or four observations to his partner in the course of a long half hour. Gentlemen who dance can not be too careful not to injure the dresses of the ladies who do them the honor to stand up with them. The young men of the present day are singularly careless in this respect, and when they have torn a lady's delicate skirt appear to think the mischief they have done scarcely worth the trouble of an apology. A gentleman conducts his last partner to the supper-room, and having waited upon her while there reconducts her to the ball- room. Never attempt to take a place in a dance which has been previously engaged.' A thoughtful hostess will never introduce a bad dancer to a good one, because she has no right to punish one friend in order to oblige another. It is not customary for married persons to dance too often together in society. THE DINNER-PARTY To be acquainted with every detail of the etiquette pertaining to this subject is of the highest importance to every lady. Ease, savoir-faire, and good-breeding are nowhere more indispensable than at the dinner-table, and the absence of them is nowhere more apparent. How to eat soup and what to do with a cherry-stone are weighty consid- erations when taken as the index of social status; and it is not too much to say, that a young woman who elected to take claret with her fish, or ate peas with her knife, would justly risk the punishment of being banished from good society. An invitation to dinner should be replied to immediately, and unequivocally accepted or declined. Once accepted, nothing but an event of the last importance should cause you to fail in your engagement. To be exactly punctual is the strictest po- liteness on these occasions. If you are too early, you are in the way; if too late you spoil the dinner, annoy the hostess, and are hated by the rest of the guests. Some au- thorities are even of opinion that in the question of a dinner-party "never" is better than "late" ; and one author has gone so far as to say, "if you do not reach the house till dinner is served, you had better retire, and send an apology, and not interrupt the harmony of the courses by awkward ex- cuses and cold acceptance." When the party is assembled, the mistress or master of the house will name to each gentleman the lady whom he is to conduct to the table. The lady who is the greatest stranger should be taken down by the master of the house, and the gentleman who is the great- est stranger should conduct the hostess. Married ladies take precedence of single ladies, elder ladies of younger ones, and so forth. When dinner is announced, the host of- fers his arm to the lady of most distinction, invites the rest to follow by a few words or a bow, and leads the way. The lady of the house should then follow with the gen- tleman who is most entitled to that honor, and the visitors follow in the order that the master of the house has previously ar- ranged. The lady of the house frequently remains, however, till the last, that she may see her guests go down in their prescribed order; but the plan is not a convenient one. It is much better that the hostess should be in her place as the guests enter the dining-room, in order that she may indicate their seats to them as they come in, and not find them all crowded together in un- certainty when she arrives. If cards with names are on the table seek that of the lady whom you have taken to dinner. The number of guests at a dinner-party should always be determined by the size of the table. When the party is too small, con- versation flags, and a general air of desola- tion pervades the table. When they are too many, every one is inconvenienced. A space of two feet should be allowed to each per- son. It is well to arrang^ a party in such wise that the number of ladies and gentle- men shall be equal. The lady of the house takes the head of the table. The gentleman who led her down to dinner occupies the seat on her right hand, and the gentleman next in or- der of precedence that on her left. The master of the house takes the foot of the table. The lady whom he escorted sits on his right hand, and the lady next in order of precedence on his left. The gentlemen who support the lady of the house should offer to relieve her of the duties of hostess. Many ladies are well pleased thus to delegate the difficulties of carving, and all gentlemen who accept in- vitations to dinner should be prepared to render such assistance when called upon. To offer to carve a dish, and then perform the office unskilfully, is an unpardonable gaucherie. Every gentleman should carve, and carve well. As soon as you are seated at table, re- ETIQUETTE 503 move your gloves, place your table napkin across your knees, and remove the roll which you find probably within it to the left side of your plate. The soup should be placed on the table first. All well-ordered dinners begin with soup, whether in summer or winter. The ' lady of the house should help it, and send ' it round without asking each individual in turn. It is as much an understood thing as the bread beside each plate, and those who do not choose it are always at liberty to leave it untasted. In eating soup, remember always to take it from the side of the spoon, and to make no sound in doing so. If the servants do not go round with wine, the gentlemen should help the ladies and themselves to sherry or sauterne imme- diately after the soup. You should never ask for a second sup- ply of either soup or fish ; it delays the next course, and keeps the table waiting. Never offer to "assist" your neighbors to this or that dish. The word is inexpres- sibly vulgar all the more vulgar for its af- fectation of elegance. "Shall I send you some mutton ?" or "may I help you to can- vas back?" is better chosen and better bred. As a general rule, it is better not to ask your guests if they will partake of the dishes, but to send the plates round, and let them accept or decline them as they please. At very large dinners it is some- times customary to distribute little lists of the order of the dishes at intervals along the table. It must be confessed that this gives somewhat the air of a dinner at a hotel ; but it has the advantage of enabling the visitors to select their fare, and, as "forewarned is forearmed," to keep a cor- ner, as the children say, for their favorite dishes. As soon as you are helped, begin to eat; or, if the viands are too hot for your palate, take up your knife and fork and appear to begin. To wait for others is now not only old-fashioned, but ill-bred. Never offer to pass on the plate to which you have been helped. If you are asked to take wine, it is polite to select the same as that which your inter- locutor is drinking. If you invite a lady to take wine, you should ask her which she will prefer, and then take the same yourself. Should you, however, for any reason prefer some other vintage, you can take it by cour- teously requesting her permission. The habit of taking wine with each other has almost wholly gone out of fashion. A gentleman may ask the lady whom he con- ducted down to dinner, or he may ask the lady of the house to take wine with him. But even these last remnants of the old cus- tom are fast falling into disuse. Unless you are a total abstainer, it is extremely uncivil to decline taking wine if you are invited to do so. In accepting, you have only to pour a little fresh wine into your glass, look at the person who invited you, bow slightly, and take a sip from the glass. It is particularly ill-bred to empty your glass on these occasions. Certain wines are taken with certain dishes, by old-established custom as sherry or sauterne, with soup and fish; hock and claret, with roast meat ; punch with turtle ; champagne is served with fish, and the glasses refilled through the meal; port with venison; port or burgundy with game; sparkling wines between the roast and the confectionery ; madeira with sweets ; port with cheese; and for dessert, port, tokay, madeira, and sherry. Red wines should never be iced, even in summer. If the servants do not go round with the wine (which is by far the best custom), the gentlemen at a dinner table should take upon themselves the office of helping those ladies who sit near them. Ladies take more wine in the present day than they did fifty years ago, and gentlemen should remember this, and offer it frequently. Ladies can not very well ask for wine, but they can always de- cline it. At all events they do not like to be neglected, or to see gentlemen liber- ally helping themselves, without observing whether their fair neighbors' glasses are full or empty. Instead of cooling their wines in the ice- pail, some hosts introduce clear ice upon the table, broken up in small lumps, to be put inside the glasses. This can not be too strictly reprehended. Melting ice can but weaken the quality and flavor of the wine. Those who decire to drink wine and water can ask for iced water if they choose; but it savors too much of economy on the part of a host to insinuate the ice inside the glasses of his guests when the wine could be more effectually iced outside the bottle. Be careful to know the shapes of the various kinds of wineglasses commonly in use, in order that you may never put for- ward one for another. High and narrow, and very broad and shallow glasses, are used for champagne; large, goblet-shaped glasses for burgundy and claret; ordinary 604 ETIQUETTE wineglasses for sherry and madeira; green glasses for hock; and somewhat large, bell- shaped glasses for port. Port, sherry, and madeira are decanted. Hocks and champagnes appear in their na- tive bottles. Claret and burgundy are poured from the bottles. In helping soup, fish, or any other dish, remember that to overfill a plate is as bad as to supply it too scantily. Silver fish-knives will now always be met with at the best tables ; but where there are none, a piece of crust should be taken in the left hand, and the fork in the right. There is no exception to this rule in eating fish. We presume it is scarcely necessary to re- mind the reader that he is never, under any circumstances, to convey his knife to his mouth. Peas are eaten with the fork ; tarts, curry, and puddings of all kinds with the jpoon. Always help fish with a fish-slice, and tarts and puddings with a spoon, or, if nec- essary, a spoon and fork. Asparagus must be helped with the as- paragus-tongs. In eating asparagus, it is well to observe what others do, and act accordingly. Some very well-bred people eat it with the fingers ; others cut off the heads and convey them to the mouth upon the fork. It would be diffi- cult to say which is the more correct. In eating stone fruit, such as cherries, damsons, etc., the same rule had better be observed. Some put the stones out from the mouth into a spoon, and so convey them to the plate. Others cover the lips with the hand, drop them unseen into the palm, and so deposit them on the side of the plate. In our own opinion, the latter is the better way, as it effectually conceals the return of the stones, which is certainly the point of highest importance. Of one thing we may be sure, and that is that they must never be dropped from the mouth to the plate. In helping sauce, always pour it on the side of the plate. A silver knife and fork should be placed to each guest at dessert. If you are asked to prepare fruit for a lady, be careful to do so by means of the silver knife and fork only, and never to touch it with your fingers. It is wise never to partake of any dish without knowing of what ingredients it is composed. You can always ask the servant who hands it to you, and you thereby avoid all danger of having *o commit the impo- liteness of leaving it, and showing that you > do not approve of it. Never speak while you have anything in your mouth. Be careful never to taste soups or pud- dings till you are sure they are sufficiently cool ; as, by disregarding this caution, you may be compelled to swallow what is dan- gerously hot, or be driven to the unpardon- able alternative of returning it to your plate. ' When eating or drinking, avoid every kind of audible testimony to the fact. Finger-glasses, containing water slightly warmed and perfumed, are placed to each person at dessert. In these you may dip the tips of your fingers, wiping them afterward on your table-napkin. If the finger-glass and doily are placed on your dessert-plate, you should immediately remove the doily to the left of your plate, and place the finger- glass upon it. By these means you leave the right for the wineglasses. If you should unfortunately overturn or break anything, do not apologize for it. You can show your regret in your face, but it is not well-bred to put it into words. Should you injure a lady's dress, apolo- gize amply, and assist her, if possible, to re- move all traces of the damage. To abstain from taking the last piece on the dish, or the last glass of wine in the decanter, only because it is the last, is highly ill-bred. It implies a fear that the vacancy can not be supplied, and almost conveys an affront to your host. Coffee and liqueurs should be handed round when the dessert has been about a quarter of an hour on the table. After this, the ladies generally retire. Should no servant be present to do so, the gentleman who is nearest the door should hold it for the ladies to pass through. When the ladies are leaving the dining- room, the gentlemen all rise in their places, and do not resume their seats till the last lady is gone. To sit long in the dining-room after the ladies l.ave retired is to pay a bad compli- ment to the hostess and her fair visitors; and it is still worse to rejoin them with a flushed face and impaired powers of thought. A refined gentleman is always temperate. In summing up the little duties and laws of the table, a popular author has said that "the chief matter of consideration at the dinner-table as, indeed, everywhere else in the life of a gentleman is to be perfectly composed and at his ease. He speaks de- liberately; he performs the most important ETIQUETTE 505 act of the day as if he were performing the most ordinary. Yet there is no appearance of trifling or want of gravity in his manner, he maintains the dignity which is so becom- ing on so vital an occasion. He performs all the ceremonies, yet in the style of one who performs no ceremonies at all. He goes through all the complicated duties of the scene as if he were 'to the manner born.' " To the giver of a dinner we have but one or two remarks to offer. If he be a bache- lor, he had better' give his dinner at a good hotel. If a married man, he will, we pre- sume, enter into council with his wife and his cook. In any case, however, he should always bear in mind that it is his duty to entertain his friends in the best manner that his means permit; and that this is the least he can do to recompense them for the ex- penditure of time and money which they incur in accepting his invitation. To those ladies who have houses and servants at command, we have one or two remarks to offer. Every housekeeper should be acquainted with the routine of a dinner and the etiquette of a dinner-table. No lady should be utterly dependent on the taste and judgment of her cook. Though she need not know how to dress a dish, she should be able to judge of it when served. The mistress of the house, in short, should be to a cook what a publisher is to his authors that is to say, competent to form a judgment upon their works, though him- self incapable of writing even a magazine article. If you wish to have a good dinner, and do not know in what manner to set about it, you will do wisely to order it from some first-rate restaurateur. By these means you ensure the best cookery and a faultless carte. Bear in mind that it is your duty to en- tertain your friends in the best manner that your means permit. This is the least you can do to recompense them for the expen- diture of time and money which they incur in accepting your invitation. "To invite a friend to dinner," says Brillat Savarin, "is to become responsible for his happiness so long as he is under your roof." A dinner, to be excellent, need not con- sist of a great variety of dishes ; but every- thing should be of the best, and the cookery should be perfect. That which should be cool should be cool as ice ; that which should be hot should be smoking; the attendance should be rapid and noiseless; the guests well assorted ; the wines of the best quality ; the host attentive and courteous; the room well lighted, and the time punctual. Every dinner should begin with soup, be followed by fish, and include some kind of game. "The soup is to the dinner," we are told by Grisnod de la Regniere, "what the portico is to a building, or the overture to an opera." To this aphorism we may be permitted to add that a chasse of cognac or cura y u will quite round; that is to say, you will in time, for you must not think of succeeding at first in any of these feats, but perseverance will soon enable you to accomplish them. You will find in practicing this exercise, FIG. 14. FIG. 15. that some of your strength will be expended in getting on to the bar again after each failure. We will now show you a very good way of getting into the sitting position again, while hanging, as in Fig. 9. Straighten the body as in Fig. 15, and draw your cen- tre of gravity a little above the bar, then, bending the body again slightly, you will roll quite over so as to come into a sitting position again. This movement is called the "Plymouth." HANGING BY THE LEGS. Get on to the bar in a sitting position, and then throw yourself off backward, as for a sit-swing; but, instead of going round, drop the body and bend your knees, and thus let them catch on the bar, getting a firm grip with them, at the same time letting go your hands as in Fig. 16. A young beginner should practice this on a low bar, so that, when he hangs by the legs, his hands will touch the ground; and thus, when he is getting tired and can not raise himself, he may let his legs drop, and come on to his hands on the floor safely. He may then get on to the bar again, hanging by the knees as before, and practice swinging backward and forward FIG. 16. FIG. 17. as high as he can. At first the friction will make the legs a little sore, but the muscles will soon harden with practice. There are a few other leg exercises which may be practiced with advantage, and which will afford variety, and also help to bring all the muscles into play. One of these is shown in Fig. 17, where you hang on the bar with one leg, stretch- ing the other straight out with the toe against the under side of the bar, and the exercise is to bend the body up and down. This should be done with right and left legs alternately. A performance which is also very showy (although we should not advise any one to attempt it without very good nerve and also strength in the legs), is the standing balance on the bar. This may be practiced on a bar as low as you like, so that you can easily jump FIG. 18. FIG. 19. off; but of course it looks better on a bar of ordinary height. While sitting on the bar, lift one foot and gradually bring it on to the bar, as in Fig. 18, and then raise yourself up stand- ing, as in Fig. 19, a feat which, of course, 34 GYMNASTICS requires great strength in the legs, and a good command of balancing power. Now endeavor to walk forward and backward by shifting the feet; and if you lose your baJance, jump off the bar altogether, with- out trying to recover it, and get up again. VAULTING OVER THE BAR is a very useful exercise, and quite as well performed on the horizontal bar as on the vaulting-horse, if your choice of apparatus should be lim- ited. Try it first on a bar about three feet six inches from the ground, and gradually raise it; but take care not to overtask your powers by having it too high for you, as very often, when young gymnasts find that they are getting on respectably, they are very apt to be too ambitious, and to attempt heights far beyond their powers. About four feet six inches is a fair height for a person about five feet four or five to begin with. Learn to clear this clean and in correct style, before you attempt anything higher. As vaulting is by no means a difficult feat, to look well it should be done in FIG. 20. good style. To make a clean vault, the body should be kept as straight and as far away from the bar as possible (see Fig. 20), and should be practiced right and left alike. No careful gymnast need ever be afraid of injury if he uses his brain as well as his body, and you will find that, if a mis- hap occurs, it is generally to some one who attempts exercises without taking into consideration in what different positions he may come off the apparatus ; but all these exercises may be gone through safely if sufficient precautions are taken at first. THE PARALLEL BARS. You may com- mence with the parallel bars, as in the horizontal bar, with the simple movements which any one would naturally perform up- on them ; such as standing between them, and with a spring placing a hand upon each, and thus supporting the weight of the body. When you have become somewhat used to them in this way, commence swinging backward and forward, with the legs straight down, trying to go higher each time. Of course, if you have practiced on the horizontal bar, the preliminary exercises will be mastered at once; but as it is possible that some may commence on the parallels, we give this short description of these simple movements. The first exercise after you are on the bars should be THE WALK. This is very simple, being performed by jumping up and placing one hand on each bar, with the body hanging suspended between them as before. Now walk along the bar by taking steps with the arms, making them as evenly and regularly as you can, keeping the head well up, and the body perfectly straight Walk in this way from one end to the other, and when you can do this easily, walk back in the same way, without turn- ing round. Then let the body sink down as in Fig. 21, and hop from one end to the other backward and forward. This you will find capital practice for the mus- cles of the arms, although rather tiring at first When this hopping movement is done with a good swing, so as to go forward or backward some considerable distance, it has a very good effect, and is called "The Grasshopper." VAULTING MOVEMENTS are performed by getting up between the bars as for the walk, placing yourself near the centre of the bars. Now swing backward and forward until you are able to throw both legs over one FIG. 21. FIG. side of the bars in front of you, as in Fig. 22. Now with another swing bring them back again, and throw them over behind you on the same side as before. (Fig. 23.) GYMNASTICS 527 All these exercises should be performed with the body as straight as possible, and when done neatly, with the legs close to- gether, have a very pretty effect, and are very good practice. There are several similar movements, such as those represented in Figs. 25 and 26, which are done by first swinging backward and forward, and then throwing the legs over the outside of the bars in front, one on each side ; then bending back a little, and bringing the legs over back again be- tween the bars, and then, without stopping, throwing them over again behind you, one on each side as before. This you should practice until you can repeat it several times without stopping. The next exercises are good practice. FIG. 23. FIG. 24. Stand between the bars, and place the hands on the under side of them, even with the shoulders, then gradually raise the legs until they turn over and bring the body into an inverted position, as in Fig. 27; then continue the movement right over, until you are hanging as in the posi- tion shown in Fig. 28. You should practice this until you can do it several times without touching the ground with the feet, and you will find it very good practice for the front and FIG. 25. FIG. 26. back horizontal movements, previously shown on the horizontal bar. THE PUMPING MOVEMENT is one of the finest exercises for developing the muscles of the chest. You must first practice the swing until you can bring yourself up horizontally, as shown in Fig. 29; then, by bending the arms, drop the body into Fig. 30, and then swing round, your feet FIG. 27. FIG. 28. describing a semicircle, and come up again into Fig. 31, finishing the movement by swinging backward again in the same man- ner into Fig. 29, as on commencing the movement. THE VAULTING HORSE. There are no sim- ple preliminary exercises on the horse but what may be just as well performed on the parallels; and, indeed, such is the simi- larity in some of them that we have in- variably noticed that any gymnast who is good on the one is not likely to be a novice on the other. For this reason we shall endeavor to make as much variety as possible, and FIG. 29. shall therefore not describe exercises which may be as well gone through upon the parallels, but only give those which have a distinctive character. Commence by jumping on to the horse, with the hands one on each of the pom- mels, and supporting the whole weight of the body; the legs hanging straight down. Now bring one leg over the body of the horse in between the pommels, as in Fig. 32; then bring it back again with- out touching the horse with the foot, and pass the other leg through in the same manner. Now try and change the legs simultane- ously; that is, while the one is being* brought back, pass the other through for- ward; the body, of course, still supported by the arms. 528 GYMNASTICS THE LEG-SPRING is the next exercise, and is performed in the following manner: Get on to the horse as in Fig. 3, and then bring both legs up on to the back in a kneeling position, as in Fig. 33; then, while the body is thus gathered, give a good spring up, throwing up the arms as in Fig. 34, and you will come over to th. 1 other side on to your feet on the ground. If you are nervous in attemp 1 -"^; his at first, get the assistance of sonr> on, to hold your hand, and you will accomplish it without much difficulty. The next exercise must be practiced at first with the horse as low as possible, and FIG. 30. the jumping-board placed about a foot from the horse. JUMPING THROUGH THE HANDS. Take a short run, and jump on to the board with both feet down at once, flat-footed. Place your hands one on each pommel, spring up, and pass the legs through the hands, as in Fig. 35, shooting them out in front of you over the horse, so as to come neatly down on the other side. Of course you must measure your distance, so that you FIG. 31. FIG. 3. may rise high enough while passing over for the back to clear the top of the horse. Another form of this exercise is to jump over the horse with the legs outside the hands, and is performed in a similar man- ner to the last, but is rather more difficult, as you will need a much greater spring to raise yourself sufficiently high to pass clear over; and you must also take care to let go with the hands at the proper moment, when in the position shown ia Fig. 36. If you retain your hold of the pommel*' FIG. 33. FIG. 34. too long, you will lose command of your- self, and they will have a tendency to pull you back and cause you to pitch head first on to the ground; but when you commence to practice this movement, it is necessary to have some one standing in front, to catch you in case your feet do not quite clear the top of the horse, more especially if it should be at all too high for you. SADDLE VAULTING. Get on to the horse F.G. 35. FIG. 36. as in Fig. 37, sitting across as in a saddle, but behind the pommels ; then, bearing the whole weight upon the arms, throw your legs right up, and, giving yourself a kind of twist, describe a semicircle with them, and bring yourself round with the face the other way ; your hands being one upon each pommel, your course will naturally be toward the one which holds the after- most. THE LONG FLY is a very fine exercise FIG. 37. for the whole of the body, and more es- pecially the lower extremities. You commence practice for this move- GYMNASTICS 529 ment by placing the j umping-board about three feet from the largest end of the horse, then with a run, pitch with your hands on to the end, as in Fig. 38. Now move the board a little further off, and repeat the movement; and thus con- tinue the exercise, increasing the distance each time, until you can pitch on to the end from about five or six feet. Now vary this movement by jumping from different distances, and pitching on the hands first, and then bringing up the feet on to the back of the horse, as in Fig. 39- . And when you are in this position, pitch FIG. 38. with the hands on to the extreme end of the horse, and go over as at "leapfrog." Having now sufficiently practiced these preliminaries, place the board about a foot from the end of the horse (having first had the high pommels taken out, and the flush ones substituted). Now take a run and jump, pitching with FIG. 40. your hands on the first pommel, landing yourself astride, as near the middle of the horse as possible ; repeat this exercise, gradually increasing the jump, until at last you clear the whole length, as in Fig. 40, coming down safely on the ground in front of the horse. When you can get near the neck and are likely to come right over in a few more trials, have some one standing in front to catch you in case you do not quite clear the end, and come instead into a sitting position on the neck of the horse, as in this case the sudden stop is likely to throw you over head forward in a rather ig- nominious manner; but if you practice assiduously, when you feel that you can FIG. 42. do it, and make up your mind for it, you are almost certain to clear it. It will, of course, take some time to master this thoroughly; but it is a fine dashing feat, well worth the trouble of acquiring. Only don't think you are doing it if you are satisfied to pitch short and paddle along on your hands for the rest FIG. 43. of the distance; you ought to 'pitch clear over at one movement. If horses of vari- ous lengths are available, they will prove of immense service in practicing this ex- ercise. HANGING RINGS. These are very useful for developing the muscles of the arms and shoulders. We have, therefore, found room for a few exercises upon them as a guide to the young gymnast, who will find little difficulty in supplementing our instructions with exercises of his own. Commence by drawing yourself up, . as in Fig. 41, holding one ring at arm's- length, and the other close to the body. Draw in the outstretched arm and straighten the other, and repeat this as 530 GYMNASTICS often as you like, as it is very good pre- liminary exercise for the trapeze. Now, from this position gradually spread the arms wide apart, suspending the body between them, as in Fig. 42, and then let the body gradually sink down until you hang straight down by the arms again. There are many other strength move- ments on the hand-rings, but you will soon find them out for yourself; we will, therefore, pass on to the swinging exercises. Commence swinging simply backward and forward, increasing your momentum FIG. 45. by drawing yourself up by contracting the arms as you ascend, and when at the highest, lowering your body with a drop, and by this means you will swing higher each time, until you are able to' bring your arms and legs straight and nearly into a horizontal position, as in Fig. 43. Also swing in different positions in or- der to get command of yourself while swinging. Practice by drawing the legs over the FIG. 46. head when at the end of the swing, as in Fig. 44, passing back in this position to the other end, and then bringing the legs smartly over, and shooting them straight out (in order to preserve the momentum), and coming back all straight again to the starting point. Repeat this several times, and you will find it very good work for the muscles. Also swing with the hands close to the groin, and the arms nearly straight by the side, and supporting the body, as in Fig. 45 ; keeping yourself from pitching your head and shoulders too much forward, at the end of the swing, by bending the arms and projecting the legs, as in Fig. 46, which represents the bent position which you assume when beginning to descend. FIG. 47- Another variety of this swing is shown in Fig. 47, where the body is kept horizon- tal throughout. CLIMBING LADDERS, ROPES, ETC. Climbing the rope is a very useful exer- cise, which snould be practiced by every one, as it may often be the means of saving life in case of fire or shipwreck, etc. FIG. 48. FIG. 49. We mean climbing by the use of both legs and arms. Fig. 48 shows the way of taking hold of the rope, and Fig. 49 the position when climbing. FIG. FIG. 51. At gymnastic festivals, some of the com- petitors have ascended on a rope in this GYMNASTICS 531 way to the height of upward of one hun- dred feet. Another method is by holding on and raising yourself by using the hands only, but this is more difficult. Another exercise is by climbing the knotted rope, and also one with short cross- bars fixed at frequent intervals. Climbing the pole, either fixed or hang- ing, as in Fig. 50, only varies from the same exercise on the rope by its being rather more difficult to grasp, from being thicker and also rigid. Climbing ladders, fixed both in vertical jpid horizontal positions, and at various angles, furnishes a good variety of ex- ercise for the arms, and is very easy to commence with. Fig. 51 shows an exer- cise on the horizontal ladder, in which you hold by the outside, and progress by mov- FIG. 52. ing the hands forward alternately. Fig. 52 represents another movement, in which you walk along under the ladder, increasing the length of the step by holding the rounds at some distance apart, the intervening ones being passed. Fig. 53 shows one of the movements upon the perpendicular ladder, in which the object is to keep the arms and legs as straight as possible while the steps FIG. 53. are taken. Fig. 54 is the oblique ladder, which may be practiced by moving both up and down by the hands. It is hardly necessary to say that there are some simple rules to be observed in practicing. (i.) Never overtire yourself by practice, as that will do more harm than good. (2.) FIG. 54. Be careful not to get into a heat without having a wrapper handy to put on when you leave off; and do not practice after a full meal. (3.) Dress must also be suitable, as it is highly important to have all the limbs free and unfettered; and therefore light and loose garments and gymnastic shoes should be worn. A belt may be used by those who require it, but it is not indis- pensable. GYMNASTICS WITHOUT APPA- RATUS THE THREE CHAIRS. Even should the young gymnast be without any apparatus, he can train his body in various ways, so that when he obtains apparatus, its work will be half done. For example, he may practice the "Three Chairs" exercise, which will strengthen the loins immensely; that being just the portion of the body that is least exercised in the artificial life of the present day. The young gymnast should take three chairs, and set them in a row, the two end- most chairs facing each other, and the cen- tral one set sidewise. They should be just so far apart that the back of the head and the heels rest on the two endmost chairs, and that the central chair supports the mid- dle of the body. Now curve the body a little upward, so as to take its weight off the centre chair; take the chair with the right hand, draw it from under you, pass it over you to the other side, and with the left hand replace it under your body. This should be done several times, so as to -pass the chair from side to side. 532 GYMNASTICS The easiest way of learning this really useful exercise is to begin by putting the head and nape of the neck on one chair, and allowing the feet to reach nearly to the The Three Chairs. middle of the other. This will greatly take off from the difficulty; and as you feel yourself getting stronger, move the chairs gradually apart, so that at last you lie exactly as shown in the illustration. KICKING THE CORK. This is a capital exercise, and has the advantage of being exceedingly amusing. Draw two lines on the ground (like a JL reversed), one at right angles to the other. Place your right foot with the heel just touching the cross-line of the J., and the foot pointing along the upright line. Next, put your left foot in front of the right, with the heel just touching its toe, and then place the right foot in advance of left in a similar man- ner. You will thus make three short steps, each the exact length of your foot. Exactly in front of the advanced foot, stand a common wine cork upright. Now, go back to the cross-line, place your left heel against it as before, and with the right foot try to kick down the cork, as shown in the illustration, without losing Kicking the Cork. the balance of the body or allowing the left foot to touch the ground. At first it will be found utterly impossible to do so, the toe not reaching to within an inch of it; but a little practice will enable the young gymnast to perform the feat without very much difficulty. The best plan is to reach forward until you judge that your foot i close to the cork, and then, with a slight sidewise kick, strike at the cork, and bring yourself again to the upright position. This exercise is exceedingly valuable for strengthening the legs and giving pliability to the whole body. THE STOOPING STRETCH. This exercise does for the arms what the preceding does for the legs. Take the same lines as be- fore, and stand with both toes on the cross- line. Now throw yourself forward on your hands, and with the right hand make a chalk-mark on the floor as far as you can stretch. Having done this, spring up to the upright position by means of the left arm, taking care not to move the toes from the cross-line. Each competitor at this exer- cise tries to chalk his mark as far as pos- sible. When this exercise is first attempted, it seems utterly impossible to reach to any The Stooping Stretch. distance, the spring of the left arm being found insufficient to bring the body upright again. After a time, however, when the muscles of the arms become strengthened, the player finds that he can rapidly extend the length of stretch, until at last he can throw himself nearly flat on the ground, and yet spring up again. In order to strengthen both arms equally, they should be used alternately. One secret in performing this exercise is to chalk the mark and spring back as quickly as possible, as every second of time takes away the strength of the sup- porting arm. STILTS. There are various forms of stilts and modes of using them. Some, such as those which are employed by professionals, are strapped to the ankles and have no handles.- These should not be tried until the young gymnast is skilled with the han- dle-stilts, as a fall is really dangerous. Others have long handles, and the feet are received into leathern loops nailed on the stilt; but by far the best are those which, like the stilts represented in the il- GYMNASTICS 583 lustration, are furnished merely with two wooden projections on which the feet can rest. The easiest way of getting on the stilts is to stand with the back against the wall, Stilts. and take the handles of the stilts under the arms, as shown in the illustration. Then place the right foot on the step of one stilt, raise youiself, with your back still leaning against the wall, and then place the left foot on the step of the other stilt. Now try to walk, raising each stilt al- ternately with the hands, and lifting the foot with it. A very short time wKl get you into the way of doing this, and in a few days you ought to be able to walk with freedom. Having obtained some degree of pro- ficiency, you should race with other stilt- walkers, ascend and descend steps, planks, or stairs, pirouette on one stilt holding the other above your head and then replace the feet without coming to the ground, and perform similar feats. Accomplished stilt- walkers can even ascend and descend lad- ders laid at a considerable slope. The height of the feet from the ground rather diminishes than adds to the diffi- culty of walking on stilts. If the stilt- walker should feel himself losing his bal- ance, he should at once jump to the ground, and not run the risk of damaging himself by trying to recover his balance. After some little skill has been attained, the young athlete ought to be able to get on his stilts without needing the support of the wall, a short run and a spring being quite enough for the purpose. THE WALL-SPRING. A very good pre- liminary exercise is that which is called the "wall-spring." The young gymnast stands at some little distance from a wall, places his right hand behind his back, and throws himself against the wall, supporting him- self by the left hand. He then springs back to the upright position without mov- ing his toes from the spot on which they had been placed. This, like all similar ex- ercises, should be done with both arms al- ternately, and the gymnast should learn to throw the strength of all his body, as well as of the arms, into the spring. An explanation of the Japanese system of athletics, which combines with it the most formidable principles of self-defence, will be found further on in this book. The Wall Spring. We earnestly recommend every reader who wishes not only to gain strength and physi- cal poise, but to acquire the knack of pro- tecting himself against enemies of greater size and strength, to study carefully, the exposition of the elements of jiu-jitsu. ACCORDING to some authorities, the art of riding had best be and familiarity. Others hold that it is far easier to teach those learned in early childhood, in order to give the necessary ease who begin later, since there are then no bad habits to be overcome. In either case, however, the requisite confidence and readiness at meet- ing difficulties and managing the horse can only be acquired by constant practice and careful training; so that the whole question is one of the competency of the teacher and the intelligence of the learner. In the following treatise the essential points are set forth with sufficient clear- ness to enable one to readily understand what is to be learned; so that, when beginning practical training, he knows what he is expected to do. The whole secret of a correct position on the horse has been summed up in the following stanza : ''Your head and your heart keep boldly up; Your hands and your heels keep down ; Your legs keep close to your horse's side ; And your elbows keep close to your own." CHEFNEY'S Secret of Riding THE ESSENTIALS OF CORRECT RIDING MOUNTING. When about to mount, stand before the left shoulder of the horse, hold the whip in the left hand with the lash downward, leave the curb-rein loose on the neck, and take the snaffle- reins at their centre, between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, with which draw them up evenly between the fore and third fingers of the left hand (the middle or longest finger dividing them), until they are sufficiently tightened for you to feel the bearing of the horse's mouth. Throw the loose ends over the middle joint of the forefinger, so as to drop down on the off-side of the horse's neck. Then take the centre of the curb-reins between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, as already described, and allowing them to hang more slackened than the snaffle-reins, separate them with the little finger of the left hand, passing the loose ends up the palm, and casting them to the off-side over (634 v the ends of the snaffle-reins. Take with the right hand a lock of the mane, and wind it once or twice round the left thumb, clos- ing the hand so as firmly to grasp the reins and mane. The left hand may now be rested on the neck of the horse near to the withers, and within about six or eight inches of the pommel of the saddle. With the right hand, hold the stirrup until the left foot is placed in it ; the right hand should now be put on the cantle, the body raised until the feet are side by side, and both knees press the saddle; move the right hand from the cantle to the pommel, and throw the right leg quickly, but not hastily, or with a jerk, across the horse, and sink easily (no jerking or bumping) into the saddle. By turning the toe of the boot slightly in- ward so as to strike the right stirrup gently, the movement will cause it to swing partly round ; by this means the foot obtains pos- session of it without the aid of the hand, RIDING 535 which should never be employed when the stirrups are lost; after a little practice the stirrups may be dropped even when gal- loping, and quickly regained by striking both toes simultaneously inward. Get into the habit of making your horse stand steady during and immediately after mounting. When an animal has been in careless hands, he not infrequently tries to move off immediately he feels your weight on the stirrup. This is not only an un- pleasant but also a dangerous proceeding, especially when a lady is mounting. It may be checked by keeping the reins tight, and, if necessary, using the curb-rein. The horse is so docile an animal, though a creature of habit, that it can easily be taught what is required or cured of its de- fects, provided only that its master is pa- tient and intelligent. Thus, when mounted, A Horse Harnessed for Riding instead of immediately starting off at a trot or walk, wait a few seconds, and thus teach your horse that he is not to rush away imme- diately he feels your weight in the saddle. In order to discover the proper length for your stirrups, sit comfortably down on your saddle, keep the body upright, let the legs hang loosely at first, then clasp the horse slightly with them, turn the toe in and rather up; then the stirrup ought just to support the foot. Then stand up in the stirrups with the legs straight, and see whether the fork will clear the pommel of the saddle; it ought just to do so if the stir- rups are the correct length. Having once ascertained what is the correct length for the stirrups, you should measure from finger-tip to armpit the length from the buckle to the end of the stirrups, and thus you can always on future occasions tell whether any alterations are required before mounting. Being now seated on the horse, which we will suppose is a quiet, well-trained animal, it would be advisable that a groom Mounting or some friend should lead the horse for a time, in order that you may get accus- tomed to the motion of the horse and to sitting in the saddle. The seat in the saddle should be ob- tained by sitting well down, leaning rathev backward than forward, and grasping the horse with a tolerably firm grip of both legs. There are two seats to be avoided, but which nearly all beginners at first prac- tice : one is leaning forward as if in readi- ness to go over the horse's head; the other is sitting on the saddle as though it were red-hot. The very best method of getting "shaken down in the saddle," as the term is, is to quit the stirrups that is, take the feet out of them and trot round and round a circle. This can be easily done by hav- ing a rope attached to a head-collar on the horse, and getting this rope held by an attendant. After a few days of this A Good Seat kind of bumping, you learn how to grasp with the legs, so that you scarcely move from thf saddle, and you do not then 536 RIDING adopt the dangerous and unsightly prac- tice of depending mainly on the stirrups for your equilibrium. During the time you are "jogging" in the trot, the reins should be held one in each hand, and so that you "feel" gently the horse's mouth. At no time should the reins become slack, but a uniform "feel" should be maintained. A horse soon becomes ac- customed to the hand of its rider, and learns to obey the slightest change. Many Position in Riding horses, especially those gifted with tender mouths, will become restive, or will rear, attempt to run away, etc., when their riders either suddenly slacken, then tighten the reins, or in other ways alter their hold upon them. THE TROT. Having passed through the process of being shaken down in the sad- dle, we may then take our stirrups and learn how to sit down in the saddle, keep our stirrups, and yet not to rise in them when the horse trots ; after which we may practice rising to the trot. There is scarcely a more ridiculous exhibition than that of a rider working laboriously to rise to his horse's trot, using much more exertion than the animal he bestrides, while he works his arms and body as though riding were a very painful matter. The very slightest movement of the instep and a spring from the knee is sufficient to pre- vent the bumping produced by a horse's trot; and the skill or awkwardness of a rider is never more prominent than when his horse is indulged in a long slashing trot. THE CANTER. To "raise a horse into a canter" from a trot, we should slightly pull the left rein, at the same time closing the legs. By a steady hand on the reins we may increase or decrease the speed of the horse, or again reduce his pace to a trot. Nothing but practice and instruction will ever give a rider a good firm seat on a horse; but at the same time, practice alone may produce a strong seat but a very awk- ward one, unless the defects of the seat are pointed out early. VICES AND THEIR TREATMENT. Having attained a certain amount of skill in sit- ting on a horse and in handling the reins, the horseman may devote his attention to certain matters which are not unlikely to happen to every equestrian performer. These may be classed under the head of the vices of the horse, and are principally as follows : running away, shying, rearing, bucking, and refusing to move ; kicking, biting, and stumbling. RUNNING AWAY. A runaway horse is a most dangerous animal, and for an unskilled rider to keep such a creature is not advisable. Many so-called runaway horses, however, are merely high-spirited animals whose former riders were unable to manage them. As an example : we pos- sessed for three years a horse which we regularly hunted, and on which we placed a lady, and which had been sold because he was a determined runaway. Only once did this horse run away with us, and that was in consequence of the reins breaking. That horses do run away, however, is a fact ; and we will now consider the best means of dealing with this vice. A runaway horse is usually one with a very hard mouth, which is unaffected oy Position on a Run any amount of pulling applied merely as a dead pull. A horse is stronger than a man, and therefore to pull against him is useless. A particular kind of "bit" is requisite for a runaway horse; the best that we have found being E, powerful "Pelham." The reins should be very stout, so as to afford a firm grasp, with no fear of breaking. Stout strong reins also do not slip through the fingers as do those which are thin. We will now suppose that a rider ts RIDING 587 seated on a horse, and starts for a canter on a nice bit of turf. His horse, probably fresh, bounds off, and the rider soon finds the animal pays no attention to his "Whoa, whoa," or to the pull at the reins. A bad rider has at this point come to the end of his expedients, and usually does nothing more than give a dead pull at the reins until he gets cramp in his arms and fin- gers, and is unable to use them effectively, when he is at the mercy of his horse. Some riders vary the "dead pull" by saw- ing their horses' mouths by alternately pull- ing the right and left rein. This some- times, but rarely, has the effect of stopping a horse ; the common result being that the animal throws up its head, changes its feet in the gallop, but still goes on, probably with a temper not improved by the fact of An Awkward Position on a Run its mouth bleeding in consequence of this ill treatment. As an effectual method for pulling up a runaway horse we have never found any equal to the following: The reins being very strong, and the bit a "Pelham," or one which will not slip through a horse's mouth, we gather the reins short up in the left hand, so short that the hand is pressed against the horse's mane; then pass the right hand down the right rein until it grasps this rein within a few inches of the bit; with a firm hold pull this round toward the right knee, taking care that the horse does not snatch the rein out of your hand, as he will try to do if he be an accomplished runaway. When the horse's head is thus pulled round he can not gallop, nor can he do more than twist round. We have by this method the ad- vantage of a lever pulling round the horse's head with enormous power. Against this plan it has been urged that we are very likely to throw a horse down. Grant this; and it is perhaps the less of the two evils that we throw a horse down where we like, selecting a soft piece of turf, than that we get dashed to pieces by com- ing in collision with a carriage or cart, a lamp-post, or railing, or slip up on stone pavement, etc. But in answer to this ob- jection we can say that, on an average, once a week the horse we before mentioned tried to run away with us, but we invari- ably stopped him by this plan, and never, during three years, did we ever throw him down. Two other horses that we rode also on one or two occasions tried to run away, and were instantly stopped by this method ; thus we have practical proof of its effi- cacy, against the theoretical objection urged against it. To a bad or timid rider, or even to one not capable of dealing with it, a runaway horse is a dangerous possession ; unless, therefore, a rider is well skilled, well nerved, and strong-armed, our advice is, never mount a known runaway horse. As, however, every horse may, some time or other, try to run away, the preceding advice should not be neglected, as it may save a fall, a broken arm, leg, or neck. SHYING. Shying is a very common prac- tice of horses, particularly of young horses. It may arise from defective sight, or from mere frolic. To a good rider it is of no consequence, but to a bad horseman a fall may result. After a brief acquaintance with an animal, we can tolerably well tell at what objects he usually shies. To over- come this practice we should never be off our guard, but should ever keep a watch on our horse's ears. When we notice that he suddenly .raises his ears, and looks at- tentively at any object, it is probable that he may shy. To avoid such a result, we should endeavor to distract the animal's attention by patting his neck and speaking to him, a slight movement of the reins to arouse him, or by letting the whip rest on his neck, his attention may be withdrawn from the object that alarms him. A brutal and ignorant horseman usually commences thrashing his horse when it shies, and thus only adds to its fear, and causes it to re- peat its vice with double effect. An old horseman used to say that a. horse never could surprise him, because its ears always told him what it was thinking of doing. There is much truth in this re- mark, as every one accustomed to horses must know, and those unaccustomed to them may learn. REARING. Rearing is one of the most 538 RIDING dangerous and incurable of vices; it may, however, arise from a harsh use of the curb; but a rearing horse may at any time cause his rider's death by falling back on him. When a horse rears we should sit quietly on him, and well forward. A rider without a firm seat may lean back, holding on to the reins, and will thus pull the horse over on him. A sharp pair of spurs may be used with advantage on a rearing horse, but the reins must be very deli- cately handled the cause of rearing being in many cases due to that abominable habit of bad riders of continually jerking their horse's mouth, for no other reason,- apparently, than that they are themselves bad riders. BUCK-JUMPING. Bucking is an endeavor to unseat a rider, and consists in a series Rearing of bucks in the air, or a sort of rocking motion produced by a succession of jumps. The horse tries to get its head down be- tween its legs, arches its back, and springs several times from the ground. There is no other means left than to sit the horse through its performance, which generally takes place when first mounted, after which it not unusually will travel quietly all day. REFUSING TO MOVE. This is not a very common vice, except with a horse which has been cruelly ill-used. We once found a horse belonging to a friend which pos- sessed this vice, and we cured it by getting two leather straps, like handcuffs; by these we fastened the horse's forelegs together so that it could not move, and then sat patiently on its back. In about ten min- utes the animal got tired of standing still; but we determined on giving it a lesson. so we kept it hobbled for fully an hour, after which it at once moved on. On every occasion afterward, either the exhi- bition of these handcuffs or the attempt to put them on, at once was received as a hint, and the horse was ready to start off. KICKING. A kicking horse is always dan- gerous; when, however, we are on his back, it is well to remember that he can not kick with both hind legs while his head is held up. We should, however, be very careful how we allow any one to ap- proach him; also when in the stable great caution is requisite. The same remarks apply to a biting horse; it is better at once to get rid of such a brute, for we are never safe from his vicious habit. STUMBLING. Stumbling may arise from careless riding or from the imperfect form of a horse. An animal which in its walk or trot does not raise its feet much will usually be a stumbler; and if its forefeet, when they come to the ground, are not placed in advance of the shoulder, the horse is likely to be a dangerous stumbler. Those who wish to become adepts in re- gard to horses should, when the opportu- nity offers, study the form and action of a well-known good horse; the shape of his shoulders, set on of the head, and, in fact, every peculiarity should be noticed. There is no indicator equal to the eyes and the ears for telling the character of a horse ; the eye of a vicious horse never will look good-tempered, nor can he con- ceal its vicious look. The ears of a play- ful horse may, to the inexperienced, seem to indicate vice; for a horse that is play- ful, well bred, and fond of its master or groom, will often put back its ears and bite at its manger when its master ap- proaches it ; but this is not vice, and should not be misunderstood for such. Experience in this respect is needed to prevent mis- takes. The bits in most general use are the Plain Snaffle, the Curb, the Pelham, and the Hanoverian. The snaffle is used for horses with good mouths, and may, in the hands of a skil- ful rider, be used even for hard-mouthed, pulling animals. The curb is often used with the snaffle. It is more powerful, and will pull up most horses; it also makes a horse carry his head well, and is a favorite bit with mili- tary riders. The Pelham bit is very powerful, and is that which we recommend for a runaway RIDING 539 horse. It can be used either as a snaffle or curb, and is a very serviceable bit. The Hanoverian bit is more powerful even than the Pelham, but can not be used as freely or like a snaffle. It is very similar to the curb, the mouthpiece being bigger. When a rider has become sufficiently skilled to sit a horse well during its trot and canter, it is not improbable that he will wish to try a leap with it, or he may Varieties oi Bits: a, the Snaffle; b, the Pelham; c, the Hanoverian be desirous of hunting. Should this be the case, the first precaution is to find whether your horse can leap. It is not to be expected that a horse is to know how to do anything which he has not been taught any more than that a man should. Some horses may have reached the age of four or five years, and have never taken a leap; they don't know how to do it, and should be taught. If we ride a strange horse at a stile or stout fence, we may very probably find that the animal has been called upon to perform a feat as difficult to him as for a boy to leap with a pole, when he has never before attempted to do so. Remarking upon the number of accidents that annually occur in consequence of fool- hardy conduct with firearms, when some boy points a gun at his friend, and says, "I'll shoot you !" and straightway does so, while the boy shrieks, "Oh dear ! I didn't know it was loaded !" a veteran sportsman once recommended us "always to treat a gun as if it were loaded and on full cock, then we shall never have an accident" ; so we would recommend a young horseman al- ways to treat a horse as though he were likely to run away, likely to shy, and were unable to leap a stile safely, until we have personally proved the contrary. We can easily test our horse's leaping power by trying him at small safe fences ; but we must bear in mind that many good horses will often refuse a leap at which they are not ridden in a determined manner. A horse is very quick at finding out whether his rider really means to ride at a leap or is "just a little nervous" about it; and as few animals care to exert themselves un- necessarily, the horse is not likely to take a leap unless he believes his rider means it. Many horses which have been badly rid- den, or bullied by bad riders, have bad tempers, which show themselves by refusing leaps, or refusing other things. A good rider, or even an observant person, will soon discover what irritates his horse, and will avoid any acts which produce this effect. Horses that are usually ridden vary in age from about four years to seven or eight. Whenever your horse commits any fault, bear in mind that he is not so old as you are, and, in fact, is a mere child in years; treat him accordingly, try to assist his weaker mental powers by your skill, and you will always find him a good and faithful servant ; bully and ill treat him, and he is partially your enemy. When once, by ill treatrruent, you have produced any particular vice in a horse, it is almost impossible to eradicate it. The age of a horse may be known by Leaping his teeth, and the following will aid the tyro in learning how to discover a horse's age. When a colt is two years old, its teeth are called "milch teeth," the centre of which is whitish. At three years old the two centre milch teeth are displaced by two which are called "permanent teeth," and are distinguished by being broader, larger, and in the centre upper surface having dark cavities. 540 RIDING When a horse is four years old there will be four instead of two permanent teeth in the lower jaw, and between four and five years old the tusks begin to ap- pear in males. Up to four years old a male is called "a colt," after this age "a horse." At five years of age the horse's perma- nent teeth are complete, and the age after this is known by the wearing down of the cavities of the permanent teeth. At six years old the dark oval mark on the centre teeth is worn down, while the cavities in the other teeth are more filled Up. The tusks of the horse are longer than when five years old, but are still sharp and not much worn. At seven years old the cavities of the second pair of nippers are filled up; the tusks are blunted by wear, and are longer than formerly. At eight years the horse is sometimes said "not to have a good tooth in its head," that is, the corner nippers are filled up, and the age teeth are nearly all alike, the tusks exhibit greater signs of wear and tear, and are very blunt. CONCLUDING REMARKS Be kind and conciliatory to the noble beast that bears you, and never show the spirit of the coward by acting cruelly, or with unnecessary severity, toward a crea- ture so docile, so intelligent, and so useful as the horse. Let the young horseman re- member that this creature is endowed not only with strength for our service, and beauty for our admiration, but with nerves sensitive to pain, and a nature keenly alive to ill-usage. To a kind master, a good- tempered horse will by many signs show his attachment, which will increase as he becomes better acquainted with him. In riding continually in the field, as in cavalry work, exploration, or cowboy's work, the horse is sure to be worn out unless a very simple precaution is ob- served. The curry-comb will accomplish as much, or more than, an abundance of good feed. In the United States Army regulations, cavalry and artillery horses are required to be curried for three-quarters of an hour in the morning, and for the same length of time before dark. This represents no more than the amount of currying requi- site to keep a hard-worked horse in con- dition. In the field some cavalry leaders are apt to neglect currying to some extent, but military history shows that cavalry commanders who insist upon proper curry- ing of the horses are able to march their commands much greater distances. The value of the curry-comb can not be overstated. i. Muzzle and parts about the muzzle; 2. Gullet; 3. Windpipe; 4. Crest; 5. Withers; 6. Chest; 7. Girth; 8. Back. 9. Loins; 10. Ilium or Hip; n. Croup; 12. Haunch or Quarters; 13. Thigh; 14. Hock; 15. Shank or Cannon; 16. Few- lock-. 17. Pastern; 18. Shoulder-bone or Scapula; 19. Elbow; 20. Fore-arm; 21. Knee; 32. Coronet SWIMMING is the art of keeping the body afloat and propelling it by means of the feet and hands. The swimming of man is artificial, but as the specific gravity of the human body is very little greater than that of water, it can be floated with very little difficulty. Every boy should be taught to swim, and if he reads the following pages and abides by the instructions, he can easily teach himself. The first care of the intending swimmer is, of course, to find a proper piece of water in which to learn his first lessons. The very best water that can be found is that of the sea, on account of its saltness and bitterness, whereby two great advantages are obtained. The first advantage is, that, on account of the salt and other substances which are dissolved in it, the sea-water is so much heavier than fresh that it gives more support to the body, and enables the beginner to float much sooner than he can expect to do in fresh water. The other advantage is, that the taste of the sea-water is so nauseous that the learner takes very good care to keep his lips tightly shut, and so does not commit the common error of opening the mouth, which is fatal to all swimming, and is sure to dishearten a beginner by letting water get down his throat and half choke him. CONDITIONS AND METHODS OF SWIMMING AS TO PLACE, there is nothing better than a sloping sandy shore, where the tide is not very strong. In some places the tide runs with such a force that if the beginner is taken off his legs he will be carried away, or, at least, he will have great difficulty in regaining his feet. Take a special care of the holes, for there is nothing so treacherous. A hole of some six or seven inches in depth and a yard in diameter looks so insignificant when the water is out that few persons would take any notice of it; but, when a novice is in the water, these few inches may just make the difference between safety and death. On sandy shores the most fertile source of holes is to be found in large stones, which sink rather deeply into the sand. Around these the water courses as the tides ebb and flow, thus cutting a channel. Even when the stone is removed, the hole will remain unfilled through several tides. The next best place for learning to swim is a river with a fine sandy bed, clear water, and no weeds. When such a spot has been found, the next care is to examine the bed of the river and to remove very carefully every- thing that might hurt the feet. If bushes should grow on the banks, look out care- fully for broken scraps of boughs, which (541) 35 642 SWIMMING fall into the stream, become saturated with water, sink to the bottom, and become fixed with one of the points upward. If human habitations should be near, be- ware of broken glass and crockery ; frag- ments of which are generally flung into the river, and will inflict most dangerous wounds if trodden on. If the bed of the stream should be in the least muddy, look out for shells, which lie imbedded nearly to their sharp edges, that project upward and cut the feet almost as badly as broken glass. Failing sea and river, a pond or canal is the only resource, and furnishes the very worst kind of water. The bed of most ponds is studded with all kinds of cutting and piercing objects, which are thrown in by careless boys, and remain where they fall. Then, the bottom is almost invariably muddy, and the water is seldom clean. Still, bad as is a pond, it is better than nothing, and the intending swimmer may console himself with the reflection that he is doing his duty, and with the prospect of swimming in the sea some time or other. CONFIDENCE As the very essence of swimming lies in confidence, it is always better for the learner to feel secure that he can leave the water whenever he likes. Therefore, let him take a light rope of tolerable length, tie one end to some firm object on the bank, and let the rest of the rope lie in the water. "Manila" is the best kind of rope for this purpose, because it is so light that it floats on the surface instead of sinking, as is the case with an ordinary hempen rope. If there is only sand on the shore, the rope can be moored quite firmly by tying it to the middle of a stout stick, burying the stick a foot or so in the sand, and fill- ing up the trench. You may pull till you break the rope, but you will never pull the stick out of its place. If you are very ner- vous, tie two sticks in the shape of a cross and bury them in like manner. The rope need not be a large one, as it will not have to sustain the whole weight of your body, and it will be found that a cord as thick as an ordinary washing-line will answer every purpose. On the side of a stream or pond, tie the rope to a tree, or hammer a stake in the ground. A stick eighteen inches in length and as thick as an ordinary broomstick is quite large enough. Hammer it rather more than two-thirds into the ground, and let it lean boldly away from the water's edge. The best way of fixing the rope to it is by the "clove hitch." Now, having your rope in your hand, go quietly into the water backward, keeping your face toward the bank. As soon as you are fairly in the water, duck completely be- neath the surface. Be sure that you really do go fairly under water, for there is noth- ing more deceptive than the feel of the water to a novice. He dips his head, as he fancies, at least a foot beneath the sur- face; he feels the water in his nose, he hears it in his ears, and thinks he is al- most at the bottom, when, in reality the back of his head is quite dry. The best way of "ducking" easily is to put the left hand on the back of the head, Diving hold to the rope with the right hand, and then duck until the left hand is well under water. The learner should next accustom him- self to the new element by moving about as much as possible, walking as far as the rope will allow him, and jumping up and down so as to learn by experience the buoyancy of the water. Perhaps the first day may be occupied by this preliminary process, and on the sec- ond visit the real business may begin. In swimming, as in most other pursuits, a good beginning is invaluable. Let the learner bestow a little care on the preliminaries, and he will have no bad habits to unteach himself afterward. It is quite as easy to learn a good style at first as a bad style, although the novice may just at the beginning fancy that he could do better by following his own devices. The first great object is to feel a perfect SWIMMING 543 confidence in the sustaining power of the water, and, according to our ideas, the best method of doing so is by learning to float on the back. FLOATING ON THE BACK Take care that the cord is within easy reach, so that it may be grasped in a mo- ment, should the novice become nervous, as he is rather apt to do just at first. Take it in both hands, and lay yourself very gently in the water, arching the spine back- ward as much as possible, and keeping the legs and knees perfectly straight and stiff. Now press the head as far back as pos- sibly can be done, and try to force the back of the head between the shoulder- blades. You can practice this attitude at home, by lying on two chairs and seeing whether your attitude corresponds with that which is given in the illustration. When you have thus lain in the water you will find that you are almost entirely upheld by its sustaining power, and that Floating on the Back only a very little weight is sustained by the rope. On reflection you will also discern that the only weight which pulls on the rope is that of your hands and arms, which are out of water, and which, therefore, act as dead weight. Indeed you might just as well lay sev- eral iron weights of a pound each upon your Cody, for the hands and arms are much heavier than we generally fancy. Just break an arm or a leg, and you will find out what heavy articles they are. Now let your arms sink gradually into the water, and you will see that exactly in proportion as they sink, so much weight is taken off the rope ; and if you have only courage to put them entirely under water, and to loose the rope, your body will be supported by the water alone. SWIMMING ON THE BACK There are many modes of swimming on the back, head first ; some in which the hands are the mcving power, others in which the force is derived from the legs, and some in which the legs and arms are both exerted. To practice one of these methods viz., that commonly called floating you should throw your head gently back, as before, bringing your feet to the surface; let your arms lie in the water close to your sides, using the hands in the same manner as when sculling, with a swift pushing mo- tion of the palms toward the feet, return- ing edgewise, thumbs first, by bending the arms ; and pushing again toward the feet by straightening the arms close to the sides. This produces a very rapid progress through the water and may be continued for some time. Another method is as follows : Throw yourself round on your back without stop- ping (which may be done with a swing of the body, while swimming in the first de- scribed method), and you will retain part of the impetus already acquired. Then throw both hands out of the water, as far as you can reach, in the direction you wish to proceed, entering again edgewise beyond your head, and describe a segment of a circle in the water, having the shoulders for a centre. The hands on appearing again on the surface below the hips should pass immediately through . the air for another stroke. This mode is very serviceable when taken with cramp or symptoms of cramp, as it removes the stress entirely off the muscles of the leg. It may be gracefully varied by using the right and left hands alternately. For the practice of a third method the hands and arms are to be used as in the last, but the progress should be aided by the lower limbs striking out with vigor, after having been drawn up to the body by the stroke made with the arms. The kick should be made as the hands pass through the air. This is a very quick manner of swimming, and is most commonly resorted to for relief when swimming in a match. For another method, lie on your back with your arms folded, or with your hands passed over your shoulders beneath your neck, or floating quietly by your side, draw- ing up your legs toward the chest as high as possible and then striking them back- ward with vigor, which will cause you to make considerable progress through the water without using the arms at all. When you draw up your feet the movement is against the surface, where there is little resistance, but, when you strike them out, the force is applied in- a downward direc- 644 SWIMMING tion where the resistance is greatest. The foregoing method is useful when your arms are tired, or you have something to carry or tow after you, the hands being perfectly free. Steering the course is easily managed by means of the legs. If the left leg is al- lowed to remain still, and the right leg is used, the body is driven to the left, and vice versa when the left leg is used and the right kept quiet. The young swimmer must remember that when he brings his legs together they must be kept quite straight and the knees stiff. The toes should also be pointed, so as to offer no resistance to the water. Swimming on the back is a most useful branch of the art, as it requires compara- tively little exertion and serves to rest the arms when they are tired with the ordi- nary mode of swimming. All swimmers who have to traverse a considerable distance always turn occasionally on the back. They even in this position allow the arms to lie by the sides until they are completely rested, while at the same time the body is gently sent through the water by the legs. Let swimming on the back be perfectly learned, and practiced continually, so that the young swimmer may always feel secure of himself when he is in that position. The feet should be kept about twelve or fourteen inches below the surface of the water, as, if they are kept too high, the stroke is apt to drive the upper part of the head and eyes under the water. It must always be remarked that it is impossible to arch the spine too much, or to press the head too far between the shoulders. SWIMMING ON THE CHEST We now come to swimming on the chest, which is the mode adopted by most persons, and which, together with swimming on the back, will enable the learner to perform al- most any aquatic feat. In order to begin with confidence, walk into the water until it is almost as high as the chest, and then turn toward the land, so that every movement may carry you from the deeper to the shallower water. Next place your hands in front of the chest, the fingers stiff and pressed together, and the thumb held tightly against the fore- finger. Do not press the palms together, as too many books enjoin, but hold the hands with the thumbs together, the palms downward and the backs upward. Now lean gently forward in the watex- pushing your hands out before you until the arms are quite straight, and just be- fore your feet leave the bottom give a little push forward. You will now propel your- self a foot or two toward the land. Try how long you can float, and then gently drop the feet to the bottom. Be careful to keep the head well back and the spine arched. Repeat this seven or eight times, until you have gained confidence that the water will support you for a few seconds. The accompanying illustration shows the proper attitude. Now go back to the spot whence you started, and try to make a stroke. Lay yourself on the water as before, but when the feet leave the bottom draw them up close to the body, and then kick them out quickly. When they have reached their full extent, press them together firmly, keeping them quite straight and the toes pointed. This movement will drive you onward for a short distance, and when you feel Swimming on the Cbest that you are likely to sink, drop the feet as before. Start again and make another stroke, and so on until the water is too shallow. At first you will hardly gain more than an inch or two at each stroke; but after a little practice you will gaia more and more until you can advance three or four feet without putting the legs to the ground. It is a good plan to start always from the same spot, and to try in how few strokes you can reach the land. There is a great interest in having some definite object in view, and one gets quite excited in trying to reduce the number of strokes. The next point is the movement of the arms. In reality the arms are more valuable in swimming than the legs, and for this sim- ple reason : any one who has the use of his limbs at all is obliged to use his legs daily, and that to a considerable extent. How- ever sedentary he may be, he must walk up and down stairs twice at least in the day. He must walk from one room to another. SWIMMING 545 He must get into and out of his carriage, and walk a few paces to his office. And in all these little walks his legs have to carry the weight .of his body, which, to set it at the least figure, weighs from seventy to ninety pounds. THE SIDE-STROKE There is no stroke that enables the swim- mer to last so long as this does, and for this reason : instead of employing both arms and legs simultaneously in the same man- ner, the side-stroke employs them simulta- neously, but in different manners ; so that when the swimmer is tired of exercising one side he can just turn over and proceed with the other, the change of action rest- ing the limbs almost as much as actual re- pose wowld do. The side-stroke is thus managed : the swimmer lies on his right side, stretching his right arm out as far as he can reach, keeping the fingers of the right hand quite straight and the hand itself held edgewise, so as to cut the water like a shark's fin. The left hand is placed across the chest, with the back against the right breast, and the swimmer is then ready to begin. He commences by making the usual stroke with his legs, and the right leg, being undermost, doing the greater share of the work. Before the impetus gained by the stroke is quite expended, the right arm is brought round with a broad sweep, until the palm of the hand almost touches the right thigh. At the same moment, the left hand makes a similar sweep, but is car- ried backward as far as it can go. The reader will see that the hands act directly upon the water like the blades of The Side-Stroke a pair of oars, and do not waste any of their power by oblique action. In ordinary swimming we seldom use the left arm, but allow it to hang quietly in the water, so that it may be perfectly ready for work when wanted. Then, after some little time we turn round, swim on the other side and give the left arm its fair share of labor. IN a certain sense it is true that each nation largely, also, each period of time has its own outdoor game. For very many years cricket and football have been popular in England, whence they were im- ported to America; golf came to us from Scotland; croquet, probably, from France; tennis, in some form, has been played in England for sev- eral centuries. Baseball has been well called the "national game" of the United States, and is seldom played in other countries. As for polo, it was originated in the Far East in India or Persia perhaps before the Christian Era, and was frequently mentioned by the native poets and historians of the eighth and ninth centuries A.D., who relate many remarkable anecdotes of the royal and noble players of the period. The Persian and Hindu name was chaugan; the Japanese name, dakin, meaning "strike-ball"; the present name, polo, derives from the Thibetan word, pulu, meaning a "ball of willow wood." The game mentioned as "tennis" m the "Arabian Nights" is very probably polo. According to the claims of some writers, polo was played in England several centuries ago, under the name "pala maglia," which is used by several writers and travellers of the period. The name Pall Mall, so familiar to Londoners, is said to be derived from this game, which was formerly played at the place so designated. A somewhat similar game, called "knappen," was played in Wales during the reign of Queen Eliza- beth, but long since fell into disuse. As at present played in England and America, polo is a comparatively recent importation, having been introduced by some officers of the loth Hussars at Aldershot, England, in 1869. It immediately gained great popularity among the English cavalry regiments; the first notable match between contending teams hav- ing been played on Hounslow Heath, in June, 1870, between the ist Life Guards, on the one side, and the officers from the 9th Lancers and loth Hussars on the other. Since that time the popularity of the game has constantly increased, and it is now a favorite diversion on both sides of the Atlantic. The most popular outdoor games at the present time in America are golf, tennis, and baseball, the two former having, in large measure, sup- planted croquet. The value of an outdoor game as a means of exercise can not be overrated. Even such mild exercise as is found in golf and croquet is most beneficial to persons of sedentary habits. OUTDOOR GAMES 547 RULES FOR THE GAME OF POLO AMONG the indispensable requirements for a good game of polo, we may mention: (i) Players who are expert horse- men ; (2) thoroughly trained ponies, capable of good speed and perfectly under the con- trol of their riders; (3) thorough knowl- edge of the game, including the location of goals, the duties of the several mem- bers of the team, and thorough acquaint- ance with the playing qualities of each; (4) expertness begotten of constant prac- tice in hitting the ball, both back and front, on either side. Regarding the mounts suitable for this game, it may be said that ponies which term indicates small breeds of horse, some- what like the American "mustang" have been found more suitable than horses of ordinary size; not only from the fact that they are light, strong, and swift, in pro- portion to their size, but also involve a much shorter reach to the ground, a most important consideration in making near- side strokes. RULES FOR PRACTICE. In practicing for the game two things are necessary always assuming, of course, that the would-be player is an accomplished horseman. These are: (i) to practice the four fundamental strokes the straight- forward back and front, and the near-side back and front and (2) to train the pony to respond readily to the slightest movement, and eventually to understand the game so far as to follow the ball. In training the pony, one must practice with a companion, preferably one of his own team, the process of training and the things to be taught depending on the position of his rider in the team. In learning the strokes, however, the would-be polo player faces a much more difficult proposition. In the first place, he must learn how to hit the ball, both when lying on the ground and when bowled to him by a companion. This is by no manner of means easy, and, at best, requires con- siderable careful practice. In the second place, the player must learn to hit the ball without also hitting his horse's legs. If he is not thoroughly beyond this form of bungling, he will frequently run the risk of injuring his mount and spoiling his own pleasure. The early stages of prac- tice, therefore, had best be taken on a wooden horse somewhat the same kind of apparatus as is used in gymnasiums if also of the same height as your polo pony, which is generally about 14 hands. When the novice has advanced sufficiently to avoid hitting the legs of the wooden horse, when aiming at balls bowled to the one side or the other by his companion, he may try his hand on the live mount. One advantage of using the pony in practice, after one has acquired a moderate facility at striking, is that he may regulate his distance sufficiently to allow him to take a stroke with his full arm; thus gaining the advantage of superior force, while avoiding any movements liable to injure his mount or break his stick. ESSENTIALS OF THE GAME. The game of polo is played on an especially arranged field or ground, measuring, according to standard requirements, at least 750 feet in length and 500 feet in width. At either end of this ground is a goal ; each team having its own designated at the begin- ning of the game. The object of the game, as in football, is to make a goal or to send the ball between the posts; each team endeavoring to carry the ball toward the opposite end of the field, and bending every effort to accomplish this result. In this work, each man on the team has his own particular part, which he must thoroughly understand and carefully follow out. The game is not an indiscriminate hitting at the ball, at any and every time it comes within reach, nor is it always permissible for one player to make the movements perfectly proper for another. As has been well remarked, "polo is es- sentially a game of combinations." Thus, the four players on a side combine into two pairs; Nos. I and 2 playing together, and Nos. 3 and 4 forming another com- bination. Each player, and each pair, has particular duties assigned, and is required to devote his attention to performing them. Whenever it is possible, the two players of each pair should practice together daily, in order that each may become thoroughly acquainted with the play of the other. Therefore, as we shall understand pres- ently, the assignment of ponies usually rec- ommended is, as follows: the most reliable to Nos. 3 and 4; the most manageable to No. 3; the fastest to Nos. i and 2. In the terminology of the game, Nos. i and 2 are called "forwards" and No. 4 the "back" 648 OUTDOOR GAMES BEGINNING THE GAME. In beginning the game the two teams, of four players each, place themselves in any one of the several recognized arrangements as chosen by their respective captains on either side of a line drawn through the centre of the field from side to side. The ball is then thrown down by the umpire, and the play begins by the proper player on either side hitting the ball, in the attempt to drive it toward the goal, and is continued by the 5 00 feel P f v 8 * 2 r 500/eet Diagram of a Polo field, showing opposing teams (each member designated by his proper number) ar- ranged in two common orders on either side of the median line. The umpire, standing at -\-, throws in the ball along the line drawn between the two teams other players, who either assist him in this effort or use recognized tactics to prevent the other side from interfering, or from gaining the advantage. One of the most notable methods of accomplishing these ends is what is known as riding-off or riding-out, which may be denned as the act of riding up to a player of the op- posing team, so as to interpose one's own pony between him and the ball, in order to prevent him from taking possession of it, or from interfering with a player of one's own team who is in position to strike it If, however, the player on the opposite side is already "in possession" of the ball which is to say, has struck it and is fol- lowing up his advantage he may not be ridden off. In riding off, the two ponies run abreast, or side by side, and any fair and gentlemanly force is permissible, either to change your opponent's course, or to prevent him from changing yours. No other jostling or pushing is allowed, how- ever, except by the use of the arm from the shoulder to the elbow, held close against the body. THE PLAYERS AND THEIR DUTIES. The object of arranging the teams on either side of the line through which the ball is thrown by the umpire, as already de- scribed, is to enable the proper perform- ance of duties by the several players. Briefly explained, the duties of the several players may be summed up as follows from back to forward: No. 4. It is the duty of No. 4 to pre- vent the ball from passing him, and to strike it back to his own No. 3. The duty of No. 3 is to pass the ball to his No. 2, and, also, to support No. 4 by preventing players on the opposite team from inter- fering with the performance of his duties. The duties of No. 2 include striking the ball toward the opposite goal posts and following it up until, if possible, he makes a goal. The duties of No. i are largely included in preventing No. 4 of the oppos- ing team from hitting the ball to his own forward. The duties of the several players are, in general, fixed and determined as here specified, although Nos. i and 3 may, on occasion, perform the duties of No. 2, in hitting the ball forward to a goal No. 2 being, meantime, occupied in riding off the opposing Nos. 3 or 4, as will be pres- ently explained, or else being so strongly harassed, as to be unable to discharge his proper functions. Provided all the players on a given team are equally expert in their own parts, No. 4 is nearly the most important member. His duties always place him, as his name indicates, as the rear of his team, so that he may meet the ball sent toward his goal by the opposing team, and pass it forward to his own Nos. 3 and 2. He may assist them, in attack, to make a goal by doing his part in keeping his ball for- ward. It seldom happens that he is called wxm to go into the game, carrying the OUTDOOR GAMES 549 ball forward to the goal, unless his own forwards are far weaker players than him- self. His best service is to constantly maintain his proper position at the rear. One especially essential thing is that he should ride a fast pony and be always alert himself; keeping his eye constantly upon the ball. As a rule, he should hit a back-hand stroke; since he can thus give the ball far better force and speed than by meeting it with front stroke, and is also in position to pursue and overtake it Quickness of movement and force in hit- ting are his most essential qualities. No. 3. The duties of No. 3 render him scarcely second in importance, since he must both assist his own No. 4 in passing the ball forward, and also protect him, in the event of attack from one of the oppo- site team. Under ordinary circumstances, his best service may be rendered at the rear, where he may perform the duties of No. 4, when occasion demands, and also meet and stop the ball. He should be a strong hitter, fully practiced in striking the ball from either front or rear. In stop- ping the ball it is generally found best to meet it back-handed, and, then turning, to send it forward with a front stroke. The duties of No. 3 vary slightly, accord- ing as his team is in attack or defence. In the former case, he must not only pass the ball forward, but also be ready to back up his own No. 2, by "riding the chord of an arc," when possible, and reaching the mov- ing ball before any of the opposing team. In defence, he must not only stop and meet the ball and send it forward to his own No. 2, but must often ride-off the No. 2 of the opposing team, thus preventing his own No. 4 from being harassed by two opponents at once. Since his duties lead him to assist both No. 2 and No. 4, he should always be the man of soundest judgment on the team, and ride the most manageable pony. No. 2. In a well-trained team, playing a game in strict accord with the rules, No. 2 is virtually the real playing member; since it is upon him devolves the duty of sending the ball through the opposite goal posts. For the performance of this duty he should be thoroughly expert at hitting the ball on a run, and should be mounted on a pony that is so thoroughly well trained to the game, as not to "pull" or race away too fast to permit an effective stroke. This means that, while his pony should be capable of making good speed, he should be so thoroughly under control as not to turn the game into a race. So far as his qualifications are concerned, No. 2 must (i) constantly bear in mind the location of the goal posts of the opposing team; (2) must be able to hit the ball without being obliged to first stop and "steady" on it, thus actually checking its forward travel. Since, in very many cases, No. 2 will be so seriously harassed that he can not make the goal himself, he must be prepared to strike it forward on a run to his own No. I or No. 3, who may be riding on a chord of an arc to meet it, thus allowing either of them to perform his duties in sending the ball forward. Straightforward Front Stroke Were it not that the duties of No. 2 could, on such occasions, devolve upon No. i or No. 3, a large part of very many polo games would be merely the crowding of No. 2. Since, also, No. 2 is frequently liable to be ridden off by the opposing No. 3, his own No. I and No. 3 are hardly in position to assist him defensively. He must thus be ready to change places with No. I or No. 3 whenever required. If, in a strongly contested game, the ball is in possession of No. i or No. 3, No. 2 will find it the best plan not to attempt to resume it himself, unless sure of his ability to make a goal. In uch an emer- 550 OUTDOOR GAMES gency, he may be required to ride-off the opposing No. 3 or No. 4. In fact, in de- fence, No. 2, always in front of his own team, should avail himself of the oppor- tunity to assist his own man by riding-off the opposing No. 3 should such a move- ment be necessary. In general, the proper strokes for No. 2 should be straight forward, and not on the near side. He may, however, on occasion, hit out from behind to meet a ball ; thus sending it forward to his own Nos. I and 3. For the purpose of making a straight goal, No. 2 should constantly bear in mind that the ball must be kept moving on a Straightforward Back Stroke line, as near by as possible, through the centre of the field. To this end he should not only aim to drive it forward, in at- tack, but also to drive it to the centre line, whenever the opposing team has suc- ceded in driving it to the one side or the other. If, however, he has succeeded in driving it forward, near to the goal posts, but somewhat to one side, he should not attempt to cut through the post sidewise, but should strike the ball back-hand to his own No. 3, whose position is in front of the goal, ready to follow up the ad- vantage. No. i. The duties of the man playing No. I on the team are principally those of a general guard: (i) in stopping the ball sent toward his own goal by the op- posite team, or (2) by preventing the op- posite No. 4 from performing his proper duties. In order to be thoroughly profi- cient in performing his part on the team, No. i must have (i) a thorough knowledge of the play of his own No. 2, with whom it is desirable that he should practice, as often and as regularly as possible, and (2) he should be mounted on the best-trained pony in the team. His pony should be trained to obey the rein absolutely; to be able to start and stop suddenly, and be easily guided in riding-off the opposing No. 4, whenever necessary. In interfering with the No. 4 of the op- posing team, No. i will frequently find it impossible to ride him off. If, for ex- ample, these two opposing players are racing for the ball the opposing No. 4 with a view to protecting his own goal, and our own No. i with a view to preventing it from being stopped No. I, if sufficiently near to No. 4, may prevent him from stop- ping it by reaching forward and "crooking his stick." In the act of crooking an ad- versary's stick, the standard rule must be rigorously observed ; that No. I must be on the same side of No. 4*3 pony as is the ball, or in a straight line behind him; so that his stick shall pass neither under nor over his adversary's pony. In addition to harassing the play of No. 4 of the opposing team, No. i should con- stantly watch the opposing No. 3, in order to prevent him from hitting the ball. Thus, if the opposing No. 4 has met and struck back the ball, our No. i may ride to the rear, in order to prevent the opposing No. 3 from striking it; striving, if possible, to come between that No. 3 and the ball. In the event that the No. 4 of the op- posing team should miss stopping the ball, or should hang back, it is the duty of No. i to hit past him for a goal, leaving his own No. 2 to ride off the opposing No. 4 if possible. In fact, No. i has many chances of making a goal. THE AMERICAN REGULATIONS. While the game of polo, like football, cricket, and several other athletic sports, is played un- der slightly different rules in England, America, and the East, it is not necessary in the present treatise to pass very far beyond the rules observed under the Amer- ican regulations. According to these rules, the American play is somewhat simpler and has fewer regulations than those observed 551 in other countries. However, in order to play a perfectly correct game it is necessary to observe but three things: (i) that the real object of the game is to land the ball beyond and between the goal posts; (2) that each player should thoroughly under- stand his own duties and limitations, also the duties and limitations of the other players on all occasions; that each player should be thoroughly trained and prac- ticed in performing his own duties, and should be mounted on a pony chosen with regard to qualities best suited to the part. In these respects the game of polo is played, with reference not only to particu- lar combinations of players, but also with reference to the special aptitude of each. Nearside Front Stroke Furthermore, the pony to be mounted by each player must be carefully selected and trained to. perform the particular part to which he is assigned, just as the hounds in a pack naturally assume the places and functions, in a hunt, for which innate qualities best adapt them. (i.) The grounds to be about 750 feet long by 500 feet wide, with a ten-inch guard from end to end on the side only. (2.) The height of the ponies must not exceed 14 hands and i inch. (3.) The balls to be of bass wood, with no other covering than paint, 31-8 inches in diameter, and not to exceed 5 ounces in weight. Mallets to be such as are approved by the committee. (4.) The goal posts to be 24 feet apart, and light enough to break if collided with. (5.) Match games between pairs shall be two periods of fifteen minutes each, actual play. Time between goals and delays not counted; two minutes after a goal has been made and five minutes be- tween periods for rest, unless otherwise specified. (6.) Match games between teams of three shall be four periods of fifteen minutes each, actual play. Time between goals and delays not counted; two minutes after a goal has been made and five min- utes between periods for rest, unless otherwise specified. (7.) Match games between teams of four shall be three periods of twenty minutes each, actual play. Time between goals and delays not counted; two minutes after a goal has been made and ten minutes between the periods for rest, unless other- wise specified. (8.) Each team to choose an umpire, and, if necessary, the two umpires to appoint a referee, whose decision shall be final. (9.) Each team should have a substitute in read- iness to play when a match is on. (10.) There shall be a captain for each team, who shall have the direction of positions and plays of his men. The home captain shall provide two acceptable goal judges, whose decision shall be final in regard to goals made at the end at which he may be placed. . (i2.) Only players, umpires, and referee allowed upon the grounds during the progress of the game. (13.) The game to begin when the ball is thrown between the contestants, who shall be in line fac- ing each other in the middle of the field, unless it is agreed between the captains to charge. The charge to be from a line 30 feet in front of the goal-posts. When the signal to charge has been given, the first and second players must keep to the left of the ball until it has been hit. (14.) It is forbidden to touch an adversary, his pony, or his mallet with the hand or mallet during play, or to strike the ball when dismounted. A player should not put his stick over his adversary's pony either in front or behind. In "riding off" or "hustling," a player shall not push or strike with his arm or elbow. (15.) When the game is resumed, the ball shall be thrown between the players, who shall be lined up at the point at which the ball is stopped. But if the game is stopped on account of a foul, the ball is to be thrown in at the place at which the foul occurred. (16.) When the limit of time has expired, the game must continue until the ball goes out of bounds or a goal is made, and such overtime shall not be counted. (17.) In event of a tie at the end of the last period, the game to be continued until one side is credited with a goal or part of a goal. (18.) When the ball goes out of bounds at the sides, it must be thrown in from the place at which it went out, by the referee or by an impar- tial person, between the two sides, which shall be drawn up in line facing each other. When the ball goes out ends, the side defending that goal is entitled to a knock-out from the point at which it crossed the line. When the player having the knock-out causes unnecessary delay, the referee may throw a ball on the field and call play. No opponent shall come within 50 feet of a player having the knock-out until the ball has been hit (19.) Whenever a player, either accidentally or intentionally, knocks the ball behind the line at the end at which the goal defended by his side is situated, it shall be deemed a safety knock-out, and shall score one-fourth of one goal against such player's side. When the ball is caromed out or f " .ked out by a pony, it shall not score as above. 662 OUTDOOR GAMES (ao.) The referee shall have power to impose a fine not exceeding forty dollars on any team, or member of a team, that shall fail to appear within a reasonable time of the hour named for the events for which they have been entered, or for any misconduct or violation of the rules dur- ing the progress of the games, and shall report the same in writing to the committee for enforce- ment. And he may exclude from the game any dangerous or vicious pony; and he may start the game, notwithstanding the absence of any players, after the time fixed. (21.) A player requiring a mallet during the game must ride to the end or side line to procure one; it must not be brought on the field to him. (.22.) The referee may stop the game at any time when the Ball is broken, or when it strikes the ref- eree, or his pony, and may substitute another ball by throwing it between the players at a point as near as possible to where it was stopped. (23.) A ball must go over and clear of the line to be out, and over and clear of the line to count a goal. When a ball is hit above the top of the goal-posts, but in the opinion of the referee 'hrough, it shall be considered a goal. (24.) Foul riding is careless and dangerous horsemanship, and lack of consideration for the safety of others. A player in the possession of the ball has the right of way, and no one shall cross him, unless at such a distance as to avoid all pos- sibility of a collision. (25.) The referee may suspend a player for the match for a foul, or he may award the opposing side a half -goal. (26.) When a player is replaced by a substitute, he can not return to the team the same day, ex- cept to take the place of a player who is incapaci- tated. In any change of players after the game has begun, the handicap of the man having the highest number of goals shall be counted. (27.) Any member of the committee may meas- ure ponies (not his own) and issue certificates, good for the season for ponies under five years of age. Ponies five years old or over, holding such certificates, need not be measured again. (34.) No dismounted player shall be allowed in any way to take part in the game while dis- mounted. GOLF GOLF is called the "Game of Kings," for the reason that Scottish sovereigns are believed to have played the game, in one form or another, since Scotia first ex- isted Unlike most out-of-door sports, it can not be played under cover though, of course, some of the shots may be practiced in such a place as a riding school. Even here, however, the ideal conditions of this royal game do not exist, for the real golf field is a meadow covered with short grass. This field should be as near the sea as pos- sible, as a sandy soil is much to be pre- ferred. The word "links" is applied to the field merely because in Scotland stretches of meadow and sand close to the sea are so termed in the vernacular. "Bunkers" are ordinary depressions in such a sandy soil. These "bunkers" are called "hazards," although any obstacle, such as trees, water, roads, high grass, brush, or fences or, in short, anything that interferes with the effective progress of the ball is known by that general term. The course consists of eighteen holes, generally arranged in the form of a circle. On some courses, where the saving of land area is an object, the holes are arranged in circles, one within the other, of nine holes each. The idea of golf is to put the ball a small one, gutta-percha into the holes con- secutively, and with the least number of strokes. There are several ways of play- ing the game. In "singles," two persons play against each other, each having a ball. The number of holes made, and not the number of strokes, decides the victory. In "foursomes," two persons play against two others. Both in "singles" and "foursomes," each side has its own ball. In "foursomes," "hole play" is usual. The game is won in either by the player or the side that wins more holes than the opponent, each hole being won by the player or side that makes it in the least number of strokes. There is another form of the game, known as "medal play," in which the win- ner is the one who makes the entire round of the holes in the least number of strokes. When beginning, the player puts a little pat of sand down on the "teeing ground," and on top of this places the ball. With the appropriate club he drives the sphere as close as he can to the first hole. From whatever point at which the ball lands he must drive it with one of his clubs, it not being permissible to touch the ball with his hands until it has gone into the first hole. This latter feat having been accomplished, he lifts the ball from the hole and tees it again, preparatory for a drive to the sec- ond hole, and so on around the course. The distance between holes may be from TOO to 500 yards, to suit the limits of the grounds or the wishes of the players. A complete outfit of clubs consists of nineteen, though many excellent players do with a less number. The complete list, and their uses, are as follows : OUTDOOR GAMES 553 (1) The Driver, or play club, is used to send the ball from the tee, or wherever else it lies, for a long distance. (2) The Putter is required for short strokes. It has a short shaft, with the head nearly at right angles. (3) The Cleek is the longest driver of all the clubs, with metal heads. (4) The Brassie resembles the driver, but has a brass plate and is used for play- ing "through the green." (5) The Brassie Niblic has a smaller head than the driver; the face is spooned back and the sole is shod with brass. This club is used with the idea of raising the ball in the air from a depression in the ground. (6) The Long Spoon has the same kind of head as the brassie, though very much spooned, with a long shaft. (7) The Mid Spoon, the same as the preceding, but with medium length of shaft. (8) The Short Spoon, also the same, but with very short shaft. (9) The Driving Iron, of deeper blade than the cleek, will not drive as far, but will send the ball higher. (10) The Lofting Iron, very much like the preceding, but will send the ball higher. (n) The Niblic, for getting the ball out of hazards, very heavy and with a small, rounded head. (12) The Baffy. (13) Bulger Driver. (14) Bulger Brassie; (15) Putting Cleek. (16) Driving Cleek. (17) Mashie. (18) Gun Metal. Putter. (19) Medium Iron. The best length of a single drive is about 175 yards, and one of 200, over average ground, is considered very good. A drive of 280 yards has been recorded in Scotland. STYLE This is the first essential for a beginner to cultivate. It is an absolute require- ment of good play, and can be acquired only from a player of much experience and skill. Suppose you are ready to tee the ball. To "sole" the ball let the head lie flat on the ground, with the face, or part of the club that is intended to strike the ball, at a perfect right angle to the direction in which you mean to drive. Stand parallel to the line of the ball's flight, with the feet in line with each other. The feet should be a little apart, and about equi-distant from a line drawn between them from the ball. The hands, both grasping the club, should be in front of the body. There are many other rules and theories as to how to stand, and how to swing the club, but most of these can be learned only from practice. Experts state that mastery of the art of swinging Indian clubs gives the beginner a quicker comprehension of the principles of the most correct stroke than weeks of special study. An "Approach" comprises the strokes that are necessary to drive the ball to the destined hole. It is in this line of- work that the skill of the player shows itself to best advantage. When the num- ber of strokes required for holing counts on the score, it is imperative to gain each hole with the least number of separate plays. Unless peculiar conditions prevail, it is better to use one of the long drivers until the player has the ball near enough to the hole for him to call a different club into use. In making the approach and in selecting the clubs that are required for this pur- pose one must consider the distance, the necessity for elevating the ball, and the existence or non-existence of what may prove troublesome hazards. The Three- quarter stroke (which is rarely used now on account of the introduction of iron clubs), the Halfshot and Stiff Arm Ap- proach are fine points of play that can be picked up only by long and close study of the work of the best players. PUTTING This is the delicate work that must be done when the player has the ball close to the destined hole. It is at this point of the game that the greatest care in the selection of the clubs must be made. After the player has calculated his shot, he must keep his eyes on the ball without glancing at the hole just as he puts. He must be careful not to aim too long, yet must be sure to reach the hole. After the beginner has mastered the first principles of the "Approach," he should then acquire, by frequent practice, all pos- sible experience and skill in putting. ETIQUETTE OF THE GAME On the field there are many rules that the player must observe as faithfully as if they were a part of the law of the state. The first one is that a single 654 OUTDOOR GAMES player, who is merely practicing, must withdraw and bide his time whenever players in a regular match desire to use the links. During the making of any stroke no onlooker, whether player or spectator, should move or speak. A player who is ready to use a tee must wait until all the players just ahead of him have made their second strokes ; and no player has the right to reach the next hole until the players ahead of him have holed and gone sufficiently beyond him. Players in search of a lost ball, how- ever, must allow players in other games to reach and pass them. A single, threesome, or foursome has the right, on request, to pass a three-ball match. A match that is playing the en- tire round can claim the right to pass a match playing less than the entire course. When a player, by a stroke, displaces a bit of the turf, he, or some one for him, should at once replace it. The same ap- plies to a hole made in a bunker. While the distances between the holes may vary from 100 to 500 yards, it is not by any means necessary and is sel- dom advisable that the distances between holes be" made uniform. It is a general practice to gauge the distances by the diffi- culties presented in the surfaces traversed. DEFINITIONS OF GOLF TERMS ADDRESSING THE BALL. The player plac- ing himself in position for a stroke. BAFF. Striking the ball with the sole of the club-head in order to send the ball into the air. CADDIE. The one who carries the player's clubs, and who usually acts as an adviser regarding the best plays to be made. CUP. A small hole made by the stroke of an earlier player. DEAD. A ball lying so near to the hole that the putt is a certainty. If a ball does not move after landing, it is termed a "dead ball." FOG. Tall grass, moss, etc. FORE. The warning shouted to any per- son who obstructs the desired stroke. HANGING BALL. One that rests on a downward slope. HEEL. The portion of the head of a club nearest to the shaft. Also a stroke at the ball with this part of the head. HOLE. These are four inches in diam- eter and lined with iron. On the first half of the course these holes are marked with white flags, and on the cecond with red flags. HONOR. The privilege of playing first from the tee. LOFT. To drive the ball high into the air. LONG ODDS. When the player needs at least a stroke more than his opponent to reach the hole. MISSING THE GLOBE. Failure to hit the ball. This is counted as a stroke. NOSE. The front end of the club-head, opposite the heel. ODDS. Generally, the handicap advantage that a good player gives to a poorer one. Sometimes this means one or more holes granted at the start, or a stroke per hole, or more than one stroke, or a stroke on every alternate hole. Odds at golf, as in billiards or pool, may be arranged on any scale that tends to equalize skill and re- sults. The term "odds" applies also when the opponent has played one or more strokes than the player. PRESS. The endeavor to recover lost ground by unusually hard hitting. Avoid it. RUB ON THE GREEN. Either a successful or unsuccessful knock to the ball involving no penalty. STANCE. The position of the player's feet when ready for a stroke. STEAL. The holing of what seems to be an improbable putt. STYMIE. This term is used when your adversary's ball is in line with your own putt. SWIPE. A heavy driving stroke. TOP. Hitting the ball above its centre. LAYING OUT A GOLF GREEN Many a newly organized golf club has found that the laying out of a green as it should be done is not an easy matter. Much time and money are wasted by the attempts of comparatively inexperienced players who think but who only think that they know just how to plan a green that will meet all the requirements of, and furnish all the fair hazards of, this kingly game. No club can hope to get a fair share of enjoyment out of the sport, or to attract visiting enthusiasts from other organiza- OUTDOOR GAMES 555 tions, unless its green is above the average in excellence of arrangement. The links of a club are generally placed in the charge of a body of its members known as the Greens Committee. It is a duty of this committee to keep the grounds at the highest standard, and mem- bers should hold the committee to strict accountability. When the members of the committee do not thoroughly understand what is required of them they should consult an amateur of acknowledged high standing in the golf world. When the finances of the club per- mit, it is far better to communicate with the management of one of the large whole- sale sporting goods houses that supply golf materials. Every such house is certain to have in its employ a man who is thoroughly experienced in the proper laying out of greens. In the end, it will be found cheaper to make use of his services. Nearly all of the smaller clubs in this country have had the initial experience of laying out greens badly, and the subsequent experience of having to pay an expert more than his work would have cost in the first place. Even after the green has been unexcep- tionably arranged there is still much work for the expert to do. There are many more things needed in the game than are dreamed of in the beginner's philosophy. There are different kinds of balls, a vast variety of clubs, teeing plates, rubber and paper tees, ball cleaners, golf spikes, badges for caddies, pocket score books and club score books, practicers, golf gloves, caddie bags, marking disks, direction flags, mark- ing flags, and so on, until the club of be- ginners is bewildered at the array of ar- ticles required on links which their owners wish to have considered first-class. In settling all these perplexing points the expert from the wholesale house will be found in the end to be invaluable. No new club can do better than to have such an adviser on hand for a week or ten days. After the green has been laid out in the most approved fashion, and all the really necessary paraphernalia have been bought, the club, unless it includes some exceptionally fine players in its member- ship should next secure the services of a professional teacher of the game. Good style can not be picked up from mere prac- tice and experiment; it must be acquired from those who already possess it. Nor must the members of a new club, after putting themselves in the hands of a skilled teacher, expect to begin at once to play the complete game. A competent teacher's judgment may be safely followed, and, except in the cases of prodigies, he prefers to devote some days of instruction first of all to such seemingly simple mat- ters as the proper way to stand, the proper way to address the ball, and the simplest, most effective ways of making the strokes. RULES FOR PLAYING CRICKET SINGLE WICKET THE BALL must weigh not less than 5^2 ounces, nor more than 524 ounces. It must measure not less than 9% inches in circumference. THE BAT must not exceed 4^2 inches in the widest part; it must not be more than 38 inches in length. THE STUMPS must be three in number, 27 inches out of the ground; the bails 8 inches in length; the stumps of equal and sufficient thickness to prevent the ball from passing through. THE BOWLING-CREASE must be in a line with the stumps, 6 feet 8 inches in length, the stumps in the centre, with a return- crease at each end toward the bowler at right angles. THE POPPING-CKEASE must be 4 feet from the wicket, and parallel to it; unlimited in length, but not shorter than the bowling- crease. THE WICKETS must be pitched opposite to each other by the umpires, at the dis- tance of 22 yards. THE BOWLER shall deliver the ball with one foot on the round behind the bowling- crease and within the return-crease, and shall bowl four balls before he change wickets, which he shall be permitted to do only once in the same innings. The ball must be bowled. If thrown or jerked, it is "no ball." If the bowler shall toss the ball over the striker's head, or bowl it so wide that in the opinion of the umpire it shall not be fairly within the reach of the batsman, he shall adjudge one run to the party re- ceiving the innings, which shall score 556 OUTDOOR GAMES "wide ball." But if the batsman shall by any manner of means bring himself within reach of the ball, the run shall not be ad- judged. If the bowler deliver a "no ball" or a "wide ball," the striker shall be allowed as many runs as he can get, and he shall not be put out, except by running out. In the event of no run being obtained by any other means, then one run shall be added to the score of no balls, or wide balls, as the case may be. All runs obtained for wide balls to be scored for wide balls. If the ball shall first touch any part of the striker's dress or person, except his hands, the umpire shall call "leg-bye." At the beginning of each innings the um- pire shall call "Play!" From that time to the end of each innings no trial ball shall be allowed to any bowler. THE STRIKER is OUT (i) if either of the bails be bowled off; (2) if a stump be bowled out of the ground; (3) if the ball, from the stroke of the bat or hand be held before it touch the ground, al- though it be hugged to the body of the catcher; (4) if, in striking, or any other time while the ball shall be in play, both his feet shall be over the popping-crease and his wicket put down, except his bat be grounded within it; (5) if, in striking at the ball, he hit down his wicket; (6) if, under pretence of running or otherwise, tfie striker prevent a ball from being caught ; (7) if the ball be struck and he wilfully strike it again; (8) if, in running, the wicket be struck down by a throw, or by the hand or arm (with ball in hand), be- fore his bat (in hand) or some part of his person be grounded over the popping- crease. But, if both the bails be off, a stump must be struck out of the ground ; (9) if any part of the striker's dress knock down the wicket; (10) if the striker touch or take up the ball while in play, unless at the request of the opposite party; (n) if with any part of his person he stop the ball, pitched in a straight line from the bowler's wicket to the striker's wicket, and would have hit. If the players have crossed each other, he that runs for the wicket which is put down is out. A ball being caught, no run shall be reckoned. A striker being out, that run which he and his partner were attempting shall not be reckoned. If a lost ball be called, the striker shall be allowed six runs ; but if more than six shall be called, then the striker shall have all that have been run. If any fieldsman stop the ball with his hat, the ball shall be considered dead, and the opposite party shall add five runs to their score; if any be run, they shall have five in all. The ball having been hit, the striker may guard his wicket with his bat, or with any part of his body except his hands. The wicket-keeper shall not take the ball for the purpose of stumping until it shall have passed the wicket; he shall not move until the ball be out of the bowler's hand ; he shall not by any noise incommode the striker; and if any part of his person be over or before the wicket, although the ball hit it, the striker shall not be out. THE UMPIRES are the sole judges of fair or unfair play, and all disputes shall be determined by them, each at his own wicket. They shall pitch fair wickets, and the par- ties shall toss up for choice of innings. They shall allow two minutes for each striker to come in, and ten minutes be- tween each innings, when the umpire shall call "play." The party refusing to play shall lose the match. They are not to order a striker out, un- less appealed to by the adversaries. But if one of the bowler's feet be not on the ground behind the bowling-crease and within the return-crease when he shall deliver the ball, the umpire at his wicket, unasked, must call "no ball." If either of the strikers run a short run, the umpire must call "one short." After the delivery of four balls the um- pire must call "over," but not until the ball shall be finally settled in the wicket- keeper's hands : the ball shall then be con- sidered dead. The players who go in second shall fol- low their innings if they have obtained 80 runs less than their antagonists, except in all matches limited to only one day's play, when the number of runs shall be limited to 60 instead of 80. When one of the strikers shall have been put out, the use of the bat shall not be allowed to any person until the next striker shall come in. THE LAWS OF SINGLE WICKET (1) When there shall be less than five players on a side, bounds shall be placed 22 yards each in a line from the off and leg stump. (2) The ball must be hit before the OUTDOOR GAMES 557 bounds, to entitle the striker to run, which run can not be obtained unless he touch the bowling-stump or crease in a line with his bat, or some part of his person, or go beyond them, returning to the popping- crease. (3) When the striker shall hit the ball, one of his feet must be on the ground and behind the popping-crease ; otherwise the umpire shall call "no hit." (4) When there shall be less than five players on a side, neither byes nor over- throws shall be allowed ; nor shall the striker be caught out behind the wicket, nor stumped out. (5) The fieldsman must return the ball so that it shall cross the play between the wicket and the bowling-stump, or between the bowling-stump and the bounds; the striker may run till the ball be so returned. (6) After the striker shall have made one run, if he start again, he must touch the bowling-stump and turn before the ball cross the play, to entitle him to another. (7) The striker shall be entitled to three runs for lost ball, and the same number for ball stopped with bat. (8) When there shall be more than four players on a side, there shall be no bounds. All hits, byes, and overthrows shall then be allowed. Single wicket is chiefly valuable in ab- sence of sufficient players to form an ade- quate field at double wicket It is so inferior in interest to double wicket, that it is hardly ever played, unless when the latter is impracticable. A good game at single wicket, though, where only a few players have met for practice, is far better than the desultory knocking about which is usual on such occasions. For a player deficient in driving and forward hitting of all kinds the prac- tice it affords is invaluable, and to such a good course of single wicket is strongly recommended. OBSERVATIONS ON RULES The accompanying diagram will explain the arrangement of the various creases, which are usually marked out on the turf with a mixture of chalk or whiting and water. It is well to practice always with the creases duly marked, as the mind thus forms a habit of conformity to them, and the player is not embarrassed by the neces- sity of keeping a watch over his feet as well as over the ball. The purposes of the several creases are as follows : The BOWLING-CREASE marks the nearest spot to the striker from which the bowler may deliver the ball. N The RETURN-CREASE prevents the bowler from delivering the ball at an unreasonable distance laterally from the wicket; and the .000 8 in. 3 A Unlimited. s s s, the stumps (the three together forming the wicket); B C, the bowling-crease; r c, the return-crease; P C, the popping-crease two together mark out within sufficiently exact limits the precise spot from which the striker may expect the ball. The POPPING-CREASE, while giving the striker ample space to work in, puts a check upon any attempt to get unduly for- ward to meet the ball ; it forms, too, a dis- / M Yds. B, the bowling-stump, crease, etc.; Jf, the wickets with popping-crease, as in double wicket; b , the boundaries tinct and convenient mark by which to judge of a man's being on his ground, and of his having run the requisite distance between wickets. It is unlimited, to avoid the confusion between strikers and fields- men, which must inevitably be of constant recurrence were the strikers required to run directly from wicket to wicket. 3o 558 OUTDOOR GAMES The thickness and weight of a bat are left to the fancy and capacity of the player. In general, a tall man can use a heavier bat than a short one. About two pounds is a fair weight for a player of middle height Although it is a great mistake to play with too heavy a bat for nothing so cramps the style, and does away with beautiful wrist-play yet extreme lightness is still more to be deprecated: it is useless for hard hitting, and can therefore do little in the way of run-getting against a good field. The points most to be looked for in a bat are these: First, weight suited to the player. Secondly, good thickness of wood at the drive and lower end of the bat, i.e., at the last six inches or so. Thirdly, balance Badly balanced bats give a sensation as of a weight attached to them when they are wielded, while a well-balanced one plays easily in the hand. The handle is a very important considera- tion. Cane handles, pure and simple, or in composition with ash or other materials, are the best: some prefer oval handles, some round. The handle should, at least, be as thick as the player can well grasp: a thick handle greatly adds to the driving power of the bat; it is also naturally stronger, and therefore more lasting. In choosing wickets, attention must be paid to two points: first, that each stump be perfectly straight; and, secondly, that it be free from flaws or knots. The least weakness is sure to be found out sooner or later. Great attention should be paid to the bails, that they are exactly of the right size, especially that they are not too long. The least projection beyond the groove in the stump may make all the difference be- tween "out" and "not out" between, per- haps, winning a match and losing it THE LEAGUE RULES FOR BASEBALL THE BALL must weigh not less than 5 ounces and not more than 5 1 A ounces, and must measure not less than 9 and not more than p/4 inches in circumfer- ence THE BAT must be made wholly of wood, except that the handle may be wound with twine or coated with a granulated sub- stance, not to exceed 18 inches from the end. It must be round, not more than 2^4 inches in diameter at the thickest part, nor may it exceed a length of 42 inches. THE BASES must be four in number, and designated as first base, second base, third base, and home base. The home base must be 12 inches square and so fixed in the ground as to be even with the sur- face, and so placed in the corner of the in- field that two of its sides will form part of the infield boundaries. The first, sec- ond, and third bases must be canvas bags, 15 inches square, filled with some soft ma- terial, and so placed that the centre of the second base shall be upon its corner of the infield, and the centre of the first and third bases shall be on the lines running to and from second base, and 7^2 inches from the foul lines, each base entirely within the foul lines. THE FOUL LINES must be drawn in straight lines from the outer corner of the home base, along the outer edge of the first and third bases, to the boundaries of the ground. THE PITCHER'S LINES must be straight, forming the boundaries of a space in the infield, 5 l / 2 feet long by 4 feet wide, distant 50 feet from the centre of the home base, and so placed that the 5^-foot lines will each be 2 feet distant from and parallel with a straight line passing through the centres of the home and second bases. Each corner of this space must be marked by a flat, round plate, 6 inches in diam- eter, fixed in the ground even with the surface THE BATSMAN'S LINES must be straight, forming the boundaries of a space on the right and of a similar space on the left of the home base, 6 feet long by 4 feet wide, extending 3 feet in front of and 3 feet behind the centre of the home base, and with its nearest line distant 6 inches from the home base. THE PLAYERS of each club in a game shall be nine in number, one of whom shall act as captain, and in no case shall less than nine men be allowed to play on each side. No player shall attach anything to the sole or heel of his shoes other than the ordinary baseball shoe plate. THE PITCHER shall take his position fac- OUTDOOR GAMES 559 ing the batsman with feet square on the ground and in front of the pitcher's plate; but when delivering the ball to the bat one foot must touch the plate; nor shall he raise either foot, except at delivery, or take more than one step then. Should the pitcher throw the ball to any save the catcher, except to retire a base-runner, while the batsman is ready, each ball so thrown shall be called a ball, as also a de- lay exceeding twenty seconds in delivering to bat. A fair ball is a ball delivered by the pitcher while standing wholly within the lines of his position, facing the bats- man; being so delivered as to pass "over the home base, not lower than the bats- man's knee, nor higher than his shoulder, provided a ball so delivered that touches the bat of the batsman in his position shall be considered a batted ball, and in play. An unfair ball is a ball delivered by the pitcher, as above, except that it does not pass over the home base or does pass above the batsman's shoulder, or below the knee. A balk is any motion made by the pitcher to deliver the ball to the bat without delivering it, and shall be held to include (i) any and every accustomed mo- tion with the hands, arms, or feet, or po- sition of the body assumed by the pitcher in his delivery of the ball and any motion calculated to deceive a base-runner, ex- cept the ball be accidentally dropped; (2) the holding of the ball by the pitcher so long as to delay the game unnecessarily; (3) any motion to deliver the ball, or the delivering the ball by the pitcher when any part of his person is upon ground outside of the lines of his position, including all preliminary motions with the hands, arms, and feet. A DEAD BALL is one that, delivered by the pitcher, touches any part of the bats- man's person or clothing while standing in his position without being struck at; or any part of the umpire's person or cloth- ing while on foul ground, without first passing the catcher. In case of a foul strike, foul hit ball, not legally caught out, dead ball, or base-runner put out for being struck by a fair hit ball, the ball shall not be considered in play until it is held by the pitcher standing in his position. A block is a batted or thrown ball that is stopped or handled by any person not en- gaged in the game. Whenever a block oc- curs the umpire shall declare it, and base- runners may run the bases, without being put out, until the ball has been returned to and held by the pitcher standing in his po- sition. In the case of a block, if the per- son not engaged in the game should retain possession of the ball, or throw or kick it beyond the reach of the fielders, the um- pire should call "Time," and require each base-runner to stop at the last base touched by him until the ball be returned to the pitcher standing in his position. A GAME shall consist of nine innings to each contesting nine, except that (i) if the side first at bat scores less runs in nine innings than the other side has scored in eight innings, the game shall then termi- nate; (2) if the side last at bat in the ninth inning scores the winning run be- fore the third man is out, the game shall terminate; and (3) if the umpire calls "Game" on account of darkness or rain at any time after five innings have been com- pleted, the score shall be that of the last equal innings played, unless the side sec- ond at bat shall have scored more runs than the side first at bat, in which case the score of the game shall be the total number of runs made. THE BATSMAN is OUT if he fails to take his position at the bat in his order of bat- ting, unless the error be discovered and the proper batsman takes his position be- fore "at bat" is recorded ; and in such case the balls and strikes called must be counted in the time at bat of the proper batsman. This rule shall not take effect unless the out is declared before the ball is delivered to the succeeding batsman: (i) if he fails to take his position within one minute after the umpire has called for the bats- man; (2) if he makes a foul _ strike; (3) if he attempts to hinder the catcher from fielding or throwing the ball, by stepping outside the lines of his position, or other- wise obstructing or interfering with that player; (4) if, while the first base be oc- cupied by a base-runner, three strikes be called on him by the umpire, except when two men are already out; (5) if, while making the third strike, the ball hits his person or clothing; (6) if, after two strikes have been called, the batsman obviously attempts to make a foul hit. THE BATSMAN BECOMES A BASE-RUNNER instantly (i) after he makes a fair hit; (2) after four balls have been called by the umpire; (3) after three strikes have been declared by the umpire; (4) if, while he be a batsman, his person excepting hands or forearm, which makes it a dead ball or clothing be hit by a ball from the pitcher, unless, in the opinion of the um- 660 OUTDOOR GAMES pire, he intentionally permits himself to be so hit; or interference by the catcher prevents him from striking the ball. THE BASE-RUNNER shall be entitled, without being put out, to take the base in the following cases: (i) if, while he was batsman, the umpire called four balls; (2) if the umpire awards a succeeding bats- man a base on four balls, or for being hit with a pitched ball, or in case of an illegal delivery, and the base-runner is thereby forced to vacate the base held by him; (3) if the umpire calls a "balk"; if a ball de- livered by the pitcher pass the catcher and touch the umpire or any fence or building within ninety feet of the home base ; (4) if upon a fair hit the ball strikes the per- son or clothing of the umpire on fair ground; (5) if he be prevented from mak- ing a base by the obstruction of an adver- sary; (6) if the fielder stop or catch a batted ball with his hat, or any part of his dress. The base-runner shall return to his base, and shall be entitled to so return without being put out, (i) if the umpire declares a foul tip or any other foul hit not legally caught by a fielder; (2) if the umpire de- clares a foul strike; (3) if the umpire declares a dead ball, unless it be also the fourth unfair ball, and he be thereby forced to take the next base; (4) if the person or clothing of the umpire interferes with the catcher, or he is struck by a ball thrown by the catcher to intercept a base- runner. THE UMPIRE shall not be changed dur- ing the progress of a game, except for reason of illness or injury. The umpire is master of the field from the commence- ment to the termination of the game, and is entitled to the respect of the spectators. Any person offering any insult or indignity to him must be promptly ejected from the grounds. He must compel the players to observe the provisions of all the playing rules, and be invested with authority to order any player to do or omit any act, as he may deem necessary. The umpire is the sole and absolute judge of play. In no instance shall any person be allowed tc question the correctness of any decision made by him on a play, and no player shall leave his position in the field, his place at the bat, on the bases or players' bench, to approach or address the umpire, except on an interpretation of the playing rules, and only that shall be done by the captains of the contending nines. Before the commencement of a game, the umpire shall see that the rules governing all the materials of the game are strictly observed. He must keep the contesting nines playing constantly from the com- mencement of the game to its termination, allowing such delays only as are rendered unavoidable by accident, injury, or rain. He must, until the completion of the game, require the players of each side to promptly take their positions in the field as soon as the third man is put out, and must require the first striker of the opposite side to be in his position at the bat as soon as the fielders are in their places. The umpire shall count and call every "unfair ball" de- livered by the pitcher, and every "dead ball," if also an unfair ball, as a "ball," and he shall also count and call every "strike." Neither a "ball" nor a "strike" shall be counted or called until the ball has passed the home base. He shall also declare every "dead ball," "block," "foul hit," "foul strike," and "balk." AMERICAN REGULATIONS FOR FOOTBALL FOOTBALL, like baseball, requires two opposing sides, or "teams." It is played with a ball of leather, inclosing an inflated rubber bladder, and in shape is a prolate spheroid. The goals are placed at either end of the field, and each side is to defend its own goal, while trying to drive the ball through its opponents' goal. RULES THE GROUND. The game is played upon a field of 330 feet length and 160 feet width, the inclosure to be marked upon the ground in heavy white lines with lime. The lines at the two ends are called goal lines, and the side lines extend beyond their intersection with the goal lines. The goals, placed in the middle of each goal line, consist of two upright posts not more than twenty feet high, and eighteen feet and six inches distant from each other. Ten feet from the ground is a horizontal cross-bar. Five-yard lines, parallel with the goal lines, are laid the entire length of the field. The game is played by two teams of eleven men each. The officials of OUTDOOR GAMES 561 the game are a referee, an umpire, and a linesman. A DROP KICK is made by dropping the ball and kicking it as it rises from the ground; a place kick, by kicking the ball, after it has been placed on the ground; a punt, by letting the ball fall and kicking it before it strikes the ground. A kick-off is a place kick from the centre of the field, and a goal can not be scored thereby; a kick-out is a drop, place, or punt by a player of the side that makes a safety or a touchback; a free kick means any kick when the rules prevent the opponents from advancing beyond a certain point. The free kick includes a kick-off, kick-out, punt-out, kick from a fair catch, and place kick for goal after touchdown. THE GAME consists of two halves, each of 35 minutes' duration. The two sides toss up a coin, the winner choosing either goal or kick-off. Line-up is effected by one of the players of the side having the kick- off placing the ball in the exact centre of the field, the opponents standing in their own territory, at least ten yards from the ball until it has been touched by the foot. Each team of eleven men consists of seven forwards, a quarter-back, two half-backs, and a goal-tend. One of the forwards of the side having the ball kicks it at least ten yards into the opponents' territory. Upon catching the ball, one of the oppo- nents returns it by kick, or runs with it. If a player runs with the ball he is tackled by his opponents. BALL DOWN. When the player with the >all is fairly held, the referee blows his whistle, and the ball is "down." At the spot of holding, the ball is placed on the ground for a "scrimmage." Both sides must line up on their own side of the ball. One of the forwards of the team holding the ball kicks or snaps back. As soon as the ball is in motion both sides may press forward. A team is "off side" that is be- tween the ball and opponents' goal ; the other team is "on side." The side having the ball may not use their hands or arms to obstruct opponents. When a side, after three successive "downs," fails to advance the ball five yards, or is obliged to retreat twenty yards, that side gives up the ball. THE FREE KICK. If a player catches the ball, when kicked by his opponents, this is termed "a fair catch." He must hold up the ball and plant one heel to mark the spot. His side is then entitled to a free kick, and opponents must not come within ten yards until the ball is in motion. "Out OF BOUNDS" is when the ball goes across the side lines of the field. It must be brought back at the point at which it crossed the line at least five yards into the field, and not more than fifteen, and an- other "scrimmage" follows. TOUCHDOWN AND "SAFETY." When the ball is carried across the goal line by the assailants it is termed a "touchdown," and counts five points, besides entitling the side accomplishing it to have a try for a goal kick. If the ball is then kicked between the goal-posts, and over the cross-bar, this is a goal, and adds one more to the score. A "safety touch" may be made sometimes by the side defending the goal. This con- sists in carrying the ball back of the de- fenders' own goal line, and counts two points for the opponents. In some cases it is better to make a "safety" than to risk allowing the enemy to score a "touchdown." A drop-kick for goal, if successful, counts five points. TACKLING. There shall be no striking or unnecessary roughness, nor any tripping. Tackling below the knees is prohibited. DIRECTION OF A GAME. The referee has general charge of the game, sees that the ball is put in play, and is judge of its po- sition and progress; he is also sole au- thority as to the score of the game. The umpire is responsible for the enforcement of all rules whose infraction calls for a dis- tance penalty or the surrender of the ball, and is judge of the conduct of the players. The linesman, who is under the orders of the referee, marks the distances gained or lost with the ball. He must give testimony to either of the other officials, and the um- pire is required to give testimony to the referee. THE LAWS OF LAWN-TENNIS FOR THE SINGLE-HANDED GAME the court is 27 feet in width, and 78 feet in length. It is divided across the middle by a net, the ends of which are attached to the tops of the two posts, each placed 4t l /2 feet from the inner side-line on the outside the court. The height of the net is 3 feet 6 inches at the posts and 3 feet at the centre. At each end of the court parallel with the net, and at a dis- tance of 39 feet from it, are drawn the base-lines, the extremities of which are connected by the side-lines. Half-way be- tween the side-lines and parallel with them is drawn the half-court-line, dividing the space on each side of the net into two equal parts, called the right and left courts. On each side of the net, at a distance of 21 feet from it, and parallel with it, are drawn the service-lines. The larger margin there is around the court the better; but at least there should be 12 feet clear on each side, and 21 feet at each end. '* The choice of sides and the right of serving during the first game shall be de- cided by toss; provided (i) that if the winner of the toss choose the right to serve, the other shall have the choice of sides, and vice versa; and (2) that the winner of the toss may, if he prefer it, require the other player to make the first choice. The players shall stand on opposite sides of the net; he who first delivers the ball being called the server, the other, the striker-out. At the end of the first game, the striker- out shall become server, and the server shall become striker-out; and so on alter- nately throughout the set. The server shall stand with one foot further from the net than the base-line, and with the other foot upon the base- line, and shall serve from both courts alternately, beginning from the right. The ball served must drop within the service-line, half-court-line, and side-line of the court, diagonally opposite to that from the point of service, or upon any such line. It is a fault (i) if the service be de- livered from the wrong court; (2) if the server do not stand as directed; (3) if the ball drop in the net or beyond the service line; (4) if it drop out of the court or in the wrong court. After a fault the server shall serve again from the same court, unless it was a fault because served from the wrong court. A fault may not be claimed after the next service has been delivered. The service may not be volleyed (i.e. taken before it touches the ground). The server shall not serve until the striker-out is ready ; but if the latter at- tempt to return the service, he shall be deemed ready. A ball is in-play from the moment it is served (unless a fault), until (i) it has been volleyed by the striker-out in his first stroke, or (2) has dropped in the net, or out of court; or (3) has touched either of the players or anything he carries, ex- cept his racket in the act of striking; or (4) has been struck by either of the players with his racket more than once consecu- tively; or (5) has been volleyed before it has passed over the net; or (6) has failed to pass over the net before its first bound; or (7) has touched the ground twice con- secutively on either side of the net, though the second time may have been out of court. It is a let if (i) the ball touch the net, provided the service be otherwise good; or (2) if a service or fault be delivered when the striker-out is not ready; or (3) if either player be prevented by an accident from serving or returning the ball in-play. In case of a let the service or stroke counts for nothing, and the server shall serve again. The server wins a stroke if (i) the striker-out volley the service; or (2) fail to return the service or the ball in-play (except in the case of a let) ; or (3) re- turn the service or ball in-play, so that it drop outside any of the lines which bound his opponent's court; or (4) otherwise lose a stroke. Either player loses a stroke (i) if the ball in-play touch him, or anything he wears or carries, except his racket in the act of striking; or (2) if he touch or strike the ball in-play with his racket more than once consecutively; or (3) if he touch the net or any of its supports while the ball is in-play; or (4) if he volley the ball before it has passed the net. OUTDOOR GAMES 563 The first stroke won by either player scores 15 for him, or love for his oppo- nent. In announcing, the server's score is always put first, thus: if the server wins the point it is "15 love," if he loses, it is "love 15," etc. On either player winning his second stroke, his score is called 30; his third stroke, 40; his fourth stroke, "game." If, however, both players have won three strokes, the score is "deuce" ; and the next Bui e Lin* 36 ft go 2 SeruutLlne 27ft 8 to CJ O _ O N | M mi NET NET i C VJ < N 2 1 won five games, which scores "games-all." The text game won by either scores "advantage game," and if the same player win the next game, he wins the set; if he lose the next game, the score is again "games-all"; and so on until either wins the two games immediately following "games-all," when he wins the set. The players shall change sides at the end of every set; but the umpire, on ap- peal from either before the toss for choice, shall direct a change of sides at the end of the first, third, and every alternate game of each set, provided that the players shall not change sideo, at the end of a set of an even number of games. When a series of sets is played, the player who was server in the last game of one set shall be striker-out in the first game of the next. FOR THE THREE-HANDED AND FOUR- HANDED GAMES, the same court is at pres- ent in general use. Within the side-lines, and four and one-half feet from them, anti parallel with them, are drawn the service side-lines. In the three-handed tennis, the single player serves in every alternate game. In the four-handed game, the pair who have the serve in the first game may de- cide which shall take it, and the opposing pair may decide for the second game. The partner of the server in the first game shall serve in the third; the partner of the server in the second game shall serve in the fourth, etc. The players shall take the service alter- nately throughout each game; no player shall receive or return a service delivered to his partner; and the order of service and of striking-out, once arranged, shall not be altered, nor shall the strikers-out change courts to receive the service before the end of the set. The ball served must drop within the service-line, half-court-line and service side- line of the court, diagonally opposite to that from which it was served, or upon any such line. It is a fault if (i) the ball served do not drop as already provided, or (2) if it touch the server's partner, or anything he wears or carries. If a player serve out of his turn, the umpire, as soon as the mistake is discov- ered, shall direct the proper player to serve; but all strokes score also any fault already served. A racket should not be strung too tight- ly; one can generally tell at once whether the stringing is too loose, but it is neces- 664 OUTDOOR GAMES sary to play with a racket half a dozen times or so before one can feel whether there is sufficient "give" in the strands to make it a good driver. The first important point is to hold the racket at the extreme end, and not half- way up the handle. It should be firmly, but not tightly, grasped. Do not move your arm stiffly from the shoulder, but learn to use the elbow and wrist joints. This is a matter of considerable impor- tance to grace and efficiency in playing. Keep a good distance off the ball, and stand well back in the court. Hit the ball in the centre of the racket, with such elevation as will carry it over the net and well into the back of the court. The nearer the ball is played to the top of the net the more difficult will it be to return, but such strokes can be made with certainty only after much prac- tice. The great trouble for beginners is to get the ball over the net. When a ball drops short never run forward and hit it very hard, or with exactly the same strength as if it had fallen on the base- line. Always think of the position in court and regulate the strength of the stroke accordingly. There are two ways in which a ground- stroke may be taken, namely, at the top of the bound, and again when the ball is near the ground. In service, never have less than two balls in your hand, as you are more likely to serve a double-fault if you wait to pick up a second ball. It is generally better to serve from near the middle of the back-line rather than from the extreme corner, as is frequently done for two reasons: (i) because the former position exposes a larger portion of the opposite court into which to serve, consequently with less liability to a fault ; (2) because the middle of the court is a better position to take the return, which otherwise your opponent can easily place where you will find it impossible to get up to it in time. Your position in the court is of much importance. Stand well back in the court, near the base-line, and rather to the left of the court. If in the left court in a double game, stand near the outside line, otherwise your opponent may place the ball to your left, where it will be difficult for you to reach it in time. After making a stroke that takes you away from your ground, always get home again directly, to be ready for the return. Take the racket in the left hand by the splice, the blade being vertical and the handle horizontal. FOR THE FOREHAND STROKE (the figure be- ing a vertical section of the handle) the base of the right hand will just overlap the butt; the knuckle of the thumb will be at A; the knuckle of the forefinger at B; the bend of the first joint of the forefinger at C, and of the second joint at D. The first joint will slope toward the blade, the other joints away from the blade ; the thumb will slope very slightly toward the blade, its last joint jutting out from the handle, the first joints of the other fingers will lie across the handle at right angles. FOR THE BACKHAND STROKE the knuckle of the thumb will be at A; the knuckle of the forefinger at B, and the bend of the first joint at C. The slope of the fingers will be exactly the same as in the Diagrams ol cross- sections ol the racquet handle, in- dicating manner ot holding for forehand and backhand strokes. forehand stroke; in fact, the change from the forehand to the backhand stroke is simply turning the hand back in the direc- tion of the body, through rather more than a right angle. The racket should be grasped as firmly as possible, if it is intended to make a severe stroke; it may be held more loosely for a gentle one. When about to make a forehand stroke the feet should be apart, the left foot be- ing slightly in front. The racket is swung back behind the shoulder to an extent varying with the strength of the stroke to be made; the weight of the body being on the right foot. In the act of striking, the weight is transferred to the left foot; the body is bent forward, and the left knee is bent. For the backhand stroke the right foot is in front; the body is turned sidewise to allow a clear swing for the arm; the OUTDOOR GAMES 565 weight is first on the left foot, and then transferred to the right. The left arm should be kept quiet, and not waved about in the air. The ball may be, and sometimes must be, taken at all. sorts of different heights, but the one which lends itself best to a good stroke is from about two feet to a foot and a half from the ground when the ball is falling; the position of the arm and racket will of course vary with the height at which the ball is taken. In mak- ing this stroke, the arm must be rather stiff. After knowing how to strike the ball, the next point is to acquire what is known as a good length that is to say, the power of propelling the ball to a point as near the opposite base-line as possible. Good length is the most important branch of the art of placing, which consists of putting the ball in that part of the court which is most inconvenient for the op- ponent to reach, and which he least ex- pects. If a ball struck with a certain force drops, say within a foot of the base-line, it is almost impossible to make a stroke off it which an opponent will be unable to return. Not only does this involve the difficult task of making the ball travel a long distance, but the time which must elapse gives the opponent a very good chance of reaching his return. RULES AND REGULATIONS IN CROQUET A FULL-SIZED croquet ground should measure 40 yards by 30 yards. Its boundaries should be accurately defined. The Hoops should be of half-inch round iron, and should not be more than 6 inches in width, inside measurement. The crown of the hoop should be at least 12 inches clear of trie ground. A hoop with the crown at right angles to the legs is to be preferred. The Pegs should be of uniform diameter of not less than \y 2 inch, and should stand at least 18 inches above the ground. The Balls should be of boxwood, and should not weigh less than 14 ounces each. The FOUR-BALL GAME is recommended for adoption in preference to any other. When odds are given, the Bisque is recommended. A bisque is an extra stroke which may be taken at any time during the game in continuation of the turn. A player receiving a bisque can not roquet a ball twice in the same turn without making an intermediate point. In other respects, a bisque confers all the advan- tages of an extra turn. A player receiv- ing two or more bisques can not take more than one in the same turn. Passing the boundary, or making a foul strike, does not prevent the player taking a bisque. The following Settings are recommended : No. I. Eight-Hoop Setting. Distances on a full-sized ground: Pegs 3 yards from boundary; first and corresponding hoop 5 yards from pegs; centre hoops midway be- tween first and sixth hoops and 5 yards from each other; corner hoops 6 yards from end of .ground and 5 yards from side. Starting spot 2 feet in front of first hoop, and opposite its centre. No. 2. Seven-Hoop Setting. Distances on a full-sized ground : Pegs in centre line of ground 8 yards from nearest boundary. Hoops up centre line of ground 6 yards from peg and 6 yards apart; corner hoops 7 yards from centre and in a line with pegs. Starting spot i l / 2 yard from first hoop in centre line of ground. No. 3. Six-Hoop Setting. Distances on a full-sized ground as in No. 2, except the middle-line hoops 8 yards apart. Start- ing spot i foot from left-hand corner hoop, and opposite its centre. It is essential to match play that by- standers should abstain from walking over the grounds, speaking to the players or the umpires, making remarks about them aloud or in any way distracting their at- tention. DEFINITIONS A Point is made when a hoop is run, or a peg is hit, in order. The striker's hoop or peg in order is the one he has next to make. A Roquet is made when the striker's ball is caused by a blow of the mallet to hit another which it has not before hit in the same turn since making a point. The striker's ball is said to be in play until it roquets another. Having made roquet, it is in hand until croquet is taken. Croquet is taken by placing the striker's ball in contact with the one roqueted, the striker then hitting his own ball with the mallet. The non-striker's ball, when moved 666 OUTDOOR GAMES by a croquet, is called the croqueted ball. A Rover is a ball that has made all its points in order except the winning peg. THE LAWS OF CROQUET MALLETS. There should be no restriction as to the number, weight, size, shape, or material of the mallets; nor as to the at- titude or position of the striker; nor as to the part of the mallet held, provided the ball be not struck with the handle, nor the mace stroke used. SIZE OF BALLS. The balls used in match play shall be 3^ inches in diameter. CHOICE OF LEAD AND OF BALLS. It shall be decided by lot which side shall have choice of lead and of balls. In a succes- sion of games the choice of lead shall be alternate, the sides keeping the same balls. COMMENCEMENT OF GAME. In commenc- ing, each ball shall be placed on the start- ing spot (see SETTINGS). The striker's ball, when so placed and struck, is at once in play, and can roquet another, or be ro- queted, whether it has made the first hoop or not. STROKE, WHEN TAKEN. A stroke is con- sidered to be taken if a ball be moved in the act of striking; but should a player, in taking aim, move his ball accidentally, it must be replaced to the satisfaction of the adversary, and the stroke be then taken. If a ball be moved in taking aim, and then struck without being replaced, the stroke is foul (see FOUL STROKES). HOOP, WHEN RUN. A ball has run its hoop when, having passed through from the playing side and ceased to roll, it can not be touched by a straight-edge placed against the wires on the side from which it was played. BALL DRIVEN PARTLY THROUGH HOOP. A ball driven partly through its hoop from the non-playing side can not run the hoop at its next stroke, if it can be touched by a straight-edge placed against the wires on the non-playing side. POINTS COUNTED TO NON-STRIKER'S BALL. A ball driven through its hoop, or against the turning peg, by any stroke not foul, whether of its own or of the adverse side, counts the point so made. POINTS MADE FOR ADVERSARY'S BALL. If a point be made for an adversary's ball, the striker must inform his adversary of it. Should the striker neglect to do so, and the adversary make the point again, he may continue his turn as though he had played for his right point. THE TURN. A player, when his turn comes round, may roquet each ball once, and may do this again after each point made. The player continues his turn so long as he makes a point or a roquet CROQUET IMPERATIVE AFTER ROQUET. A player who roquets a ball must take cro- quet, and in so doing must move both balls (see FOUL STROKES). In taking cro- quet, the striker is not allowed to place his foot on the ball. BALL IN HAND AFTER ROQUET. No point or roquet can be made by a ball which is in hand. If a ball in hand displace any other balls, they must remain where they are driven. Any point made in conse- quence of such displacement counts, not- withstanding that the ball displacing them is in hand. BALLS ROQUETED SIMULTANEOUSLY. When a player roquets two balls simultaneously, he may choose from which of them he will take croquet; and a second roquet will be required before he can take croquet from the other ball. BALLS FOUND TOUCHING. If at the com- mencement of a turn the striker's ball be found touching another, roquet is deemed to be made, and croquet must be taken at once. ROQUET AND HOOP MADE BY SAME STROKE. Should a ball, in making its hoop, roquet another that lies beyond the hoop, and then pass through, the hoop counts as well as the roquet. A ball is deemed to be beyond the hoop if it lies so that it can not be touched by a straight-edge placed against the wires on the playing side. Should any part of the ball that is roqueted be lying on the playing side of the hoop, the ro- quet counts, but not the hoop. PEGGING OUT. If a rover (except when in hand) be caused to hit the winning peg by any stroke of the same side, not foul, the rover is out of the game, and must be removed from the ground. A rover may similarly be pegged out by an adverse rover. ROVER PEGGED OUT BY ROQUET. A player who pegs out a rover by a roquet loses the remainder of his turn. BALLS SENT OFF THE GROUND. A ball sent off the ground must at once be re- placed 3 feet within the boundary, meas- ured from the spot where it went off, and at right angles to the margin. If this OUTDOOR GAMES 567 spot be already occupied, the ball last sent off is to be placed anywhere in con- tact with the other, at the option of the player sending off the ball. BALL SENT OFF NEAR CORNER. A ball sent off within 3 feet of a corner is to be re- placed 3 feet from both boundaries. BALL TOUCHING BOUNDARY. If the boun- dary be marked by a line on the turf, a ball touching the line is deemed to have been off the ground. If the boundary be raised, a ball touching the boundary is similarly deemed to have been off the ground. BALL SENT OFF AND RETURNING TO GROUND. If a ball be sent off the ground, and return to it, the ball must be similarly re- placed, measuring from the point of first contact with the boundary. BALL SENT WITHIN 3 FEET OF BOUN- DARY. A ball sent within 3 feet of the boundary, but not off the ground, is to be replaced as though it had been sent off except in the case of the striker's ball, when the striker has the option of bring- ing his ball in, or of playing from where it lies. BOUNDARY INTERFERING WITH STROKE. If it be found that the height of the boundary interferes with the stroke, the striker, with the sanction of the umpire, may bring in the balls a longer distance than 3 feet, so as to allow a free swing of the mallet. Balls so brought in must be moved in the line of aim. DEAD BOUNDARY. If, in making croquet, the striker send his own ball, or the ball croqueted, off the ground, he loses the re- mainder of his turn; but if by the same stroke he make a roquet, his ball, being in hand, may pass the boundary without penalty. Should either ball while rolling after a croquet be touched or diverted from its course by an opponent, the striker has the option (see BALLS TOUCHED BY AD- VERSARY), and is not liable to lose his turn should the ball which has been touched or diverted pass the boundary. FOUL STROKES. If a player make a foul stroke, he loses the remainder of his turn, and any point or roquet made by such stroke does not count. Balls moved by a foul stroke are to remain where they lie, or be replaced, at the option of the adversary. If the foul be made when tak- ing croquet, and the adversary elect to have the balls replaced, they must be replaced in contact as they stood when the croquet was taken. The following are foul strokes : (a) To strike with the mallet another ball instead of or besides one's own in making the stroke. (&) To spoon, i.e., to push a ball with- out an audible knock. (c) To strike a ball twice in the same stroke. (rf) To touch, stop, or divert the course of a ball when in play and rolling, whether this be done by the striker or his partner. (tf) To allow a ball to touch the mallet in rebounding from a peg or wire. (/) To move a ball which lies close to a peg or wire by striking the peg or wire. (g) To press a ball round a peg or wire (crushing stroke). (/t) To play a stroke after roquet with- out taking croquet. (0 To fail to move both balls in taking croquet. (&) To croquet a ball which the striker is not entitled to croquet. BALLS TOUCHED BY ADVERSARY. Should a ball when rolling, except it be in hand, be touched, stopped, or diverted from its course by an adversary, the striker may elect whether he will take the stroke again, or whether the ball shall remain where it stopped, or be placed where, in the judg- ment of the umpire, it would have rolled to. BALLS STOPPED OR DIVERTED BY UMPIRE. Should a ball be stopped or diverted from its course by an umpire, he is to place it where he considers it would have rolled to. PLAYING OUT OF TURN, OR WITH THE WRONG BALL. If a player play out of turn, or with the wrong ball, the re- mainder of the turn is lost, and any point or roquet made after the mistake. The balls remain where they lie when the pen- alty is claimed, or are replaced as they were before the last stroke was made, at the option of the adversary. But if the adverse side play without claiming the pen- alty, the turn holds good, and any point or points made after the mistake are scored to the ball by which they have been made that is, the ball is deemed to be for the point next in order to the last point made in the turn except when the ad- versary's ball has been played with, in which case the points are scored to the ball which ought to have been played with. If more than one ball be played with dur- ing the turn, whether before or after the mistake, the points are scored to the ball last played with. Whether the penalty be 56S OUTDOOR GAMES claimed or not, the adversary may follow with either ball of his own side. PLAYING FOR WRONG POINT. If a player make a wrong point it does not count, and therefore unless he have, by the same stroke, taken croquet, or made a roquet all subsequent strokes are in error, the remainder of turn is lost, and any point or roquet made after the mistake. The balls remain where they lie when the pen- alty is claimed, or are replaced as they were before the last stroke was made, at the option of the adversary. But if the player make another point, or the adverse side play, before the penalty is claimed, the turn holds good; and the player who made the mistake is deemed to be for the point next in order to that which he last made. INFORMATION AS TO SCORE. Every player is entitled to be informed which is the next point of any ball. STATE OF GAME, IF DISPUTED. When clips are used, their position, in case of dispute, shall be conclusive as to the position of the balls in the game. WIRES KNOCKED OUT OF GROUND. Should a player, in trying to run his hoop, knock a wire of that hoop out of the ground with his ball, the hoop does not count. The ball must be replaced, and the stroke taken again; but if by the same stroke a roquet be made, the striker may elect whether he will claim the roquet or have the balls replaced. PEGS OR HOOPS NOT UPRIGHT. Any player may set upright a peg or hoop, except the one next in order; and that must not be altered except by the umpire. BALL LYING IN A HOLE OR ON BAD GROUND. A ball lying in a hole or on bad ground may be removed with the sanction of the umpire. The ball must be put back i.e., away from the object aimed at and so as not to alter the line of aim. UMPIRES. An umpire shall not give his opinion, or notice any error that may be made, unless appealed to by one of the players. The decision of an umpire, when appealed to, shall be final. The duties of an umpire are (a) To decide matters in dispute during the game, if appealed to. (fr) To keep the score, and, if asked by a player, to disclose the state of it. (c) To move the clips, or to see that they are properly moved. (rf) To replace balls sent off the ground, or to see that they are properly replaced. (*) To adjust the hoops or pegs not up- right, or to see that they are properly adjusted. ABSENCE OF UMPIRE. When there is no umpire present, permission to move a ball, or to set up a peg or hoop, or other in- dulgence for which an umpire would be appealed to, must be asked of the other side. APPEAL TO REFEREE. Should an umpire be unable to decide any point at issue, he may appeal to the referee, whose decision shall be final ; but no player may appeal to the referee from the decision of an umpire. FIRST AID TO THE INJURED IN CONNECTION with the general subject of health, gymnastics and out-of-door athletic sports and exercises it is desirable to give at least passing attention to the subject of relieving the victims of accidental injuries and mishaps. While it is in no sense reasonable to encourage people to think that the treatment and cure of even the simplest maladies and accidental disorders can be undertaken by a person unlearned in medicine and surgery, there are certain things that intelligent information will enable any one to do in emergencies. It is, furthermore, most essential that information 'on these matters be as widely disseminated as possible, in order to alleviate suffering and contribute to the saving of many lives that would otherwise be sacrificed. The classes of accident that a well- informed person may relieve are such as result in fractures of the limbs, in unconsciousness from submersion in water and in bleeding at some artery. TREATMENT FOR ACCIDENTAL INJURIES BLEEDING WOUNDS IN CASE of hemorrhage, or bleeding, as the result of a cut or some other cause that has broken the skin and tissues cov- ering the blood vessels, the treatment to be given depends on the character of the wound and the amount of bleeding. Loss of blood is always disastrous, particularly if an artery be severed, but radical treat- ments, cutting off the entire supply from the limb, need not be applied unless the wound is of such a character as to preclude local applications, or unless such applications fail to check the flow. LOCAL APPLICATIONS. In many cases of hemorrhage from wounds in the limbs an effective method cf stopping the blood is to lay the patient on his back, with the head slightly raised. Then, having elevated the injured limb to a higher level, bring the edges of the wound together, and apply a wet compress a handkerchief folded in- to a pad and bind it down tightly with another handkerchief or a strip of cloth passed around the limb and firmly secured. Cold water or ice, or water as hot as can be borne by the sufferer, are equally efficient in contracting the blood vessels in persistent bleeding. Warm or tepid water tends rather to increase the hemorrhage. It is not well for an unprofessional person to attempt any other measure of relief, such as holding the vessels with the fingers, etc., for the simple reason that only a precise knowledge of anatomy reveals the location, and guess work only causes unnecessary suf- fering. BLEEDING FROM VEINS AND ARTERIES. In case a wound has opened a vein, without cutting an artery also, the fact may be dis- covered by the color of the blood passed dark red or purplish and by the character of the flow steady and uninterrupted. If an artery has been severed, the blood is a bright red color and spurts oat in jets, as if under the impulse of a pump. This (569) 570 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED is due to the fact that the blood pumped into the arteries by the heart moves by a number of successive impulses, as may be found in the pulses at the wrist or throat. Generally a wound severs both veins and arteries; so these tests fail. SUMMARY TREATMENTS. In case of per- sistent and copious bleeding from a wound in either arm or leg that may not be stopped by local pressure, as already de- scribed, summary methods may be used to cut off the blood supply from the limb. This operation consists in binding a hard substance preferably a round flat stone firmly at the point in the limb where the artery is nearest the surface. These points in both arm and leg, also the methods of applying the pressure, are shown in the accompanying figures. AN IMPROVISED TOURNIQUET. To shut off .the blood-supply from an artery, a flat I, stone of about the same size as a hen's egg should be wrapped in a folded hand- kerchief and pressed against the point where the main artery passes. On the arm, this point is midway between the shoulder and elbow, inside the biceps muscle, and on the Showing method of bandaging an artery in the leg to stop bleeding at a wound, below the point of pressure. leg, about an inch below the groin, some- what forward on the inside of the limb. The pad being pressed firmly down is se- cured in place by a handkerchief, bandage strip, or a piece of soft rope, which is tied securely about the limb. A strong stick is then run under the bandage and used to twist it around tightly, so as to press the hard pad as tightly as possible against the flesh, thus constricting the ar- tery. Of course, such compression, in order to be effective, must be applied between the bleeding wound and the heart. WOUNDS IN THE BODY OR HEAD can be treated only by local compression, as al- ready described, since it is impossible to Showing method of bandaging an artery in the arm to stop bleeding at a lower point. constrict the arteries - beyond the bleeding point. With such injuries, however, it is useful to apply cold water or ice to stop the blood as much as possible. In no case should a person, other than a surgeon, ap- ply any drug or caustic substance at a bleeding point; since the use of such agents should be guided solely by experience and adequate knowledge. Cold applications and pressure are the only means that should be employed by a layman in such cases. FRACTURED BONES In case of the fracture of a bone it is necessary to do nothing more than provide for the comfort of the patient, until the services of a surgeon may be secured. It is not necessary to set the bone at once, nor should the inexperienced hand attempt it under any circumstances that we need consider here. FRACTURE OF A LEG. If a person's leg is fractured at any place where the services of a surgeon may be speedily summoned, there is no need to do more than to lay him on his back, in as comfortable a posi- tion as possible, and remove all clothing or other articles that will press upon the injured limb. If it is necessary to move the patient, the two ends of the broken bone should be brought as nearly as pos- sible to the normal position, with the ex- ertion of no more force than is absolutely necessary, and with the steady avoidance of any movement that is liable to cause suf- FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 571 fering. The limb should then be wrapped in a pillow or in a cushion of the softest ob- tainable cloth stuffed with hay, grass, leaves or any other suitable substance. Splints of board, stick, or other strong substance, as long as, if not slightly longer than, the broken bone, should be secured to either side, outside of the pillow or cushion, and Showing method of splinting a broken leg, when it ts necessary to move the sufferer. the whole made secure by cords or band- ages passed around, as shown in the ac- companying cut. OTHER FRACTURES. In all fractures, the main object of the provisional treatment is to prevent the two ends of the broken bone from rubbing against one another, or from lacerating the surrounding tissues. A broken forearm may be bandaged and splinted in the same fashion as has already been de- scribed for a broken leg. It should then be arranged in a sling hanging from the patient's neck. If the upper arm is broken, as happens less frequently, a similar treat- ment may be followed, so far as the splint- ing and bandaging are concerned, but the patient had best be carried on a stretcher, in order to avoid unnecessary irritation of the tissues surrounding the injured bone. In the case of a broken jaw, the bone should be set into position, with the teeth closed, and two bandages should be used one passing from beneath and tied over the top of the head, the other from the point of the jaw-bone and tied behind the neck. With fractured ribs, collar-bones, etc., all that the non-professional assistant can do is to lay the patient on his back in as comfortable a position as possible, until as- sistance can be obtained. The same is true in cases of fractured skull or concus- sion of the brain such injuries are usually indicated by bleeding at the nose or ears, or by blood settling in the whites of the eyes. In this latter case the patient should be laid in a dark cool place, with a cool wet cloth on his head, until surgical as- sistance may be obtained. Under no cir- cumstances should stimulants of any kind be administered. In all injuries to the head and brain, alcoholic drinks, quinine, and drugs liable "to go to the head" art the worst possible things, if you desire the patient to recover. IN cases of apparent death, either from drowning or other suffocation, send im- mediately for medical assistance, blankets, and dry clothing, but proceed to treat the patient instantly on the spot, in the open air, with the face downward, whether on shore or afloat; exposing the face, neck, and chest to the wind, except in severe weather, and removing all tight clothing from the neck and chest, especially the braces. The points to be aimed at are: first and immediately, the restoration of breathing; and, secondly, after breathing is restored, the promotion of warmth and circulation. The efforts to restore breathing must be commenced immediately and energetically, and persevered in for one or two hours, or until a medical man has pronounced that life is extinct. Efforts to promote warmth and circula- tion, beyond removing the wet clothes and drying the skin, must not be made until the first appearance of natural breathing. For if circulation of the blood be induced be- fore breathing has recommenced, the res- toration to life will be endangered. MARSHALL HALL'S METHOD To CLEAR THE THROAT. Place the pa- tient on the floor or ground with the face downward, and one of the arms under the forehead, in which position all fluids will more readily escape by the mouth, and the tongue itself will fall forward, leaving the entrance into the windpipe free. Assist this operation by wiping and cleansing the mouth. If satisfactory breathing commences, use the treatment described below to promote warmth. If there be only a slight breathing, or no breathing, or if the breathing fail, then To EXCITE BREATHING. Turn the pa- tient well and instantly on the side, sup- porting the head, and excite the nostrils with snuff, hartshorn, and smelling salts; 572 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED or tickle the throat with a feather, etc., if they are at hand. Rub the chest and face warm and dash cold water, or cold and hot water alternately, on them. If there be no success, lose not a mo- ment, but instantly To IMITATE BREATHING. Replace the pa- tient on the face, raising and supporting the chest well on a folded coat or other article of dress. Turn the body very gently on the side and a little beyond and then briskly on the face, back again; repeating these measures cau- tiously, efficiently, and perseveringly about fifteen times in the minute, or once every four or five seconds, occasionally varying the side. By placing the patient on the chest, the weight of the body forces the air out; when turned on the side, this pressure is re- moved, and air enters the chest. On each occasion that the body is replaced on the face, make uniform but efficient pressure with brisk movement, on the back between and below the shoulder-blades or boms on each side, removing the pressure immediately before turning the body on the side. During the whole of the operations let one person attend solely to the movements of the head, and of the arm placed under it. The result is respiration or natural breath- ing; and, if not too late, life. While the above operations are being pro- ceeded with, dry the hands and feet; and as soon as dry clothing or blankets can be procured, strip the body, and cover or grad- ually reclothe it, but taking care not to in- terfere with the efforts to restore breathing. SILVESTER'S METHOD Instead of these proceedings, or should these efforts not prove successful in the course of from two to five minutes, pro- ceed to imitate breathing by Dr. Silvester's method, as follows: PATIENT'S POSITION. Place the patient on the back of a flat surface, inclined a little upward from the feet; raise and sup- port the head and shoulders on a small firm cushion, or folded article of dress placed under the shoulder-blades. FORCING AIR INTO THE WINDPIPE. Cleanse the mouth and nostrils, draw forward the patient's tongue, and keep it projecting be- yond the lips; an elastic band over the tongue and under the chin will answer this purpose, or a piece of string or tape may be tied roupd them, or by raising the lower jaw, the teeth may be made to retain the tongue in that position. Remove all tigkt clothing from about the neck and chest, especially the braces. To IMITATE THE MOVEMENTS OF BREATH- ING. Standing at the patient's head, grasp the arms just above the elbows, and draw the arms gently and steadily upward above the head, and keep them stretched upward for two seconds. (By this means air is drawn into the lungs.) Then turn down the patient's arms and press them gently and firmly for two seconds against the sides of the chest. (By this means air is pressed out of the lungs. Pressure on the breast- bone will aid this.) Repeat these measures alternately, delib- erately, and perseveringly, about fifteen times in a minute, until a spontaneous effort to respire is perceived ; immediately upon which cease to imitate the movements of breath- ing, and proceed to induce circulation and warmth. Should a warm bath be procurable, the body may be placed in it up to the neck, continuing to imitate the movements of breathing. Raise the body in twenty sec- onds in a sitting position, and dash cold water against the chest and face, and pass ammonia under the nose. The patient should not be kept in the warm bath longer than five or six minutes. To EXCITE INSPIRATION. During the em- ployment of the above method excite the nostrils with snuff or smelling salts, or tickle the throat with a feather. Rub the chest and face briskly, and dash cold and hot water alternately on them. The above directions are chiefly Dr. H. R. Silvester's method of restoring the ap- parently dead or drowned, and have been approved by the Royal Medical and Chi- rurgical Society. AFTER RESTORED BREATHING To PROMOTE WARMTH AND CIRCULATION. Wrap the patient in dry blankets, com- mence rubbing the limbs upward, with firm grasping pressure and energy, using hand- kerchiefs, flannels, etc. (By this means the blood is propelled along the veins toward the heart.) The friction must be continued under the blanket or over the dry clothing. (i.) Promote the warmth of the body by the application of hot flannels, bottles, or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, etc., to the pit of the stomach, the arm- pits, between the thighs, and to the soles FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 573 of the feet. Warm clothing may generally be obtained from bystanders. (2.) If the patient has been carried to a house after respiration has been restored, be careful to let the air play freely about the room. (3.) On the restoration of life, when the power of swallowing has returned, a tea- spoonful of warm water^ small quantities of wine, warm brandy and water or coffee, should be administered. The patient should be kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. During reaction, large mus- tard plasters to the chest below the shoul- ders will greatly relieve the distressed breathing. CAUTIONS (i.) Prevent unnecessary crowding of persons round the body; especially if in an apartment. (2.) Avoid rough usage, and do not al- low the body to remain on the back unless the tongue is secured. (3.) Under no circumstances hold the body up by the feet. (4.) On no account place the body in a warm bath, unless under medical direction, and even then it should only be employed as a momentary excitant. The police in many of our large cities are instructed to place the patient face downward over a barrel, rolling it briskly to and fro. This motion helps to expel the water from the lungs. But the most im- portant thing of all to remember is to send some bystander running for the nearest physician. The above treatment should be continued for some hours, as it is an erroneous opin- ion that persons are irrecoverable because life does not soon make its appearance. Per- sons have been restored after persevering for many hours. INDICATIONS OF DEATH Breathing and the heart's action cease entirely; the eyelids, are generally half- closed ; the pupils dilated ; the jaws clinched ; the fingers semi-contracted ; the tongue ap- proaches to the under edges of the lips, and these, as well as the nostrils, are covered with a frothy mucus. Coldness and pallor of surface increase. 37 THE SCIENCE and art of boxing- is an accomplishment valuable to any mart, both on account of furnishing him with a ready means of self-defence, and, also, for the sake of the valuable exercise of mind and body to be obtained by practicing it. Because certain professional boxers are also prize-fighters, it would be senseless to condemn the art. In almost every branch of human effort the greatest stimulus to am- bition lies in the possibility of contests with others, if it be only the friendly rivalry that belongs with games and plays of all descriptions. So, also-,, when two merr, of nearly equal strength, endurance, and skill, put on the gloves for a friendly sparring match, they indulge in an ex- ercise that is enjoyable, as well as profitable. There are many ways in which: the one or the other may be overcome without doing him injury; while the constant exercise of skill and watchfulness, to prevent such advantages as result from well-directed blows on any portion of the anatomy, is a mental benefit of no mean order. Apart from all these advantages, there are many occasions when a thorough knowledge of boxing is of the utmost use. In case of being attacked by a ruffian, it is desirable to know how to defend one's self, and to have the skill to land blows where they will soonest disable or subdue such an unfair antagonist. THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC BOXING IN entering upon the study of boxing, one must distinctly understand that he has begun work in an art having a serious pur- pose. He must understand that its real aim is not merely to obtain the exercise and beneficial "pummeling" that come from a friendly sparring match, but to teach him where and how to strike an op- ponent in order to overcome him. Hav- ing grasped these facts, he readily recog- nizes that he must study to become profi- cient in the several kinds of guard, in order to protect himself, while seeking to land a blow on his opponent's body. ELEMENTS OF BOXING. There are four elements in the art of boxing leads, feints, guards, and counters. A lead is a blow struck in offence, with the design of reach- ing some vulnerable point on an adversary's person. A feint is any movement of the limbs, body, or eyes intended to deceive an (574) adversary as to the lead about to be made, and cause him to guard the wrong point, leaving others unprotected, or to make a lead, giving chance for a good counter. A guard is a defence with the arm particu- larly the forearm and elbow against a blow from an adversary. A counter is a return blow, struck in answer to a lead that has been effectually fended off or avoided, or as part of the tactics adopted in order to avoid it. DUCKS AND SIDE-STEPS. In addition to these, it is desirable that the boxer be carefully prepared to duck or side-step, in order to avoid leads and counters, when- ever convenient or advantageous, or when- ever it is difficult or undesirable to merely guard with the arm. Straight leads for the face, as we shall see later, can often be ad- vantageously avoided by merely drawing the head back out of reach, or by ducking to BOXING 575 the side. These motions are desirable in many cases, particularly as preparatory to cross-countering. BEHAVIOR IN BOXING Understanding these points, we may read- ily see that a skilful and successful boxer must combine a number of scientific quali- ties. (i.) He must maintain a firm position in making leads, carefully watching and guard- ing, meantime, against such counters as are possible against points necessarily left un- protected. (2.) He must know how to prevent him- self from being deceived by the feints of his adversary by not taking guard too rapidly; thus leaving other points of his person ex- posed to ugly blows. (3.) He must determine on the lead he wishes to make, and make it as quickly as possible, when the opportunity occurs. (4.) When a certain lead has been made, he must be ready, whenever it is possible or desirable, to respond quickly and strongly with a counter at the most convenient point on his adversary's person. (5.) He should not waste his strength, or needlessly expose his own person, by leading or countering at undecisive points which is to say, points not recognized as "vulnerable." (6.) He must be ready at all times to take advantage of an unguarded point in his adversary, and to end any feinting and foolery by a strong blow from the shoulder. (7.) He must be able to consistently pur- sue a plan of fighting best adapted to his adversary in each particular case. If, for example, he is attacked by a man stronger or more skilful than himself, by one noted for particular "tricks," or, by a person whom he does not wish to harm as, for example, a woman or an intoxicated man his best policy is to carefully guard against all leads, saving his strength, either until a favorable opportunity occurs for decisive ac- tion, or until his opponent shows signs of tiring or has revealed weak points in his tactics. This last rule is better calculated for guidance in serious fights than in mere ' sparring matches. In the former, the best all-around rule is, "Make the other man hit first." This is advantageous in every sense: scientifically, morally, and legally. VULNERABLE POINTS Since, as already stated, the primary aim of the art of boxing is to provide an effec- tive means of self-defence, it follows that its proper theory and practice involve end- ing a fight as quickly as possible, while doing no more injury to an opponent than is positively necessary for that purpose. Hence, all leads and counters that are rec- ognized and practiced by boxers are de- liberately directed toward points where a blow is likely to result in temporary disable- ment. Such points are situated at either side of the head, from the hinge of the jaw to below the ears; on either side of the body at the level of the lower ribs, from the side to near the middle of the back; at the centre of the body, just below the breast-bone; at the full face, either on the point of the jaw or between the eyes. A well-directed blow at any of these points will result in temporary disablement, al- though not necessarily inflicting serious in- jury. THE TECHNIQUE OF STRIKING In striking at an adversary it is neces- sary to carefully observe the rule that the blow should be straight outward with the knuckles, and never downward, with a chop- ping movement, nor upward, except in up- cuts. On landing a blow the arm should be as nearly straight as the distance be- tween the combatants will permit. It should never be crooked at the elbow, ex- cept in aiming blows at the side of an op- ponent's head or body; and, "in such cases, the forearm should be slightly turned, so as to bring the back of the fist inward, thereby lengthening the reach, and giving the knuckles of the second joint of the fin- gers as the point of contact. In the last- named variety of blows, the crook at the elbow also serves to give the arm greater resistance against an opponent's side-stroke in guarding; since it is easier to straighten out under his stroke than to run the risk of a broken arm. CHOPPING BLOWS, while recommended by some of the older writers on sparring, are very dangerous, and should always be avoided. They are, to be sure, very well calculated to injure an opponent's counte- nance, if successfully landed, but, if he is at all skilful, he will take serious advan- tage of the "chopper's" unguarded "mark" for so older authorities designate the point, on the centre of the body, at the junction of the ribs and land a stunning blow. A chopping blow is also compara- tively easy to avoid or guard off, and, be- cause if shortens the reach, it is by no 576 BOXING means as convenient or effective as one struck straight out from the shoulder. POSITION OF THE BOXER The first and most important considera- tion in successful boxing is the position. There are two things to be considered: (a) the position of the arms; (&) the po- sition of the feet In modern sparring the universally rec- ognized rule is to hold the left arm in readiness for leading, and the right arm as a guard across the chest. For these reasons, the left arm should be advanced from the shoulder to the elbow, until the latter is between six and seven inches in advance of the body. The right arm should be held across and about three inches clear of the chest; the hand turned slightly downward and at about the level Position of the Boxer. of the left shoulder. The former is thus in position for leading at the first opportu- nity; the latter, for meeting and parrying an opponent's blows. The weight of the body should be evenly divided between the two feet, which should be sufficiently far apart to afford a firm support, while allowing the body freedom to move, without altering the ground posi- tion. A firm support also prevents, as far as possible, a knockdown from a heavy blow, or a fall due to a too rapid shift It is also necessary to be well balanced, in case your opponent ducks and avoids a straight forward lead, into which the whole weight of the body is thrown. In taking position, the sparrers should stand with their left sides slightly directed toward one another. The left foot should always point directly at an opponent; be- ing parallel to the left arm, and so ad- vanced as to bring the heel as nearly as possible under the elbow joint of the left arm. All muscles should be in as flexible con- dition as possible neither drawn nor tense so as to admit of easy quick movements in any direction, either in making or avoid- ing blows. In changing positions, the left foot should be advanced or moved back- ward first, allowing the right foot to fol- low, except in making side-steps; at all times carefully preserving the balance. In making side-steps, the balance is the first consideration. If the weight rests on the right foot, just previous to a right-side movement, the left foot should be moved toward it, taking the weight, before the right is moved. In making left side-steps, from a position in which the weight rests on the left foot, the opposite course is to be followed the right foot being first moved to the left to take the weight, leav- ing the left free to shift the position of the body as desired. These rules are of the utmost importance in successful sparring. RULES FOR LEADING As already stated, the recognized rule of modern boxing is to lead with the left hand, reserving the right for guarding or for certain counters. This practice is so firmly established that a man who leads with his right is at a decided disadvantage, and constantly exposes his person by leav- ing his body unprotected. Some skilful boxers can lead with either hand, and nu- merous instructors teach both methods, so as to thoroughly equip them for meeting all emergencies and profiting by all advan- tages. It is not necessary, however, to dis- cuss right-hand boxing, since the regular method, if thoroughly understood, is quite sufficient for ordinary purposes, and also requires all the study and attention that the beginner can afford to give. FEINTING At the beginning of a sparring match or stand-up fight, it is desirable to feint, in order to discover an opponent's skill and methods; oftentimes, also, with the view of causing him to make some particular lead that may be readily parried, or that will give opportunity for the counter de- sired. Altogether the safest and readiest blow to attempt as a lead is the straight left for the face; since, although it may be readily parried by a skilful and watchful boxer, it leaves the body or face perfectly protected BOXING STRAIGHT LEFT FOR THE HEAD This blow, which is called "Number One" by several of the older writers on boxing, is to be delivered straight out from the shoulder, carefully avoiding crooks of the elbow in attempting to up-cut, and, above all, any effort to make a chop downward. In making it, the boxer should move for- ward carefully maintaining balance perfect- ly at all points and lead out the instant he is within striking distance. The trouble is that, when matched with a clever opponent, he may be unprepared for side-steps that would land him on his face, if imperfectly balanced, or expose him to some foul blow that might result seriously. This is an emi- nent example of the prime importance of a firm and balanced position, and of the ability to move and check one's self quickly. Having delivered the blow, spring back into position, out of reach of a cross-counter. Should this blow be parried, the leader is again exposed to the danger of losing his balance, and should be carefully pre- pared against this contingency. With the right hand slightly inclined inward, as shown in the position of the boxer, the left hand lead for the head may be readily par- ried by raising the arm and striking the Left-hand Blow for the Face. opponent's arm upward and outward with the right forearm, at the same time strongly bracing the body. Unless he is very care- ful, therefore, the leader is quite liable to be thrown off his balance. LEFT COUNTER FOR THE HEAD After parrying the left lead for the head, the boxer will find his opponent in a posi- tion open to a left counter for the head. In delivering this blow, both arms are sent out at once: the right, to parry the op- ponent's left lead, as already described; the left, straight forward for his face. It is possible to meet this left-hand counter, either by drawing back the head out of Left-hand Counter for the Head with Guard. reach, or by ducking to the right. If not avoided, it is most severe; having double strength, owing to the leader's own weight in advancing being thrown in with the strength of his opponent in countering. DUCKING FROM A LEFT LEAD A far better and more scientific way of meeting and countering a lead for the head is to practice ducking to the left, which re- quires only a free movement from the hips, and is not likely to endanger the balance. With any but the quickest and most skil- ful opponent, this may be successfully ac- complished ; provided the eye be carefully trained, by long practice, to time the lead. It is often difficult, however, even danger- ous, against some expert boxers, who seem literally prepared for any possible emer- gency. Perhaps, therefore, it is well to avoid ducking away from a lead, until the match is sufficiently far advanced to allow one to judge of his opponent's skill and quickness. RIGHT COUNTER FOR THE HEAD One of the greatest advantages of a duck to the left, to avoid a left-hand lead for the head, is that it gives opportunity for a right counter. On this account, clever boxers often feint so as to draw an oppo- nent's left lead. The procedure is then sim- ple : instead of throwing the right arm up- ward, to parry the lead, it is shot straight 578 BOXING out from the shoulder, so as to pass, out- side of and somewhat above the leader's left arm, straight for his jaw. At the in- stant that this movement is made the head is ducked to the left, allowing the oppo- nent's arm to pass over the shoulder, or, at worst, to only graze the side of the head, without inflicting any serious injury. It is important in delivering this blow that the knuckles be turned outward, and that the arm be somewhat crooked, so as to balance the leader's probable inclination of his head in lunging, or his attempt to duck in avoid- ing the counter. This blow, if properly delivered, is even more punishing than the left-hand counter, but is much more diffi- cult and dangerous. The skilful boxer must be fully prepared above all things to successfully evade or guard against cross-counters, which, on ac- count of their great punishing power, are Rig". it Cross-Counter for the Head. favorite movements both in a sparring match and in stand-up fights. It may be possible, even after leading directly for an opponent's head, to check the movement of the left arm, and use it as a guard to throw off his right. If this is impossible, as fre- quently occurs in the quick movement of a sparring match, it still remains to the leader to duck his head still further to the right, or to spring back, thereby causing the blow to pass over his left shoulder, or grazing him but slightly. When it is possible to withdraw the lead and to guard the left forearm or elbow, it is desirable to lift the knuckles by turning the hand upward at the wrist, thus giving a stronger guard and good resisting power to a heavy blow. LEADING FOR THE BODY While it is comparatively easy to make a straight lead for the head, as already de- scribed, a lead for the body requires con- siderably more care and skill. This is true because the boxer always has his body well guarded, and, to land an effective blow on his chest or ribs, it is necessary to induce him to raise his guard. In attempting to lead for the face, also, one exposes himself to any one of the counters already described, all of them being most punishing. If, therefore, one desires to land an effective blow or to end a fight with an opponent stronger, more skilful, or taller than him- self, a lead for the body will be most ef- fective in accomplishing the desired result LEFT LEAD FOR THE BODY Effective body blows may be made either with the right or left hand; the latter be- ing the most convenient in a lead. In leading with the left hand for the body, it is necessary to induce an opponent to raise his guard, which may be done by feinting at him with the left hand, as though in- tending to lead for his face. After sev- eral feints at this lead, he will, of course, raise his right arm, in readiness to pro- tect his face, thus exposing his chest and body to a straight blow with the left. In making this lead, it is necessary to spring forward, throwing the weight upon the left foot, until within the proper distance to make a straight outward stroke. It is de- sirable to come no nearer to your opponent than is positively necessary to strike him, since the right arm is scarcely able to pro- tect your own person by guarding, and your head and face are liable to be exposed to several ugly counters. Therefore, the head should be held well to the right, and the chin depressed as much as possible. This blow being successfully delivered, re- cover position quickly. PARRYING A LEFT BODY LEAD Since a blow in the body is liable to have an immediate disabling effect, it is seldom that a left-hand lead can be successfully landed on a skilful opponent. Although he may be deceived by continued feints at the head, he will be prepared to ward off the blow in two or three ways, (i.) He may either lower his right arm the in- stant he perceives your intention for lead- ing for his body and, coming down sharply on your wrist, throw your arm downward and outward, thus effectually stopping the blow. (2.) In case he can not lower his guard sufficiently soon, he can deliver an outward and downward blow with his left BOXING 579 that may throw you off your balance and expose you to his blows on your head or neck. (3.) While both these guards are most effective, when one is thoroughly sure of his opponent's intention to lead for his body, neither of them would be of service in the event that he was simply feinting, with the intention of confusing you and finally leading for the face. The safest plan, therefore, until thoroughly acquainted with the skill and methods of your oppo- nent, is to guard against a left-hand lead for the body by lowering both arms quickly and crossing the hands over the pit of the stomach. This motion will not only serve to guard off the blow, but will also enable you to quickly raise your right arm, to pro- tect your face, in case your opponent is merely feinting, or follows up this lead quickly with another for your face. Similar tactics must be adopted in mak- ing a right-hand lead for the body, which, Right-hand Body Blow. on account of the advantages presented, may be even more effective than a lead with the left. In making this blow, it is neces- sary, either to feint, so as to induce your opponent to make a left-hand lead for your head, or to wait until he attempts that lead of his own accord. Your opportu- nity occurs the moment he raises his left arm, thus exposing that side of his body to a well-directed blow. In making this lead, step quickly to the left, strike out with the right arm for the centre of his body or the short ribs, at the same time carefully ducking your head to the left to avoid his lead. Having struck this blow, you are in position to follow up with the left for the same spot; thus quickly dis- abling your opponent, and enabling you to subdue him by changing the point of contact to the head and hitting with both hands alternately. Of course, such a pro- cedure is conceived primarily with the view of overcoming a dangerous and persistent adversary in a serious fight. Owing to the position of the contending parties, it is particularly difficult to guard against a right-hand body blow. The prin- cipal reason for this is that the left arm, being in action in leading for the oppo- nent's head, the left side of the body can not be protected. If, however, you can check the movement of the arm sufficiently soon to lower it rapidly, you can form a very effective guard by folding the hands to- gether over the left side. It is always pos- sible, however, to spring quickly out of reach, and, although missing the blow at your opponent you had already begun, to save yourself from severe punishment. SWINGING BLOWS In most of the leads and blows already de- scribed the movement of the arm is straight outward from the shoulder. There are, however, several other varieties of stroke practiced by modern boxers, which have the effect of inflicting considerable punish- ment, and also of effectually disconcerting an opponent. Among these may be men- , tioned the swinging blows for the head and the up-cuts. All of these blows are very difficult and dangerous, not only because of the necessity of swinging the arm round the opponent's guard, but also because the whole of one side of your person is left unprotected, and the arm attempting to swing is liable to be injured by your op- ponent's parry. For a successful swinging blow, with ^ either the right or left hand, it is neces- sary to deceive your opponent by clever feinting. This will be comparatively sim- ple, if you have confined your tactics to straight strokes throughout the entire match. In making a left-hand swing for the side of your opponent's head or for the point of his jaw, it is necessary to spring quickly forward with the left foot, preferably outside your opponent's left, and in so doing, to swing your left arm, slightly bent in a half-circle, for the side of his face. The point of contact should be the first knuckle of the fist. In making this blow balance must be preserved by pivoting the body on the ball of each foot. The head should be ducked well to the right to avoid any counter blow that may be attempted. If the boxer is sufficiently watchful and alert, it is possible for him to effectually avoid or parry this left-hand swing. The 680 BOXING way to do this is either to spring back quick- ly out of reach, thus probably causing your opponent to lose his balance and swing half-way round, exposing his head or body to an effective right swing or to parry. In parrying, it will be necessary to throw the right arm upward and outward, bend- ing it somewhat, so as to catch the op- ponent's arm on the point of the elbow, which, under some circumstances, might effectually disable him. A swinging blow for the side of the head may be struck with the right hand, in much the same fashion as has already been described for the left swing. After suc- cessfully feinting at your opponent, you may deliver the blow, by springing for- ward with your left foot inside of his, and from this position swinging the right arm in a half-circle for his head, throwing the en- tire weight of the body into the blow. The Landing a Swinging Left-band Blow for the Head. point of contact should be the first knuckle or the ridge formed by the second joint of the fingers. Since this blow is a difficult and dangerous one to deliver, it should be your constant effort to learn to land it with as little danger to yourself as pos- sible. This can best be done by allowing the toe of the right foot to rest on the floor, thus adding to your reach, and fur- nishing a pivot upon which you may swing the whole 'body into the blow, and, at the same time, preserve your balance. In spite of this risk, due to leaving your body unprotected against your opponent's right-hand counter, and of injuring your arm, if he catches it on his guard, this blow is the most effective one known to the art of boxing. It may be guarded in the same manner as has already been de- scribed, in connection with the left swing for the head. In both cases, the favorite practice is to present the point of the elbow to catch your opponent's swing. UP-CUT BLOWS It is necessary, for the sake of clear- ness, to again emphasize the fact that strokes with the elbow crooked are to be delivered only as occasion presents. The swinging blows for the head, as already de- scribed, are properly counters to straight leads, and are accompanied by ducks to the right or to the left, as the case may be, in avoiding such leads. The same rules apply to making up-cuts for the face with the left or right To state the matter briefly, we may say that the opoprtunity for an up-cut is when your opponent miscalculates his distance in making a lead or counter for the body, and, in order to reach your person, plunges his head and body forward. This is the very movement that an expert boxer will avoid making; and, for this reason, one seldom has opportunity to make a good up-cut. The left-hand up-cut may be delivered when your opponent makes a left lunge for your body, at the same time ducking for- ward to the right. In hitting this blow, it is necessary to step forward to meet his rush, and, while so doing, to drop the left forearm somewhat below the level of guard, and to draw back the upper arm from the shoulder sufficiently to give it a forcible forward movement In making the blow, let the fist be inclined upward from the wrist, and, holding the arm rigid at all joints, swing out and up from the shoulder joint as a pivot The point of contact should be the ridge formed by the second joints of the fingers, and the aim should be for the face. If properly timed and landed, this blow will effectually check your opponent's lunge for your body, but it is a good practice to guard with the right arm, if possible, with- out turning the attention from the blow. As may be readily understood, this blow is exceedingly difficult to parry. If you have made a bad lunge, and see that your opponent is about to up-cut, you may throw your right arm forward and downward, so as to receive the blow on the forearm and, if possible, strike it aside It would gen- erally be impossible to check the lunge you have already made, or to duck sufficiently to avoid your opponent's movement. The right-hand up-cut is even more pun- ishing than that delivered with the left, but is somewhat more dangerous, since it involves withdrawing the right arm -from BOXING 581 the position of guard. However, if prop- erly timed and delivered, it may serve to effectually check the lunge made at your body. Its delivery differs from that of the left up-cut; since it is not a mere move- ment of the crooked arm from the shoul- der, but, necessarily, from the very nature of its conditions, involves the shoulder, Right-hand Up-Cut. body, and hips. It is, in fact, delivered with less motion of the arm than of the connected parts, and is most effective when the shoulder and body are drawn back at the hips, and the arm moves no more than is required to fill the distance between your opponent's face and the point at which the hand stops at the completion of the full swing of the body. In other words, the right arm should move only as if continu- ing the momentum of the body swing. While the right up-cut is an ugly blow, if received full in the face, it is somewhat easier to parry than that delivered with the left Since it can be given successfully only as a counter to a left lead for the body, it may be effectually avoided by swinging the left shoulder well forward, so as to obtain a longer reach for the body, and thus opposing your left arm as an ef- fectual check to your opponent's right. GRAPPLES AND CHANCERIES As a general rule, grapples and chan- ceries are discountenanced in modern box- ing. This is a good thing in several ways; since more attention is expended in ac- quiring expertness in the delivery and parrying of blows with the arms and fists; also, because, with skilful boxers, it is now recognized that to get the head in chancery is a doubtful advantage. This is true, since a thoroughly alert man can pain- fully injure, if not quite disable, his op- ponent, even when his head is in this un- desirable position. In a serious fight, for example, he may nearly always reach his nearest arm around his opponent's back, and, grabbing him beneath the chin, com- pel him to loosen his hold. In fact, the science of self-defence has so greatly pro- gressed at the present time that fighters avoid any kind of a grapple, except such as pinions an opponent's arms. WRESTLING is, undoubtedly, the most ancient form of athletic sport. Wall decorations in some of the temples of Egypt show how early it was in vogue in that country and how nearly it was then what it is to-day. The same kind of testimony is afforded by certain sculptures from Nineveh. Plutarch calls it the most cunning and artistic of games, and Homer has immortalized a match between Ajax and Ulysses. Sir Thomas Parkyns, an Englishman who was represented on his tombstone in wrestling dress and posture, pub- lished a book on the sport in 1741, and pointed to the story in Genesis of Jacob wrestling with the angel, to prove its antiquity. Wrestling was introduced into Greece from Egypt, about 708 B.C., and at once became a feature of the Olympic, Isthmian, and other games. It was the custom to seize by the neck, to throttle, to butt with the head, and to use other violent measures; also to roll on the ground. Thus, the contestants were wont to oil or grease their bodies to make their muscles supple, and to sand their hands in order to get a firm grasp. Rome, copying both the recumbent and upright styles from Greece, made the sport more intricate. The earliest recorded wrestling in Japan bears date of 23 B.C. Germany has been acquainted with the sport from a remote period, and in Great Britain its popularity runs far back before the Middle Ages. One of the most noted Puritan divines of New Eng- land, John Wise, of Ipswich, Mass., was a champion wrestler. ELEMENTS OF WRESTLING THE HOLD THE wrestlers face, chest to chest, with the shoulders squared. Each places his chin on his opponent's right shoulder and grasps him round the body, placing his left arm above his antagonist's right, the hands joined, the fingers interlocked, so that the back of the right hand presses on the smal} of the antagonist's back. In placing the right arm, the further under your antagonist's you get it, the better for your hold; at the same time, keep your (582) left arm well down to prevent him from getting his right shoulder too far through. The legs must be placed astride, the left foot being about two feet in advance of the other, the weight of the body being thrown on the right leg. It is a mistake to lean to the left, as some do, in taking hold, as one is thus easily thrown off his balance. The hold may be improved by shrinking the right breast under that of the antagonist, tightening the arms around his loins, or pinning his right arm by press- WRESTLING 583 ing upon it with your left. The hold se- cured, the play begins, kicking and the catching hold of legs, thighs, or arms being forbidden. THE FALL If one competitor lets go his hold before the other, though not on the ground, the decision is given against him. If either The Hold. touches the ground with one knee only or any other part of his body, though still keeping his hold, he is deemed the loser. If both fall on the ground, he who is first down or falls under the other is the loser. But if the competitors fall side by side, or otherwise, making a "dog-fall," as it is termed, so that the umpire can not decide which touched the ground first, they are obliged to wrestle over again. THE BACK HEEL This throw is both offensive and de- fensive, and is the best one for a beginner to master, for the excellent reasons that it is safe, easy, and the one most used. It consists in getting a leg behind the op- ponent's heel on the outside. It is safer to back-heel your opponent's right leg with your left than his left leg with your right, as he can not employ the hank so readily to foil you. Experts sometimes, though rarely, back-heel with both legs. The back-heel may be foiled by slacken- ing the hold and leaning forward, or by turning round for the cross-buttock; or by keeping the back-heel in and employing the hank. The hip, also, may be used with good effect. THE HANK This is an unscientific chip and, more- over, dangerous. The wrestler turns his right or left side simply to his antagonist, clicks his leg on the inside below the calf, and pulls his man backward, falling on him, as a rule. The main thing in re- sisting is to avoid being pulled backward, and the next, to lean forward, taking a better hold and pitching your opponent forward. THE OUTSIDE CLICK This is a back-heel and is invaluable to a light-weight wrestler, but its value de- pends on the quickness with which it is employed. It is a defensive measure, which, if used in time, will save a man from be- ing lifted clean off his legs, and frequently will bring down his opponent. The foe should be clicked as near the ground as possible. THE INSIDE CLICK This is a chip not easily mastered, but is an important one, for, if carried out dexterously, it enables you to have your opponent almost at your mercy. The method is that of the hank, with this difference, that you face your antagonist squarely. Holding him tight and pulling The Hank. him forward, you click him with the right or left leg, landing him on his back and frequently on the back of his head. THE CROSS-BUTTOCK This throw requires great rapidity of action, and is of much value when a wrest- ler has permitted his antagonist to get be- hind him. To perform it, you take a loose hold, turn your left side, and, getting your hip under your foe and tightening your hold round his neck or shoulders, cross r,s4 WRESTLING both his legs with your left and lift him from the ground. Unless the attack is seconded by the arms and upper part of the body, disaster will result. If your hold as you turn is very slack, you may be brought in front of your antagonist. If that is the case, keep the hands fast, The Cross-buttock. use the buttock, and twist your man for- ward with all your might. To foil this chip, if the aggressor does it in a bungling way, lift him up and throw him over your right knee on to his back, or, getting be- hind him, put one leg or foot across both of his. The nght leg may be used" in the cross-buttock, but the left is preferable. THE BUTTOCK This chip, which is not much in use nowadays, requires greater strength and alertness than the cross-buttock. Slacken- ing your hold, you turn quickly, getting your hip further under than in the cross- buttock, and, without tripping your antag- onist, throw him over your head. If the buttocker does not succeed in throwing his adversary, the latter gets a firmer hold and throws him. THE HIP For this many wrestlers use the left leg, but there is this disadvantage: that you are not able to lift your adversary so high, your left arm being above his right, and in case you do not succeed in throwing him you are liable to get into a slack hold which will put you in his power. Lift your man, carrying him to the left, at the same time twisting his left leg with your right so as to swing both his feet off the ground, and you can then easily lay him on his back. In using the left leg, if you fail to "grass" your man, bring the buttock or the inside click into play. As a rule, a short man should never try to hip a man taller than himself. To foil the hip either apply the click very low down, or close the knees and turn sidewise. THE SWINGING HIP This chip, which is difficult to stop, con- sists is swinging your antagonist after lift- ing him and before using the hip. THE OUTSIDE STROKE The safest way to use this chip is to half lift your man, twisting him round to the left, and to strike along the outside of his right leg and foot with your left, when, aided by your arms, he is quickly placed on his back. In case of failure with the left leg, you can still keep your hold, but in failure with the right, your foe secures a rasping hold. THE HITCH OVER Turning your left side to the adversary, put your left leg around his right on the inside, holding it up as high as you can, and while he is standing on his left leg, The Hip. withdraw your left leg from his right and cross his right as in the cross-buttock. This will bring him down quickly. THE BREAST STROKE In this the legs have no part, the arms and chest doing the execution. The fall is accomplished by grasping the antagonist firmly, twisting him quickly to one side and as quickly to the other. WRESTLING 585 CORNISH AND DEVONSHIRE STYLE The men compete in loose, strong linen jackets, each getting hold as best he can, and seizing above the waist, or of any por- tion of the jacket, it being forbidden to take hold of drawers, handkerchief, or belt. Ground wrestling is forbidden. The best holds are the forehand-play, in which you are almost in front of your opponent, and the after-play, in which you are behind him. The manoeuvres include the double- lock, employed to prevent one's adversary from lifting him off his feet, and consist- ing in twisting the right heel round the other's left on the inside, while throwing the left leg over his right, making a back- heel of it, and at the same time pressing him backward ; the heave, in which, on facing your opponent, you place your right arm round his right shoulder, and reach over to his left loin, getting him under your right arm, then slipping the left hand under him so as to grasp his left elbow; the fore-hip and back-lock, which are the same, respectively, as the Cumberland and West- moreland buttock and hank. Two shoul- ders and a hip on the ground, or two hips and a shoulder constitute a fall, and a man must be thrown flat on his back before any other portion of his body touches the earth before a decision can be given against him. LANCASHIRE STYLE The wrestlers compete in their stocking feet; it is allowable to catch hold of any part of the body, and to trip, but not to throttle or to maim. The principal fea- ture is struggling on the ground, and two shoulders down constitutes a fall. CATCH-AS-CATCH-CAN OR CATCH HOLD, FIRST DOWN TO LOSE, STYLE This is of recent origin, and, being the most simple and the fairest for all parties, deserves great popularity. All modes of attack or defence are permitted, provided the contestants do not hold by the hair, legs, or clothes, or make use of painful or dangerous grasps. There is little restric- tion as to how the hold shall be taken, but contestants generally aim either for a head hold or a grip round the waist. In the former, one arm of each man usually rests on the nape of the other's neck, while the other grasps his wrist. A wrestler is thrown if he falls on his back, both shoul- ders touching the ground. At the com- mencerfient, the men face, heads up, legs straddled apart, the knees very much bent, the body bowed forward from the hip joints, the arms hanging down in front of the knees. The cross-buttock can be used with good effect in this encounter, by seizing your man's left arm or wrist with your right hand, and, while placing your left arm round his body, crossing his left leg vig- orously with your left and vigorously jerk- ing him down. When a head hold has been taken and the cross-buttock applied, your opponent usually turns a complete somersault. THE BACK HEEL To use this chip in catch-hold wrestling, catch your adversary round the head, jerk him forward, and, as he steps in with one The Back-heel. leg to steady himself, place your foot be- hind his on the outside and bend him over backward. To foil this chip, clasp your man round the waist with the under-hold, if possible, and apply the hip, or turn sud- denly round sidewise, with your arms round his neck, and bring the hank into play. STANDING CHANCERY AND BAR HOLD The aggressor catches hold of his oppo- nent's head with the right hand and pulls it down under his left arm, securing the standing chancery hold ; then slips his right hand and arm under his opponent's left arm and across his back, securing the bar hold. By leaning heavily upon his oppo- nent's neck with the chancery hold and twisting vigorously round with the bar 586 WRESTLING hold, the aggressor compels his opponent to sink to his side, from which position he may press his shoulders to the ground. HEAD IN CHANCERY The aggressor grasps the wrist of the arm which has the chancery hold and draws it in to his body, so that the pressure upon his opponent's head comes across the jaw and cheek-bones. The hold must not be secured round the neck. THE FLYING MARE This throw requires great rapidity of exe- cution. In the beginning it resembles the cross-buttuck. Swing yourself around, fac- ing in the same direction as your oppo- nent, bringing your shoulder under his armpit. Bend forward, holding his arm tightly down in front of his body, thereby The Half-Nelson lifting him off his feet. A forward, fol- lowed by a sidewise, movement your op- ponent's arm being still tightly held will enable you to throw him upon his shoul- ders, or, by freeing your hold upon his arm, you may throw him straight forward over the shoulder. To foil this move, place your hand upon your adversary's hip, as he turns, blocking the move, as in the cross- buttock, by coming under his armpit. THE HALF-NELSON Face your adversary, grasp him by the right wrist with your left hand, then thrust your right hand quickly under his arm, while you firmly seize him by the neck and press his head forward; your next move is to quit his right hand, and by clasping him round the waist to give him the Cornish heave, and lay him on his back. THE OUTSIDE STROKE Induce your man to stand with one leg, say the left, well advanced. Place your right hand on his left shoulder ; at the same time strike as in the northern style, close to the ground, and at the same time seize him under his right armpit and twist him on to his back. If he changes legs, try to get a head hold, and strike his right leg in the same manner with your left. To foil the outside stroke, stand square with both legs and give your foe no chance to throw you off your guard. THE GRAPEVINE LOCK The aggressor, in a standing position, secures a waist hold from the side upon his adversary, so that both men face in the same direction. Locking his left leg round his opponent's right, from the in- side, he reaches over in front of the latter and seizes his left arm above the elbow, bends forward, lifts the grapevine-locked leg of his opponent upward and to the rear, twists him underneath, and falls for- ward, keeping his weight closely applied to the other's chest. THE DOUBLE NELSON This is a Lancashire, Cornwall, and Devon chip, and is practically, and with reason, debarred in the United States. It is both difficult and dangerous, and consists in get- ting behind your opponent, placing both arms under his, clasping your hands round the back of his head, and then bending it forward. It can be made effective only when the adversary is a slender man. NEW SCOTCH STYLE In this the hold is taken as in Cumber- land and Westmoreland, and if one falls flat on his back, the contest is over, but if a fair back fall with both shoulders down does not result, the play is con- tinued in the French style, as a struggle on the ground until one man or the other is exhausted. In beginning, the wrestlers take hold from the head, and not lower than this when on the ground. Tripping is not allowed. IRISH STYLE In this the first down is the loser. The wrestlers take hold of the elbow with one hand and of the collar with the other; neither party being allowed to let go till there has been a fall. WRESTLING 587 FRENCH, OR GRyECO-ROMAN, WRESTLING The following are the rules in French wrestling: 1. The wrestlers are only allowed to take hold from the head, and not lower than the waist. 2. Taking hold of the legs and tripping are strictly forbidden. 3. The wrestling is with open hands, and the wrestlers are not allowed to strike, scratch, or to clasp hands. Clasping hands means that the wrestlers shall not clasp one of their hands within the other, nor interlace their fingers; but they are al- lowed to grasp their own wrists to tighten their hold round their opponent's body or otherwise. 4. The wrestlers must have their hair cut short, also their finger-nails, and they must wrestle either barefooted or with socks. 5. If one of the wrestlers fall on his knee, shoulder, or side, they have to start again. 6. If the wrestlers roll over each other, the one whose shoulders shall touch the carpet first is deemed conquered. 7. To be conquered, it is necessary that both shoulders of the fallen shall touch the ground at the same time, so as to be fairly seen by the judges and the public. GERMAN WRESTLING In this, strength and stamina are the chief factors, and the main object is a full hold. Both arms are placed around the opponent's body below the armpits, so as to lift him, if possible, off the ground and throw him on his back. It is permissible to shift the hands about unlocked; but the wrestlers are forbidden to catch hold of the legs, or touch below the waist. Trip- ping and entrapping by movements of the feet or legs are forbidden also. The back may not be presented ; hence the buttock and cross-buttock can not be employed. The fall is when both shoulders touch the ground. ROLAND, in his "Theory and Practice of Fencing," says : "Per- haps there is no exercise whatever more calculated for develop- ing and cultivating bodily strength and activity than this. Riding, walking, sparring, wrestling, running, and pitching the bar are all of them highly beneficial; but beyond all question there is no single exer- cise which combines so many advantages as fencing. By it the muscles of every part of the body are brought into play; it expands the chest, and occasions an equal distribution of the blood and other circulating fluids through the whole system. More than one case has fallen under the author's own observation, in which affections of the lungs and a tendency to consumption have been entirely removed by occasional prac- tice with the foil." He might have added : There is no exercise which imparts more grace to the movements or gives greater keenness to the eye. The method of the French school, which is that used in the United States and Great Britain, is described in this chapter. LINES. In fencing language, the front of the body is divided by an imaginary line, horizontal and just below the breast, separating the upper from the lower portion; the upper part is subdivided by a per- pendicular line, the right of which is termed the outside, the left, the inside. The lower lines are the lower, to the left of the fencer's blade, and the exterior, to the right. Engagements in the lower lines are more common in Italian than in French fencing. GENERAL RULES FOR FENCING THE FOIL, OR SMALL SWORD, briefly described, consists of two parts : the blade and the hilt, which includes the guard of metal reinforced by thick leather, and the grip. The blade is tipped with a button, and it is important before exercis- ing to. see that the button is secure. The part of the blade near the point is the foible, that near the handle, the forte. The thumb should extend along the convex side of the handle at least half an inch from the guard. The forefinger is partially extended on the under side, the middle por- tion opposite the thumb. The remaining ringers embrace lightly the side of the handle. (588) It is not necessary to change the hold for any of the movements of correct fencing. The position of the hand on the wrist con- sequently also of the foil varies between supination, in which the thumb is turned upward and the back of the hand < tward, and pronation, in which the back of the hand is upward and the thumb to the left. These variations, produced by movement at the wrist, change the dip of the point from upward to downward. POSITIONS. These are three in number: that taken before the fencer places himself on guard; the position on guard; the lunge or extension. In the first named, the heels must touch; the right foot points toward FENCING 589 the adversary and the left foot at right angles to it. The legs must be straight; the body turned toward the right and pre- senting three-quarters of the face to the opponent; the hand holding the foil at about the height of the head, the arm straight and inclined to the right; the hand in supination (i.e. with the finger-nails turned downward) ; the left arm falling naturally by the side, but clear of it, the hand turned outward. THE GUARD is the position from which all movements, offensive or defensive, are made. The fencer places his right foot twice its length in front of the left, bend- ing the knees so as to distribute the weight of the body equally between the two legs, the right, from ankle to knee, being per- pendicular. At the same time, the foil is raised to the height of the waist and turned near the left side, bringing the point to the front; the right arm is extended till it is half bent, the elbow about six inches in front of the side and turned in toward the body, the hand at the height of and opposite the right nipple, the nails in pronation (turned up), the thumb hori- zontal, the back to the right. The point of the blade should be at the height and in front of the eyes. (It should have been stated before that the fencer turns three- quarters face toward his opponent.) The left hand is extended to the rear and a few inches higher than the head ; the elbow is slightly bent; the hand open, palm to the front. The arm, from the shoulder to the end of the fingers, forms a curve. The re- verse of this position is true for left-handed men. The guard just described is termed the middle guard, because the weapon oc- cupies a middle position in reference to those it assumes in the defence. The guard must be raised according to the height of that of the opponent, tall men forming it with the hand a little below the breast. When the hand has been carried so nearly in front of the right shoulder that the ad- versary's point, if extended, on that side would not touch, the fencer is covered and the guard of tierce is formed ; if the hand is sufficiently in front of the left breast to divert the point on that side, the guard of quarte is formed. THE LUNGE OR EXTENSION. Stretch the right arm straight, keeping it at the height of the shoulder, without bending the body; pointing it direct to the spot aimed at; put the hand in supination; advance the right foot about a sole and a half (if the length of the fencer's leg will allow) ; Mft the toes a little, the heel brushing the floor ; at the same moment that the heel is ad- vanced tighten the loins, press in the left hip, straighten the left leg and thigh; drop the left hand to the left thigh without touching it, the palm turned outward. It is important that the whole of the left foot should be kept firmly fixed on the ground. The knee of the right leg should, when the lunge is completed, be just over the instep. OPPOSITION is the act of covering the body with the blade when delivering a thrust, on the side where the foils happen to cross, and to avoid receiving a blow in return when in the act of recovering the position of guard. If the foils are crossed in quarte, and one fencer holds his blade Lines Lines Diagram of a fencer's waist quartered to show the points of the body against which thrusts are aimed, and which must be guarded by the parries named accordingly, as explained in the following cuts and description. so far to the left that, if the other thrusts to the left, his point must go past the body, the former takes opposition in quarte. THE ENGAGEMENT is when the adversaries have come to the guard and join blades. It may take place in each of the four lines, and is either called engagement simply, or is named after the parry formed when the blades meet. If the right of the blades is in contact, the engagement is in tierce; if the left, it is in quarte. When the hand is turned so as to bring the back up and obliquely to the left, and the points are lowered and meet in contact on the right and at the height of the groin, the en- gagement is in seconde. CHANGING THE ENGAGEMENT. This has been concisely described as making a very small quick movement of the point, pass- 38 590 FENCING ing it under and as near as possible to the blade of the antagonist to the opposite side, executing the movement abruptly and with the fingers only, without lowering the hand. The fencer should cover the mo- ment the opposing blade is felt. To RECOVER THE GUARD, throw the left arm nimbly up to its place; draw in the right arm, and rebend the left knee. These PRIME PARRY The thrust in prime for the left side of the body is parried by the act of striking tip the op- ponent's foil by lowering the point of the foil, the back of the hand toward the face, as shown in the right-hand figure. movements must be made at the same time the advance is made from the guard, and when the adversary is beyond hitting dis- tance. The step, in the advance, is usu- ally about that of the width of the guard, and is made by advancing the right foot the distance given; on its reaching the ground, the left foot is brought up and lakes its place. It is important to have one side of the body secured by the posi- tion, particularly that side to which the antagonist's blade is opposed ; so that if he commence an attack during this move- ment, he must quit the blade in order to direct his thrust or feint at any opening the position of his opponent gives him. THE RETREAT is the reverse of the ad- vance. The left foot takes the lead, step- ping to the rear about as much as the right had stepped to the front ; the right occupying its place on its taking up the new position. ATTACKS. "There are three main points of attack," to use the words of Kelton, an authority often quoted: "On the 'right/ which is a blow at the face and right side, on the right side of the weapon ; on the 'left,' which is an attack on the face and left side, on the left of the weapon ; and 'below,' which is a blow under the sec- ond arm." The modes of attack are three in num- ber: (i) a quick thrust given merely by the wrist, the arm being elevated and ad- vanced at the same time, with the point directed at the opponent's breast; (2) what is technically called an extension; (3) the lunge and recovery. THRUSTS are directed solely at the body, a hit upon a limb not being counted. The simplest form of attack is the straight thrust, used when the antagonist, from his position on guard, leaves sufficient open- ing to enable him to be touched upon that side of the body on which blades are joined. In this attack, raise the wrist sud- denly, bringing the forte of your sword to the foible of your adversary's; then lunge at once on the same line to his breast, keeping the while a correct opposition. Movement of the hand and arm must pre- cede that of the body or foot The de- scription of the lunge is practically that of the straight thrust; it is a lunge in a straight line, care being taken to feel the adversary's blade firmly, bringing the forte of one's weapon to the foible of the ad- versary, but not pressing or leaning on the blade while making the thrust. THE DISENGAGEMENT is another form of attack, and is made by dropping the point of the foil beneath the adversary's blade, and raising it on the opposite side; at the same time rising with the arm fully ex- tended. It is used when an antagonist QUARTE PARRY The thrust in quarte for the left side of the body, on the high lines, is parried by striking down to the left the opponent's foil by assuming the attitude shown in the left-hand figure. leaves sufficient opening to enable him to be touched upon that side of the body on which blades are joined. On the comple- tion of the extension, the lunge is made and the thrust delivered. In French fenc- ing, disengagement is usually from one upper line to the- other. THE BEAT AND THRUST is a form of at- tack used when your adversary's blade is FENCING 591 firmly joined to yours and you wish to deliver a straight thrust, but are in dan- ger of falling upon his point. In this case, you give a slight beat on his blade, follow it swiftly with an extension of the arm, and this immediately with the lunge. THE ONE, Two is a double disengage- ment; the first being a feint to induce the opponent to parry to cover the part threat- ened, the covering of one part of the body naturally exposing the opposite. The sec- ond disengagement takes advantage of this exposure. The arm is extended half-way on the first, and then wholly on the sec- ond, and is immediately followed by the lunge. FEINTS, which are so numerous that only a few can be given here, are simply false attacks, or thrusts, to deceive the antag- onist, and are followed by a disengagement or a direct blow. One, two, just described, is a feint. In all feints the hand should be in supination. To execute a feint, keep body and legs immovable; raise the hand to the height of the mouth; move the point quickly and smoothly to the front, nearly to the full extent of the arm, and as close as possible to the antagonist's weapon. BEATING is abruptly touching your ad- versary's blade, striking your forte against his foible, thus startling him and getting openings to thrust. If he resists it, disen- gage at once and thrust. Should he em- ploy a simple parry, mark feint one, two; if he uses a counter-parry, counter, disen- gage, or double. THE BEAT AND DISENGAGEMENT resembles the first disengagement in one, two, and is made for the purpose of inducing the ad- versary to return to the place he occupied when the beat was made. You then im- mediately pass to the opposite side of his blade, in the manner described in the dis- engagement. CUT OVER THE POINT. Raise the foil with the hand (which is not drawn back at all), bring down the foil on the opposite side of the adversary's blade, the arm being extended during its fall to the horizontal position, then deliver the lunge. Cur OVER AND DISENGAGEMENT. This is on the same principle as the one, two, and the beat and disengagement. On the adver- sary opposing the first movement (the cut) with a parry, the second movement (the disengagement) is made to the opposite side, and is followed by the lunge: the ex- tension of the arm being divided between the two movements. GLIDING THE WEAPON consists in mov- ing your blade smoothly along your ad- versary's till the arm is nearly extended (being aware of his thrust and making sure of your own), and following the ex- tension with a swift, direct blow. A quick advance, with a glissade, affords you open- ings either to mark feints or otherwise. If the adversary protects himself, taking the opposition, a disengagement may be made. PRESSING. Move your blade quickly for- ward along your adversary's, bearing upon his, and moving it out of line ; commence at the foible and develop, or, if the opposition is taken, disengage. REMOVING THE POINT. If your opponent bears upon your weapon with a hard hand, suddenly remove your point a short dis- tance. In his attempt to find new support for his blade, he will be very apt to give you an opportunity to make a direct blow or a disengagement. PARRIES OR PARADES, which constitute the defensive part of the art, or the turning aside of the antagonist's blade, are ten in number: prime, seconds, tierce, quarte (sometimes written cart), quinte, six, sep- tinte or sept, octave, contre-tierce, and contre-quarte. Counter-tierce and counter- quarte are also called round parades. Of the ten, tierce, quarte, quinte, and six are TIERCE PARRY The thrust in tierce, or for the right side of the body, on the high lines, is parried by raising the foil and striking the opponent's weapon to the right, as in the left-hand figure. called simple parries, as the weapon is but slightly moved from the position of guard. (According to another division, there are six simple parries : quarte, tierce, circle, oc- tave, prime, and quinte.) Prime, seconde, sept, and octave are called half-counters, as the point describes a half-circle in effecting the parry. The remaining two are called counters; the point describing a curve and 592 FENCING returning to its original position. The chief parries (the others are used in exceptional cases only) are tierce, which defends the upper part of the body to the right ; quarte, which defends the upper part to the left; and seconde, which defends the lower line. PRIME is the most natural parry, the po- sition being almost that one would assume in drawing his sword from the sheath on SECONDE PARRY This is the defence for a thrust in seconde, or for the right side of the body, on the low lines. It differs from prime in the fact that the handle of the foil is lower, but the movement of striking the opponent's foil to the right is the same as in tierce. being attacked. The hand (in pronation) is raised as high as the forehead, and op- posite the left shoulder, so that the fencer can see the antagonist's face under his wrist. The elbow is lowered somewhat; the blade of the foil is almost horizontal, but the point is rather lowered toward the ground. The point must describe a curve, so that the blade will cut the line of ap- proach of the opposite weapon. As this parry throws the right side of the body open to the adversary's weapon, it is good play to disengage from left to right, and deliver a rapid thrust at the adversary, in order to anticipate him before he can bring his own sword round for another thrust. His point will be thrown far out of line, so that he is behindhand in point of time. This parry is the only one that can be used to turn aside every blow that can be made from the position of guard, and is a very useful one for fencers of short statures, as they can sometimes get in their blade un- der their adversary's arm after parrying his thrust. The other parry, defending the opening inside above the hand, is quarte. The right hand is moved a few inches across the body on the inside, neither in pronation nor SHpination, but with the thumb upper- most; the elbow close to the body; the point of the foil at the height of the eyes and slightly beyond the under line In this, as in all simple parries, the very movement which has guarded the body on one side has exposed it on the other. TIEBCE. This parry it, used when the exposed part outside above the hand is as- sailed. It is formed, from the middle guard, by turning the hand with the nails downward, and crossing to the opposite side some six or eight inches; the hand and point at the same elevation as before. If, however, the attack is made under in- stead of over the hand, the proper parry is : SECONDE. In this the hand is to the right, a little higher than the right hip, well in front and in pronation; the arm straight without stiffness; the point a lit- tle lower than the hand, and slightly outside the exterior line. If the attack is delivered at the inside under the hand, the proper parry is sept. QUINTE. Used to parry a low disen- gagement from tierce, is formed by lower- ing the hand diagonally, placing it in front of the left side at the height of the groin, the nails to the left. The point should be arrested as nearly as possible on a line with the opponent's right shoulder. Six, for- merly called tierce parry, is formed from the middle guard, as follows : turn the hand in pronation and move it opposite the SIXTE PARRY Like tierce, this parry is used to protect the upper right-hand side of the body; the foil being moved to the right sufficiently to meet and turn aside the opponent's thrust. The hand is in supination. right side. Put the point in front of the antagonist and at the height of the crown of the head. SEPT or DEMI (half) circle is formed from middle guard and is used to parry blows at the waist. In this the hand is to the right in supination, at the height of the shoulder; the arm half extended; the point to the left, at the height of the breast or shoulder. OCTAVE. In this the hand is held as in FENCING 593 quarte; the foil hilt is kept lower than that of the adversary; the blade is almost hori- zontal, the point being only slightly lower than the hilt and directed toward the body of the adversary; the point in sinking de- scribes a slight curve. Octave generally meets the opposing blade before the point can be fixed properly; moreover, it brings SEPTIME PARRY, OR DEMI-CERCI.E This movement is intended as a defence from a thrust to the left side of the body, on the low lines. It is executed by describing a semicircular movement to the left, so as to meet and turn down- ward your opponent's foil. the point so near the adversary's body that he does not venture to make another thrust until he has removed the foil. COUNTER- PARRIES. As has been said, simple parries guard one opening only; counter-parries are devised so that each is capable of protecting the entire front, and all are formed on the same plan. A counter-parry is a full circle in the posi- tion of hand and direction of blade of its simple. The parries of positive value are counter-tierce and counter-quarte. The former is executed thus, according to Kel- ton: Being engaged in tierce, when the an- tagonist disengages at the "left," lower the point with a quick bend of the wrist, pass- ing it under the approaching weapon, and throw it off to the right. Counter-quarte is made by retaining the hand in the posi- tion of quarte while the foil describes a circle, descending on the inside and return- ing by the outside to the place of its de- parture. DOUBLES are separate movements to de- ceive counter-parries, and must be made connectedly and without allowing your ad- versary's blade to overtake yours. If you threaten your man by a disengagement to the outside, and if, instead of tierce, he parries by counter-quarte, the double is made by your disengaging a second time to the same side as the first, his counter-quarte having replaced the blades in the positions they occupied previous to your disengage- ment. You will then have an opening and can finish the attack by the lunge. A DISENGAGEMENT is made as a defence as well as an attack, and is executed both under and over the wrist or foils. A dis- engagement over the arm may be parried with tierce or prime, and if made low by the parry of circle; from the position of octave, by quarte, or, when the thrust is low, by circle; from the position of quinte, by prime. Quarte and tierce are also cor- rect parries against this thrust. To disen- gage below from tierce or quarte, lower the point by bending the wrist and move it to the front at the same time, just under the blade of the antagonist. To disengage by cutting over the point, make a feint or an attack on your opponent's foil ; then raise your blade over his point and as close as possible to it. COUNTER-DISENGAGEMENT. In this, which is used to avoid the counter-tierce and counter-quarte parries, move your point en- tirely around the adverse blade, describing a very small circle near the shoulder of the foil, and follow the movement with a blow. RIPOSTES are return thrusts delivered after parrying, and are of three kinds: (i) the direct or straight, a thrust in the line of the parry, without moving the foot; (2) the riposte with a change of line or some OCTAVE PARRY This movement, like septime, is in the form of a half-circle, only made to the right, in order to deflect the thrust intended for the right side of the body on the lower lines. preparatory movement; (3) the riposte with a pause when the touch of the steel is abandoned, so that the adversary may half make or indicate a parry which the ripost- ing fencer can nullify. Ripostes are usu- ally attempted after quarte, quinte, six, and tierce, counter-quarte, and counter-tierce parries. The riposte after six, which can be delivered with more certainty and effect 594 FENCING than any other, is made by raising the hand as high as the head, the thumb turned directly down; lowering the point over the antagonist's guard, and delivering the blow at the "right" or disengaging below. To MENACE, advance your point quickly by a partial extension of the arm on the engagement side, as if about to make a direct blow. Maintain the opposition in menacing after a parry. To CROSS, hold the hand high, turn the blade over that of the adversary, and form the parry of seconde or sept (demi-circle), thus getting command of his weapon and obtaining an opportunity of attacking be- low. Crossing comes into service when the antagonist ignores a feint, and extends his blade, presenting it at the breast. BINDING THE BLADE is brought into play when the foible of the adversary's blade is controlled after a successful parry. If he disengages from quarte below, and his blow is parried with sept, an opportunity is given to bind his weapon by turning the blade under his, and, with a quick motion of the wrist, raising it and throwing it off to the right. Flanconnade is the principal way. of binding, and it is also made as a riposte. The attack of flanconnade is commenced when the blades are primed in quarte, and it is parried either by octave or quinte, or by the parry of quarte. To ENCIRCLE (after parrying six), raise the hand, master your adversary's foible with your forte, then (as he rises and at- tempts to guard against the riposte) turn or slide the blade around it without quit- ting it, and riposte below or cut over the point at the left. TIME THRUSTS, which have been called the most scientific movements in fencing, are attacks made before the finish of the adversary's attack made in opposition on a complicated attack, and intended to in- tercept the line where such an attack is meant to finish. They are of two kinds, in the execution of one of which it is necessary that the blades should cross each other; for the .completion of the other, the blades need not even meet. Time thrusts in opposition are two in number: over the arm, and in octave, the former being ap- plicable to every kind of thrust, provided the lunge is made upon the outside ; lunges directed to the inside of the body or under the arm are exposed to the time in octave. Time thrusts, or blows, in which opposi- tion is not essential, are delivered at a foe who advances within distance uncov- ered, or who makes a too wide engagement, or quits the blade in a dangerous position. THE SALUTE. The etiquette of fencing requires that before engaging in an as- sault, the combatants shall salute. As Kel- ton describes it: "The fencers, on first tak- ing the position of guard, rise, salute with their weapons each other, and, if there are spectators, on the right and left. They then resume guard in tierce; one disengages first at the 'left,' then at the 'right,' the blows being delivered with a loose hand, so that the weapon, on being parried, will be turned and the point thrown to the rear, the par- rier at the same time lowering his point out of line. After a few repetitions of these disengagements, the first fencer will dis- continue and will so indicate by an appel (two blows of the right foot on the ground), both rising. The guard of tierce is again resumed, and the other fencer makes the same disengagements. On appeling and both rising, the salute of the weapon will terminate the exercise, and the assault will begin." Etiquette also requires that if your adversary drops his foil by accident or in consequence of a smart parry of yours, you should pick it up and present it to him politely. JIU-JITSU TWENTY-FIVE hundred years ago, when our ancestors in the British Isles and on the nearby parts of the Continent dwelt in the most primitive houses and clothed themselves in the skins of wild beasts, the Japanese enjoyed a fairly high state of civilization. Yet in both Japan and Europe the warrior was looked upon as the highest type of manhood. In Japan, the art of war was then confined to a class of military nobles, or knights, known as the Samurai. Having much idle time on their hands, and being an ingenious people, these men began to devise sports to make the time pass pleasantly, and at the same time develop their bodies for the rigors of campaigning. So that wonderful system of self-defence, known as jiu-jitsu, was born and slowly developed. The principles of the system were kept secret, being passed down under oath from father to son. It was forbidden to show any of the "tricks" to persons not members of the Samurai. When the present Emperor of Japan ascended the throne, one of his first acts was to abolish the Samurai as a class. For that reason the need of secrecy as to jiu-jitsu gradually lapsed. Nowadays, any traveller in Japan may take the complete course in the science. A few teachers have also come to this country, although up to date comparatively few Ameri- cans have interested themselves in the study. This is a pity, for no known system of athletics will do so much to develop the body in a normal way. Nor could any of our boxers or wrestlers overcome a Japanese adept in jiu-jitsu. While the primary object of this system is to perfect an invincible method of self-defence, its manoeuvres serve very well for a course in athletics that ensures "muscles of steel and bones of granite," after a few months of faithful daily practice. The reader who thoroughly prac- tices, will soon find himself able to cope easily with any adversary, since everything depends upon rapidity of movement. (595) 596 JIU-JITSU USEFUL TRICKS FOR ORDINARY SELF-DEFENCE EVERY trick in jiu-jitsu is based on a patiently studied principle of anatomy, the aim being always to injure a muscle or a bone in such fashion that your oppo- nent is willing to give up the contest. An adept could, in a twinkling, break both arms of his assailant, yet bones seldom are broken, for the reason that the assailant is quickly astounded and convinced of the folly of keeping up the contest. In this respect, jiu-jitsu is the most humane form of bodily contest, as its use ends a fight without any permanent ill effect upon either contestant. TWISTING THE WRIST TO THROW Figure i shows the first and easiest trick in the system. Practice it with a friend of your own size, weight, and strength. Let your friend extend his left hand as if to shake hands. Take that hand with your right hand, fingers and thumb pointing downward, while his hand should be thumb uppermost. Place the ball of your thumb between the last two knuckles of his hand, pressing severely. There is a muscle be- tween these two knuckles a strong pressure upon which will cause a good deal of pain, and a little practice on your own hand will enable you to find it instantly thereafter. Now, while the ball of your thumb rests FIG. as directed, the fingers of that hand should rest over the thumb and on the palm of the hand of your adversary. You are now, if directions have been closely followed, in position for the trick. Give your opponent's hand and wrist a quick strong twist from right to left, making the turn as complete as possible. Your opponent will fall to the floor. PRESSING WRIST AND HEAD TO THROW In time, after months of practice, you will be able to throw an opponent, no matter how much stronger he is than yourself. FIG. a. But at first, if you have an opponent much stronger than yourself, it may be well to employ the method illustrated in Figure 2. Take the hand grip in the same way as de- scribed in the preceding paragraphs. Place your right foot behind his left foot, in or- der to trip. At the same time throw your open left hand against the right side of his head. Simultaneously twist his left wrist, push against his head, and employ your foot in the trip. In case of seizing your opponent by the right hand, all the above directions are of course reversed. CLINCHING THE ARM TO THROW After fully mastering the above manoeu- vres the student of jiu-jitsu is ready for the next. (Figure 3.) Close your left hand around the left wrist of your opponent, forcing him "to extend that arm. At the same time throw your right arm over his left arm at the shoulder. In this position JIU-JITSU 597 force your right arm under his left arm and with your right hand clutch your left wrist. In this attitude bear with all the weight you wish upon your right arm, and you will momentarily cause your opponent to feel a great deal of pain in his left arm. The whole trick lies in getting your right arm as high up as possible against his left shoulder. Should he attempt to strike you in this clinch, you will find it in your power to swing him around as much as you wish; you will avoid the blow from his right fist and will at the same time give him acute pain as long as he resists. An extra wrench, while in this clinch, will throw your opponent. As in the foregoing and in all these exercises, whenever you seize your opponent by the other hand or arm than the one indicated the directions should be reversed. HOLDING OFF AN ADVERSARY Now comes one of the prettiest grips known to elementary jiu-jitsu. Again seize your opponent by the left wrist, wholly and tightly inclosing it with your left hand. Throw your right arm under his left arm, holding him at the nape of the neck with your open right hand. The real trick in this manoeuvre is to keep your right arm straight and rigid. Hold tightly to your adversary's left wrist, and, with your rigid right arm, keep his head away. It will be impossible for him to strike you with his FIG. 3. right fist. At the same time, by any for- ward wrench, you can cause him such pain in his captive left wrist that he will be glad to abandon the now unequal contest. Figure 4 explains the position to take. THE PUSHING HOLD Next, for a breathing spell, we will at- tempt a manoeuvre that does not bear di- rectly upon self-defence, yet it offers one of the best-known methods of developing every muscle in the body. Stand close to each other, breast to breast. Spread your feet as far apart as they will go. Extend your arms horizontally, the opposite hands clutching each other. Maintaining this po- FlG. 4. sition as rigidly as possible, each contestant should strive to press the other backward. Finally, let one or the other, still keeping his arms horizontal with the floor, bring his arms rigidly in front of him, forcing his opponent to do the same, and thus obliging that opponent to yield two or three feet more. This exercise, if persisted in for several minutes every day for a few months, will equip both contestants with muscles of steel. It is undoubtedly the best all- around exercise, considering the amount of time required daily, that is known to any system of athletics. THE THROTTLING HOLD Take a careful look at Figure 5. This illustrates the most decisive way of chok- ing an opponent that is known. Place both hands inside your opponent's collar, the hands being nearly back to back. In this position the second knuckles of the fore- fingers should rest, on either side, just at the back of the "Adam's Apple." Having secured this grip, twist the hands closer together, applying most of the pressure with the second knuckles of the forefingers. A complete stoppage of breath follows. In an ordinary choking, a powerful enemy is able to shake himself free. When, how" 598 JIU-JITSU ever, the manoeuvre described in this para- graph is faithfully followed, he has no chance to free himself, and must quickly yield. The more fiercely he struggles the harder you apply the pressure, and thus the sooner he reaches unconsciousness. THROWING OVER THE HEAD In Figure 6 is portrayed a trick that can not fail to astound a new hand at jiu-jitsu the first time it is tried upon him. This trick must be tried in a room the floor of which is covered with soft mattresses or on a haymow, or elsewhere that a soft fall is assured. Each contestant should be in his underclothing, or in bathing costume, and without shoes. Each must wear a jacket of tough cloth. Begin by seizing with either hand the lapels of your adversary's coat. As soon as you have done this, raise your right foot, placing it firmly against the fleshy front of your opponent's leg just below the crotch. In the same instant, hop as close to him as you can. Holding tightly to the lapels of his jacket and with your right foot still in place, throw yourself over back- ward, carrying him with you. Though your opponent be much heavier than yourself, he can not help flying over your head, and will land on his back beyond you. This trick can not fail, if properly carried out, nor can it result in any injury to either contestant if the double fall is made on a soft enough surface. Of course you know what is coming, while your opponent does not. You will, therefore, have the presence of mind to spring up instanter and throw FIG. 5 . yourself upon him, pinning him where he has fallen before he has had time to re- cover from the daze in which the unex- pected trick has left him. TO DISABLE THE ARM AND THROW In order to overpower an adversary by rendering his arm useless and throwing him, grasp him by the wrist, and, setting the point of your elbow above and inside the bend of his arm, pull his forearm up- ward toward his shoulder. This move- ment may be readily performed even on an FIG. 6. adversary stronger than yourself the po- sition of your elbow giving a leverage that is very difficult to resist. When your adver- sary's arm is thus raised he will be unable to lower it, and, by continuing the move- ment, he may be thrown backward. FORCING THE HEAD BACKWARD Another trick that will frequently prove of use, either when the others can not be successfully performed, or when you are grappled from behind, is to grasp your ad- versary by the right shoulder with the right hand, and, using that point as a fulcrum, to force his head backward by pressure with the forearm under his chin. If you can also hold him with the left hand, he may speedily be rendered helpless and so brought to terms. TO THROW FROM A CLINCH OR BLOW One of the neatest and most serviceable "tricks" of ordinary jiu-jitsu one, also, that may be used by a woman in overcom- ing an assailant consists simply in grasp- ing the antagonist's hand and forcing it b?ck against his shoulder. If he reaches JIU-JITSU 599 out to seize you, quickly grab his hand, preferably by the ends of the fingers your hand meeting his so as to seize his fingers between your fingers and palm and, be- fore he has time to perceive your inten- tion, force his hand upward and backward, bending his elbow, until his hand is against his shoulder. As may be readily discov- ered by experiment, a person seized in this manner can not resist with the arm you hold, and, if you are quick enough, you may push him backward to the ground. Do not fail to hold down an antagonist you have once thrown in this manner. The throttling hold already explained is the safest and most effectual, when your antagonist is much the stronger; although both his arms may be pinioned back, if you are strong enough to resist his struggles and do not wish to harm him. The same movement may be successfully used by a man of sufficient strength in seizing the fist of an antagonist attempt- ing to strike him. It requires greater strength and quickness, however, than is needed to work on the unclinched hands. HI 1111 iiii iiii iiiriiii iniiiiriiii ilium muni in. in. mini, in. 1111 iiiiiinjii.in. nuiiii iiinifi iiimiiiiii 1111 11 AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE is the art of cultivating the ground, and of obtain- ing from it the product necessary to sustain animal life. The change from a state of nature, in which the human race must have first lived, to the pastoral, or to any high mode of living, must have been gradual, the work, perhaps, of ages. The race was doomed to toil, and necessity soon sharpened the power of invention. The agriculture of a people must be influenced by the climate and natural features of the country. Formerly its progress largely depended on the density of the population, but now, the iron horse and the giant steamer bear away the product of the farm, and the results of the labor of a few are reaped by the many, hundreds and thousands of miles away. This vast continent has been justly called the granary of the world. We shall now see how even the smallest farm may be managed so as to produce good crops and prove profitable to its owner. SOILS AND THEIR TREATMENT IN selecting a farm, or entering upon the cultivation of one already in possession, the farmer should, first of all, turn his at- tention to an investigation of the various soils of which its surface is composed. All soils adapted to agricultural purposes are composed of two classes of substances organic and inorganic. The inorganic parts are derived from the decay of animal and vegetable matter. The organic part of the soil is generally called vegetable mould, but scientific writers designate it as humus. To be fertile, a soil must contain a consid- erable portion of this organic matter. More than fifty per cent of humus, however, in a moist soil has an injurious effect, rendering it what is called sour. (600) Of the various soils several distinct classi- fications may be made. It will be well, at the outset, to consider them all as embraced in two grand classes heavy or light. The distinction indicated by these terms is fa- miliar to every farmer. He knows, too, that it is a predominance of clay which makes a soil heavy, and that an excess of sand or of gravel makes a soil what is called light. Heavy soils, also often denominated cold and wet, are distinguished for their affinity for water, their tenacity, their softness when wet, and their hardness when dry. They are admirably adapted to wheat, oats, In- dian corn, and the various grasses; hence they are sometimes styled grass lands, and AGRICULTURE 601 are generally susceptible of being made highly productive. Light soils are easily cultivated, friable, dry, and warm ; but their porousness renders them liable to drought and exhaustion. They are particularly adapted to rye, barley, buckwheat, and the tap-rooted plants. Soils are chiefly made up of what are sometimes called the three primitive earths silex (including sand and gravel), clay, and lime. As either of these predominates, it gives its peculiar character to the soil, whence we have the arrangement into three grand classes sandy, clayey, and limy soils. 1. Sandy Soils. A soil containing not less than seventy per cent of sand may be con- sidered sandy, in the sense in which the term is here used. 2. Clayey Soils. Clay with a mixture of not more than twenty per cent of sand forms a clayey soil. 3. Limy Soils. Limy or calcareous soils are those in which lime, exceeding twenty per cent, becomes the distinguishing charac- teristic. Calcareous soils may be either cal- careous clays, calcareous sands, or calcare- ous loams, according to the proportions of clay or sand that may be present in them. 4. Loamy Soils. Loamy soils are inter- mediate between those denominated sandy and those with predominant clayey charac- teristics. There 'are sandy loams, clayey loams, calcareous loams, and vegetable loams. 5. Marly Soils. Soils containing lime, but in which the proportion does not exceed twenty per cent, are sometimes called marly. 6. Alluvial Soils. Soils made up of the washings of streams are called alluvial. They contain portions of every kind of soil existing in the surrounding country, and are generally loamy and very fertile. 7. Vegetable Moulds. When decayed veg- etable and animal matter or humus exists in so great a proportion as to give the pre- dominant character to a soil, it sometimes receives the name of vegetable mould. 8. Subsoils. The stratum or bed on which a soil immediately rests is called the sub- soil. Subsoils, like soils, may be either silicious, argillaceous, or calcareous. Heavy soils are often stronger and more productive than light ; but they require more labor for pulverization and tillage. They can not be plowed when very wet, nor so well when very dry. Sandy and gravelly loams also contain clays, but in smaller quantity; so that they do not present the cloddiness and adhesive- ness of heavy soils. Though possessing, generally, less strength than clay soils, they are far more easily tilled, and may be worked without difficulty in wet weather. They do not crack or break in drought. In- dian corn, ruta-bagas, and some other crops, succeed best upon them. Sandy soils are very easily tilled, but are generally not strong enough. When made rich, they are fine for some succulent crops. Peaty soils are generally light and free, containing large quantities of decayed vegetable matter. They are made by draining low and swampy grounds. They are fine for Indian corn, broom corn, barley, potatoes, and turnips. They are great absorbers, and great radia- tors of heat; hence they become warm in sunshine and cold in clear nights. For this reason they are peculiarly liable to frosts. Crops planted upon them must, consequent- ly, be put in late, after spring frosts are over. Corn should be of early varieties, that it may not only be planted late, but ripen early. Each of these kinds of soil may be vari- ously improved. Heavy soils are much im- proved by draining: open drains to carry off the surface-water, and covered drains, that which settles beneath. Heavy soils are also made lighter and freer by manuring; by plowing under coatings of straw, rotten chips, and swamp muck; and, in some rare cases, by carting on sand, though this is usually too expensive for practice. Subsoil plowing is very beneficial both in wet sea- sons and in drought; the deep, loose bed of earth it makes, receiving the water in heavy rains, and throwing it off to the soil above, when needed; but a frequent repeti- tion of the operation is needed, as the sub- soil gradually settles again. Sandy soils are improved by manuring, by the application of lime, and by frequently plowing in green crops. The great art of saving and manufactur- ing manure consists in retaining and apply- ing to the best advantage those soluble and gaseous portions. Probably more than one- half of all the materials which exist in the country are lost, totally lost, by not attend- ing to the drainage of stables and farm- yards. This could be retained by a copious application of straw; by littering with saw- dust, when saw-mills are near; and more especially by the frequent coating of yards and stables with dried peat and swamp muck, of which many parts of our States furnish inexhaustible supplies. Our limits do not admit of many remarks on the principles of rotation. The follow- 602 AGRICULTURE ing courses, however, have been found among some of the best. I. istyear Corn and roots, well ma- nured. ad year Wheat, sown with clover- seed; 15 Ib. an acre. 3d year Clover, one or more years, according to fertility and amount of manure at hand. II. ist year Corn and roots, with all the manure. 2d year Barley and peas. 3d year Wheat, sown with clover. 4th year Clover, one or more years. III. ist year Corn and roots, with all the manure. 2d year Barley. 3d year Wheat, sown with clover. 4th year Pasture. 5th year Meadow. 6th year Fallow. 7th year Wheat. 8th year Oats, sown with clover. 9th year Pasture or meadow. The number of the fields must correspond with the number of the changes in each course, the first needing three fields to carry it out, the second, four, and the third, nine. As each field contains a crop each, in the several successive stages of the course, the whole number of fields collectively com- prise the entire series of crops every year. Thus, in the list above given, there are two fields of wheat growing at once, three of meadow and pasture, one of corn and roots, one of barley, one of oats, and one in sum- mer fallow. Operations in the Order of Time. The vital consequence of doing everything in the right season is known to every good farmer. In reviewing the various items which are most immediately essential to good farm management, some of the most obvious will be capital enough to buy the farm and to stock it well ; to select a size compatible with these requisites ; to lay it out in the best manner; to provide it well with fences, gates, and buildings; to select the best ani- mals and the best implements to be had rea- sonably; to bring the soil into good condi- tion, by draining, manuring, and good culture; to have every part under a good rotation of crops, and every operation ar- ranged so as all to be conducted systemat- ically, without clashing or confusion. An attention to all these points would place agriculture on a very different footing from its present condition in many places and with most fanners. The business then, in- stead of being repulsive, as it so frequently is to our young men, would be attended with real enjoyment and pleasure. But in all improvements, in all enter- prises, the great truth must not be forgot- ten, that success is not to be expected with- out diligence and industry. We must sow in spring and cultivate well in summer if we would reap an abundant harvest in autumn. ANALYSIS OF SOILS Chemical analysis shows that the organic parts of a soil are composed of carbon, oxy- gen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. The inorganic parts of a fertile soil, in addition to the silex, clay, and lime, of which we have al- ready spoken, contain smaller quantities of magnesja, potash, soda, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, oxide of iron, and oxide of manga- nese. All these are essential to independent fertility. To ascertain the percentage of sand which a soil may contain, dry a quantity thorough- ly; weigh it; boil it in water; stir it in a convenient vessel, and when the sand has settled pour off the liquid, which will hold the fine clay, etc., in suspension; after do- ing this a few times, nothing will remain in the bottom of the vessel but nearly pure sand, which may be dried and weighed, and the quantity will show whether the soil be sandy, loamy, or clayey. Any considerable quantity of lime in a soil is readily detected by pouring upon it a little muriatic acid, which may be obtained at any apothecary shop. So soon as this acid comes in contact with lime, if there be any, a brisk effervescence will take place, owing to the bubbling up and escape of carbonic acid gas. I. Texture of Soils. Considered in ref- erence to texture, a soil may be described as essentially a mixture of an impalpable powder with a greater or smaller quantity of visible particles of all sizes and shapes. Now, although the visible particles are ab- solutely essential, their effects are, as it were, indirect; the impalpable powder alone exerting a direct influence upon vegetation, by entering into solution with the water and acids with which it comes in contact; for plants are incapable of taking in solid mat- ter, however minutely divided; and it is in a liquid or gaseous form only that their food can be received. From this it will be readily understood how a soil may possess all the elements of fertility and yet be bar- ren, on account of some of these elements AGRICULTURE 603 being locked up in it, as it were, in an in- soluble condition. The stones and smaller visible portions of the soil are gradually but constantly crumbling down under the action of air, moisture, and other chemical agents, thus adding, from year to year, new impal- pable matter to the soil. The greater the proportion of this impalpable matter, all other things being equal, the greater will be the fertility of the soil. Soils must also be examined in reference to their consistency or tenacity, which is nothing more than the strength with which their molecules or particles are bound to each other by what is called, in the language of natural philosophy, the attraction of co- hesion. Clayey soils have the greatest de- gree of consistency, and sandy soils the least. Both extremes are unfavorable, a medium in this respect agreeing best with vegetation. 2. Depth of Soil. A deep soil has not only the advantage of giving the roots of plants a wider range and a greater mass of food, but it retains moisture better in seasons of drought, and is not so readily saturated in rainy weather. For the tap- rooted plants, such as beets, carrots, pars- nips, etc., depth of soil is particularly im- portant. 3. Colors of Soils. The brown and red soils are generally the best. They are termed warm, and are mostly loamy and fertile. Yellow and gray indicate clayey soils, which are cold in their nature. Black gen- erally indicates peat or deep vegetable mould. Dark-colored earths absorb heat more rap- idly than others, but they also allow it to escape with equal readiness. 4. Humidity of Soils. Too great moist- ure is not less injurious to a soil than ex- treme dryness. The proper medium should be sought, and where land is too wet, thor- ough underdraining should be practiced. 5. Influence of Subsoils. A subsoil of clay beneath a clayey soil is unfavorable ; but beneath a sandy soil it is beneficial, especially if deep plowing and subsoiling be resorted to for the purpose of improv- ing the latter. On the same principle a sandy or gravelly subsoil is desirable under clayey soils. A calcareous or limy subsoil is beneficial to both clayey and sandy soils. 6. Position and Form of Surface. Sandy soils are most fertile when flat and situated lower than the surrounding country. On the declivities of hills, such soil is of less value, as it is liable to become parched by droughts and washed away by rains. Clayey soils, on the' contrary, especially where the subsoil is impermeable, are favorably situ- ated when on a hillside. Southern and east- ern exposures are favorable to early vege- tation, and, in a cold climate or with a clayey soil, are very desirable for many crops. 1. Improving Clayey Soils. One of the principal defects of clayey soils, especially where they rest upon a subsoil of the same ' nature, is the excess of water which is held in them. The only effectual way, in a ma- jority of cases, to get rid of this is by thor- ough underdraining. Open drains or ditch'es, though less effectual, are useful. In some cases, "water furrows," terminating in some ravine or ditch, serve a very good purpose. Lime is exceedingly useful as an amelio- rator of clayey soils. Gypsum or plaster of Paris, ashes, coarse vegetable manures, straw, leaves, chips, etc., are also very use- ful, adding new materials to the soil, and tending to separate its particles and destroy their strong cohesion. In cold climates, plowing clayey lands in the fall, and thus exposing them to the action of the frosts and snows, has a beneficial effect. At the South, where there is little frost, and fre- quent and heavy rains occur during the winter, the effect of fall plowing is very injurious. Clayey lands must never be plowed when wet. Where a clayey soil rests upon a sandy subsoil, its improvement is easier, as deep plowing, by which a portion of the subsoil is turned up and mixed with the soil, soon modifies it very sensibly. 2. Improving Sandy Soils. Sandy soils require a treatment in most respects the reverse of that applied to clayey soils. Lime and gypsum, which render clayey soils more friable, increase the adhesive- ness of sandy soils, and when cheaply ob- tained furnish a profitable dressing. Ashes may also be applied with great benefit, as may vegetable manures and vegetable mould. Sandy soils are plowed to the greatest ad- vantage when wet, and are improved by the frequent use of a heavy roller. Pasturing sheep upon them is very beneficial. Gravelly soils (except calcareous gravels) are more difficult of improvement than sandy soils, and are most profitably ap- propriated to pasturage. Sheep will keep them in the most useful condition of which they are capable. 3. Improvement of Vegetable Soils. Soils composed mainly of humus or vege- table mould should be drained from all ex- cess of water. Then the hummocks, if any, must be cut off, dried, and burned, and the ashes spread over the surface; after 604 AGRICULTURE which sand, fine gravel, ashes, air-slaked time, and barnyard manure should be lib- erally added. 4. Management of Subsoils. In subsoil plowing a common plow goes first, and is followed in the same furrow by the sub- soil plow, which thoroughly breaks up the .subsoil to the depth of from twelve to sixteen inches, without displacing it. At subsequent plowings portions of this sub- soil are turned up by allowing the common ploV to run more deeply than before; but care should be taken not to bring it up too rapidly or in too large quantities. Subsoil plowing should be repeated once in five or six years; going each time a lit- tle deeper than before, till the greatest prac- tical depth is attained. Subsoil plowing is not applicable, how- ever, to all lands. Where the subsoil is loose and leachy, consisting of an excess of sand or gravel, it is not only unnecessary but positively injurious. The gradual mixing of the subsoil with the soil which results from subsoil plowing is especially beneficial to lands which have been for a long time under cultivation, and have become partially exhausted. Where underdraining is required, it should precede the subsoiling, and the sur- face of the drains should be sufficiently be- low the surface not to be disturbed by the subsoil plow. With the exception we have noted, where the subsoil is loose and leachy, subsoil plowing, though expensive, will most cer- tainly "pay," as experience has amply proved. MANURE The productive power of soils subjected to cultivation is gradually exhausted by the process. Some of the alluvial lands of Virginia produced large annual crops of corn and tobacco for more than a century, without any return being made to them for the elements of fertility abstracted; but ' these lands are now nearly valueless. The average yield, per acre, of the culti- vated lands of the State of New York has decreased since 1844. In corn, the decrease is nearly four bushels per acre ; in wheat, near- ly two bushels; and in potatoes, partly ow- ing to the rot, no doubt, twenty-two and a half bushels. These are instructive facts, and should cause the farmer to pause and reflect. Both the organic and inorganic parts of plants are made up from their food, which must, of course, consist of both organic and inorganic materials. The former are obtained partly from the soil and partly from the air; the latter come exclusively from the soil. A fertile soil must there- fore contain, in sufficient quantity and in an available form, all the constituents of plants; and to maintain its fertility under cultivation, these constituents must be sup- plied in the form of manures as fast as they are taken up by the crops produced. I. VEGETABLE MANURES Vegetable manures are not so energetic in their action as those of animal or min- eral origin, but their effects are more dur- able; and the wise agriculturist will avail himself largely of the cheap means of ame- liorating his soil which they afford. 1. Green Crops. Plowing in green crops, such as clover, spurry, sainfoin, buckwheat, cow-peas, turnips (sown thickly), Indian corn, etc., is one of the best modes of ren- ovating and sustaining a soil. Worn-out lands, unsalable at ten dollars an acre, have by this means, while steadily remunerating their proprietors by their returning crops for all the outlay of labor and money, been brought up in value to fifty dollars an acre. For the Northern States red clover has been found best fitted for a green manure ; but in particular cases some other crop may be used with greater advantage. At the South, the cow-pea (which is no pea, but a bean) is considered the best fertilizer. Clover and most broad-leaved plants draw largely for their sustenance from the air, especially when aided by the application of gypsum. By its long tap-roots, clover also draws much from the subsoil. The proper time to turn in most plants used as green manure is at the season of blossoming. The same effects follow the plowing of grass lands, and turning under the turf; and the thicker and heavier the sward the better. 2. Straw, Leaves, etc. Straw, leaves, hay, are usually applied to the lands after they have either been worked over by animals and mixed with their manures, or com- posted with other substances and decom- posed ; but clayey soils are benefited by their application in an undecayed state. Potato - tops or haulm ; bean haulm ; weeds, pulled before they have seeded, and all kinds of vegetable refuse, are readily decomposed by the addition of a small quantity of animal substances or lime, and should be carefully composted. AGRICULTURE 605 3. Sea-weed. Sea-weed and pond-weed form valuable manures. The former is par- ticularly rich in the substances most needed by our crops. 4. Cotton Seed. At the South, cotton seed is much used as a manure, and is very valuable for that purpose. It is applied at the rate of from eighty to a hundred bush- els per acre. It may be sown broadcast and plowed in during the winter, when it will rot before spring, or it may be left in heaps to heat till its vitality is destroyed, when it may be thrown upon the corn hills and covered with the hoe or plow. 5. Turf, Muck, Mud, etc. Rich turf, full of the roots of the grasses and decayed vegetable matter, is valuable as an absor- bent of animal or other manures in com- post heaps. Mixing it with lime, and leav- ing it several weeks to decompose, is a good preparatory process. Swamp muck, pond mud, and the scour- ings of old ditches, are exceedingly rich in vegetable matter, and are all very useful as manures. II. ANIMAL MANURES These comprise the flesh, blood, hair, bones, horns, excrements, etc., of animals. They contain more nitrogen than vegetable manures, and are far more powerful. 1. Stable Manures. The standard ma- nure of this country is that from the stable and barnyard. The principal varieties are those of the ox, the cow, the horse, and the sheep. Of these, that of the horse is the most valuable in its fresh state, but is very liable, as ordinarily treated, to lose much of its value by fermentation ; that of the sheep comes next; while that of the cow is placed at the bottom of the list, be- cause the enriching substance of her food goes principally to the formation of milk. That of the ox is better. All the urine as well as the solid ex- crements of animals should be carefully preserved. The urine of three cows for one year is worth more than a ton of guano, which would cost from -fifty to sixty dollars. Various methods of preserving and applying it will suggest themselves to the intelligent farmer. Stable manures should be sheltered from the sun and rain, and fermenting heaps so covered with turf or loam as to prevent the escape of the fertilising gases. Plaster, as in the case of urine, will aid in retaining the ammonia. 2. Hog Manure. The manure of swine is strong and valuable. Swamp muck, weeds, straw, leaves, etc., should be thrown into the sty in liberal quantities, to be rooted over and mixed with the dung. In this way from five to ten loads of manure per annum may be obtained from a single hog. 3. The Manure of Fowls, etc. The ma- nure of hens, turkeys, geese, ducks, and pigeons should be carefully collected and preserved. Professor Norton says that three or four hundred pounds of such ma- nure, that has not been exposed to the rain or sun, is equal in value to from fourteen to eighteen loads of stable manure. 4. Guano. Of its value as a manure there can be no doubt; but circumstances must determine whether in any given case it can profitably be purchased and applied at the prices at which it is held. In applying guano, care should be taken that it does not come in contact with any seed, as it might destroy its vitality. 5. Fish Manures. These are available near the seacoast only, where they furnish an important source of fertility, which should not be neglected. The flesh of fish acts with great energy in hastening the growth of plants. It decomposes rapidly, and should be at once plowed under, or made into a well-covered compost heat. 6. Flesh, Blood, Hair, etc. Dead animals, the blood and offal from slaughter-houses, are among the most powerful of fertilizers equal to guano and the other costly ma- nures. Every animal that dies should be made into compost at once. Hair, woollen rags, leather shavings from the shoe-shops, and all other refuse animal matters, .should be carefully preserved and composted, as they make very rich manure. 7. Bones. The value of bones as a ma- nure is just beginning to be- appreciated in this country. They unite some of the most efficacious and desirable organic and inor- ganic manures. Bones make a cheap as well as a ricK manure, and no thoughtful farmer will suf- fer one to be wasted about his house. III. MINERAL MANURES I. Lime. Lime is applied to land in three different states as quicklime, slaked lime, and mild or air-slaked lime. To cold, stiff, newly drained land, especially if there ex- ist in it much of acid organic compounds, it is best to apply quicklime or caustic hy- drate (slaked lime), as it will have a more energetic effect in ameliorating it. On 39 606 AGRICULTURE light soils mild or air-slaked lime is con- sidered most beneficial. It is best to apply lime frequently and in small quantities, so as as to keep it near the surface and al- ways active. 2. Marls. In true marl, the principal ele- ment of fertility is the lime which it con- tains; but its value is increased by the greater or less proportion of magnesia and phosphoric acid which are usually combined with it. A valuable mineral fertilizer generally called marl, but which contains compara- tively little lime, abounds in parts of New Jersey and Delaware. Its effects upon the light, sandy soils of New Jersey is very striking indeed. 3. Gypsum. Gypsum, or plaster of Paris, is a sulphate of lime, and has been found one of the cheapest and most powerful fer- tilizers derived from the mineral kingdom. On grass lands it is best to sow it in damp weather or while the dew is on. Sow broad- cast at the rate of a bushel to the acre. Seed potatoes may be wet and rolled in plaster before planting with decided advantage ; and we know of no better way of applying it to corn than to give the seed a coat be- fore putting it in the ground. 4. Common Salt, etc. Common salt, as an ingredient in compost, is of great ser- vice. As a top dressing for grass lands especially those of a loamy texture it is invaluable. Mixed with wood ashes and lime, in the proportion of one bushel of salt to three of ashes and five of lime, it con- stitutes a very energetic manure for Indian corn. A very useful and energetic mixture is made by the following simple process : "Take three bushels of unslaked lime, dis- solve a bushel of salt in as little water as will dissolve it, and slake the lime with it. If the lime will not take up all the brine at once which it will if good and fresh burned turn it over and let it lie a day and add a little more of the brine ; and so continue to do till it is all taken up." Brine which has been used for salting meat or fish is still more valuable than that newly made, as it contains a portion of blood and other animal matter. Whenever refuse nitrate of potash that is, common saltpetre or refuse liquid in which it has been dissolved for pickling meat, can be procured, it should be care- fully preserved and mixed into a compost heap. 5. Ashes. Ashes compose the entire to- organic parts of plants. Returned to the soil, they may again be taken up by the growing vegetation. Their great useful- ness as a manure is evident and undisputed. Leached ashes have lost some of their value, being deprived of the greater portion of their potash and soda, but are still very useful as manures. Coal ashes are less valuable than wood ashes, but are by no means to be neglected by the farmer. Soot is exceedingly valuable as a manure, and the small quantity produced should be carefully saved. IV. MANAGEMENT OF MANURES 1. Fermentation. That great loss takes place when manure ferments uncovered by some absorbent of the fertilizing gases is clear to every observer and thinker. See to it, then, that all fermenting manure is covered with turf, muck, charcoal dust, saw- dust, or plaster, to take up and retain the ammoniacal gases as they arise. 2. Digging over Manures. The frequent digging over of barnyard manure, practiced by some farmers, while it promotes decom- position, also leads to great waste. 3. Hauling Manure in Winter. The opin- ion is now gaining ground that, when it can be conveniently done, the best way to secure to the land the greatest possible ben- efit from stable and barnyard manure is to draw them at once, as fast as they are pro- duced, to the fields where they are to be used, and either spread them at once or deposit them in heaps so small that no pu- trefactive fermentation will take place. In many cases, manures may be hauled in the winter with great economy, as the labor of the teams and hands is in less demand else- where. 4. A Caution. Never mix quicklime with any animal manure, as it will greatly deteriorate the manure. 5. Burying Manure. Here again doctors disagree. Some advocate burying manure very deeply, others slightly, and still others would leave it upon the surface. The best general rule, we believe, is to mix it as thoroughly as possible with every part of the soil. The roots will then be sure to find it. A few crops onions and some of the grasses, for instance must find their nutriment near the surface, as the roots do not extend deeply ; for these a top dress- ing may be best. 6. Importance of Texture. Far more im- portant than the mere presence of fertiliz- AGRICULTURE 607 ing ingredients, or even the chemical con- dition of those ingredients, in many cases, is their mechanical texture and degree of pulverization. Hence it may be reasonably believed that the general introduction and free use of pulverizers, as the most effec- tive harrows, clod-crushers, and subsoilers, assisted by tile-draining, may be of greater benefit to the whole country than the im- portation of a million tons of guano. v. COMPOSTS Let nothing that is capable, when de- composed, of furnishing nutriment to your growing crops be permitted to go to waste about your premises. A compost heap should be at hand to receive all decom- posed refuse. The best basis for this heap is well-dried swamp muck; but where this is not readily obtained, procure rich turf scraping from the roadside, leaves and sur- face soil from the woodlands and the sides of fences, straw, chips, corncobs, weeds, etc., aiding the decay of the coarser mate- rials by the addition of urine or the lime and salt mixture mentioned in the previous section. Let this be composted with any animal matter found about the premises, or in the vicinity. drm. ; aromatic powder, i drm. ; oil of cara- , way, 12 drops. Dissolve as above, and then add the oil. (3.) Gently Laxative Ball. Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 5 drms.; rhubarb powder, i to 2 drms.; ginger, 2 drms.; oil of caraway, 15 drops. Mix, and form into a ball, as in No. i. (4.) Stomachic Laxative Balls, for Washy Horses. Barbadoes aloes, 3 drms. ; rhubarb, 2 drms. ; ginger and cascarilla powder, of each i drm. ; oil of caraway, 15 drops ; car- bonate of soda, 1 1 / 2 drms. Dissolve the aloes as in No. i, and then add the other ingre- dients. (5.) Purging Balls, with Calomel. Bar- badoes aloes, 3 to 6 drms. ; calomel, Y 2 to t drm. ; rhubarb, I to 2 drms. ; ginger, l /t to i drm.; castile soap, 2 drms. Mix as in No. i. (6.) Laxative Drench. Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 4 drms. ; canella alba, I to 2 drms. ; salt of tartar, i drm. ; mint water, 8 oz. Mix. Sol) v . THE HORSE (7.) Another Laxative Drench. Castor oil, 3 to 6 oz. ; Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 5 drms. ; carbonate of soda, 2 drms.; mint water, 8 oz. Mix, by dissolving the aloes in the mint water, by the aid of heat, and then adding the other ingredients. (8.) A Mild Opening Drench. Castor oil, 4 oz. ; Epsom salts, 3 to S oz. ; gruel, 2 pints. Mix. (9.) A Very Mild Laxative. Castor oil and linseed oil, 4 oz. of each; warm water, or gruel, i pint. Mix. (10.) Used in the Staggers. Barbadoes aloes, 6 drms. ; common salt, 6 oz. ; flour of mustard, i oz. ; water, 2 pints. Mix. (li.) A Gently Cooling Drench in Slight Attacks of Cold. Epsom salts, 6 to 8 oz. ; whey, 2 pints. Mix. (12.) Purgative Clyster. Common salt, 4 to 8 oz. ; warm water, 8 to 16 pints. ASTRINGENTS Astringents are supposed to produce con- traction in all living animal tissues with which they come in contact, whether in the interior or exterior of the body, and whether immediately applied or taken by absorption into the circulation. But great doubt exists as to the exact mode in which they act; and, as in many other cases, we are obliged to content ourselves with their effects, and to prescribe them empirically. They are divided into astringents adminis- tered by the mouth, and those applied lo- cally to external ulcerated or wounded sur- faces. (i.) Astringent Wash for the Eyes. Sul- phate of zinc, 5 to 8 grs. ; water, 2 oz. Mix. (2.) Goulard extract, I drm. ; water, I oz. Mix. (3.) Astringent Remedies for the Horse. F*r Bloody Urine. Powdered catechu, Y* oz. ; alum, y 2 oz. ; cascarilla bark in powder, I to 2 drms. Licorice powder and treacle, enough to form a ball, to be given twice a day. (4.) For Diabetes. Opium, y 2 drm. ; gin- ger powdered, 2 drms. ; oak bark powdered, I oz. ; alum, as much as the tea will dis- solve ; camomile tea, I pint. Mix for drench. (5.) External Astringent Powder for Ul- cerated Surfaces. Powdered alum, 4 oz. ; Armenian bole, I oz. (6.) White vitriol, 4 oz. ; oxide of zinc, 1 oz. Mix. (7.) Astringent Lotion. Goulard extract, 2 to 3 drms. ; water, Y* pint. (8.) Sulphate of copper, i to 2 drms.; ( water, y 3 pint. Mix. (9.) Astringent Ointment for Sore Heela Superacetate of lead, i drm. ; lard, i oz. Mix. (10.) Another for the same. Nitrate of silver powdered, l /t drm. ; goulard extract, i drm.; lard, I oz. Mix. BLISTERS Blisters are applications which inflame the skin, and cause watery bladders to form upon it; they consist of two kinds, one for the sake of counter-irritation, by which the original disease is lessened, in consequence of the establishment of this irritation at a short distance from it. The other, com- monly called "Sweating" in veterinary sur- gery, by which a discharge is obtained from the vessels of the part itself, which are in that way relieved and unloaded; there is also a subsequent process of absorption in consequence of the peculiar stimulus ap- plied. BLISTERS FOR HORSES (i.) Mild Blister Ointment (counter- irritant). Hog's lard, 4 oz. ; Venice tur- pentine, i oz. ; powdered cantharides, 6 drms. Mix and spread. (2.) Stronger Blister Ointment (counter- irritant). Spirits of turpentine, I oz.; sul- phuric acid, by measure, 2 drms. Mix care- fully in an open place, and add hog's lard, 4 oz. ; powdered cantharides, I oz. Mix and spread. (3.) Very Strong Blister (counter-irri- tant). Strong mercurial ointment, 4 oz. ; oil of origanum, l / 2 oz. ; finely powdered euphorbium, 3 drms. ; powdered cantharides, l / 2 oz. Mix and spread. (4.) Rapidly Acting Blister (counter-irri- tant). Best flour of mustard, 8 oz., made into a paste with water. Add spirits of tur- pentine, 2 oz. ; strong liquor of ammonia, I oz. This is to be well rubbed into the chest, belly, or back, in cases of acute in- flammation. (5.) Sweating Blister. Strong mercurial ointment, 2 oz. ; oil of origanum, 2 drms. ; corrosive sublimate, 2 drms. ; cantharides, powdered, 3 drms. Mix, and rub in with the hand. (6.) Strong Sweating Blister, for Splints, Ring-Bones, Spavins, etc. Red iodide of mercury, I to 1^2 drms.; lard, I oz. To be well rubbed in the legs after cutting the hair short, and followed by the daily use of arnica, in the shape of a wash, as follows, which is to be painted on with a brush: tincture of arnica, i oz. ; water, 12 to 15 oz. Mix. THE HORSE 651 (7.) Tincture of Iodine, which should be painted on with a brush daily, until it causes the cuticle to exfoliate. It may then be omitted for a few days, to be resumed after that interval. CAUSTICS Caustics are substances which burn away the living tissues of the body, by the de- composition of their elements. They are of two kinds, viz. first, the actual cautery, consisting in the application of the burning iron, and called Firing; and, secondly, the potential cautery, by means of the powers of mineral caustics, such as potash, lunar- caustic, etc, Firing is used extensively upon horses for inflammation of the legs. A set of firing-irons are heated to a great heat, and, one at a time, are lightly applied across the limb, or in 'lines up and down, accord- ing to the nature of the disease. This ex- cites a very great amount of swelling and inflammation, by which the mischief is often abated, and is followed also by a contrac- tion of the skin, which appears to act as a bandage in the weak state of the vessels of the legs, which often occurs. The firing is generally followed by blistering, in order to keep up the inflammation, and at least three months must be consumed before the fired horse, if thoroughly operated on, will be fit for work. Strong solid caustics are as follows: I (i.) Fused Potass, difficult to manage, because it runs about in all directions, and little used in veterinary medicine. (2.) Lunar-Caustic, or nitrate of silver, very valuable to the veterinary surgeon, and constantly used to apply to profuse granulations. (3.) Sulphate of Copper, almost equally useful, but not so strong as lunar-caustic; it may be well rubbed in to all high granu- lations, as in broken knees, and similar growths. (4.) Corrosive Sublimate in powder, which acts most energetically upon warty growths, but should be used with great care and dis- cretion. It may safely be applied to small surfaces, but not without a regular practi- tioner to large ones. It should be washed off after remaining on a few minutes. (5.) Yellow Orpiment, not so strong as the corrosive sublimate, and may be used with more freedom. It will generally re- move warty growths, by picking off their heads and rubbing it in. Strong liquid caustics: (6.) Sulphuric Acid, or nitric acid, may be used either in full strength or diluted with an equal quantity of water; but it must be used with great caution, as it de- stroys the skin rapidly. (7.) In Canker of the Foot Quicksil- ver, i oz.; nitric acid, 2 oz. Mix in an earthen vessel, and when cold put into a wide glass bottle, and cork it. It may be mixed with lard, in the proportion of I to 3. (8.) A similar application, which may be used alternately with the last Copper fil- Jngs> /^ oz. ; nitric acid, I oz. Mix, and use in the same way. (9.) Muriate of antimony, called butter of antimony; a strong but rather unman- ageable caustic, and used either by itself or mixed with more or less water. Mild solid caustics : (10.) Verdigris, either in powder or mixed with lard as an ointment, in the proportion of i to 3. (n.) Red precipitate, do., do. (12.) Burned alum, used dry. (13.) Powdered white sugar, Mild liquid caustics: (14.) Solution of nitrate of silver, 5 to 15 grains to the ounce of distilled water. (15.) Solution of blue vitriol s of about double the above strength. (16.) Chloride of zinc, 3 grains to the ounce of water. CHARGES Charges are adhesive plasters which while hot are spread on the legs, and at once covered with short tow, so as to form a strong and unyielding support while the horse is at grass. (i.) Ordinary Charge. Burgundy pitch, 4 oz. ; Barbadoes tar, 6 oz. ; beeswax, 2 oz. ; red lead, 4 oz. The first three are to be melted together, and afterward the lead is to be added. The mixture is to be kept constantly stirred until sufficiently cold to be applied. If too stiff (which will depend upon the weather) it may be softened by the addition of a little lard or oil. (2.) Arnica Charge. Canada balsam, 2 oz. ; powdered arnica leaves, Yi oz. The balsam to be melted and worked up with the leaves, adding spirits of turpentine if necessary. When thoroughly mixed, to be well rubbed into the whole leg in a thin layer, and to be covered over with the Charge No. i, which will set on its outside and act as a bandage, while the arnica acts as a restorative to the weakened vessels. This is an excellent application. 653 THE HORSE CORDIALS Cordials are medicines which act as warm, temporary stimulants, augmenting the strength and spirits when depressed, and often relieving an animal from the ill effects of over-exertion. They act much in the same way on the horse and dog, but require to be given in different doses. (i.) Cordial Balls. Powdered caraway seeds, 6 drms. ; ginger, 2 drms. ; oil of cloves, 20 drops. Treacle enough to make into a ball. (2.) Powdered aniseed, 6 drms.; pow- dered cardamoms, 2 drms. ; powdered cassia, I drm. ; oil of caraway, 20 drops. Mix with treacle into a ball. (3.) Cordial Drench. A quart of good ale warmed and with plenty of grated ginger. (4.) Cordial and Expectorant. Pow- dered aniseed, y 2 oz. ; powdered squills, I drm. ; powdered myrrh, I y 2 drms. ; Balsam of Peru, enough to form a ball. (5.) Licorice powder, y 2 oz. ; gum am- moniacum, 3 drms.; balsam of Tolu, Ij4 drms. ; powdered squills, I drm. Linseed meal and boiling water, enough to form into a mass. DEMULCENTS Demulcents are medicines which are used in irritations of the bowels, kidneys, and bladder. (i.) Demulcent Drench. Gum arabic, 1/2 oz. ; water I pint. The whole to be given. (2.) Linseed, 4 oz. ; water, i quart. Sim- mer till a strong and thick decoction is obtained, and give as above. (3.) Marshmallow Drench. Marshmal- lows, a double handful; water, I quart. Simmer as in No. 2, and use in the same way. DIAPHORETICS Diaphoretics are medicines which increase the insensible perspiration. (i.) In Hide-Bound. Emetic tartar, \y>, drms.; camphor, l / 2 drm.; ginger, 2 drms.; opium, l / 2 drm.; oil of caraway, 15 drops. Linseed meal and boiling water, to form a ball, which is to be given twice or thrice a week. (2.) In Hide-Bound (but not so effica- cious). Antimonial powder, 2 drms.; gin- ger, i drm. ; powdered caraway, 6 drms. ; oil of aniseed, 20 drops. Mix as above. These remedies require exercise in cloth- ing to bring out their effects, after which the horse should be wisped till quite dry. DIGESTIVES Digestives are applications which pro- mote suppuration, and the healing of wounds or ulcers. (i.) Digestive Ointment Red precipi- tate, 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 3 oz. ; bees- wax, i oz. ; hog's lard, 4 oz. Melt the last three ingredients over a slow fire, and, when nearly cold, stir in the powder. DIURETICS Diuretics are medicines which promote the secretion and discharge of urine, the effect being produced in a different man- ner by different medicines ; some acting di- rectly upon the kidneys by sympathy with the stomach, while others are taken up by the blood-vessels, and in their elimination from the blood cause an extra secretion of the urine. In either case their effect is to diminish the watery part of the blood, and thus promote the absorption of fluid effused into any of the cavities, or into the cellular membrane, in the various forms of dropsy. (i.) Stimulating Diuretic Ball for the Horse. Powdered resin, sal prunelle, cas- tile soap, of each 3 drms.; oil of juniper, I drm. Mix. (2.) A More Cooling Diuretic Ball. Powdered nitre, l / 2 to I oz. ; camphor and oil of juniper, of each i drm.; soap, 3 drms. Mix, adding linseed meal enough to form a ball. (3.) Diuretic Powder for a Mash. Ni- tre, 6 drms. ; camphor, 1 l / 2 drms. Mix. (4.) Another More Active Powder. Ni- tre, 6 drms.; camphor, i l / 2 drms. Mix. EMBROCATIONS Embrocations or liniments are stimulat- ing or sedative external applications, in- tended to reduce the pain and inflammation of internal parts when rubbed into the skin with the hands. (i.) Mustard Embrocation. Best flour of mustard, 6 oz. ; liquor of ammonia, i l /i oz. ; oil of turpentine, i l /2 oz. Mix with sufficient water to form a thin paste. (2.) Stimulating Embrocation. Camphor, y 2 oz. ; oil of turpentine and spirits of wine, of each i oz. Mix. (3.) Sweating Embrocation for Wind- galls, etc. Strong mercurial ointment, 2 oz. ; camphor, l / 2 oz. ; oil of rosemary, 2 drms. ; spirits of turpentine, i oz. Mix. (4.) Another, but stronger. Strong mer- curial ointment, 2 oz. ; oil of bay, I oz. ; oil of origanum, l / 2 oz. ; powdered canthar- ides ^t oz. Mix. THE HORSE 653 (5.) A Most Active Sweating Embroca- tion. Red iodide of mercury, l / 2 to i drm. ; powdered arnica leaves, i drm. ; soap lini- ment, 2 oz. Mix. (6.) This must be repeated until a blis- ter is raised, which usually takes two or three applications. It may then be omitted for a week. EMULSIONS Emulsions are very useful in the chronic cough of the horse. (i.) Simple Emulsion. Linseed oil, 2 oz. ; honey, 3 oz. ; soft water, I pint ; sub- carbonate of potass, i drm. Dissolve the honey and potass in the water; then add the linseed oil by degrees in a large mor- tar, when it should assume a milky appear- ance. It may be given night and morn- ing. (-2.) Another More Active Emulsion. Simple emulsion, No. I, 8 oz. ; camphor, I drm. ; opium in powder, l /2 drm. ; oil of aniseed, 30 drops. Rub the last three in- gredients together in a mortar with some white sugar; then add the emulsion by degrees. EXPECTORANTS Expectorants excite or promote discharge of mucus from the lining membrane of the bronchial tubes, thereby relieving inflam- mation and allaying cough. (r.) In Ordinary Cough Without In- flammation. Gum ammoniacum, y 2 oz. ; powdered squills, i drm. ; castile soap, 2 drms. Honey enough to form a ball. (2.) In Old Standing Cough (Stomach). Assafoetida, 3 drms. ; galbanum, i drm. ; carbonate of ammonia, Y 2 drm.; ginger, \ l /z drms. Honey enough to form a ball. (3.) A Strong Expectorant Ball. Emetic tartar, y 2 drm. ; calomel, 15 grs. ; digitalis, Yt drm. ; powdered squills, l / 2 drm. Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball, which is not to be repeated without great care. FEBRIFUGES Fever medicines are given to allay fever, which they do by increasing the secretions of urine and sweat, and also by reducing the action of the heart. (i.) Fever Ball. Nitre, 4 drms.; cam- phor, i dr. ; calomel and opium, of each i scruple. Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball. (2.) Another. Emetic tartar, 1^2 to 2 drms. ; compound powder of tragacanth, 2 drms. Linseed meal as above. (3.) Another. Nitre, i oz. ; camphor, 2 drms. Mix as above. (4.) Cooling Mash. Nitre, I oz. ; may be given in a bran mash. (5.) Cooling Drench. Nitre, I oz.; sweet spirits of nitre, 2 oz. ; tincture of digitalis, 2 drms. ; whey, I pint. CLYSTERS Clysters are intended either to relieve obstructions or spasm of the bowels, and are of great use. They may, in the general way, be of warm water or gruel, of which some quarts will be required in colic. They should be thrown up with the proper syringe, provided with valves and a flexible tube. (i.) Turpentine clyster in colic, see ANTISPASMODICS. (2.) Aperient clysters, see APERIENTS. (3.) Anodyne Clyster in Diarrhoea. Starch, made as for washing, i quart; pow- dered opium, 2 drms. The opium is to be boiled in water, and added to the starch. LOTIONS Lotions are liquids applied to the exter- nal parts when inflamed, and they act by reducing the temperature, and by giving tone to the vessels of the part. (i.) Cooling Lotion in Stiffness from Bruises or Work. Tincture of arnica, I drm. ; spirits of wine, 7 drms. Mix and rub well into the parts, before the fire, with the hand. (2.) For Internal Canker. Nitrate of silver, 10 grs. ; distilled water, i oz. Mix, and drop in every night. (3.) Cooling Lotion for External In- flammation. Goulard extract, i oz. ; vine- gar, 2 oz. ; spirits of wine, or gin, 3 oz. ; water, i 1 /* pints. Mix, and apply with a calico bandage. (4.) Another, Useful for Inflamed Legs or for Galled Shoulders or Back. Sal am- moniac, i oz. ; vinegar, 4 oz. ; spirits of wine, 2 oz. ; tincture of arnica, 2 drms. ; water, l / 2 pint. Mix. (5.) Lotion for Foul Ulcers. Sulphate of copper, i oz. ; nitric acid, l / 2 oz. ; water, 8 to 12 oz. OINTMENTS Ointments are greasy applications, con- sisting of a powerful drug mixed with lard, or some similar substance, and thus applied to the sore; they are generally more prop- erly described under the several heads for which they are used. (See ASTRINGENTS V ANODYNES, etc.) 43 654 THE HORSE STIMULANTS By this term are understood those sub- stances which excite the action of the whole nervous and vascular systems ; al- most all medicines are stimulants to some part or other; as, for instance, aperients, which stimulate the lining of the bowels, but to the general system are lowering. On the other hand, stimulants, so called, excite and raise the action of the brain and heart. (i.) Old ale, I quart; carbonate of am- monia, l /t to 2 dims. ; tincture of ginger, 4 drms. Mix, and give as a drench. (2.) For other stimulants, see CORDIALS. STOMACHICS Stomachics are medicines given to im- prove the tone of the stomach when im- paired by bad management or disease. (l). Stomachic Ball. Powdered gentian, l /2 oz. ; powdered ginger, \ l / 2 drms.; car- bonate of soda, i drm. Syrup to form ball. (2.) Another. Cascarilla powdered, I oz. ; myrrh, \ l /t drms.; castile soap, i drm. Mix, with syrup or treacle, into a ball. (3.) Another. Powdered Colombo, l /t to i oz. ; powdered cassia, i drm. ; powdered rhubarb, 2 drms. Mix as in No. 2. TONICS Tonics augment the vigor of the whole body permanently, while stimulants only act for a short time. They are chiefly use- ful after low fever. (i.) Tonic Ball. Powdered yellow bark, i oz. ; ginger, 2 drms.; carbonate of soda, l /2 drm. Form into a ball with linseed meal and water. Another. Sulphate of iron, l / 2 oz. ; ex- tract of camomile, I oz. Mix, and form into a ball. Another. Arsenic, 10 grs. ; ginger, I drm. ; powdered aniseed, i oz. ; compound powder of tragacanth, 2 drms. ; syrup enough to form a ball. It is a very powerful tonic. WORM MEDICINES Worm medicines are given in order to expel worms, which they do partly from their specific action upon the worm itself, and partly by their purgative qualities, which all ought to possess, or to be fol- lowed by medicines of that class. (i.) Calomel, I to 2 drms.; Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 6 drms.; ginger, i drm.; soap, 3 drms. Mix. (2.) Worm Drench. A pint of linseed oil every day. CATTLE THE Ox belongs to the order oi Ruminants, or cud-chewers. It has hollow horns, which are directed sidewise, and then twine upward in form of a crescent ; has a broad muzzle, low stature, and stout legs. It is also distinguished by a fold of skin which hangs beneath the neck, and is called the dewlap. The male and female of this species are respectively the Bull and the Cow. The young males are called Steers, and the females Heifers. The problem of utilizing the ox to the greatest extent simply consists in producing, as quickly and economically as possible, an animal excelling to the highest degree both in the quantity and quality of its meat. Care, therefore, must be taken particularly to develop those parts which furnish the joints that are most esteemed. VARIETIES OF DOMESTIC CATTLE THE type of the ox best fitted for the butcher is that in which flesh surpasses bone in proportion, and in which the hinder parts are more fully developed even at the expense of the neck and shoulders; for tho latter joints furnish an inferior article of food, so that their reduction, if compensated for by an increase of the more valuable portions, must be a great desideratum. What, therefore, are the points by which we can discern when an ox approaches the butcher's ideal? The answer is, great width combined with depth and length. "The deeper the animal is in the thorax, in proportion to its size, the closer it is to the ground, in vulgar terms; added to this, the longer it is in body and rump ; and the thicker it is, or, as is commonly said, 'the better it is made up,' the greater amount of clear meat it gives in comparison with its absolute or living weight, and the better it approaches to the desired type." There are certain accessory characteris- tics which must have their due importance, as likewise forming a prominent feature in the type of the ox which is intended for the butcher. It must have slenderly made bones, a fine head, skin supple and not too thick, moderate dewlap, thin and downy hair, calm visage, quiet and mild look. It may be re- garded as a certainty that the ox which combines these and the former attributes possesses a special fitness for becoming good beef. Next to meat, milk is the most valuable product with which this race furnishes us a source of wealth to the producers, for it is an article of universal consumption. Thus it may be easily understood how im- portant it is for the buyer to be able to dis- tinguish, d priori, in the market, from cer- tain outward signs, what are the milking qualities of a cow, and to be able to arrive at a correct conclusion, even in a heifer, whether she will be a good or bad milker. There are both good and bad milkers in every race ; the proportion, however, of each' presents a certain constant character, by (655) CATTLE which some breeds may be recognized as possessing a decided milking superiority. Climate and nature of pasturage have also great influence on the lacteous qualities of different races. The principal breeds of oxen and cows are the Shorthorn, Hereford, and Devon; and besides these we have the Sussex, the Longhorned, the Galloway, the Angus, and the Kyloe. The Shorthorn is now undoubtedly the dominant breed. Originating in Teeswater, and carefully bred years before the exist- ence of any herd-book recording descent, it soon reached the highest reputation for its early precocity and meat-producing quali- ties. The Herefords, another leading breed of cattle, characterized by red body and white or mottled face, come almost as early to maturity as the Shorthorn, and, attaining great weight, are certainly one of the best breeds. They have as great an antiquity as the Shorthorn. As much as $5,000 has been given for a Hereford bull and cow; and high prices are fetched still, though not so high as those of the Shorthorn stock, for well-bred bulls and cows. The breed has now a herd-book of its own, and it is in the hands of as much enthusiasm and ability as has characterized the history of the Shorthorns. For early maturity and large size, accordingly, it now almost equals the Shorthorn ; and for quality of meat it probably excels it. The Devon. The North Devon ox is a small animal, of a light red color, without any white, with long yellowish horns, and a well-made symmetrical frame. Hardy, light and active, it is an excellent worker, and is worked in harness until five or six years old, and then fattened. The Sussex is a larger, coarser animal than the Devon, but otherwise resembles it. The Longhorned, a dairy breed, rather than one adapted for the feeding-house, is gradually disappearing from English middle and western counties, where it prevailed. The Kyloe, or West Highlander, adapted to the rough pastures of the districts where it is bred, is driven south to be fattened on English grazing-grounds, where it yields the very best of beef at four and five years old. It is characterized by long, upturned horns, a shaggy coat of a yellow, dun, or black color, and well-made, compact little body. The Galloway, resembling a Kyloe with- out horns, with a less shaggy coat, is, when well-bred, one of the best-made and most symmetrical of Enelish breeds of cattle. It, too, is driven south in large numbers to be fattened, and yields excellent beef. The Angus, also a polled breed, of a red or black color, is a much larger animal, and when crossed with the pure-bred Shorthorn breed, furnishes one of the best crosses for the feeding-stall that we have. Besides these, there are other sorts es- pecially adapted to the dairy. Different Kinds of Cows. The large kinds of cows are generally chosen where there are rich fertile pastures; and no doubt the dominant breed throughout the country, both for indoor and outdoor feeding, is, as has been said, the Shorthorn. This breed is di- vided into several varieties the Holderness, Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, etc. The Yorkshire is thought to be the best for the dairy. These fine animals appear to have descended from the Teeswater breed. There are a great many varieties of the large cows in England that have been bred by Shorthorn bulls. An excellent cross is common in the eastern counties between the best Suffolk cows and shorthorn animals of the best blood. They are good milkers, harmless, and very quiet, and consequently much approved of for pasture-feeding. Cows of this breed will produce from ten to twelve pounds of butter per week each, when well managed; and for butter dairy- ing the quantity and quality of cream pro- duced is of greater importance than the quantity of milk. Cheshire Cows. The Cheshire dairy farms are mostly stocked with a mixed breed of cows, between the Cheshire, Lancashire, and other crosses. Lancashire. The Lancashire are distin- guished by their long horns, deep fore- quarters, and long hair. They, as well as other long-horned cows, are said to give richer milk than polled cows, but not so much of it. Besides the milking properties of a breed of cows, their hardy qualities must be thought of, where they are exposed to bleak situations; and no doubt the long- horned Lancashire and other coarse-skinned animals are the most hardy. Devons. The middle-horned breed of cows may include the Devons, the Here- fords, and the S"ussex. The two latter are the largest, but neither of them excel the best Shorthorn in their produce of milk. The Devons are of a light red color, with yellowish colored horns, well made, and their milk is rich or there would not be such rich Devonshire cream. Hereford. The Hereford, next in size to CATTLE 657 the Shorthorn breed, is a fine animal and a pretty good one for dairy stock, but better, perhaps, for fattening purposes. The Sus- sex do not differ much from the Herefords ; they are both of a darker color than the Devons, with horns of a moderate length, turning up at the points, having wide hips and smallish bones. They are middling cows for the dairy. Galloway. The polled Galloways are very nice animals for grazing purposes; they are mostly black, well proportioned in form, and yield an average quantity of milk, when carefully used, for dairy purposes. Highland. The Highland are not thought to be better milk-producers than the Gallo- ways, but more hardy. Ayrshire. The Ayrshire cow is a favorite in some places, but not preferred by cow- keepers in general. It is, however, a good animal for the dairy, and almost equal to the Alderney in the richness of its milk. It has fine wrinkled horns, is larger than the Alderney, and somewhat like it in appear- ance. Its color is usually red and white. Shetland. The Shetland cattle are very small, and inferior in shape to those of the Western Highlands. They are hardy, small consumers of food, and yield about two quarts of milk a day. Welsh. The Pembrokeshire cow is small and hardy. It is fine-boned, with clean light head and neck, small yellow horn, good chine, long round barrel, thin thigh, and short fine legs, always in good condition if tolerably kept, and has a rich wave in her hair which ever denotes thriftiness of kine. Its produce is from five to seven pounds of butter a week during the dairy season. Irish. The Kerry cattle, in size and shape, resemble some of those from the Western Islands, of a high-bred deer-like shape, not so broad or so low in the leg as the native Highland Scots. These cattle are very hardy, being reared in a country of rocks and hills. Their properties are said to be that of giving the largest quantity of milk, which is also of the richest quality for the amount of sustenance they require. Alderney. The little Alderney cow is a slender-made animal, not very well shaped, though admired for its deer-like mild face and fine bone; it is mostly of a red and white color, with a mottled face. The Al- derney gives the richest milk of any kine, and some of them have been known to pro- duce ten and eleven pounds of butter a week of the finest quality. They are rather ten- der, and require to be well housed in the winter. Suffolk. The Suffolk cow is believed to be the best of the polled breeds for the dairy where the pastures are not very rich. They are quiet, hardy, and suitable for upland fields. It is thought that the Dun-colored origi- nally descended from the Galloway ; they do not, however, generally appear to be so uni- formly well-shaped as the Galloway, although they have been vastly improved of late years by careful breeders. Various crosses between them and the Ayrshire, and other varieties, have increased the produce of the dairy in many places ; but it is believed that for large dairies no cross is superior to that of the Suffolk cow and the Shorthorn bull. Whichever breed is made choice of to im- prove the stock, both male and female should be of the best animals. By a first-class bull a hardy, well-formed, and abundant milk- producing cow is almost sure to produce valuable calves to bring up for the future supply of the dairy. THE COW AND CALF Rearing Cow Stock. Where there is ac- commodation for rearing young cow stock, the best males and females should be se- lected for propagating a good breed. It would not do, however, for those who ex- pect to make a profit by dairy-farming to purchase animals at the fabulous price of hundreds and thousands of dollars, such as we read of at the sales of first-class breeders. Very excellent animals can be found now of various breeds, and calves chosen from the best of them, though not very high in price, will be as good for dairy purposes as the most celebrated stock. A selection should be carefully made from mothers which are the best milkers, with full-size udders, wide rounded hips, straight backs, and broad chests, with small tapering legs ; and bulls with broad breast, projecting a little before their legs, with neck rising from their shoul- ders, moderate-sized heads, flat, broad, straight backs, well filled up behind their shoulders and between their ribs and hips, with small straight legs and rounded bodies. Large sunken bodies are generally brought on by poor keep. Animals kept on straw and sedgy meadows only, while young, are usually disfigured by their bodies becoming unnaturally protruded. Watchfulness required. When cows are expected to calve (at the end of forty weeks) they should be carefully watched night and day, and where the weaning of 658 CATTLE the calf is intended, it would be best for them to calve at the beginning of March, as they would then have the whole of the grass season before them. When the cow has had a protracted and difficult calving time, she will require careful treatment. In common natural cases she will soon be all right; but in difficult cases brushing of the belly and loins with a wisp is 'serviceable gentle walking exercise for a short time in fine weather is useful. Gruels and cordial drinks should also occasionally be given. The latter might consist of a quart of ale mixed with sugar or treacle, and diluted with water, to be given warm. She must have her warm water mixed with a little meal. Should fever intervene, it is best to send for the veterinary surgeon, and com- mit the case to his care. Cows after calving should be carefully fed with nutritious food, in small quantities often repeated; and it is certainly best to give cooked or boiled food, as it prevents more generally indigestion and flatulent colic. At all events, sweet and easily di- gested food should be given, or material injury may arise. Should the udder swell from excess of milk, or the incapacity of the calf to draw it all away, frequent milk- ing is requisite, and it should be hand- rubbed well, with frequent washings of warm water and soft soap, or with warm bran-water. The teats occasionally become sore; the same applications should be re- sorted to, and, in addition, a little lard, olive- oil, or even cream, should be gently rubbed on, particularly in cases of pustules arising, or scab. Calves will soon learn to drink from a pail; but it is generally thought best to allow them to suck from their mothers for a few days, while the herdsman milks on the opposite side. The cow will give down her milk the better for it, and become rec- onciled to his milking her without the calf afterward, if treated with gentle kindness. The calf should have new milk for a fort- night twice a day; then skimmed milk mixed with oatmeal or linseed meal, boiled for half an hour, during another fortnight or three weeks. It will require about two gal- lons a day till it begins to eat well, which it will do when it is five or six weeks old, if some sweet hay be given it daily, or some hay chaff with pulped mangold or swedes mixed with it. Skimmed milk, or whey mixed with a little linseed meal, will then do for its drink,* which may be continued The milk may be taken from the quantity set up for butter and once skimmed after standing twelve hours. till it is twelve weeks old, when it will live very well on a pasture or on natural food. Some people wean calves almost entirely on linseed tea. Summer Treatment When the weather is warm and the flies become troublesome, they ought not to be left in their pasture without shade or shelter. If well shaded during the heat of the day, and supplied with pure water and some green food in their cribs, they will most likely continue to thrive; but if left -to be tormented with flies, huddled together in a corner of their pasture, or in a wet ditch, they will probably become unhealthy. It may here be remarked that, on first leaving the cow-house, the calf should be confined in a safe place in the yard or elsewhere for a day or two, until it becomes accustomed to the bright light of day, as on its first introduction it ap- pears almost blind, and would be likely to run into danger. A change of pasture now and then is de- sirable, but calves should not be put into low wet meadows, as it is generally in such situations that they get diseased with a husky cough. As the fall approaches the grass will be less nutritious; it will then be necessary to give them some food in their yard or shed, such as pulped roots mixed with cut straw chaff, every night. A little salt mixed with their chaff is a good thing, and is believed by some people to prevent "hove." When frost begins they should not be turned into their pasture till nine or ten o'clock, or till it disappears. Their racks, cribs, and mangers, or whatever they feed or drink from, should constantly be kept clean, and the herdsman should be urged to feed and water them regularly, and to keep them well supplied with dry bedding. As winter approaches they would be best confined to the yard and shed, where, if well sheltered and fed regularly with a proper quantity of pulped roots, turnips, or mangold, mixed with straw chaff sprinkled with a little salt, they will thrive fast enough till the spring, when they can return to their pastures, or be provided with green food; they should be carefully treated as before recommended. The upland pastures are best for young stock. Some people allow heifers to have calves when only two years old, but they seldom (if ever) make such good cows as those that are left free till they are three years of age. Young stock brought up as here recom- mended will generally thrive fast, and be free from disease. CATTLE 659 Cost of Keep. Cows are large consumers of food, and should not be stinted when in milk. Heifers will require nothing but green food in the dry summer months ; but as the winter approaches they should be shel- tered in a yard at night, and a little fresh barley or oat straw given them in their cribs; whenever the pastures become in- jured by frost, both young and old cows re- quire improved food in their sheds. A few Swedish turnips or mangold roots should then be given them, which, if pulped and mixed with sweet chaff (one- fourth hay), would be sufficient to keep them in healthy condition; but this applies only to those that are not in milk. When within two mon-ths of calving, all cows should be dried, for, if not then dried, they will not produce so much milk the next year. They should afterward have their food improved by an additional weight of roots with their chaff, which should be mixed in a heap over- night. By the morning it will be found to have heated a little, which imparts a flavor that is much relished by the cows. Consumption of Food. As was before remarked, cows are large consumers of food, and it is no wonder that they should require an abundance, to enable them to supply so rich a sustenance for mankind, as well as to support themselves. Where there are no good dry pastures to provide them with plenty for their summer keep, they would do very well in a proper feeding- house (inclosed on the north and south sides) with a door at each end, if they were liberally supplied with green food, cut for them and put in racks : such as rye grass, clover, tares. It has been found that milk as abundant and butter quite as good have been produced by cows so fed, as by those which had the run of rich pastures. But where there are pastures it would be well to have the cows housed in hot weather, when insects are troublesome; or else they will be worried and heated and unable to feed, and will fall off in their produce of milk. A large cow will consume a hundred- weight of green food per day. When green food is scarce, as is generally the case at the end of a dry summer, a little linseed-cake or bean-meal, mixed with cut chaff (one-third hay), should be given them to keep up the produce of milk, lest part of the best season for dairying should be lost by its failure. It is not a good plan to feed cows on much uncut hay, for they would consume and spoil a hundredweight a day, if fed entirely on it. Much less expensive and more natural con- diments can be made by a mixture of bean, barley, maize, or linseed-meal, and other produce of the soil by cow-keepers them- selves. Milk Dairies. When cows are kept only for the purpose of producing a large quan- tity of milk, brewers' grains are given them, with a small portion of hay, for ruminating purposes. On this they do tolerably well, but it will be found to their advantage if about three or four pounds of bean-meal be mixed with the grains for each cow per day. Winter Food. In winter and spring, Swedish turnips, mangold, and other root crops would be found more economical food than the grains, meal, and hay last mentioned. A bushel of pulped roots mixed with about fourteen pounds of cut chaff (one-third hay), and given them twice a day, would be found sufficient to satisfy a moderate-sized cow, but they should not be stinted or confined to any quantity if they are found to require more. Cabbages, carrots, and parsnips are very good food for milch cows if given in moderate quantities with other food. It is important that all roots should be freed from earth before pulping, or given to the cows, otherwise it would impart an unpleas- ant flavor to the cream. When cows are fed on pulped roots, with cut chaff, a peck or two of malt-dust ("combs") would be a nice addition, as it would give a zest to the mixture. A sufficient quantity for the whole herd should be put into a heap about twelve hours before it would be wanted, when it would be found to have acquired a little warmth and a fragrant smell, which would give the cows a greater relish for it. A change of green or succulent food ap- pears to promote the secretions of the sys- tem, and to give stimulus to their action. Such as would injure the flavor of milk should be avoided. .White turnips and cab- bages will do this, if given without a good supply of other food with them. AMONG the important advances of recent times may be mentioned the elevation of agriculture in all its branches to the dignity of a science. Formerly the tilling of the soil and the raising of live-stock of various kinds were scarcely rated among skilled callings. Nearly any one with the inclination was supposed to be amply qualified for the business, and that good results were accomplished under such con- ditions was very greatly to the credit of the farmers themselves. Probably, also, the economic conditions of former times had much to do with the successes reaped by conservative methods. At the present time the need of exact knowledge and careful training is nowhere more marked than in agriculture, and nowhere is such knowl- edge of greater utility than in the raising of domestic fowls for profit. The "college-bred farmer" may be a character who provokes ridicule in some minds, but his success is worthy the emulation of all. At any rate, the following scientific treatise on practical poultry-raising should convince would-be "fanciers" that there is a "scientific" way of making the poultry yard pay, and that it is, in a large number of respects, superior to the former method of allowing nature and chance to supplement, if they will, the deficiencies of our own knowledge of this important subject. HOW TO KEEP POULTRY IN GOOD CONDITION THE state of thriving prosperity in poultry so well known to connoisseurs as con- dition is of such primary importance that it may justly claim first attention. When fowls get ill and die, without any apparent cause, careful observation may gen- erally trace it to one or other .of a few fertile sources of evil to them. They have been overcrowded, they have had too much pampering, or they have had too little care. All fatal faults in feeding come under one of the last two heads. If the apparent health and appearance of the fowls be not satisfactory, visit th- hen- (660) house after it has been some hours shut up at night, and if the air be offensive there need be no further quest after the cause ol illness or other evil there may be among the living beings breathing its close atmosphere for many hours. The remedy should at once be applied by decreasing the number of fowls, and by giv- ing increased ventilation. A hen-house 6 or 8 feet square will do well for seven old fowls, or one large brood of chickens. More crowding will not lead to a good result; so if the increase of the stock seems to render it necessary, consider POULTRY 661 means for housing the youngsters out of doors, in coops or by other contrivances, rather than overfill the houses. Fowls, even the tallest, live and breathe very near the surface of the ground; and when the earth becomes foul from having had live stock on it for some time, they can not fail to inhale the malaria engen- dered by it. Human beings in such an atmosphere would fall in as great propor- tional numbers as do the fowls of the most unfortunate amateurs ; sanitary measures in their case stop epidemics, and they are the remedies to use with our fowls, or we must not look to have them prosperous and healthy. The most valuable sanitary measure for the fowls is to renew the surface of the runs by paring from time to time. Spring is a good time to do it, when the pared-off surface, rich with guano-like manure, is a valuable strong fertilizer. Duck and pigeon manure are the strongest. Means must be taken to dry the runs, made pure by paring. Low damp ground should be drained. Excellent runs may be made by paring the ground one spit deep, i.e., a foot, good measure, and filling in with a depth of nine inches of chalk and three of gravel. Sometimes, when paring would be too troublesome, a sprinkle of lime over the surface will purify it, but the fowls should be kept off it until after rain. Where the fowls have extensive ranges the immediate neighborhood of the houses only will need this cleansing process; but the floors of the hen-houses require renewal from time to time. The kind of pampering which leads to overfeeding fowls, giving them dainties, such as meat, greaves, hemp-seed, Indian corn, and other fattening food, and keeping them too warmly housed, is a fertile source of ill-health. Poultry, to remain thoroughly healthy, and not to become unhealthily fat, should never have a grain more of food given than they can eat up at once with a hungry, healthy appetite ; they should not be fed too often, they should not have a va- riety of food given at the same time, and they should have to run for all the food they eat, and have it so thrown abroad that they shall have plenty of work, and conse- quently plenty of amusement, to find it. The well-being of fowls requires that they have regular care as well as judicious eco- nomical feeding, regular meals, a regular supply of water, and regular cleaning. The real care that they require is not pampering and superabundant, almost incessant, feed- ing, and sometimes the less they are run, after the better they will thrive ; but the lit- tle care they need should be administered with regularity. This is the kind of care that will keep poultry in the perfect health and good looks which amateurs know so well, and so fully appreciate as good condi- tion. A fowl in good condition is free and bold in gait, brisk in movement, and bright in the eye. The plumage is full, firm, crisp, and glossy; the bird feels firm in handling; it is neither too lean nor too fat, and the comb is clear and bright in color, accord- ing to the season. When a bird is out of condition, in which case it will do no good service to its owner, its flesh is flabby, however fat it may be; it is heavy and listless in movement, often craves continually for food, and seems too lazy to wander far to seek any for itself. The comb and eye lack brightness, but the plumage tells the tale most unmistakably; it is dull, ruffled, and broken, sets away from the body, and either comes out with a touch, or adheres to the skin with unnatu- ral tenacity, fixed by a kind of leprous scurfiness. A tendency to roup is often seen. ARRANGEMENT OF STOCK The cheapest way to get up a stock, allow- ing time and work for the matter, is to buy really first-class reliable eggs, from sellers of established character. We must neither expect all the eggs to hatch, all the chick- ens which are hatched to turn out espe- cially good, nor find fault with the seller if this be not the case; for if he is honest he will tell you that when eggs are set at home, without the no small trial of a jour- ney, the hatching of two out of three is a pretty good proportion, and a first-class pair from each brood is ample return for the outlay, reckoning the value of the eggs at the usual price charged for eggs for set- ting, and the trouble of rearing. If it be wished to get a good stock together, without the delay of rearing chickens, it may be done by purchasing fowls. In-breeding, i.e., breeding among rela- tions, must be carefully avoided. However fine the stock, it is altogether against the laws of good breeding to keep the pullets and the cockerels, and go on year after year breeding from them without the in- POULTRY troduction of fresh blood. Doing so will produce decrease of size and weakly consti- tutions. In-breeding must, on no account, be carried beyond the first remove. The mother may be mated with her son, but the old game breeders did not consider the union of a rooster with the pullets bred from him nearly so good. In the purchase of stock, therefore, take care to get hens and roosters which are not related, either by buying from different persons, or by asking the person of whom you purchase for roosters and hens of dif- ferent families, which most amateurs, and all dealers, are able to manage. It has not unfrequently happened that well-established, good stocks of fowls have been greatly injured by a carelessly intro- duced cross. When the introduction of fresh blood becomes necessary, the stock with which to cross should be chosen with eference to the qualities most wanted, and great care is necessary to prevent the in- crease of present failings by it. The pur- ity of the breed and its stamina must also be especially considered; for mongrel crosses, or a weakly constitution, may be introduced in one year, and may take a great many to eradicate. With regard to the number of hens to be allowed to run with one rooster, various opinions have been given; but while ten or a dozen may form one group for the pro- duction of eggs, for that of really fine chick- ens the number should be limited to four, or at most six. With four hens, almost all the eggs which are laid will prove produc- tive of fine, strong chickens, provided, of course, the stock birds are good. At the breeding season the breeding stock should most decidedly be confined to runs, if purity and precision in breeding be a de- sideratum ; and each family, consisting of a male bird and his harem, should be kept distinct. This separation from stock birds less to be depended upon than those which are selected should be arranged before Christmas, and continue until eggs are no longer wanted for setting, after which they may have a fuller range, when the houses they have occupied will be valuable for other purposes. So particular have some game breeders been in that important point, purity of race, that they considered that the character of the chickens might be influenced by the hen that hatched them, and would set eggs only under the hen that laid them, or one of the same breed, saying that roosters lost pluck by being hatched by common hens. HOUSES A simple construction is better for a hen-house than a very elaborate air-tight building; for too confined air, while the fowls are at roost, makes the place offen- sive, and is more prone to engender disease than almost anything. Poultry amateurs would be much at a loss in their building operations if they could not have that useful commodity, the patent felt roofing. It measures 32 inches wide, and is a capital water-tight covering for a roof, or any other part of a hen- house; it is like wood and brickwork to the builder of hen-houses, and cheap withal. About the cheapest regularly formed house may be made with it, stretched over a wooden frame, which should be rather stout, and well put together. The roof should be made of common boards, under the felt, which without that support is apt to bag, make hollows for water to lodge in, and become rotten in consequence. It nails most easily with iron tacks heated in. a frying-pan; when up, it requires tarring and thickly sprinkling with sand, which should be repeated every year to make it durable. In sunny weather a felt house is apt to be hot, so that, to keep it refresh- ingly cool, as well as for appearance' sake, it is a good plan to plant quick-growing trees round it. Tolerably stout wooden houses have done hundreds of amateurs excellent service. For the house to keep in good order, the wood should be well seasoned, and any amateur carpenter can put it up at small cost and trouble. Shape the house with a framework of battens. The lowest part may be five feet high, and the roof should have a good pitch, both to throw off the wet, and to make it airy. The cheapest de- ascription of boards will do for the roof under the felt, and scarcely any wooden roof is good without that covering, from its being liable, after being swelled with wet, to crack with the heat of the sun, and so let in water. If it be entirely of wood, the boards can either be placed horizon- tally, with an overlap of at least an inch and a half, or vertically, edge to edge, with fillets of wood nailed over the joints. A cheap roof, yet one which is tolerably last- ing, may be made by covering the boards with gas tar &nd coarse brown paper. Lay POULTRY 663 on a coat of tar, then the brown paper, lapping it over a full inch where the sheets meet, and finish with another coat of tar. When the wooden roof is to be covered with either felt or brown paper, there need be no overlap of the boards, but they may lie edge to edge, either from ridge to eaves, or across. The boards, too, for covering the framework of sides, back, and front of the house can go either upright or across, whichever will use the wood to the best economy. Eaves should project well, to carry off wet. If the boards are used rough, three- quarter-inch planks will do, but if they are planed, inch deal will be required to make up for the waste. A hatch for the fowls to go in and out, with a door to slip down over it, should be made when the house is built ; some- times two on different sides are found very useful, in case of changes in the run, which can then be put to one side of the house, instead of the other, without further alteration. A more solid kind of house, as well as one which will be more costly, can be built with regular walls of brick, stone, rough stone, or earth. These may be more last- ing, and the first three more secure from the attacks of vermin, but, of course, the cost both in material and labor will be greater. For a brick wall, what bricklayers call half a brick thick is sufficient, as very great strength is not required. A pattern of a few feet square, made by leaving out alter- nate bricks high up on the side of the house, which will admit air that will not be too cold, is a good means of ventila- tion, and of giving light also. Few amateurs would go to the expense of walls of hewn stone, but in neighbor- hoods where rough blasted rock or stone is plentiful, and consequently cheap, it makes good walls, which come rather cheaper than brickwork. To be sufficiently solid and stable these walls should be rather over than under a foot thick, and the stones fitted together with judgment, to avoid interstices causing weakness, or great consumption of mortar, of which, however well the stones may be fitted, a great deal will be used. While building this kind of wall it should be brought to a level of surface at the top every 16 inches or so, which gives the stone a look of or- der in the arrangement, greatly improving the appearance, and also giving strength. All laminated stone, i.e., stone which has an appearance of being formed in layers, should have these layers placed horizon- tally. Where building materials of most kinds are difficult to obtain, earth walls may be used with advantage, requiring, if the ma- terial be at hand, little outlay except labor. The proper earth is neither sand nor clay, but partaking of both. Clay, chalk, any calcareous earth, or sand, is bad for the purpose. The earlier in the season the building can be done the better, that it may have time to dry; but a time must be chosen when the earth is sufficiently dry for working, and the coarser and bolder it is the better. A foundation of brick or stone must be used, which can be brought 9 inches above the surface of the ground, or less if preferred. The wall is made by ramming in the earth, supported during the process by a mold formed of two planks of inch board. These planks for a cottage or similar building should be 12 feet long and 20 inches wide, formed of two breadths, and strengthened with cross-pieces strongly nailed outside; but for a hen-house, sum- mer-house, or similar edifice of less impor- tance, they might be shorter. Cross-bolts fix these planks together (two near each end), with as many inches between the two boards as the wall is to be thick, say 14 or 16 inches, and the bolts have large heads at one end to fix them, and eyelet holes and cross-pegs at the other. Place the planks above the brick foundation, bolt them to- gether, and fit bits of board into the ends, to prevent the building material running out there, the little boards fitting in be- tween the top and bottom bolts, and mak- ing (with them) the mold into a sort of box. Then work the earth up well, a little at a time, mixing in cut straw or some sim- ilar material to make it bind ; and when it is used it should have just moisture enough to adhere together, under the pressure of the thumb and finger. Ram in no more at a time than will make an inch and a half when well rammed ; and the rammer, to do its work well, should be no more than an inch and a half wide. When the earth is well rammed down, as high as the mold will allow, draw out the cross-bolts, re- move the planks, and fix the mold further on, the bolt at one end being fitted into the hole left by that at the other, only one end board being of course required. When 664 POULTRY each layer of the wall is completed the mold must be placed higher, fitting the bot- tom bolts into the holes left by the top ones, and after each course pour over the surface (to make the next course adhere, and also to give a nice appearance) a small quantity of thick grout composed of one-fifth lime and four-fifths earth. Before the wall dries, the holes left by the bolts must be carefully filled up with mortar made of one-fourth lime and three- fourths earth. If the same mixture be used for the wall, it will dry almost like stone. A stout frame of wood must be fixed to shape the door, hatch, and windows, and the building may have a smooth facing given to it of the mortar above named, or one made with more lime, or even a lit- tle cement. As a finish it may be washed with a mixture of lime and sharp sand, mixed in small quantities, and used while hot, which may easily be done by adding a knob of lime and the sand a little at a time, as it is used. The roofing for houses of regular walls, like those of brick, stone, or earth, should be slates or tiles. A slate or tile roof will be cold in win- ter and hot in summer unless it has a lin- ing of some kind, for which any of the following substances will do, unless a reg- ular ceiling of plaster be preferred: felt nailed to the under side of the rafters, and tarred; a kind of inner thatch of straw, kept in its place by laths nailed to the raf- ters ; stout brown paper oiled or painted and nailed to the rafters. Every hen-house should have a good wide door, as it may sometimes be useful to carry a hen-coop through it, especially in wet, ungenial seasons ; and the door should be so placed, and so fixed on its hinges, that it will open back thoroughly. A window, too, is necessary, as light within is quite wanted; and it may not be advis- able to fix the door open at all times in our climate. Perforated zinc, or close lat- tice, is good, and will give no more air than enough, except in very intense weather, when it may be covered with a bit of thin board or a sheet of brown paper. Give the hen-houses a good lime- wash- ing at first, to prevent vermin making a settlement in the wood or small cracks to be found about, and repeat it once a year at furthest. When the house is complete with door and window for convenient access and VP**- tilation, a hatch for the use of the fowls, a good firm floor, which can neither be too cold, too easily saturated with impurity, nor too facile a harbor for vermin, and which can be kept clean without difficulty, all sweet from the hand of the whitewasher it must be fitted with perches and nests. All heavy fowls should have the perch made of a fir pole, not less than 4 inches across. One pole sawed in halves will make two perches; they should be about 2 feet, or a little more, from the ground, and they should drop into sockets, so that they can be taken down to clean or lime- wash. Light active fowls often crave to soar higher for roosting, but heavy birds should on no account be allowed to do so. Almost anything, provided it be steady and clean, does for a nest. Some wild fowls like it to be secret and out of the way, but those that are tame and much noticed care little about that; only take care that it stands firm (to provide against losses), and that it is filled with clean straw or hay. Straw is best in warm weather, as hay is said to be heating, and consequently to encourage vermin. HOUSES AND RUNS With regard to the size of the hen-house, the important point is that it should be suf- ficiently large for the air to keep pure and sweet when the fowls are shut up at night. A house of medium size, with a few fowls, is preferable to a large one with a great many. One favorite form for poultry houses, with many extensive amateurs, has always been ranges of houses, side by side, each having a run belonging to it. Another plan has been a circular, octagonal, or square building, of large size, parted into several poultry houses, and with a run to each di- vision arranged round the building. Every poultry run should have a shed. A felt roof on fixed supports, with a pitch from 4 feet at the back to 3 feet in front, will do. A little common boarding under the felt will make it very good, or a roof of feather-edged board will do exceedingly well. It should have a warm aspect; under it should be spread fine dust in which the fowls may roll and cleanse their feathers, gravel to give small stones, without which fowls can not remain healthy, and lime rubbish, or lime in some shape for egg- shell, without a due supply of which they v'U not lay welL POULTRY 665 Where the range is necessarily small, the important point is to have a small number of fowls in proportion to its size, and to clear off all supernumeraries before, winter. Grass is excellent for fowls, but it is im- possible to keep a small run in grass, as the constant tramp and scratching of even half a dozen grown birds will make it bare. A well-laid run, kept clean, infill do for fowls, but a grass run is far preferable, if it can be managed. FEEDING Perhaps there is no method of poultry feeding so injurious as throwing down a lot of food, from which they can fill their crops, scarcely moving from the spot where they stand. Fowls thus fed will grow fat internally, but they will not put on good firm meat, and strong useful muscle, nor will they acquire stamina and good consti- tutions. Good feeding rather requires good space, but if the run be small, it must be made the most of by throwing the food as far as can be, and making the fowls run the whole distance, as many times as possible. In a small run, where the green food must be given to the fowls, instead of their going afar to seek it for themselves, it is a good plan to tie up cabbage stumps and lettuces for them to pull at, rather than to throw them on the ground. Three meals a day are quite enough for any grown fowls; those that have range enough to enable them to pick up much for themselves will do well with two. A good supply of clean, pure water is as necessary as a regular supply of food. Per- haps there is nothing better in which to give the water than firm-standing crockery pans. They should be placed a little sunk in the ground, very firm and steady, in some out- of-the-way corner, where the fowls are least likely to step into them or overturn them, washed thoroughly inside and out once a day, filled once a day, and filled up whenever they require it. Each pan should hold as much water as the fowls for whose use it is intended could consume in twenty- four hours, but it should be replenished oftener in case of accidents. The different kinds of food used in feed- ing poultry are: grain of many varieties, the meal made from them by grinding, root and green vegetables, and meat, either giv- en by hand, or found by themselves in the shape of worms, grubs, and such like. It is the best economy to buy food of the best quality, for poor or damaged things are dear at any price. The food, of what- ever sort, should be fine of its kind, and in good condition. Worm-eaten corn, and meal which is full of mites, is deficient in nourishing properties and unwholesome. Next in importance to good food is good variety in diet. Animals need change of food, and always thrive best and produce best upon it. Barley, oats, wheat, buck- wheat, Indian corn, the meal made from all these; potatoes, lettuces, and all kinds of garden stuff offer a good variety, and may be yet further varied with rice, man- gold, linseed, vetches, turnips, etc. A change, altered week about, has often been found to succeed. Barley is used as whole corn more than almost any other kind of food, and it is good, but the stock will not thrive on it or any other grain without variation. Wheat is very nourishing, but rather too heating for poultry which has not full lib- erty. Buckwheat makes an excellent change, and promotes laying; on the Continent it is more used than any other grain. Fowls like it very much when they get used to it, but when it is strange they will sometimes overlook it on account of its dark color. Indian corn is good as an occasional change; its fault is that it promotes internal fat rather than general plumpness, on which account it should be used with caution, and not for too long at a time. The diet of fowls should never, however, be entirely corn. Since their gizzards are made for getting nutriment from corn, we do not think the use of it should be ex- cluded, but they are omnivorous, and it is best to feed them at all times partly on soft food, i.e. meal, and such like, and partly on corn. If two meals a day are given, we would give one of meal and other soft food, and one of corn; if three, one of corn and two of soft food generally, and sometimes, for a change, two of corn and one of soft food. Meal of different kinds is the staple ma- terial for soft food. Perhaps the best of all is oats ground up, as already mentioned. Barley meal is a good plain meal of mod- erate price, for common use, and one which the fowls always seem to relish well. Oatmeal is dearer. Good round Scotch oatmeal is excellent from its nourishing properties. 666 POULTRY Malt dust is said to be very nourishing and good. In buying meal, great care must be taken to get it good, as if it be old, stale, and mity, or made from bad corn, no stock can thrive upon it. It should be newly ground, from good corn, and kept, until used, in a cool, dry place. Potatoes are very good poultry food, in change with food of other kinds. The more mealy they are the better they are for food, so that if they are boiled they should be cooked in an iron pot, and put to dry after the water is strained from them. When they are given they may be broken to pieces, anO scattered far and wide, like other food. For developing the mealiness, they may be better steamed than boiled, and yet better, by far, baked. In feeding young stock, take care that the food is thoroughly good and appetiz- mg, fresh and well made. Satisfy hunger at every meal, leave time between the meals for hunger to return, and never pamper appetite. If the chickens refuse to eat, they often know better what is good for them than we do, when we try to press or force them. As the chickens approach maturity they will eat enormously. Let them do so. Let them have as much exercise as you can provide, and plenty of food will not hurt them. If they become too expensive, eat or sell them; clear them off any way you can, and leave space at liberty for future use. All fowls, old and young, want green food. Giving them free access to grass is the best way of supplying it, and if we have not the opportunity, we may give them turfs of grass in their runs. If the turfs are too large and heavy for the fowls to knock to pieces, they may be removed to a safe place and watered, and used again and again as often as the grass grows. Fresh cuttings of a lawn may be thrown into the runs, and will be relished. Lettuces may be given to fowls and ducks; turnip greens are good for them, and cabbage leaves, and any refuse from the garden may be given, if grass, lettuce, or turnip greens are not to be had. In the absence of green, boiled roots are better than no vegetable food. Animal food also is necessary. That which they get for themselves in the shape of worms, grubs, etc., is the best, and in its absence the want must be supplied with a little cooked meat, cut small. Forcing breeding wheat, beans, peas, and meat may induce fowls to lay abundantly, but will not produce lastingly strong, healthy fowls; and those thus fed will sel- dom either live out their natural term of life, or produce chickens of natural strength and stamina. EGGS AND HATCHING Warm housing and abundant feeding make the hens lay early, provided they do not become too fat. Meat will bring them on to lay, and buckwheat, oats fried in fat, and brewers' grains are all good stimulants. As the chicken season approaches, the best hens should be watched, that their eggs may be known, written on, and put aside in order, as they are laid. If any have imperfect shells a smooth, round mark on one side, an appearance of a grown-up crack, a look of weakness anywhere, or any irregularity of shape they had better be re- jected for setting, as they would be little likely to hatch, and very likely to break in the nest before the term of incubation was up, thus doing harm by soiling the other eggs, and possibly inducing the sitter to become an egg-eater by the temptation of a cracked egg, too strong to be resisted. The eggs, until they are wanted for setting, may be arranged in a box, according to freshness, and kept in a place where they will be cool, if the weather be hot, and safe from frost if the weather be severe. Eggs should on no account be stale when they are set, as, if they are, they will very likely not hatch, and if they do hatch, the produce will be weakly. If the eggs are set at once, without becoming cold after they are laid, they will often hatch a day sooner. There is no doubt as to its being best for a hen to let her sit once a year, or even twice, especially if she be a good layer, as the rest and good feeding she gets while she is on the nest and rearing her chickens prove very restorative. If, however, it is necessary to break her of the wish to sit, it may best be done by changing her to a grass run, where she can find no nest to take possession of, or coop her on the grass, out of sight of her nest, and avoid over- feeding. If the broody hens are to be set, an ap- propriate place must be prepared for them. It never answers to let hens sit in the hen- house where other fowls are kept, as they will be continually interfering with them, and interrupting their work. They must, POULTRY 667. therefore, be removed to some quiet place which they can have to themselves; and even then they will want watching until each one gets thoroughly established on her own nest, lest they squabble together. The place for the sitters should be warm in spring, and not excessively hot in summer, as heat occasions too much evaporation for the well-being of the eggs, and often be- sides makes the hen feverish and ill, and consequently restless, and apt to come off too often and to break or crack her eggs by fidgeting. A damp, warm atmosphere is most favorable to incubation. A box or basket well filled with clean straw, rammed down tight, a foot or more in thickness, under the hen at first, is good. Never use a nest, unless it be a hole in the earth, which has not a good, massive thick- ness of straw under the hen; for if her attention to her own arrangements dis- places the straw, and leaves the eggs on the bare bottom of the nest, there is posi- tively no chance of success. A good sod of turf, covered with grass or close heather, the size of the nest, fitted to the bottom of it, with a nest of straw over, makes a very good nest. Let every sitter have a clean, new-made nest, as one taken from the hen-house, or which has been in use before, may be in- fested with insects; and never let the same nest be used twice for sitting without hav- ing it thoroughly cleaned, washed, and filled with fresh straw. The nest should be quite full to the top, so that the hen may never run the risk of breaking the eggs by having to jump down upon them. When the sitting place and nests are duly prepared, the sitters must be removed to them. Place them on the new nests, with not less than four nest eggs, or hard-boiled eggs, under each, and cover them up, or hang things round them, so as to keep them in the dark, until they are settled to the new nests. Let them keep to the nest eggs until they have been off to feed once only in the day, and returned to the right nests steadily of their own accord. Then the eggs may be given to each, from nine to thir- teen, according to the size, with some cer- tainty that the sitters will do well. It is a good plan to set two hens at once, and three are still better, as, if the broods are not large, they may be put together, or if any accident happen to one hen the eggs may be saved. If two broods be given to one hen to bring up, to save trouble, the second hen may be broken off from sitting, taking care to place her where she can not hear the chickens ; it does not often answer to set a hen on a second time with fresh eggs. INCUBATION The setting of hens, however, is but little resorted to nowadays. Such excellent in- cubators are sold, and at prices so low, that there is a great saving of time, labor, and money in employing the method of artificial hatching. Incubators can be bought at prices ranging from $5 up to $40. All of the old-style machines that had to supply moisture are now going rapidly out of the market. So also are all the old styles of hot-water machines, hot-air in- cubation being regarded by the latest ex- perts as the most successful. The machine should be one that preserves the natural moisture of the egg by taking off direct air currents, thus avoiding the necessity of putting in water to make up the moisture deducted. The art of artificially hatching hens' eggs has been known from the remotest ages. In Egypt, tradition attributes the invention to the priests of the Temple of Isis. It is impossible to determine at what pe- riod or to what nation the construction of the first eccaleobion should be credited. The first authentic account of the early methods is in "The Voiage and Travaile of Sir John Maundeville, Kt," in his descrip- tion of the River Nile, Egypt, its geography, productions, etc., written at some time pre- vious to 1336, in which he tells of the bak- ing ovens at Cairo, which are now only found in Mausoura, in the village of Berma, situated in the Delta of the Nile. The Chi- nese have practiced the art for centuries, but do not seem to be able to duplicate the results when imported to other countries, on account of the climatic conditions being different. The Egyptians must have had a thorough knowledge of the details of their method, for we find those having ovens, and making artificial hatching a business, giving sixty newly hatched chicks in exchange for one hundred eggs, To John Champion, Berwick-upon-Tweed, England, 1770, however, probably belongs the credit of first hatching eggs by the aid of fire. He used a room through which passed two heated .flues, the eggs being placed on a large, round table in the centre. He claimed that the incubation was per- 668 POULTRY formed as well as if they had been sat upon by a hen. From this time on to 1846 little was ac- complished, though Bucknell and others at- tempted the artificial process. James Can- teto was more successful, and gave the sub- ject considerable study. The theories that he put forward at that time have been used as a basis for the construction of the vari- ous incubators to the present time. Messrs. Jacob and Henry Graves, of Reading and Boston, Mass., were among the pioneers of this line of invention in this country (1870), followed closely by H. J. Haight, of New York City, and Messrs. Woodward and Millet, of Charlestown, Mass., in 1871. It is most remarkable that, though the various modifications of the incubator came thick and fast from 1875, none of the in- ventors for some time considered it of enough importance to investigate the old and formulate new principles based on re- liable data, interpreted by the aid of the known laws of physics, a popular knowl- edge of which has increased rapidly during the last half-century. There have been sufficient time and money expended in per- fecting various machines for incubating purposes, but the workers in this line had to grope their way in the dark, and in con- sequence many of the contrivances which, have encumbered the patent list have been based on no principle, justified by no proof, while some, even, are still in direct oppo- sition to the laws of nature. Upon a knowledge of these laws depends the whole question of right and wrong, of success or failure. However, the modern incubator was in- troduced less than thirty years ago, but in that period its influence on the poultry industry has been marked. For instance, in 1898, the State of Missouri alone pro- duced 70,000,000 pounds of poultry, and nearly 36,000,000 dozens of eggs, with ag- gregate cash returns of $8,298,232, in value exceeding the combined shipment of wheat, corn, oats, and hay, and the combined value of the shipment of lumber, logs, cross-ties, piling, cooperage, and cordwood, for that State. This remarkable showing is largely due to the modern incubator, for it has in- directly given the farmer and professional poultryman first - class poultry houses in which to keep first-class stock. It has taught them clea'nliness, both with buildings and stock. It has developed their gray matter in endeavoring to solve the dif- ficult problems in feeding and in operation of incubators. It has made early spring broilers and early summer roasters possi- ble. Most important of all, it has taught them to look upon the hen, as a producer, as one of the world's greatest commercial factors. To run an incubator requires about ten gallons of oil, and about ten minutes of labor per day for twenty-one days, this be- ing the period of incubation. The cost of raising a chicken to the age for a two-pound broiler is about twelve cents per pound, while the price for which such -broilers may be sold runs from twenty to forty-five cents per pound. Adult hens cost, when properly kept, about a dollar a year eack The average yield of eggs is 120 to 175 per annum. Leg- horns are the most prolific layers. For broiling purposes, Barred Plymouth Rocks and White Wyandottes are preferred be- cause of their early development, the latter being especially excellent on account of their rich, golden flesh and absence of black pin feathers. When selecting eggs for incubation, the poultryman should pay especial heed to the purpose for which he requires the chickens. REARING CHICKENS When a hen is set, the sooner she can be removed to a clean nest, free from ver- min, the better. That which has been set in three weeks will have chickens' fleas, encouraged and increased by the unusual warmth, and if the chickens remain in it, they will swarm to their soft down in a manner to preclude the comfort and health of the brood. So, as soon as the eggs are all hatched, or found not likely to hatch, put the mother and her brood into a com- fortable, warm, clean nest. If the weather be cold, warm the straw before the fire for a few minutes, or warm it in the sunshine if there be any, that the latest hatched some of them possibly scarcely dry may not be chilled by the change ; and when the hen has settled down quietly, with her little ones under her, place food and water before her, that she may eat and feed her young family. The food thus early may be chopped eggs (shell and all), bread-crumbs, sop, oatmeal and barley meal mixed, dry and crumbly, and crushed corn, giving now as later only one thing at a time. The drinking-pan should POULTRY be shallow that the chickens may not get wet by going into it, or turning it over; and constantly replenished. If the weather is mild and dry, the soon- er mother and family can be placed on the gravel, out of doors, the better; but at first it must not be for long at a time. They may be put down, with Advantage to them- selves, on the floor of a greenhouse; and if the hen can be allowed a roll in some dust in one corner, it will be good for her and for her chickens, too. Under a shed, where the ground is clean dust mixed with small stones, is a good place for cooping the hen for the first ten days or so ; and she may after that be placed on the grass in dry weather, but not before the dew is off it. During a portion of each day she should be cooped where she and her little ones may enjoy a roll in dry, dusty earth. In choosing a place for cooping the hen, care should be taken that she can have the shelter necessary for comfort. When she is loose she can lead her chickens into the shade, or into the sunshine, or to warm nooks sheltered from cold winds; and it is cruel to confine her to one spot. In the kind of coop used, and in placing the coop, take care that there is ample and complete shelter from wet. When the wind is cold, place the coop where the hen and her chick- ens may be sheltered from its chilling in- fluence. During the heat of the day, shade from the broiling heat of the sun is as nec- essary as shelter from wet and cold. If the brood is housed at night, the hen may brood them on the ground, if it be bare earth, not cold pavement. She may either have a little straw thrown down, or take the chickens into a large, shallow, firm- standing basket. The main thing is, what- ever the bed be, let it be clean and sweet ; whether it be the earth or straw, let it be well cleaned every day, and renewed when it becomes soiled. If two or more broods are put to roost in one hen-house, the old hens should be confined within coops, or they may interfere with each other or injure one another's chickens. The spite of hens toward chickens not belonging to them must always be guarded against. The best way is, if it can be man- aged, to place the coops so that they can not see each other. From the time the hen is cooped out, especially after the wing feathers begin to show, the chickens must be plentifully fed on good food, well varied. Rice pudding, made of rice, sharps, or Indian meal, and milk, and baked, makes excellent nourish^ ing food, to which eggs and chopped meat, one or both, may be added. Rice, boiled, and rolled in sharps or Indian meal, in- stead of the pudding, is good. Other kinds of food are oatmeal and barley meal, mixed into a dry, friable mass, canary seed, crushed oats, and crushed barley. These may be varied with cooked potatoes (baked are best), bread sopped in milk or in wa- ter (brown bread is preferable to white), and buckwheat. To get size, meat may be given every other day. They should have green food of some kind every day. Vary- ing the meals, and sometimes giving an entire change, feed the chickens constantly, as often as they get hungry, with as much food as they and the mother like, leaving none to get stale, waste upon the ground, and encourage hosts of sparrows. When they no longer eat eagerly, with a good ap- petite, throw no more down. At first, they will want a bit about every hour, and by degrees they will get hungry less often, un- til six meals a day will be enough. Chickens which are hatched before the natural time tihat is to say, before the nights become mild and the days sunny, and before the earth teems with insects which they can catch for themselves, and the absence of which no meat will compen- sate must have a little artificial warmth. Chickens hatched thus early must be fed after dark, as fast from dark to daylight is too long. About ten o'clock at night put down a candle or a lantern, and place food and water before the hen, and the little ones soon get into the habit of expecting a meal at that time, and of making a good one. It is a mistake to feed chickens on plenty of excellent food for the first three weeks, and then to some extent leave them to take their chance. As the fledging advances, they require better and more nourishing food than they do while in the down. The call which the growth of the feathers makes on the resources of the chickens is attested by the wonderfully rapid growth which im- mediately commences as soon as they are fledged, and this increased rate of growth renders good feeding still no less neces- sary, and so on until growth is complete. About the best kind of coop is a wooden box, with a span roof (either 2 or 3 feet square, according to the space at command, 43 670 POULTRY and the sire of the stock kept), to give shel- ter and shade, with a run of wirework rather larger to place in front of it, to increase the range for the hen. She may make use of both and the chickens have full liberty, running in and out through the wirework. By the time the chickens are turned off by their mothers, it is generally necessary to clear them from the ground they have hitherto occupied, to make room for more young broods. It is far better if each brood can then have a house and run to itself. If so much room can not be spared, care must, at any rate, be taken only to put together chickens of about the same age. A few chickens well bred, well accom- modated, well cared for, and well fed, will turn out a pleasure and a credit; a good many chickens crowded together, however carefully looked after and fed, will give a great deal of trouble, constant work, con- stant care, and constant disappointment, and make no commensurate return, either in satisfaction or profit. The difference between cockerels and pullets may sometimes be detected while they are very young. In some, the cock's comb soon shows. In most kinds, the ar- rangement of the first wing feathers is rounder and wider in pullets than in cock- erels, whose first wing feathers come more to a point; the pullets' heads are often nar- rower and finer than the roosters', and they fledge earlier on the back, down the sides of the breast, and at the back of the head. In fine, robust chickens it is sometimes dif- ficult to pick out the cockerels and pullets until the back is partly feathered, when the pointed saddle hackle feathers soon begin to sprout the surest test of alL As the chickens approach maturity, good feeding must still be continued, supplying the place of the rice puddings, canary seed, and other young chicken dainties with abun- dant supplies of oatmeal, barley meal, and good corn, and using discretion as to the supply of meat The bits from the table may always be collected and divided among the chickens. As they approach maturity, too, they must be allotted to their destinations. The young birds which are picked out for the table may also be put to their desti- nation. Plenty of exercise develops strength and firmness of muscle, and is good for chickens which have the duties of a long life before them; i.e., a life which is for chickens, four or five years or so. For eating, we want tender, not strong, firm muscle; therefore the chickens which are to be eaten need not have an extensive range. They may be made happy in a small run, and well fed with several meals a day of oatmeal and barley meal mixed, just so dry that the balls will fall to pieces when they are thrown down, and a little corn, with good supplies of clean, fresh water. Those who like good chickens in natural condition may follow this plan, giv- ing them, for a little time before they are wanted, rice boiled in water, in milk, or made into puddings, as for young chickens; but those who like to fatten their fowls for the table can put them up in fattening coops. When they are put up, feed with moder- ation at first, as repletion then, or at any time, would retard the fattening process. As soon as they are reconciled to captiv- ity, feed them on oatmeal three times a day. Milk for mixing the oatmeal is best; every meal must be given in a well scalded, clean trough; keep the coops supplied with clean water, and between the meals place down gravel, for them to peck at, and a turf of grass. Keep the coops scru- pulously clean; give the first meal at sun- rise, or thereabout, and the last at roosting time, and the chickens will be ready to kill in about ten days or a fortnight. As soon as they are fat enough they must be killed, or they will become unhealthy. When one lot is fatted, take down the fat- tening coops, scrub and limewash them, and put them out in the air for a time be- fore using them again. Those who wish to make fowls very fat by the unpleasant process of cramming, may either choose the finest and healthiest from the fattening coop, or any good fleshy young fowls. The food used is oatmeal, mixed stiff with milk, made up into boluses of a size that may be put down the chicken's throat without danger of choking. To fatten more rapidly, mutton suet may be boiled in the milk used to mix the oatmeaL The person employed in the cramming process opens the chicken's beak, and puts six or eight boluses down its throat morning and evening. If it seem to wish for food at noon, a little can be given it in the trough, which must be supplied also with water and gravel. Those which have been put up will be finished off in a week; those which have to be fattened by the cramming will take fourteen or sixteen days. While POULTRY 671 they are fattening by either process they must be kept free from draught, as they will fatten all the better for being com- fortably warm. Some persons kill fowls by bleeding them in the mouth; others wring their necks. The quickest and most merciful way is with a dexterous jerk to break the neck. FANCY VARIETIES DORKINGS, SPANISH, AND COCHINS The chief large fowls occupying the at- tention of fanciers are Dorkings, Spanish, Cochins, Brahmas, Malays, and Crevecoeurs, and the other French breeds. It' is not necessary to notice here the va- rious breeds commonly found in barnyards, since these are generally familiar and in no sense "fancy varieties." Dorkings. The chickens are delicate un- til they get into their feathers, and Dork- ings of all ages are more subject to roup than most kinds. Unless they have a good or well-drained soil, or an extensive grass range, they do not lay well, and do not thrive well. On the other hand, they are excellent and economical for persons to keep who supply the markets, provided they pos- sess facilities for keeping and rearing them with success, because they come forward early ; they make their growth early in life, may be fattened off, and cleared off early, and thus leave the ground at liberty soon, and enable the owner to realize his returns in a short time. If Dorkings are kept, they must have great care in feeding, and per- fect cleanliness. The stamina of the chick- ens may be improved by crossing with Brahmas, Cochins, or Game. The hens are good sitters, and attentive, good mothers, and where the locality suits them they are very good layers of nice, well-flavored, and rather large eggs. There are few kinds which vary more, as layers, than they. The white Dorking is the original type of the race. It should have a square, plump, compact form, plumage of spotless white, delicate white skin, white legs, which should be delicate, not coarse, five toes well de- veloped, clear white or pale yellow beak, and a well-formed, full-colored rose-comb. Size is an important point, and one in which white Dorkings have sometimes failed, but which the careful introduction of fresh blood from time to time improves. The fifth toe on each feet is a matter of primary importance in all Dorkings, white and colored. Careful breeding has firmly fixed this property in the Dorking; and no fowl without it would have a chance of success at an exhibition, or of being purchased as a Dorking fowl anywhere. The fifth toe should be distinct and well developed on each foot; a sixth is no merit. The legs must have no feathering. The colored Dorkings, like the white, must be plumply made, compact, and wide, with plenty of meat on the breast, short legs, and little offal. The comb may be single or rose, but all the combs in a pen must match well. The legs must be short, white, and delicate; i.e., not coarse in the scales. The plumage of colored Dorkings va- ries much, as may be expected in fowls which have been bred chiefly with refer- ence to useful properties. Spanish. Brilliant black plumage, bright scarlet combs and wattles, and distinct and clear white faces make these fowls very attractive, and they are among the oldest as well as greatest favorites of poultry lovers ; for early in last century, specimens which were at the time thought very choice, were imported into England from Holland. It seems probable that the kind may have been introduced into Holland from Spain, and ta4cen up and improved by the keen Dutch fanciers, but now amateurs can find no vestige of the kind in the country which gives them their name. Spanish roosters, especially, have a tall, majestic carriage, and this kind have the merit of doing well, and looking handsome and ornamental, if kept in a confined place, provided it be not overcrowded. The hens lay eggs which are very fine in size, but they are apt to be more woolly and less delicate in the white than those of many other fowls. Cold, especially if it be damp cold, spoils the appearance of the old birds, by injuring the combs and turning them black. The combs of the hens shrink very much, and lose their beauty, while they are moulting, or when they are laying. Spanish hens do not sit, so other sitters must be provided to hatch and rear the chickens ; and for this purpose it is best to choose Dorkings, if possible, or, at any rate, some kind which does not throw off the chickens early. Spanish chickens had better not be hatched very early in the season, as they fledge late, and are delicate 672 POULTRY until they get into feathers; from March to May is the best time. The Minorca is a variety of the Spanish, which, although wanting in valuable fancy points, is a good-looking, useful fowl, large in size, better for the table than Spanish, and a good layer of fine, large eggs. The Andalusian fowl is rather an attrac- tive-looking bird; in form and carriage much like the Spanish, and evidently of the same family, with plumage either of a uni- form slate color, or slate shaded or laced with black, and showy, well-developed scar- let combs and wattles. It has been stated that they were brought from Andalusia, but some affirm that they have been bred from the Spanish an accidental sport. Cochins have the merit of being excellent layers. Good Cochin hens wiH lay every day, or two days out of three, until they want to sit; and they have the merit of being good layers in the winter, when fresh eggs are rarities. The thing which most interferes with the production of eggs is the Cochin's constant habit of wanting to sit; but if she is al- lowed to sit, she very soon lays again. Cochins are tame, docile, and manage- able; little children may tend them without a chance of getting hurt, and they are friendly among themselves. When the hens sit, we may do what we like with them, and they are kind mothers as long as their nice little, hardy chickens require their care. We can keep Cochins where we can keep no other fowls, and make them profitable with no other drawback to counteract all their merits than a too .frequent wish to sit, and the character they have of not being good for the table, which any careful breeder might remedy to a great extent. Cochins, like all fowls that lay so many eggs, are rather greedy eaters, and they are very ready to fatten internally (hence often the shelless eggs, and two eggs a day) ; so that in feeding them care must be taken to feed moderately, and to avoid food of too fattening a nature. The fowls and the chickens will do well if fed and treated as recommended in the chapters on feeding and chicken-rearing. The dangerous time is from the time the wing-feathers are grown until the head is covered ; and then they want plenty of good nourishing food. They are nicest for the table at from five to seven or eight months old; as young chickens, they are not nearly so good, but are better fowls when nearer maturitv. COCHINS, BRAHMAS, MALAYS, AND THE FRENCH FOWLS White Cochins must, of course, be per- fectly white in plumage, and shown very clean. Black Cochins have almost disappeared, on account of their incorrigible habit of moulting to a mixture of colored feathers among the black. The hens remain black, but the roosters almost invariably display a mixture of red or yellow after the first moult, if not before. Brahmas. No one knows the original stock; no one knows whence they came originally; this is the accusation that is brought against the Brahmas, the best fowls we have ever had, as regards the number of useful properties they possess. The Brahmas are tame, docile, of a con- tented disposition, and almost as easy to keep in as the Cochins; but they like a good range when they can get it, and make the most of it far more industriously. The pullets do not lay so early as Cochin pul- lets, but taking the year round, the Brahmas produce more eggs than Cochins do, from not wanting to sit so often. They are good sitters and mothers, lay early after hatch- ing, and often tend their chickens for weeks after they begin to lay. They are good table fowls, being ready in putting on flesh, compact in make, full in the breast, juicy, and good in flavor. They should be large and heavy, of a free, majestic bearing, removed alike from the waddle of the Cochin and the upright car- riage of the Malay, compactly made, not long in the leg or neck, wide and full in the breast, wide and deep in make ; legs are yellow and well feathered. The head is delicate in character, with a fulness over the eye which gives breadth to the top ot the head, and a full, clear eye. The tail is short and full. In color, Brahmas range from an almost white plumage, with more or less black pen- ciling on the hackle, and black in the feathers of the tail and wings, to dark- gray plumage. Perfection in a light Brahma is a white surface, with well-marked hackle, wings, and tail, and such uniform pearly- gray under-color that the feathers can not ruffle without showing it. The Malay. Malays are great favorites with a few, but from their peculiar gaunt form they are by no means generally liked or kept. They are large, heavy birds, with such hard, close feathers that they are more POULTRY 673 bulky and weighty than they look. They are tall, with an upright gait; the tail is drooping and small, with beautiful, but not long, sickle feathers. The thighs are re- markably long, strong, and firm, and the tarsi round, stout, and yellow. Their head is snake-like, with great fulness over the 'jye, giving it a flattened form on the top. The Malay has a bold eye, a red, skinny face, and a strong, curved hawk- beak. The comb is short, small, very thick, and close to the head, resembling half a strawberry; the wattles are very small, and the wings rather set up. The favorite colors are different shades of rich chestnut brown, or cinnamon. There are also black-breasted reds, black, and white. As fowls to keep, they have the great merit of doing well in any back-yard, and looking handsomer there than at a show. The hens are often pretty good winter layers. The eggs are of medium size with tinted shells ; they are good in flavor and hatch well. The Malay hen is a good sitter and a good mother, that will hold her own, and defend her brood with her good strong beak, if necessary. The chickens are hardy little things, if well bred, but they fledge late, and look gaunt and ugly when half grown. Crevecoeurs and some other French breeds fill up our list of large fowls. It is cu- rious that the change from a more favor- able to a worse climate should seem to affect the well-being of fowls detrimentally, in going only across the Channel, as the Crevecoeurs, La Fleche, and Houdans do, and not in going half the circumfer- ence of the globe, as in the case of Cochins, Malays, and other Asiatics : but so it is. As far as we have had an opportunity of judging fowls that have been imported from the further side of Asia do well from the time of their arrival ; but many who have had the French fowls have found the Crevecoeurs more subject to roup than even the Dorkings, and the La Fleche change from the good productive fowls, which we suppose they are in their own country, to but indifferent layers. The Crevecoeur, when it thrives, is an excellent fowl for the table, being square, plump-made, and large, ready to fatten easily (if in thorough health and good condition), compactly formed, and short in the leg. The hens are said to be good layers; their eggs are very large, and they are not sitters. The chickens come to ma- turity early, and one authority says the pullets often exceed the cockerels in size. They are evidently allied to the Polish, which are nice tame fowls to keep, but delicate in a damp, chilly, variable cli- mate. For exhibition, the color of cocks and hens should be unvarying black throughout, with metallic lustre on the feathers, but to breed them so requires great care as they are very apt to have a mixture of colored or white feathers. As in black Cochins and some other black fowls, it is easier to breed the pullets quite black than the cockerels. The crest is full, large, and globular, and in front of it is a comb in the form of two well-defined pikes, and these horns sometimes grow large and spread into branches. The fowls are bearded, and the legs blue and short. The La Flechf is also a black fowl with metallic lustre, large and plump-made It is good for the table, but the legs are long and dark a great objection. The eggs are very large, but the hen does not pro- duce well, and she is a non-sitter. The head is very peculiar, being graced with a comb in the form of upstanding sipkes, in front of a dark-crest, a peculiar rising over the nostrils, large white ear-lobes, red face, and long red wattles. The plumage is very close and firm; the tail large. The legs dark-blue or slate. The Houdan is the last of the French fowls which have gained a certain popu- larity among fanciers. It is compactly made, the body round and well- formed, the legs short, thick, and blue, or slate-col- ored, and five-toed. It is good for the table. HAMBURGHS The Hamburgh family is a large one, in- cluding two totally distinct races of fowls, the Spangled and the Pencilled Ham- burghs they are both called but they are about as distinct as Cochins and Dorkings. Both kinds are divided into two the Gold- en and the Silver. The Golden-Spangled Hamburghs, or Golden Pheasant Fowls, were very gen- erally known by the last name until recent fancy dubbed them Hamburghs. They are good useful fowls to keep, and excellent layers, but non-sitters. The eggs are not large, but larger than those of the Pencilled Hamburghs. The fowls are pretty hardy, and easy to keep in condition, but 674 POULTRY the chickens are rather tender. They are nice plump fowls for the table, although small. In breeding them the parents should be exact in the marking and rich in color, the rooster darker than the hen : it is best, for maintaining precision in marking and other points, to give the cock very few mates. It is well to avoid stimulating food, when giving it may induce precocious laying. A young fowl, be it pullet or cockerel, should be well developed in firmness of bone, mus- cle, size, and furnishing, before it assumes the position of a productive adult, that it may turn out one which will do us good service for the natural term of its life. All the Hamburghs are inherently fond of liberty; they want a good range, a trifle will not prevent their breaking bounds to obtain it for themselves, and their lightness and agility enable them to fly like sparrows. Silver-Spangled Hamburghs are the same as the Golden in general properties. If there is any difference between them, the Silver are the stronger; they are the best layers, and the eggs are rather the larger. Golden and Silver Pencilled Hamburghs. The Pencilled Hamburghs are so distinct from the Spangled in some important char- acteristics, that it seems wrong to include both under one general name. They are more fragile in form and constitution, and different in shape and in plumage, although all the Hamburghs agree in comb, and sev- eral other points before mentioned. The Pencilled fowls are known under the differ- ent names of Bolton Bays and Grays (the gold and silver), Chittiprats, Corals, Cre- oles, Dutch every-day layers, everlasting layers, and many others. THE POLISH AND THE VARIOUS CLASS The Polish fowls are pretty, compactly made fowls, rather under than over medium size ; for the Polish of the present time are decidedly smaller than these fowls used to be from twenty to thirty-five years back. The eggs, too, are smaller. This degener- acy may be the result of in-and-in-breeding, which may also account for their exceeding delicacy of constitution. Their beauty renders them great favor- ites; they are mild-tempered, timid birds, loving a genial, sunny spot, and much dis- liking to be handled. They are good layers of white eggs, which are large for the size of the hens; and for the table the flesh is white and tender, but the chickens are small for that purpose. The hens are non-sitters. All the Polish sub-varieties are decidedly fancy fowls, requiring and repaying great care on the part of the amateur. Silver-Spangled Polish. The crest of the cock should be white streaked with black; that of the hen white laced with black. The hackle of both cock and hen white streaked with black, and the wings accurately barred and laced. In the cock, the more the re- mainder of the plumage can be spangled the better, and the tail should be white, with a rich, well defined spangle at the end of each feather. In the hen, the remainder of the plumage should be accurately spangled, and the tail white, each feather spangled with black. The legs are blue, and the head free from comb or gills. Golden - Spangled Polish. The ground color throughout is a rich golden brown, the hackle of both cock and hen streaked with black, the wings barred and laced, the breast spangled, and the tails black, so well bronzed with the rich ground color of the plumage as to harmonize with it. If there be a beard, a good mixture of the ground color is better than a prevalence of black. The top-knot, too, should be streaked in the cock and laced in the hen. Black feathers and white in the crest are faults, but the white feathers will come in both cocks and hens as they grow old. The original Spangled Polish fowl ap- pears to have been a bird in character like the Polish, the ground color of the plumage of a rich golden brown, with spangles of white and black united in each spot, and white legs. These and two other beautiful varieties are entirely or almost lost. BANTAMS The distinguishing characteristics of the Sebright bantams, besides their exactly laced plumage, are diminutive beauty, and jaunty, impudent carriage. Roosters of a year old should not exceed 21 oz. in weight, nor hens 18 oz. ; and some advocate much smaller size still. Smallness of size is an important point in all Bantams, so that the smaller they are the better. To gain this point they are generally bred late in the season, some- times very late, but seldom earlier than July. Many have been so dwarfed as to interfere with their reproductive qualities, and the breeders have had recourse to larger speci- mens as home stock-birds, reserving the very small ones for exhibition and for show. To breed productive stock-birds, the in- POULTRY 675 breeding, which favors small size, must be avoided. The proud gait of the Sebright is like that of the fantail pigeon; the head and tail are held erect until they almost touch each other; the wing is not closely packed away, but is allowed to droop with jaunty gallan- try; the body is plump, and the breast pro- tuberant. The head should be small and delicate, with a well-formed, firmly set rose-comb, close to the head, exactly in the centre, with a well-defined pike, a little turned up at the end. The legs should be blue. The rooster must have no hackle on neck or saddle, and no sickle feathers in the tail. The chickens should be bred from mature birds. They must be kept from damp, but in a dry spot they are tolerably hardy. Their diminutive size and compact beauty render them the prettiest among chickens. There is scarcely a prettier sight than a Sebright mother and her little brood. The little ones fledge quickly, and require constant good feeding during the process. The Booted Bantam is probably the ear- liest type of the Bantam race; it is, at any rate, the one which has been the longest known, having been introduced in England as far back as the beginning of the sev- enteenth century. It is a, small, com- pactly made, jaunty little bird, with abun- dant furnishing in hackle, flowing tail, and heavily booted legs. The plumage is gen- erally perfectly white, but there are also some of other colors. In the early part of the nineteenth century, Booted Bantams were more thought of than any others ; afterward they were almost lost sight of; but within the last very few years they have appeared again, and often win prizes in a Bantam class for other varieties. White and Black Bantams are beautifully diminutive, bold and saucy in gait, plenti- fully furnished in hackle and tail, and spot- lessly white in plumage, or perfectly black, as the case may be. The white and the black have each a distinct class at the shows, where they are always well represented. The white bantam rooster must have a fully sickled tail of snowy whiteness, brilliantly red rose-comb and wattles, and white beak and legs, the last perfectly free from feath- ers. The hen must agree. Many may be seen weighing, the rooster not more than 15 ounces, and the hen 12 ounces, and smaller weights are mentioned. The black Bantams are compact in form and bold in carriage. They are hardier than the whites, very pro- lific, and often very small. . The plumage should be unmixed black with metallic lus- tre. Other points are a rose-comb, small but rather wide wattles, and rather short blue or black legs. In both the white and the black the ear-lobes should be white, but in the black especially; they must be pure in the white, and free from any tinge of red. Game Bantams must be exact Game fowls in miniature. TURKEYS AND WATERFOWL - TURKEYS When America was discovered, turkeys were found in a domesticated as well as in a wild state, and the French name, Dinde (D'Inde), seems to indicate that they came from the West Indies, the East Indies pos- sessing no such bird. Turkeys do not attain full growth and ma- turity until they moult after they are two years old. The stock-birds should there- fore be not less than three years old, for poults bred from young birds are sure to be tender. To obtain fine turkey poults, let the hen sit on the first eggs she lays in the season, as soon as she will, that the brood may have all the best of the year in which to make their growth. Some turkey-cocks are very spiteful to their hens, and to the young ones, so that it is necessary to put the nest in a place of safety. The presence of the gobbler is not necessary after the early part of the season, as the entire clutch of eggs is said, on good au- thority, to be fertilized at once. The turkey-cock should be vigorous and healthy, broad in the chest, clean in the legs, and with well-developed wings and tail. His eyes should be bright, and the corunculated skin of the neck full, and rapid in its changes of color. He is in his prime from three years old to seven or more. The year he is appointed as master at home, or the year after, a fine cock poult should be selected and reared to take his place when necessary. From the peculiar property in turkeys of the whole batch of eggs being fertilized at once, one turkey- cock would well serve a whole neighbor- hood; but that he should be a first-class mature bird is all-important. The hen should, of course, match her lord ; she should be plump, lively, and ani- mated, and her plumage should be correct. If she be black white feathers are a fault. 676 POULTRY Her eggs will produce the hardiest poults after she is three years old. A number of companions may be allowed one cock In the course of a year, but never let him have more than two mates at the same time. The hen foretells laying by a peculiar note and strut, and by hunting about for A sly corner to lay in. In the domesticated as in the wild state, the cock is apt to de- stroy the eggs, and the hen is commensu- rately anxious to hide them from danger. She should be watched and humored to the nest prepared for her. If the turkey hen is well settled to the nest before the eggs are given to her, the poults may be looked for on the twenty- sixth day; but four weeks is the time of incubation usually reckoned on for turkeys' eggs, and some persons say thirty-one days. Whether the sitter is interfered with or not, when she hatches must depend on her disposition. The hen turkey will sometimes lay and hatch a second time in the season, but late broods require great care. Even in a wild state the turkey poults are delicate, and unable to endure wet: the young of the domesticated race are yet more so, and must be kept from wet and cold. The little poults will peck for themselves as soon as nature prompts the necessity: until then leave them with what appears to be their only requirement their mother's warmth. At first the little ones may be fed on hard-boiled eggs, chopped fine and mixed with bread-crumbs and herbs finely minced, or on curd and bread-crumbs. The herbs to use with their food are chives, young onion tops, fennel, lettuce, nettles, and pars- ley. The water should be given in shallow pans, that they may not get the down wet. As they get older they will feed on food made of barley-meal and oatmeal, and on grain. Meal boiled in milk until quite thick is good food. The little turkey poults want a tolerably free range, and they must be so constantly well fed from the first as never to lose condition; for if they once get poor they can never be restored. The most important thing of all is never to let the little turkeys get wet, or even damp. Keep them in in the morning until the dew is off the grass, put them up before the damp of evening, and never let them be out in the rain. Cottagers in the coun- try, who think it worth while to keep in the brood in wet weather, and to drive them in when rain threatens, rear them success- fully, as it is generally after a wetting that the little poults go bad. When the turkeys are finished up with cramming, it may be done by giving about six rolls of barley-meal and sugar before roosting-time every night for a week or ten days. In France, the usual food is meal paste mixed with chopped suet and milk, or with ale and molasses. Whole pepper, garlic, aniseed, and tonic herbs are also given. Whole walnuts given daily, from 4 to 40, are said to fatten well. If turkey chicks look heavy and ruffled," a little crushed malt, or caraway or coriander seed, will do good. Let them be fed very constantly, and never be in want for an hour. If they do not run at large, they must have a little meat, turfs of grass, and gravel. Most hens require cooping to prevent their running the chicks too far. The old turkeys are very fond of In- dian corn. GEESE Common Goose. It is almost superflu- ous to say that the usual mode of keeping geese is to drive them out to pasture in the morning and to house them at night. If there be any right of common to which the flock can be turned out, they will al- most get their own living, as grass is their main food. Turning their heads sidewise, they nip it off quite close, and consume a good quantity. Whether it is worth while to keep geese on land that would feed larger stock, is a question for economists: but they are worth keeping where they can partly live on grass which can not be turned to better account. It is well to have a house for the geese and one for the young stock, but any shed will do, and it need not be too closely shut in. Care should be taken that the roof does not let in rain, and that the shelter which the house affords excludes bitter, windy draughts upon the geese at night The floors should be dry, and if litter is used it must be renewed as often as clean- liness requires. If the geese can have a pond at command within the day's range, so much the better ; but they will do -with- out it. Geese are essentially vegetable feeders; they will eat any kind of corn, pulse, or greens, such as cabbage, lettuce, mangold, POULTRY 4. "60 Man at active muscular work 1.76 Women use about 20 per cent less food than men. For heavy and long-continued work a large amount of fuel-furnishing nutriment fats and carbohydrates is re- quired. When brief and severe muscular or nervous strain is put upon a person, as, for example, in athletics, the protein should be increased. The amount of protein some- times falls as low as .15 pound, and the total energy to 2,000 calories in poorly nourished people; and the dietary of some men working hard in the open air amounts to 6,000 or over. FOOD COMBINATIONS It would be impossible to make a satis- factory diet of potatoes alone, because they are so largely composed of carbohydrates that it would require an excessive amount COMMON-SENSE TALK ABOUT FOODS 721 to supply the protein needed. They are, therefore, usually supplemented by meat or milk, which are rich in protein. Bread, which contains little fat, is improved by the addition of butter. Beans, which are the richest in protein of all vegetable foods, need carybohydrates and fats to balance the ration, and they are commonly eaten with pork and brown bread. The chemical composition does not tell the whole story, for the important factor of digestibility has to be considered. This, of course, varies with different individuals, and with the same individual at different times, so no general rule can be given. DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS The digestibility of the nutrients classed under one name is not exactly the same. [Vegetable protein is less digestible than animal protein. Carbohydrates are practi- cally all digested, unless eaten in excess. A considerable quantity of fat may escape digestion, and therefore the fuel value of a ration may be overestimated. In a mixed diet of several kinds of food all components are more completely digested than when only one article of food is eaten. A man may live and thrive on either animal food or vegetable food alone, but the general experience of the race, as well as the experimental evidence, favors the use of both. It is somewhat difficult to secure a sufficient amount of protein in a purely vegetable diet without getting an excess of carbohydrates. If milk, cheese, and eggs are used, flesh may easily be dis- pensed with. VEGETABLE FOODS Wheat is the chief food of Europe and America, as rice is of Oriental nations. Both grains are complete foods, and fairly well balanced. The gluten or gum of wheat eminently fits it for bread-making, as the dough can be aerated or leavened, and thus made more digestible. This is done by developing carbon dioxide during baking, either by means of yeast or baking powder. The growth of the yeast plant in the warm sponge produces alcohol and carbon diox- ide, which are driven off by baking, leav- ing the bread porous. Baking powders consist of bicarbonate of soda and some other chemical, acting as a weak acid to evolve carbon dioxide. The acid substance may be lactic acid (in sour milk), potassium bitartrate (cream of tartar), calcium phos- phate, or alum. The objection to the use of baking powder of any kind is that a salt unfit for food is left in. The salts left by the powders mentioned are, in the order named (i) Sodium lactate; (2) potassium- sodium-tartrate (Rochelle salt, as in Seid- litz powder) ; . (3) calcium and sodium phosphate; and (4) ammonium and so- dium sulphate and aluminum hydroxide. All these salts are medicinal in large doses, but it has not been proved experimentally that any one is much more deleterious than the others, nor that any of them in small quantities is injurious to a person of or- dinary digestion. Breakfast foods are wheat, oats, and maize preparations, often partly cooked. The three are very different in composition, oatmeal being richest in protein, corn in carbohy- drates, and wheat intermediate in respect to both. The composition of each class of these foods is much the same, and they differ more in price and in the attractiveness of the advertising than in quality. Beans and peas supply more nitrogenous matter than other vegetables, because they have the power of obtaining nitrogen directly from the air, which most plants can not do. FRUITS (Except dates, grapes and bananas) con- tain very little nutriment, but are valuable for their flavor and acid juices. Nuts are not as nutritious as their composition would indicate, because the protein and carbohy- drates are not very digestible. Cooking vegetables breaks up the grains of starch and makes it soluble. ANIMAL FOODS No animal foods contain carbohydrates except milk and liver. Animal foods are especially valuable on account of the large amounts of digestible protein and fats. There is little difference in the real nutri- tive value of cuts of meat sold at widely differing prices, and by proper cooking they may be made equally palatable and digestible. Gelatin extracted from the bones can not take the place of other forms of protein entirely, but is an easily digested food. Cooking meats develops attractive flavors and destroys bacteria and other disease germs. CONDIMENTS AND ACCESSORIES Substances of strong and pleasant flavor facilitate digestion by increasing the flow of digestive fluids, either by acting through the sense of taste or directly on the di- gestive organs. Salt, sugar, meat extract, cheese, pickles, mustard, pepper, and all 722 COMMON-SENSE TALK ABOUT FOODS spices are of value for this reason. Ex- cessive use injures the digestion. Salt is indispensable, as it is an important con- stituent of some of the juices of the body. Sugar is not merely a condiment, but a very nutritious food easily digested. Alco- hol in small quantities is oxidized and serves as a source of energy. Its effect on the nervous system is more important than its food value. Tea and coffee contain caffein, and cocoa and chocolate contain theobromin, both alkaloids, which stimulate the nervous system. Meat extract is also more of a stimulant than a food. FOOD ADULTERATION AND SUB- STITUTIONS Injurious adulterations such as poisonous coloring matter, etc., have been almost en- tirely driven from the market by exposure, but there are many articles of food which are partly or wholly composed of cheaper materials than is claimed, and so cheat the purchaser. Ground spices are very largely adulterated with meal, ground nuts, etc. Coffee is adulterated with chicory and chicory with grain. This applies particu- larly to the packages of ground coffee, but sometimes imitation beans are molded. "Coffee extracts" sometimes have no trace of real coffee. Wheat flour is occasionally mixed with cheaper grains, such as corn. Baker's bread may be whitened by the ad- dition of alum, an injurious substance when taken internally. Cheap jellies are made from apple or gelatin, and flavored and colored to imitate various fruits. Strained honey and syrups are" often largely composed of glucose. Glucose is made by the action of acid on starch, and is a valuable food, equal in nutritive value to cane sugar, but is much cheaper and not so sweet. Maple sugar is made from common sugar flavored with a decoction of bark. Artificial vine- gar is made by diluting acetic acid, flavor- ing with apple juice and coloring with caramel. Milk is frequently diluted with water. Artificial fruit flavors are exten- sively used in drinks and candies. Some of these are identical with the natural product, as is methyl salicylate, which is oil of win- tergreen, but more often they are merely imitations compounded of various ethers and alcohol. Glucose and starch are ex- tensively used in candies. Cottonseed oil is sold as olive oil, and used as a substitute for lard. It is a nutritious food product, and worthy of sale under its proper name. Oleomar- garine, which is sometimes sold for butter, is made principally from beef fats. It has the advantage over butter that it does not so readily become rancid, and is less likely to contain disease germs, but is inferior in flavor. There is no difference in nutri- tive value or digestibility. Poor butter is usually colored with anatto. Sausages, jel- lies, candies, and drinks are often colored with aniline dyes, usually not injurious. Bright green pickles and peas are usually tinted with poisonous copper salts. Laws against adulteration are useful in prevent- ing harmful ingredients being used, in pub- lishing analyses of foods, and in ensuring the correct labelling of all articles on sale, but they are apt to be perverted in favor of some particular industry and to impose impossible conditions on certain legitimate, although it may be inferior, food products. PRESERVATIVES Food decomposes because of the growth of bacteria of putrefaction, and all methods of food preservation aim either to shut them out or to make the conditions such that they can not thrive. In canning and bottling, the contents are sterilized by heat and sealed so no micro-organisms can enter. Warmth and moisture are necessary for the development of bacteria, and, accord- ingly, cold storage and drying are efficient methods of preserving meat and 'fruit. Preserving may also be done by the use of some chemical antiseptic poisonous to bacteria, but not to man. Salt, saltpetre, borax, boric acid, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, formaldehyde, and many other chem- icals are used for this purpose. Smoked meat must also be classed here, as it is coated with the tarry products of combus- tion. In regard to all of these, it may be said that the processes of putrefaction and diges- tion are so similar in nature that whatever prevents the one will interfere to some extent with the other. At the same time it has not been proved definitely that any of these, except probably the last named, has any injurious effect upon a person of av- erage digestive powers when used in the minute quantities necessary to preserve food. There is of course danger of using an ex- cessive amount, and preservation by steriliz- ing, drying, or keeping cold is preferable to the addition of any foreign substance. Salt is an essential constituent of food, is easily washed out, and is distasteful in excess. The other preservatives are odorless and tasteless in small quantities. A FEW LESSONS IN DANCING ALTHOUGH dancing, like singing, is best learned from the in- structions of a qualified master, it is possible that a determined student can teach himself what he wishes to know by carefully following printed rules and directions and practicing constantly and care- fully. For the benefit of sucK the following brief outlines are included here. Some dances that were popular a few years since are now almost unknown, while others have come into vogue that were then, perhaps, uninvented. If a person can waltz, and perhaps dance a "two-step," and knows the figures of the lancers, he may be said to be a fairly good "dancing man." It is unnecessary to know all the new "fancy dances," although this is often a desirable accomplishment. FAMILIAR DANCES OF THE PRESENT DAY THE LANCERS AT the present day the old-fashioned quadrille is seldom danced. It seems to have gone the way of the minuet and other graceful and complicated dances of our forefathers. In fact, the Lancers seems to be about the only "square dance" that is now performed, except on rare occasions. Within the last few years it has become a great favorite in fashionable circles. It admits of much skill and elegance in exe- cuting its quick and varied figures, a cor- rect acquaintance with which is absolutely requisite to all who take part in it. Unlike the common quadrille, the Lancers must be danced by four couples only in each set ; though of course there can be many sets dancing at the same time. The number being so limited, one awkward or ignorant person confuses the whole set; therefore, it is indispensable that every one who dances in this quadrille should have a thorough mastery of its graceful intricacies. We have observed that of late it has become the fashion to substitute new tunes and new figures for the old well-known music of the Lancers Quadrille. We can not con- sider this an improvement. The old simple melodies are peculiarly fitted to the spright- ly, joyous character of the dance; which is more than can be said for any of the mod- ern substitutes. When these are used, the Lancers, in our opinion, loses its individu- ality and spirit, becoming almost like a com- mon quadrille. We should be heartily glad to see the old tunes restored, once for all, to their rightful supremacy. The sets of four couples, top, opposite, and sides, having been arranged, the dance begins as follows : ist Figure. First lady and opposite gen- tleman advance and retreat; advance again, joining their hands; pass round each other and back to places, (ist eight bars.) Top couple join hands, and cross, opposite couple crossing at the same time, separately, out- side them; the same reversed, back to places. (2d eight bars.) All the couples balances to corners; each gentleman turns his neighbor's partner back to places. (3d eight bars.) Second couple repeat figure from beginning; after them side couples, those who stand to the right of top couple having always the priority, as in the com- mon quadrille. 2d Figure. First couple advance and re- (723) 724 A FEW LESSONS IN DANCING treat, gentleman holding lady's left hand; advance again ; gentleman leaves his part- ner in the centre of the quadrille and re- tires to place, (ist eight bars.) Balances to each other and turn to places. (2d eight bars.) Side couples join first and second couples, forming a line of four on either side. Each line advances four steps, re- treats ditto; then advances again, each gen- tleman reclaiming his partner, and all turn to places. Second and side couples repeat figure in succession. 3d Figure. First lady advances four steps alone, and stops; vis-a-vis gentleman does the same; first lady retires, facing gentle- man, to whom she makes a slow profound courtesy. (The courtesy must occupy a bar or two of the music; and as, if made with grace and dignity, it is most effective, we would recommend ladies to practice it carefully beforehand.) The gentleman at the same time bows and retires, (ist eight bars.) All four ladies advance to centre, give right hands across to each other (which is called the double chain), and left hand to vis-a-vis gentleman ; then back again, left hands across in the middle, and right hands to partners back to places. (2d eight bars.) Second and side couples repeat figure from commencement. A more recent fashion for dancing this figure is as follows: Instead of one lady advancing at first, all four advance, and courtesy to each other ; then turn and cour- tesy to their partners. Ladies do the mou- linet in the centre; that is, give right hands across to each other, and half round; left hands across back again, and return to places. Gentlemen meantime all move round outside the ladies, till each has regained his place. Figure as usual repeated four times ; but the second and fourth time the gentle- men advance instead of the ladies, and bow, first to each other, then to their partners; continuing as before through the rest of the figure. 4th Figure. Top gentleman, taking part- ner's left hand, leads her to the couple on their right, to whom they bow and courtesy (which civility must be met with the like acknowledgment), then cross quickly to fourth couple and do the same, (ist eight bars.) All four couples chassez croisez right and left (gentleman invariably pass- ing behind his partner), then turn hands (tour des mains) back to places. (2d eight bars.) First and opposite couples right and left across and back again, (ad eight bars.) Second and sides repeat as usual. $th Figure. This figure commences with the music. Each couple should stand ready, the gentleman facing his partner, his right hand holding hers. If every one does not start directly the music begins, and does not observe strict time throughout, this some- what intricate figure becomes hopelessly em- barrassed; but, when well danced, it is the prettiest of the set. It commences with the grande chaine all round; each gentle- man giving his right hand to his partner at starting, his left to the next lady, then his right again, and so all round, till all have returned to their places. (This occupies sixteen bars of the music.) First couple promenade inside figure, returning to places with their backs turned to opposite couple. The side couple on their right falls in im- mediately behind them; the fourth couple follows, the second couple remaining in their places. A double line is thus formed ladies on one side and gentlemen on the other. (3d eight bars.) All chassez croisez, ladies left, gentlemen right, behind partners. First lady leads off, turning sharply round to the right; first gentleman does the same to the left, meeting at the bottom of the quadrille, and promenade back to places. All the ladies follow first lady ; all the gen- tlemen follow first gentleman; and as each meets his partner at the bottom of the fig- ure, they touch hands, then fall back in two lines ladies on one side, gentlemen on the other facing each other. (4th eight bars.) Four ladies join hands, advance, and re- treat; four gentlemen ditto at the same time; then each turns his partner to places. (5th eight bars.) Grande chaine again. Second and side couples repeat the whole figure in succession, each couple taking its turn to lead off, as the first has done. Grande chaine between each figure and in conclusion. THE LANCERS FOR SIXTEEN, OR DOUBLE LANCERS ist Figure. Two first ladies and vis-a-vis gentlemen begin at the same moment, and go through the figure as in Single Lancers. All balances to corners; in other words, each lady sets to gentleman at her right, who turns her to her place. Second couples and sides repeat as usual. 2d Figure. First couples advance, retreat, advance again, leaving ladies in centre; set to partners and turn to places. Two side couples nearest first couples join them; two side couples nearest second couples do the same, thus forming eight in each line. They all advance and retreat, holding hands, then A FEW LESSONS IN DANCING 725 turn partners to places. Repeated by second and side couples as usual. 3d Figure. First ladies advance and stop ; vis-d-vis gentlemen ditto; courtesy pro- foundly, bow, and back to places. Ladies do the moulinet, gentlemen go round out- side, and back to places. Or, ladies advance and courtesy to each other and then to partners; gentlemen doing the same when the second and fourth couples begin the figure, as in Single Lancers. 4th Figure. First couples advance to couples on their right; bow and courtesy; cross to opposite side, bow and courtesy, chassez croisez, and return to place. Right and left to opposite places, and back again. Second couples and sides repeat figure. 5th Figure. Grande chaine all round, pausing at the end of every eight bars to bow and courtesy; continue chaine back to places, which will occupy altogether thirty- two bars of the music. Figure almost the same as in Single Lancers. Both first cou- ples lead around, side couples falling in be- hind, thus forming four sets of lines. Figure repeated by second and side couples ; grande chaine between each figure and at the conclusion. THE POLKA The origin of this once celebrated dance is difficult to ascertain. It is believed by some to be of great antiquity, and to have been brought into Germany from the East. Others affirm that its origin is of more recent date, and its birthplace considerably nearer home. An authority on these mat- ters remarks: "In spite of what those pro- fessors say who proclaim themselves to have learned the Polka in Germany, or as being indebted for it to an Hungarian nobleman, we are far from placing confidence in their assertions. In our opinion Paris is its birthplace, and its true author, undoubtedly, the now far-famed Monsieur Cellarius, for whom this offspring of his genius has gained a European celebrity." Whatever we may be inclined to believe with regard to this disputed question, there can be no doubt of the widespread popu- larity which for many years was enjoyed by the Polka. When first introduced in 1843, it was received with enthusiasm, and it effected a complete revolution in the style of dancing which had prevailed up to that period. A brisk, lively character was imparted even to the steady-going quadrille ; the old Valse a Trois Temps was pro- nounced insufferably "slow"; and its bril- liant rival, the Valse a Deux Temps, which had been recently introduced, at once es- tablished the supremacy which it has ever since maintained. The galop, which had been until this period only an occasional dance, now assumed a prominent post in every ballroom, dividing the honors with the valse. Perhaps no dance affords greater facili- ties for the display of ignorance or skill, elegance or vulgarity, than the Polka. The step is simple and easily acquired, but the method of dancing it varies ad infinitum. Some persons race and romp through the dance in a manner fatiguing to themselves and dangerous to their fellow-dancers. Others (though this is more rare) drag their partner listlessly along, with a sov- ereign contempt alike for the requirements of the time and the spirit of the music. Some gentlemen hold their partner so tight that she is half suffocated; others hold her so loosely that she continually slips away from them. All these extremes are equally objectionable, and defeat the graceful in- tention of the dance. It should be per- formed quietly, but with spirit, and always in strict time. The head and shoulders should be kept still, not jerked and turned at every step, as is the manner of some. The feet should glide swiftly along the floor not hopping or jumping as if the boards were red-hot. You should clasp your partner lightly but firmly round the waist with your right arm. Your left hand takes her right hand; but beware of elevating your arm and hers in the air, or holding them out straight, which suggests the idea of windmills. Above all, never place your left hand on your hip or behind you. In the first place you thus drag your partner too much for- ward, which makes her look ungraceful ; in the next, this attitude is never used except in casinos, and it is almost an insult to introduce it in a respectable ballroom. Let the hand which clasps your partner's fall easily by your side in a natural posi- tion, and keep it there. Your partner's left hand rests on your right shoulder; her right arm is thrown a little forward toward your left. The Polka is danced in 2-4 time. There are three steps in each bar; the fourth beat is always a rest. It is next to impossible to describe in words the step of the Polka, or of any circular dance; nothing but example can correctly teach it; and although we shall do our best to be as clear as possible, we 720 A FEW LESSONS IN DANCING would earnestly recommend those of our readers who desire to excel, whether in this or the following dances, to take a few lessons from some competent instructor. The gentleman starts with his left foot, the lady with her right. We shall describe the step as danced by the gentleman; the same directions, reversing the order of the feet, will apply to the lady. ist beat. Spring slightly on right foot, at the same time slide left foot forward. 2d beat. Bring right foot forward by glissade, at the same time raising left foot. 3d beat. Bring left foot slightly forward and fall upon it, leaving right foot raised, and the knee slightly bent, ready to begin the step at the first beat of the next bar. 4th beat. Remain on left foot. Begin next bar with the right foot, and repeat the step to end of the third beat. Be- gin the following bar with left foot, and so on, commencing each bar with right or left foot alternately. The Polka is danced with a circular move- ment, like the Valse; in each bar you half turn, so that by the end of the second bar you have brought your partner completely round. The circular movement of the Polka ad- mits of two directions from right to left or from left to right. The ordinary direc- tion is from right to left. The opposite one is known as the reverse step. It is more difficult to execute, but is a pleasant change for skilled dancers, if they have become giddy from turning too long in one direction. In dancing the Polka, or any circular dance where a large number of couples are performing at the same time, the gentleman must be careful to steer his fair burden safely through the mazes of the crowded ballroom. A little watchfulness can almost always avoid collisions, and a good dancer would consider himself disgraced if any mishap occurred to a lady under his care. Keep a sharp lookout, and avoid crowded corners. Should so many couples be dan- cing as to render such caution impossible, stop at once and do not go on until the room has become somewhat cleared. In a few minutes others will have paused to rest, and you can then continue. Your partner will be grateful that your considera- tion has preserved her from the dismal plight in which we have seen some ladies emerge from this dance their coiffures dis- ordered, their dresses torn, and their cheeks crimson with fatigue and mortification, while their indignant glances plainly showed the anger they did not care to express in words, and which their reckless partner had fully deserved. A torn dress is sometimes not the heaviest penalty incurred: we have known more than one instance where ladies have been lamed for weeks through the culpable carelessness of their partners; their tender feet having been half crushed beneath some heavy boot in one of these awkward collisions. This is a severe price to pay for an evening's amusement, and gentlemen are bound to be cautious how they inflict it or anything approaching to it, upon their fair companions. Ladies, on the other hand, will do well to remember that by leaning heavily upon their partner's shoulder, dragging back from his encircling arm, or otherwise impeding the freedom of his movements, they materially add to his labor and take from his pleasure in the dance. They should endeavor to lean as lightly and give as little trouble as pos- sible ; for, however flattering to the vanity of the nobler sex may be the idea of fem- inine dependence, we question whether the reality, in the shape of a dead weight upon their aching arms throughout a Polka or a Valse of twenty minutes' duration, would be acceptable to even the most chivalrous among them. We have been thus minute in our in- structions, because they not only apply to the Polka, but equally to all circular dances where a great number stand up to dance at the same time. We now pass on to the Mazourka. The time of the Mazourka is 54, like the common Valse; but it should be played much more slowly; if danced quickly, it becomes an unmeaning succession of hops, and its graceful character is destroyed. We describe the step as danced by the lady; for the gentleman it will be the same, with the feet reversed; that is, for right foot read left, and so on. FIRST STEP ist and 2d beats. Spring on left foot, sliding forward right foot at the same time, and immediately let your weight rest on the forward foot. This occupies two beats. 3d beat. Spring on right foot; this ends the bar. 2d bar, ist and 2d beats. Spring again on right foot, and slide forward left at same time. Rest on it a moment as before dur- ing second beat; at third beat spring on it, which ends second bar. Continue same step throughout. You will perceive that, at the first and third beats of the time, you A FEW LESSONS IN DANCING 727 hop slightly, resting, during the second beats, on the foremost foot. SECOND STEP ist beat. Spring on left foot, slightly striking both heels together. 2d beat. Slide right foot to the right, bending the knee. 3d beat Bring the left foot up to right foot with a slight spring, raising right foot ; which ends the first bar. 2d bar, ist beat. Spring again on left foot, striking it with heel of right. 2d beat. Slide right foot to the right. 3d beat. Fall on right foot, raising left foot behind it, which ends the second bar. Reverse the step by springing first on the right foot, and sliding the left, etc. The music generally indicates that this step should be repeated three times to the right, which occupies three bars, then rest during the fourth bar, and return with reverse step to the left during the three bars which follow, resting again at the eighth bar. THIRD STEP ist beat. Spring on left foot, and slide right foot to the right. 2d beat. Rest on right foot. 3d beat. Spring on right foot, bringing left foot up behind it. 2d bar, ist beat. Spring on right foot, sliding left foot to the left. 2d beat. Rest on left foot. 3d beat. Hop on left foot, bringing rght behind as before. Continue at pleasure. The first of these three steps is most com- monly used in the Valse ; but the second is i an agreeable change for those who may have grown giddy or weary in doing the figure en tournant (circular movement). Be careful not to exaggerate the slight hop at the first and third beats of each bar, and to slide the foot gracefully forward, not merely to make a step, as some bad dancers do. THE MAZOURKA QUADRILLE This elegant quadrille has five figures, and can be performed by any even number of couples. The music, like the step, is that of the Mazourka. The couples are ar- ranged as in the ordinary quadrille. Join hands all round; grand rond to the left (four bars), then back again to the right (four bars), employing the second step of the Mazourka. Each couple does the petit tour forward and backward, still using the second step, and repeating it three times to the right then resting a bar ; three times to the left then resting another bar; which occupies eight bars of the music. These figures may be considered as pre- liminary. ist Figure. Top and bottom couples right and left (eight bars), with Redowa step;* then they advance, the ladies cross over, the gentlemen meanwhile pass quickly round each other, and return to own places (four bars) ; petit tour forward with opposite ladies (four bars) ; right and left (eight bars); advance again; the ladies return to own places, and the gentlemen pass again round each other to their own ladies (four bars) ; petit tour backward (four bars). Side couples do likewise. 2d Figure. (Eight bars rest.) Top and bottom couples advance and retire, hands joined (four bars). All cross over into opposite places, each going to each other's left (four bars) ; petit tour forward (four bars) ; advance and retire (four bars), and return to places (four bars) ; petit tour (four bars). Side couples do likewise. 3d Figure. (Eight bars rest.) Top and bottom ladies cross over into opposite places (four bars) ; return, presenting left hand to each other, and right hand to partner, as in La Poule (four bars) ; pass round with partners into opposite places (four bars) ; petit tour backward (four bars) ; vis-a-vis couples hands across, round (six bars) ; retire (two bars) ; top and bottom ladies cross over (four bars) ; ladies cross again, giving each other left hands, and right to partners (four bars). All pass round to own places (four bars) ; petit tour backward (four bars). 4th Figure. (Eight bars rest.) Top couple lead round inside the figure (eight bars) ; petit tour forward and backward (eight bars); advance to opposite couple; the gentleman turns half round without quitting his partner, and gives his left hand to opposite lady; the two ladies join hands behind gentleman (four bars) ; in this po- sition the three advance and retire (eight bars). The gentleman passes under the ladies' arms; all three pass round to the left, with second step of Mazourka, the op- posite lady finishing in her own place (four bars). The top couple return to places (four bars) ; petit tour forward (four bars). Opposite couple and side couples do like- wise. 5th Figure. (Eight bars rest.) Top and bottom coupler half right and left (four * This step will be found further on under the head of Redowa Valse. 728 A FEW LESSONS IN DANCING bars) ; petit tour backward (four bars) ; half right and left to places (four bars) ; petit tour backward (four bars) ; vis-a-vis couples hands round to opposite places (four bars) ; petit tour forward (four bars) ; hands round to own places (four bars) ; petit tour (four bars) ; right and left (eight bars). Side couples do likewise. Finale. Grand round all to the left, and then to the right (sixteen bars) ; grand chain, as in the Lancers, with first step of Mazourka (sixteen bars). But if there are more than eight in the quadrille, the music must be continued until all have regained their places. N.B. Music continues during rests. THE POLKA MAZOURKA The step of this dance is, as its name im- plies, a mixture of the steps of the Polka and the Mazourka. The time is Y$ quicker than that of the Mazourka. Gentleman takes his partner as in the Valse. Figure en tournant. We describe the steps for the gentleman; the lady sim- ply reverses the order of the feet, using left foot for right throughout. ist beat. Rest on right foot, with left foot a little raised behind, and slide left foot to the left. 2d beat. Spring on the right foot, bring- ing it up to where left foot is, and raising the latter in front. 3d beat. Spring once more on right foot, passing left foot behind without touching the ground with it; this ends first bar. 2d bar, ist beat. Slide left foot to the left, as before. 2d beat. Spring on right foot, as before, and bring it up to the place of left foot, raising latter at same moment. 3 n e step to each beat. First beat in each bar should be slightly marked by the dancers. ist beat. Slide left foot backward, to- ward the left. 2d beat. Slide your right foot past your left in same direction, keeping right foot behind left, and turning slightly to the right. 3d beat. Bring left foot up behind right (one bar). ist beat. Slide right foot forward toward the right. 2d beat. Slide left foot forward, still turning toward right. 3d beat. Bring right foot up to right, turning on both feet, so as to complete the circle (two bars). Remember to finish with right foot in front. Repeat from first beat of first bar. Gentleman always turns from left to right; lady from right to left. The step of the Waltz is simple enough; nevertheless some practice is required to dance it really well. Remember always to slide, not to step, forward; for the beauty of this Valse consists in its gliding motion. It is not at first easy to dance swiftly and quietly at the same time; but a little pa- tience will soon enable you to conquer that difficulty, and to do full justice to what is, in our opinion, the most perfectly graceful of all the round dances, without a single exception. VALSE A DEUX TEMPS, OR TWO-STEP We are indebted to the mirth-loving cap- ital of Austria for this brilliant Valse. This Valse is incorrect in time. Two steps can never properly be made to occupy the space of three beats in the music. The ear requires that each beat shall have its step. This inaccuracy in the measure has exposed the Valse a Deux Temps to the 730 A FEW LESSONS IN DANCING just censure of musicians, but has never interfered with its success among dancers We must caution our readers, however, against one mistake often made by the in- experienced. They imagine that it is un- necessary to observe any rule of time in this dance, and are perfectly careless whether they begin the step at the beginning, end, or middle of the bar. This is quite inad- missible. Every bar must contain within its three beats two steps. These steps must begin and end strictly with the beginning and end of each bar, otherwise a hopeless confusion of the measure will ensue. Pre- cision in this matter is the more requisite, because of the peculiarity in the measure. If the first step in each bar be not strongly marked, the Valse measure has no chance of making itself apparent, and the dance becomes a meaningless Galop. The step contains two movements, a glis- sade and a chassez, following each other quickly in the same direction. Gentleman begins as usual with his left foot; lady with her right. ist beat. Glissade to the left with left foot. zd and 3d beats. Chassez in the same direction with right foot; do not turn. 2d bar, ist beat. Slide right foot back- ward, turning half round. 2d and $d beats. Pass left foot behind right, and chassez forward with it, turning half round to complete the figure en tour- nant. Finish with right foot in front, and begin over again with left foot. There is no variation in this step ; but you can vary the movement by going backward or forward at pleasure, instead of continu- ing the rotary motion. The Valse a Deux Temps, like the Polka, admits of a reverse step, but it looks awkward unless executed to perfection. The first requisite in this Valse is to avoid all jumping movements. The feet must glide smoothly and swiftly over the floor, and be raised from it as little as possible. Being so very quick a dance, it must be performed quietly, other- wise it is liable to become ungraceful. The steps should be short, with knees slightlybent. As the movement is necessarily very rapid, the danger of collision is propor- tionately increased; and gentlemen will do well to remember and act upon this hint. They should also be scrupulous not to attempt to conduct a lady through this Valse until they have thoroughly mastered the step and well practiced the figure en tour- nant. Awkwardness or inexperience doubles the risks of a collision, which in this ex- tremely rapid dance, might be attended with serious consequences. The Deux Temps is a somewhat fatiguing Valse, and after two or three turns around the room, the gentleman should pause to allow his partner to rest. He should be careful to select a lady whose height does not present too striking a contrast to his own; for it looks ridiculous to see a tall man dancing with a short woman, or vice versa. This observation applies to all round dances, but especially to the Valse. THE GALOP The Galop, as its name implies, is the quintessence of all the "fast" dances. At the time of the Polka mania it was very much in vogue, and almost as great a fa- vorite as the Deux Temps. Although its popularity has greatly declined of late, it generally occurs twice or thrice in the pro- gramme of every ballroom; and the music of the Galop is, like the dance itself, so gay and spirited, that we should regret to see it wholly laid aside. The step is sim- ilar to that of the Deux Temps Valse, but the time is 2-4, and as quick as possible. Two chassez steps are made in each bar. The figure can be varied by taking four or eight steps in the same direction, or by turning with every two steps, as in the Deux Temps. Like all round dances, it ad- mits of an unlimited number of couples. Being, perhaps, the most easy of any, every one takes part in it, and the room is gen- erally crowded during its continuance. A special amount of care is therefore neces- sary on the part of the gentleman to pro- tect his partner from accidents. THE COTILLON The Cotillon is never commenced till to- ward the close of the ball, at so advanced an hour that all the sedate portion of the assembly have retired, and only the real lovers of dancing remain. There are many varieties of figures, but the following description will suffice. As the Cotillon is danced differently in every city, and with every variety of figure that the ingenuity of Cotillon leaders can in- vent, it is impossible to give more than a bare outline of this favorite amusement of young society people. A circle of chairs is arranged round the room, the centre being left clear; the spec- :ators stand behind the chairs so as not to nterfere with the dancers. Each gentle- man leads his partner to a seat, taking an- other beside her. To these same seats they return after every figure, it being the eti- A FEW LESSONS IN DANCING quette of the dance that no couple should appropriate any chairs but their own, taken at the commencement. When the dancers are arranged round the room, the orches- tra strikes up the spirited music of the Cotillon, which consists of a long series of Valse movements at the usual tempo of the Deux Temps. There are generally several leaders of the Cotillon, who decide upon the succession of the figures. If there are many couples dancing, one leader attends upon a group of six or eight couples, to ensure that all shall take part. We are aware of no fixed rule for the succession of the figures, which depends upon the ca- price of the leaders. A good leader will invent new combinations, or diversify old figures, thus securing an almost endless variety. One of the most popular is : Several gentlemen assume the names of flowers or plants, such as the honeysuckle, woodbine, ivy, etc. A lady is then requested to name her favorite flower, and the for- tunate swain who bears its name springs forward and valses off with her in triumph. It is usual to make one, or at most two, turns round the room, and then restore the lady to her own partner, who in the mean- time has perhaps been the chosen one of another lady. All having regained their places, each gentleman valses with his own partner once round the room, or remains sitting by her side, as she may feel inclined. Baskets filled with small bouquets are brought in. Each gentleman provides him- self with a bouquet, and presents it to the lady with whom he wishes to valse. Sometimes a light pole or staff is intro- duced, to the top of which are attached long streamers of different colored ribbons. A lady takes one of these to several of her fair companions in turn, each of whom chooses a ribbon, and, holding it firmly in her hand, follows the leading lady to the centre of the room. Here they are met by an equal number of gentlemen, likewise grouped round a leader who carries the pole, while each holds a streamer of his favorite color, or that which he imagines would be selected by the dame de ses pen- sees. The merry groups compare notes : those who possess streamers of the same color pair off in couples and valse round the room, returning to places as before. Six or eight ladies, and the same number of gentlemen, form in two lines, facing each other. The leading lady throws a soft worsted ball of bright colors at the gentle- man with whom she wishes to dance. He catches it, throws it back to the fair group, and valses off with his partner. Whoever catches the returning ball has the right to throw next; and the same ceremony is re- peated until all have chosen their partners, with whom they valse round the room, re- turning to places as usual. Sometimes a handkerchief is substituted for the ball ; but the latter is better, being more easily thrown and caught. Six or eight chairs are placed in a cir- cle, the backs turned inward. Ladies seat themselves in the chairs, gentlemen move slowly round in front of them. Each lady throws her handkerchief or bouquet at the gentleman with whom she wishes to dance as he passes before her; valse round as usual, and return to places. Sometimes a gentleman is blindfolded and placed in a chair. Two ladies take a seat on either side of him, and he is bound to make his selec- tion without seeing the face of his partner. Having done so, he pulls the covering from his eyes and valses off with her. It is a curious circumstance that mistakes seldom occur, the gentleman being generally suffi- ciently clairvoyant to secure the partner he desires. We have here described a few of the most striking figures of the Cotillon. We might multiply them to an extent which would equally tax the patience of our readers and our own powers of remembrance, but we forbear. Favors and souvenirs are given. SIR ROGER DE COVERLEY, OR VIRGINIA REEL Sir Roger de Coverley, or Virginia Reel, is always introduced at the end of the even- ing, and no dance could be so well fitted to send the guests home in good humor with each other and with their hosts. We de- scribe it as it is danced at the present day, slightly modernized to sui* the taste of our time. Like the quadrille, it can be danced with equal propriety by old or young, and is so easy that the most inexperienced dan- cer may fearlessly venture to take part in it. Form in two parallel lines ; ladies on the left, gentlemen on the right, facing partners. All advance; retreat (which occupies the first four bars) ; cross to opposite places (four bars more) ; advance and retreat (four bars) ; re-cross to places (four bars). The lady who stands at the top and the gentleman who stands at the bottom, of each line, advance toward each other, courtesy and bow, and retire to places. The gentleman at the top and the lady at the bottom do the same. Lady at top and gentleman at bottom advance again, .give right hands, and swing 732 A FEW LESSONS IN DANCING quickly round each other back to places. Gentleman at top and lady at bottom do the same. Top lady advances, gives right hand to partner opposite, and passes behind the two gentlemen standing next to him. Then through the line and across it, giving left hand to partner, who meets her half way between the two lines, having in the mean- time passed behind the two ladies who stood next his partner. Lady then passes behind the two ladies next lowest; gentleman at same time behind the two gentlemen next lowest; and so on all down the line. At the bottom, lady gives left hand to her partner, and they promenade back to places at the top of the line. (This figure is frequently omitted.) Top couple advance, courtesy and bow, then lady turns off to the right, gentleman to the left, each followed by the rest of her or his line. Top couple meet at the bottom of figure, join hands, and raising their arms, let all the other couples pass under them toward the top of the line, till all reach their own places, except the top, who have now become t>e bottom couple. Figure is repeated from the begin- ning, until the top couple have once more worked their way back to their original places at the top of the line. GLOSSARY We subjoin a Glossary of all the French words and expressions that have long since been uni. versally accepted as the accredited phraseology of the ball-room. A vos places, back to your own places. A la fin, at the end. A droite, to the right. A gauche, to the left. Balancez, set to your partners. ialancez aux coins, set to the corners. Balancez quatre en ligne, four dancers set in a line, joining hands, as in La Poule. Balancez en moulinet, gentlemen and their part- ners give each other right hands across, and balancez in the form of a cross. Balancez et tour des mains, all set to partners, and turn to places. (See Tour des mains.) Ballotez, do the same four times without changing your places. Chaine Anglaise, opposite couples right and left. Chaine des dames, ladies' chain. Chaine Anglaise double, double right and left. Chaine des dames double, all the ladies perform the ladies' chain at the same time. Chassez croisez, do the chasse step from left to right, chr right to left, the lady passing before the gentleman in the opposite direction, that is, moving right if he moves left, and vice versa. Chassez croisez et dechassez, change places with partners, ladies passing in front, first to the right, then to the left, back to places. It may be either a quatre four couples or les huit eight couples. Chassez a droite a gauche, move to the right to the left. Le cavalier seul, gentleman advances alone-. Les cavaliers seuls deux fois, gentlemen advance and retire twice without their partners. Changez vos dames, change partners. Centre partie pour les autres, the other dancers do the same figure. Demi promenade, half promenades Demi chaine Anglaise, half right and left. Demi moulinet, ladies all advance to centre, right hands across, and back to places. Demi tour a quatre, four hands half round. Dos-a-dos, lady and opposite gentleman advance, pass round each other back to back, and return to places. Les dames en moulinet, ladies give right hand* across to each other, half round, and back again with left hands. Les dames donnent la main droit gauche a leum cavalier, ladies give the right left hands to partners. En avant deux et en arriere, first lady and vis-a- vis gentleman advance and retires To secure brevity, en avant is always understood to' imply en arriere when the latter is not expressed. En avant deux fois, advance and retreat twice. En avant quatre, first couple and their vis-a-vis advance and retire. En avant trois, three advance and retire, as in La Pastorale. Figurez devant, dance before. Figurez a droite a gauche, dance to the right- to the left. La grande tour de rond, all join hands and danct completely round the figure in a circle back to places. Le grand rond, all join hands, and advance and retreat twice, as in La Finale. Le grand quatre, eight couples form into squares. La grande chaine, all the couples move <;uit round the figure, giving alternately the right and left hand to each in succession, beginning with the right, until all have regained their places, as in last figure of the Lancers. La grande promenade, all eight (or more) couples promenade all around the figure back to places. La main, the hand. La meme pour les cavaliers, gentlemen do the same. Le moulinet, hand acrdss. The figure will explain whether it is the gentlemen, or the ladies, or both, who are to perform it. Pas de Allemande, the gentleman turns his part- ner under each arm in succession. Pas de Basque, a kind of sliding step forward, performed with both feet alternately in quick succession. Used in the Redowa and other dances. Comes from the South of France. Glissade, a sliding step. Le Tiroir, first couple cross with hands joined to opposite couple's place, opposite couple crossing separately outside them; then cross back to places, same figure reversed. Tour des mains, give both h .tds to partner, and turn her round without quitting your places. Tour sur place, the same. Tournez vos dames, the same. Tour aux coins, turn at '.he corners, as in '.he Caledonians, each gentleman turning the lady who stands nearest his left hand, and immedi- ately returning to his own place. Traversez, cross over to opposite place. Retraversez, cross back again. Traversez deux, en donnant la main droite, lady and vis-a-vis gentleman cross, giving right hand, as in La Poule. Vis-a-vis, opposite. Figure en tournant, circular form. RULES FOR PARLIAMEN- TARY PROCEDURE A PUBLIC meeting is the assemblage of a portion of the people, for the expression of opinion upon matters of local or general concern, The proceedings are but few and simple; yet, to preserve order during its session, and to give effect to its action, the meeting has to be guided by defined rules from the time of its projection to the moment of its close. Even when only a few persons are present, and the proceedings are more or less informal, it is desirable to apply parliamentary rules to the extent, at least, of choosing officers and conducting business in orderly and expeditious fashion. ORGANIZING AND CONDUCTING MEETINGS ORGANIZING ASSOCIATIONS WHEN it is advisable to form a society, club, or other association, for any specific purpose, those who agree in regard to its formation may meet upon private no- tice or public call. The mode of organiz- ing the meeting is similar to that of any other. As soon as the meeting has been organ- ized, and the chairman announces that it is ready to proceed to business, some one of the originators, previously agreed upon, should rise and advocate the formation of the club or society required for the purpose set forth in the call, and end by moving the appointment of a committee to draft a constitution and by-laws. This committee should be instructed to report at the next meeting. A convenient time of adjourn- ment is fixed on, and if there be no further business the meeting adjourns. When the time for the second meeting arrives, the same officers continue, without any new motion. If either be absent, his place is supplied, on motion, by some other. The committee on the constitution and by- laws reports. If the constitution is not ac- ceptable, those present suggest amendments. As soon as it has taken the required shape, it is adopted and signed by those present. The by-laws are treated in the same way. The society is now formed, but not fully organized. The officers provided for by the constitution have now to be elected. This may be done at that meeting, or the society may be adjourned over for that purpose. So soon as it has been done, the chairman of the meeting gives way to the newly elected president, or, in his absence, to a vice-president ; the secretary of the meet- ing vacates his seat, which is taken by the newly elected secretary or secretaries, and thus the organization of the new body is complete. FORMS OF CONSTITUTIONS A constitution is the formal written agreement making the fundamental law which binds the parties who associate. In preparation of this, useless words should be avoided. The constitution, after having been adopt- ed, should be engrossed in a blank book, and signed by the members. Amendments (733) 47 734 RULES FOR PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE or alterations should be entered in the same book, with the date of their adoption, in the shape of a copy from the minutes; and a side-note inserted in the margin of the constitution, opposite the article amended, showing on what page the amendment may be found. LYCEUMS OR INSTITUTES PREAMBLE. Whereas, experience has shown that knowledge can be more readily acquired by combination of effort than singly, we, whose names are hereunto an- nexed, have agreed to form an association to be known as [here insert title], and for its better government, do hereby establish the following constitution: ARTICLE I. The name, style, and title of this association shall be [here insert name], and its object shall be the increase and the diffusion of knowledge among its mem- ers. ARTICLE II. I. The officers of this asso- ciation shall consist of a president, two vice- presidents, a corresponding secretary, a re- cording secretary, a treasurer, a librarian, and a curator, who shall be elected annu- ally on [here insert time of election and mode i.e., whether by open voice or by ballot]. 2. The said officers shall hold their offices until their successors shall have been elected, and their powers and duties shall be sim- ilar to those of like officers in like asso- ciations. ARTICLE III. There shall be appointed by the president, immediately after his election, by and with the consent of the association, the following standing committees, to con- sist of five members each, namely: on finance, library, museum, lectures, and print- ing, who shall perform such duties and take charge of such business as may be assigned to them by vote of the association. ARTICLE IV. I. Any person residing with- in [here state limits], who is above the age of twenty-one years, may become a resident member of this association, by consent of a majority of the members present at any stated meeting succeeding the one at which his name shall have been proposed; any person residing without the limits afore- said may be chosen, in like manner, a cor- responding member; and any person who is eminent in science or literature may be elected an honorary member. ^2. Each and every resident member, upon his election, shall sign this constitution, and pay over to the recording secretary the sum of [here insert the sum], and shall pay the like sum annually in advance; but no dues or contributions shall be demanded of corresponding or honorary members. ARTICLE V.- I. This association shall be divided into the following sections, namely: (i) Natural Science; (2) Arts; (3) His- tory; (4) Agriculture and Horticulture; (5) Mental and Moral Philosophy; (6) General Literature; to each of which sec- tions shall be referred all papers or busi- ness appropriate to its department; and to one or more of these sections each mem- ber, immediately after his election, shall at- tach himself. 2. Each section shall report, from time to time, upon the business intrusted to it, as this association shall direct. ARTICLE VI. This association shall meet monthly [here insert time], and at such other times as it may be called upon by the president, upon the written request of six members; of each of which meetings due notice shall be given, and at each and all of these meetings six members shall con- stitute a quorum for the transaction of business. ARTICLE VII. The rules of order em- braced in "The Rules of Debate" shall gov- ern the deliberations of this association so far as the same may apply; and the order of business therein laid down shall be fol- lowed, unless suspended or transposed by a two- thirds vote. ARTICLE VIII. Any member who shall be guilty of any public, felonious offence against the law, or who shall persevere in a course of conduct degrading of itself or calculated to bring this association into odium, may be expelled by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any stated meet- ing, and any member who shall neglect or refuse to pay his dues for more than one year shall thereby cease to be a member of this association ; but no member shall be expelled until due notice shall have been given him of the charges brought against him, and until he shall have had the oppor- tunity of being confronted with his accusers, and of being heard in his own defence. ARTICLE IX. This constitution may be altered, amended, or abrogated at any stated meeting, by a vote of two-thirds of the members present; provided, that writ- ten notice of said alteration, amendment, or abrogation shall have been given at a pre- vious stated meeting. XULES FOR PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 735 DUTIES OF OFFICERS THE PRESIDING OFFICER The chairman should have made himself fully acquainted with the rules of order and the usages of deliberative bodies. He should be prompt, dignified, and impartial. He should be quick of eye to note any mem- ber who rises, and quick of speech to de- clare him in possession of the floor. He should suffer no member to violate order without instant rebuke. His voice should be steady, distinct, and clear, so that all may hear readily. When he puts the ques- tion, states a point of order, or otherwise addresses the body, he should rise, and when he has finished resume his seat. His constant attention is necessary, and his eye should never wander from the speaker be- fore him; nor should he, in any way, show a neglect of the business. No matter what disturbance may arise, his coolness and tem- per must be preserved. If his decision be appealed from, he should show no resent- ment an appeal being a matter of privilege but should put the appeal in the same indifferent manner as though it were an ordinary question. He should always re- member that he has been placed there to guide and control the machinery of the moment, and not to give his own views, or display his own abilities in an organized association. He will sign all orders for the payment of money ordered by the body. THE RECORDING OFFICER The secretary or clerk, at the commence- ment of proceedings, will seat himself at his table, and, at the order of the chairman, will read the minutes of the previous meet- ing. He must note down the proceedings, and write them down in full, previous to another meeting. He must file all resolu- tions and other papers before the body, and- allow none to go from his custody without due authority. He must read all resolu- tions and papers when requested to do so by the chair. He must turn over his rec- ords and 'papers in good order to his suc- cessor on leaving his office. He must coun- tersign all orders on the treasurer, which have been signed by the president, as this counter-signature is the evidence that the society has approved the order. THE TREASURER The treasurer must enter, in a book to be provided for the purpose, all money re- ceived, and all payments made, on account of the body. He must pay out no money, except on an order signed by the president and countersigned by the secretary. He must retain these orders as his vouchers. He must turn over his books, in good or- de'r, to his successor on leaving his office. He must give bonds in such needful sum as it deems best if the body require. THE LIBRARIAN The librarian will take upon him the charge of the books and manuscripts not pertaining to the duties of other officers. Of these he must keep a catalogue. He must keep a record of all books borrowed, by whom and when returned, and must only loan them under such regulations as the body see fit to adopt. He must turn over his catalogue and records to his successor on leaving his office. THE CURATORS The curators will take charge of all speci- mens of nature or art, or otherwise, and all property of the body not in charge of other officers. This they will have cata- logued, and will keep it under such restric- tions as may be imposed on them by the main body. They must turn over their cata- logue, papers, and property to their succes- sors on leaving their office. THE COMMITTEE ON CORRESPONDENCE The committee will take charge of all correspondence ordered by the body, and if there be no corresponding secretary will conduct it with all parties, at direction of the body, through its chairman. It will report, from time to time, as directed, and will keep copies of letters sent, and a file of those received, which it will turn over to its successors on its discharge. If there be a corresponding secretary, he will per- form the duties assigned above to the com- mittee of correspondence. THE COMMITTEE ON FINANCE The committee on finance will devise the ways and means to obtain the necessary funds for the body, and report thereon from time to time, and will attend to such other duties as may be assigned to them. OTHER COMMITTEES Other committees will attend to such busi- ness as may be assigned to them by the main body, reporting thereon as may be required. 736 RULES FOR PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE BY-LAWS The old custom of appending a distinct set of by-laws has fallen into disuse. The main points will be found embodied in the constitution in the forms given. Any others, or any modifications of the rules necessary, may be provided for in the con- stitution, or enacted by a majority vote. But, if it be thought necessary, that portion of the constitution that contains provisions that were formerly so placed can be made distinct. RULES OF DEBATE THE PRESIDENT On taking his seat, says: "The meeting [or society, or club, or associa- tion, as the case may be] will come to order." If there has been a meeting previous: "The secretary will please to read the minutes." After the minutes have been read: "You have heard the minutes of the previous meeting read. What order do you take on them?" When a motion has been made and seconded: "It has been moved and seconded that [here state the motion}. Are you ready for the ques- tion ?" If a member arises to speak, recognize him by naming him by his place, or in any way which will identify him without using his name, if pos- sible. In putting the question: "It has been moved and seconded that [here state the motion}. So many as are in favor of the motion will signify their assent by saying 'Aye!' " When the ayes have voted, say: "Those to the contrary opinion, 'No!'" Or, have the resolution read, and say: "It has been moved and seconded that the reso- lution just read be passed. So many as are in favor," etc. On a call for the previous question: "Shall the main question be now put? Those in the affirmative will," etc. On an appeal, state the decision, and, if you think proper, the reasons therefor, and that it has been appealed from, and then: "Shall the decision of the chair stand? Those in the affirmative," etc. Should it be sustained, say: "The ayes have it. The decision of the chair stands as the judgment of this meeting" [or s&- ciety, etc., as the case may be]. Should it not be sustained, say: "The noes hai ; it. The decision of the chair is reversed." In announcing the result of a question, if it be carried, say: "The ayes appear to have it the ayes have it the motion [or amendment, as the case may be] is carried." If it be lost: "The noes appear to have it the noes have it the motion is lost." If a division be called for: "A division is called for. Those in favor of the motion will rise." Count them. When counted, announce the num- ber, and say: "Those opposed will rise." Count them, report the number, and declare the result If the yeas nd nays be called for, and no ob- jection be made, he states the question, if needed, and says: "As the roll is called, members will vote in the affirmative or negative. The secretary will call the roll." After the ayes and nays have been determined, the chairman states the number and declares the result. If no quorum be present at the hour of meet- ing, after waiti g a reasonable time, be says: "The hour for which this meeting was called having arrived and passed, and no quorum being present, what order is to hje taken?" Or, he may simply announce the fact, and wait for a member to move an adjournment. If during a meeting some member calls for a count, he counts, and announces if a quorum be present or not. If not, he says: "This meeting is in want of a quorum. What order is to be taken?" Or he may state the fact only, and wait for a motion to adjourn. But while there is no quorum present, business must be suspended. After the minutes have been adopted, be says: "The next business in order is the reports of standing committees." If none, or after they have reported, he says: "The reports of special committees are next in order." And so he announces each business in its proper succession. When the hour for the orders of the day ar- rives, on call of a member, he says: "Shall the orders of the day be taken up? So many as are in favor," etc. In case of disorder in committee of the whole, which its chairman can not repress, the presiding officer may say: "The committee of the whole is dissolved. The society [or club, or association, as the case may be] will come to order. Members will take their seats." He will then take the chair, instead of the chair- man of .the committee of the whole. In taking the question on amendment, he says: "The question will be on the amendment offered by the member from" [naming his place, or other- wise indicating him], and then puts the question. If on an amendment to an amendment, then: "The question will be on the amendment to the amendment," and the rest as before. If either the amendment or the amendment to the amendment be carried, he will say: "The question now recurs on the resolution as amended. Are you ready for the question?" And if no member rises to speak, he will put the question. On the motion to amend by striking out words from a resolution, he says: "It is moved to amend by striking out the words [naming them]. Shall those words stand?" And then he puts the question. Objection being made to the reading of a paper, he will say: "Shall the paper [naming it] be read?" and then put the question. And on an objection being made to the recep- tion of a report, he will say: "Shall the report of the committee be received?" and after the demand he puts the question. When in doubt as to which member was up first, he says: RULES FOR PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 737 "The chair is in doubt as to which member is entitled to the floor. The society [or club, or as- sociation, as the case may be] will decide. Was the gentleman from [indicating any one] first up?" And puts the question. If the body decide against that member, he puts the question on the next, and so through, until the society de- cides that some one of them has the floor. If but two contend, however, and the society decide against the first named, the decision virtually en- titles the other to the floor without further vote. If a member is out of order, he will say: "The member [indicating him] is out of or- der." He will make him take his seat, and then state wherein the member is out of order. If the point of order is raised by a member, he will say: "The member [.indicating him] will state his point of order." When this has been done, he decides the point. On a question of the time of adjournment, he says: "It has been moved and seconded that when this meeting [or club, etc., as the case may be] adjourns, it adjourn to [naming time and place], Are you ready for the question?" And if no one rises to speak, puts the question. On a question of adjournment, he says: "It has been moved and seconded that this meet- ing [or club, etc.] do now adjourn;" and puts the question. When adjournment is carried, he says: "This society [or club, etc.] stands adjourned to" [naming time and place]; or if without any time, he says: "This society [or club, etc.] stands adjourned without day." THE RECORDING SECRETARY The secretary commences his minutes thus: "At a stated [dr special, or adjourned stated, or adjourned special, as the case may be] meet- ing of [here insert the name of the body], held on [here insert the time and place of meeting], Mr. [insert chairman's name] in the chair, and [here insert secretary's name] acting as secretary "The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved." If the reading of the minutes was dispensed with, say so, instead of the preceding line. Then give a statement of what was done, with- out comments, as succinctly as possible, down to the adjournment. In countersigning an order for money, or in giving a certified copy of the minutes, or an extract from them, always sign the name on the left-hand corner of each sheet except the last. On the last, the signature on the same corner should be preceded if an order for money by the word teste or attest; and if it be a copy of minutes, by the words "A true copy of the min- utes." In case of an adjournment for want of a quorum, say: "At a stated [or special, etc.] meeting called at [name place and time], no quorum being present, the meeting adjourned." In recording the yeas and nays, prepare a list of the members, or have it on hand, and after the name of each have two columns ruled. Where a member votes "aye," write it in the first column, or head one column "aye," and the other "no," and make a mark in the proper col- umn, opposite the name. Where he votes "no," write it on the second. Add up, and enter the number at the foot of each column. Indorse the resolution or motion voted upon the back of the list. Where a report is made, it is not necessary in the minutes to do more than give an abstract of its contents, or a sentence or two indicating its nature. The report should, however, be indorsed with its title and the date of its report and filed. A list of the orders of the day should always be made out previous to every meeting, for the convenience of the presiding officer. CORRESPONDING SECRETARY In addressing a letter for the body, write the words "Corresponding Secretary," as concluding part of the signature, and retain a copy of the letter" sent, with a record of the time it was de- spatched, stating whether by mail or private hand. THE TREASURER The form of account of the treasurer is very simple. But where the accounts are complicated, a regular set of books should be opened, and kept by double entry. THE COMMITTEES The chairman of the committee of the whole, when the committee has risen, will say to the president of the main body, if it have concluded its business: "Mr. President: The committee of the whole has, according to order, gone through the business assigned to it, and asks leave to report." Leave being granted, he reports what has been done. Or, not having concluded "The committee of the whole has, according to order, considered the business assigned to it, and made progress therein, but not having time to conclude the same, asks leave to sit again." Or, if rising from the want of a quorum "The committee of the whole has, according to order, considered [proceeded to consider] the business assigned to it, but has risen for want of a quorum." In putting the question for rising "It has been moved and seconded that this committee do now rise and report [or report progress]. So matny as are in favor," etc. All written reports are headed after a similar form. If from a standing committee, thus: "The committee on [insert name of committee] respectfully report ." And then let the re- port follow. If a special committee The committee to which was referred [here state the special matter of reference] have consid- ered the same, and respectfully report," etc. And all reports conclude with: "All of which is respectfully submitted." A minority report is headed: "The undersigned, the minority of a committee to which was referred," etc. And concludes as in a majority report. RULES OF ORDER QUORUM i. A quorum is a sufficient number to legally transact business. A majority of the members of any association constitutes a natural quorum; but a smaller number is usually made a quorum by a provision to that effect in the constitution or by-laws, through motives of convenience. 738 RULES FOR PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 2. If there be a quorum present at the hour named for the meeting, or . within thirty minutes thereafter, the presiding officer takes the chair, and calls the association to order; if not, he waits a reasonable time, and from the chair an- nounces that no quorum is present. Thereupon no further business is in order, except to adjourn for want of a quorum. But it will be in order to call the roll of members, and to make endeavor to obtain the presence of enough to form a quorum. 3. During the transaction of business, should it be observed that no quorum is present, the chair may announce the fact, or any member may call for a count. If, on counting, it be found that there is no quorum, business is suspended until a quorum be found. If not to be had, the meet- ing must be adjourned. 4. If, on calling the ayes and noes, or on di^ vision, a quorum be not found, the vote is null, and at the next meeting the unfinished business is in the exact state it was when the absence of a quorum was discovered. CAU. i. On a call of the body, each member rises as he is called and answers to his name, and the absentees are noted. In a small body it is not necessary to rise. MINUTES 1. The presiding officer having taken the chair, and a quorum being present, the minutes are read. If there be any mistakes in the record, these are amended, and then the minutes are adopted. If, under any circumstances requiring haste, or in the absence of the journal, the read- ing of the minutes be suspended, they may be either read and adopted at another stage of the proceedings, or at the next succeeding meeting. Nevertheless, the minutes being a record of facts, any error subsequently discovered may be amended at any time. This may be done by unanimous consent; or, if objections be made, then any mem- ber who voted in the affirmative on their adop- tion can move a reconsideration of the motion to adopt. This last motion prevailing, the minutes are open to amendment; and after being amended, the motion on their adoption as amended is put. 2. The rule of record in ordinary associations is somewhat different from that in legislative bodies. The minutes of the former stand -in lieu of the journals of the latter. The former never contain a question which is interrupted by a vote- to adjourn or to proceed to the order of the day; the latter always do. Even propositions withdrawn, or ruled out of order, may be en- tered as so treated. The minutes are to be full and explicit, and a true record of all that was done, but not of all that was said, unless the lat- ter he necessary to the clear understanding of the business. 3. Proceedings in committee of the whole are, of course, not entered on the minutes the entry merely that the committee rose and reported thus, and so, aind what was done thereon by the asso- ciation. PRESIDING OFFICER In the absence of the president, or in case he declines, the vice-president takes the chair. If there be more than one vice-president, then they take it in> their numerical order, unless the asso- ciation, by vote, designate a particular one. If neither president nor vice-president be present, eome member is called to act temporarily a* chairman, on motion put by the mover thereof. RECORDING OFFICER In the absence of the secretary, or, if more than one, in the absence of all, a temporary sec- retary must be appointed on motion, ARRANGEMENT OF BUSINESS This, in associations, is usually provided for in the by-laws. If not otherwise provided for, it is as follows: I. Reading the minutes; a. Reports of standing committees; 3. Reports of special com- mittees; 4. Special orders; 5. Unfinished business; 6. New business. The election of new members, unless otherwise ordered, is always in order; and the election of officers ranks as a special order; but an election of members is not in order while other business is pending, or while a member baa the floor. ORDERS There is only one case where a member has a right to insist on anything, and that is where he calls for the execution of an existing order. No debate or delay can be had on it; but where it is for an order of the day, fixing some particular business to be taken up, then the president, on call of a member, puts the question whether the association will proceed to the order of the day. If it is decided in the negative, that is, in effect, a reversal of the former order, and the associa- tion decides to proceed to other business. COMMITTEES 1. Standing committees are appointed under the constitution or by-laws of the association, or by resolution, and sit permanently, while special committees are usually appointed by resolution to attend to some particular business, which being done, they are usually discharged. 2. The first-named person acts as chairman of any committee. It is true that the committee pos- sesses the inherent power to choose its own chair- man; but custom prevents this power from being used. Should a committee select some other than the first named person as chairman, it would be considered a wanton insult. 3. It is always proper to place the mover of a successful motion on any committee arising through his resolution, and to name him first; but if the committee is upon an inquiry into his conduct, or where its deliberations concern himself person- ally, or his manifest interest, the rule is not fol- lowed. 4. As near as they will apply, the rules of or- der of the main body govern the deliberations of committees. 5. A committee to whom a resolution or affirma- tive proposition is committed should always have a majority of members, if they can be had, favor- able to such resolution! or proposition. 6. Unless otherwise ordered, the chair appoints all committees. 7. When there is a standing committee on any subject, anything referring to such subject should be referred to that committee alone; but it may be given to a special committee, if the association think proper. 8. Standing committees require no order to re- port. They are always in session, and should report at every meeting, if only to report progress. 9. A committee can not sit while the main body is in session, unless so ordered to do. 10. A majority of a committee must concur in a report; but the minority are never refused leave to bring in a counter report. n. Sometir~* a majority can not be found, RULES FOR PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 739 when the committee should report the fact of their disagreement, and ask leave to be dis- charged; they are then to be discharged, and either a new committee raised, or the subject brought before a committee of the whole, or be- fore the main body. 12. Persons appointed upon a committee should join that committee so soon as they are notified of their appointment, unless they are excused; as it is the duty of the first-named member of the committee to call his fellows together as soon as possible. COMMITTEE OF THE WHOLE 1. If it be necessary to go into committee of the whole society, either for a general or specific purpose, it is done by motion, when the chairman vacates the chair, and calls some member to it to act as chairman; though the committee of the whole, if it chooses, can select another chairman like any other committee. This it never does. The quorum of the committee is the same as that of the main body. If a quorum be found wanting, the committee has to rise, the regular chairman takes his seat, and the chairman of the committee informs him that the committee rises for want of a quorum. Then the usual course is taken in regard to the absence of a quorum. 2. If any communication be made to the main body while in committee of the whole, the com- mittee can not receive it. If its reception be necessary, the committee have to rise. 3. If there be confusion or disturbance in com- mittee of the whole, the president may take the chair, declare the committee dissolved, and reduce the body 'to order. In that case it requires an- other motion for that committee to sit again. 4. A committee of the whole can not adjourn, but it must rise. It can not take the previous question, nor take the ayes and noes. 5. If the business before the committee of the whole be unfinished, it rises on motion, the reg- ular presiding officer takes the chair, and the chairman of the committee reports that the com- mittee of the whole have, according to order, considered the business assigned to them, and have made progress therein, but, not having time to conclude the same, ask leave to sit again. Leave is then granted on motion. If the subject be a special one, and it is concluded, the motion is that the committee rise and report proceedings; then, when the president takes the chair, the chairman of the committee reports that the com- mittee have gone though the business referred to them, and ask leave to report. Leave is then given to report, or at some other time, either by motion, or, should there be no objection, on the call of some member. 6. In committee, members may speak oftener than once on the same subject, and are not con- fined strictly to the subject-matter. With these and the foregoing exceptions, the same rules of order govern the committee of the whole as gov- ern the main body. 7. A motion to rise and report progress is in order at any stage of the business, and is to be decided without debate. When they have reported, they may be discharged on motion, which brings the matter laid before them directly before the association itself. COMMITMENT i. If it be desired to refer a resolution, address, or other matter to a committee, it is done on motion. If to a special committee, the chair names the committee. Any member present may suggest one member on that committee, and if the main body do not object, the chair will name him, since the silence of members in that case is equivalent to a direct appointment of that per- son by the association. But such a course is unusual, and generally improper. 2. Though the majority on a committee should be favorable to a measure, the minority may be of those who are opposed to it in some particu- lars. But those totally opposed to it should never be appointed; and if any one of that view be named, he should rise and state the fact, when the main body will excuse him from serving. 3. If it be a written matter which is referred, the secretary delivers it to the first named of the committee. 4. A committee meets when and where it pleases, unless the time and place is fixed for it. But it can not act unless its members assemble together. 5. The committee can not change the title or subject of the matter before it, but otherwise have full power over it. 6. If it be a written matter before it, if it originate with the committee, the writing must be considered paragraph by paragraph, and the question put on each. After each paragraph is approved or amended, it is then considered as a whole. If it has been referred, the committee only report the amendments they recommend sep- arately; as they have no right to amend a paper belonging to the main body. 7. When the committee is through, some mem- ber moves that it rise and report the matter to the main body, with or without amendments, as the case may be. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES The chairman of the committee, standing in his place, informs the association that the committee to which was intrusted such a matter, naming it, have directed him to report thereon, and moves that the report be received. The cry of "Re- ceive!" or "Report!" or "Read it!" from any one, generally dispenses with the formality of a question. He then reads the report, whatever it may be, and delivers the written report to the secretary. Then it lies on the table until called up by a motion. The committee is dissolved, and can act no more unless reconstituted for the pur- pose by a vote. MOTIONS 1. A motion is a proposition by two members; consequently, if not seconded, it is not to be en- tertained. This is different, however, in the case of an appeal, where the question may be put on the demand of one member. 2. A motion must be put in writing 1 , if any member desires it, and read, when required for information. But if the demand for the reading be repeated, so as to show itself a mere pretext for delay, the association may order it to be read no more. 3. A motion for adjournment can not be made while one member is speaking; because it is a breach of order for one to speak when another has the floor, except to a point of order; conse- quently, even a privileged motion cam not be en- tertained. And even on a call to order, decided against him, he must still be allowed to go on, provided he does not persist in the same viola- tion of order in his remarks. i AMENDMENTS i. An amendment takes the place of the ques- 740 RULES FOR PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE tion it is proposed to amend, and must be de- cided first. So an amendment to an amendment must be decided before the first amendment. 2. But amendments can not be piled one on the other; that is, while you can amend an amend- ment, you can not amend the second amendment. 3. For example: it is moved to give the thanks of the association for his kind gift of fifty vol- umes to the society. It is moved to amend by striking out the word "kind" and inserting "gen- erous." This is an amendment. It is then moved to strike out the word "generous" and insert that of "liberal." This is an amendment to th amend- ment. It is then proposed to strike otrt the word "liberal" and insert that of "munificent." This third amendment is out of order. 4. Nor can amendments be made to certain privileged questions. Thus, an amendment to a motion to adjourn, for the previous question, a call of the house, or to lay on the table. 5. But an amendment, though inconsistent with one previously adopted, is still in order. It is for the association alone to decide whether, by the passage of the second amendment, it will recede from its former action. 6. On an amendment being moved, a member who has spoken to the main question may speak to the amendment. 7. If it be proposed to amend by leaving out certain words, it may be Amoved to amend the amendment by leaving out a part of the words of the amendment, which is equivalent to letting those words remain. 8. For example: the original words being "Re- solved that we have heard with feelings of lively satisfaction that the authorities of our town pro- pose to tax dogs, and approve their action," it is moved to amend by striking out the words "with feelings of lively satisfaction." If it be moved to amend the amendment, by striking out the words "with feelings of satisfaction," the ques- tion would be: Shall those words stand as part of the resolution? If carried, the word "lively"' is struck out, and the rest remains. The ques- tion then recurs on the resolution as amended. 9. When it is proposed to amend by inserting a paragraph, or part of one, the friends of this should make it perfect by amendments; because if it be inserted it can not be amended, since it has been agreed to in that form. So if proposed to amend by striking out a paragraph, the friends of the paragraph should also make it as perfect, by amendments, as possible; for if the striking out be negatived, that is equivalent to agreeing to it in that form, and amendments are not ad- missible. 10. When it is moved to amend by striking out certain words and inserting others, the manner of stating the question is, first to read the whole passage to be amended, as it stands at present; then the words proposed to be struck out; next those to be inserted; and, lastly, the whole pas- sage as it will be when amended. And the ques- tion, if desired, is then to be divided, and put first on striking out. If carried, it is next on inserting the words proposed. If that be lost, it may be moved to insert others. 11. A motion is made to amend by striking out certain words and inserting others in their place, which is negatived. Then it is moved to strike out the same words, and to insert others of a tenor entirely different from those first proposed, which is negatived. Then it is moved to strike out the same words and insert nothing, which is agreed to. All this is in order; because to strike out A and insert B is one proposition. To strike out A and insert C is another proposition. To strike out A and insert nothing is another propo- sition. The rejection of either proposition does not preclude the offering of a new one. But a motion to strike out alone being voted down, is equivalent to voting that the words should stand, and amendments are not in order. Jefferson thinks that even if the question be divided, and taken first on the striking out, and that fails, amendments are in order, because the proposi- tion is only half put. There is force in this, and it seems to be the practice. 12. After the paragraph is amended, it never- theless may be further amended by striking it entirely out. PRIVILEGED QUESTIONS 1. "When a question is under debate, no mo- tion shall be received but to adjourn, to lay on the table, to postpone indefinitely, to postpone to a day certain, to commit, or to amend; which several motions shall have precedence in the or- der they stand arranged; and the motion to ad- journ shall be always in order, and shall be de- cided without debate." 2. These privileged questions shall not only be entertained while the main question is pending, but will be put before it. 3. A motion to adjourn takes precedence of all others, because otherwise the body might be kept sitting against its will, and indefinitely. Yet even this question can not be entertained after another question is actually put, and while members are voting upon it. 4. An order of the day that is, a ^question which has previously been set down to be argued or determined on that day takes place of all questions except adjournment. If, for instance, a matter be set down for 7 o'clock, then at that hour, although another question may be before the body, a motion to proceed to take up the or- der of the day must be received by the chair. 5. These privileged questions sometimes con- flict with each other, but are reconciled under known rules. 6. If the previous question be first moved, it is first put. This cuts off all the others. The so- ciety, having decided to take up the question, must vote on it as it stands postponement, commit- ment, and amendment being out of order. 7. If postponement be carried, of course the question can not be either committed, amended, nor the previous question be carried, for the sub- ject is not before the body. 8. If committed, the same rules and reasons follow. 9. If amendment is first moved, the question on that must be determined before the previous ques- tion. 10. If amendment and postponement are pro- posed, the latter is put first. The reason is, that the amendment is not suppressed, but comes up again in its order whenever the main question is again considered. 11. If a motion for amendment be followed by one for commitment, the latter shall be put first. 12. The previous question can not be put on the motion to postpone, commit, or amend the main question. 13. The motion for the previous question, or for commitment or amendment, can not be post- poned. 14. A motion made for reading papers relative to the question discussed must be put before the main question. RULES FOR PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 741 15. A motion made and seconded can not be withdrawn without leave, though, if no member object, it is not necessary to put the question. 1 6. When different sums or dates are used in filling blanks, the question shall first be put on the largest sum and the longest time. 17. In commitment, the motions to commit are privileged in the following order: i. Committee of the Whole; 2. Standing Committee; 3. Special Committee. 18. A motion to lay on the table must be put before either postponement, commitment, or amendment, although neither of these last can be laid on the table. 19. A postponement can be amended as to time, and an amendment can be amended; but if it be proposed to amend by inserting anything, a mo- tion to amend or perfect the matter proposed to be inserted must be put to a vote before the ques- tion to insert. The same rule follows in regard to striking out. 20. A question of privilege, such as a quarrel between members, or affecting the character of members, or the main body, must be disposed of before the original question be disposed of. 21. Questions on leave to withdraw motions, or appeals from the decision of the chair, have a precedence over the main question. PREVIOUS QUESTION 1. When any question is before the associa- tion, any member may move that the main ques- tion be put; and this is termed moving the previous question. If the motion pass in the affirmative, the main question is put immediately, and no further debate is allowed upon the matter at issue. 2. This is frequently styled "the gag law," be- cause its adoption cuts off all debate. When a subject in the judgment of the majority has been exhausted, or when personalities have been intro- duced, and disorders are threatened, it is a very proper and wise thing; but it should not gen- erally be brought to bear so long as members who desire to speak are unheard. DIVISION OF THE QUESTION 1. A question which contains more parts than one may be divided, on. the demand of a member, provided the main body concur. If the question contain parts which are evidently incompatible, the presiding officer may divide them of his own will, unless the body deny him the power. 2. When a question is divided, after the ques- tion has been taken on the first member of it, the second member is still open to amendment and debate, unless the previous question be taken upon it. COEXISTING QUESTIONS 1. Occasionally there are two questions up at the same time one primarily and the other sec- ondarily. Are both subject to debate? 2. When it has been moved to commit a ques- tion, the main question is debatable under that motion; but no amendment can be entertained, because the question of commitment will be first put. EQUIVALENT QUESTIONS Where questions are equivalent, so that the rejection of one is the affirming the other, that necessarily determines the latter. Thus, a vote against striking out is virtually the same as a vote to agree; a vote to reject is equivalent to a vote to adopt; but, on a motion to strike out A and insert B being decided in the negative, this does not preclude the motion to strike out A and insert C, these being separate questions. THE QUESTION 1. The question is first to be put on the affirm- ative and then on the negative side. 2. After the question has been put, debate upon it is out of order; but after the presiding officer has put the affirmative, any member who has not spoken before on the question may speak before the negative be put, for it is not a full question until the negative be put. 3. But on trifling matters, such as leave to bring in reports of committees, withdrawing mo- tions, reading papers, and such like, the consent of the main body will be supposed without the formality of a question, unless some one should object, for the absence of an objection in such cases testifies to unanimous consent. DIVISION 1. The affirmative and negative voices having been heard upon a question, the presiding officer declares by the sound what is the result. If he have doubts as to the relative strength of the yeas and nays, or if any member demands it, before other business has been gone into, then a division is ordered. 2. The mode of dividing is for those in the affirmative to rise, when the presiding officer counts those up, and announces the number. These sit, and those in the negative arise, to be counted in like manner. 3. One-fifth of the members present may call for the yeas and nays, each member's name being called, and the answer entered by the secretary. In case of any disorder during a division or calling of the yeas and nays, the presiding officer decides the question of order; and the decision is not the subject of appeal at this time, although it may be revised after the division or call is over. RECONSIDERATION 1. A question which has been decided either in the affirmative or in the negative may be re- considered upon the motion of a member who has voted with the majority. But this motion for reconsideration will not be in order, unlest made during the meeting whereat the question was decided. 2. The effect of the adoption of a motion to reconsider is to place the question in the posi- tion it occupied before the vote on its adoption or rejection was taken; consequently it is as open to amendment, postponement, commitment or laying on the table as it was at that time. APPEALS 1. An appeal from the decision of the chair is a matter of right, and brings under review and opens to debate the grounds of such de- cision. 2. The presiding officer, by usage and courtesy, has the right to assign his reasons for his de- cision before the question is put on the appeal. 3. The question on an appeal is, whether the decision of the presiding officer shall stand as the judgment of the body itself. If a majority vote in the affirmative, the decision stands; if not, it is reversed. 4. An appeal can not be put on an appeal; that is, a second appeal can not be entertained while the first remains undisposed of. 742 5. A mere opinion of the chair, drawn out by an interrogation on points of order, is not sub- ject to an appeal. To be appealed from, it must be an actual decision on a question coming up legitimately in the progress of business. PAPERS 1. When papers have been laid before the main body, or referred to a committee, every member has a right to hear them once read at the secretary's table before he can be compelled to vote on them. 2. But he has not a right, therefore, to have papers read independently of the will of a ma- jority of his colleagues. If the reading be de- manded purely for information, and not for de- lay, and no one objects, the chairman will di- rect it to be done, without putting it to the question. But should any one object, the ques- tion must be put. 3. Nor can any member have a right, without a question first put, to have anything read which is not before the body. 4. Nor can a member have a right to read a paper, in his place, not even his own speech, if it be objected to, without the leave of the body. But this rule is not usually enforced, unless there be a gross or intentional abuse of the time and patience of the body. COMMUNICATIONS When a communication addressed to the main body is presented, the question is to be put whether it shall be received. But a general cry of "Receive!" or, even if there be no objection, the silence of the body is sufficient to dispense with the formality of the question. In that case, or in case the vote on its reception be in the affirmative, it is to be read, unless otherwise dis- posed of. THINGS ON THE TABLE 1. Matters which have been laid on> the table can only be called up when the class of business to which they belong is in order. 2. If laid on the table by a motion, they can only be lifted from it by a motion. If laid there tinder rules, as a matter of course, they can be called up by any member as a matter of right, when the business to which they belong is reached in its regular order. 3. But it is deemed discourteous, when the matter lies on the table, to call it up in the absence of the mover, or against his wishes, if present, provided it refers to a matter of local or private concern in the mover's special charge; and provided, further, that it is not designed or calculated to delay final action on any measure or proposition before the body, or impede the progress of business. RESOLUTIONS All resolutions must be committed to writing, if demanded, and the name of the mover should be signed thereto. BIGHTS OF MEMBERS 1. It is the right of a member to have the ques- tion put on his motion, and a refusal to do this is a breach of order on the part of the chair. 2. It is the right of a member to insist on the execution of a standing order of the body. 3. And it is the right of a member, if he ob- serve that a quorum is not present during the transaction of business, to call for a count. ORDER AND DECORUM 1. When the presiding officer takes the chair every member is to be seated. 2. When any member means to speak, he is to stand up, uncovered, and to address himself not to those around, or to any particular mem- ber but to the presiding officer, who calls him by his name; or, better still, indicates him by his position, or otherwise, that the body may take notice who it is that speaks. But a member who is indisposed may be indulged to speak sit- ting. 3. When a member stands up to speak, no question is to be put; but he is to be heard, unless the body overrules him. 4. If two or more rise to speak nearly to- gether, the chairman decides who was first up, and calls him by name or location; whereupon he proceeds, unless he voluntarily sits down and gives way to the other. But if the chairman is not clear in his mind, or the body does not ac- quiesce in his decision, the question is to be put as to which was first up. 5. No man can speak more than once to the same question, not even though he change his opinion in the meanwhile, unless by unanimous consent. 6. But if he be the mover, proposer, or intro- ducer of the question pending, he may close the debate; but only after every one desiring to speak on it shall have been heard. 7. Or he may be permitted to speak again, to clear a matter of fact; or merely to explain him- self in some material part of his speech; or to the manner and words of the question, keeping himself to that only, and not traveling into the merits of it; or to the orders of the body, if they be transgressed, keeping within that line. 8. If the chairman rise to state a point of or- der, give information, or otherwise speak within his privilege, the member standing up must re- sume his seat, that the chairman may be first heard. 9. No one is to speak impertinently or beside the question, superfluously or tediously. 10. No person is to use indecent language against the proceedings of the body; and no prior determination of which is to be reflected on by any member, unless he means to conclude with a motion to rescind it. While a proposition is under consideration, however, though it has been even reported by a committee, reflections upon it are not reflections upon, the body itself. 11. No person, in speaking, is to mention a member then present by his name; but to de- scribe him by his seat, or as one who spoke last; or on the other side of the question; or in some other indirect way to identify him. 12. Nor is he to digress from the matter to fall upon the person; nor to use even unmanly words against a member; nor to arraign the motives of those who propose or advocate it. All such violations of order it is the duty of the chair to immediately suppress. 13. When a member shall be called to order by a member or the chair, he shall sit down until the point of order is decided. The member who makes the call shall state his point of order, and the question shall be decided by the chair, without debate; subject, of course, to an appeal. 14. While the chair is putting a question, or addressing the body, none shall walk out of or across the room; nor, in such case, nor while a member is speaking, shall entertain private dis- course; nor, while a member is speaking, shall RULES FOR PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 743 pass between him and the chair. Every member shall remain uncovered while the body is in ses- sion. No member, or other person, shall visit or remain near the secretary's table while the ayes and noes are being called, or the ballots counted. 15. No one is to disturb another in his speech by hissing, coughing, spitting, or rude exclama- tions; nor stand up to interrupt him; nor pass between the chair and the speaking member, nor go across the house while he is speaking; nor walk up and down the floor; nor take books or papers from the table, or write there. Neverthe- less, if no attention is paid to what the member says, it is a piece of prudence for him to sit down, as the ill-manners of his colleagues are prima facie evidence that he is saying nothing worth the hearing. :6. If repeated calls do not produce order, the chair may call any member by name who obsti- nately persists in irregularity, whereupon the main body may require the member to sit down. He must be heard in exculpation, if it is intended to proceed further, and then withdraw to await the further action of his colleagues, who may pass a vote of censure upon him; or, if he per- sist, may act in his case in the manner prescribed in the by-laws of the body. 17. Disorderly words are not to be noted until the member finishes his speech, unless they are manifestly personal, indecent, blasphemous, or reflecting upon the house. The offensive words are to be taken down by the member who ob- jects, or by the secretary, at his request. If the chair thinks they are not disorderly, he directs them not to be taken down by the secretary, un- less there be a general cry to the contrary. They are to be read, when taken down, to the mem- ber, who may deny them; in which case the body shall decide by vote whether they are his or not. If they are voted to be his, or if he acknowl- edge them, he must justify them satisfactorily, explain the use of them, or apologize. If the offended member still persists, and is not satis- fied, the sense of the body may be taken, during which both members must withdraw. But when business has intervened, or any member spoken after the offensive words, they can not be taken down. 1 8. Disorderly words spoken in committee must be written down, as in the main body; but the committee can only report them to the latter for its action. 19. Blasphemous or seditious words, or words reflecting on the religious belief of members or on religion generally, are not in order. 20. No member can be present when anything which concerns himself is debating, much less vote upon it; nor is any member to speak to the merit of it until he withdraws. Nevertheless, he may be heard upon it before he withdraws. 21. No member is to come into the place of meeting, or remain there, with his head covered, nor put on his hat while there. 22. A question of order may be adjourned for a time, to look into precedents. 23. When a member is called to order, he shall sit down at once, unless permitted to explain. If the body be appealed to, it shall decide the question without debate; if there be no appeal, the decision of the chair shall be submitted to. If the decision be in favor of the member, he shall be allowed to proceed; if against him, he shall not proceed without the leave of the body; and the body may, if it think proper, proceed to censure him. 24. All decisions of the presiding officer are liable to be reversed, altered, or amended by the body. ADJOURNMENTS AND RECESSES An adjournment is the closing of a session for the day to be resumed on another day; on which day the regular routine of business is com- menced anew, except when superseded by a spe- cial order. A recess is a suspension of business from one hour of a day to another hour of the same day; at which hour business is taken up at the point where it was left, unless a special order takes its place. A motion to adjourn can not be amended by adding the day and hour. It must be put simply that this body do now adjourn; and, if carried in the affirmative, it is adjourned to the next sitting day, or without day, as the case may be. But any special time of adjournment may be fixed by a previous resolution. If a question be put for adjournment, it is no adjournment till so pronounced by the chair. And it is a breach of courtesy for a member to leave his place until the chair has pronounced on the question of adjournment. SUSPENSION OF RULES By unanimous consent any rule or order may be suspended in part or whole; but the object of suspending the rule must be stated in the motion, and when that object has failed or been attained the rule regains its former force. FORCE OF WORDS Throughout these rules, whenever the word "body" or "main body" has been used, it means the society, club, association, or other organized body to which the rules are made to apply. TIE VOTE Where a presiding officer is not chosen out of the body itself, as in the case of the Vice-Presi- dent of the United States, the Lieutenant-Gov- ernor of a State, or the Mayor of a city or town, who may preside over the Common Coun- cil, he has naturally no vote. The Constitution in the case of the first two, and the charter in case of the last, give them the privilege of de- ciding in case of a tie, and they do not vote otherwise. But in the case of the Speaker of Congress, or of a House of Assembly, or a State Senate choosing its own presiding officer, the Speaker or President votes like any other member, only it is customary for the clerk, in calling the roll, to call him by his title, and not by his name. Hence in ordinary societies the presiding officer votes on all questions, and must vote if it be pressed, or be guilty of contempt of the main body, as in the case of any other member. The effect of a tie vote then is merely that the ques- tion before the body, not having a majority of votes, is lost. OF RESOLUTIONS A written resolution is the formal record of opinion upon one or more subjects, expressed by a body of men. As in almost every species of written composition, the language should be sim- ple, terse, and forcible. A resolution may or may not be prefaced by a preamble. If it be so constructed, the pream- ble should set forth briefly the cause of the reso- 744 RULES FOR PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE lution which is to follow. This preamble is usu- ally commenced with the word "Whereas." After this comes the resolution or resolutions which commence with the word "Resolved." A good resolution one that is pithy and forci- ble requires some care in its composition. Un- less the writer be a very experienced one, he had better avoid all figures of rhetoric, and confine himself to . a plain statement of the opinion he wishes to convey. As example is always useful, we will take a subject, and show the preferable form of a pre- amble and resolution upon it. We will suppose that a party majority in the Legislature passes a registry law, which is not approved by the opposite party, and a public meeting of the members of the latter desire to condemn it. The following preamble and reso- lutions may be suggested: "Whereas, It is proper for the people, in their public assemblages, to express their views of the conduct of those in office, and to award to the latter their approval or censure; and "Whereas, The late Legislature of this State have passed an oppressive registry bill, odious in its principles, and burdensome in its details; therefore, "Resolved, That the act referred to meets our unqualified disapproval and decided condemna- tion; that we will spare no efforts to promote its abrogation; and that we will vote for no candi- date for Senate or Assembly who is not pledged to its speedy repeal." Now, the above is not more wordy than such resolutions usually are, yet it can be easily sim- plified. It is unnecessary to aver that it is proper for the people to express their views on official con- duct "in their public assemblages," since it is their right to do that also in other places. The rest of the first paragraph is a mere repetition. And, finally, the whole is a matter generally ad- mitted, and, therefore, not the subject of affirma- tion. The preamble had better begin with the second paragraph. But that contains useless words also. Anything which is oppressive is apt to be odious in its principles and burden- some in its details, and vice versa. The resolution itself contains superfluous mat- ter in its phrases "decided condemnation" or "unqualified disapproval" should be stricken out, and the remainder of the paragraph condensed. Again: the statements of the preamble may be as fully expressed in the body of the resolution itself, and may be properly omitted. Following these hints, the resolution would read as follows: "Resolved, That we are opposed to the present oppressive registry law, and that we will vote for no candidate for either house of the Legis- lature who is not pledged to its speedy repeal." With these remarks upon composition, we pro- ceed to lay before the reader a series of resolu- tions upon various ordinary subjects, which, may possibly afford him hints, or serve for the nu- cleus of others. OF REPORTS A report is the written statement of a person having a particular matter in charge, of the acts officially performed, or of a committee concern- ing the results of an investigation or matter con- fided to their care. The matter of the report is regulated by the same rules, as regards its style and nature, as govern resolutions. RECAPITULATION OF CERTAIN POINTS In order to impress certain points more strongly on the mind, we present in a condensed form the rules in regard to matters likely to confuse the I reader. I. MOTIONS IN ORDER DURING DEBATE These in their order of precedence are: 1. To adjourn. 2. To lay on the table. 3. To postpone indefinitely. 4. To postpone to a day certain. 5. To commit. 6. To amend. II. MOTIONS IN THEIR ORDER OF PRECEDENCE 1. To fix time [and place, if desired] of ad- journment. 2. To adjourn. 3. For the order of the day. 4. To lay on the table. 5. For the previous question. 6. To postpone indefinitely. 7. To postpone to a time certain. 8. To commit. 9. To amend. III. MOTIONS IN ORDER WHEN A MEMBER HAS THE FLOOR 1. Call to order. 2. Appeal from decision of the chair. 3. Objection to considering a question. [Not in order if debate have already begun on the subject.] 4. That the question be discussed. 5. For the order of the day. IV. MOTIONS OPENING MAIN QUESTIONS TO DEBATE I 1. To strike out enacting clause of bill or or- dinance [of course, not applicable in private so- cieties, and used in State or Municipal Legisla- tures when it is desirable to force the fight on the measure at the second reading]. 2. To commit the question. 3. To refer. 4. To postpone indefinitely. 5. To reconsider a debatable question.. V. SUCCESSFUL MOTIONS THAT CAN NOT BE RECON- SIDERED 1. Adjournment. 2. To take from the table. 3. To reconsider. 4. That the committee rise. 5. To suspend the rules. VI. MATTERS NOT SUBJECT TO AMENDMENT 1. Motion to adjourn. 2. Amendment to an amendment. 3. An appeal from the decision of the chair. 4. A call to order. 5. Motion for leave to continue speaking after having been pronounced out of order. 6. Motion, to lay on the table. 7. Objections to the consideration of a ques- tion. 8. Motion for the order of the day. 9. Motion to indefinitely postpone. 10. Call for the previous question. 11. Motion to reconsider. 12. Motion that the committee rise. 13. Motion that a question be discussed. 14. Motion to suspend the rules. RULES FOR PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE 745 15. Motion to take from the table. 1 6. Motion to take up a question out of the ffoper order. 17. Motion for leave to withdraw a motion. VII. NON-DEBATABLE MATTERS i. A motion to adjourn. But a motion to fix the time to which the Society shall adjourn, when it does adjourn, is debatable. 2. An appeal from the decision of the chair, when a question of decorum is in debate, or to the priority of business. And no appeal can be made the subject of debate while the previous question is pending. 3. A call to order is not debatable. 4. Motion to extend the limit of debate. 5. Motion to have leave to continue speaking after having been pronounced out of order. 6. Motion to lay on the table. 7. Motion to limit debate. 8. Objection to the consideration of a ques- tion proposed. 9. Motion for the order of the day. 10. Motion for the previous quest ioru 11. Questions in regard to priority of business. 12. Call for the reading of papers. 13. To reconsider an undebatable question. 14. Motion that the committee rise. 15. Motion to allow the question to &e dis- cussed. 1 6. Motion to suspend the rules. 17. Motion to take from the table. 1 8. Motion to take up a question out of proper order. 19. Leave to withdraw a motion. VIII. FORMS OF PUTTING CERTAIN QUESTIONS In putting the question on an appeal, the chair does not ask if the decision of the chair be overruled, but "Shall the decision of the chair be sustained?" or "Shall the decision of the chair stand?" If there be a tie vote, the de- cision of the chair is overruled, because of the lack of a majority. In putting the question on striking out cer- tain words, it is put "Shall these words [nam- ing them] stand as part of the resolution?" If there be a tie vote, they are struck out, because a majority have not pronounced in their favor. On a demand for the order of the day, the question is put "Witt the Society [council, club, whatever it is] now proceed to the order [or orders] of the day?" On a demand for the previous question, the form is "Shall the main question be now put?" On an objection to the consideration of a question, if made at the time of the introduction of the subject, the form is "Shall the question be considered T" On putting the yeas and nays "As many as are in favor of the motion [or resolutions] will, when their names are called, answer Aye. Those of the contrary opinion, No. Mr. Secretary, call the roll." On a call for the yeas and nays "As many as are in favor of calling the yeas and nays will, when their names are called, say Aye. Mr. Secretary, call the roll." When the requisite number have answered the Secretary suspends calling, reports result to chair, who says [nam- ing the number], "In the affirmative. The yeas and nays are ordered," Or, if there be no ob- jection, he may say "Those in favor of calling the yeas and nays will rise and remain standing till counted." He then counts them audibly, and announces the number and result. But if any member cries "vote" or otherwise dissents, the roll must be called for the ayes only. IX. TWO-THIRDS VOTE There is no such thing naturally as the neces- sity of a two-thirds vote. By the rules of order, a majority suffices to order the previous question, to limit the time of speeches, to limit the debate -which last is virtually ordering the previous question at a fixed hour or to consider a ques- tion when objected to; while to suspend the rules, or amend them, or to make a special or- der, or to move for the discussion of a non-de- batable question, or to take up a question out of its order the three last amounting to a sus- pension of the rules requires unanimous consent. But while this is the practice in legislative bodies, in ordinary organizations, where celerity in the despatch of business is not of great im- portance, where the previous question is looked upon as a device to prevent the minority from expressing an opinion, and where a suspension of the rules is more frequently necessary, the following special rule is sometimes adopted: It shall require a two-thirds vote of the mem- bers present at any meeting to call the previous question, to limit debate, to fix a specified hour for closing debate, to consider a question when objected to on its introduction, to make a special order, to suspend or to amend the rules, to or- der the discussion of a subject noni-debatable under the rules, or to take up a question out ol its order. This may be placed in the constitution or by- laws of the society, when it will become para- mount law, to which the rules of order opposed to it must yield. The safest mode, however, will be found to adhere to the parliamentary rules. X. MATTER-OF-COURSE QUESTION To expedite business, that to which no one objects, when stated by the chair, is considered ordered. Thus, the reception of a report, call- ing for division, reception of communication, withdrawal of a motion before the house, leave to continue speech in order after being pro- nounced out of order, etc,, are permitted with- out a vote, if no objection be made. So in mak- ing a motion, which strictly (when not a question of order, an objection to the consideration of a question, or a call for the order of the day) requires to be seconded, it is always taken for granted that it has been, unless some one should violate courtesy so far as to inquire. In that case, it must be seconded, or it falls to the ground. It is considered unfair to insist upon the sec- onding of a motion, because it violates the natu- ral right of a member to get a proposition in good faith before the house; but, if his motion be made for dilatory purposes, or to annoy and weary out the majority, or be in effect, though not in shape, offensive to the house, it is emi- nently proper that he should have at least one member to back him in his attempt; and it is no discourtesy to cut off his discourtesy by demand- ing the seconder. THE ER-WRI ER EVERY position in life demands letter-writing. A letter is the great link between parents and children, between lovers, between friends; while in business relations it makes fortunes, or mars them. A good letter must, first, be absolutely correct in every mechanical detail; then style comes into question; then the matter, which must be intelligible to the meanest as well as the highest understanding. The great art of letter- writing is to be able to write gracefully and with ease, and no letter should wear the appearance of having been laboriously studied. There are two things to be considered in letters. The first is that the grammatical and rhetorical form should be correct and most of these matters have already been treated. The second is that the form of the letter should be suitable to the object in view. Since there are very many occasions when letters must be written for particular purposes, both business and social, it is a great help to the writer to have at hand sample forms that may be used for his purpose, or that may guide him in expressing himself more directly to the point. For this reason a number of model letters have been included in this article, and reference to these pages will frequently help the writer to find the very form he wishes to use for a particular occasion. ESSENTIAL POINTS IN LETTER-WRITING HANDWRITING. The first point to he observed in your letter is that you write in a clear, legible hand, that anybody and everybody can read. You may fill your pages with the most exquisite and sparkling ideas, but if they can not be read except to the torture of the peruser, your diamond thoughts lose all their sparkle. ORTHOGRAPHY is next to be considered. Bad spelling is disgraceful, and many peo- ple spell badly from simple carelessness. Read carefully the works of the best au- thors. Write extracts from these works. (746) and you will intuitively spell correctly. Your sense will become offended at a mis- spelt word. Use the simplest language. Always have a dictionary beside you, but never consult it unless you are in doubt. Once consulted, you should remember the word ever afterward. Never divide your words into syllables at the end of the line unless you can not help it. If you have space for the first syllable, let your hyphen be bold. Thus: It is sometimes a great con- solation to me that, etc., etc. THE LETTER WRITER 747 A word of one syllable must not be di- vided. Bring it bodily over to the next line. Compound words must be divided into the simple words composing them. Thus : War-whoop, not warw-hoop; bread-stuff, not breadst-uff. GRAMMAR. The essential principles of grammar and punctuation having already been explained in former articles, it will not be necessary to repeat them here. If one is uncertain on these points he can do no better than to study them carefully be- fore proceeding. On the questions of capi- talization, style, etc., a few words may be added here. CAPITALIZATION. The capital letters only set apart the sentences and paragraphs, and while their proper use adds greatly to the beauty of an epistle, their omission or im- proper use will make the pages present a perfectly absurd appearance. In places other than at the beginning of sentences their use is determined by the following rules: Capitals: (1) Begin all names of persons or places. (2) Begin all titles, as President, Vice- President, General, Doctor, or Captain. (3) Begin the words, North, South, East, West, and their compounds and abbrevia- tions, as North-east. S. W. (4) Begin the names of the Deity and Heaven, or the pronoun used for the for- mer, as, in His mercy Thou, Father. (5) Begin all adjectives formed from the names of places or points of the compass, as English, Northern. (6) Begin every line of poetry. (7) Begin all quotations. (8) Begin all titles of books, and usually each important word of the title, as, '"Ban- croft's History of the United States." (9) Begin the name of any historical event, as the Civil War, the Revolution. (10) Begin all the names of the months, as June, April, August. (n) Begin all addresses, as, Dear Sir Dear Madam. (12) Must, however, never be placed in the middle of a word;" nor, except in ac- cordance with the foregoing rules, in the middle of a sentence. However, the pro- noun "I/ 1 and the interjection "O," must in- variably be capitals. The interjection "oh," and the other pronouns, "you," "he," "she," etc., are capitalized only when they begin sentences, paragraphs, or quotations. LITERARY STYLE, or the method of self- expression, can not be denned by rules. Each one's style is peculiarly his own. Quote as little as possible, and avoid the use of too many adjectives. Avoid long sen- tences, and florid language. Be very careful not to repeat the same word. Tautology is a crime in writing. Read this and see how you like it: "Willie has come. Johnny will come to- morrow. Will you come and spend a day with us? Make Susie come. Summer has come at last." This is tautology. Do not underline un- less in very extreme cases. "You know, darling, how intensely I. love you," is perhaps excusable. Never abbreviate except in business. Dates should be given in figures, and money, in parentheses, thus, "ten thousand dollars ($10,000)." Begin a letter this way: RICHMOND, VA., June 1st, NEW YORK, Sept. 7th, 1901. Avoid postscripts. They are only embar- rassing. Take your envelope, and having neatly folded your letter, place it in the envelope, close the envelope and addresr. in the most legible manner. ABBREVIATIONS. Abbreviate the names of the States as follows : Maine, Me.; New Hampshire, N. H.; Vermont, Vt. ; Massachusetts, Mass. ; Rhode Island, R. I.; Connecticut, Conn.; New York, N. Y. ; New Jersey, N. J. ; Pennsyl- vania, Penn. or Pa. ; Delaware, Del. ; Mary- land, Md. ; Virginia, Va. ; North Carolina, N. C. ; South Carolina,- S. C. ; Georgia, Ga. ; Alabama, Ala. ; Mississippi, Miss. ; Missouri, Mo. ; Louisiana, La. ; Tennessee, Tenn. ; Kentucky, Ky. ; Indiana, Ind. ; Ohio, O. ; Michigan, Mich. ; Illinois, 111. ; Wiscon- sin, Wis. ; Arkansas, Ark. ; Texas, Tex. ; Iowa, la. ; Florida, Fla. ; Oregon, Ore. ', California, Cal. ; Minnesota, Minn. ; Dis- trict of Columbia, D. C. REPLIES There is no greater mark of good-breed- ing and politeness than the prompt reply to a letter. Never lose a moment, if possible, in replying to one. If the reply requires delay, write to acknowledge receipt of the letter. Never reply by proxy if you are able to write yourself. Never write on a half sheet of paper. Avoid pedantry. Never wrfte a congratulatory letter upon 748 THE LETTER-WRITER mourning-paper, even if you are in mourn- ing. Never try to patch an ill-formed letter. If you add your own address to a letter, put it under your signature, thus: Very respectfully, ROBERT R. WHITE, 154 R St., New Orleans, La. Date every letter clearly and carefully. It is often of the utmost importance to know when a letter was written. We give examples of the forms of letters in general use. These will act as guides to the inexperienced. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION. Never seal a letter of introduction. Mention the busi- ness in which the party whom you are in- troducing is or was engaged. Write the name of the party introduced in the left- hand corner of the envelope containing the introduction. Thus : you wish to introduce Mr. Charles Kendrick of Louisville, Ky., to Mr. Henry Blachford of New York. Di- rect your letter as in the accompanying ex- ample : Henry Blachford, Esq. 70 West jotk St., New York. Introducing Charles Kendrick, of Louisville^ Ky, If you want to be stylish, send your letter of introduction, with your card, by the ser- vant at the private residence of the person to whom you are introduced. Send a letter with your card if you present it at a busi- ness office. EXAMPLES OF CORRECT LETTER-WRITING INTRODUCING ONE LADY TO ANOTHER CHICAGO, June i, 1901. DEAR EMILY: This letter will introduce my dear friend Mrs. Thomas Frost, of whom you have heard me speak so much. I feel assured that this introduction will prove of considerable pleasure to both of you. Any attention you show her during her stay in Gotham will be appreciated by Your affectionate friend, JULIA M. HAWS. MRS. JOSEPH M. MINTURN. INTRODUCING A YOUNG LADY SEEKING EMPLOYMENT POUGHKEEPSIE, June i, igoi. DEAR MR. JONES: The young lady s whom this letter will make known to you is desirous of obtaining employment in your city, and I use our old acquaintanceship as the bridge to your good offices in her behalf. She has received a very liberal education and would prove of immense value to a family whose young children needed careful and judicious teaching. She is gentle, amiable, and willing. I trust you may be able to serve her. I am, etc., Dear Mr. Jones, Your sincere friend, R. A. APPLETOH. MR. W. F. JONES. INTRODUCING A GENTLEMAN SEEKING A POSITION IN A BUSINESS OFFICE ALBANY, June i, 1901. MY DEAR SIR: Recognizing your well-merited and extensive in- fluence in the commercial circles in your city, I beg to introduce to you W. James Farms, who is desirous of obtaining a clerkship with some busi- ness house. He is a gentleman of capacity and ability. His character stands A i, and he is as in- dustrious as he is energetic. He considers New York a better field than this place, and prefers to try his chances there to remaining here. He can refer to me. Trusting that you will lend him a helping hand, I am, Yours very truly, JOSEPH LYNCH, Esq. JACOB HILL. INTRODUCING A YOUNG MARRIED LADY TO A FRIEND IN HER NEW HOME STAMFORD, CONN., June i, 1901. MY DEAR MAMIE: Mrs. Holcroft will present this note, and when I tell you that she is a bride, and is about to settle in your town, I feel that I have secured her a pleasant friendship, and that she will find in you an old new friend in the midst of strangers. I know that you will pay her all the attention that lies in your power for the sake of auld lang syne. Your loving friend, B LOSS IE. MRS. W. T. MARSDEN. INTRODUCING A DAUGHTER ABOUT TO MAKE A VISIT CLEVELAND, O., June i, 1001. MY DEAR MRS. BECKER: My daughter Ellen will present this in person, as her introduction to her mother's old friend, whose kind invitation to spend a few weeks she accepts, con amore. That she will have a delightful time is among the few certainties in this very un- certain life. You may find her a little shy and re- served, but under your care she will soon feel her- self as much at home as in Euclid Avenue, Cleveland. With warmest regards to your hus- band, and lots of love to yourself, I am, Your sincere friend, CATHERINE E. LAWSON. MRS. JOSEPH BECKER. INTRODUCING A GENTLEMAN TO A LADY FRIEND WARRENSPORT, ME., June i, 1901. MY DEAR Miss TENTINE: My friend Mr. Robert George Balfin, by whom this letter will be presented, is about to settle in THE LETTER-WRITER 749 Dayton. As your hospitality is proverbial, may I hope for a little slice of it for him? And 1 look forward to good reports from both of you as to the ripening of a friendship the seed of which is now sown by Your very sincere friend. JOHN G. SHEAR. ORDERING A SUPPLY OF GOODS FOR A STORE IN THE COUNTRY SPIKE, THOMPSON COUNTY, KY., June i, 1901. MESSRS. PARK & TILFORD, NEW YORK: GENTLEMEN I have just opened a large grocery store in this place, and the prospects of success seem assured. I should be happy to deal with your firm. I can refer you to Robinson & Charles, of 270 Broadway, New York. This being our first transaction, I shall be prepared to pay the express co. upon delivery of goods, if you will forward me your account, with the usual cash discount, by a previous mail. Inclosed please find order, which I should wish filled as promptly as is consistent with your con- venience. Very respectfully, R. M. MACARTHY. REPLY TO THE ABOVE BROADWAY, NEW YORK, 3 June, 1901. MR. R. M. MACARTHY: DEAR SIR Your favor of the ist to hand. We shall be pleased to open an account with you, Messrs. Robinson & Charles having spoken very highly of you. We have this day forwarded to your address the goods according to your invoice, but being desirous of obtaining your approval of their quality and value, will await your examination for the inclosed bill, which is subject to 5 per cent discount for prompt cash. A post-office order or draft on one of our city banks will suit our convenience equally well as collection by Dodd's Express. Hoping to receive further orders, we are, Yours respectfully, PARK & TILFORD. LETTER PROPOSING TO SELL GOODS ON COMMISSION DRAKEVILLE, YOUNG Co., MD., January 28, 1901. MESSRS. SHORT & STELT: GENTLEMEN I have been in business in this town for over twelve years, and refer to the Na- tional Bank, and to Mr. James E. Townsend, ex- Mayor and a prominent citizen. I see a good open- ing for increasing my sales, and am desirous of a supply of your goods to sell on commission. If re- quired I will give you full security against any loss. Should this proposition meet your views, please fill the accompanying order, and give me the bene- fit of your most favorable terms. Respectfully, JOHN RILEY. REPLY TO THE ABOVE BALTIMORE, February a, 1901. MR. JOHN RILEY: DEAR SIR We have to-day forwarded by Dodd's Express the goods ordered per your letter of the 28th ult.; the inquiries about you, as suggested by you, having proved most satisfactory. The com- mission is 10 per cent. The bill of sale accom- panies each package. Trusting this opening will lead to a long con- nection of mutual benefit, We are, yours respectfully, SHORT & STELT. REQUESTING THE SETTLEMENT OF AN ACCOUNT MILWAUKEE, Wis., July 30, 1901. MR. T. W. INGRAM: DEAR SIR As we have a large payment to make at the end of next week, and as your account re- mains unsettled, we must beg of you to send us a check for same by Tuesday next. We are re- luctant to press you, but we are pressed ourselves. Very respectfully, SMITH & BROWN. REQUESTING PAYMENT OF RENT E. 29TH ST., NEW YORK, March 27, 1901. MR. PATRICK K. CHISELHURST: DEAR SIR I must call your attention to the fact that, although your agreement for the house rented by you from me stipulates monthly payments in advance, you have failed to pay for three months and are now in arrears $206. If you fail to pay the account within six days I shall be reluctantly compelled to place the matter in the hands of my lawyer for collection. Very respectfully, THOMAS VOSBURG. FROM A LADY IN THE COUNTRY ORDER- ING GOODS MAIDA VALE, TEWKSBURY Co., MASS., January 18, 1901. MESSRS. CALICE & TWIST, Washington Street, Boston : GENTLEMEN Please send me by Dodd's Express the following goods: 12 yards of green gauze. 24 yards gingham. 2 pair of six-button gloves, lavender color, size 6 1-4, Dent's make. 6 pocket-handkerchiefs, plain white, with broad hemstitched border. Also please . send pattern of black satin of a good quality, price marked. The goods must be sent to Warrington by rail, and to Mr. William Snipe, 240 State Street, who will pay C. O. D. Direct as follows: MRS. WILSON TOFT, Warrington Station, Tewksbury Co., Mass. TO THE FATHER OF A YOUNG LADY, ASK- ING HER HAND IN MARRIAGE WASHINGTON AVENUE, BROOKLYN, March 12, 1901. SIR I venture to hope that you will call all your friendly feelings to my assistance, in consid- ering a proposal I am about to lay before you, in which my happiness is completely concerned. For a long time past your daughter, Effie, hag held a strong hold over my affections, and I have reason to believe that I am not indifferent to her. My position is such as to warrant my belief that I could support her in the style of comfort which she so well deserves, and which it has been your constant aim to provide for your children. As re- gards my character and disposition, I trust they are sufficiently well known to you to give you con- fidence in the prospect of your child's happiness. I have not, however, ventured on any express declaration of my feelings, without first consulting you_ on the subject, as I feel persuaded that the straightforward course is always the best, and that a parent's sanction will never be wanting when the circumstances of the case justify its being accorded. Anxiously awaiting the result of your considera- tion on this important and interesting subject, I remain, sir. Your most faithful and obedient servant, EDWARD L. SPRING. To W. PARSONS, Esq. . 4o 760 THE LETTER-WRITER EXPLAINING AN APPARENT SLIGHT BOSTON, March 8, 1901. DEAREST JULIA How could you consider me capable of inflicting a slight upon yourself, in whom are centred all my hopes of happiness? Hothing more than ordinary courtesy was intended by my attentions to Miss .Frith. That she was a comparative stranger to the Stanleys, induced me to pay her those attentions which have occasioned you so much annoyance, but which otherwise I would not have considered myself justified in ten- dering. 1 regret from my soul that anything should have occurred to originate in your mind a doubt of my sincerity. Your truly affectionate, GEORGE ROGERS. To Miss JULIA TILGHMAN, No. N. Fifteenth St, Philadelphia. ON RECEIVING A FAVORABLE REPLY TO A PROPOSAL NEWTON, N. Y., March 20, 1901. DARLING . . . . Words can not express my rap- ture on finding your note on my table last night. How delightful was it to find a letter and such a letter! from one whom I may now hope to hail as the companion of my whole future life! The weight taken off my mind by the candid and gen- tle confession of one whose love seemed too great a happiness to hope for is beyond description. To- morrow I shall hasten to the presence of her from whom I hope I may never henceforth be parted; but I could not retire to rest without making one feeble attempt to express my ecstasy at finding that hopes so flattering have not been in vain. Belfeve me, darling, Your devoted and happy TOM. COMPLAINING OF NOT RECEIVING A LETTER CLIFTON, January 7, 1901. DEAR AGNES Four days have passed without my receiving a letter from you, and I am in pain- ful anxiety lest illness should be the cause. Pray write quickly, or I shall really feel inclined to quarrel with you as an idle girl; nay, I shall ab- solutely grow jealous, and fancy that some more favored suitor is undermining the affections of my dear girl. But I have no fears. I too well know that your innate goodness of heart would prevent your trifling with the feelings of any one; so, hoping you will take this little scolding in good part, and relieve the offence by a very long letter as speedily as your dainty fingers can write, believe me, Dear Agnes, Your affectionate ED. ON A BIRTHDAY NEW LONDON, June t, 1901. MY DEAREST FANNIE How sad it is that I am hindered from being with you on this dearest of all days of the year. Accept, dearest, the inclosed portrait, I feel that its original is too deeply stamped on your heart to require any effigy to remind you of him. It is, however, the most appropriate present I could offer to the cause of my happiness on this bright- est of all days. God grant that every succeeding year may see you increase in all that is charming in body and mind, and believe me, My dearest Fannie, Your own JOHN. A COMPLAINT July 10, 1901. DEAR^ MAUDIE: It is with pain T write to you in aught that can seem like a strain of reproach, but I confess that your conduct last night both surprised and vexed me. Vou received Mr. Watson's attentions in so marked a way that 1 feel it due to yourself to comment on your conduct. Believe me, 1 am in no way given to idle jealousy; still less am 1 self* ish or unmanly enougu to wish to deprive any girl on whom 1 have so firmly fixed my affections of any pleasure to be obtained in good society. Hut my peace of mind would be lost forever, did I believe that I had lost one atom of your affection. Won't you write, and assure me that you still preserve your undivided affection for Your devoted but grieved FRXD. CONGRATULATING A FRIEND ON HIS MARRIAGE OMAHA, August 20, 1901. MY DEAR TOM: As you have entered the enviable state of wed- lock, and are no longer the merry bachelor for- merly the butt of my crude jests, I must address you in a tone of greater gravity than has been my custom. My dear friend, I sincerely congratulate you upon this desirable change; for m your choice of a partner you have given evidence of the pos- session of a sound judgment and much good taste. If my beneficent wishes were the only requisite to ensure your happiness in the married state, yoa would never have occasion to regret the step yoa have recently taken; for there is no one whom I more ardently desire to see surrounded with all the blessings of this life. Have the kindness to present my respectful com- pliments to Mrs. Armitage, and believe me ever to remain Your sincere well-wisher and friend, EDWARD KEOGH. CONGRATULATING A GENTLEMAN UPON HIS MARRIAGE YANKTON, June i, 1901. DEAR BILL: I have just received the welcome message that informs me of your new happiness. I hasten to offer you my most sincere congratulations and hearty good wishes. May every year of your mar- ried life find you happier than the last, and may Mrs. Chiffins find you as loyal a husband as yoa have been a friend. From my inmost heart, dear Bill, I say, God bless you and your bride with His choicest bless- ings. Ever your friend, GEORGE MEYERS. WILLIAM CHIFFINS, Esq. CONGRATULATING A LADY UPON HER MARRIAGE K ST.. WASHINGTON, D. C., August 3, TOOL DEAR JOSIE: Your cards have just reached me. and I write at once to try to express my heartfelt pleasure at your happy prospects. It is a great pleasure to your loving friends to be able to feel so much es- teem and affection for the gentleman to whom yoa have confided your life's hanpiness. and to hope, as I do, that every year will unite your hearts more closely. That Heaven may bless you both, dear Josie, is the earnest prayer of Your loving JULIA ROBINSON. MRS: CLIFFORD DOYLF.. CONGRATULATING A FRIEND ON THE BIRTH OF A SON BATAVIA, N. Y., July 5, 1901. MY DEAR JOE: What luck! A son born on the great 4th. May he prove as good, as pure, and as honest a man and patriot as George Washington. What more THE LETTER-WRITER 751 can I say, old fellow, except to add that I ear- nestly trust that Mrs. Clithroe and George W. are doing well? Yours, always sincerely, A. D. HERVY. JOSEPH CLITHROE, Esq. CONGRATULATING A FRIEND ON THE BIRTH OF A DAUGHTER PEGASUS, WESTCHESTER Co., N. Y., April 10, 1901. DEAR MILLIE: I congratulate you most heartily on your new acquaintance, and if "missy" only grows up like "mamma," the boys will be around pretty lively. I suppose your husband is two feet taller. Take great care of yourself and the wee little lady. I hpe very soon to come round to congratulate you in person. Your very sincere friend, JAMES TODHUNTBR. MRS. E. F. EVERLIGH. SEEKING A CLERKSHIP TROY, May 4, 1901. GENTLEMEN Perceiving by your advertisement in the N. Y. Herald that you are in want of a clerk, I beg to inclose testimonials, and venture to hope that from my previous experience in the line of business you pursue I should be of some use in your establishment. My habits of life are such as to assure regularity in the discharge of my duties, and I can only assure you that,- should you honor me with your confidence, I shall spare no pains to acquit myself to your satisfaction. I rema.in, gentlemen, Yours very truly, HARRY SANDERSON. To MESSRS. GRIFFITHS & Co. APPLICATION FOR SUBSCRIPTION TO A CHARITY MIDGEVILLE, TENN., October 8, 1901. SIR [or MADAM] : I take the liberty of inclosing a prospectus of an institution which is likely to have a most beneficial effect upon the poor in our neighborhood. [Here state particulars.'] From your well-known liberality, I trust you will excuse this appeal from a stranger in furtherance of an act of benevolence, and remain, Sir [or Madam], Very respectfully yours, JULIA [or JOHN] SMITH. DECLINING 30 WEST 27TH ST., NEW YORK, agth October, 1901. Mr. Thomas Jones regrets exceedingly that the numerous applications for kindred purposes near home render it impossible for him to comply with the request contained in Mr. [or Mrs.] 's let- ter of the 1 8th October. SOLICITING RENEWAL OF A PROMISSORY NOTE ARK ST., MOBILE, May 7, 1901. GENTLEMEN You have in your possession my note for $ 1,000, payable May 14, which I am sorry to say I can not meet at maturity, owing to a com- bination of circumstances adverse to my interests, and not anticipated. If you will do me the favor to renew it for ninety days, with interest added, I do not doubt my ability to redeem it when due. A compliance with this request will confer an obli- gation upon, and oblige, Faithfully yours, THOMAS MORAN. To MESSRS. SADLER & Co., 30 William St., N. Y. TO A FIRM, WITH AN INSTALMENT DEAN ST., SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., May 20, 1901. GENTLEMEN Inclosed please find $500 in notes of San Francisco banks, which I will thank you to place to my credit, as the first instalment upon my bill, now overdue nearly two months. The bal- ance will be remitted during the second week in June, if not before that time. I regret the incon- venience caused you by my delay, which is a result of our system of long credits, and entirely beyond my power to control. I remain, gentlemen, Yours most sincerely, WILLIAM DEMPSEY. MESSRS. HATCH, WIGHT & Co., 333 Broadway, New York. OFFERING A LOAN OF MONEY FOR BUSI- NESS PURPOSES ELIZABETH, .N. J., Dec. 15, 1901. DEAR ROBERT Knowing "that you are desirous of starting in business for yourself, I write to say that it is in my power to offer you a loan of two thousand dollars ($2,000) without interfering in any way with my own business or expenditures. I trust that you will let me have a friend's privi- lege, and that you will accept the money on such terms as may best suit you. With best wishes for your success, I am your friend, AUSTIN KEEP. ROBERT ROWE, Esq. ON THE DEATH OF A HUSBAND FORDHAM, N. Y., Nov. 29, 1901. MY DEAR MRS. MANNING: Words fail to convey my feelings of sorrow on receipt of the intelligence of the death of my old and esteemed friend, your late husband. My own grief at the loss of a true friend teaches me how crushing must be your affliction. May the Al- mighty in His goodness console you in this dark hour of your tribulation. Believe me always your true and sincere friend, JOSEPH BUTLER. ON THE DEATH OF A WIFE PROVIDENCE, R. I., November 8, 1901. MY DEAR GEORGE: I know how futile it is to address words, idle words, to you in this moment of supreme anguish, with which it has pleased God to visit you, and I shall not say more than that the loss of your pure, good, and beautiful wife is a source of deep sor- row to the numerous friends who had the privilege of knowing her, and to none more than Yours, in deep sympathy and affection, TERRENCE BARKER. ON THE DEATH OF A SON NORWALK, CONN., June 3, 1901. MY DEAR JULIA: If God has plucked the bright blossom from your home, it is for a purpose none of us dare divine. He alone can pour balm upon your crushed heart. The holy joy is yours of knowing that angel eyes now watch for your coming, and that your beauti- ful boy will receive you when "life's dark day is done." If the tenderest of much-loving sympathy could soothe you, dear Julia, learn that you have it from your Friend, LAURA. ON THE DEATH OF A MOTHER TEWKSBURY, MASS., Nov. 8, 1901. MY DEAR CHARLES: You have lost your mother. There is a very wail in the words. She can never be replaced. 752 THE LETTER-WRITER The dear, good lady has passed away to a better land, cheered by the knowledge of your love and affectionate tenderness, consoled by the thought that her teaching, when you were a little boy at her knee, has not been in vain, and that she leaves behind her for a little while a son who treads the path of rectitude and of honor. Dear Charles, ever remember that your darling mother watches you from on high, and that, as she was devoted to you in life, so she is devoted to you in death. God sustain you under this heavy affliction. Your true friend, JOHN TRAVES. REPLIES TO ADVERTISEMENTS BOOK-KEEPER s8 WASHINGTON ST., BOSTON, MASS* October 20, 1901. To MESSRS. WINSOLE, BIRD & Co.: GENTLEMEN In reply to your advertisement fat this day's Transcript for a competent book-keeper^ I respectfully beg to offer myself as candidate for that position. I have been in the employment of Mr. Thomas Lepy, 19 Tremont Street, in this city the large dry-goods store in the capacity of book-keeper for the last three years, and am about to leave on the ist proximo, as Mr. Lepy intends to retire from business. Mr. Lepy has authorized me to offer him as ref- erence as to character and ability. I can also refer to Messrs. Rose & Pickwick, 17 Remsen Street, with whom I clerked for a year and a half. Hoping to be fortunate enough to suit your re- quirements, I am, gentlemen, Respectfully, JOSEPH SuTCUrt. GENERAL EMPLOYMENT NEWBURG, nth Sept., 1901. SIB I hasten to reply to your advertisement in the N. Y. Sun of to-day. I am most desirous of obtaining employment, and would not consider present emolument so much an object as the pros- pect of a permanent and respectable situation. I am a young man (age 21), and single. I have received a good commercial education, and ant versed in book-keeping and accounts generally. In other respects I am willing to render myself gen- erally useful, and, although I have not hitherto filled a situation, I doubt not but that in a short time I shall be able to fulfill any duties assigned to me. In the event of your doing me the honor to se- lect me for the proffered employment, I can fur- nish you with satisfactory testimonials as to char- acter, and can, if necessary, provide guarantees for fidelity. Trusting that I may have the honor of hearing from you in reply, I remain, sir, Yours very truly, JOSEPH L ESTRANGE. To W. HENRY CULLINAN, 27 Wand St., N. Y. FROM A YOUNG MAN TO A FRIEND, SO- LICITING A SITUATION MOHAWK, March 28, 1901. DEAR EDWARD: When you left Galveston, you were kind enough to promise that should it be in your power to for- ward my ^nterest in any manner you would fee' a pleasure in so doing. I am now in want of a po- sition, my former employer having sold his busi- ness, and his successor having, as he informs me, a sufficient number of hands for all the work he Is likely _ to have. If, therefore, you should hear of any situation or employment which you consider likely to suit me, either in my own business, that of a clerk, or in any other ip which I can make myself useful, your recommendation would greatly oblige, and be of material service to. Dear Edward, Yours very truly, JOHN JAMES. ASKING PERMISSION TO REFER TO A PERSON NEW HAVEN, CONN., July 7, 1901. DEAR SIR: As I have had the honor of being known to you for some years, during which period I trust my conduct has impressed you favorably, I take .'he liberty of soliciting at your hand the following favor: Messrs. Sebthorp, of Beaver Street, New York, are in want of a correspondent at London, and as I am about to proceed there on some affairs of my own, and shall probably take up my residence in that capital for some years, I am anxious to secure a post which appears to me in every way eligible, and accords with my views exactly. As a matter of course, Messrs. Sebthorp desire testimonials as to my capacity and integrity, and as you are in a position to speak positively on these points, I have written to ask you whether I may so far trespass on your kindness as to men- tion your name by way of reference. Should you kindly grant this request, I need scarcely assure you that my endeavor win be to prove both to Messrs. Sebthorp and to yourself that you have not been mistaken in your opinion of me, while I shall ever feel grateful for this further instance of the interest evinced by you in the welfare of Your truly obliged, WALTER MOTT. To MR. GEORGE FOULKE, 7th St., Cincinnati, O. CLERK 29 GROVE ST., ST. Louis, Mo, November 16, 1901. MR. ISAAC WATERS: SIR I see by this day's Republic that you are in want of a competent clerk, and I respectfully beg to apply for the position. Owing to the finan- cial difficulties of my late employers, Messrs. Ken- drick & Warts, with whom I was clerk for eight years, I am out of employment. I can refer to either of these gentlemen for a testimonial as to my industry, good conduct, and ability. I may add that I am a teetotaler. Hoping to receive a favorable reply, I am. Respectfully, RUDOLPH MEYER. COOK 100 WEST a8TH ST., NEW YORK, March 18, 1901. MRS. WILLIAM HOWARD: DEAR MADAM Having seen your advertisement for a plain cook in this day's Herald, I respectfully apply for the place. I can cook plain joints and do all manner of plain cooking, as my present employer, Mrs. James Posnett, is willing to testify. As Mrs. Posnett is going to Europe on the ist of April, I shall be out of a place on that day. A line to Mrs. Posnett will satisfy all inquiries in regard to my character and capacity. Respectfully, JANE MATTHEWS. GOVERNESS 19 BLEECKER ST., BOSTON, July 27, 1901. MRS. E. F. SLOCTJM: MADAM In reply to your advertisement in _ to- day's Courier for a governess to teach three little THE LETTER-WRITER 753 girls French, German, and English, I hasten to inform you that I am a graduate of Vassar, Class 1899; that I have resided one year in Paris and five months in Vienna, sojourning in both capitals for the purpose of completing my knowledge of French and German. I have been governess in the family of Mr. George F. Witmore, but owing to the death of my dear little pupil, their only daughter, Ada, I have been thrown out of employment. In addition to my college and academy testimonials, I beg to refer to Mrs. Witmore, Holly Park, Brookline, and to the Rev. Mr. Brooks, St. Matthew's Church. Hoping to be favored by your selection, I am, madam, Yours respectfully, MIRIAM J. PACKARD. A FEW LINES ACCOMPANYING A GIFT A WEDDING GIFT 200 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, \9>th April, 1901. Nelly Suter sends her best love, and best wishes, to Susie Lorimer, and a little bracelet as a souvenir of an event that Nelly trusts will ever prove 03 happy and auspicious as she wishes it to be. CHRISTENING GIFT HEATH HOUSE, June 18, 1901. God-papa sends little Mamie a coral, to enable her to cut her teeth, but not the acquaintance of JOSEPH CHAMBERS. FLOWERS 15 MADISON AVENUE, 19 July, 1901. Roses become Miss Irwin so much, that Mr. Harnett earnestly hopes to see the accompanying bunch in Miss Irwin's corsage this evening at Wai- lack's. MUSIC 13 CHESTNUT ST., PHH.ADEI.PHIA, 2&th November, 1901. Mr. John St. Ruth presents his compliments to Miss Delamore and begs to send her a few selec- tions from the operas, her singing last night at Mr. Hamlyn's having reminded him of the most celebrated prima donnas. T ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS THERE is a saying to the effect that "there is nothing more decep- tive than facts, unless it be figures." This means that there are more surprising combinations of sober figures possible than the wildest imagination could readily suspect. It is not necessary to resort to some of the common "tricks" with figures such, for example, as the familiar algebraic process of proving that 2 = i all of which depend upon concealing some inaccuracy or other. The results obtained by per- fectly correct processes are sufficiently bewildering. In the following pages are explained several interesting arithmetical amusements and a number of curious numerical facts. ARITHMETICAL TRICKS AND CURIOUS FACTS TO TELL A NUMBER THOUGHT OF DESIRE any person to think of a num- ber, say a certain number of cents; tell him to borrow that sum of some one in the company, and add the number bor- rowed to the amount thought of. It will here be proper to name the person who lends him the cents and to beg the one who makes the calculation to do it with great care, as he may readily fall into an error, especially the first time. Then, say to the person "I do not lend you, but give you 10, add them to the former sum." Continue in this manner: "Give the half to the poor, and retain in your memory the other half." Then add : "Return to the gentleman, or lady, what you borrowed, and remember that the sum lent you was exactly equal to the number thought of." Ask the person if he knows exactly what remains. He will answer "Yes." You must then say "And I know, also, the number that remains ; it is equal to what I am going to conceal in my hand." Put into one of your hands five (754) pieces of money, and desire the person to tell how many you have now. He will an- swer five; upon which open your hand, and show him the five pieces. You may then say "I well knew that your result was five ; but if you had thought of a very large number, for example, two or three millions, the result would have been much greater, but my hand would not have held a number of pieces equal to the remainder." The person then supposing that the result of the calculation must be different, according to the difference of the number thought of, will imagine that it is necessary to know the last number in order to guess the re- sult : but this idea is false ; for, in the case which we have here supposed, whatever be the number thought of, the remainder must always be five. The reason of this is as follows: The sum, the half of which is given to the poor, is nothing else than twice the number thought of, plus 10; and when the poor have received their part, there re- mains only the number thought of, plus 5; ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS 755 but the number thought of is cut off when the sum borrowed is returned, and, conse- quently, there remains only 5. It may be hence seen that the result may be easily known, since it will be half of the number given in the third part of the opera- tion; for example, whatever be the number thought of, the remainder will be 36 or 25, according as 72 or 50 have been given. If this trick be performed several times successively, the number given in the third part of the operation must be always dif- ferent; for if the result were several times the same, the deception might be discov- ered. When the first five parts of the cal- culation for obtaining a result are finished, it will be best not to name it at first, but to continue the operation, to render it more complex, by saying, for example: "Double the remainder, deduct 2, add 3, take the fourth part," etc. ; and the different steps of the calculation may be kept in mind, in order to know how much the first result has been increased or diminished. This ir- regular process never fails to confound those who attempt to follow it. A Second Method. Bid the person take i from the number thought of, and then double the remainder; desire him to take I from the double, and to add to it the number thought of; in the last place, ask him the number arising from this addition, and, if you add 3 to it, the third of the sum will be the number thought of. The application of this rule is so easy, that it is needless to illustrate it by an example. A Third Method. Desire the person to add I to the triple of the number thought of, and to multiply the sum by 3 ; then bid him add to this product the number thought of, and the result will be a sum, from which, if 3 be subtracted, the remainder will be ten times the number required; and if the cipher on the right be cut off from the re- mainder, the other figure will indicate the number sought. Example : Let the number thought of be 6, the triple of which is 18 ; and if i be add- ed, it makes 19; the triple of this last num- ber is 57, and if 6 be added, it makes 63, from which, if 3 be subtracted, the remainder will be 60 ; now, if the cipher on the right be cut off, the remaining figure, 6, will be the number required. A Fourth Method. Bid the person mul- tiply the number thought of by itself; then desire him to add i to the number thought of, and to multiply it also by itself; in the last place, ask him to tell the difference of these two products, which will certainly be an odd number, and the least half of it will be the number required. Let the number thought of, for example, be 10, which, mul- tiplied by itself, gives 100; in the next place, 10 increased by i is n, which, multiplied by itself, makes 121 ; and the difference of these two squares is 21, the least half of which, being 10, is the number thought of. This operation might be varied by desiring the person to multiply the second number by itself, after it has been diminished by i. In this case, the number thought of will be equal to the greater half of the difference of the two squares. Thus, in the preceding example, the square of the number thought of is loo, and that of the same number less i, is 81 ; the difference of these is 19 ; the greater half of which, or 10, is the number thought of. TO TELL TWO OR MORE NUM- BERS THOUGHT OF If one or more of the numbers thought of be greater than 9, we must distinguish two cases ; that in which the number or the numbers thought of is odd, and that in which it is even. In the first case, ask the sum of the first and second, of the second and third, the third and fourth, and so on to the last, and then the sum of the first and the last. Hav- ing written down all these sums in order, add together all those, the places of which are odd, as the first, the third, the fifth, etc. ; make another sum of all those, the places of which are even, as the second, the fourth, the sixth, etc., subtract this sum from the former, and the remainder will be the double of the first number. Let us suppose, for ex- ample, that the five following numbers are thought of, 3, 7, 13, 17, 20, which, when added two and two as above, give 10, 20, 30, 37, 23 : the sum of the first, third, and fifth, is 63, and that of the second and fourth is 575 if 57 be subtracted from 63, the remain- der, 6, will be the double of the first num- ber, 3. Now, if 3 be taken from 10, the first of the sums, the remainder, 7, will be the second number, and by proceeding in this manner we may find all the rest. In the second case, that is to say, if the number or the numbers thought of be even, you must ask and write down, as above, the sum of the first and second, that of the second and third, and so on, as before; but, instead of the sum of the first and last, you must take that of the second and last; then add together those which stand in the even places, and form them into a new sum apart ; add also those in the odd places, the first 766 ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS excepted, and subtract this sum from the fornier, the remainder will be the double of the second number; and if the second num- ber, thus found, be subtracted from the sum of the first and second, you will have the first number; if it be taken from that of the second and third, it will give the third ; and so of the rest Let the numbers thought of be, for example, 3, 7, 13, 17 ; the sums formed as above are 16, 20, 30, 24, the sum of the second and fourth is 44, from which, if 30, the third, be subtracted, the remainder will be 14, the double of 7, the second number. The first, therefore, is 3, the third 13, and the fourth 17. When each of the numbers thought of does not exceed 9, they may be easily found in the following manner : Having made the person add i to the double of the first number thought of, de- sire him to multiply the whole by 5, and to add to the product the second number. If there be a third, make him double this first sum, and add i to it; after which, de- sire him to multiply the new sum by 5, and to add to it the third number. If there be a fourth, proceed in the same manner, de- siring him to double the preceding sum, to add to it i, to multiply by 5, to add the fourth number, and so on. Then ask the number arising from the addition of the last number thought of, and if there were two numbers, subtract 5 from it; if there were three, 55; if there were four, 555 ; and so on, for the remainder will be composed of figures of which the first on the left will be the first number thought of, the next the second, and so on. Suppose the number .thought of to be 3, 4, 6; by adding i to 6, the double of the the first, we shall have 7, which, being mul- tiplied by 5, will give 35 ; if 4, the second number thought of, be then added, we shall have 39, which, doubled, gives 78; and, if we add i, and multiply 79, the sum, by 5, the result will be 395. In the last place, if we add 6, the number thought of, the sum will be 401 ; and if 55 be deducted from it, we shall have, for remainder, 346, the figures of which, 3, 4, 6, indicate in order the three numbers thought of. THE MONEY GAME A person having in one hand a piece of gold, and in the other a piece of silver, you may tell in which hand he has the gold, and in which the silver, by the following method : Some value, represented by an even num- ber, such as 8, must be assigned to the gold ; and a value represented by an odd number, such as 3, must be assigned to the silver; after which, desire the person to multiply the number in the right hand, by any even number whatever, such as 2; and that in the left hand by an odd number, as 3; then bid him add together the two products, and if the whole sum be odd, the gold will be in the right hand, and the silver in the left; if the sum be even, the contrary will be the case. To conceal the artifice better, it will be sufficient to ask whether the sum of the two products can be halved without a remainder ; for in that case the total will be even, and in the contrary case odd. It may be readily seen that the pieces, instead of being in the two hands of the same person, may be supposed to be in the hands of two persons, one of whom has the even number, or piece of gold, and the other the odd number, or piece of silver. The same operations may then be performed in regard to these two persons as are performed in regard to the two hands of the same person, calling the one privately the right, and the other the left. THE GAME OF THE RING This game is an application of one of the methods employed to tell several numbers thought of, and ought to be performed in a company not exceeding nine, in order that it may be less complex. Desire any one of the company to take a ring, and put it on any joint of whatever finger he may think proper. The question then is, to tell what person has the ring, and on what hand, what finger, and on what joint. For this purpose, you must call the first person i, the second 2, the third 3, and so on. You must also denote the ten fingers of the two hands by the following numbers of the natural progression, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., beginning at the thumb of the right hand, and ending at that of the left, that this order of the number of the finger may, at the same time, indicate the hand. In the last place, the joints must be denoted by i, 2, 3, be- ginning at the points of the fingers. To render the solution of this problem more explicit, let us suppose that the fourth person in the company has the ring on the sixth finger, that is to say, on the little finger of the left hand, and on the second joint of that finger. Desire some one to double the number expressing the person, which, in this case, will give 8; bid him add 6 to this double, and multiply the sum by 5, which will make 65; then tell him to add to this product the ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS 757 number denoting the finger, that is to say 6, by which means you will have 71 ; and, in the last place, desire him to multiply the last number by 10, and to add to the prod- uct the number of the joint, 2; the last re- sult will be 712; if from this number you deduct 250, the remainder will be 462; the first figure of which, on the left, will denote the person; the next, the finger, and, con- sequently, the hand; and the last, the joint. It must here be observed, that when the last result contains a cipher, which would have happened in the present example had the number of the figure been 10, you must privately subtract from the figure preceding the cipher, and assign the value of 10 to the cipher itself. HOW MANY DID EACH RECEIVE? Here is a form of problem that the writer has found to puzzle children with, and their elders also: At a certain election 4,420 votes were cast. A received 1,300 more than B. How many votes did each receive? SOLUTION. Had A and B each received the same number of votes it would be necessary only to divide 4,420 by 2. But, as A re- ceived 1,300 more votes than B, this latter number should be subtracted from 4,420, leaving a remainder of 3,120. As B's num- ber of votes received was 1,300 less than A's, :t is obvious that the remainder of 3,120 represents twice the number of votes that B received. Dividing 3,120, therefore, by 2, we have 1,560, or the number of votes that B received. Subtracting 1,560, B's number of votes, from 4,420, we have a remainder of 2,860, or A's vote. Adding 1,560 and 2,860 we find that the total is 4,420, while the difference between 2,860 and 1,560 is 1,300, which fulfils the conditions of the problem. Simple as this seems, it is certain to prove puzzling to most persons. Take the prob- lem in another form. A and B received for certain work the sum of $1,624, but A was paid $332 more than B. How much did each receive? Subtracting $332 from $1,624 gives $1,292, and this divided by 2 gives $646 as B's share, while A's share must be $332 more. Any number of prob- lems may be arranged and solved along these lines. THE CERTAIN GAME Two persons agree to take, alternately, numbers less than a given number, for ex- ample, n, and to add them together till one of them has reached a certain sum, such as 100. By what means can one of them infallibly attain to that number before the other ? The whole artifice in this consists in im- mediately making choice of the numbers I, 12, 23, 34, and so on, or of a series which continually increases by II, up to 100. Let us suppose that the first person, who knows the game, makes choice of I ; it is evident that his adversary, as he must count less than n, can at most reach n, by adding 10 to it. The first will then take i, which will make 12; and whatever number the second may add, the first will certainly win, pro- vided he continually add the number which forms the complement of that of his ad- versary to ii ; that is to say, if the latter take 8, he must take 3; if 9, he must take 2; and so on. By following this method he will infallibly attain to 89: and it will then be impossible for the second to prevent him from getting first to 100 ; for whatever num- ber the second takes he can attain only to 99; after which the first may say "and I makes 100." If the second take i after 89, it would make 90, and his adversary would finish by saying "and 10 makes 100." Be- tween two persons who are equally ac- quainted with the game, he who begins must necessarily win. If your opponent have no knowledge of numbers, you may take any other number first, under 10, provided you subsequently take care to secure one of the last terms, 56, 67, 78, etc., or you may even let him begin, if you take care afterward to secure one of these numbers. This exercise may be performed with other numbers; but, in order to succeed, you must divide the number to be attained by a num- ber which is a unit greater than what you can take each time, and the remainder will then be the number you must first take. Suppose, for example, the number to be at- tained be 52, and that you are never to ad'd more than 6; then, dividing 52 by 7, the re- mainder, which is 3, will be the number which you must first take; and whenever your opponent adds a number you must add as much to it as will make it equal to 7, the number by which you divided, and so in continuation. A SURE WAY TO LEARN A PER- SON'S AGE Here is a little scheme which a mathema- tician has discovered to find out the age of any person. Having engaged that person in pleasant conversation, you proceed something after the following manner speaking very inno- cently, of course: "There is a simple problem in arith- 758 ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS metic which very few people are able to see through, yet it is as easy as possible. I wonder if you can't do it?" This sets a woman on her dignity, and she wants to do it at once. "Think of a number corresponding to the numerical order of the month in which you were born. Oh, no, you need not tell me." (To make the explanation clear, we will assume that the figure is 2 standing for February and that the age is thirty.) "Now multiply that figure by 2," you continue, "and add 5. Done that? Well, multiply that by 50, and add your own age. From the total subtract 365, and to the result add 115. Now what figure have you." "230," replies the person addressed. "Isn't that correct?" "Exact," you exclaim. "You are one of the very few persons who have man- aged it." And you turn away to hide your smile of satisfaction at having discovered that your victim was born in February, and that she is thirty years of age. You have arrived at this result by separating the figures 230 in 2 (February) and 30. And you can do this with everybody's age. Try it on your sweetheart. PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN NUMBERS OF ODD NUMBERS. All the odd numbers above 3, that can only be divided by i, can be divided by 6, by the addition or subtrac- tion of a unit. For instance, 13 can only be divided by i ; but after deducting i, the remainder can be divided by 6 ; for example, 5 + 1 = 6; 71=6; 17+1 = 18; 191 = 18 ; 25 i = 24, and so on. OF NUMBER THREE. Select any two num- bers you please, and you will find that either one of the two, or their amount when added together, or their difference, is always 3, or a number divisible by 3. Thus, if the num- bers are 3 and 8, the first number is 3; let the numbers be I and 2, their sum is 3 ; let them be 4 and 7, the difference is 3. Again, 15 and 22, the first number is divisible by 3 ; 17 and 26, their difference is divisible by 3, etc. OF NUMBER FIVE. If you multiply 5 by itself, and the quotient again by itself, and the second quotient by itself, the last figure of each quotient will always be 5. Thus, 5 X 5 == 25 ; 25 X 25 = 625 ; 125 X 125 = 15,- 625, etc. Again, if you proceed in the same manner with the figure 6, the last figure will constantly be 6. To divide any number by five, or any multiplicand of that number, by means of simple addition: To divide by 5, double the number given, and mark off the last figure, which will represent tenths. Thus, to divide 261 by 5 : 261 + 261 = 522, or 52 2-ioths. Again, to divide the same num- ber by 25, you must take four times the number to be divided, and mark off the last two figures, which will be hundredths, thus, 261+261+261+261 = 1,044, or 10 44- xooths. OF NUMBER NINE. The following re- markable properties of the number 9 are not generally known : Thus, 9 X 1=9; 9X2=18, 1+8 = 9; 9X3 = 27, 2 + 7 = 9, 9X4 = 36, 3 + 6 = 9; 9X5 = 45, 4 + 5 = 9J 9*6 = 54, 5 + 4 = 9; 9X7 = 63, 6 + 3 = 9; 9X8 = 72, 7 + 2 = 9; 9X9 = 81, 8 + 1=9. It will be seen by the above that i. The component figures of the product made by the multiplication of every digit into the number 9, when added together, make NINE. 2. The order of these component figures is reversed, after the said number has been multiplied by 5. 3. The component figures of the amount of the multipliers (viz. 45), when added together, make NINE. 4. The amount of the several products, or multiples of 9 (viz. 405), when divided by 9, gives, for a quotient, 45 ; that is, 4 + 5 = NINE. It is also observable that the number of changes that may be rung on nine bells is 362,880 ; which figures, added together, make 27 ; that is, 2 + 7 = NINE. And the quotient of 362,880, divided by 9, will be 40,320 ; that is, 4 + + 3 + 2 + = NINE. To add a figure to any given number, which shall render it divisible by Nine: Add the figures together in your mind, which compose the number named; and the figure which must be added to the sum produced, in order to render it divisible by 9, is the one required. Thus, suppose the given number to be 7,521 : Add those together, and 15 will be pro- duced; now 15 requires 3 to render it di- visible by 9; and that number 3, being added to 7,521, causes the same divisibility: 7,521 3 9)7,524(836 This exercise may be diversified by your specifying, before the sum is named, the particular place where the figure shall be inserted, to make the number divisible by 9; for it is exactly the same thing whether the figure be put at the head of the number, or between any two of its digits. ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS 759 To multiply by Nine by Simple Subtrac- tion. Supposing you wish to multiply 67,583 by 9, add a cipher to the end of the sum, then place the sum to be divided underneath the amount, and subtract it from the same; the quotient will be the product of 67,583 multiplied by 9; thus: 675830 67583 608247 Number Nine and Eighteen. If any two of the following sums, 36, 63, 81, 117, 126, 162, 207, 216, 252, 261, 306, 315, 360, 432, are added together, the figures in the quotient, when cast up, will make either 9 or 18. For instance, 216 + 252 = 468, and 4 + 6 + 8 = 18 ; or, 63 + 81 = 144, and I + 4 + 4=9- THE UNITED DIGITS The figures i to 9 may be placed in such order that the whole added together make exactly 100. Thus : 15 36 47 98 2 IOO The secret is to arrange the figures I, 3, 4. 5> 6, 7, in such a manner that, added together, they make 98, when by adding 2 you get the whole nine digits into the cal- culation. TO DISCOVER A SQUARE NUMBER A square number is a number produced by the multiplication of any number into itself; thus, 4 multiplied by 4 is equal to 16, and 16 is consequently a square number, 4 being the square root from which it springs. The extraction of the square root of any number takes some time; and after all your labor you may perhaps find that the number is not a square number. To save this trouble, it is worth knowing that every square number ends either with a i, 4, 5, 6, or 9, or with two ciphers, preceded by one of these numbers. Another property of a square number is, that if it be divided by 4, the remainder, if any, will be I thus, the square of 5 is 25, and 25 divided by 4 leaves a remainder of I ; and again 16, being a square number, can be divided by 4 without leaving a re- mainder. A MAGIC SQUARE The following arrangement of figures, from i to 36, in the form of a square, will amount to the same sum if the. numbers are cast up perpendicularly, horizontally, or from corner to corner, the result in every direction being in: 29 12 28 9 7 26 32 31 3 4 36 5 23 18 IS 16 J 9 20 14 24 21 22 13 I? 2 i 34 33 6 35 II 25 10 27 30 8 TO WEIGH FROM ONE TO FORTY POUNDS WITH FOUR WEIGHTS To weigh any weight from I to 40 pounds by the use of four weights only, the weights must be respectively i, 3, 9, and 27 pounds each. Thus, 2 pounds may be weighed by placing 3 pounds in one scale and I in the other; 5 pounds, by placing i and 3 in one scale and 9 pounds in the opposite, etc. THE CANCELED FIGURE GUESSED To tell the figure a person has struck out of the sum of two given numbers: Ar- bitrarily command those numbers only that are divisible by 9 ; such, for instance, as 36, 63, 81, 117, 126, 162, 261, 360, 315, and 432. Then let a person choose any two of these numbers ; and, after adding them together in his mind, strike out from the sum any one of the figures he pleases. After he has so done, desire him to tell you the sum of the remaining figures; and it follows, that the number which you are obliged to add to this amount, in order to make it 9 or 18, is the one he struck out. Thus: Suppose he chooses the numbers 162 and 261, making altogether 423, and that he strikes out the centre figure, the two other figures will, added together, make 7, which, to make 9, requires 2, the number struck out. THE DICE GUESSED UNSEEN A pair of dice being thrown, to find the number of points on each die without see- ing them : Tell the person who cast the dice to double the number of points upon one of tb^m, and add 5 to it; then to mul- 760 ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS tiply the sum produced by 5, and to add to the product the number of points upon the other die. This being done, desire him to tell you the amount, and, having thrown out 25, the remainder will be a number con- sisting of two figures, the first of which, to the left, is the number of points on the first die, and the second figure, to the right, the number on the other. Thus: Suppose the number of points on the first die which comes up to be 2, and that of the other 3 ; then, if to 4, the double of the points of the first, there be added 5, and the sum produced, 9, be multiplied by 5, the product will be 45; to which, if 3, the number of points on the other die, be added, 48 will be produced, from which, if 25 be subtracted, 23 will remain; the first figure of which is 2, the number of points on the first die, and the second figure 3, the number on the other. THE SOVEREIGN AND THE SAGE A sovereign being desirous to confer a liberal reward on one of his courtiers, who had performed some very important service, desired him to ask whatever he thought proper, assuring him it should be granted. The courtier, who was well acquainted with the science of numbers, only requested that the monarch would give him a quantity of wheat equal to that which would arise from one grain doubled sixty-three times succes- sively. The value of the reward was im- mense; for it will be found that the sixty- fourth term of the double progression di- vided by I, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc., is 9,223,372,- 036,854775,808. But the sum of all the terms of a double progression, beginning with i, may be obtained by doubling the last term, and subtracting from it i. The number of the grains of wheat, therefore, in the present case, will be 18,446,744,073,- 709,551,615. Now, if a pint contain 9,216 grains of wheat, a gaJlon will contain 73,728 ; and, as eight gallons make one bushel, if we divide the above result by eight times 73,728 we shall have 31,274,997,411,295 for the number of the bushels of wheat equal to the above number of grains, a quantity greater than what the whole surface of the earth could produce in several years, and which, in value, would exceed all the riches, perhaps, on the globe. THE HORSE-DEALER'S BARGAIN A gentleman taking a fancy to a horse, which a horse-dealer wished to dispose of at as high a price as he could, the latter, to induce the gentleman to become a put' chaser, offered to let him have the horse for the value of the twenty-fourth nail in his shoes, reckoning one cent for the first nail, two for the second, four for the third, and so on to the twenty-fourth. The gentleman, thinking he should have a good bargain, accepted the offer; how mistaken he was the result will show. By calculating as before, the twenty-fourth term of the progression, I, 2, 4, 8, etc., will be found to be 8,388,608, equal to the num- ber of cents the purchaser gave for the horse; the price, therefore, amounted to $83,886.08. THE DINNER PARTY A club of seven persons agreed to dine together every day successively, so long as they could sit down to table differently ar- ranged. How many dinners would be neces- sary for that purpose? It may easily be found by the rules of simple progression, that the club must dine together 5,040 times before they would exhaust all the arrange- ments possible, which would require above thirteen years. THE BASKET AND STONES If a hundred stones be placed in a straight line, at the distance of a yard from each other, the first being at the same distance from a basket, how many yards must the person walk who engages to pick them up, one by one, and put them into the basket? It is evident that, to pick up the first stone and put it into a basket, the person must walk two yards ; for the second, he must walk four ; for the third, six ; and so on, increasing by two to the hundredth. The number of yards, therefore, which the person must walk will be equal to the sum of the progression, 2, 4, 6, etc., the Jast term of which is 200 (22). But the sum of the progression is equal to 202, the sum of the two extremes, multiplied by 50, or half the number of terms; that is to say, 10,100 yards, which makes more than 5% miles. THE CAN OF ALE How to divide 8 gallons of ale contained in an 8-gallon can into two equal parts, having only two empty bottles to effect it with, one containing 5 gallons and the other 3. First, fill the 5-gallon bottle, and you will have 3 remaining in the 8-gallon can; < fill the 3-gallon bottle from the 5-gallon, which will then contain only 2 gallons ; pour the 3 gallons in the 3-gallon bottle into that which holds 8 gallons, which will then contain 6 gallons; then pour the 2 gallons ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS out of the 5-gallon bottle into the 3-gallon bottle, and filling the 5-gallon bottle from the 8-gallon can, which at present contains 6 gallons, you will have i gallon in the can, 5 in the largest bottle, and 2 in the smallest ; by filling up the 3-gallon can from the 5- gallon, you leave 4 gallons, or one-half the 8 gallons, in the largest bottle; and, lastly, pouring the contents of the 3-gallon bottle into the 8-gallon can, which contains I gallon, you have the second half, or 4 gallons. COUNTING A BILLION What is a billion? The reply is very simple a thousand times a million. This is quickly written, and more quickly still pronounced. But no man is able to count it. You can count 160 or 170 a minute ; but let us even suppose that you go as far as 200 in a minute, then an hour will produce 12,000 ; a day, 288,000 ; and a year, or 365 days (for every four years you may rest from counting during leap year), 105,120,000. Let us suppose, now, that Adam, at the beginning of his existence, had begun to count, had continued to do so, and was counting still, he would not, even now, ac- cording to the usually supposed age of our globe, have counted nearly enough. For, to count a billion, he would require 9,512 years, 34 days, 5 hours, and 20 minutes, according to the above rule. THE NUMBER SEVENTY-THREE If number 73 be multiplied by any of the progressive numbers arising from the mul- tiplication of 3 with any of the units, the result will be as follows : 73 X 3 = 219 73 X 6= 438 73 X 9 = 657 73 X 12 = 876 73 X IS = 1095 73 X 18 = 1314 73 X 21 = 1533 73 X 24 = 1752 73X27 = 1971 On inspecting these amounts it will be seen that the last figures run thus 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, I. Again, if we refer to the sums produced by the multiplication of 73 by 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15, it will be found that by reading the two figures to the left of each amount backward, it will give I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o. CURIOUS CALCULATION If a pin were dropped into the hold of the big freighter Pennsylvania, and on that day week a second pin, and on that day week four pins, and so on, doubling the number of pins each week for a year, there would, by the end of the 52 weeks, be deposited no fewer than 4,503,599,627,370,- 495 pins. Allowing 200 to the ounce, the weight of the whole would be 628,292,358 tons; and to carry them all would require 52,358 ships as large as the Pennsylvania, which is calculated to carry 12,000 tons of freight. ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION If you could buy a hundred ships, giving a farthing for the first, a halfpenny for the second, a penny for the third, twopence for the fourth, and so on to the last, doubling the sum each time, the whole amount paid would be 557,750,707,053,344,041,463,074,442 i8s. 7^d. a sum which in words runs thus : 557 quadrillions, 750,707 trillions, 53,344 billions, 41,643 millions, 74 thousand, \\> pounds, eighteen shillings and sevenpence three' farthings. This amount in sovereigns would weigh 3,557,083,590,327,499,123,418 tons. Then, counting $4.84 to the pound, 24 cents to the shilling, and 2 cents to the penny, this sum would equal in United States money no less than $2,819,303,422,- 138,185,160,681,280,303.751/2, which seems to make our fleet quite expensive. QUEER PROPERTIES OF FORTY-FIVE Divide 45 into four such parts that by adding 2 to the first you will have 10; by subtracting 2 from the second you will have 10; by multiplying the third by 2 you will have 10; by dividing the fourth by 2 you will have 10. The four parts are as follows : (1) 8 + 2 = 10 (2) 12 2 = 10 (3) 5 X 2 = 10 (4) 20 -T- 2 = 10 8+ 12 + 5 + 20 = 45 Subtract 45 from 45 and leave 45 as a remainder. As may be readily discovered, 45 = 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5+4 + 3 + 2 + 1. Then, writing these numbers consecutively, we have: 987654321 123456789 864197532 Then, as is evident, 8 + 6 + 4 -r i + 9 + 7 + 5 + 3 + 2 = 45. 762 ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS CURIOUS ARITHMETICAL RESULTS 123456789 X 9+ 10= IIIIIIIIH 123456789 X l8 + 2O = 2222222222 123456789 X 27 + 30 = 3333333333 123456789 X 36 + 40 = . 123456789 X 45 + 50 = 5555555555 123456789 X 54 + 60 = 6666666666 123456789X63 + 70 = ; 123456789X72 + 80 = ! 123456789 X 81 +90 = 9999999999 This table is still more interesting when it is noticed that each multiplier is divisible by 9, and that, when the figures of each answer are added together and the added number is subtracted, the answer is o. For example, the sum of i,ni,iii,iii is 10; 10 minus 10 is o. I X 9 + 2 = 11 12 X 9 + 3 = 111 123 X 9 + 4=1111 1234 X 9 + 5 = 1 1 1 1 1 12345 X9+ 6= mill 123456 X 9 + 7=iiiim 1234567 X 9 + 8=iimiii 12345678 X 1X8+1=9 12X8 + 2 = 98 123X8 + 3 = 987 1234 X 8 + 4 = 9876 12345X8 + 5 = 98765 123456X8 + 6 = 987654 1234567 X 8 + 7 = 9876543 12345678 X 8 + 8 = 98765432 123456789 X 8 + 9 = 987654321 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS WHILE, according to an old and eminently true saying, "a man who is his own lawyer has a fool for a client," it is in very many senses desirable that every one should understand at least the outlines of legal principles, as they define his personal rights and liabili- ties and prescribe his duties. For the purpose of giving this information, the following compilation of legal principles, as recognized in most of the United States, has been prepared. It can not be pretended that any one can derive exact information here, or that he would be justified, after studying these pages, in shaping his conduct in important matters, without the advice of an accredited attorney. He may learn sufficient, however, to guide and inform him on the general points of his rights, and thus save himself much of the worry money, even that is too often expended be- cause one listens to idle threats and "old wives' tales," instead of seeking authoritative advice, when it is required. It may seem to the average mind that the Law, using the term in a gen- eral sense, is a most involved, uncertain and altogether fantastic subject, invented solely for the confusion of the majority and for the profit of law- yers. Such a person can not understand why it is not possible to have a few well-defined and simple principles, like the Ten Commandments, and base all suits and judgments upon questions whether or no these have been violated. Such an arrangement would undoubtedly have some advantages, provided (i) any authority were capable of formulating such a code for our civilization, and (2) that it were possible to provide against the mis- understanding, misconstruction, and misapplication of even the simplest and most inclusive statutes. The Law as we have it in the United States is in the larger majority of cases an outgrowth and development of that vast body of tradition and precedent known as the Common Law of England. Many of the principles of the Common Law, as codified by Blackstone in the seventeenth century, are derived direct from the ecclesiastical laws that formerly held, when Church authorities administered nearly all the courts, civil and criminal. Superposed upon these is another vast body of material, composed of ju- dicial decisions on all kinds of cases, ranging through several centuries. This second body of authority is called "precedent," and marks a fairly steady progress away from the old Church Laws of the Middle Ages. In 764 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS several of the United States Common-Law principles still hold good in a number of matters, but the tendency is to modify them by statute in other particulars. Thus it is that there is such a wide divergence in such subjects as divorce, inheritance, criminal jurisprudence, etc., in the various States. Wherever a point is not covered by special statute or is not defined in the code of procedure if there be one it is still judged with reference to the Common Law. DIGEST OF LAWS ON FAMILIAR SUBJECTS AGENCY BY AGENCY is meant the substitution of one person by and for another, the former to transact business for the latter. An Agency may be established by implica- tion an express agreement with a person that he is to become the agent of another, not being necessary or verbally, or by writ- ing. A verbal creation of agency suffices to authorize the agent to make a contract even in cases where such contract must be in writing. Agency is of three kinds; special, gen- eral, and professional. A special agency is an authority exercised for a special pur- pose. If a special agent exceed the limits of his authority, his principal is not bound by his acts. A general agency authorizes the transac- tion of all business of a particular kind, or growing out of a particular employment. The principal will be bound by the acts of a general agent though the latter act con- trary to private instructions, provided he keep, at the same time, within the general limits of his authority. Professional agents are those licensed by tlK proper authority to transact certain kinds of business for a compensation. The following are among this kind of agents: I. Attorneys. 2. Brokers. 3. Factors. 4. Auctioneers. 5. Masters of Ships. A person doing business as an agent in New York State must file with the County Clerk a certificate giving name and address of principal. In regard to the subject of an agency, the general rule is that whatever a man may do in his own right, he may also transact through another. Infants, lunatics, idiots, aliens, belliger- ents, and persons incapable of making legal contracts, can not act as principals in the appointment of agents. Infants may, how- ever, become principals in certain cases, and married women may become principals the same as men. Agency may be terminated in two ways: (1) by the act of the principal or agent; (2) by operation of law. In the latter case, the termination of the agency is ef- fected by lapse of time, by completion of the subject matter of the agency, by the extinction of the subject matter, or by the insanity, bankruptcy, or death of either party. ARBITRATION Arbitration is an investigation and deter- mination of subjects of difference between persons involved in dispute, by unofficial persons chosen by the parties in question. The general rule is that any person capa- ble of making a valid contract concerning the subject in dispute may be a party to an arbitration. Any matter which the parties may adjust by agreement, or which may be made the subject of a suit at law, may be determined by arbitration. Crimes can not be made the subject matter of an arbitra- tion. Questions may be submitted for arbitra- tion in the following ways : 1. By parol. 2. By writing. 3. Under the statute, which must be done if the parties are desirous of availing them- selves of its provisions. 4. By rule of court, which occurs when an action is pending in court and the parties agree to take it before arbitrators, in accordance with an order of the court. 5. By deposit of notes. A person may be selected as arbitrator, notwithstanding his natural incapacity or legal disability to make contracts. The arbitrators must fix the time and place of hearing, and give due notice of the same to the parties. They must be sworn, if the statute requires an oath, unless such OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 766 oath is waived by the parties themselves. In the matter of hearing evidence the stat- ute of the State must be followed. The arbitrators may adjourn from time to time, provided the time does not extend beyond the period appointed for the de- livery of the award. In arbitrations the parties are entitled to the aid of counsel, the same as they would be in court. After a fair submission and a legal award, the matter submitted can not be litigated on, any more than if it had been" settled by a judgment. An award may be impeached where it has been procured by corruption, fraud, or other undue means ; by misconduct, corrup- tion, or irregularity on the part of the arbi- trators ; when the arbitrators acknowledge they have made a mistake in their decision; where the arbitrators have exceeded their powers; where pertinent and material evi- dence was rejected, etc. If either party re- vokes the submission, he will be liable for an action for breach of contract, and the payment of damages by the other party. ARREST The defendant in an action may be ar- rested for the following causes, when the action is to recover damages : 1. Personal injury. 2. Injury to property, including wrong- ful taking, detention, or conversion of property. 3. Breach of promise to marry. 4. Fraud or deceit. 5. Misconduct or neglect in office, or in professional employment. 6. In an action to recover a chattel where said chattel or a part thereof has been re- moved, concealed, or disposed of, so that it can not be found or be taken by the Sheriff, and with intent that it should not be found or taken by the Sheriff, or with the intent of depriving the plaintiff of the benefit thereof. 7. In an action upon contract, express or implied, other than a promise to marry, where the defendant has been guilty of fraud in contracting or incurring the liability. 8. In an action upon contract, either ex- press or implied, other than a promise to marry, where defendant has, since the mak- ing of the contract, or in contemplation of the same, removed or disposed of his prop- erty with the intent of defrauding his cred- itors, or where he is about to remove or dispose of the sam with like intent. 9. In case of action to recover for money received, or to recover property or damages for the conversion or misapplication of the same, where the money was received, or where the property was embezzled, or fraud- ulently misapplied by a public official, or by an attorney, solicitor, or counsellor, or by an officer or agent of a corporation or banking association in .he course of his employment, or by a factor, agent, broker, or any person in a fiduciary capacity. 10. In an action wherein the judgment de- manded requires the performance of an act, the neglect or the refusal to perform which would be punishable by the court as con- tempt, or where the defendant, not being a resident of the State, or being a resident, is about to depart from the State, by reason of which departure there is a danger that a judgment or an order requiring the perform- ance of the said act will be rendered in- effectual. Females are liable to arrest only in the cases mentioned in the preceding subdivi- sion, or in cases of wilful injury to person, character, or property. A debtor may be arrested in New York State only when it can be proved that he employed fraud in contracting the debt, or that he concealed or put his property out of his hands with the intent of defeating his creditors. The defendant, when arrested, may give bail. ATTACHMENT An attachment may be issued, when it is a question of recovering a sum of money, for damages, in the following cases : 1. For breach of contract, whether express or implied, other than a contract to marry. 2. For wrongful conversion of personal property, or for any injury to personal prop- erty, in consequence of fraud, negligence, or any other wrong act. The plaintiff must prove that a cause of action exists under one of the above heads before he is entitled to a warrant of attach- ment. In case of an action to recover damages, his affidavit must show that he is entitled to recover a sum therein stated over and above any or all counter claims against him. In addition, he must show that the defendant is either a foreign corporation or a non-resident of this State, or in case he is an individual person and resides in the State, that he has departed therefrom with the intention of defrauding his creditors, or avoiding being served with a summons, or that he keeps himself concealed within the 49 766 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS State with like intent If the defendant is a natural person or a domestic corporation, the affidavit must show that he or it has re- moved his or its property from the State with the intention of defrauding his or its creditors, or that he has assigned, disposed of, or secreted his property, or that he is about to do so with like intent. The plaintiff must also give a bond or undertaking to the amount of two hundred and fifty dollars before the attachment issues. Salary or wages may be attached provided the condi- tions already mentioned exist for so doing. In the absence of said conditions, and after unsatisfied judgment and execution, wages may be taken by supplementary proceedings. The earnings of the debtor for his personal services for sixty days previous to the in- stitution of said supplementary proceedings, where such earnings appear to be necessary for the support of. a family wholly or in part supported by his labor, can not be reached. BIRTHS AND DEATHS All marriages, births, and deaths are re- quired by law to be recorded, within a given time. Of these the death record is the only one, as a rule, that is kept with measurable ac- curacy. The authorities are extremely care- ful that no body be interred without special permission, and due certificate as to death, cause of death, etc. Births are only par- tially reported, and though failure to report the fact to the Board of Statistics by one or all of those present at the birth is pun- ishable under the law as a misdemeanor, the authorities, in many of our cities, wink at such delinquencies, although it is on record that fines have been imposed on physicians and others for violation of the code in this regard. But burial permits, procured for the removal of the body of the deceased person, can only be granted and signed by the Register of Records. No permits can be procured without a proper certificate from the physician who attended the case. In the event of sudden, violent, or suspicious death, whether with or with- out the attendance of a physician, the Cor- oner steps in and subpoenas a "properly qualified physician," to view the body of the deceased person, or, if necessary, to make an autopsy thereon. No master of a ferryboat or public con- veyance may carry the body of a deceased person without presentation of the death certificate, duly signed, and the same rule applies to those in charge of the burial ground. The statistics cover every detail, regard- ing the various diseases causing death, the times and the seasons in which death oc- curs; and in the case of birth, the parent- age, whether native or foreign born, black, white, or parti-colored, together with the place of birth, the father and mother's names, the mother's maiden name, the birth- place (County or State) of the father and mother, their age and occupation, the num- ber of the child, whether first, second, etc. New York is less accurate in its birth re- turns than any other city in the Union, only sixty-five per cent of the births being re- ported. Massachusetts is the most exact- ing and accurate of any of the States in the matter of the registering of births. CHATTEL MORTGAGES A mortgage of goods and chattels will be void to creditors of the mortgagee, if the following conditions are not complied with: 1. The immediate delivery of the prop- erty accompanying the mortgage, followed by actual and continued claim of possession. 2. The filing of the mortgage, or a true copy thereof, as required by law, in the clerk's or register's office of the town, city or county where the mortgagor resides, and where the property lies at the time the in- strument was executed. The mortgage must be filed where the mortgagee resides, if he is a resident of the State; if not, it must be filed in the city or town where the prop- erty is located at the time of the execution of the mortgage. It must be filed in the Register's Office in the cities of New York and Brooklyn. CONTRACTS The conditions of a contract, as applying to individuals, are: I. Age; 2. Rationality; and 3, as to Corporations, the possession of general or special statutory powers. Persons under age are incompetent to make contracts, except under certain limi- tations. Generally such persons are in- capable of making binding contracts. As to rationality, the general principle of law is that all persons not rendered incom- petent by personal disability, or by con- siderations of public policy, are capable of making a contract. Corporations have powers to make con- tracts strictly within the limits prescribed by their charters, or by special or general OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 767 statute. The following classes of contracts are void, unless they shall be in writing and subscribed by the party to be charged thereby : 1. Every agreement that by its terms is not to be performed within one year from the making thereof. 2. Every special promise to answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another person. 3. Every agreement, promise or undertak- ing, made upon consideration of marriage, except mutual promises to marry. 4. Every contract for the leasing of a longer period than one year, or for the sale of any lands, or any interest in lands, shall be void, unless the contract, or some note or memorandum thereof, expressing the consideration, be in writing and subscribed by the party by whom the lease or sale is made. Every contract for the sale of any goods, chattels, or things in action shall be void, unless, 1. A note or memorandum of such con- tract be made in writing, and be subscribed by the parties to be charged thereby; or, 2. Unless the buyer shall accept and re- ceive part of such goods, or the evidences, or some of them, of such things in action; or, 3. Unless the buyer shall, at the time, pay some part of the purchase money. CORPORATIONS Corporations are bodies created by law, which consist of individuals united under a common name, whose members succeed each other, so that the body continues the same, notwithstanding the change of the individuals who compose it. Three or more persons so desiring may form a corporation. The persons desiring to form a corpora- tion must make a certificate in writing and acknowledge the same before an officer em- powered to take the acknowledgment of deeds, in accordance with the direction re- quired by law. A duplicate of this certificate must be filed in the office of the Secretary of State. The stockholders of the incorporated com- pany are individually liable to the company's creditors to the amount of the stock held by them respectively, until all the capital stock shall have been paid in, and until a certificate stating the amount of the capital fixed and paid in shall be filed in the office of the County Clerk, in accordance with the requirements of the law. The stockholders are jointly and severally individually liable to the laborers or servants of the corpora- tion for work performed for the same. Corporations are liable for contracts made by the duly authorized agent within the scope of his authority, as well as for tres- passes or torts committed by such agents under authority of such corporations. Corporations are liable for negligence or breach of duty the same as individuals. Corporations are liable to pay taxes in the same manner as individual owners of property. Corporations are likewise subject to visi-* tation, which consists of an authority to , inspect the actions and regulate the behavior of the members who share in the franchise. ESTATES: ADMINISTRATION OF Administration is the legal right to settle and control the estate of deceased persons, as also the exercise of that right. Letters of administration are the warrant under the seal of the court granting the legal right. The estate of a person who has died leav- ing no valid will behind him, is distributed among his heirs by what is called "the op- eration of law." This is regulated by the statutes of the State in which the deceased resided at the time of his death. The dis- tribution is made by an administrator duly appointed by law, and who is appointed by the court having jurisdiction in such cases on being satisfied that the person is legally qualified. The appointment must be made with the consent of the person appointed. It is generally accepted as a rule that any one is legally competent to be an adminis- trator who is legally competent to make a contract. Certain classes of persons are dis- qualified by statute, as, in the State of New York, drunkards, gamblers, spendthrifts, and so forth. The relatives of the de- ceased are considered as entitled to the ap- pointment of administering the estate. The order of precedence is regulated by statute. Administration is to be granted to the hus- band on the wife's personal estate, and ad- ministration on the husband's estate is to be granted to the widow and the next of kin in the following order, provided they will accept: 1. To the surviving husband or wife. 2. To the children. 3. To the father. 4. To the mother. 5. To the brothers. 6. To the sisters. 768 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 7. To the grandchildren. 8. To any other of the next of kin who would be entitled to a share in the distribu- tion of the estate. The guardians of minors who are entitled jjuy administer for them. Should none of the relations or guardians accept, the administration will be given to the creditors of the deceased. The creditor applying first, provided he be legally com- petent, is to be preferred. In case no cred- itor applies, any person who is legally qualified may be appointed. In the city of New York, the public ad- ministrator may administer the estate after the next of kin. In the State of New York, the surrogate may select, among the next of kin, any one in equal degree, and appoint him sole administrator to the ex- clusion of the others. Where there are several persons of the same degree of kin- dred to the intestate, entitled to administra- tion, they are preferred in the following order- : 1. Men to women. 2. Relatives of the whole blood to those of the half blood. 3. Unmarried to married women, and in case there be several persons equally en- titled, the Surrogate may grant letters to one or more of them as he may judge best. Letters of administration unduly granted may be revoked. Administration may also be granted on certain conditions, for a certain limited time, or for a special purpose. The powers and duties of an administra- tor differ from those of an executor inas- much as he is bound to distribute and dispose of the estate according to the di- rection of the law, as he has no will to follow. First The administrator must give bonds with sureties for the faithful administration of his trust Second. He must make an inventory of the goods and chattels of the intestate, in accordance with the requirements of the law. Third. Two copies of said inventory shall be made, one of which will be lodged with the judge of the court, and the other will be kept by the administrator. The latter will be obliged to account for the property mentioned in the inventory. Fourth. The inventory completed, the ad- ministrator must then collect the outstand- ing debts of the same, and follow the order of payment, as regulated by the local stat- utes. All the debts of the intestate being liqui- dated, the administrator will divide the re- mainder of the assets among the surviving relatives of the deceased. In doing this he will act under the directions of the court Letters of administration are of three kinds: first, upon the goods, chattels, and credits of a person who shall have died intestate, as considered above; second, spe- cial letters of administration authorizing the administrator to collect and preserve the estate either of a testator in certain cases, or of an intestate; and lastly, letters of administration authorizing the person ap- pointed to execute the powers given by will of the deceased, called letters of administra- tion, with the will annexed. The last named is granted when there are no persons named as executors in the will; when all the executors named shall have re- nounced, or shall be legally incompetent; or after testamentary letters shall have super- seded or revoked. When a man having a family shall die leaving a widow, or a minor child or chil- dren, or a widow shall die leaving a minor child or children, the following articles shall not be deemed assets, for the purpose of distribution, the payment of debts or lega- cies, but shall be included and stated in the inventory of the estate without being ap- praised. I. All spinning wheels, weaving looms, one knitting machine, one sewing machine, and stores put up and kept for use in the family. II. The family Bible, family pictures, and school books used by or in the family of such deceased person, and books not exceeding in value fifty dollars, which were kept and used as part of the family library before the decease of such person. III. All sheep to the number of ten, with their fleeces, and the yarn and cloth manu- factured from the same; one cow, two swine, and the pork of such swine, and necessary food for such swine, sheep or cow for sixty days; and all necessary pro- visions, and fuel for such widow, or child, or children, for sixty days after the death of such deceased person. IV. All necessary wearing apparel, beds, bedsteads, and bedding; necessary cooking utensils; the clothing of the family; the clothes of the widow, and her ornaments proper for her station; one table, six chairs, twelve knives and forks, twelve plates, twelve teacups and saucers, one sugar-dish, one milk-pot, and teapot and twelve spoons, and also other household furniture which OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 769 shall not exceed one hundred and fifty dol- lars in value. V. Other necessary household furniture, provisions, or other personal property, in the discretion of the appraisers, to a value not exceeding one hundred and fifty dollars. All articles and property set apart, in ac- cordance with law for the benefit of a widow and a minor or minors, shall be and remain the sole personal property of such widow, after such minor or minors shall have ar- rived at age. The executor or administrator, pending the final settlement of accounts, should not suffer any considerable balances to lie un- productive. When real securities are not to be had, he should obtain the approval of the surrogate as to the investment. Reasonable funeral expenses are to be paid in preference to any debts, and are charged as expenses of administration. ESTATES: DISTRIBUTION OF When the deceased shall have died in- testate, the surplus of his personal estate remaining after payment of debts, and where the deceased left a will, the surplus remain- ing after the payment of debts and legacies, if not bequeathed, shall be distributed to the widow, children, or next of kin of the deceased in the manner following: 1. One-third part thereof to the widow, and all the residue of equal portions, among the children, and such persons as legally represent such children, if any of them shall have died before the deceased. 2. If there be no children, nor any legal representatives of them, then one moiety (that is, one-half) of the whole surplus shall be allotted to the widow, and the other moiety shall be distributed to the next of kin of the deceased. 3. If the deceased leave a widow, and no descendant, parent, brother or sister, nephew or niece, the widow shall be entitled to the whole surplus; but if there be a brother or sister, nephew or niece, and no descendant or parent, the widow shall be entitled to a moiety of the surplus, and to the whole of the residue where it does not exceed two thousand dollars ; if the residue exceed that sum, she shall receive in addition to her moiety two thousand dollars, and the re- mainder shall be distributed to the brothers and sisters and their representatives. 4. If there be no widow, then the whole surplus shall be distributed equally to and among the children, and such as legally rep- resent them. 5. In case there be no widow, and no chil- dren, and no representatives of a child, then the whole surplus shall be distributed to the next of kin, in equal degree to the deceased, and the legal representatives. 6. If the deceased shall leave no children, and no representatives of them, and no father, and shall leave a widow and a mother, the moiety not distributed to the widow shall be distributed in equal shares to his mother, and brothers and sisters, or the representatives of such brothers and sis- ters; and if there be no widow, the whole surplus shall be distributed in like manner to the mother and to the brothers and sis- ters, or the representatives of such brothers and sisters. 7. If the deceased leave a father, and no child or descendant, the father shall take a moiety, if there be a widow, and the whole if there be no widow. 8. If the deceased leave a mother, and no child, descendant, father, brother, sister or representatives of a brother or sister, the mother, if there be a widow, shall take a moiety, and the whole if there be no widow. Q. When the descendants or next of kin of the deceased, entitled to share in his es- tate, shall be all in equal degree to the de- ceased, their shares shall be equal. 10. When such descendants, or next of kin shall be of unequal degrees of kindred, the surplus shall be apportioned among those entitled thereto, according to their respec- tive stocks ; so that those who take in their own right, shall receive equal shares, and those who take by representation shall re- ceive the shares to which the parent whom they represent, if living, would have been entitled. 11. No representation shall be admitted among collaterals after brothers' and sis- ters' children. 12. Relations of the half blood shall take equally with those of the whole blood, in the same degree, and representatives of such relations shall take in the same manner as the representatives of the whole blood. 13. Descendants and next of kin of the deceased begotten before his death, but born thereafter, shall take in the same manner as if they had been born in the lifetime of the deceased, and had survived. These provisions apply to the personal es- tate of married women who die intestate, leaving descendants; and the husband of any deceased married woman may demand; recover, and enjoy the same distributive 770 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS share in her personal estate that she, if a widow, would be entitled to in his personal estate, but no more. The real property of every person dying intestate shall descend as follows : 1. To his lineal descendants. 2. To his father. 3. To his mother. 4. To his collateral relatives. Should the inheritance come to the in- testate on the part of the mother, the father does not take if the mother be living; and, in such a case, if she be dead, the father takes a life interest only, unless all the brothers and sisters of the deceased and their descendants be dead, or unless the deceased had no brothers or sisters, in which case the father is entitled to take the fee. In case there is no father or mother, and the inheritance came to the deceased on the part of the mother, it will descend to the collateral relatives of the mother in preference to those of the father. In case there is no father of mother, and ceased on the part of neither father nor mother, it will descend to the collateral relatives of both in equal shares. Relatives of the half blood inherit equally with those of the whole blood in the same degree. The mother of an illegitimate child, dying without any descendants, takes the inheri- tance. In addition to the provisions in favor of the widow and the minor children from the personal estate of her husband, it is provided that she may tarry in the house of her hus- band forty days after his death, whether her dower be sooner assigned or not, with- out being liable to rent for the same, and meantime she shall have her reasonable sus- tenance off the estate of her husband. This sustenance shall be provided out of the per- sonal property of her husband, and through the executor or administrator, should 9ne be appointed prior to the expiration of the forty days, and shall be given according to the circumstances and station of life of the family, to the widow and children de- pendent on her. In providing this suste- nance, the executor or administrator may exercise judgment and discretion, as he should in paying funeral expenses. ESTATES: DOWER OF WIDOW Dower is the estate which the widow of a deceased person takes in the lands of her husband, being a life estate in one-third of the lands whereof he was seized of an es- tate of inheritance at any time during the marriage. A widow can be barred of her dower by her own act only, such as by uniting with her husband, in conveying the land by ante- nuptial settlement, by acceptance of a devise or bequest, in lieu of a dower, or by con- jugal unfaithfulness; but to make this last effectual a divorce should be decreed against her for adultery, in the lifetime of her hus- band. The widow of an alien entitled to hold real estate, if an inhabitant of this State at the time of his death, is entitled to dower in the same manner as if such alien had been a native citizen. Any woman, being an alien, who has here- tofore married, or who may hereafter marry a citizen of the United States, shall be en- titled to dower, within this State to the same extent as if a citizen of the United States. There are some restrictions to this gen- eral rule, as if a husband exchanges lands, the wife not uniting in the conveyance com- pleting the exchange, she shall not be entitled to dower in both but shall make her election, and if she shall not begin proceedings to recover her dower in the land given in ex- change, within a year following the death of her husband she shall be considered as having elected to take her dower in the lands received in exchange. Where a per- son mortgages his lands before his mar- riage, his widow shall not be entitled to dower, as against the mortgagee, or those claiming under him, but she shall be en- titled to dower against everybody else. When a husband executes a mortgage for purchase money, the widow will not be en- titled to dower, as against the mortgagee, or those claiming under him, but shall be entitled, as against all other persons, and if the lands so mortgaged be sold under such mortgage, she will be entitled to dower in any surplus remaining after payment of the mortgage, and costs and expenses of sale, and she shall be entitled to the interest or income of one-third of such surplus dur- ing life. A wife may cut off her incolate dower, by uniting in the conveyance of land with her husband during the marriage, or before her marriage by consenting to receive a settle- ment, either in lands or money, as a joint- ure or provision in lieu of dower. Any widow who shall not have her dower assigned to her within forty days after the decease of her husband, may apply for ad- OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 771 measurement of her dower to the proper court, specifying therein the lands to which she claims dower. ESTATES: LAWS ON WILLS All persons of sound mind and of proper age are capable of disposing of their prop- erty by last will and testament. In some of the States minors may bequeath personal property. The limitation for disposing of personal estate by will is eighteen years for males and sixteen for females. A will must be made in writing and sub- scribed with the testator's name, unless the person be prevented from so doing by the extremity of his last illness, in which case his name may be signed in his presence, and by his express direction. But in such a case the statute requires that the writer shall also affix his own name as a witness, or incur a penalty of fifty dollars. A will requires at least two attesting wit- nesses. The form of a will is not material, pro- vided it manifests, in a sufficiently clear manner, the intention of the testator. He may put it in any language he may choose. A will may be revoked at any time by the testator. It may be revoked as follows : First. By subsequent instrument. A sec- ond will nullifies a former will, providing it contains words expressly revoking it, or that it makes a different and incompatible disposition of the property. Second. By the destruction of the will. Third. By marriage. Marriage, and the birth of a child, after the execution of a will, is a presumptive revocation of such will, provided wife and child are left un- provided for. An unmarried woman's will is annulled by her marriage. She may make a deed of settlement of her estate, however, before marriage, empowering her to retain the right to make a will after marriage. Children born after the execution of the will, and in the lifetime of the father, will inherit at the death of the testator in the same manner as if he had died without making a will. FoHrth. By alteration of estate. Any alteration of the estate or interest of the testator in the property devised, implies a revocation of the will. A sale of the devised property, or a valid agreement to sell it, is a legal revocation of such will. A codicil, so far as it may be inconsistent with the will, works a revocation. A subsequent will, duly executed, revokes all former wills, though no words to that effect may be used. Property can not be devised to corpora- tions, unless such corporations are expressly authorized to receive bequests by their charters. A will should not be written by a legatee or devisee, nor should either of them, or an executor, or any one interested in the will be called upon to witness such will. Married women are now enabled to de- vise real estate in the same manner and with the like effect as if they were unmarried. And no person having a husband, wife, child or parent shall, by his or her last will and testament, devise or bequeath to any benevolent, charitable, literary, scientific, re- ligious, or missionary society, association or corporation, in trust or otherwise, more than one-half part of his or her estate, after the payment of his or her debts, and any such devise or bequest shall be valid to the ex- tent of one-half and no more. Every citizen of the United States may take lands by devise. And any person may take personal prop- erty by bequest under any will, except a witness thereto. INTEREST AND USURY Interest is a moderate profit for the use of money. In the different States the rate of interest is established by statute. In New York State six per cent is the legal rate of interest. Any excess over this, whether received directly or indirectly, will render the contract void, and is a misde- meanor, punishable by a fine not exceeding $1,000 or by imprisonment not exceeding six months, or both. An excess of interest above the legal rate may be recovered by an action at law, if brought in one year from the time of payment. Corporations can not set up the defence of usury. In case promissory notes and bills of ex- change do not specify the payment of inter- est, interest is not allowable until maturity. But from the moment they fall due, they bear interest, whether it be so specified or not. As a rule, compound interest is not allow- able, but a contract is not usurious or void because of a stipulation for the payment of compound interest. The courts, however, will not enforce its payment, when the 772 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS agreement is made before any interest has accrued. If a debt already due has an ac- cumulation of interest not paid, the parties may agree to have the principal and interest added together, and draw interest Interest is not allowable upon unliqui- dated demands for board and lodging, where price or time of payment is not agreed upon between the parties. A lender, whether banker or broker, can charge a reasonable amount for his services in addition to the interest, without being liable for usury. Interest in advance is allowed under cer- tain limitations. LANDLORD AND TENANT Where a tenant hires rooms from another the relation of landlord and tenant is formed with certain corresponding rights and privi- leges. If the hiring be by the month, the tenant may leave when the month expires, without incurring any new liability. In such a case the landlord has the liberty of terminating the tenancy at the end of the month, and the power to dispossess the ten- ant, upon giving the latter five days' written notice that unless the tenant removes at the end of the month the landlord will resort to proceedings to dispossess him. If the hiring be by the year, the same cor- responding rights and privileges attach, ex- cepting that the five days' preliminary no- tice need not be given to the yearly tenant. If the hiring is by the year, the tenant can not be dispossessed until the year expires, if the rent be paid in the meantime. The difficulties tenants often experience arise from a misunderstanding of the nature of their hiring that is, while they frequent- ly regard it as by the year, the landlord re- gards it as by the month. If the court happens to agree with the landlord, in his construction with the hiring, the tenant must go; and in this respect the landlord has the advantage; tenements are generally hired by the montli, at a monthly rental, and the printed receipt given provides that "the letting is by the month only." These cir- cumstances tend to corroborate the landlord in his theory, which accounts for the fact that landlords generally succeed in their construction of those agreements. If the tenant, instead of accepting these receipts providing that the hiring is "by the month only," will get the landlord to leave that provision out, his chances of remaining for the year are improved; and if he can induce the landlord to insert in the receipt the words, "the hiring is for one year," his possession for that time is assured. Where a tenant hires by the month and remains in possession after the expiration of the month, the landlord has an option either to treat the tenant as a trespasser or as a tenant for a renewed term of one month. He may treat him as a trespasser by dispossessing him, or as a tenant for a new term of one month by accepting the second month's rent In this way these monthly tenancies are sometimes continued for months, when all of a sudden they are brought to a close by five day's notice from the landlord that the tenant must remove at the end of the month. If the hiring is by the month, it matters not what the landlord's reason for termina- ting it may be, the law gives him a legal right to bring it to a close, and his motive for so doing becomes immaterial. The only way for a tenant to protect him- self from this risk is by written agreement, specifying distinctly that he hires by the year, or by a receipt signed by the landlord or his agent, indicating in substance the same thing, or by an oral understanding, had in presence of witnesses, that the hiring is by the year, and for the tenant to refuse to accept receipts indicating that the hiring is by the month only. Leases for one year or less need no writ- ten agreement Leases for more than a year must be in writing; if for life, signed, sealed and witnessed in the same manner as any other document. Leases for over three years must be re- corded with the county clerk or public reg- istrar. No particular form is necessary. In the city of New York, when the dura- tion of the occupation is not specified, the agreement shall be held valid until the first day of the May following the occupation under such agreement A landlord can no longer distress for rent in New York, nor has any lien on the goods and chattels of the tenant for rent due. Rent may be collected by action after the removal of the tenant A tenant is not responsible for taxes, un- less it is so stated in the lease. A lease falling into the hands of a party accidentally would be invalid, and must, in all cases, be delivered to the party for whom it is intended. The tenant may underlet as much of the property as he may desire, unless it is ex- pressly forbidden in the lease. Tenants at will can not underlet. OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 773 A lease made by a minor is not binding after the minor has attained his majority. But it binds the lessee, unless the minor should release him. Should the minor re- ceive rent after attaining his majority, the lease will be thereby ratified. A lease given by a guardian will not extend beyond the majority of the ward. A new lease renders void a former lease. In case there are no writings the tenancy begins from the day possession is taken; where there are writings and the time of commencement is not stated, the tenancy will be held to commence from the date of said writings. If a landlord consents to receive a sub- stitute, the former tenant is thereby re- leased. LIEN LAWS Any one who, as contractor, sub-contrac- tor, or laborer, performs any work, or fur- nishes any materials, in pursuance of, or in conformity with, any agreement or contract with the owner, lessee, agent, or one in pos- session of the property, toward the erection, altering, improving, or repairing of any building, shall have. a lien for the value of such labor or materials on the building or land on which it stands, to the extent of the right, title and interest of the owner, lessee or person in possession at the time of the claimant's filing his notice with the clerk of the County Court This notice should be filed within ninety days after completion of the work, or the furnishing of the materials, and should state: (i) Name and residence of lienor; (2) Name of owner and his interest in property; (3) Name of person employing lienor, though failure to state the true name does not invalidate the lien ; (4) Labor per- formed or material furnished; (5) Amount unpaid; (6) Time when first and last items of labor performed or materials furnished; (,7) Description of property. Liens expire in one year unless action is begun or re- newed by court order. The following classes of persons are gen- erally entitled to lien : 1. Bailees, who may perform labor and services on the thing bailed, at the request of the bailor. 2. Innkeepers, upon the baggage of guests they have accommodated. 3. Common carriers, upon goods carried, for the amount of their freight and dis- bursements. 4. Venders, on the goods sold for pay- ment of the price where no credit has been expressly promised or implied. 5. Agents upon goods of their principals, for advancements for the benefit of the latter. 6. All persons are entitled to the right of lien who are compelled by law to receive property, and bestow labor and expense on the same. The right of lien may be waived: 1. By express contract 2. By neglect. 3. By new agreement 4. By allowing change of possession. 5. By surrendering possession. The manner of the enforcement of a lien, whether it be an innkeeper's, agent's, car- rier's, factor's, etc., depends wholly upon the nature and character of the lien. LIMITATION OF ACTION WHEN A DEBT IS OUTLAWED Actions upon judgments or decrees of a court, or a contract under seal, or for the recovery of real estate, must be commenced within a period of twenty years from the date when the cause of action accrued. All actions upon unsealed contracts, ex- press or implied, become outlawed in six years. Claims for damages to property become Outlawed in six years. Claim's for damages for injury to the per- son or rights of another are outlawed in six years, except in cases of personal in- juries caused by negligence, when the claim is outlawed in three years. All actions for libel, slander, assault, bat- tery, false imprisonment, for forfeitures or penalties to the people of the State, and for seduction and criminal conversation, are out- lawed in two years. Claims for the specific recovery of per- sonal property and on judgments of courts not of record, are outlawed in six years. In the case enforcing the payment of a bill, note, or other evidence of debt that may be issued by a moneyed corporation, or to enforce the payment of same issued or put in circulation as money, there is no limitation of time to sue. An acknowledgment or new promise can not take a contract or other liability out of the statute of outlawry, unless it be in writ- ing. A payment on account of principal or in- terest takes the case out of the statute, with- out being in writing. 774 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS MARRIAGE Marriage may be entered into by any two persons, with the following exceptions : Idiots, lunatics, persons of unsound mind, persons related by blood or affinity, within certain degrees prohibited by law; infants under the age of consent, which in the State of New York, is eighteen for both sexes, and all persons already married and not legally divorced. The law relating to marriage, touching the prohibited degrees of kindred, age, and so forth, varies according to the statutes of the different States. Marriage may be solemnized before a jus- tice of the peace or a minister, a judge of a court of record, a mayor, alderman, police justice or magistrate. But a precise compliance with all the re- quirements of law has not been deemed necessary; and in some important provi- sions it has been held that a disregard of them was punishable, but did not vitiate the marriage; as the want of consent of parents or guardians, where one party is a minor. The essential thing seems to be the declaration of consent by both parties, before a person authorized to receive such declaration by law. Consent is the essence of this contract, as of all other contracts. Hence it can not be valid, if made by those who had not suffi- cient minds to consent, such as idiots or insane persons. Hence such marriages are void at common law and by the statutes of several of the States. It is usual, however, for such marriages to be declared void by a competent tribunal after a due ascertain- ment of the facts. In some of the States this can be done by common law courts. From the necessity of consent, likewise, a marriage obtained by force or fraud is void ; out the force or fraud must be certain and extreme. The same is true if another husband or wife of either of the parties be living. Bigamy or polygamy is an indictable of- fence in all the States, but exceptions are made in cases of long-continued absence, with belief of the death of the party, etc. But these exceptions to the criminality of the act do not change the question as to the validity of the second marriage, which is the same as before. And so if the parties are within the prohibited degrees of kindred. The consent of parents or guardians to the marriage of minors depends on the statutes of the several States. Generally, if not universally, the marriage would be held valid, though the person celebrating it might be held punishable. In the statutes of some of the States there are provisions to the effect that a marriage not lawfully celebrated by reason of the fraud of one of the parties shall yet be held valid in favor of the innocent party, as in case the husband imposed upon the wife by a forged or unauthorized license or a pre- tended clergyman. MARRIAGE: CONTRACTS FOR Contracts to marry at a future time are valid and as effectual in law as any; and, in actions upon them, damages may be re- covered for pecuniary loss or for suffering and injury to condition and prospects. Where the promise is mutual, an action for breach of promise may be maintained against a woman. This action can not be maintained against an infant. But the infant may bring an action, in this case, against an adult. A promise to give to a woman, or settle upon her, a specific sum or estate on her marriage, is valid. MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE The law and practice in relation to di- vorce differ in the different States, being exactly alike in no two of them. Absolute divorce can be obtained in the State of New York for adultery alone. Limited divorce is granted on the follow- ing grounds : 1. Idiocy or lunacy. 2. Consent of either party having been ob- tained by force or fraud. 3. Want of age or physical capacity. 4. The former husband or wife of the respective parties being still living. 5. Inhuman treatment, abandonment, neg- lect or failure on the part of the husband to provide for the wife. 6. Such conduct on the part of the de- fendant as would render it dangerous for plaintiff to cohabit with defendant. A divorce a vinculo annuls the marriage entirely, and restores the parties to all the rights of unmarried persons, and relieves them from all liabilities that grew out of the marriage, except so far as may be pro- vided by the statutes or made a portion of the decree by the court. Thus the statutes of some States provide that the guilty party shall not marry again. The court generally has the power to decree the terms of the separation, regarding alimony, possession of OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 775 children, and so forth. Strict care is taken to prevent divorce being obtained by collu- sion. It will not be granted merely upon the consent or default of the party charged, but only on the proof of cause alleged. The causes of divorce from bed and board are now very commonly made sufficient for divorce from the bond of marriage. As a general rule, a woman divorced from the bed and board of her husband acquires the rights of an unmarried woman, with regard to property, business, and contracts. The husband is relieved from his general duty of maintaining her, the courts generally ex- ercising their power of decreeing such main- tenance by the husband as the character and circumstances of the case render fit. In some of the States it is the custom of the legislatures to grant divorces by private acts, and this is sometimes done for the feeblest of reasons. As a general rule, a divorce granted in a State in which both parties had their actual domicile, and also were married, is valid everywhere. Again, every State generally recognizes the validity of a divorce granted where both parties have their actual domi- cile, if granted in accordance with the law of that place. In the United States the law on this sub- ject is generally regulated by statutes, and these differ very much. In the absence of statutory provision, the rule of the courts generally is that a divorce which was valid where granted, and which was obtained in good faith, is valid everywhere. MARRIAGES: FOREIGN It is a doctrine of English and American law that a marriage which is valid where contracted is valid everywhere. But it is subject to some qualification. A marriage contracted elsewhere would not be held valid in a State the law of which forbade it as incestuous, although an issue might be made whether it would be held incestuous so far as to annul the marriage, if within the de- grees prohibited by the laws of the State in which the question arose, or only if it be between kindred who are too near to marry by the law of the civilized world. If a married man, a citizen of one of our States, went into a Mormon territory, and there married again, he would not be held on his return to be the lawful husband of two wives ; or if a Mormon came to any of the States with two or more wives, he would not be held to be the lawful husband of all of them. Though the rule is true that a marriage which is void when contracted is valid no- where, there are exceptions to it: as if two /vmericans intermarried in China, where the marriage was performed in presence of an American chaplain, according to American forms. If such marriage were held void in China, it would be held valid in the United States. The incidents of marriage, and contracts in relation to marriage, such as settlement of property, are construed by the law of the place where these were made, this being supposed to be the intention and agreement of the parties. But this rule does not hold when the parties are married while accident- ally or temporarily absent from their homes, as then there is no domicile, and the mar- riage is regarded as constructively domestic. MARRIED WOMEN: RIGHTS OF Any and all property owned by a woman at the time of her marriage, together with the rents, issues, and profits thereof, and the property that comes to her by descent, de- vise, bequest, gift or grant, or which she acquires by her trade, business, labor, or services performed on her separate account, shall, notwithstanding her marriage, remain her sole and separate property, and may be used, collected, and invested by her in her own name, and shall not be subject to the interference or control of her husband, or be liable for his debts, unless for such debts as may have been contracted for the support of herself or children by her as his agent. A married woman may also bargain, sell, assign, transfer, and convey such property and enter into contracts concerning the same on her separate trade, labor or busi- ness with the same effect as if she were not married. But her husband is not liable for such contracts, and they do not render him or his property in any wise liable there- for. She may also sue and be sued in all matters having relation to her sole and sep- arate property in the same manner as if she were sole. A married woman's contract may be en- forced against her and her separate estate : First When the contract is created in or respecting the carrying on of the wife's trade or business. Second When it relates to or is made for the benefit of her sole or separate estate. Third When the intention to charge the separate estate is expressed in the contract creating the liability. When a husband receives a principal sum 776 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS of money belonging to his wife, the law presumes that he receives it for her use, and that he must account for it, or expend it on her account by her authority or direction, or that she gave it to him as a gift. Should he receive interest or income and spend it without her knowledge and with- out objection, a gift will be presumed from acquiescence. Money received by a husband from his wife and expended by him, under his direc- tion, on his land, in improving the home of the family, is a gift, and can not be recov- ered by the wife, or reclaimed, or an ac- count demanded An appropriation of her separate property by a wife, herself, to the use and benefit of her husband, in the absence of an agree- ment to repay, or any circumstances from which such an agreement can be inferred, will not create the relation of debtor and creditor, nor render the husband liable to account. And though no words of gift be spoken, a gift by a wife to her husband may be shown by the nature of the transaction it- self, or it may appear from the attending circumstances. A wife who deserts her husband without cause is not entitled to the aid of a Court of Equity in getting possession of such chat- tels as she has contributed to the furnish- ing and adornment of her husband's house. Her legal title remains, and she could con- vey her interest to a third party by sale, and said party would have a valid title, un- less her husband should prove a gift. A wife's property is not liable to a lien of a sub-contractor for materials furnished to the husband for the erection of a build- ing thereon, where it is not shown that the wife consented to the improvements, was notified of the intention to furnish the ma- terials, or a settlement made with the con- tractor and given to the wife, to her agent or trustee. NOTES AND BILLS OF EXCHANGE Notes are entitled to three days' grace in most States, that is, the note is not payable till the third day after the day expressed for its payment. Notes made payable "on de- mand" are not entitled to grace, and grace has been abolished in New York, although notes due Saturday are payable Monday. In the following cases there are no days of grace : i. Bills of exchange or drafts, payable at sight at any place within this State, shall be deemed due and shall be payable on presentation, without the allowance of any days' grace. 2. Checks, bills of exchange or drafts ap- pearing on their face to have been drawn upon any bank, or banking association, or banker, carrying on banking business under the act to authorize the business of banking, which are on their face payable on any speci- fied day, or in any number of days after the date or sight thereof, shall be deemed due and payable on the day mentioned for payment of same, nor shall it be necessary to protest the same for non-acceptance. When the note or bill falls due on Sun- day or Saturday, or any public holiday when general business is suspended, the present- ment for payment must be made on the Monday following the Sunday or Saturday, or the day succeeding the holiday. As a general rule, the note or bill must be presented for payment on the last day it falls due, and the drawers and indorsers must be notified of non-payment not later than the following day. Notes and bills, when made payable to or at any person's order and indorsed in blank, pass by delivery. The words "value received," though or- dinarily used, are not indispensable, as value is held to be implied. Notes do not bear interest except when it is so stated. After maturity all notes bear legal interest. The holder of a note that is made payable to order may sue in his own name. A promissory note given by a minor is void. The indorser of an accommodation is a surety for the maker, and he is liable to the costs of collection that may be brought against such maker or indorser. Any promise to pay, without specifying the time of payment, is equivalent to a promise to pay on demand. PARTNERSHIP The general rule is that every person of sound mind, and not otherwise restrained by law, may enter into a contract of part- nership. There are several kinds of partners, which may be classed as follows : 1. Ostensible partners, or those whose names are made public as partners, and who in reality are such, and who take all the benefits and risks. 2. Nominal partners, or those who appear before the public as partners, but who have no real interest in the business. OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 777 3. Dormant, or silent, partners, or those Whose names are not known or do not ap- pear as partners, but who, nevertheless, have an interest in the business. 4. Special partners, or those who are in- terested in the business only to the amount of the capital they have invested in it. 5. General partners, who manage the busi- ness, while the capital, either in whole or in part, is supplied by a special partner or partners. They are liable for all the debts and contracts of the firm. A nominal partner renders himself liable for all the debts and contracts of the firm. A dormant partner, if it becomes known that he has an interest, whether creditors trusted the firm on his account or not, be- comes liable equally with the other partners. The partnership firm is responsible for any acts done by any partner, touching the partnership business. The representation or misrepresentation of any fact made by any partner within the sc pe of the business, is binding on the firm. A notice to or by any of the firm is deemed a notice to or by all of them. Each partner is liable to third parties for the whole partnership debts. The articles of partnership must in all cases be in writing. All partnerships in New York State must file in the County Clerk's office a certificate showing who comprise the partnership. A violation of these provisions constitutes a misdemeanor, and is punishable by a fine not exceeding $1,000. The following are the exceptions to this rule: 1. Firms having business relations with foreign countries. 2. Firms that have transacted business in this State for five years or more. In the above cases, a certificate of the change in the persons constituting the part- nership, and declaring the persons thus deal- ing under the partnership name, shall be made and filed with the County Clerk, and published for four consecutive weeks in a newspaper of the town which shall be the principal place of business of such firm. Should a firm fail to comply with these provisions, the law would refuse to lend Its aid to such a firm in enforcing its contracts. PROPERTY EXEMPT FROM AT- TACHMENT ON EXECUTION The different States have different laws relative to the property exempted by statute from attachment and execution. In the State of New York the following personal property is exempt: First All spinning-wheels, weaving-looms, and stoves put up or kept for family use in any dwelling-house, and one sewing-machine with appurtenances. Second The family Bible, family pic- tures, and school-books used by or in the family, and books not exceeding fifty dol- lars in value part of the family library. Third A pew or seat in church, used by the debtor or his family. Fourth Ten sheep, with their fleeces, and the yarn or cloth manufactured therefrom, together with one cow and two swine, and the necessary food for them. Fifth All pork, beef, fish, flour, and vegetables provided for family use; and fuel, oil and candles necessary for family for sixty days. Sixth All necessary wearing apparel, beds, bedsteads, and bedding for debtor and family; all arms and accoutrements required by law ; all necessary cooking utensils ; one table, six chairs, six knives and forks, six plates, six tea-cups and saucers, one sugar- dish, one milk-pot, one tea-pot, six spoons, one crane with appendages, one pair of andirons, one shovel and tongs, and all the tools and implements of a mechanic neces- sary to carry on his trade, to the value of twenty-five dollars. In addition to the above, when owned by a householder or anybody having a family for which he provides, the following ex- emptions are made. All necessary house- hold furniture, working tools, professional instruments, furniture, and library; a team not worth o^er $250, and the food necessary for such team for ninety days, except on executions for purchase-money for such, or for wages of a domestic in the family, in which case the debtor is not entitled to the benefit of the exemptions ; lastly, land not over a quarter of an acre set apart for burial-place, and the vault thereon. The following real property is exempted: The lot and building thereon to the value of one thousand dollars, owned and occu- pied as a residence by the debtor. This exemption continues after the death of the judgment-debtor for the benefit of his wid- ow and family, until the youngest child be- comes of age, and until the death of the widow, on condition that one or more of the family occupy the premises. To be valid, the release of the exemption must be in writing, subscribed by the house- holder, and acknowledged in the same way as a conveyance of real estate. No prop- 778 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS erty is exempted from sale for the non- payment of taxes, assessments, or a debt contracted for the purchase-money of the property, or contracted previous to the rec- ording of the deed as required by law. If the sheriff holding the execution thinks the property worth more than one thousand dollars, he must summon six qualified jurors of his county, and have the premises ap- praised and sold accordingly within sixty days, unless the debtor pays meantime the surplus over and above one thousand dol- lars. In case the premises are sold, the debtor receives one thousand dollars, the surplus going to the liquidation of the debt. PROPERTY EXEMPT FROM FORCED SALES Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, . Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Personal property, Acres Homestead value of land value $1000 500 900 IOOO 500 2OO IOOO 300 300 300 600 2OO 800 2OO 1 6O 1 60 I 60 SO 40 1 60 $2000 2500 5000 2OOO 1600 5000 2000 to cover value of all exemptions. 300 100 450 400 800 550 300 900 900 450 200 250 500 1500 IOO 175 300 500 500 1500 I2OO ZOO 2OO 9OO 200 450 9OO 40 So So 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60 500 800 1500 2000 ISOO 5000 20OO 50OO SOO IOOO IOOO IOOO IOOO IOOO IOOO 5000 IOOO 500 IOOO 5000 IOOO 5000 WILLS All persons of sound mind and proper age may dispose of their property by last will and testament. In some States minors may bequeath personal property. The limi- tation for disposing of personal estate by will is eighteen years for males and six- teen years for females. All wills must be made in writing and subscribed with the testator's full name, un- less the person be prevented from so doing by the extremity of his last illness, when his name may be signed in his presence, and by his express direction. A will requires at least two attesting wit- nesses. The form of a will is not material, pro- vided it manifests, in a sufficiently xlear manner, the intention of the testator. It may be put in any language he may choose. A will may be revoked at any time by the testator. The following are among the modes of revoking a will : First. By subsequent instrument. A sec- ond will nullifies a former one, provided it contains words expressly revoking it, or that it makes a different and incompatible disposition of the property. Second. By the destruction of the will. Third. By marriage. Marriage, and the birth of a child after the execution of a will, is a presumptive revocation of such will, provided a wife and a child are left unprovided for. The will of an unmarried woman is an- nulled by her marriage. She may make a deed of settlement of her estate, however, before marriage, empowering her to retain the right to make a will after marriage. Children born after the execution of the will, and in the lifetime of the father, will inherit at the death of the testator in like manner as if he had died without making a will. Fourth. By alteration of estate. Any al- teration of the estate or interest of the testator in the property devised, implies % revocation of the will. A sale of the devised property, or a valid agreement to sell it, is a legal revocation of such will. A codicil, so far as it may be inconsistent with the will, works as a revocation. A subsequent will, duly executed, revokes all former wills, though no words to that effect may be used. Property can not be devised to corpora- tions, unless they are expressly authorized to receive bequests by their charters. A will should not be written by a legatee or devisee, nor should either of them, or an executor, or any one interested in the will be called upon to witness such will. OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 779 Aliens not authorized by law to hold property can not receive bequests. All debts and incumbrances must be settled before the bequests shall be dis- tributed. A codicil, that is an addition or supple- ment to a will, must be executed with the same formalities as the will itself. The witnesses may be the same or different ones. When there are several codicils, the later operate to revive and republish the earlier ones. LAWS GOVERNING APPLICATIONS FOR PATENTS APPLICATIONS for letters patent must be made to the Commissioner of Patents, and signed by inventors. A complete applica- tion comprises the first fee of $15, a peti- tion, specification, oath (in English lan- guage) and drawings, model or specimen when required. A drawing is required when- ever the case admits of it. A model is re- quired or admitted as a part of tEe applica- tion only when, on examination, the primary examiner finds it necessary or useful. Specification and claim must be signed by inventor and attested by two witnesses. The oath made is that inventor believes himself to be original and first discoverer of the art, machine, manufacture, composi- tion, or improvement ; that he does not be- lieve or know that -it was ever before known or used, and the country of which he is a citizen 'or subject. This oath may be made before any duly authorized person in the United States, or if the applicant is in a foreign country, before any minister, charge d'affaires, consul or commercial agent, hold- ing a commission under the United States Government. Drawings must be artistically executed. The Patent Office will make necessary cor- rections at the applicant's option and cost. The office will furnish the drawings at cost for applicants who desire that assistance. A working model is often desirable. Ap- plications filed are classified according to the various arts, and are examined in order of filing. Upon rejection of application ex- aminer must cite the best references at his command. If domestic patents be cited, their dates and numbers, the names of the patentees, and the classes of invention are stated. The applicant may amend before or after first rejection or action, and he may amend as often as the examiner presents new reasons for rejection, showing how amendments avoid references and objections. Patents for designs are granted for 3^, 7, or 14 years. A reissue is granted to original patentee when original patent is inoperative on ac- count of defective specification. Provisions are made for hearings before the commissioner, and interviews with ex- aminers. Any citizen who has made a new inven- tion or discovery and desires further time to mature same may, on payment of $10, file in patent office a caveat setting forth objects and characteristics of the invention. Such caveat is operative for one year. Following is a schedule of fees, payable in advance : Filing original application, $15 ; issuing of patent, $20; designs (3^ years), $10; designs (7 years), $15; designs (14 years), $30; caveats, $10; reissue, $30; fil- ing disclaimer, $10. Certified copies of patents, 10 cents per 100 words. Certified copies, printed patents, 80 cents. Uncertified printed copies of specifications and drawings or any number of unclassified copies, 5 cents each. For copies by sub-classes, 3 cents each. Copies by classes, 2 cents each. Recording every assignment, agreement, power of attorney, or other paper, of 300 words or under, $i. For every 300 and under 1,000, $2; for over 1,000, $3. NATURALIZATION LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES THE conditions under and the manner in which an alien may be admitted to become a citizen of the United States are prescribed by Sections 2165-74 of the Revised Statutes of the United States. DECLARATION OF INTENTION The alien must declare upon oath before a circuit or district court of the United btates, or a district or supreme court of the Territories, or a court of record of any of the States having common law ju- risdiction, and a seal and clerk, two years at least prior to his admission, that it is, bpna fide, his intention to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce for- ever all allegiance and fidelity to any for- eign prince or State, and particularly to the 780 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS one in which he may be at the time a citizen or subject. OATH ON APPLICATION FOR ADMISSION He must, at the time of his application to be admitted, declare on oath, before some one of the courts above specified, that he will support the Constitution of the United States, and that he absolutely and entirely renounces and abjures all allegiance and fidelity to every foreign prince, potentate, State or sovereignty, and particularly, by name, to the prince, potentate, State or sovereignty of which he was before a citi- zen or subject, which proceedings must be recorded by the clerk of the court. CONDITIONS FOR CITIZENSHIP If it shall appear to the satisfaction of the court to which the alien has applied that he has resided continuously within the United States for at least five years, and within the State or Territory where such court is at the time held one year at least; and that during that time "he has behaved as a man of good moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same," he will be admitted to citizenship. TITLES OF NOBILITY If the applicant has borne any hereditary title or order of nobility, he must make an express renunciation of the same at the time of his application. SOLDIERS Any alien of the age of twenty-one years and upward, who has been in the armies of the United States and has been honorably discharged therefrom, may become a citizen on his petition, without any previous dec- laration of intention, provided that he has resided in the United States at least one year previous to his application, and is of good moral character. (It is judicially de- cided that residence of one year in a par- ticular State is not requisite.) MINORS Any alien under the age of twenty-one years who has resided in the United States three years next preceding his arriving at that age, and who has continued to reside therein to the time he may make applica- tion to be admitted a citizen thereof, may, after he arrives at the age of twenty-one years, and after he has resided five years within the United States, including the three years of his minority, be admitted a citizen; but he must make a declaration on oath and prove to the satisfaction of the court that for two years next preceding it has been his bona fide intention to become a citizen. CHILDREN OF NATURALIZED CITIZENS The children of persons who have been duly naturalized, being under the age of twenty-one years at the time of the natu- ralization of their parents, shall, if dwelling in the United States, be considered as citi- zens thereof. CITIZENS' CHILDREN WHO ARE BORN ABROAD The children of persons who now are or have been citizens of the United States are, though born out of the limits and jurisdic- tion of the United States, considered as citizens thereof. CHINESE The naturalization of Chinamen is ex- pressly prohibited by Seetion 14, Chapter 126, Laws of 1882. PROTECTION ABROAD TO NATURALIZED CITIZENS Section 2000 of the Revised Statutes of the United States declares that "all nat- uralized citizens of the United States while in foreign countries are entitled to and shall receive from this government the same pro- tection of persons and property which is accorded to native-born citizens." THE RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE The right to vote comes from the State, and is a State gift. Naturalization is a federal right, and is a gift of the Union, not of any one State. In nearly one-half the Union aliens (who have declared inten- tions) vote and have the right to vote equally with naturalized or native-born citi- zens. In the other half only actual citizens may vote. The federal naturalization laws apply to the whole Union alike, and provide that no alien may be naturalized until after five years' residence. Even after five years' residence and due naturalization he is not entitled to vote unless the laws of the State confer the privilege upon him, and he may vote in one State (Minnesota) four months after landing, if he has immediately declared his intention, under United States law, to become a citizen. OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 781 FORMS OF COMMON LEGAL DOCUMENTS IN legal documents of all descriptions the form is an all-important consideration. This is true for two very good reasons : (i) The wording of a document in accord- ance with certain general forms is required by legal conventions, if not by direct laws on the subject: (2) The unescapable neces- sity of being clear and explicit is best at- tained by the use of certain forms that have long been in use. On the subject of clearness, we may say that legal documents follow rules that are the reverse of those recognized in rhetoric. Instead of being simply and directly worded, they are prolix, redundant, often complicated and difficult of comprehension by the lay mind. To the lawyer, however, these violations of pure and chaste style are essential to adequate and unmistakable descriptions and precise statements. The reason of this is that a brief sentence, while clear for all ordinary purposes, can be shown to admit of several interpretations. Hence, unless sufficiently detailed state- ments are used, there may be an oppor- tunity for misunderstanding. This is par- ticularly true in the case of wills and deeds to real property. Many a valid will has been broken simply because the person who drew it up did not provide against all pos- sible contingencies. The same is true of realty deeds : flaws in titles have often been created by the carelessness or oversight of those who prepared the papers. For the instruction and assistance of the reader a number of specimen legal forms are given in the following pages. Some of these may be adopted as they stand, without requiring the services of an at- torney. In the cases, however, of wills, realty deeds, business agreements, mort- gages hi short, matters involving sums of money or property rights the conditions can not always be perfectly covered. Con- sequently, a wise man will consult a reli- able lawyer before signing his name. Ten dollars paid in lawyer's fees has often saved as many thousands to people who would, otherwise, have blundered gravely. GENERAL FORM OF AGREEMENT THIS AGREEMENT, made the first day of May, one thousand nine hundred and one, between JOHN DOE, of the city of Hartford, in the county of Hartford and State of Connecticut, of the first part, and RICHARD ROE, of the village of Wind- sor, in said county and State, of the second part WITNESSETH, that the said JOHN DOE, in con- sideration of the covenants on the part of the party of the second part, hereinafter contained, doth covenant and agree to and with the said RICH- ARD ROE, that [here insert the agreement on the part of John Doe]. And the said RICHARD ROE, in consideration of the covenants on the part of the party of the first part, doth covenant and agree to and with the said JOHN DOE, that [here insert the agree- ment on the part of Richard Roe], In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the day and year first above written. Sealed and delivered,") in presence of JOHN DOE. [L.S.] THOS. BROWN. [ RICHARD ROE. [L.S.] JOHN SMITH, J [When required this clause may be inserted:] And it is further agreed, between the parties hereto, that the party that shall fail to perform this agreement on his part, will pay to the other the full sum of fifty dollars, as liquidated, fixed, and settled damages. AGREEMENT FOR THE PURCHASE OF A HOUSE AND LOT MEMORANDUM of an agreement made this isth day of November, in the year 1900, between JOHN SMITH, Jeweler, of the city of New York, and HENRY BROWN, Merchant, of the same city, wit- nesseth That the said JOHN SMITH agrees to sell, and the said HENRY BROWN agrees to purchase, for the price or consideration of dollars, the house and lot known and distinguished as number ninety-nine, in street, in the said city of New York. The possession of the property is to be de- livered, on the first day of May next, when twenty- five per cent of the purchase money is to be paid in cash, and a bond and mortgage on the premises, bearing six per cent interest, payable in five years (such interest payable quarterly), is to be executed for the balance of the purchase money, at which time also a deed of conveyance in fee simple, con- taining the usual full covenants and warranty, is to be delivered, executed by the said JOHN SMITH and wife, and the title made satisfactory to the said HENRY BROWN; it being understood that this agreement shall be binding upon the heirs, execu- tors, administrators, and assigns of the respective parties; and also that the said premises are now insured for dollars, and, in case the said house should be burnt before the said first day of May next, that the said JOHN SMITH shall hold the said insurance in trust, and wjll then transfer the same to said HENRY BROWN with the said deed. In witness, etc. [as in General Form], AGREEMENT FOR THE SALE OF .REAL ESTATE THIS AGREEMENT, made the day of , in the year one thousand nine hundred and one, between A. B. of , of the first part, anfl C. D. of , of the second part, in manner following: The said party of the first part in consideration of the su of , to be fully paid as hereinafter mentioned, hereby agrees to sell unto the said party of tl'e second part (here describe property). And the said party of the second part hereby agrees to purchase said premises at the said con- sideration of dollars, and to pay the same as follows: (Here give table of payments_.) And the said party of the first part, on receiving such payment at the time and in the manner above men- tioned, shall, at his own proper costs and ex- penses, execute, acknowledge and deliver to said party of the second part, or to his assigns, a proper deed containing a general warranty and the usual full covenants for the conveying and assuring to him or them the fee simple of the said premises, free from all incumbrance, it be- 50 782 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS ing understood and agreed that the instruments referred to in within contract, to be executed and delivered, shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 475, Law of 1800, relating to Deeds, Bonds, and Mortgages, so far as the same is ap- plicable thereto, and which deed shall be deliv- ered on the day of at o'clock A.M., at . The risk of loss or damage by fire prior to the completion of this contract is hereby as- sumed by the party of the (first or second) part. The rents of the said premises (if any) shall be adjusted, apportioned and allowed up to the day of taking title. And it is understood that the stip- ulations aforesaid are to apply to and bind the heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns of the respective parties. In witness, etc. [as in Central Form]. State of , County of ^ss: On this day of in the year one thou- sand nine hundred before me personally came , to me known, and known to me to be the individuals described in and who executed the fore- going instrument, and they thereupon acknowledged to me that they had executed the same. AGREEMENT FOR BUILDING A HOUSE MEMORANDUM. That on this day of , it is agreed between A. B. of and C. D. of , in manner following, viz.: the said C. D., for the considerations hereinafter mentioned, doth for himself, his heirs, executors, and administra- tors, covenant with the said A. B., his executors, administrators, and assigns, that he, the said C. D. or his assigns, shall and will, within the space of next after the date hereof, in a good and work- manlike manner, and at his own proper charge and expense, at , well and substantially erect, build, and finish, one house, or messuage, according to the draught, scheme, and explanation hereunto an- nexed, with such stone, brick, timber, and other materials, as the said A. B. or his assigns shall find and provide for the same. In consideration whereof, the said A. B. doth for himself, his ex- ecutors, and administrators covenant with the said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns, well and truly to pay unto the said C. D., his ex- ecutors, administrators, and assigns, the sum of $ of lawful money of the United States, in manner following, viz.: [one-half, one-third, etc.], part thereof at the beginning of the said work; another part thereof when the said work shall be half done; and the remaining in full for the said work, when the same snail be completely fin- ished: And also that he, the said A. B., his ex- ecutorSj administrators, or assigns, shall and will from time to time, as the same shall be required, at his and their own proper expense, find and pro- vide stone, brick, timber, and other materials nec- essary for making, building, and finishing the said house. And for the performance of all and every the articles and agreements above mentioned, the said A. B. and C. D. do hereby bind themselves, their executors, administrators, and assigns, each to the other, in the penal sum of firmly by these presents. In witness, etc. las in General Form], AGREEMENT TO BE SIGNED BY AN AUC- TIONEER, AFTER A SALE OF LAND AT AUCTION I HEREBY acknowledge that A. B. has been this day declared by me the highest bidder and pur- chaser of [describe the land], at the sum of dollars [or, at the sum of dollars cents per acre or foot], and that he has paid into my hands the sum of , as a deposit, and in part payment of the purchase money: and 1 hereby agree that the vendor, C. D., shall in all respects fulfil the conditions of sale hereunto annexed. Witness my hand, at - "" , on the day of , A.D. 1901. L S., Auctioneer. ARTICLES OF COPARTNERSHIP ARTICLES of copartnership made and concluded this day of , in the year one thousand nine hundred and one, by and between A. it., book- seller, of the first part, and C. D., bookseller, of the second part, both of , in the county of . Whereas, it is the intention of the said parties to form a copartnership, for the purpose of carry- ing on the retail business of booksellers and sta- tioners, for which purpose they have agreed on the following terms and articles of agreement, to the faithful performance of which they mutually bind and engage themselves each to the other, his execu- tors and administrators. First. The style of the said copartnership shan be " and company": and it shall continue for the term of years from the above date, except in case of the death of either of the aid parties within the said term. Second. The said A. B. and C. D. *\e the pro- prietors of the stock, a schedule of -which is con- tained in their stock book, in the proportion of two-thirds to the said A. B., and of one-third to the said C. D. ; and the said parties shall continue to be owners of their joint stock in the same pro- portions; and in case of any addition being made to the same by mutual consent, the said A. B. shall advance two-thirds, and the said C D. one-third of the cost thereof. Third. All profits which may accrue to the said partnership shall be divided, and all losses happen- ing to the said firm, whether from bad debts, de- preciation of goods, or any other cause or accident, and all expenses of the business, shall be borne by the said parties in the aforesaid proportions of their interest in the said stock. Fourth. The said C. D. shall devote and give all his. time and attention to the business of the said firm as a salesman, and generally to the care and superintendence of the store; and the said A. B. shall devote so much of his time as may be requisite, in advising, overseeing, and directing the importation of books and other articles necessary to the said business. Fifth. All the purchases, sales, transactions, and accounts of the said firm shall be kept in regular books, which shall be always open to the inspection of both parties and their legal representatives re- spectively. An account of stock shall be taken, and an account between the said parties shall be settled, as often as once in every year, and as much oftener as either partner may desire and in writing request. Sixth. Neither of the said parties shall subscribe any bond, sign or indorse any note of hand, ac- cept, sign, or indorse any draft or bill of exchange, or assume any other liability, verbal or written, either in his own name or in the name of the firm, for the accommodation of any other person or per- sons whatsoever, without the consent in writing of the other party; nor shall either party lend any of the funds ot the copartnership without such con- sent of the other partner. Seventh. Ko importation, or large purchase of books or other things, shall be made, nor any transaction out of the usual course of the retail business shall be undertaken by either of the part- ners, without previous consultation with, and the approbation of, the other partner. Eighth. Neither party shall withdraw from the joint stock, at any time, more than his share of the profits of the business then earned, nor shall either party be entitled to interest on his share of the capital; but if, at the expiration of the year, a balance of profits be found due to either partner, he shall be at Ijberty to withdraw the said balance, or to leave it in the business, provided the other partner consent thereto, and in that case he shall be allowed interest on the said balance. Ninth. At the expiration of the aforesaid term, or_ earlier dissolution of this copartnership, if the said parties or their legal representatives can not asrree in the division of the stock then on hand, the whole copartnership effects, except the debts due to the firm, shall be sold at public auction, at which both parties shall be at liberty to bid and pur. chase like other individuals, and the proceeds shall OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 783 be divided, after payment of the debts of the firm, in the proportions aforesaid. Tenth. For the purpose of securing the perform- ance of the foregoing agreements, it is agreed that either party, in case of any violation of them .or either of them by the other, shall have the right to dissolve this copartnership forthwith, on his be- coming informed of such violation. In witness, etc. las in General Form.] AGREEMENT TO CONTINUE THE PART- NERSHIP; TO BE INDORSED ON THE BACK OF THE ORIGINAL ARTICLES WHEREAS, the partnership evidenced by the with- in-written articles has this day expired by the limi- tations contained therein [or, will expire on the day of next], it is hereby agreed, that the same shall be continued on the same terms, and with all the provisions and restrictions therein contained, for the further term of years from this date [or from the day of next.] In witness, etc. [as in General Form.] DEED WITHOUT COVENANTS THIS indenture, made the day of , in the year of our Lord one thousand , between A. B., of, etc., of the first part, and C. D., of, etc., of the second part, Witnesseth: That the said party of the first part, for and in consideration of the sum of fifty dollars, to him in hand paid, bf the said party of the second part, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, hath bargained and sold, and by these presents doth bargain and sell, unto the said party of the second part, and to his heirs and assigns forever, all. etc. [Here describe the property.] Together with all and singular, the her- editaments and appurtenances thereunto belonging, or in any wise appertaining, and the reversion and reversions, remainder and remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof; and also all the estate, right, title, interest, claim, or demand, whatsoever of him the said party of the first part, either in law or equity, of, in, and to, the above bargained prem- ises, and every part and parcel thereof: To have and to hold to the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, to the sole and only proper use, benefit, and behoof, of the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, forever. In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the day and year first above writ- ten. Sealed and delivered 1 in presence of i A. B. [L. s.} j JOHN SMITH, FRANK ROBINSON. C. D. [L. s.] CONVEYANCES OF LANDS ON SALE BY MORTGAGE THIS indenture, made the day of , in the year between A. B., of, etc., of the one part, and C. D., of, etc., of the other part. Where- as, E. F., of, etc., did, by a certain indenture of mortgage dated the day of , in the year , for the consideration of , bargain and sell unto the said A. B., and to his heirs and as- signs forever, all that certain, etc.; together with all and singular the hereditaments and appurte- nances thereunto belonging: To have and to hold the said granted and bargained premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said A. B., his heirs and assigns, to the only proper use and behoof of the said A. B., his heirs and assigns forever; provided, nevertheless, and the said indenture of mortgage was thereby declared to be upon condition, that if the said E. F., his heirs, executors, or administra- tors, should well and truly pay unto the said A. B., his executors, administrators, or assigns, the just and full sum of , with lawful interest for the same, on or before the day of , in the year , according to the condition of a certain bond or writing, obligatory, bearing even date with the said indenture of mortgage, that then, and in such case, the said indenture, and the said writing obligatory, "hould be void and of no effect: and the said E. F. did, by the said in- denture, for himself, his heirs, and assigns, agree with the said A. B., his heirs, executors, adminis- trators, and assigns, that in case it should so hap- pen, that the said sum of , and the interest for the same, should be due and unpaid at the time limited for the payment thereof, in the whole or in part thereof, that then it should and might be lawful for the said A. B., his heirs or assigns, at any time after default in payment, to bargain, sell, and dispose of the said mortgaged premises, with the appurtenances, at public vendue, and out of the moneys to arise from the sale thereof, to retain and keep the said sum of dollars, and the interest, or so much thereof as might be due, together with the costs and charges of such sale, or sales, rendering the overplus money, if any, to the said E. F., his heirs, executors, administrators, or assigns: And, whereas the said E. F. did not pay to the said A. B. the said sum of money, with the interest, at the time limited for payment, or at any time since: and the said A. B. hath, therefore, in pursuance of the authority so given to him as aforesaid, and according to the statute in such case made and provided, caused the premises to be ad- vertised and sold at public auction; and the same has been struck off to the said C. D., for , being the highest sum bid for the same. Now, therefore, this indenture witnesseth that the said A. B., in pursuance of the power and statute aforesaid, and also for and in consideration of the said sum of , to him in hand paid, by the said C. D., at and before the ensealing and de- livery hereof, the receipt whereof is hereby ac- knowledged, hath granted, bargained, aliened, re- leased, and confirmed, and by these presents doth grant, bargain, sell, alien, release, and confirm unto the said C. D., and to his heirs and assigns forever, all the farm, piece, or parcel of land above mentioned, together with the hereditaments and appurtenances, as the same is described and con- veyed by said indenture of mortgage; and all the estate, right, title, interest, claim, and demand at law and in equity, of him the said A. B., and also of the said E. F., as far forth as the said A. B. hath power to grant and convey the same, of, in, and to .the premises, and every part and parcel thereof: To have and to hold the said above granted and bargained premises, with the appur- tenances, unto the said C. D., his heirs and as- signs, to the sole and only proper use and behoof of the said C. D., his heirs and assigns, forever. In witness, etc. [as in General Form of Agree- ment.'] DEED OF GIFT OF PERSONAL ESTATE KNOW all men by these presents, that I, A. B., of, etc., in consideration of the natural love and affection which I have and bear for my son, C. B., and also for divers other good causes and considerations, I, the said A. B., hereunto mov- ing, have given, granted, and confirmed, and by these presents, do give, grant, and confirm unto the said C. B., all and singular, my goods.^ chattels, leases, and personal estate whatsoever, in whose hands, custody, or possession soever they be: To have, hold, and enjoy, all and singular, the said goods, chattels, and personal estate, aforesaid, unto the said C. B., his executors, administrators, and assigns, to the only proper use and behoof of the said C. B., his executors, administrators, and as- signs, forever. And I, the said A. B., all and singular, the said goods, chattels, personal estate, and other the premises, to the said C. B., his ex- ecutors, administrators, and assigns, against me, the said A. B., my executors and administrators, and all and every, other person and persons, what- soever, shall and will warrant, and forever defend, by these presents; of all and singular which said goods, chattels, personal estate, and other prem- ises, I, the said A. B., have put the said C. B. in full possession, by delivering to him one pewter dish, at the time of the sealing and delivery of these presents, in the name of the whole premises hereby granted. In witness, etc. las in General Form of Agree- ment.'} 784 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS DEED OF GIFT BY A FATHER TO A SON OF HIS PERSONAL PROPERTY, ON CONDITIONS THIS indenture, made the, etc., between A. B., of, etc., of the one part, and C. B., of, etc., of the other part. Whereas, the said A. B., being the father of the said C. B., by reason of his age and infirmities, is not capable of attending to his estate aud affairs as formerly, and has therefore agreed, for advancement of the said C. B., to make over his property to the said C. B., so that the said C. B. should pay the debts of the said A. B., and afford him a maintenance as is hereinafter men- tioned: Now this indenture Witnesseth; That the said A. B., in order to carry the said agreement into effect, and in consideration of the natural love and affection which he hath for and toward his son, the said C B., and of the provisos, cov- enants, and agreements, hereinafter mentioned, by the said C. B., to be observed and performed, hath given, granted, bargained, sold, and assigned, and by these presents doth give, grant, bargain, sell, and assign, unto the said C. B., his executors, ad- ministrators, and assigns, all and singular, his household goods and implements of household, stock in trade, debts, rights, credits, and personal estate, whereof he is now possessed, or any way interested in or entitled unto, of what nature or kind soever the same are, or wheresoever or _in whosesoever hands they be or may be found, with their and every of their rights, members, and ap- purtenances: To have and to hold the said goods, household stuff, stock in trade, debts, rights, and personal estate, and the other the premises, unto the said C. B., his executors, administrators, and assigns, forever, without rendering any account or being therefore in any wise accountable to the said A. B., his heirs, executors, or administrators, for the same. And the said C. B., for himself, his heirs, execu- tors, and administrators, doth covenant, promise, grant, and agree, to and with the said A. B., his executors, administrators, and assigns, in manner and form following, that is to say; that he, the said C. B., his heirs, executors, and administrators, shall and will, settle, pay, discharge, and satisfy, or cause to be settled, paid, discharged, and satis- fied, all accounts, debts, judgments, and demands of every nature and kind whatsoever, now out- standing against, or now due from or payable by the said A. B., or for the payment of which the said A. B. shall be liable, or be held liable either at law or equity on account of any matter, cause, or thing heretofore had suffered, done, or per- formed, and at all times hereafter, free, discharge, and keep harmless, and indemnified, the said A. B., his heirs, executors, administrators, from all and every such accounts, debts, judgments, and de- mands, and from all actions, suits, and damages, that may to him or them arise, by reason of the non-payment thereof; and, moreover, that he, the said C. B., his heirs, executors, and administra- tors, shall and will yearly, and every year, during the term of the natural life of the said A. B., by four equal quarterly payments, the first to begin on the day of next, well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, to the said A. B., or his as- signs, the sum of , for, or toward his _ support and maintenance, or find or provide for him suffi- cient meat, drink, washing, lodging, apparel, and attendance, suitable to his state and situation, at the choice and election, from time to time, of the said A. B. Provided always, and upon this condition, and it is the true intent and meaning of these presents, that if the said C. B., his heirs, executors, and ad- ministrators, shall neglect or refuse to pay the said accounts, debts, judgments, and demands, accord- ing to his covenant aforesaid, or shall suffer the said A. B. to be put to any cost, charge, trouble, or expense, on account of the same, or shall neglect or refuse to pay the said annual sum, in_ manner aforesaid, or to find and provide for the said A. B., as aforesaid, that then, in all, any. or either of the cases aforesaid, it shall and may be lawful to and for the said A. B., all and singular, the premises hereby granted to take, repossess, and enjoy, as in his former estate. In witness, etc. [ in Central Form of A fret- met}. A WILL OF REAL ESTATE IN the name of God, Amen. I, A. C., being of sound and disposing mind and memory, and con- sidering the uncertainty of this life, do make, pub- lish, and declare this to be my last will and testa- ment, as follows: First, after my lawful debts are paid, I give and bequeath unto my beloved wife, J. C, the sum of . Item, I give and bequeath to my eldest son, G. C., the sum of . Item, I give and bequeath unto my two youngest sons, J. C. and F. C., the sum of each. Item, 1 give and bequeath to my daughter-in-law, S. H., widow, the sum of ; which said several legacies or sums of money I will and order to be paid to the said respective legatees, within six months after my decease. I further give and devise to my said eldest son G. C., his heirs, and assigns, all that messuage or tenement, situated, lying, and being in, etc., together with all my other freehold estate whatsoever, to hold to him the said G. C., his heirs and assigns, forever. And I hereby give and bequeath to my said younger sons, J. C. and F. C, all my leasehold estate, of and in all those mes- suages or tenements, with the appurtenances, situ- ate, etc., equally to be divided between them. And lastly, as to all the rest, residue, and remainder of my personal estate, goods, and chattels, of what kind and nature soever, I give and bequeath the same to my said beloved wife, J. C. I hereby ap- point D. L. to be executor of this my last will and testament: hereby revoking all former wills by me made. In witness whereof, I have hereunto sub- scribed my name, and affixed my seal, the day of , in the year of our Lord one thou- sand nine hundred and one. WITNESSES, P. N. L. Y. A. C. [L. s.] O.W. Subscribed by the testator named in the fore- going will, in the presence of each of us, and at the time of making such subscription the above instrument was declared by the said testator to be his last will and testament, and each of us, at the request of said testator and in his presence and in the presence of each other, sign our names as witnesses thereto, at the end of the will. P. N., residing at , in County. L. Y., residing at , in County. O. W., residing at , in County. CODICIL TO A WILL WHEREAS, I, A. C., of, etc., have made my last will and testament in writing, bearing date, etc. [and have thereby, etc.]. Now I do by this my writing, which I hereby declare to be a codicil to my said will, to be taken as a part thereof [will and direct, etc.], give and bequeath to my niece M. S., one gold watch, one large diamond ring, and one silver coffee-pot. And whereas, in and by my last will and testament, I have given and bequeathed to my daughter-in-law, G. H., the sum of , I do hereby order and declare, that my will is that only the sum of be paid unto her, in full of the said legacy I have as aforesaid given and bequeathed unto her; and that the remaining part of the said legacy be given and paid to my nephew E. G. And lastly, it is my desire that this my present codicil be* annexed to, and made a part of my last will and testament, to all intents and purposes. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this day of , etc. A. C. [L. s.] The above instrument was, at the date thereof, declared to us by the testator, A. C., to be a codicil to be annexed to his last will and testament; and OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 785 he acknowledged, to each of us, that he had sub- scribed the same; and we, at his request, sign our names hereto as attesting witnesses. D. F., residing at , in County. G. H., residing at , in County. GENERAL FORM, DISPOSING OF BOTH REAL AND PERSONAL ESTATE IN the name of God, Amen. I, A. B., of, etc., being in good bodily health, and of sound and dis- posing mind and memory, calling to mind the frailty and uncertainty of human life, and being desirous of settling my worldly affairs, and direct- ing how the estates with which it has pleased God to bless me, shall be disposed of after my de- cease, while I have strength and capacity so to do, do make and publish this my last will and testa- ment, hereby revoking and making null and void all other last wills and testaments by me hereto- fore made. And, first, I commend my immortal being to Him who gave it, and my body to the earth, to be buried with little expense or ostenta- tion, by my executors hereinafter named. And as to my worldly estate, and all the prop- erty, real, personal, or mixed, of which I shall die seized and possessed, or to which I shall be entitled at the time of my decease, I devise, bequeath, and dispose thereof in the manner following, to wit: Imprimis. My will is, that all my just debts and funeral charges shall, by my executors hereinafter named, be paid out of my estate, as soon after my decease as shall by them be found convenient. Item. I give, devise, and bequeath to my be- loved wife, C. B., all my household furniture, and my library in my mansion or dwelling-house, my pair of horses, coach, and chaise, and their har- nesses; and also fifteen thousand dollars, in money, to be paid to her by my executors herein- after named, within six months after my decease: To have and to hold the same to her, and her ex- ecutors, administrators, and assigns, forever. I also give to her the use, improvement, and income of my dwelling-house, land, and its appurtenances, situated in , my warehouse, land, and its ap- purtenances, situated in , to have and to hold the same to her for and during her natural life. Item. I give and bequeath to my honored mother, O. B., two thousand dollars, in money, to be paid to her by my executors hereinafter named, within six months after my decease; to be for the sole use of herself, her heirs, executors, adminis- trators, and assigns. Item. I give, devise, and bequeath to my son, E. B., the reversion or remainder of my dwelling or mansion-house, land, and its appurtenances, sit- uated in , and all profit, income, and advantage that may result therefrom, from and after the de- cease of my beloved wife, C. B. : To have and to hold the same to him, the said E. B., his heirs and assigns, from and after the decease of my said wife, to his and their use and behoof forever. Item. I give, devise, and bequeath to my son, F. B., the reversion or remainder of my ware- house, land, and its appurtenances, situated in , and all the profit, income, and advantage that may result therefrom, from and after the decease of my beloved wife, C. B. : To have and to hold the same to the said F. B., his heirs and assigns, from and after the decease of my said wife, to his and their use and behoof forever. Item. All the rest and residue of my estate, real, personal, or mixed, of which I shall die seized and possessed, or to which I shall be en- titled at the time of my decease, I give, devise, and bequeath, to be equally divided to and among my said sons, E. B. and F. B. And, Lastly. I do nominate and appoint my said sons, E. B. and F. B., to be the executors of this my last will and testament. In testimony whereof, I, the said A. B., have to this my last will and testament subscribed my name, and affixed my seal, this day of , in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hun- dred and . A. B. [L. s.] This will must be attested in the same manner as in the preceding forms. DEVISE FROM A HUSBAND TO HIS WIFE, OF AN ESTATE FOR LIFE, IN LIEU OF DOWER; REMAINDER TO HIS CHIL- DREN AS TENANTS IN COMMON Item. I give and devise unto my said wife, all that my said messuage or tenement, with the ap- purtenances, situate, etc., with the lands and her- editaments thereunto belonging, and the rents, issues, and profits thereof, for and during the term of her natural life; and from and after the decease of my said wife, I give and bequeath the said messuage or tenement, lands, and heredita- ments, unto such child or children, as I shall leave or have living at the time of my decease, and to their heirs and assigns forever, as tenants in com- mon, and if I shall have no such child or children, etc., then I give and devise, etc., which said legacy given to my said wife as aforesaid, I hereby de- clare is intended to be, and is so given to her, in full satisfaction and recompense of, and for her dower and thirds, which she may, or can in any wise claim or demand out of my estate. Item. I give and devise all the rest and residue of my estate, both real and personal (not herein- before by me given and bequeathed), unto, etc. MORTGAGE OF LANDS BY HUSBAND AND WIFE THIS Indenture, made the day of , in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and , between F. F., of the city of New York, merchant, and J., his wife, of the first part, and L. M., of said city, merchant, of the second part, witnesseth: That the said parties of the first part, for and in consideration of the sum of , law- ful money of the United States, to them in hand paid, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, have granted, bargained, sold, aliened, released, conveyed, and confirmed, and by these presents do grant, bargain, sell, alien, release, convey, and confirm, unto the said party of the second p_art, and to his assigns forever, all that certain lot, etc. [here follows description as to boundaries, length of lines, etc.] ; together with all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto belong- ing, or in any wise appertaining, and the reversion and reversions, remainder and remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof; and also all the estate, right, title, interest, dower, possession, claim, and demand whatsoever, of the said parties of the first part, of, in, and to the same, and every part there- of, with the appurtenances: To have and to hold the said hereby granted premises, with the appur- tenances, unto the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, to his and their only proper use, benefit, and behoof forever. Provided always, and these presents are upon this condition, that if the said parties of the first part, their heirs, ex- ecutors, administrators, or assigns, shall pay unto the said party of the second part, his executors, ad- ministrators, or assigns, the sum of , on or before the day of , which will be in the year , with interest, according to the condition of a bond of the said F. F., to the said L. M., bearing even date herewith, then these presents shall become void, and the estate hereby granted shall cease and utterly determine. But if default shall be made in the payment of the said sum of money, or the interest, or of any part thereof, at the time hereinbefore specified for the payment thereof, the said parties of the first part, in such case, do hereby authorize and fully empower the said party of the second part, his executors, admin- istrators, and assigns, to sell the said hereby granted premises, at public auction, and convey the same to the purchaser, in fee simple, agree- ably to the act in such case made and provided, and out of the moneys arising from such sale, to retain the principal and interest which shall then be due on the said bond, together with all costs and charges, and pay the overplus (if any) to the said F. F., party of the first part, his heirs, execu- tors, administrators, or assigns. In witness whereof, the parties to these presents 786 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS have hereunto set their hands and seals, the day and year first above written. Seated and deliv- 1 JULIA FO REST. [u s.] SresUce o C f f FRANCIS FOREST, [us.} JOHN SMITH. A MORTGAGE GIVEN FOR PART OF THE PURCHASE MONEY OF LAND THIS Indenture, made the day of , in the year of our Lord , between A. B., of the city of New York, merchant, of the first part, and R. T., of the said city, esquire, of the second part, u-itnesseth : That the said party of the first part, for and in consideration of the sum of three thou- sand dollars, lawful money of the United States, to him in hand paid, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, hath granted, bargained, sold, aliened, released, conveyed, and confirmed, and by these presents doth grant, bargain, sell, alien, re- lease, convey, and confirm, unto the said party of the second part, and to his heirs and assigns for- ever, all those three certain lots, pieces, and parcels of land, situate, lying, and being, etc. [here follows precise descriptions as to boundaries, dimensions, etc.]; the said three lots of land being part of the premises this day conveyed to the said A. B. by the said R. T. and his wife, and these presents are given to secure the payment of part of the con- sideration money of the said premises; together with all and singular the hereditaments and ap- purtenances thereunto belonging, or in any wise appertaining, and the reversion and reversions, re- mainder and remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof, and also, all the estate, right, title, inter- est, dower, possession, claim, and demand whatso- ever, of the said party of the first part, of, in, and to these same, and every part thereof, with the ap- purtenances. To have and to hold the said hereby granted premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said party of the second part, his heirs and as- signs, to his and their only proper use, benefit, and behoof forever. Provided always, and these presents are upon this condition, that if the said party of the first part, his heirs, executors, admin- istrators, and assigns, shall pay unto the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, or assigns, the sum of three thousand dollars, law- ful money aforesaid, on or before the. day of next, with interest thereon at the rate of six per cent per annum, payable half yearly, on the first days of May and November in each year, un- til the whole principal sum shall be fully paid and satisfied, according to the condition of the bond of the said A. B. to the said R. T., bearing even date herewith, then these presents, and the estate hereby granted, shall cease and be void. And it default be made^ in the payment of the said sum of money, or the interest, or of any part thereof, at the time hereinbefore specified for the payment thereof, the said party of the first part in each case does hereby authorize and fully empower the said party of the second part, his executors, adminis- trators, and assigns, to sell the said hereby granted premises at public auction, and convey the same to the purchaser, in fee simple, according to law, and out of the moneys arising from such sale to re- tain the principal and interest which shall then be due on the said bond, together with all the costs and charges, and the overplus (if any) pay to the said party of the first part, his heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns. And it is also agreed, by and between the parties to these presents, that until the payment of the said principal and fnterest moneys in full, it shall be lawful for the party of the second part, his executors, administrators, or assigns, to keep the buildings erected, or to b erected, upon the lands above conveyed, insured apainst loss or damage by fire, and these presents shall operate to secure the repayment of the pre- mium or premiums paid for effecting or continuing such insurance. In witness, etc. [as in Mortgage of Lands by Husband and Wife}. MORTGAGE ON GOODS OR CHATTELS To all to whom these presents shall come: Know ye, that I, A. B., of , party of the first part, for securing the payment of the money hereinafter mentioned, and hi consideration of the sum of one dollar to me duly paid by C D. of , of the second part, at or before the ensealing and deliv- ery of these presents, the receipt whereof is here- by acknowledged, having bargained and sold, and by these presents do grant, bargain, and sell unto the said party of the second part, two bay horses, and all other goods and chattels mentioned in the schedule hereunto annexed, and now in the posses- sion of ; to have and to bold all and singular the goods and chattels above bargained and sold, or intended so to be, unto the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, and as- signs, forever. And I, the said party of the first part, for myself, my heirs, executors, and adminis- trators, all and singular, the said goods and chat- tels above bargained and sold unto the said party of the second part, his heirs, executors, adminis- trators, and assigns, against me, the said party of the first part, and against all and every person or persons whomsoever, shall and will warrant and forever defend; upon condition, that if I, the said party of the first part, shall and do well and truly pay unto the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, or assigns, the full sum of dollars, on the day of next, ac- cording to the tenor and effect of a certain promis- sory note, bearing even date herewith, made by me in favor of the said C. D., then these presents shall be void. And I, the said party of the first part, for myself, my executors, administrators, and assigns, do covenant and agree, to and with the said party of the second part, his executors, ad- ministrators, and assigns, that in case default shall be made in the payment of the said sum above mentioned, then it shall and may be lawful for, and I, the said party of the first part, do hereby authorize and empower the sai_d party of the sec- ond part, his executors, administrators, and as- signs, with the aid and assistance of any person or persons, to enter my dwelling-house, store, and other premises, and such other place or places as the said goods or chattels are, or may be placed, and take and carry away the said goods and chat- tels, and to sell and dispose of the same for the best_ price they can obtain; and out of the money arising therefrom, to retain and pay the said sum above mentioned, and all charges touching the same, rendering the overplus (if any) unto me, or to my executors, administrators, or assigns. And until default be made in the payment of the said sum of money, I am to remain and continue in the quiet and peaceable possession of the said goods and chattels, and the full and free enjoyment of the same. In witness, etc. [as in Mortgage of Lands by Husband and Wife}. POWER OF ATTORNEY TO COLLECT DEBTS KNOW all men by these presents, that I, A. B., of , have constituted, made, and appointed, and by these presents do constitute, make, and ap- point T. U., of , to be my true and lawful attorney, for me and in my name and stead, and to my use, to ask, demand, sue for, levy, recover, and receive, all such sum and sums of money, debts, rents, goods, wares, does, accounts, ana other demands whatsoever, which are or shall be due, owing, payable, and belonging to me, or de- tained from me, in any manner of ways or means whatsoever, by I. K., his heirs, executors, and ad- ministrators, or any of them, giving and granting unto my said attorney, by these presents, my full and whole power, strength, and authority, in and about the premises, to have, sue, and take all law- ful ways and means, in my name, for the recovery thereof; and upon the receipt of any such debts, dues, or sums of money aforesaid, acquittances, or other sufficient discharges, for me and in my name to make, seal, and deliver; and generally all and OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS every other act and acts, thing and things, device and devices, in the law whatsoever, needful and necessary to be done in and about the premif-js, for me and in my name to do, execute, and per- form, as largely and amply, to all intents and purposes, as I might or could do, if personally present, or as the matter required more special authority than is herein given; and attorneys, one or more under him, for the purpose aforesaid, to make and constitute, and again at pleasure to re- voke, ratifying, allowing, and holding, for firm and effectual, all and whatsoever my said attorney shall lawfully do in and about the premises, by virtue hereof. In witness, etc. las in Power of Attorney to Sell and Lease Lands}. POWER TO RECEIVE A LEGACY KNOW all men by these presents, that whereas A. B., late of , deceased, by his last will and testament did give and bequeath unto me, C. D., of , a legacy of , to be paid unto me on , of which said will E. F., of , and C. H., of , are joint executors as in and by the said will may appear: now know ye, that I, the said C. D., have made, ordained, constituted, and ap- pointed T. K., of , my true and lawful at- torney, for me and in my name, and for my use and benefit, to ask, demand, and receive, of and from the said E. F. and G. H., the legacy given and bequeathed unto me, the said C. D., by the said will of the said A. B., as aforesaid; and upon receipt thereof by, or payment thereof to, my said attorney, a general release or discharge for the same to make, execute, and deliver; hereby ratify- ing, confirming, and allowing whatsoever my said attorney shall lawfully do in the premises. In witness, etc. STOCK POWER KNOW all men by these presents, that I, A. B., of . do hereby make, constitute, and appoint C. D., of , my true and lawful attorney, for me and in my name to sell, transfer, and assign shares of capital stock, standing in my name on the books of the Merchants' Bank in the city of , with power also an attorney or attorneys under him for that purpose to make and substitute, with like power, and to do all lawful acts requisite for effecting the premises; hereby ratifying and confirming all that my said attorney or his substi- tute or substitutes shall do therein by virtue of these presents. In witness, etc. TRANSFER OF STOCK KNOW all men by these presents, that_ I, C. D., of , for value received, have bargained, sold, assigned, and transferred, and by these presents do bargain, sell, assign, and transfer unto E. F., shares of capital stock, standing in my name on the books of the Merchants' Bank in the city of , and do hereby constitute and appoint A. B., of , my true and lawful attorney, irrevocable for me and in my name and stead, but to his use, to sell, assign, transfer, and set over all or any part of the said stock, and for that purpose to make and execute all necessary acts of assign- ment and transfer, and one or more persons to substitute with like full power; hereby ratifying and confirming all that my said attorney, or his substitute or substitutes, shall lawfully do by virtue hereof. In witness, etc. POWER TO RECEIVE DIVIDEND KNOW all men by_ these presents, that I, A. B., of , do authorize, constitute, and appoint C. D. to receive from the cashier of the Merchants' Bank of , the dividend now due to me on all stock standing to my name on the books of the said company, and receipt for the same; hereby ratifying and confirming all that may lawfully be done in the premises by virtue hereof. In witness, etc. GENERAL RELEASE OF ALL DEMANDS KNOW all men by these presents, that I, A. B., of, etc., for and in consideration of the sum of , to me paid by C. D., of, etc. (the receipt whereof I do hereby acknowledge), have remised, released, and forever discharged, and I do hereby, for myself, my heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns, remise, release, and forever discharge the said C. D., his heirs, executors, and administra- tors, of and from all debts, demands, actions, and causes of action, which I now have, in law or equity, or which may result from the existing state of things, from any and all contracts, liabilities, doings, and omissions, from the beginning of the world to this day. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this sixteenth day of May, nineteen hundred and one. JOHN SMITH. [L.S.] AGREEMENT FOR A LEASE THIS agreement, made the day of , in the year nineteen hundred and one, between A. B. of , and C. D. of said city, merchant, witness- eth, That A. B. agrees, by indenture, to be exe- cuted on or before the day of next, to demise and let to the said C. D. a certain house and lot in said city, now or late in the occupation of E. F., known as No. , in street, to hold to the said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns, from the day of , aforesaid, for and during the term of three years, at or un- der the clear yearly rent of dollars, payable quarterly, clear of all taxes and deductions except the ground rent. In which lease there shall be contained covenants on the part of the said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns, to pay the rent (except in case the premises are destroyed by fire, the rent is to cease until they are rebuilt by the said A. B.), and to pay all taxes and assess- ments (except the ground rent) ; to repair the premises (except damages by fire) ; not to carry on any offensive business on the same (except by writ- ten permission of the said A. B.) ; to deliver the same up at the end of the term, in good repair (except damages by fire, aforesaid) ; with all other usual and reasonable covenants, and a proviso for the re-entry of the said C. D., his heirs and as- signs, in case of the non-payment of the rent for the space of fifteen days after either of the said rent-days, or the non-performance of any of the covenants. And there shall also be contained cove- nants on the part of the said A. B., his heirs and assigns, for quiet enjoyment; to renew said lease, at the expiration of said term, for a further pe- riod of twenty-one years at the same rent, on the said C. D., his executors, administrators, or as- signs, paying the said A. B., his executors, admin- istrators, or assigns, the sum of five hundred dol- lars, as a premium for such renewal; and that in case of accidental fire, at any time during the term, the said A. B. will forthwith proceed to put the premises in as good repair as before such fire, the rent in the meantime to cease. And the said C. D. hereby agrees to accept such lease on the terms aforesaid. And it is mutually agreed, that the cost of this agreement, and of making and recording said lease, and a counterpart thereof,, shall be borne by the said parties equally: As witness our hands and seals, the day and year first above written. In presence of ) C. D. [t,. s.] J. S. f A. B. [i,. s.] LANDLORD'S AGREEMENT OF LEASE THIS is to certify, that I have, this day of , 1901, let and rented unto Mr. C. D. my house and lot, known as No. , in street, in the 788 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS city of , with the appurtenances, and the sole and uninterrupted use and occupation thereof, for one year, to commence the day of next, at the yearly rent of dollars, payable quar- terly, on the usual quarter-days; rent to cease in case the premises are destroyed by fire. A. B. TENANT'S AGREEMENT THIS is to certify, that I have hired and taken from Mr. A. B. his house and lot, known as No. , in street, in the city of , with the appurtenances, for the term of one year, to com- mence the first day of next, at the yearly rent of dollars, payable quarterly on the usual quarter-days. And I do hereby promise to make punctual payment of the rent in manner aforesaid, except in case the premises become untenantable from fire or any other cause, when the rent is to cease; and do further promise to quit and sur- render the premises, at tne expiration of the term, in as good state and condition as reasonable use and wear thereof will permit, damages by the ele- ments excepted. Given under my hand and 'seal, the day of , 1901. In presence of 1 J. S. C. D. [L. s.] SECURITY FOR RENT IN consideration of the letting of the premises above described, and for the sum of one dollar, I do hereby become surety for the punctual payment of the rent, and performance of the covenants in the above written agreement mentioned, to be paid and performed by C. D., as therein specified and expected; and if any default shall be made therein I do hereby promise and agree to pay unto Mr. A. B. such sum or sums of money as will be suffi- cient to make up such deficiency, and fully satisfy the conditions of the said agreement, without re- quiring any notice of non-payment or proof of de- mand being made. Given, etc. [as in Tenant's Agreement], TENANT'S AGREEMENT FOR A HOUSE, EMBRACING A MORTGAGE OF HIS CHATTELS THIS is to certify, that I, A. B., have hired and taken from C. D., the premises known as No. , in street, in the city of New York, for the term of one year from the first day of May next, at the yearly rent of six hundred dollars, payable quarterly. And I hereby promise to make punctual payment of the rent in manner aforesaid, and quit and surrender the premises at the expiration of said term, in as good state and condition as reasonable use and wear thereof will permit, damages by the elements excepted; and engage not to let or under- let the whole or any part of the said premises, or occupy the same for any business deemed extra- hazardous on account of fire, without the written consent of the landlord, under the penalty of for- feiture and damages. And I do hereby mortgage and pledge all the personal property, of what kind soever, which I shall at any time have on said premises, and whether exempt by law from distress for rent or sale under execution, or not, to the faithful performance of these covenants, hereby authorizing the said C. D., or his assigns, to dis- train upon and sell the same, in case of any fail- ure on my part to perform the said covenants, or any or either of them. Given, etc. LANDLORD'S AGREEMENT THIS fa to certify, that I, C. D., have let and rented unto A. B. the premises known as No. , in street, in the city of New York, for the term of one year from the first day of May next, at the yearly rent of six hundred dollars, payable quarterly. The premises are not to be used or oc- cupied tor any business deemed extra-hazardous on account of fire, nor shall the same, or any part thereof, be let or underlet, except with the consent of the landlord in writing, under the penalty of forfeiture and damages. Given, etc. AGREEMENT FOR PART OF A HOUSE MEMORANDUM of an agreement entered into, the day of , 1901, by and between A. B., of , and C. D., of, etc., whereby the said A. B. agrees to let, and the said C. D. agrees to take, the rooms, or apartments following, that is to say: an entire first floor and one room in the attic story or garret, and a back kitchen and cellar op- posite, with the use of the yard for drying linen, or beating carpets or clothes, being part of a house and premises in which the said A. B. now resides, situate and being in No. , in street. In the city of , to have and to hold the said rooms and apartments, and the use of the said yard as aforesaid, for and during the term of half a year, to commence from the day of instant, at and for the yearly rei~j of dollars, lawful money of the United States, payable month- ly, by even and equal portions, the first payment to be made on the day of next ensuing the date thereof; and it is further agreed that, at the expiration of the said term of half a year, the said C. D. may hold, occupy, and enjoy the said rooms or apartments, and have the use of the said yard as aforesaid, from month to month, for so long a time as the said C. D. and A. B. may and shall agree, at the rent above specified; and that each party be at liberty to quit possession on giving the other a month's notice in writing. And it is also further agreed, that when the said C. D. shall quit the premises, he shall leave them in as good condition and repair as they shall be in on his taking possession thereof, reasonable wear ex- cepted. Witness, etc. NOTICE TO QUIT, BY LANDLORD PLEASE to take notice that you are hereby re- quired to surrender and deliver up possession of the house and lot known as No. in street, in the city of , which you now hold of me; and to remove therefrom on the first day of next, pursuant to the provisions of the statute re- lating to the rights and duties of landlord and tenant. Dated this day of , 1901. To Mr. C. D. A. B., Landlord. NOTICE TO QUIT, BY TENANT PLEASE to take notice, that on the first day of May next I shall quit possession and remove from the premises I now occupy, known as house and lot No. , in street, in the city of . Dated this day of , 1901. To Mr. A. B. Yours, etc., C. D.. THE LIKE WHERE THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE TENANCY IS UNCERTAIN MR. C. D. I hereby give you notice to quit, and deliver up o*n the day of next the pos- session of the messuage or dwelling house [or, rooms and apartments, or farm lands and prem- ises], with the appurtenances, which you now hold of me, situate _in the of , in the county of , provided your tenancy originally com- menced at that time of the year; or otherwise, that you quft and deliver up the possession of the said messuage, etc., at the end of the year of your tenancy, which shall expire next after the end of one half-year from the time of your being served with this notice. Dated, etc. [as in Notice to Quit, by Landlord]. OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 789 NOTICE TO THE TENANT EITHER TO QUIT THE PREMISES OR TO PAY DOUBLE VALUE SIR: I hereby give you notice to quit, and yield up, on the day of next, possession of the messuage, lands, tenements, and hereditaments, which you now hold of me, situate at in the parish of , and county of , in failure whereof I shall require and insist upon double the value of the said premises, according to the statute in such case made and provided. Dated, etc. [as in Notice to Quit, by Landlord}. OATH OF HOLDING OVER CITY OF , ss. A. B., of said city, merchant, being duly sworn, doth depose and say, that on or about the day of , the deponent rented unto C. D., of said city, printer, the house and lot known as No. , in street, in said city, for the term of one year from the first day of May then next, which said term has expired, and that the said C. D. or his assigns hold over and continue in the posses- sion of the said premises, without the permission of this deponent. Sworn before me, this day of . A. B. O. P., Commissioner of Deeds. ASSIGNMENT KNOW all men by these presents, that I, A. B., having become insolvent, did, in conjunction with so many of my creditors, residing within the United States, whose debts, in good faith, amount to two-thirds of all the debts owing by me to cred- itors residing within the United States, present a petition to the Hon. J. P. H., County Judge of county [or, as the case may be], praying for relief, pursuant to the provisions of the statute au- thorizing an insolvent debtor to be discharged from his debts; whereupon the said Judge ordered no- tice to be given to all my creditors to show cause, if any they had, before him, at a certain day and place, why the prayer of the petitioner should not be granted; which notice was duly published, and no good cause appearing to the contrary, he being satisfied that the proceedings were just and fair, and that I had in all things conformed to those matters required by the said statute, directed an assignment of all my estate to be made by me for the benefit of all my creditors. Now, therefore, know ye, that, in conformity to the said direction, I have granted, released, assigned, and set over, and by these presents, do grant, release, assign, and set over, unto J. K., of etc., and L. M., of, etc., assignees nominated to receive the same, all my estate, real and personal, both in law and equity, in possession, reversion, or remainder, and all books, vouchers, and securities relating thereto, to hold the same unto the said assignees, to and for the use of all my creditors. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal this day of , in the year one thousand nine hundred and . Sealed and delivered j in presence of > A. B. [L. s.] G. H. ) NOTE WITH SURETY $100. NEW YORK, April 12, 1901. Six months after date, I promise to pay John Thompson, or order, one hundred dollars, value received. JOHN BROWN. GEO. SMITH, Surety. AN UNNEGOTIABLE NOTE $1000. NEW YORK, April 10, 1901. THREE months after date, I promise to pay John Thompson one thousand dollars, for value received. JAMES FOWLER. A NEGOTIABLE NOTE $1000. NEW YORK, April 19, 1901. THREE months after date, 1 promise to pay John Thompson, or order, one thousand dollars, for value received. JAMES FOWLER. A NOTE, OR DUE BILL, PAYABLE ON DEMAND $100. CINCINNATI, O., April 14, 1901. ON demand I promise to pay Charles Jones, or order, one hundred dollars, for value received. HENRY WARING, 120 State Street. A NOTE BEARING INTEREST fioo. NEW ORLEANS, LA., May i, 1901. Six months after date, I promise to pay George Robinson, or order, one hundred dollars, with in- terest, for value received. PHILIP REDMOND. A NOTE PAYABLE BY INSTALMENTS $3000. PHILADELPHIA, PA., April 20, 1901. FOR value received, I promise to pay Smith & Brown, or order, three thousand dollars, in the manner following, viz.: one thousand dollars in one year, one thousand dollars in two years, and one thousand dollars in three years, with interest on all said sums, payable semi-annually, without defalcation or discount. HUGH FAULKNER, 120 Chestnut Street. SEALED NOTE $5000. CLEVELAND, O., May 8, 1901. FOR value received, I promise to pay Smith ft Edgar, or order, five thousand dollars, in three years from the date hereof, with interest, payable semi - annually, without defalcation or discount. And in case of default of my payment of the in- terest or principal aforesaid with punctuality, I hereby empower any attorney-at-law, to be ap- pointed by_ said Smith & Edgar, or their assigns, to appear in any court which said Smith & Edgar, or their assigns, may select, and commence and prosecute a suit against me on said note, to con- fess judgment for all and every part of the inter- est or principal on said note, in the payment of which I may be delinquent. Witness my hand and seal, this 8th day of May, A. D. 1901. JOHN DREW. [SEAL.] Attest, GEORGE WHITE. DUE BILL, PAYABLE IN GOODS DUE John Jones, or bearer, fifty dollars in mer- chandise, for value received, payable on demand. THOMAS BOLAND. NEW YORK, May 3, 1901. ORDER FOR GOODS MR. J. TONGUE. NEW YORK, April 16, 1901. PLEASE pay John Jones, or order, one hundred dollars in merchandise, and charge the same to account of HENRY WALFORD. BILL OF EXCHANGE $1000. HARTFORD, CONN., April 20, 1901. THIRTY days after sight, pay to the order of Messrs. John Smith & Co. one thousand dollars, and charge the same to account of RICHARD JAY. To Messrs. WILSON & RIVERS, New York. 790 OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS A SET OF BILLS OF EXCHANGE NEW YORK, April 26, 1901. No. 1 88. Ex. 300. THREE days after sight of this, my first of ex- change (second and third unpaid), pay to Charles Walker, or order, three hundred pounds sterling, value received, and charge the same to account of JOHN SMITH. NEW YORK, April 26, 1901. No. 1 88. Ex. 300. THREE days after sight of this, my second of exchange (first and third unpaid), pay to Charles Walker, or order, three hundred pounds sterling, value received, and charge the same to account of JOHN SMITH. NEW YORK, April 8, 1901. No. 1 88. Ex. 300. THREE days after sight of this, my third of ex- change (first and second unpaid), pay to Charles Walker, or order, three hundred pounds sterling, value received, and charge the same to account of JOHN SMITH. MONEY ORDER NEW YORK, May 20, 1901. MR. HENRY DENHIS: PLEASE pay Charles Robinson, or order, one hun- dred dollars, and charge the same to account of JOSEPH DOYLE. NOTICE OF NON-PAYMENT TO BE GIVEN TO THE DRAWER AND INDORSERS NEW YORK, Feb. 26, 1901. PLEASE to take notice, that a certain bill of ex- change, dated , for $1000, drawn by , on and accepted by , of and by you in- dorsed, was this day protested for non-payment, and the holders look to you for the payment thereof. Yours, etc., To Mr. A. B. J. T., Notary Public. RECEIPT IN FULL OF ALL DEMANDS $500. NEW YORK, March 28, 1901. _ RECEIVED of John Smith five hundred dollars, in full of all demands against him. WM. JONES. RECEIPT ON ACCOUNT $100. NEW YORK, March 28, 1901. RECEIVED of John 'Smith one hundred dollars, to apply on account. WM. JONES. RECEIPT FOR MONEY PAID FOR ANOTHER $100. NEW YORK, March 28, 1901. RECEIVED of J. G. Wells one hundred dollars, in full of all demands against John Smith. WM. JONES. GENERAL FORM OF ASSIGNMENT TO BE WRITTEN OR INDORSED ON THE BACK OF ANY INSTRUMENT KNOW all men by these presents, that I, the vrithin-named A. B., in consideration of one hun- dred dollars to me paid by C. D., have assigned to the said C. D., and his assigns, all my interest in the within written instrument, and every clause, article, or thing therein contained; and I do here- by constitute the said C. D., my attorney, in my name, but to his own use, and at his own risk and cost, to take all legal measures which may be proper for the complete recovery and enjoyment of the assigned premises, with power of substitu- tion. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this tenth day of May, one thou- sand nine hundred and one. Executed and delivered I in the presence of f A. B. [SEAL.] ASSIGNMENT OF A LEASE KNOW all men by these presents, that I, the within-named A. B., the lessee, for and in consid- eration of the sum of one thousand dollars, to me in hand paid by C. D., of, etc., at and before the sealing and delivery hereof (the receipt whereof I do hereby acknowledge), have granted, assigned, and set over, and by these presents do grant, as- sign, and set over, unto the said C. D., his execu- tors, administrators, and assigns, the within in- denture of lease, and all that messuage, etc., there- by demised, with the appurtenances; and also all my estate, right, title, term of years yet to come, claim, and demand whatsoever, of, in, to, or out of the same. To have and to hold the said mes- suage, etc., unto the said C. D., his executors, ad- ministrators, and assigns, for the residue of the term within mentioned, under the yearly rent and covenants within reserved and contained, on my part and behalf to be done, kept, and performed. In testimony, etc. [as in General Form of As- signment], ASSIGNMENT OF A MORTGAGE KNOW all men by these presents, that I, A. B., the mortgagee within named, for and in considera- tion of the sum of sixteen hundred dollars, to me paid by C. D., of, etc., at and before the sealing and delivery hereof (the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged), have granted, bargained, sold, as- signed, and set over, and by these presents do grant, bargain, sell, assign, and set oyer, unto the said C. D., his heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns, the within deed of mortgage, and all my right and title to that messuage, etc., therein men- tioned and described, together with the original debt for which the said mortgage was given, and all evidence thereof, and all the rights and appur- tenances thereunto belonging. To have and to hold all and singular the premises hereby granted and assigned, or mentioned, or intended so to be, unto the said C. D., his heirs and assigns, forever; subject, nevertheless, to the right and equity of redemption of the within named E. F., his heirs and assigns (if any they have), in the same. In testimony, etc. [as in General Form of Assign- ment]- \ ASSIGNMENT OF A PATENT WHEREAS, letters patent, bearing date day of , in the year , were granted and issued by the government of the United States, under the seal thereof, to A. B., of the town of , in the county of , in the State of , for [here state the nature of the invention in general terms, as in the patent], a more particular and full de- scription whereof is annexed to the said letters patent in a schedule; by which letters patent the full and exclusive right and liberty of making and using the said invention, and of vending the same to others to be used, was granted to the said A. B., his heirs, executors, and administrators, or as- signs, for the term of fourteen years from the said date: Now know all men by these presents, that I, the said A. B., for and in consideration of the sum of dollars, to me in hand paid (the re- ceipt whereof is hereby acknowledged), have granted, assigned, and set over, and by these pres- ents do grant, assign, and set over, unto C. D., of the town of , in the county of , and State of , his executors, administrators, and assigns, forever, the said letters patent, and all my right, title, and interest, in and to the said invention, so granted unto me: To have and to hold the said letters patent and invention, with all benefit, profit, and advantage thereof, unto the said C. D., his executdrs, administrators, and assigns, in as full, ample, and beneficial a manner, to all intents and purposes, as I, the said A. B., by virtue of the said letters patent, may or might have or hold the same, if this assignment had not been made, for and during all the rest and residue of the said term of fourteen years. In testimony, etc., [as in General Form of As- signment], OUTLINES OF LAW ON EVERY-DAY MATTERS 791 ASSIGNMENT OF A POLICY OF INSUR- ANCE KNOW all men by these presents, that I, the within-named A. B., for and in consideration of the sum of , to me paid by C. D., of, etc. (the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged), have granted, sold, assigned, transferred, and set over, and by these presents I do absolutely grant, sell, assign, transfer, and set over to him, the said C. D., all my right, property, interest, claim, and de- mand in and to the within policy of insurance, which have already arisen, or which may hereafter arise thereon, with full power to use my name so far as may be necessary to enable him fully to avail himself of the interest herein assigned, or hereby intended to be assigned. The conveyance herein made, and the powers hereby given, are for myself and my legal representatives to said C. D. and his legal representatives. In testimony, etc. [as in General Form of As- signment]. ASSIGNMENT OF DEMAND FOR WAGES OR DEBT IN consideration of $100 to me in hand paid by M. D., of the city of , the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, I, L. C., of the same place, have sold, and by these presents do sell, assign, transfer, and set over, unto the said M. D., a cer- tain debt due from N. E., amounting to the sum of $150, for work, labor, and services, by me per- formed for the said N. E. (or for goods sold and delivered to the said N. E.), with full power to sue for, collect, and discharge, or sell and assign the same in my name or otherwise, but at his own cost and charges; and I do hereby covenant that the said sum of $150 is justly due as aforesaid, and that I have not done and will not do any act to hinder or prevent the collection of the same by the said M. D. Witness my hand, this April 10, 1901. L. C. ASSIGNMENT OF ACCOUNT INDORSED THEREON IN consideration of $i, value received, I hereby sell and assign to M. D. the within account which is justly due from the within named N. E., and I hereby authorize the said M. D. to collect the same. L. C. Troy, April 10, 1901. BOND TO A CORPORATION KNOW all men by these presents, that I, A. B., of, etc., am held and firmly bound unto the Insurance Company, in the sum of one thousand dollars, lawful money of the United States, to be paid to the said Insurance Company or as- signs; for which payment, well and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors, and ad- ministrators, firmly by these presents. Sealed with my seal. Dated the day of , one thousand nine hundred and . The condition of the above obligation is such, that if the above bounden A. B., his heirs, execu- tors, or administrators, shall well and truly pay, or cause to be paid unto the above named In- surance Company, or assigns, the just and full sum, etc. [as in Common Bond]. COMMON CHATTEL MORTGAGE THIS Indenture, made the day of, etc., between A. B., of, etc., of the first part, and C. D., of, etc., of the second part, witnesseth: That the said party of the first part, in consideration of the sum of dollars, to him duly paid, hath sold, and by these presents doth grant and convey, to the said party of the second part, and his assigns, the following described goods, chattels, and prop- erty [here describe them, or refer to them thus, "as in the schedule annexed"], now in my posses- sion, at the of aforesaid; together with the appurtenances, and all the estate, title, and in- terest of the said party of the first part therein. This grant is intended as a security for the pay- ment of one hundred and fifty dollars, with inter- est, on or before the expiration of one year from the date hereof; and the additional sum of one hundred and sixty dollars, with interest, on the day of , 19 ; which payments, if duly made, will render this conveyance void. In witness, etc. [as in Bill of Sale and Chattel Mortgage]. CIVIL SERVICE RULES IN the exercise of the power vested in the President by the Constitution, and by virtue of the i,753d section of the Revised Statutes, and of the civil service act ap- proved January 16, 1883, the following rules for the regulation and improvement of the executive civil service are hereby amended and promulgated: RULE I. No person in said service shall use his official authority or influence either to coerce the political action of any person or body or to inter- fere with any election. RULE II. No person in the public service shall for that reason be under any obligation to con- tribute to any political fund, or to render any political service, and he will not be removed or otherwise prejudiced for refusing to do so. RULE III. It shall be the duty of collectors, postmasters, assistant treasurers, naval officers, sur- veyors, appraisers, and custodians of public build- ings, at places where examinations are to be held, to allow and arrange for the reasonable use of -suitable rooms in the public buildings in their charge, and for heating, lighting, and furnishing the same, for the purposes of such examinations; and all other executive officers shall in all legal and proper ways facilitate such examinations and the execution of these rules. RULE IV. i. All officials connected with any office where, or for which, any examination is to take place, will give the Civil Service Commission, and the chief examiner, such information as may be reasonably required to enable the Commission to select competent and trustworthy examiners; and the examinations by those selected as examiners, and the work incident thereto, will be regarded as a part of the public business to be performed at such office. 2. It shall be the duty of every executive officer promptly to inform the Commission, in writing, of the removal or discharge from the public service of any examiner in his office, or of the inability or refusal of any such examiner to act in that capacity. RULE V. There shall be five branches of the service, classified under the civil service act (not including laborers or workmen, or officers required to be confirmed by the Senate), as follows: 1. Departmental Branch. 2. Custom-House Branch. 3. Post-Office Branch. 4. Government Printing Branch. 5. Internal Revenue Branch. The Custom-House Branch includes all officers and employees who have been, or may hereafter be, classified, who are serving in any customs district. The Post-Office Branch includes all officers and employees who have been, or may hereafter be, classified, who are serving in any free-delivery post-office. The Government Printing Branch includes all positions in the Government Printing Office except those of Public Printer, and unskilled laborers or workmen. (792) The Internal-Revenue Branch includes all officers and employees in any internal-revenue district who have been, or may hereafter be, classified under the civil-service act. RULE VI. i. There shall be open, competitive examinations for testing the fitness of applicants for admission to the service. Such examinations shall be practical in their character, and, so far as may be, shall relate to those matters which will fairly test the relative capacity and fitness of the persons examined to discharge the duties of the branch of the service which they seek to enter. 2. There shall, so far as they may be deemed useful, be competitive examinations of a suitable character to test the fitness of persons for promo- tion in the service. RULE VII. i. The general examinations under the first clause of Rule VI for admission to the service shall be limited to the following subjects: ist. Orthography, penmanship, and copying, ad. Arithmetic fundamental rules, fractions, and per- centage, ad. Interest, discounts, and elements of book-keeping and of accounts. 4th. Elements of the English language, letter-writing, and the proper construction of sentences. 5th. Elements of the geography, history, and government of the United States. 2. Proficiency in each of these subjects shall be credited in grading the standing of the persons ex- amined in proportion to the value of a knowledge of such subjects in the branch or part of the service which the applicant seeks to enter. 3. No one shall be entitled to be certified for ap- pointment whose standing upon a just grading in the general examination shall be less than sixty- five per centum of complete proficiency in the first three subjects mentioned in this rule, and the measure of proficiency shall be deemed adequate. 4. For places in which a lower degree of educa- tion will suffice, the Commission may limit the ex- aminations to less than the five subjects above mentioned; but no person shall be certified for ap- pointment, under this clause, whose grading shall be less than an average of sixty-five per centum on such of the first three subjects or parts thereof as the examination may embrace. 5. The Commission may also order examinations upon other subjects of a technical or special char- acter, to test the capacity which may be needed in any part of the Classified Service which requires peculiar information or skill. Examinations here- under may be competitive or non-competitive, and the maximum limitations of age contained in the twelfth Rule shall not apply to applicants for the same. The application for, and notice of, these special examinations, the records thereof and the certification of those found competent shall be such as the Commission may provide for. After con- sulting the head of any Department or office, the Commission may from time to time designate, sub- ject to the approval of the President, the positions therein for which applicants may be required to pass this special examination. RULE VIII. No question in any examination, or proceeding by, or under, the Commission or ex- aminers, shall call for the expression or disclosure of any political or religious opinion or affiliation, and if such opinion or affiliation be known, no CIVIL SERVICE RULES 793 discrimination shall be made by reason thereof by the examiners, the Commission, or the appointing power. The Commission and its examiners shall discountenance all disclosure, before either of them, of such opinion by or concerning any applicant for examination or by or concerning any one whose name is on any register awaiting appointment. RULE IX. All regular applications for the com- petitive examinations for admission to the classi- fied service must be made on blanks in a form ap- proved by the Commission. All requests for such blanks, and all applications for examination, must be addressed as follows: i. If for the Classified Departmental Service, to the U. S. Civil Service Commission, Washington, D. C. 2. If for the Clas- sified Postal Service, to the postmaster under whom service is sought. 3. If for the Classified Customs Service, to the head of either customs office in which service is sought. All officers receiving such applications will indorse thereon the date of the reception thereof and transmit the same to tha proper examining board of the district or office where service is sought, or, if in Washington, to the Civil Service Commission. RULE X. Every examining board shall keep such records, and such papers on file, and . make such reports as the Commission shall require; and any such paper or record in the charge of any examina- tion board or any officer shall at all times be open to examination as the Commission shall direct, and upon its request shall be forwarded to the Com- mission for inspection and revision. RULE XI. Every application, in order to entitle the applicant to appear for examination or to be examined, must state, under oath, the facts on the following subjects: i. Full name, residence, and post-office address. 2. Citizenship. 3. Age. 4. Place of birth. 5. Health and physical capacity for the public service. 6. Right of preference by reason of military or naval service. 7. Previous employment in the public service. 8. Business or employment and residence for the previous five years. 9. Education. Such other information shall be furnished as the Commission may reasonably require touching the applicant's fitness for the pub- Jic service. The applicant must also state the num- ber of members of his family in the public service, and where employed, and must also assert that he s not disqualified under section 8 of the civil ser- vice act, which is as follows: "That no person habitually using intoxicating beverages to excess shall be appointed to or retained in any office, ap- pointment, or employment to which the provisions of this act are applicable." No person under en- listment in the Army or Navy of the United States shall be examined under these Rules. RULE XII. i. Every regular application must be supported by proper certificates of good moral char- acter, health, and physical and mental capacity for doing the public work, the certificates to be in such form and number as the regulations of the Commission shall provide; but no certificate will be received which is inconsistent with the tenth section of the civil service act, 2. No one shall be entitled to be examined for admission to the Classified Postal Service if under sixteen or over thirty-five years of age; or to the Classified Customs Service, or to the Classified De- partmental Service, if under eighteen or over forty- five years of age; but no one shall be examined for appointment to any place in the Classified Cus- toms Service except that of clerk or messenger who is under twenty-one years of age; but these limi- tations of age shall not apply to persons honorably discharged from the military or naval service of the country, who are otherwise duly qualified. RULE XIII. i. The date of the reception of all regular applications for the Classified Departmental Service shall be entered of record by the Commis- sion, and of all other regular applications by the proper examining boards of the district or office for which they are made; and applicants when in excess of the number that can be examined at a single examination shall, subject to the needs of apportionment, be notified to appear, in their or- der, on the respective records. But any applicants in the several States and Territories for appoint- ment in the Classified Departmental Service may be notified to appear for examination at any place at which an examination is to be held, whether in any State or Territory, or in Washington, which shall be deemed most convenient for them. 2. The Commission is authorized, in aid of the apportionment among the States and Territories, to hold examinations at places convenient for ap- plicants from different States and Territories, or for those examination districts which it may desig- nate and which the President shall approve. RULE XIV. Those examined shall be graded, and shall have their grade marked upon a register after those previously thereon, in the order of their excellence as shown by their examination papers, except that those from the same State or Territory may be entered upon the register to- gether, in the order of relative excellence, to facilitate apportionment. Separate registers may be kept of those seeking to enter any part of the service in which special qualifications are required. RULE XV. The Commission may give a certifi- cate to any person examined, stating the grade which such a person attained and the proficiency in the several subjects, shown by the markings. RULE XVI. i. Whenever any officer having the power of appointment or employment shall so re- quest, there shall be certified to him, by the Com- mission or the proper examining board, four names for the vacancy specified, to be taken from those graded highest on the proper register of those in his branch of the service and remaining eligible, regard being had to the apportionment of appoint- ments to States and Territories; and from the said four a selection shall be made for the vacancy. 2. These certifications for the service at Wash- ington shall be made in such order as to apportion, as nearly as may be practicable, the original ap- pointments thereto among the States and Terri- tories and the District of Columbia, upon the basis of population as ascertained at the last preceding census. 3. In case the request for any such certification or any law or regulation shall call for those of either sex, the four highest of that sex shall be certified, otherwise sex shall be disregarded in such certification. 4. No person upon any register shall be certified more than four times to the same officer in the customs or postal service, or more than twice to any department at Washington, unless upon request of the appointing officer; nor shall any one remain eligible more than one year upon any register. No person while remaining eligible on any register shall be admitted to a new examination, and no person having failed upon any examination shall within six months thereafter be admitted to an- other examination without the consent of the Com- mission. But these restrictions shall not extend to examinations under clause 5 of Rule 7. 5. Any person appointed to or employed in any part of the classified service, after due certification for the same under these rules, who shall be dis- missed or separated therefrom without fault or de- linquency on his part, may be reappointed or re-employed in the same part or grade of such service at the same office, within eight months next 794 CIVIL SERVICE RULES following such dismissal or separation, without further examination. RULE XVII. i. Every original appointment or employment in said classified service shall be for the probationary period of six months, at the end of which time, if the conduct and capacity of the person appointed have been found satisfactory, the probationer shall be absolutely appointed or em- ployed; but, otherwise, be deemed out of the service. 2. Every officer under whom any probationer shall serve during any part of the probation provided for by these rules shall carefully observe the qual- ity and value of the service rendered by such pro- bationer, and shall report to the proper appointing officer, in writing, the facts observed by him, showing the character and qualifications of such probationer, and of the service performed by him; and such reports shall be preserved on file. 3. Every false statement knowingly made by any person in his application for examination, and every connivance by him at any false statement made in any certificate which may accompany his applica- tion, shall be regarded as good cause for the re- moval or discharge of such person during his pro- bation. RULE XVIII. Every head of a department or office shall notify the Commission of the name of every person appointed to, or employed in, the classified service under him (giving the date of the appointment and .the designation of the office or place) from those examined under the Commis- sion; and shall also inform the Commission of the date of any rejection or final appointment or em- ployment of any probationer, and of the promotion, removal, discharge, resignation, transfer, or death of any such person after probation. Every head of any office in the postal or customs service shall give such information on these subjects to the Board of Examiners for his office as the regula- tions of the Commission may provide for. RULE XIX. There are excepted from examina- tion the following: i. The confidential clerk or secretary of any head of a department or office. 2. Cashiers of collectors. 3. Cashiers of postmas- ters. 4. Superintendents of money-order divisions in post-offices. 5. The direct custodians of money for whose fidelity another officer is under official bond; but these exceptions shall not extend to any official below the grade of assistant cashier or teller. 6. Persons employed exclusively in the se- cret service of the Government, or as translators, or interpreters, or stenographers. 7. Persons whose employment is exclusively professional. 8. Chief clerks, deputy collectors, and superintendents, or chiefs of divisions or bureaus. But no person so excepted shall be either transferred, appointed, or promoted, unless to some excepted place, without an examination under the Commission. Promotions may be made without examination in offices where examinations for promotion are not now held, un- til rules on the subject shall be promulgated. RULE XX. If the failure of competent persons to attend and be examined, or the prevalence of contagious disease or other sufficient cause, shall make it impracticable to supply in due season for any appointment the names of persons who have passed a competitive examination, the appointment may be made of a person who has passed a non- competitive examination, which examination the Commission may provide for; but its next report shall give the reason for such resort to non-com- petitive examination. RULE XXI. i. No person shall be promoted, without examination under these rules, from any position for which an examination is not required to any position for which an examination is re- quired under the rules; nor shall any person who has passed only a limited examination under clause 4 of Rule 7, for the lower classes or grades in the Departmental or Customs Service, be promoted within two years after appointment to any position giving a salary of $1,000, or upward, without first passing an examination under clause i of said rule, and such examination shall not be allowed within the first year after appointment 2. But a person who has passed the examination under said clause i, and has accepted a position giving a salary of $900 or less, shall have the same right of promotion as if originally appointed to a position giving a salary of $ 1,000 or more. 3. The Commission may at any time certify for a $900 or any lower place in the classified service any person upon the register who has passed the examination under clause i of Rule 7, if such per- son does not object before such certification is made. RULE XXII. The Civil Service Commission will make appropriate regulations for carrying these rules into effect. RULE XXIII. Every violation, by any officer in the executive civil service, of these rules, or of the nth, i2th, I3th, or i4th section of the Civil Service Act, relating to political assessments, shall be good cause for removal. [Rules 6, 7, 8, n, 13, 16, 18, and 19 were amended and promulgated Nov. 7. Rule 12 was amended and promulgated Dec. 5, 1883. Rule 16 was amended and promulgated Jan. 18, 1884. Present Rule 21 was promulgated Jan. 18, 1884. Former Rule 21 is now 22; and 22 is Rule 23.] REGULATIONS The United States Civil Service Commis- sion, acting under the authority of the Civil Service Act of January 16, 1883, and the rules promulgated by the President, makes the following regulations: CHIEF EXAMINER 1. The Chief Examiner shall, as far as prac- ticable, except when otherwise directed by the Com- mission, attend the examinations held by the sev- eral boards of examiners. He shall take care to secure accuracy, uniformity, and justice in all their proceedings, which shall at all times be open to him; but leaving the duty of the examiners, in marking and grading those examined, unimpaired. The Commission will, in its discretion, designate one of its own members, or request the detail of a suitable person, to supervise examinations when- ever deemed needful. 2. He shall prepare and submit to the approval of the Commission proper forms and questions. He shall take care that the rules and regulations are complied with, and bring every case of injus- tice and irregularity observed by him to the at- tention of the Commission. He shall take such part as the Commission shall assign him in the work at Washington. It shall be his duty to confer, from time to time, with the heads of the postal and customs officers which he officially visits, con- cerning the regularity, sufficiency, and convenience of the examinations for the service under them. SECRETARY 3. The Secretary shall keep the minutes of the proceedings of the Commission, and have charge of and be responsible for the safe-keeping of the books, records, papers, and other property in its office. He shall make the proper certification of those eligible for the Departmental Service. He CIVIL SERVICE RULES 795 shall generally conduct the correspondence of the Commission and perform such other appropriate duties as it may assign to him. BOARDS OF EXAMINERS 4. The general Board of Examiners for the Departmental Service shall consist of two persons from the Treasury Department, two from the Post- Office Department, two from the Interior Depart- ment, and one from each of the other Departments. But any three members may be designated by the Commission to constitute the acting Examining Board for any examination. The secretary of the Board of Examiners for the Departmental Service shall keep a record of its proceedings and have charge of its papers. 5. In case of examinations to be held at other places than those having the classified service, the Commission will designate an Examining Board for that purpose. 6. For each post-office, the Board of Examiners shall consist of three persons. 7. The examiners for each customs district shall consist of two persons selected from the office of the collector, and one from each of the other cus- toms offices which are subject to the rules; but if there be no office subject thereto except that of the collector, the three shall be selected from his office. 8. The examiners may serve as a Board for conducting any examination; and the Examiners for any customs district will determine which three shall hold any examination, taking care that, if an examinati is wholly or mainly for any office, one or more of the examiners from that office shall be on the acting Board. In case of a failure or disagreement as to which three shall be the Board for any examination, the Commission or Chief Examiner shall designate the local examiners who shall serve. In case of the disability or necessary absence of one of the three examiners selected, the other two may conduct the examina- tion. g. Each Examining Board in the postal and customs service shall select one of its members to serve as secretary, and it shall be his duty to keep a complete record of the proceedings of the Board and of all examinations held. He shall also keep the Record of Applicants and Examina- tions, and the Register of Persons Eligible for Appointment. He shall have charge of all books and papers belonging to the Board and shall be responsible for their safe-keeping. On application of the proper appointing officer, he shall certify to such officer, in conformity to the rules, the names of the four persons of highest grade remaining on the register. He shall also answer all proper requests for application blanks, and send due notifications to applicants to be examined, and shall give all other notices required to be given by the Board. 10. No examiner or officer serving under the Commission must attempt to control or influence appointments, removals, or promotions. it. Care must be taken by the examiners not to allow such visitors as they may admit, nor any conversation or other cause, to obstruct or distract those being examined. 12. Examiners must not disclose for public in- formation, unless by consent, the names of those examined, nor more than the general results of examinations. 13. Complaints, which show injustice or un- fairness on the part of any Examining Board, or any one acting under the Commission, will be con- sidered by the Commission, and if necessary it will revise the marking and grading on the papers, or order a new examination, or otherwise do jus- tice in the premises. 14. The head of each post-office and of each cus- toms office, to which the rules are applicable, should inform the local Board of Examiners of probable vacancies, and examinations for filling them mar be held in due season, and should also inform such local Board of the name of every person appointed or employed in the classified service under him (giving the date of the employment or appoint- ment and the designation of the office or place) from those examined under said Board. 15. The Board of Examiners for each office or district must promptly notify the Commission of the need of holding an examination in and for such office or district, and may appoint the time for the same, but subject to any change the Com- mission may find it necessary to make for the more convenient and effective discharge of its duty to see that the examinations are accurate, uniform, and just. The notice must state under which clause or clauses of Rule 7 the applicants are to be examined, and must, when practicable, be given at least twenty days before the time appointed therein for the examinations. EXAMINATIONS 1 6. Notices in writing should be mailed to ap- plicants for examination in the postal and cusc terms service at least eight days before the exam- ination, except hi cases of non-competitive and spe- cial examinations, and they shall clearly specify the place and the time, including the hour, of hold- ing the same. 17. All competitive examinations for admission to the civil service shall be in writing, except that tests of physical qualities or expertness may be added as the Commission shall approve. 1 8. The examination sheets will be given out in the order of their numbers; each, after the first, being given only when the applicant shall return to the examiners the last sheet taken by him. 19. Not more than ten questions shall be given in any subject of the examination; ,and, to fa- cilitate the marking, the questions in the same sub- ject shall, as far as practicable, be equal in diffi- culty. Care shall also be taken that the time allotted for the examination shall be reasonably sufficient for answering the questions. 20. In general, no competitive examination should occupy more than five hours, and every Examiner will exercise all due diligence to secure fairness, and to prevent all collusion or fraud in the examinations. 21. The examination papers of each applicant shall be marked only with a number, and his name with his number shall be placed in a sealed envelope, which shall not be opened till after his papers are marked. 22. The examination papers shall, so far as practicable, be reviewed by each "Examiner sep- arately, and in any case of disagreement the aver- age of the markings, to be made on the papers by all, shall be the final marking on each question, subject to the regulation as to revision. 23. The views of the heads of post-offices and customs officers, as to whether applicants for the several parts of the service under them shall be examined in the five subjects under clause i of Rule 7, or only in a less number of subjects un- der clause 4 of that rule, will be accepted by the Commission so far as its duty to require uni- formity, and adequate tests of capacity for doing the public work, will permit. CIVIL SERVICE RULES MARKING AND GRADING 24. To whichever of the five subjects, or parts thereof, mentioned in Rule 7, a competitive exam- ination may extend, the marking and grading of the applicant upon each is to be conducted in the same way. 25. To determine the Standing of the applicant in any subject, mark and credit each answer in proportion to its completeness and accuracy accord- ing to regulations prescribed for each subject; the perfect answer being credited 100. Divide the sum of the credits by the number of questions upon the subject: the quotient will be the appli- cant's Standing in that subject. 26. To determine whether any applicant has reached an Average Standing of 65 per centum in the first two or the first three subjects, add the figures marking the applicant's Standing in each; divide their sum by the number of the subjects and the quotient will be the Average Standing therein. 27. No applicant is entitled to go upon the Reg- ister of those eligible for appointment whose Aver- age Standing upon the first three subjects, or such parts thereof as are covered by the examination, is below 65 per centum; therefore, when the mark- ing and grading have been carried so far as to show such Average Standing to be below 65 per centum, they need not be carried further; and if the ex- amination includes no part of the 4th or 5th sub- ject, such Average Standing will be the General Average to be entered on the Register. 28. To whatever number of subjects the exam- ination may extend, the General Average will be ascertained by dividing the sum of the marking showing the Standings in each of the subjects by the number of subjects. 29. Every example, though it be a case of dic- tation or copying, is regarded as a question under these regulations, and, although only a portion of the topics included in a subject under Rule 7 is embraced in the examination, it will, for the pur- pose of the marking, be treated as a subject. The following example illustrates these direc- tions : showing that it is impracticable to supply, in due season, for any appointment the names of per- sons who have passed a competitive examination by reason of the failure of competent persons to attend to be examined, or the prevalence of con- tagious disease, or other sufficient cause. 31. If the Commission shall not disapprove the holding of a non-competitive examination, the Secretary of the Commission in Washington, or of the Examining Board for any post-office or customs district, shall notify for such examina- tions any persons whose names may be on the record as applicants for places analogous to those to be filled, and whom the exigency of time may allow to be notified, not less in number than the vacancies and places to be provided for, nor more than four for each of them. 32. If the number of applicants on the record be insufficient to furnish such supply, then the Exam- ining Board, or in its absence the Secretary, may notify other suitable persons, nominated by said Board or Secretary, upon consultation with the head of the office, who, taken together with said regular applicants notified, shall, if practicable, be not less in number than four to each place to be filled. The persons selected for appointment or employment shall be required to make oath to the proper application paper before entering upon their official duties. 33. The non-competitive examination shall con- form as nearly as practicable, in subjects, ques- tions, and marking, to the competitive examina- tions of the same grade; but no person shall be appointed under such non-competitive examina- tion whose average standing upon the first three subjects, clause i, Rule 7, or such parts thereof as may be used, is less than 65 per centum; Pro- vided, There are those who pass at or above that grade from whom the place can be filled. 34. The names of all the persons passing the examination shall be certified to the proper officer, and the existing vacancies shall be filled there- from; but no person, by reason of such non-com- petitive examination, shall be appointed at any [Sum of credits in each subject divided by number of questions gives credit in that subject.] O .c 2 u J3 J First subject. oj Second subject. o| Third subject. sl .a 8 Fourth subject. 0^ Fifth subject. I! O 3 o a O 3 o a go- v cr ccr U U U U o 80 Question i 40 Question i 70 Question i 60 Question i 60 45 Question 2 9 Question 2 45 Question 2 50 Question a 00 Question 3 Question 3 go Question 3 35 Question 3 c 56 Question 4 5 Question 4 Question 5 100 Question 5 too ' 3" 260 390 335 230 5 5 s 3 62.2 65 78 67 76.66 The grade at which the applicant will go upon the Register, is, therefore 62.2 -f 65 -f 78 -f 67 + 76.66 - 348.86 - 2*1?* _ 69.77. XON-COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS UNDER RULE 2O In case the necessity shall exist at any office or Department for holding a non-competitive ex- amination under Rule 20, the following conditions shall be observed: 30. The Commission shall be immediately noti- fied of such necessity and of the grounds thereof, other time than during such exigency or to any other vacancy or place. 35. A record shall be kept by the local Exam- ining Board, and by the Secretary of the Com- mission at Washington, of the persons thus noti- fied, examined, and appointed, or employed, and copies of notices and the examination papers shall be preserved; and said Board shall, after CIVIL SERVICE RULES 797 each such examination and appointment, make full report to the Civil Service Commission of all the facts. 36. In case a majority of the Commission may not be present when an examination hereunder may need to be held at Washington, the same may be conducted under the charge of the chief examiner and any two members of the Board of Examiners. SPECIAL EXAMINATIONS 37. Special Boards of Examiners will, when deemed necessary, be designated by the Commis- sion for the examinations in special and technical subjects under clause 5, Rule 7, and one or more members of each such Board will be selected from the office or bureau for which the Board is to serve. These special Boards shall be subject to the regulations prescribed by the Commission for the general Examining Boards as far as they are applicable, except as herein otherwise provided. 38. Applications for any special examination must be made in the form prescribed by the Com- mission, and must be accompanied by certificates as required in the case of ordinary applications. The minimum limitations of age shall be the same as those prescribed by Rule 12 for the several branches of the service, but no maximum limita- tions shall be required except such as the Com- mission may from time to time prescribe. 39. Whenever a special examination is to be held, notice in writing, specifying the time and place of the examination, shall be sent to a suit- able number of the applicants in the order of their application for the same, in time to allow their attendance. 40. Each special examination shall embrace the subjects approved by the Commission therefor, after consultation with the head of the office con- cerned or the special Examining Board for such office; and shall, as far as appropriate, be con- ducted under the same general regulations, as to the marking of the examination papers and the grading of the persons examined, as those for ordinary examinations. 41. A special record of applicants and a special register of eligibles shall be kept for each part of the service or office requiring special exam- inations; and when the Commission, or the proper Examining Board, shall be notified by the ap- pointing officer of a vacancy in such part of tfae service, certification shall be made to him of the names of the four persons graded highest on the special list of eligibles for the same, or of a less number, if four names do not rejmain thereon. 42. In case that competent special applicants do not apply, or do not appear for a competitive examination, after a suitable notice, a non-com- petitive examination may be held in as near con- formity as may be to the regulations provided for non-competitive examinations for admission to the service. For such examination, applicants on the general Record, and persons on the general Regis- ter of Eligibles whose application papers claim the special knowledge required, may be notified, and if they appear shall be examined, as if special applicants; but no person so examined shall for- feit his right to the general examinations, or lose his place on any register of eligibles by reason of his special examination. Information required in addition to the fore- going may be obtained upon written application to the Civil Service Commission, Washington, D. C. Positions in the Philippine Civil Service, for ap- plicants between the ages of eighteen and forty, may be secured through application to the Civil Service Commission, Washington, D. C. INSTRUCTIONS FOR WOMEN DESIROUS OF ENTERING THE CIVIL SERVICE THE APPLICATION FOR EXAMINATION To every person requesting to enter the classi- fied service, a blank application paper is sent. The filing of this paper is the first step in the appli- cant's examination. In the proper blanks she gives her name, age, residence, and occupation, for each of the past five years, and such other facts in regard to herself and her experience, edu- cation, and qualifications as are important to be known. All these statements are made under oath, and are required to be confirmed by the vouchers of not less than three or more than five persons, who state, in blank certificates on the. same sheet, their knowledge of the applicant, and their belief in the truth of her statements, and vouch for her character, capacity, and good reputation. No recommendations outside of these vouchers are allowed to be received or considered by the Commission, the examiners, or the appoint- ing officers. The application thus filed is returned to the Commission, or to the proper Examining Board, and if its statements show that the applicant is regularly vouched for, and that she is entitled by age, health, and citizenship to be examined for the service she seeks, her name is entered upon the proper record, with the date of her application, and her paper is placed on file. When the ex- amination is held, at a point which is deemed con- venient for her, she is notified to be present. If the applications on file, at any office, are in ex- cess 'of the number that can be examined at one time, the earlier applicants, by Rule 13, are sum- moned first; except that at Washington the duty of apportionment may require those to be first examined who are from States whose qualified ap- plications are in deficient numbers. This excludes all preference of applicants through favor or patronage, and is the spirit of the act, section 5, which makes all wilful and corrupt obstruction of the right of examination a criminal offence. The applicants who are in excess of the number that can be examined at one time stand first upon the record to be notified for the next examination. Examinations are held as frequently as the needs of the service require. Thus far all applicants (except some from the District of Columbia, where the number is excessive, and in one or two similar cases outside) have been notified to attend the first examinations held after their applications were received. The application paper is itself a sort of pre- liminary examination; it asks the same questions that any wise and experienced business man or appointing officer would desire to ask concerning the circumstances, health, character, and experi- 51 798 CIVIL SERVICE RULES ence of the applicant, and it frequently deters from the examinations unworthy or incompetent persons, who find themselves unable to answer sat- isfactorily the inquiries proposed, or unwilling to give the information asked for. Of the best of place-seekers, many may be weeded out by the necessity of making this sworn statement oi their career, while to genuine and worthy applicants it opens the way for the proper statement of their qualifications. WHO MAY COMPETE A competition theoretically perfect would be one in which every person, from any part of the country, could compete for every vacancy. But the needs of the public business, as well as the provisions of the act that the examination shall be practical, and shall fairly test capacity and fit- ness needed for discharging the duties of the place sought, require limitations. The qualifications needed for carriers or for weighers, for exam- ple, are quite different from those needed for copyists, or for some grades of clerks. Ques- tions appropriate for ordinary clerkships would be unfit tests for telegraphers or pension - office examiners. Provision is therefore made under which the application paper designates the grade or description of places sought; and it follows that the real competition is between all those who seek the same grade or places. Further than this, the act, requiring the appoint- ments to the service at Washington to be appor- tioned among the States, Territories, and the Dis- trict of Columbia, practically makes the competition between those from the same State or Territory rather than an inter-State competition. In some cases, perhaps, this State competition may put into the service a person inferior to the one whom the broader competition would have supplied. But it gives to each State and Territory, what it has not yet had, a proportion of the appointments nu- merically due to the population, and it will un- questionably stimulate education in the States as well as increase the local interest in all matters affecting the administration of the Federal Gov- ernment. SUBJECTS FOR EXAMINATION The branches embraced in the general examina- tion for ordinary clerkships and other places of the same grade are given in Rule 7. In none of these branches do the questions go further than is covered by the ordinary instruction in the com- mon schools of the country. If limited examina- tion is provided under clause 4 of Rule 7, for copyists, messengers, carriers, night inspectors, and other employees of similar grades, including only a part of the branches above named, the sub- jects and questions being varied in number and grade to meet the requirements of the different parts of the service, this allows persons of only limjted attainments to secure the positions for which they are competent. The common-school education must have been exceedingly defective which does not enable one to pass this examina- tion. It will be noticed that, even in the general or higher grade of examination under clause I, Rule i, proficiency in the first three subjects secures eligibility for appointment. Therefore failure 'n the last two will exclude no one from the service, though a good standing therein raises the grade of the applicant and gives her the better chance for an appointment. If any shall notice, with regret, that only com- mon-school education is exacted for entering the public service at the higher grade, and that thus only small direct reward is offered to academic and college learning, it may be remembered, on the other hand, that both by rewarding excel- lence in the common schools and by barring out corrupt influence from public office, learning of every grade, and good character and effort in every position are stimulated and strengthened. The common schools are the gates to the academies, and the academies are the gates to the colleges. SPECIAL AND TECHNICAL EXAMINATIONS While only the common-school education is re- quired of the applicant for the ordinary clerkship and subordinate places in the classified service, there are other places, comparatively few in num- ber, for which higher qualifications are requisite. Among these are clerkships in the State Depart- ment, which demand some knowledge of modern languages, and of other special subjects; assistant examiners, draughtsmen, and other places requir- ing technical knowledge or skill, in the Patent Office; pension examiners and other clerkships in several Departments requiring some knowledge of law; draughtsmen and other employees in the Su- pervising, Architect's Office, and Engineer De- partment, and employees in other technical or scientific bureaus or divisions of the service. Rule 7, clause 5, provide: for the special examinations for such places. Special Boards of Examiners have already been designated in. the State Depart- ment, the Patent Office, and the Pension Bureau. Special examinations have been held of a teleg- rapher for the Department of Justice, and a tele- graphic draughtsman for the Engineer Department. QUESTIONS AND EXAMINATIONS In order to secure uniformity and justice, the questions for the examinations are almost invari- ably prepared by the Commission; those for any Examining Board outside Washington being for- warded for its use just before any examination is to be held. They are printed upon sheets with adequate space below each question for writing or solution. The applicant gets her first knowledge of the question as the sheets are given her, one after the otuer as her work advances, at her ex- amination table. The examinations are open to such spectators as can be accommodated without interfering with the quiet due to those being ex- amined, but the answers are not exhibited without the consent of the person who . wrote them. The question sheets, with answers thereon, are pre- served as a part of the permanent records of the Commission, so that the fairness of the marking and grading can be tested as well a year as a week after they are made. It is hardly necessary to add that, except in the very few examinations needed for places requiring technical or scientific knowledge, no very difficult questions have been used. The examples in arithmetic do not go be- yond the needs of the public business. .Every question in geography, history, or Government is confined to that of the United States. Not a word of a foreign language, nor a technical term of art or science, nor any example in algebra, ge- ometry, or trigonometry, has been employed in any one of the general or limited examinations; and these examinations alone are used for at least ninety-five out of every hundred places with- in the classified service. CERTIFYING FOR APPOINTMENT Those who huve attained a grade showing fit- ness for appointment at Washington are placed CIVIL SERVICE RULES 799 upon the proper register kept by the Commission for the service there; and at other places by the Examining Board at each place. (See Rules 13, 14, and 16, and Regulations 4 to 10.) These reg- isters are permanent books of record, showing the age, grade, residence, date of entry thereon as eligible for appointment for all parts and grades of the service. When a vacancy occurs at Wash- ington, the Commission, and when at a post-office or customs office the Examining Board of the ame, certifies from the proper register four per- ons who are graded highest among those entered thereon for the grade or part of the service in which the vacancy exists. In the latter offices, where no appointment is required, the four graded highest must in every case be certified. At Wash- ington, the Commission takes the four names from the list of those from one or more States (having names upon the register) which have the strong- est claim on the basis of the appointment. But the highest in the grade, from the State or States which have such claim, must be taken; and the whole action in that regard appears on record. The grade is won by the applicant herself. The order of selection is fixed by the law and the rules. This excludes both favor and patronage. WOMEN IN THE SERVICE Nowhere, on the part of the Commission or its subordinates, is there any favor or disadvantage allowed by reason of sex. Only under free, open, competitive examinations have the worthiest women the opportunities, and the Government the pro- tection, which arise from allowing character and capacity to win the precedence and the places their due. The need for political influence, or for importunate solicitations, especially disagree- able to women, for securing appointments in the classified service, exists no longer. Rule 16, clause 3, controls the certification of women for appoint- ment so completely that the Commission has no discretion on the subject. The law in force be- fore the passage of the Civil Service Act gave the heads of Departments authority to decide when women are required or can be accepted. Both the Civil Service Act and the Rules leave that authority unimpaired. In order to prevent disappointment, we ought to add that, perhaps because the examinations naturally appeal to the hopes and the ambition of women, a greater number of them, in proportion to the places treated by the Departments as open to their sex, has been examined, and hence the number of women waiting to be certified is large in a like ratio. REMOVALS The power of removal and its exercise, for just reasons, are essential both to discipline and the efficiency of the public service. A life tenure would be indefensible. The Civil Service Act and Rules leave the au- thority and duty of removal undisturbed, with this exception, that the second rule forbids a removal for refusing to perform a political service, or to pay a political assessment; and the last rule adds every violation of either a rule, or the provisions of the act against assessments to the good causes for removal which existed before. The act and rules have greatly diminished the pressure upon appointing officers for removals, and have taken from them the temptation to make removals of their own motion for the mere purpose of making a vacancy for a favorite. Many removals, and those the most indefensible in former years, were unquestionably made not because the person re- moved was not a useful public servant, but be- cause some powerful influence was 'to be concili- ated, some friend was to be gratified, or some dangerous enemy was to be placated by putting a particular person in the vacancy. Nevertheless, save in the particulars mentioned, the power to remove for even most partisan and selfish reasons remains unchanged. The changes are only in the opportunity of filling the vacancy with favorites and henchmen, and in the greater peril from a frowning, hostile public opinion. PROMOTIONS AND OTHER EXCEPTIONS FROM THE RULES Rule 19, recognizing needs in the public service familiar to those acquainted with the conditions of good administration, allows the applicant for certain places to be appointed without examination. The confidential or fiduciary relations sustained by those who fill some of these places, the occa- sional need of employing persons of professional standing or of peculiar capacity in others, and the lack of temptation for disregarding the public in- terests in filling others, are the reasons for all but one of these exceptions. The entire exceptions (outside those relat- ing to promotions), cover but few places not ex- ceeding 135 in all the Departments at Washing- ton; and in the postal and customs service the ratio of excepted places is smaller still. PROBATION The rules provide for a probationary service of six months before any absolute appointment can be made. At the end of this time the appointee goes out of the service, unless then reappointed. During the probation, the character of the ser- vice rendered by the probationer, and her fidelity, are carefully observed, as the question of a per- manent appointment depends upon them. The probation is a practical scrutiny continued through six months in the very work which the ap- plicant is to do. This part of the system meets oft-repeated objections based on the assumption that no merely literary examination can show all the qualities required in a good officer. Nobody pretends that an examination in any branch of learning is an adequate test of business capacity. Congress clearly recognized its inadequacy, and therefore provided that in all cases there shall be a period of probation before any absolute appoint- ment or employment. Instead of this practical test being foreign to the competitive system, it is original with that system, and is everywhere an important part of it. It has been shown, moreover, upon each of the several trials of competitive examinations, that in a large majority of instances the superior men in the competitions are also the superior men in the public work. The proportion, among the bright minds, of thos who have good business capacity, is at least as great as the proportion of those hav- ing that capacity among men of very dull minds. Between these extremes, they who excel in the schools do so by reason of the fidelity, patient labor, and good habits qualities which also fit them for the public service. The first person to enter the public service any- where under the present rules a young man at the Post-Office at St. Louis was the first in the competition, and he was the first to be promoted for merit at the end of his probation. The first person appointed under the rules to a department at Washington was a lady who stood first on the competitive list of her sex. COMMERCE AND MONEY COMMERCE of all grades, from the limited trade of a country store to the traffic between nations, demands some definite and recog- nized medium of exchange. After human society had emerged from its most primitive form, it rapidly outgrew the possibility of con- ducting business by simple exchange of commodities. Consequently, money in its most rudimentary shapes appeared in history, and the development has continued to the present day, as will be learned in these pages. SKINS of wild animals cured constitute one of the earliest forms of currency known, and while employed in the most ancient times, are not yet disused in some portions of the world. Such a medium seems appropriate among those who subsist by the chase, as all primeval peoples must in some degree, and it is not, therefore, surprising to find that in the transactions of the Hudson Bay Fur Company with the Indians the unit of value by which the price of other articles was reckoned was the beaver skin. Pastoral people employ similarly the skins of tame animals, originally delivering the entire skin, a cumbrous process deficient in convenience and economy, but finally em- ploying a small disk cut from the leather as a representative of its value. Live stock is also widely employed, as it has been from the days of Abraham, and though a rude, it is still a substantially uniform denomina- tor of value. The Greeks stamped the image of an ox on a piece of leather, and the image had thence the current value of the animal represented. In the East, the camel, the ass, and the sheep have been, ever since they were subdued to the uses of mankind, employed to reckon possessions or determine the amount of tribute or marriage portions. In Lapland and some portions of Sweden (800) and Norway the amount of wealth possessed by a person is denominated in reindeer. Among the Tartars the number of mares similarly determines the opulence of their possessors. Among the Esquimaux it is customary to speak of one another as worth so many dogs. Slaves have been employed to determine ratios of value since the state of bondage was first established among men. In New Guinea the slave is still the unit by which the value of other possessions is recorded, as he used to be among the Portuguese traders of the Gold Coast. The Portuguese also found small mats called libongoes, valued at about i l / 2 pence each, employed as currency on the African coast, and bunches of red feathers serve by their comparative stability to mark the fluctua- tions of yams and breech-clouts in some of the tropical islands of the Pacific. Some tribes of North American Indians found wampum as useful in their rather limited mercantile transactions as the merchant of South Street or Burling Slip finds green- backs or bills of exchange. Cowry shells are still extensively used in East India, Siam, and among some of the islands of the Indian Archipelago. Among the Fijians whales' teeth pass readily from hand to hand, effecting all necessary inter- COMMERCE AND MONEY 801 changes, the red teeth being taken at about twenty times the value of the white ones. Ornaments of all kinds have in all times constituted measures of value. In Egypt, Phoenicia, Etruria, and many other ancient countries, as well as in Ireland and North- umbria, rings have been found which were designed to serve the double purpose of ornament and currency, and the same dual function may be ascribed to the anklets, armlets, and ear-rings which are worn throughout British India, Persia, Egypt, and Abyssinia. The Goths and Celts fash- ioned their rings of thick golden wire wound in spirals, from which various lengths could be broken to accommodate the varying needs of traffic. Gold chains have been similarly employed. In many countries golden beads are yet hoarded, worn, and circulated, fulfilling thus the triple functions of money, inasmuch as they constitute at once a store of value, a standard of value, and an instrument of exchange. Amber was used as currency by the savage races of the Baltic in the period of the Romar dominion, as it still is in some of the regions of the East. The Egyptian scarabee, carved on sard or ne- phrite or other precious stones, circulated freely throughout the Mediterranean coasts and islands probably before the first Phoe- nician coin was impressed ; and engraved gems and precious stones were employed to transfer wealth as well from one country to another as from hand to hand until a comparatively recent period. In Africa ivory tusks pass to and fro in the process of trade, rudely defining the ratio of value of other articles. Among the Tartars, bricks of tea, or cubes of that herb pressed into a solid form, pass from hand to hand as freely as beaver skins do at the trading posts of Hudson Bay or the Saskatchewan. Among the Malayans the only currency en- tirely equal to the requirements of trade consists of rough hardware, such as hoes, shovels, and the like. Pieces of cotton cloth of a fixed length, called Guinea cloth, for a long period constituted the unit of value in Senegal, Abyssinia, Mexico, Peru, Si- beria, and some of the islands of the Pacific Ocean. In Sumatra, cubes of beeswax of a fixed weight; in Scotland, hand-made nails ; in Switzerland, eggs ; in Newfound- land, dried codfish ; in Virginia, tobacco ; in Yucatan, cacao-nuts ; in the Greek Islands and the Levant, olive-oil ; in the regions of the Upper Nile, salt, have all, at one time or another, served the purposes of com- mercial interchange. In agricultural coun- tries it is not strange that corn should have early been adopted as a measure of value. The leases of the great school foundations of Britain, Cambridge, Oxford, and Eton, with probably many others, were "corn leases," that is, specifying that the rental should consist of so many quarters of corn. In Norway, corn is deposited in banks and loaned and borrowed on time or call loans, as money is with us. In Central America and Mexico, maize was long employed to serve the uses of currency. METALLIC MONEY In New England, in the early colonial days, leaden bullets were employed to in- dicate value, and that metal is still coined and circulated in Burmah. Pewter has often been coined, and in many countries, though not to the same extent as tin. In fact tin coins are not only of immense an- tiquity, but their impress has been sanc- tioned by government authority down to a recent period. The Phoenician mariners freighted their galleys with the tin of Britain before Carthage was founded, and coins of the same oiled the wheels of com- merce in the marts of Tyre and Sidon be- fore Solomon built the temple at Jerusa- lem. In England, as late as the period of William and Mary, tin halfpence and far- things were struck, though they failed to become a permanent part of the circulation. In numismatical collections, series of tin coins stamped with the effigy and legend of several of the Roman emperors, are abundant. In Java as well as Mexico, tin coins were once current, and the metal, measured by weight, is still a sort of legal tender in the Straits of Malacca. In all civilized countries, gold, silver, and copper have always constituted the main elements of coinage and the most familiar forms of currency. The ratio of value be- tween the first two has probably varied less during the last 2,500 years than that be- tween any other known substances. Copper has fluctuated more, but its function has always been subsidiary and limited to small transactions. In the hierarchy of the met- als used as coins, gold may represent the king, silver the lord, and copper the slave. The latter is now practically emancipated, bronze and nickel taking its place. Indium, osmium, and palladium have been proposed as substitutes for gold, and aluminium and manganese for silver, but without any prac- tical result thus far. Platinum, which is mainly found in the Ural Mountains, has been coined to some extent by the Russian 802 COMMERCE AND MONEY Government; but, although a beautiful and valuable metal, possessing many of the qualities to render it acceptable as coin, its employment as money has been found to be impracticable. Great numbers of alloys have been em- ployed in coinage, and indeed it may be said that almost the entire system of metal- lic currency throughout the world is com- pose 1 of alloys. The Tuscan sequin, the purest coin known in history, contained 999 parts of gold in 1,000. The six-ducat piece of Naples was next in purity, having only an alloy of 4, while old Byzantine coins called bezants contained an alloy of 14 parts in looo. Pure gold and silver, however, are soft metals, and, untempered by others, are subject to serious loss by abrasion. They are, therefore, rendered more useful by the admixture of a small portion of cop- per, which, in the English system, in the case of gold, may be expressed decimally by 916.66, and of silver 925 parts in 1,000. Nickel is usually alloyed with three parts of copper, and it is noteworthy that its adoption as a subsidiary coinage in Ger- many, coincident with the demonetization of silver, caused it to advance rapidly in price, while the latter was as rapidly de- clining. The old Roman as was made of the mixed metal called ces, a compound of copper and tin, and in quality and value not unlike bronze. Brass was also exten- sively used from the time of Hiram of Tyre to that of the Emperor Otho. The old Kings of Northumbria coined a small money called stycas out of a natural alloy, composed of copper, zinc, gold, silver, lead, and tin, which the metallurgists of that rude northern coast had not enough chemical skill to separate. Lycurgus established an iron coinage for Lacedaemon, not only making the coins of such weight and bulk as to forbid their export, but depriving them of their metallic value by causing them while heated to be plunged into vinegar, thereby destroying their malleability. While these coins were the largest of which historic mention is made, the Portu- guese rei, too small to be actually coined, is doubtless the smallest unit of value in the money systems of the world. It is only about the nineteenth part of an English penny, and is considerably smaller than the Chinese cash, which, of actual coins, is per- haps of the lowest value known. In Sweden, during the eighteenth century, huge squares of copper weighing between three and four pounds, with a s'amp in each corner and one in the centre, were issued as coin, and curious specimens of them may still be seen in numismatical collections. These, with the Maundy money, a ^mall portion of which is still annually struck at the British Mint and distributed by his Majesty in alms probably represent the extremest 'variatioi of dimensions known among modern sys- tems of coinage, the smallest piece of the Maundy money being a silver penny. The Chinese probably illustrate in th/ most extreme manner the length to which loose views concerning currency can be car- ried. The history of their currency presents that mingling of the grotesque with the tragic which most of their actions have when viewed through Western eyes. Coined money was known among them as early as the eleventh century before Christ, but their inability to comprehend the principles upon which a currency should be based has led them into all sorts of extravagances, which have been attended by disorder, famine, and bloodshed. Coins came at last to be made so thin that one thousand of them piled together were only three inches high ; then gold and silver were abandoned ; and cop- per, tin, shells, skins, stones, and paper were given a fixed value and used until, by abuse, all the advantages to be. derived from the use of money were lost, and there was noth- ing left for the people to do but to go back to barter, and this they did more than once. They can not be said now to have a coinage; 2,900 years ago they made round coins with a square hole in the middle, and they have made no advance beyond that since. The well-known cash is a cast-brass coin of that description, and although it is valued at about one mill and a half of United States money, and has to be strung in lots of one thousand to be computed with any ease, it is the sole measure of value and legal tender of the country. Spanish, Mexican, English, and United States money are employed in China; they pass because they are necessary for larger operations, and because faith in their stand- ard value has become established ; but these coins are accepted and used simply as stamped ingots, with their weight and fine- ness indicated. COINED MONEY OF GREAT BRITAIN In Great Britain money of the current and standard coinage is frequently signified by the term sterling, as "one pound ster- ling," etc. With respect to the origin of COMMERCE AND MONEY 803 the word sterling, there are three opinions. The first is that it is derived from Sterling Castle, and that Edward I., having pene- trated so far into Scotland, caused a coin to be struck there, which he called Sterling. The second opinion derives it from the figure of a bird called starling, which ap- pears about the cross in the ancient arms of England. The third most probably as- signs its true origin, by deducing it from Esterling; for in the time of Henry III it is called Moneta Esterlingorum, the money of the Esterlings or people of the East, who came hither to refine the silver of which it was made, and hence it was valued more than any other coin, on account of the purity of its substance. The denomina- tion of the weights and their parts is of the Saxon or Esterling tongue, as pound, shilling, penny, and farthing, which are so ' called in their language to the present day. The term sterling is now disused in Eng- land in all ordinary transactions, but is still used in Scotland to distinguish sums from the ancient money of the country, as re- ferred to in old deeds and notices of pecu- niary transactions. The old Scots' money, previous to the Union of 1707, was in pounds, shillings, and pence, but these were only a twelfth of the value of sterling money of the same denomination; thus a pound Scots was only twenty pence sterling. The word sterling is also in use in the col- onies, to distinguish the legal standard of Great Britain from the currency money in these places. It is customary to estimate the purity of gold by an imaginary standard of 24 carats. If in a piece of gold weighing 24 carats there be 1-24 of alloy, then the piece is one below the standard. What is called jew- elers' gold is seldom purer than 20 fine to 4 of alloy the alloy being usually silver, but sometimes copper, which gives a deeper red tinge to the metal. Perfectly pure gold is never seen either in trinkets or coins, for it is too ductile, and for that and other reasons requires a certain quantity of alloy. Sovereigns, and other modern English gold coins, contain one-twelfth of alloy, but this twelfth is not reckoned as gold in point of value. At present the gold coin of Great Britain is issued at very nearly its precise market value as bullion. A pound weight of gold of 22 carats fineness produces coins to the amount of 46 143. 6d., which is about :he price at which bullion sells for in the market. Thus the gold of that country is coined free of expense. In coining silver, the government was allowed, by the Act of 56 Geo. Ill, a profit or seigniorage of about six per cent; the pound weight of silver, which should produce 62 shillings, being coined into 66 shillings. The silver coins being therefore of a little less real value than the sums they represent, they are not liable to be melted down by silver- smiths for the manufacture of articles in their trade. The word money is from the Temple of Juno Moneta, in which money was coined by the Romans. Pecuniary is from pecus, a flock flocks and herds of animals being originally equivalent to money, or things constituting wealth. Cash, in commerce, signifies ready money, or actual coin paid on the instant, and is from the French word caisse, a coffer or chest in which money is kept. Pound never was a coin; the term was originally employed to signify a pound weight of silver, but afterward it was em- ployed to mean twenty shillings in tale, or by counting. Guinea took its name from the coast of Guinea in Africa, whence the gold for it was originally brought; at first, the piece was current at twenty shillings, afterward it was equal to 2is. 6d., and finally settled at 2fs. In the present day the guinea is not coined, and the term only re- mains to indicate 2is. Honorary fees and gifts are still usually reckoned in guineas, though paid in other money. Shilling and penny are both from Saxon words ; the penny was first coined in silver. Groat was a name given to silver pieces equal to four pennies in value, coined by Edward III ; the word groat is a corruption of grosses or great pieces, and was given to distinguish this larger coinage from pennies or small coins. Farthing is a corruption of fourthing, or the fourth part of a penny. COINED MONEY OF THE UNITED STATES What is termed money in the United States now consists of gold, silver, nickel, and composition coins, and the paper cur- rency, in bills, issued by the banks under a national banking law. In compliance with the first section of the Act of March 3, 1873, the director of the mint made an estimate of the value in United States money of the standard coins of foreign countries, and by order of the Secretary of the Treasury, October i, 1900, the following are now to be taken in es- timating the values of all foreign merchan- dise made out in any of said currencies, im- ported since the latter date: COMMERCE AND MONEY COUNTRY MONETARY UNIT STAND- ARD VAUXN U. S. MONEY STANDARD COIN Argentine Republic. Peso Gold.. Goia. Gold. . $ .96.5 '30.3 19-3 45- 1 54-6 1. 00 45. 1 .36.5 .26.8 45-1 4-94-3 9-3 4.86.6 .19-3 .33.8 .32.4 .19-3 .49.8 1.00 49 .40.2 .26. 48.7 i. 08 Si-S 9-3 .26.8 .19-3 .04.4 45-1 Argentine, i-a A., Peso and divisions. 20 crowns and 10 crowns. Gold, 10 and 20 francs; silver, 5 francs. Boliviano and divisions. Gold, 5 to 20 milreis; silver, 1-2 to 2 milreis. Peso and divisions. Condor, doubloon, and escudo. 10 and 20 crowns. Gold: Condor ($9.64.7), Sucre and divisions. 5, 10, 25, and 50 piasters; silver, i to 20 piasters. S, 10, 20, 50, 100 frs. ; silver coins. 1-2 sovereign and sovereign. 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 drachmas. 5, 10, and 20 marks. Sovereign, rupee, and divisions. 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 lire, i, 2, 5, 10, and 20 yen; silver, 10, 20, 50 sen. Peso or dollar, 5, 10, 25, and 50 centavos. Gold: 10 florins; silver: 1-2 to 2 1-2 florins. 10 to 20 crowns. Gold: libra ($4.86 1-2); silver: sol. i, 2, 5, and 10 milreis. Gold: Imperial ($7.71.8); silver: 1-4, 1-2, i ruble. Gold: 25 pesetas; silver; 5 pesetas (peso). 10 and 20 crowns. 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 francs. 25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 piasters. Gold: condor, ($9.64.7); silver: peso. Bolivia Boliviano Milreis, 1,000 reis. . Dollar Peso Peso Crown Sucre. Pound, i oo Piasters Franc Pound Sterling Drachma Mark Rupee, 15 to Sov. .. Lira Yen (gold) Dollar Dollar ouvcr. Gold. . Gold. . Silver. Gold.. Gold.. Silver. Gold. . Gold.. Gold.. Gold.. Gold.. Silver. Gold.. Gold.. Gold.. Silver. Gold. . Gold.. Gold. . Gold.. Gold. . Gold.. Gold.. Gold.. Gold.. Gold. . British Pos. in N. A . Central America. . . Chili Ecuador EflTVDt. . Greece German Empire. . . Italy Liberia Mexico Netherlands Norway Florin Crown Sol Milreis, 1,000 reis. . Ruble, 100 copecks. Peseta, 100 centimes Crown Franc Piaster Peso Peru Portugal Russia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey U. S. of Colombia. . The gold pieces are: 1. The double eagle, or $20 piece. Coinage of the double eagle was authorized by the Act of March 3, 1849. Its weight is 516 grains. Its fineness is 900. (This technical form of expression means that 900 parts in 1,000 are pure metal, the other 100 parts are alloy.) 2. The eagle or $10 piece. Its coinage was authorized by the Act of April 2, 1792. The weight was first established by law at 270 grains, but was changed forty-two years af- terward, by the Act of June 28, 1834, to 258 grains, where it has remained ever since. Its fineness was in the beginning made 916 2-3, but was changed by the Act of June 28, 1834, the same Act that lowered its weight, to 899.225. Two years and a half subsequently its fineness was increased less than one part in a thousand to 900. Its weight and fineness have remained thus fixed to the present day. 3. The half eagle, or $5 piece. This ele- gant coin has undergone the same vicissi- tudes as the eagle. Its coinage was author- ized by the same Act of April 2, 1792. Its weight was 135 grains and its fineness 916^2. By the Act of June 28, 1834, its weight was reduced to 129 grains and its fineness to 899.225. By the Act of January 16, 1857, its fineness was slightly raised to the uniform standard of 900. Its weight and fineness have thus remained to our time. 4. The quarter eagle, or $2.50 piece. This fine coin belongs to fhf sr.me family with the eagle and half eagle. Its coinage was authorized, its weight and fineness corre- spondingly altered by the same Acts. The statute of 1792 made its weight 67.5 grains and its fineness 916^4. Its weight was re- duced to 64.5 grains and its fineness to 800.225 by the Act of 1834. The Act of 1837 raised its fineness to 900. 5. The dollar. This pretty little gold piece was created by the Act of March 3, 1849, the same Act that authorized the coin- age of the double eagle. It has remained unchanged. Its weight is 25.8 grains and its fineness 900. 6. Three-dollar piece. An Act of Febru- ary 21, 1853, established this irregular coin. Its weight, 77.4 grains, and its fineness, 900, ar^ of the normal standard, and have not been changed by subsequent Acts. In gold coin the alloy was at first a com- pound of silver and copper. It was forbid- den by statute that the alloy should be more than half silver. It is now nearly all copper, owing to advances in the art of assaying and improved methods in coinage. There are four coining mints, located at Philadelphia, Pa; San Francisco, Cal. ; Car- son City, Nev. ; and New Orleans, La., the last one being put in operation on January 20, 1879. The largest proportion of assay- ing and refining is done at New York City; Helena, .Montana; Boise City, Idaho; and Denver, Colorado. In the closing year of the nineteenth cen- tury (1900) there were 3,587 National Banks COMMERCE AND MONEY 805 in the United States. Their combined capi- tal was $604,756,505, but this amount was augmented by a combined surplus of $253,- 475,898. On this total amount dividends of $24^28,936 were paid out of net earnings of $40,151,038. On this showing the ratio of dividends to established capital was about 4.01 per cent, but with the surplus capital counted in with the regular the proportion of dividends to the amount invested was but 2.82 per cent. Even when the earnings are considered, in connection with their ratio to the combined capital and surplus of the National Banks of the country, we find that these earnings represent only 4.68 per cent of the money that these National Banks carry in their own names. The first silver coins were struck in 1794 (authorized in 1792), at the Philadelphia Mint, and consisted of 1,758 dollars and 10,600 half dollars, and a few half dimes (5 cents), more for curiosities than use. In the succeeding year the issue was 203,033 dollars, 323,038 half dollars, no quarters, no dimes, and 86,416 half dimes. In 1796 the mint coined only 72,920 dollars and 3,918 half dollars, with 2,948 quarters. In 1797 the number of dollars issued was 2,776, and the mint records state that there were no half dollars and only 252 quarters. Dollars only were coined in 1798. In 1796 the head of Liberty was changed, and a new head, inferior in point of comeliness, substituted. This also had flowing locks, but these were bound by a broad fillet, and hence the name "fillet dollars." In 1798 there were no halves or quarters, and there were none in 1799, nor again in 1800. But in the following year the half dollars were commenced again, being of the fillet series, with the heraldic eagle on the reverse. In 1804, according to the records, 19,570 dollars were issued, 156,519 halves, and 6,738 quarters. There are but two dollars of 1804 known to exist, and these are said to have been struck surreptitiously from the original die at the Philadelphia mint in 1827. The value of these two to numismaticians is enormous; as high as $1,000 has been re- fused for one of them. The first dollar pieces (1792) contained 416 grains of silver of 892.7 fineness, and this proportion was maintained until 1873, when the quantity of silver was reduced to 412.5 grains, and the fineness increased to 900. The fifty cent pieces, from 1792 to 1837, contained 208 grains, 892.7 fineness, and the twenty-five cent pieces a proportionate amount; and both were subjected to a re- duction in number of grains and increase in fineness in 1873. The ten-cent pieces contained 41.6 grains, of standard fineness, and now bear 38.58 grains under the new standard of fineness. From 1851 to 1853, the five cent pieces were composed of 12,375 grains, 750 fine, and from 1853 to 1873, when their coinage was abolished, 11.52 grains, 900 fine. The old copper cents, authorized in 1792, contained 264 grains; the next year the amount was reduced to 208, and three years later to 168. As a purely copper token this coin was abolished shortly after the last reduction in the number of grains. The two cent piece of April, 1864, contained 96 grains of copper, zinc, and tin, and was discontinued in 1873. The half cent pieces were established in 1792, containing 132 grains; this amount was reduced in 1793 to 104, and in 1796 to 84. None are coined now. An Act of March, 1875, authorized the coinage of a silver twenty cent piece, containing 77.16 grains, ooo fine. This coin being but a trifle smaller than the twenty- five cent piece, led to such a general con- fusion of the two, that in 1878 its coinage was stopped. But few are now found in circulation. The one cent piece of present use was authorized in 1857, and consisted ol 72 grains of copper and nickel, and in 1864 this composition was changed to 48 grains of copper, zinc, and tin. Finally, the five and three cent nickel pieces were authorized in 1866 and 1865 respectively; the latter has a comparatively small circu- lation. SAVINGS BANKS AND OTHER SCHEMES FOR POPULAR SAVINGS The number of savings banks in the United States, in 1900, according to the report of the Comptroller of the Currency, was 1,002. These banks represented 6,107,- 083 depositors, or considerably less thaft one in every ten of our population. Their total deposits, however, reached the sum of $2,449,547,885. In Great Britain the number of depositors was larger, viz.: 9,493,838, yet the total savings of these depositors amounted to only $916,836,845. A computation of the deposits of all the pa- trons of savings banks in the world shows that their savings amount to the sum of about seven billions of dollars. France paid Germany an indemnity of about a billion dollars. All the savings bank depositors in the world could pay this indemnity but seven times. In the United States we pay little attention to the statement that an 806 COMMERCE AND MONEY individual is worth $100,000,000. Yet that means that he owns one-seventieth as much as all the depositors of the world have in bank. Savings banks receive and take charge of small sums, the savings of industry, and were instituted for the benefit of workmen and others, who were able to spare a little from their earnings. It is believed that Quaker thrift in Philadelphia, Pa., led to the inception of the idea, and that the first savings bank in the world was founded in that city in 1816. As the scheme grew in popularity throughout the United States, guardians of minor children, administrators of estates of deceased persons, and other holders of trust funds, found the savings banks very serviceable as places of deposit for money that had to be laid away for a specified period of time. Hence, the exigen- cies of business transactions forced an in- novation upon the original plan. In the United States this use of savings banks is still maintained ; but during the past fifteen years Safe Deposit and Trust Companies have been numerously established for the special purpose of holding funds, both in trust and in legal dispute, besides securities of all kinds, jewelry, diamonds, and articles of like value. Thus a guardian, an ad- ministrator, or a society will invest money in Government, State, or City bonds, or, if permitted by the terms of the trust, in real estate or stock of various corporations, and place the bond, certificate of stock, or other acknowledgment of the indebtedness, with a safe deposit or trust company, for safe-keeping. The savings banks are al- lowed by law to invest their money in first-class securities only. The average rate of interest allowed by savings banks in the United States on de- oosits is four per cent; it is frequently be- low that rate. Some of the larger banks will not permit individual deposits beyond a special amount at one time, while others decrease the rate of interest as the amount of deposits increases, claiming that their vast aggregates of deposits can not be in- vested, under the law, in a manner that will warrant the maximum rate of interest after paying current expenses. From Philadelphia the original concep- tion or plan of the savings bank extended all over the United States, throughout Great Britain, France, and other coun- tries. Several Acts of Parliament were successively passed between 1817 and 1828 for the regulation of savings banks in Eng- land; and in the year last mentioned the whole of these were consolidated in one statute (9 Geo. IV, chap. 92). This Act, together with another passed in 1833, con- ferring additional and important privileges on savings banks (3 Will. IV, chap. 14), constitutes the existing law relative to these establishments. In 1835 the Act was extended to Scotland. Several new features of taking care of small savings have been instituted that de- serve mention in this connection. Let us glance first at the operations of the so- called creditors' loan societies of Germany, founded . by Schulze-Delitzsch, and which practically discharge the function of banks for workingmen. In 1878 these numbered upward of 1,800, and the balances reported by 929 show aggregate advances for the year amounting to $375,000,000 a sum which, distributed among the laboring population, should have afforded material relief in a time of financial stringency. Impressive testimony to the stability and usefulness of these workmen's banks is the success with which they withstood the then prostration of industry and commerce in the German Empire. Indeed, the system is so well accredited by experience that it has been introduced in other parts of Eu- rope, and especially in Italy and Belgium, where co-operative credit banks have be- come numerous enough to form unions and hold congresses. The second of these novel schemes is the system of Penny Banks, introduced into England in 1857, the first being opened at Greenock, where five thousand depos- itors availed themselves of its advantages in the first year. From year to year penny banks have been on the increase, and from recent statistics it has been shown that at the present time progress is in every way satisfactory. Rapid as has been the progress of the penny-bank movement in England, it is far behind France and Belgium. In both those countries, school banks have been instituted with much greater success than has hitherto crowned the attempt made in England, and it is to the development of these school- banks that the marvelous increase in the total amount deposited in savings banks generally is to be attributed. In the United States school-banks have been organized, thus far, in but few places throughout the vast educational reaches of the country. An exhibit of such a system, with tables of statistics for the few schools in which this primary instruction in saving had been introduced, was made at the World's Co- COMMERCE AND MONEY 807 lumbian Exposition, but little has since been accomplished. In Belgium an admirable plan is adopted. P'rizes are given by the government to elementary scholars for general proficiency, in the shape of a deposit book, with a small sum entered therein to the credit of the recipient. In this way good conduct is re- warded, and in addition a practical lesson in thrift is imparted. From 1873-75, 1,051 deposit books were distributed in this way. This leads to a consideration of a third scheme. The report of the Postmaster-Gen- eral of England of July, 1877, gave the fol- lowing particulars. During 1876, authority was given for one hundred and seventy-two penny banks in various parts of Great Britain to invest their funds in the Post- Office Savings Bank, and since that time the progress has been even more remark- able, one hundred and seventeen penny banks having been authorized during the quarter ending March 31, 1877, exceeding by forty-one the number during the cor- responding quarter in 1876. Of these two hundred and eighty-nine penny banks, eigh- teen were in board schools, twenty in Sun- day schools, and thirty in other schools, one being in a Poor-law Union-school, under the management of the master and chaplain of the workhouse. Farthing deposits were received from these pauper children, and as much as 4 i8s. was invested on behalf of the penny bank between April and De- cember, 1876. Since then the attention of English phi- lanthropists and students of social economy has been directed to the conservation of the penny. Every post-office, being a money-order office, is open for the purpose of the savings bank, during the money-order office hours. Deposits may be made in amounts of $i for any number of dollars (cents not being received), provided tti*e "deposits made in any one year ending June 30 do not ex- ceed $300, and provided the total amount standing in such depositor's name on the books of the Postmaster-General does not exceed $1.000 exclusive of interest This provision is made to prevent the system from clashing with the general banking business of the country. The privilege of purchasing Government bonds is allowed the depositor, so that if he desires to still use the Post-Office Savings Bank after he has accumulated $1,000, he can have that amount, or any portion of it not less than $100, transferred to bonds, redeemable on three months' notice. THE following explanations of the prin- cipal terms used in commerce will illustrate the mode of conducting business transac- tions. FIRM. Every business, whether private or public, is conducted under a specified desig- nation or title, called the name of the firm. This name may be that of a single indi- vidual to whom the business belongs, or of two or more individuals, or any title which it may be found advisable to adopt. Some- times the name of a firm remains long after all indicated by it are dead; in such a case, the lusiness has passed into the hands of new proprietors, who, though legally respon- sible for its obligations, are not, for some private reason, inclined to change the old and well-known title of their firm. A par- ticular firm or business concern is some- times personified in the term house as, Such a house does a great deal of busi- ness, etc. COMPANY. Two or more individuals en- gaged in one business constitute a company or copartnership, each individual being called a partner. Companies are of two kinds, private and public. A private company or partnership is organized without incorpora- tion, each member having certain duties to perform and a certain share in the concern. In companies of the private and common description, no individual can leave the concern at his own pleasure, for by doing so he might seriously injure or embarrass his partners. He can withdraw only after giving a reasonable warning, by which time is allowed to wind up the concern, or place it in a condition to pay him back the capital which he has risked, or the profits which are his due. No partner, however, can trans- fer his shares to another person, by which a new member would be introduced into the firm without the consent of the partners. The profits of partnerships are divided ac- cording to a specified agreement. Generally, in the case of partnerships of two or three persons, each receives the same share on the occasion of an annual division, but in other cases, a partner may not be entitled to more than a fourth or sixth part of what another receives. The amount of capital which a partner invests in the concern, the service he can be to the business, and other circumstances, regulate the amount of his share. When each of two persons sinks the same capital, but one takes the whole of tb~ trouble, then he on whom the trouble 808 COMMERCE AND MONEY falls, who is called the active partner, is entitled to receive a stated sum in the form of salary over and above his share of profits. Whatever be the share which individual partners have in a concern, the whole are equally liable for the debts incurred by the company, because the public gives credit only on the faith that the company gen- erally is responsible. He who draws the smallest fraction of profit, failing the others, may be compelled to pay all the debts. Public companies are very different; they consist of three or more partners, or pro- prietors of shares, the aggregate amount of which forms a joint stock, and hence such associations are called joint-stock com- panies. They are public, from being con- stituted of all persons who choose to pur- chase shares, and these shares or rights of partnership are also publicly salable at any time without the consent of the company. The value of a share in a joint-stock com- pany is always the price it will bring in the market; and this may be either greater or less, in any proportion, than the sum which its owner stands credited for in the stock of the company. Unless specially pro- vided for in the fundamental deed of co- partnery, every member of a joint-stock company is liable in his whole personal property or fortune for the debts of the concern. It is an axiom in commerce, that business is much better conducted by single indi- viduals, for their own behoof, than by com- panies of any kind; as respects joint-stock associations, they are only useful in very great concerns requiring enormous capital, and involving serious risk- of loss. CAPITAL. The capital of a business man is strictly the amount of money which he embarks in his trade, or trades upon, that is, employs for buying goods, paying wages of servants, and liquidating all debts when due. Within the limits of his capital, busi- ness is upon a secure footing; but if he proceeds beyond these in any material de- gree, he is said to be over-trading, and is exposed to the chance of ruin or very seri- ous embarrassment. Trading beyond the amount of available capital is, nevertheless, a prevailing error, and causes innumerable bankruptcies. With a comparatively small capital, a tradesman may carry on a large business, by receiving payments shortly after making his outlays. By this means, there is a rapid turning over of money, and small profits upon the various transactions speed- ily mount up to a large revenue. For ex- ample, if a tradesman turn over his capital twelve times in the year, at each time re- ceiving money for what he sells, he can afford to do business on a twelve times less profit than if he could turn over the same capital only once in a year. This leads to a consideration of credit. CREDIT. Credit in business is of the na- ture of a loan, and is founded on a confi- dence in the integrity of the person cred- ited, or the borrower. An individual wishes to buy an article from a tradesman, but he has not money to pay for it, and requires to have it on credit, giving either a special or implied promise to pay its value at a future time. This is getting credit; and it is clear that the seller is a lender to the buyer. In all such cases, the seller must be remunerated for making his loan. He can not afford to sell on credit on the same favorable terms as for ready money; be- cause, if he were to receive the money when he sold the article, he could lay it out to some advantage, or turn it over with other portions of his capital. By taking credit, the buyer deprives the seller of the op- portunity of making this profit, and accord- ingly he must pay a higher price for the article, the price being increased in propor- tion to the length of credit. It very or- dinarily happens that the seller himself has purchased the article on credit ; but this only serves to increase its price to the con- sumer, and does not prevent the last seller from charging for the credit which he gives and the risk of ultimate non-payment which he runs. Credit for a short period is al- most essential in all great transactions ; but when going beyond fair and reasonable lim- its, it acts most perniciously on trade, by inducing heedless speculation, and causing an undue increase in the number of dealers with little or no capital. An excessive com- petition among these penniless adventurers is the consequence; each strives to undersell the other, with the hope of getting money to meet his obligations, and thus vast quan- tities of goods are sometimes thrown upon the market below the original cost, greatly to the injury of the manufacturer and the regular trader. What are called "gluts in the market" frequently ensue from causes of this nature. INVOICE. A bill or account of goods, which is forwarded separately, announcing the date of their despatch and the particular conveyance by which they are sent. If the seller fail to forward an invoice by mail, and the goods be lost at sea while on their way, the purchaser is not answerable, for he is not supposed to know how or when COMMERCE AND MONEY 809 the goods were sent, and therefore could not insure against their loss. The careful sending of invoices forms an important duty of a merchant's clerk. Invoices of merchandise imported into the United States are required by law to be made out in the weights, measures, and the currency of the country or place from which the importation is made, and to be verified before a consul or commercial agent of the United States, if there be such officer at the place, if not then before any public officer authorized to administer oaths. BILL OF LADING. A formal acknowledg- ment or receipt given by sailing masters for goods put on board their vessels, including a promise to deliver them safely as marked and addressed to their designed destination, always, however, ' excepting loss or injury by the act of God, the nation's enemies, fire, or the dangers or accidents of the sea. The certificates generally in use in the United States except only the dangers of the sea, and are made out in triplicate; the master retains one bill, the shipper one, and the third is forwarded to the consignee. The receipt of a railroad freight agent, or cap- tain of a canal or steamboat, is equivalent to a bill of lading as between the original parties, but in the hands of an assignee there is a distinction. The bill of lading is assignable, and the assignee is entitled to the goods, subject, however, to the ship- per's right. LLOYD'S. Lloyd is not the designation of any individual or of any company: it is a name used in reference to a set of subscrip- tion rooms or coffee-house, in London. Formerly the place of resort was in the Royal Exchange, but since the destruction of that building by fire, the place of meet- ing is in the neighborhood of that locality. One of the rooms at Lloyd's is devoted to subscribers who follow the profession of marine insurers, technically called under- writers, from their writing under, or sub- scribing to, certain obligations in deeds presented for their acceptance. When a person wishes to insure a ship, or goods in a ship, against damage or loss at sea, he offers the risk to these underwriters, and they are at liberty to accept it for a specified premium. The policy or deed expressive of the insurance is usually signed by more than one underwriter, so as to divide the risk. Lloyd's is not only a centre point in the metropolis for all sea insurance business, but is the place to which every species of intelligence respecting shipping is forwarded from all parts of the world; and this in- formation is exhibited publicly in one of the rooms, for the inspection of all. The in- telligence is for the most part sent by ap pointed agents, one part of whose duty con- sists in investigating the cause of damage to vessels and taking charge x of wrecked property for behoof of the underwriters, whoever they may be. The lists 'made up and exhibited at Lloyd's furnish authentic information for the use of merchants and shippers of goods all over the United King- dom. INSOLVENCY, BANKRUPTCY. -When a per- son is not in circumstances to pay his debts in full he is insolvent, which is nearly equivalent to being bankrupt ; the term bank- rupt, however, is more commonly applied to one who is legally announced as being in- solvent. The term bankrupt is derived from bancus, a bench, and ruptus, broken, in allu- sion to the benches formerly used by the money-dealers in Italy, which were broken in case of their failure to pay their debts. The law prescribes a certain form of pro- cedure in the case of commercial insolvency, which has the effect of deliberately investi- gating the cause of the misfortune, and re- lieving the bankrupt from all obligations, on yielding up his entire property. A bank- rupt in the United States who has received a discharge or certificate from a competent authority, being released from all pecuniary claims, may again enter business for his own behoof without any fear of molesta- tion; but a debtor who has merely taken the benefit of the Insolvent Act in England, or process of cessio bonorum in Scotland, though immediately relieved from prison and , left at liberty to pursue any line of industry, the property he - may accumulate is at all times liable to seizure by his former credi- tors. A commission of bankruptcy in Scotland is entitled a sequestration, meaning that the property of the bankrupt is officially seques- trated, or taken possession of, for behoof of creditors. CUSTOMS. The revenue duties levied on imported goods, usually called customs du- ties. The place appointed by the govern- ment at ports of entry where vessels and merchandise are entered and duties upon im- ported goods are collected, and where ves- sels obtain their clearance and other papers, is called a custom-house; the collectors, ap- praisers, surveyors, naval officers, and their deputies, examiners, clerks at the head of di- visions, inspectors, gaugers and weighers, but not subordinate clerks, are called cus- tom-house officers, and are sworn to faithful 810 COMMERCE AND MONEY service; the persons who act for merchants in the business of entering and clearing goods and vessels, and in the transac- tions of general business, are known offi- cially as custom-house brokers. A custom- house entry is a statement made in writing to the collector of the district, by the own- ers or consignees of the merchandise on board any ship or vessel, which they desire to land. While the taxes or duties laid on articles produced and consumed at home are generally qualified by the adjective "ex- cise," and are best known in the United States as "internal revenue" taxes the tax imposed upon retailers of liquors, wines, and beer, in the form of a license to conduct such business, emanates in many of the large cities from an appointive body known as a Board of Excise duties is the official name in the United States for the taxes levied or imposed by the government on foreign goods imported into the country ; also money paid to the government on ex- porting goods. The former is called im- port duty, the latter export duty. Foreign goods are said to be bonded, when the pay- ment of the duties is secured by a bond, or when warehoused in a government store, and under the control of the collector of the port until entered for consumption and the duties are paid. Bonded warehouses are buildings in which imported merchandise is stored until the importer makes entry for withdrawal for consumption and pays the duties, or until he withdraws the merchan- dise for re-exportation to a foreign country without paying the duties. These stores are owned and conducted by private in- dividuals, and their occupation is termed "the storage business." Such stores are required to be first-class fire-proof build- ings, and to be used for no other business, and they must be approved by the Secre- *ary of the Treasury before receiving any merchandise. A government officer is placed in charge of every store, at the expense of the owner, and the business is conducted under voluminous provisions and require- ments established by the government. The officer of the customs detailed to take charge of a bonded warehouse, and under whose supervision bonded goods are received and delivered from the store, is called a bonded store-keeper. Goods, wares, and merchan- dise imported into the United States, sub- ject to the payment of ad valorem duties, are required by law to be appraised at their "actual market value," at the time and place of export. As it is frequently very difficult to establish an actual market value in a foreign port, many goods being made only and expressly for foreign markets, and not sold or offered for sale at the place of their manufacture or shipment, serious liti- gations often arise between the merchant and the government. This difficulty has led to the recognition by the commercial world of the distinctions, cash value, market value, and intrinsic value, although the laws name but one the "actual market value." TOI-NAGE DUTY is a duty imposed for the purpose of revenue, and is levied upon all vessels engaged in foreign commerce, and also, except in certain cases specially ex- empted by law, on all vessels engaged in domestic trade. These duties are required to be paid by vessels before clearance papers will be granted, or on their arrival before permits will be given to discharge their car- goes. Tonnage is the gauge of a ship's di- mensions, nominally understood to be the number of tons burden that a ship will carry. The rates of duty fixed by law on each article of merchandise imported from foreign countries form the tariff, the de- tails of which differ with every country. DEBENTURE. This is a formal certificate given by the collector of a port of entry to an importer, for drawback of duties on imported merchandise, the duties on which, when the merchandise is exported, are to be refunded. Debentured goods are mer- chandise upon which the drawback has been paid. BILL OF ENTRY, a written account or in- ventory of goods entered at the custom- house, whether imported or intended for exportation. BILL OF SALE, a writing given by the seller of goods or merchandise to the purchaser, by which the seller conveys away the right and interest he has in the goods therein named. In the United States it may be given without a seal, but the laws of Great Britain require it to be under seal. BILL OF SIGHT, in England, an order ob- tained by the consignee of goods, of the quantity and quality of which he is ignorant, to enter them by bill of sight. BILL OF EXCHANGE. The common bill of exchange is an order drawn on a person or banking-house, requesting him or it to pay money to some person, or to the order of a person named therein. The person who draws the bill or draft is called the drawer; the one on whom the demand is made is called the drawee; and the person to whom the money is directed to be paid is called COMMERCE AND MONEY 811 the payee. The indorser writes his name on the back of the bill; he to whom the bill is transferred by such indorsement is the indorsee; and whoever is entitled to receive the payment is the holder. (Vide Forms of Commercial Papers.) PROMISSORY NOTE. This is a promise or engagement in writing to pay a specified sum at a time therein limited, or on de- mand, or at sight, to a person therein named, or his order or assigns, or to the bearer. If the note is given with a specified rate of interest, it is a negotiable note, and may be bought and sold without difficulty. A NEGOTIABLE NOTE $500 NEW YORK, N. Y., Dec. 2, 1901. Three months after date, for value re- ceived, I promise to pay John Smith, or order, Five Hundred Dollars, with interest JOHN BROWN. NOTE NOT NEGOTIABLE $1,000 CHICAGO, ILL., Nov. 30, 1901. Nine months after date, for value re- ceived, I promise to pay John Brown, One Thousand Dollars. JOHN SMITH. NEGOTIABLE NOTE IN MISSOURI $100 ST. Louis, Mo., Oct. 30, 1901. Three months after date, I promise to pay to H. B. Brown, One Hundred Dollars, for value received; negotiable and payable without defalcation or discount. GEORGE WILSON, JR. A CASH DUE-BILL $50 BOSTON, MASS., Nov. 16, 1901. Due Ralph S. Johnson, or order, on de- mand, Fifty Dollars, value received. CHAS. I. JACOBS. A MERCHANDISE DUE-BILL $75 SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., Sept. 28, 1001. Due John F. Morton, Seventy-five Dol- lars, in merchandise from our store. SMITH & TOWNLEY. A SIGHT DRAFT $700 NEW ORLEANS, LA., July, 5, 1901. At sight, pay to the order of Mrs. Jane Wilson, Seven Hundred Dollars, value re- ceived, and charge the same to my account. F. G. ALBERSON. To FIRST NATIONAL BANK, Rome, N. Y. A TIME DRAFT $25 SYRACUSE, N. Y., Oct. i, 1901. Thirty days after date, pay to the order of S. E. Buck, Twenty-five Dollars, value received, and charge to our account. MOORE & RICHARDSON. To H. V. ROSE, Washington, D. C. A BILL OF EXCHANGE i Exchange for 500. NEW YORK, N. Y., Dec. 10, 1001. Sixty days after sight of this First of Ex- change (second and third unpaid), pay to the order of Stephen G. Reynolds Five Hundred Pounds Sterling Value received, and charge the same to ac- count JOHN Y. STANTON. To BARING BROS., London, Eng. No. 172. 2 Exchange for 500 NEW YORK, N. Y., Dec. 10, 1901. Sixty days after sight of this Second of Exchange (first and third unpaid), pay to the order of Stephen G. Reynolds Five Hun- dred Pounds Sterling Value received, and charge the same to account. JOHN Y. STANTON. To BARING BROS., London, Eng. No. 172. 3 Exchange for 500 NEW YORK, N. Y., Dec. 10, 1901. Sixty days after sight of this Third of Exchange (first and second unpaid), pay to the order of Stephen G. Reynolds Five Hundred Pounds Sterling Value received, and charge the same to ac- count JOHN Y. STANTON. To BARING BROS., London, Eng. No. 172. BOOK-KEEPING THERE are, properly speaking, only two methods of book-keeping, founded on distinct principles viz., Single and Double Entry. Sin- gle Entry is the more simple, and is generally adopted by shop-keep- ers and others who deal in a great variety of articles, where the sales are small and numerous ; and to such it is peculiarly applicable, as they have seldom time to record them particularly. There is merely required a memorial of occurrences, in the order of time, with a Ledger, in which the names of all parties between whom transactions take place are en- tered; debtor and creditor accounts of each party being arranged on the two opposite pages which are presented at an opening, the first on the right hand, and the second on the left. By this method the Ledger is de- fective, since it contains no accounts of cash, bills, or goods ; consequently it affords to the owner no knowledge of these particulars, but only re- cords the debts due to and by him, with, at most, the accounts of stock, family expenses, and shop furniture. The Italian method of Double En- try differs from Single Entry chiefly in making cash, stock, goods, etc., parties as well as persons, and in making a debtor and creditor account in every transaction. Thus, if cloth is sold to A, A is made debtor to cloth, and cloth creditor to A; if cash is received from B, cash is made debtor to B, and B creditor to cash ; and in every case the party, whether animate or inanimate, which receives is debtor to that which pays, and inversely. A double entry is therefore requisite in every transaction, and a balance may at any time be struck between things as well as persons ; and in order to avoid the confusion which would arise in a direct transfer of account from the Waste-book to the Ledger before the proper relation of debtor and creditor in each transaction is distinctly ascertained and recorded, they are first entered in the Journal in the same form in which they must ap- pear in the Ledger. But in order to form a proper criterion of the exist- ing methods of book-keeping, it will be necessary to compare them, as we will now do, before proceeding further. (812) BOOK-KEEPING GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND SINGLE ENTRY AS THE Ledger, when kept by Single Entry, contains no accounts of cash, bills, and goods, it consequently affords to the owner no knowledge of these particu- lars; but these must be collected from the subsidiary books. In a simple trade, such as the set by single entry which follows this, the information wanted may be ob- tained by the present arrangement of the Day Book, Cash Book, and Stock Book ; but in an extensive and diversified concern this arrangement would by no means be advis- able, as the objects in question could not be easily and concisely obtained. Posting from a number of books, when one only is necessary, is of itself an insuperable objec- tion, because it is more liable to errors and omissions ; and from the unsightly ap- pearance these books would exhibit by the multiplicity of figures, the eye would soon become fatigued and bewildered. It is both a slovenly and tedious method to enter each sum singly into the Ledger, and unneces- sarily swells the accounts with lines, as by the Italian method, which increase the la- bor and difficulty of balancing. Besides, previous to taking a general balance, the number of entries, such as interest, com- mission, and postage, arising from the ac- counts current, must unavoidably be made either with a journal entry, or each en- tered singly by a simple transfer from one account to another, which is, in fact, a double entry, and would be both awkward and improper. The Cash Book might be constructed with columns to show the monthly amounts of the cash received and paid on account of bills receivable and bills payable, etc. ; yet the information in other respects would not be obtained, for the amounts of the sales, of consignments and shipments, etc., monthly, would not be shown by Single Entry. Although the Ledger, by the Italian meth- od of book-keeping, contains accounts of cash, bills, goods, and other property, yet the arrangement of it and the Journal is by no means adequate to the purposes of an extensive and complicated concern. By mak- ing all the original entries in one book, namely, the Waste Book, a jumble of trans- actions so heterogeneous is produced as can not fail to render the business not only more complex in itself, and consequently more difficult, than if a separate book were kept for each kind; but when despatch is required, as in selling, shipping goods, etc., the greatest inconvenience is experienced, as only one person can be employed at once in making the entries. But the principal de- fects lie in journalizing daily, in posting each sum singly into the Ledger, and open- ing separate accounts for each kind of goods. Hence the impracticability of fol- lowing this method without the books of an extensive business falling behind, the pa- tience of the book-keeper exhausted, or, per- haps, his health destroyed. Besides swelling the Journal and particularizing the Ledger to an unwieldy size, it renders the balanc- ing of the latter a laborious and, in most cases, a difficult task. By the practice at present followed in the counting-house, the Waste Book is not recognized by that title. It is represented, however, by a number of subsidiary books, suited to the nature of the business carried on, each containing such transactions as ex- clusively apply to its title. Thus, a Cash Book, in which is entered the money re- ceived and paid; a Bill Book, in which are recorded the bills received and accepted ; a Purchase Book, or Invoice Book Inward, in which are entered or posted invoices of all goods purchased; a book of shipments, or Invoice Book Outward, in which are entered all goods shipped; an Account Sales Book, in which are entered the particulars of such goods as are sold on commission, with the charges attending them; a Day Book, in which are entered the sales of goods on the merchant's own account, with such other transactions as do not apply to any of the above books; an Account Current Book, containing duplicates of the accounts as they stand in the Ledger, with the particulars of each article drawn out in a plain cir- cumstantial manner, being exact copies of the accounts transmitted or delivered to the persons whose names they bear. These are the principal subsidiary books used either in inland or foreign trade, and from which the Journal or Ledger are made. The di- vision of the Waste Book into a number of books adapted to the nature of the business, is a valuable modern improvement, both for simplicity and despatch. By bringing each kind of transactions together, and dividing 52 814 BOOK-KEEPING the labor among a number of hands, the ut- most simplicity, accuracy, and despatch are obtained. The arrangement of the Journal, by com- bining together each class of accounts, and carrying only the amounts of these once a month into the Ledger, not only simplifies the Journal, but greatly abridges the former of these books, because no more than twelve lines yearly will be required in general at the accounts, though transactions be ever so numerous. The Ledger, when kept by this method, may therefore be considered a general in- dex to the Journal, as that book is to the subsidiary books. By this means the case of each account is brought into a concise point of view, and is easily examined, with- out fatiguing the eye with a multiplicity of figures, which unavoidably takes place when each sum is posted separately, as by the Italian method. It must also be observed that instead of opening distinct accounts for each kind of goods, as by the Italian method, only one general account of goods is by the present practice opened; for when the articles are numerous, one account of goods in the Ledger is quite sufficient, and will be found to answer every useful pur- pose. In an extensive business, where sep- arate accounts for each kind of goods have been attempted, it was found difficult to keep the Journal and Ledger from falling behind. The Stock Book is the proper place for every particular of this sort, which may be kept exclusively by one of the junior clerks, when the business requires it. The result of the general account in the Ledger of goods will always correspond with the particular profits and losses from the Stock Book. But superior as the present practice is for saving both time and labor in posting, it will be found still more so at balancing the Ledger. What was formerly a laborious, and, in some cases, next to an impracticable task, where that book was posted daily, namely, to bring the stock and balance ac- counts to agree (chiefly owing to the nu- merous entries on the property and nominal accounts), is by the present method com- pletely avoided, and that which was before the labor of weeks can now be accom- plished m as many hours or days. It will be of more advantage to the learner to procure or prepare for himself several sheets of ruled paper, with cash columns, and enter each transaction in the order of time, than to trace the entries m the Day Book and Cash Book which we have pre- pared. In the first case he will find the task, as he proceeds, familiar and interest- ing, while his knowledge and self-reliance will be increasing; whereas, in the other case, he will acquire so superficial an ac- quaintance with the accounts that it will soon vanish from his memory. The Day Book is arranged so as to admit of entries bei. z made both of sales and purchases, the former on the right side, and the latter on the left. By this means he will be taught what debit and credit entries are before he is called upon to post the Ledger, and, more- over, avoid the risk of carrying error and confusion forward to the last stage of his work. It has been observed that in an ex- tensive business it is preferable to enter the purchases in one book and the sales in an- other; and by adding these up monthly the amounts of each would be shown, which would enable the owner to extend or lessen the purchases as circumstances point out. The Day Book as now given will also serve this purpose, only that instead of having separate books for the sales and purchases, they are here arranged in one, and disposed, as we have said, in the form of debtor and creditor. It therefore follows that if we add at any time to the credit side the value of the articles remaining on hand, the dif- ference between the sums total on the two sides will show the whole gain or loss upon the goods, and by entering the charges, etc., attending the business, with the discount, both against and in favor of it, to the proper sides, this book will exhibit the re- sult of the whole. The following general rule is sufficient to direct the learner respecting debtor and creditor. The person from whom you hny goods on trust, or receive money, is Cred- itor; and, on the contrary, the person to whom you sell goods on credit, or pay money, is Debtor. For instance, if you buy goods on credit from John Carter, "he, being the deliverer, is creditor for the value, and when you pay him for them, he, being the person who re- ceives, is debtor. On the same principle, if you sell goods on credit to Philip Meek, he, being the receiver, is debtor; and when he pays you for them, he, being the deliv- erer, is creditor. The same rule is observed when you contract or discharge a debt by any other transaction. Thus the person who becomes indebted to you is debtor, and :he person to whom you become indebted is creditor. In the same manner, the per- BOOK-KEEPING son whose debt you pay is made debtor, and he who pays a debt to you, or for you, is creditor. In the Day Book, enter on the debtor, or left-hand, page all the purchases, with the discounts allowed by you, as these occur ; also all the petty expenses, monthly. Enter on the creditor, or right-hand, page all the sales, with the discount or interest allowed to you; also the value of goods on hand at balancing. The Cash Book. This book is very use- ful, whether the Ledger be kept by Single or Double Entry, in order to show at all times the money you receive and pay, and how much at any time should remain in hand. On the debtor, or left-hand, page is entered every sum you receive; ana on the creditor, or right-hand, page every sum you pay. The difference between the two sides is called the balance, which should always agree with the money remaining in hand. This book is generally added up and the amounts set down at the end of each month ; and the balance is entered on the credit side to make the two sides equal, and likewise upon the debtor side of the suc- ceeding month. The Bill Book is divided into two parts. In the first are entered all bills which you receive, and are therefore called Bills Re- ceivable. It is ruled with a number of columns for recording the several clauses of the bill. When kept correctly the blank spaces in the last column toward the right hand will always show the bills which re- main in your possession. As soon as a bill passes out of your hands, by being either paid, discounted, or indorsed to another per- son, it must be marked off in the above column. In the second part are entered all the bills which you accept, or agree to pay, and are therefore called Bills Payable. As soon as you pay a bill, it should also be marked off in the column toward the right hand ; when, of course, the blank spaces will just present such bills of yours as are un- paid. A dealer who does a cash business only requires but a single book the Cash Book. In it he enters on its appropriate side all his transactions : on the one side all he pays out, and what for, on the other all he receives and its vouchers. The balance be- tween the two sides will at any time show the state of his affairs. Suppose, for in- stance, his Cash Book shows on the debtor side a total transaction of $1,450.73, and on the credit side $659.32, the difference, $791.- 1.450 73 659 32 Balance 791 41 i,45o 73 1,450 73 To balance brought for- ward. . . 7QI 4.1 41, is the sum which he ought to have on hand. These will appear on the Cash Book, thus: Dr. Cr. The transaction of which the foregoing forms a total may be like the following : Dr. CASH Cr. 1901. Jan. i. Capital 2. Safes. 1,000 oo 10 15 Jan. i. Pd. Smith& Co. for 3- 8 94 10 bbU 4- 17 20 flour. 52 50 12 80 2. Expenses 20 IS 6. 19 72 3- IO OO 8. 20 07 4- 19 SO 9- 10 15 5. 425 n. 24 44 6. i 30 12. 18 41 8. Wa ges.. 50 oo 13. 7 16 9- Exp enses 24 oo IS- 9 02 10. 19 72 1 6. 18 27 n. oo 40 17- 21 06 12. 72 1 6 19. 26 81 13. 40 01 20. 41 94 15. 2790 22. *3- 73 20 64 1 6 1 6. Wa 17. Exp ?es.. :nses 50 oo 27 oo 24. 47 23 18. 1925 20. 7 '4 22. Wages. . 23. Expenses So oo 178+ 24. 86 20 $1,450 73 $659 33 A single operation will enable you to as- certain at any time the state of your affairs. Thus : Balance of cash on hand 79141 Cost of goods in stock 20000 991 41 If you owe anything on your stock, you must arrive at the result differently. Thus : Balance of cash on hand 791 41 Cost of goods in stock 400 oo 1,191 41 Deduct amounts due for stock . . . 200 oo Balance as before 991 41 So if you give no credit, but sell only fof cash over your counter, you need only the 816 BOOK-KEEPING one book, the Cash Book, which will at any time you wish, if correctly kept, show the actual state of your business. But as very few tradesmen or dealers con- fine themselves to a cash business, it be- comes necessary to have other books, so when credit is given a Ledger is demanded, so that the dealer may at all times know not only what cash he has on hand, but what money is owing him. Suppose you are a bookseller, and your customers keep running accounts, you will find it necessary to have at least three books, a Cash Book, for the entries of the moneys received and paid out; a Blotter, as it is usually called, for recording the daily trans- actions; and a Ledger for posting the ac- counts. A customer, say Mr. Robert Walpole, comes to you and asks how his account stands. Looking at the index in the front of your ledger, you find Mr. Walpole's ac- count on page 96. Turning to this page, you discover the following statement: Dr. MR. ROBERT WALPOLE Cr. IQOI. 1901. Tan a To mdse 66 afi Tan. [Q 2j By cash 80 00 7 17 My acceptance at 3 16 Your acceptance at 3 months, dated April 10 60 (KJ months, due April 13.. 50 00 10 24 Cash paid your order in favor of Brown & Co.... 18 '4 144 52 130 00 The debtor side, or what he owes you, is $144.52, and the creditor side, or what you owe him, is $130.00; the difference, $14.52, being in your favor, is therefore his debit to you. If he pays you, enter it both on the Cash Book and on the credit side of the account in the ledger, thus making it balance. NARRATIVE OF TRANSACTIONS 1899- Jan. i. Began trade with $2,000. Bought goods as follows: Of J. W. Bouton $150 20 Of Dodd, Mead & Co 241 oo Of A. S. Barnes & Co 300 oo Of D. Appleton & Co 124 30 Sold 24 Annuals over the counter for ready money, amounting to 14 80 Jan. 2. Paid J. W. Bouton, Cash 80 oo Paid Dodd, Mead & Co. ditto. 120 oo Paid A. S. Barnes & Co. ditto. 150 oo Paid D. Appleton & Co. ditto. 61 oo Accepted the following bills drawn on me : J. W. Bouton, at 2 months 40 oo Dodd, Mead & Co., at 2 months 90 oo A. S. Barnes & Co., at 3 months 60 oo D. Appleton & Co., i month 40 oo Bought of A. D. F. Randolph, goods, value 198 64 HOW THEY ARE TO BE ENTERED IN THE BOOKS This item being Cash in hand, must be placed on the debtor side of the Cash Book. To be entered in the Day Book as goods bought at the time of receiving the in- voices. Each name, with the relative amount of invoice, to form a separate entry. To the Dr. side of Cash Book, as ready money received for goods. To be entered on the Cr. side of Cash Book, each name and amount forming a separate line. To be entered in the Bills Payable Book, on separate lines, according to the printed form sold for that purpose. As before. BOOK-KEEPING 817 Jan. 3. Sold Tenter & Co., of Phila- delphia, as follows: 120 Dodd, Mead & Co.'s Hand Books, at 200 24 oo 80 Novels 26 oo 40 Assorted Books. . 24 oo Terms, half Cash, half Bills at 3 months. Received from Tenter & Co.'s house in town, cash. 7400 36 20 Idem, bill at 3 months 36 20 To be charged in the Day Book, explain- ing every particular relating to the condi- tions of sale, and how forwarded. To be entered in Cash Book as cash re- ceived for account of Tenter & Co., Phila- delphia. To be entered in the Bills Receivable to the account of Tenter & Co., Philadelphia, according to the printed forms. As before. As before. As before. Sold B. Flock, of Pittsburg, 42 assorted books 50 80 Received from Flock's house in town, cash 20 oo And a bill at 3 months date. 30 80 Jan. 4. Sold Roberts Bros., Boston, 36 Elements of Commerce. 74 32 As before. Received from Roberts Bros., of New York, for account of their house in Boston, their acceptance at two months for Paid A. D. F. Randolph on account of what I owe him : Bill paid to me by Flock 30 80 Bill paid to me by Roberts Bros. .. 74 32 7432 Together 105 12 Jan. Bought of W. H. Vernon, 20 reams of paper 170 oo Sold him 240 odd volumes all at Sold for ready money over the counter, 6 vols. Hume and Smollett's History of England 6 60 6. Paid trade charges and wages this day 4 22 Paid expenses to this day. . 6 60 Feb. 5. Paid cash for my acceptance f o D. Appleton & Co 40 oo Mar. 5. Idem to J. W. Bouton 40 oo Idem Dodd, Mead & Co.. .. oo oo Apr. 5. Idem A. S. Barnes & Co.... 60 oo As before. This is a very peculiar entry, and one which per- sons ignorant of book-keeping will, find compara- tively difficult to arrange. As it is, however, a transaction which occurs continually, due attention ought to be given to it. There are two ways of entering it one by the Cash Book, the other by the Day Book. If by the former, the amount must be first entered on the Dr. side as received for the bills, and then the Cr. side as paid to the parties. This, however, is a mode I do not like, because, in the first place, it is not a cash transaction at all; and, secondly, be- cause an entry on the Dr. side of the Cash Book is obliged to be created in order to balance the other on the Cr. side. An entry by the Day Book is far the best, as nothing more is necessary than to charge the person to whom the bills are paid, with the amount of them, in the same way as for goods sold. The latter method is the one adopted in the examples. Day Book, as before. 82 30 As before. As before. To be entered on the Cash Book, under the head of Trade Expenses. Idem. To be entered in the Cash Book to the charge of Bills Payable, specifying the num- ber of the Bill, D. Appleton & Co. having been debited with the amount when my ac- ceptance was givea Idem. Idem. Idem. 818 BOOK-KEEPING 6. Received the amount of To be entered in the Cash Book to the Tenter's acceptance, paid account of Bills Receivable, specifying the me on the 3d Jan '. 36 3O number, Tenter & Co. having been credited for the Bill when I received it from them. 7. Flock's acceptance returned As I was obliged to take up this Bill, in to me by A. D. F. Ran- other words to pay it, for account of Flock, dolph, to whom I had paid who ought to have paid it, I charge Flock it, it not having been hon- in the Cash Book with the amount I pay ored by the acceptor 30 80 to A. D. F. Randolph. & Paid one month's Rent 8000 In the Cash Book, in the same way I Income Tax 20 24 entered trade and other expenses. City Taxes. 15 20 Nov. I. Sold the following goods: Ramsden & Co 20 oo To be entered in the Day Book, as before. S. Green 18 24 G, Barrows 80 oo W. Sinn 120 oo V. S. Brown '74 20 Dec. i. Received the following ac- ceptances, at three months : Ramsden & Co 2000 To be entered in the Bills Receivable S. Green 18 24 Book, as before. G. Barrows 80 oo W. Sinn 120 oo V. S. Brown 74 20 Dec. 20. Bought goods as follows : From Leggat Bros 52 20 To be entered in the Day Book, as before. From Houghton, Mifflin & Co 200 oo From S. R. Wells 192 40 From James R. Osgood & Co 170 80 Dec. 30. Gave my acceptances as fol- lows, at three months : Leggat Bros 52 20 To be entered in the Bills Payable Book, To Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 200 oo as before. To S. R. Wells 192 40 To James R. Osgood & Co. 170 80 Having entered all these various items in their proper books, as explained, we proceed to transfer them under their respective heads in the Ledger, which is technically called POSTING. First, taking the Day Book, we post all under the date of the 1st of Janu- ary; then follows the Cash Book in the same way, and finally the two Bill Books, care being taken to mark the proper page of the Ledger in the columns left for that purpose in the other books, and vice versa to note in the Ledger, in like manner, the folio of the book from which the entry has been extracted. Thus, day by day, all the entries in the Ledger are condensed from these four books. All the items contained in the Cash Book, Bills Receivable and Payable Books, and Day Book having been properly posted in the Ledger, the next operation will be to BALANCE! This is generally done on the last day of the year, at which time the value of the stock on hand is taken. By reference to the Ledger, it will be seen how those accounts are ruled off which balance of themselves, and in what way the balances of the others are brought down, some being amounts we owe, and others due to us. The balances due us stand upon the Debtor side, those we owe on the Creditor side. Having done this, we next proceed to draw up the Balance Sheet, by which we shall ascertain the amount of profit made or loss incurred upon the year's transac- tions, after having paid all expenses and trade charges. In order to do this prop- erly, we must collect into one sum all we owe, and into another all we are possessed of, and the difference between the two will be the amount we are worth. The amounts we owe are to be found in the Ledger and the Bills Payable Book. The amounts due BOOK-KEEPING 819 to us in the Ledger, also, and the Bills Receivable Book. Besides these we must reckon as assets, Cash in hand, as will ap- pear by balancing Cash Book, and Stock Dr. BALANCES AMOUNTS DUE TO ME, OR ASSETS on hand, which must be taken at a proper valuation. Below will be found a GENERAL BALANCE SHEET, drawn up according to these instructions. 3ist December, 1901 Cr. AMOUNTS I OWE, OR LIABILITIES Folio in Ledger Accounts extracted Balances as per Ledger Folio in Ledger Accounts extracted Balances as per Ledger 7 B. Am U * 1 h Bal Est h Bal \ pay chn hav of $2, $30 80 I 3 3 4 I L 1 Doc A. D. A. VV. An n Bil d Bal V. Bouton $3 3' 9 22 82 87 20 00 00 60 60 00 ount of book debts due > me Id, Mead & Co S. Barnes & Co Appleton & Co D. F. Randolph H. Vernon ount of book debts due by e $30 313 1,390 80 44 80 28 $343 40 40 80 44 Sills Receivable in my s accepted by me not yet ae* ance of Cash in hand. . . imated value of stock in and ance carried down $958 2,090 ance in my favor $3,049 24 44 $3,049 24 $2,090 Vhich shows that after ing house and trade rges, rent and taxes, I e made a clear net profit $90.44 on my capital of 5OO. * Enumerate each item Dr. CASH * Enumerate each bill separately BOOK Cr. 1901. Jan. i.... 3- 4- Feb. x. .. March i. April i... 6... May i.... * * 6 I * To Capital $2,OOC 14 2C < 80 00 20 60 1901 Jan. 2.... 6.... Feb. 5.... March 5. April 5.. 7- 8.. i 2 3 4 * * * * 7 * Bv am't paid T. W. Bouton. . $80 I2O ISO 62 II 00 00 oo 00 20 20 4 Cash received for goods Co. Co. es, l. . Tenter & Co., received for account of their house in Baltimore By Trade Charges, Expens and Wages to this day. Balance to next montl B Flock Cash received for goods $423 $1,654 $2,06; 60 $2,077(60 $1,654 4 4O By Bill Payable, No. 104, $40 1,614 (10 40 $1,654 Balance To Balance $1,614 4 $1,654 $1,614 40 By Bill Payable, No. 101, $40 90 00 00 $1,484 3 40 24 By Bill Payable, No. 102, Bill receivable, No. 101, re- ceived in cash, this day Balance 130 $1,484 $1,525 4 To Balance $ r ,3 le 80 $1,614 40 NOTE. The amounts marked in the folio margin with a star, are not by single entry posted in the Ledger; the Cash Book alone, under that system, oeing quite sufficient for their registry. Only accounts with persons are kept; not with things as in Double Entry. At the same time they may, if wished, be posted under their respective heads as matters of reference, but care must be taken not to include them in the Balance, of which they form no part. By Bill Payable, No. 103, $6c 3 8c 2C IS M So 00 24 20 A. D. F. Randolph for Flock's Acceptance, due this day returned un- One month's rent due this day City Taxc 1 " $206 1,3'S 24 80 $1,522 04 820 BOOK-KEEPING DAY BOOK DAY BOOK CoHtintud Folio in Ledger T *5c 20 Folio in Ledger _ $170 00 3 Bought of J. W. Bouton Bought of W. H. Vernon i 9 a Bought of Dodd, Mead & Co. $240 10 9 Sold W. H. Vernon 240 Odd Volumes all for ffe 3 4 Bought of A. S. Barnes & Co. $3 00 60 10 Sold Ramsden & Co. $*> 00 Bought of D. Appleton & Co. $124 IX Sold S. Green Books $.8 4 5 Bought of A. D. F. Randolph $188 60 12 Sold G. Barrows Books $o 00 6 Sold Tenter & Co Half Cash Half Three Months' Bill 120 Dodd, Mead & Co.'s 2 *4 00 00 00 *3 Sold W. Sinn $120 00 M Sold V. S. Brown Books $74 20 40 Books (assorted) *S Bought of Leggat Bros. $S oo 00 40 80 injt. Forwarded by Union Ex. $74 00 16 Bought of Houghton, Mif- flin & Co. $200 7 Sold B. Flock ISO 80 ..!- i? Bought of S. R. Wells $192 8 Sold Roberts Bros. 72 Elements of Commerce. Forwarded per U. S. Express $74 32 80 32 12 18 N.B. Tl Bought of J. R, Osgood & Co. Goods as per invoice le folios should be marked $170 in red 5 Paid A. D. F. Randolph Flock's Acceptance, due April 7 $3* 74 Roberts Bros'. Acceptance, $107 1901 BILLS RECEIVABLE Folio Number of Bill On whose account Date Time When due Amount 6 1 10 ii 12 3 '4 101 102 103 104 'OS 106 r 7 1 08 Tenter & Co... B. Flock January 3 3 months 3 April 6 $36 32 74 $M3 20 80 3 3* 00 24 oo 00 20 44 Ramsden & Co 4 December March 7 1900 March 4 20 18 83 1*0 74 W. Sinn V. S. Brown 3 4 $3" 1901 BILLS PAYABLE Folio Number of Bill By whom drawn Date Time When due Amount i 9 3 4 ,1 \l IOI 102 i3 *4 105 106 107 108 T. W. Bouton . . January 2 2 months March 5 $40 9 60 4 oo oo 00 oo oo 20 oo 40 Dodd, Mead & Co A. S. Barnes & Co April 5 Feb. 5 1000 April 2 D. Appleton & Co * 3 Leggat Bros Houghton, Mifflin & Co December 30 30 3 $230 fS2 200 192 170 IS. R. Wells ! 30 30 3 a $6.5 BOOK-KEEPING 821 THE LEDGER Folio i J. W. BOUTON Dr. Cr. 190*. Jan. 2 2 31 I I To cash $80 4 30 00 Folio ii S. GREEN Dr. Cr. 1901. Nov. i X To goods $18 24 1901. Dec. i i By bill receivable, No. 105.. $18 Folio 12 GEORGE BARROWS Dr. Cr. 1901. Nov. i i $80 DO I9OI. Dec. i i By bill receivable, No. 106 $80 Folio 13 W. SINN Dr. Cr. 1901. Nov. i i $130 'JO I9OI. Dec. i i By bill receivable, No. 107. $120 Folio 14 V. S. BROWN Dr. Cr. 1901. Nov. i i $74 20 I9OI. Dec. i i By bill receivable, No. 108. $74 Folio 1 5 Dr. LEGGAT BROS Cr. 1901. 1901. Dec. 30 i To bill payable, No. 105.... $5220 ( Oec. 30 i By goods. $52 20 Folio 1 6 Dr. HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. Cr. 1901. 1901. Dec. 30 i To bill payable, No. 106... $20000 Dec. 30 i By goods. $200 Folio 17 Dr. S. R. WELLS Cr. 1901. 1901. Dec. 30 i To bill payable, No. 107.... $19240 Dec. 30 i By goods. $192 40 Folio 18 JAMES R. OSGOOD & CO. Dr. Cr. 1901.' Dc. 30 i To bill payable, No. 108... $i7o|8o 1901. Dec. y> i *- BOOK-KEEPING After the Ledger has been duly examined, and it is seen that the balances are struck and brought down correctly, proceed to ob- serve if those balances are transferred prop- erly to the general BALANCE SHEET at page 819^ which is the last operation of all. Beyond this, Book-keeping by Single Entry "can no further go." It is only a confined system, and its results are never demonstrated or proved. Errors of omis- sion, of addition, and of wrong posting, may, and in large establishments do, fre- quently occur without any means of detec- tion, except the tiresome and frequently fal- lacious method of a re-examination of the entire books by another person. But by Double Entry, provided the system be a correct one, no error of any kind can es- cape without detection, because everything is verified by an infallible rule. Neverthe- less the diligent study of the method of Single Entry is absolutely necessary as a preparatory step toward acquiring a knowl- edge of the other. No one can keep a set of books by Double Entry who does not understand Single Entry, because the one is based upon the other. When the learner has well studied what has already been laid before him, let him pass on to the follow- ing pages, where he will find the same trans- actions registered by Double Entry. BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY This method differs from the former chiefly in making cash, stock, goods, etc., parties, as well as persons, and in making a debitor and creditor account in every transaction. Thus, if cloth is sold to A, A is made debtor to cloth, and cloth cred- itor to A ; if cash is received from B, cash is made debtor to B, and B creditor to cash ; and in every case the party, whether animate or inanimate, which receives is debtor to that which pays, and inversely. In Single Entry the record is single, and there it ends, whereas in Double Entry every transaction has a debit and credit, and every account in which it is not so rep- resented is imperfect.- Two parties are necessarily engaged in every transaction, and therefore each of them requires in his Ledger two separate accounts, one for him- self, and a second for his customer or furnisher, as the case may be. Now, by the use of what are called nominal accounts representing the proprietor in his own Ledger, the double receptacle is provided which every transaction requires. The nominal accounts receive the counter en- tries of all the personal accounts, and through their operation the merchant is en- abled to ascertain whether his business is profitable or the reverse. These accounts are those of Stock, Profit and Loss, and its branches. Stock is a term used to rep- resent the proprietor, and it contains on the credit side the amount of the money, goods, or other property brought into trade; and on the debtor, the owner's liabilities. Fn Profit and Loss, the credit side exhibits the gain of the business, and the debit the loss. In Single Entry, nominal accounts have no place. There is a record only of the side of the accounts belonging to the person dealing with the concern, and none what- ever of that which represents the owner. Such a method enables us to balance the accounts of each party, but exhibits no register by which the state of the stock in trade, and the balances of capital and cash, can be at once ascertained without a sep- arate and independent investigation. We have seen, that by Single Entry the items are transferred from the Cash Book, Day Book, and Bill Books, at once, into the Ledger; but in Double Entry, another book, called the JOURNAL, is necessarily used, in which the items from all the others are first arranged in proper form, and then passed into the Ledger. Thus, posting by Single Entry is done from several books; whereas from Double Entry from the Jour- nal alone. The old Italian method of keeping a Journal is fraught with so many crudities, useless repetitions, and technical jargon, that it has been long abandoned for one a thousand-fold more simple in its con- struction, and perfect in its results. In- stead of continually entering "Sundries Dr. to Cash," "Interest Dr. to Sundries," "Com- mission Dr. to A. B. C," and "D. E. F. Dr. to Commission," with a multitude of such anomalies, the Journal is divided into two parts (the right and left hand side of the book), the one called the Debtor side and the other the Creditor side. Under the Debtor side must be entered uninterruptedly everything that is to be debited; and under the Creditor side, everything that is to be credited; and both sides must agree, if the entering has been done correctly. In addition to the simplicity of this ar- rangement, there are other advantages which may not be overlooked. In the first place, all the entries on one side of the Journal are posted upon the same side in the Ledger, a convenience which every book-keeper will know how to prize. Next, all the items for 824 BOOK-KEEPING each account in a month are consolidated in one entry previous to posting, thus greatly reducing that labor, and offering the phe- nomenon of a Ledger wherein no account for one year can have more than twelve lines, one for each month; and, finally, the totals of each month in the Journal added together must correspond with the gross amount of all the totals in the Ledger, the last and surest demonstration of correctness which figures can offer. Let us proceed to Journalize according to this method all the entries contained in the preceding Day Book, Cash Book, Bills Pay- able Book, and Bills Receivable Book (for which see pages 819, 820), begging the learner meanwhile to recollect the follow- ing rules: i st. When Goods are sold, the buyers must be debited and Trade Account Credited with the amount. ad. When goods are bought Trade Account must be debited and the sellers credited for the amount. 3d. When Cash is paid, the parties receiving it must be debited and Cash Account credited, and when it is received the Account must be debited and the payers credited. 4th. When Acceptances are given, the persons on whose account they are drawn must be debited, and Bills Payable credited; and when they are received Bills Receivable must be debited and the party on whose account they are received must be credited. 5th. When Accepted Bills become due and are paid, Bills Payable must be debited and Cash cred- ited, and when Bills to be received become due and are paid, Cash must be debited with the amount, and Bills Receivable credited. Finally. No entry can be made in the Ledger unless it be extracted from the Journal, consequently everything must go into the Journal first. These rules must be most carefully heeded in order to rapidly acquire the science of book-keeping. Dr. JOURNAL, January, 1901. Cr. Tenter & Co. 3. Goods sold as per invoice 74 oo J. W. Bouton. i Goods as per nvoice. Dodd Mead & Co i Goods as per nvoice. 5 241 10 oo D. Flock. 3. Goods sold as per 5 80 A. S. Barnes & Co. i Goods as per nvojce. D Appleton & Co i Goods as per nvoice. 300 124 00 60 Roberts Bros. 4. Goods sold as per 74 32 A. D. F. Randolph. 2 Goods as per nvoice. W. H. Vernon. 4. Goods as per invoice. .86 170 60 oo A. D. F. Randolph. 4. Paid them Bill Receivable, No. 102.... 3080 Idem 103... 7432 Bills Payable. 31. Amount of Bills ac- cepted this month as per Bill Book. Tenter & Co. 3. Bill Receivable, 230 00 W. H. Vernon. 4. Goods, as per in- voice 82 8? Cash Received ..36 20 7* 4" J. W. Bouton 2. Bill Payable, No. 101 4000 B. Flock. 4. Bill Receivable, No. 1 02 30 80 Cash paid them. 80 oo Dodd, Mead & Co. 2. Bill Payable, No. 130 oo 3. Cash Received . 20 oo Roberts Bros. 4. Bill Receivable, 5 80 Cash paid them. 120 oo Trade Account. i. Cap'al invested this A. S. Barnes & Co. 2. Bill Payable No. _ ip 3 .... 60 oo Goods sold this month: 3. To Tenter & Co. 74 oo 3. Flock 50 80 D. Appleton & Co. 2. Bill Payable, No. _ 104. ... 40 oo W H. Vernon.82 30 I. Cash received. 1 4 80 4. Ditto 6 60 -_, 82 Bills Receivable. 31. Am't received this month as per Bill 142 20 Cash. 31. Amount paid this month as per Cash Book 420 Cash. 31. Am't received this month as per 2,076 H Bills Receivable. 4. No. 102. paid A. D. F. Ran- dolph 30 80 Trade Account Goods bought this month: i Of J W No. 103, paid A. D. F. Ran- Bouton ...15020 I. Dodd, Mead & Co 241 oo I. A. S. Barnes & Co 30000 I. D. Appleton & Co 124 60 4. A. D. F. Ran- dolph . . . .186 60 4. W. H. Ver- non 170 oo i5 11 6. Cash paid charges as per Cash Book 1028 I,l82 68 4,43 28 4i43 .E BOOK-KEEPING Dr. JOURNAL (continued) Cr. Bills Payable 5. February Cash paid, No. 104.11 4 oo 1001. Cash. 26. Amount paid this! month as per Cash Fook 40 oo 00 'XN Bills Payable 5. 5- Cash oaid No. 102. Cash paid No. 102. March 90 40 t 00 oo 1901. Cash. 31. Amount paid this month as per Cash Book 130 130 oo 130 Bills Payable. 5. B. Flock. ' 7. Charges on Trade. 8. Cash. 30. Cash paid No. 103. His bill returned un- Apri 60 3 S 36 00 So 44 20 1901. Cash. 30. Amount paid this! month, as per Cash Book... 206 36 44 ^0 -i* Cash for rent . 80 oo Taxes 20 24 Taxes 15 20 Am't received this month per Cash Book Bills Receivable. 6. Cash received, No. 101 242 44 242 Ramsden & Co. S. -Green. G. Barrows. W. Sinn. V. S. Brown. No Goods sold them... Goods sold him . Goods sold him Goods sold him .... Goods sold him. . . . vembe 20 18 80 120 74 -. 00 24 00 00 20 1901. Trade Account. Goods scld this month: i. To Ramsden & 312 44 i. S. Green.... 1824 i. G. Barrows.. 80 oo i. W. Sinn. .. .120 oo i. V. S. Brown. 74 20 312 44 3 44 Trade Account. 20. Of Leggat Bros. 30. Houghton, Mifflin & Co 30. S. R. Wells. 30. T. R. Osgood. 30. Bills Receivable. 31. De Goods bought this month: Leggat Bros. . 52 20 Houghton, Mif- flin & Co ... 200 oo S. R. Wells.. 1 92 40 J. R. Osgood & Co .170 80 cembe <5iS 52 200 192 I 7 3*4 4 20 OO 4 80 04 1901. Leggat Bros. 20. Goods b'ght by him. Houghton, Mifflin & Co 20. Idem S. R. Wells. 20. Idem 52 200 193 170 <5iS 20 ?9 80 120 74 20 00 40 So 40 TO 54 . DO JO J. R. Osgood & Co.20. Idem Bills Payable. 30. Bills accepted this month, as per Bill Book Ramsden & Co. i. Bill Rec'le, No. 104. S. Green. i. Idem No. 105. G. Barrows. i. Idem No. 106. V. S. Brown. i. Idem No. 107. W. Sinn. i. Idem No. 108. Bill Pay'le, No, 105. Idem 1 06. Idem 107. Idem 108. Am't rereived this month, as per Bill Book 1.544 84 i,S44 S-i THE LEDGER Wherein the contents of the preceding Journal are posted Dr. 1901 TENTER 00 & Co Cr 1901 00 3- Dr. B. 50 80 30 80 FLOCK Cr 8b to April 7. To Bill ret To Balance 8 1 60 81 60 30 80 Dr. Jan. 4. To Goods. . ROBERTS 74 32 BROS. Cr. By Bill Receivable 74 32 Dr. Tan. 4. To Sundries To Balance A. D. F. 106 oo 82 60 RANDOLPH - Jan. 2. By Goods 188 r,o By Balance 1 88 60 1 88 60 82 60 826 BOOK-KEEPING THE LEDGER (continued) Dr. W. H. 82 10 VERNON Jan. 4. By Goods Cr. By Balance 169 30 169 30 ... 87 09 Dr. Jan. 2. To Sundries J. W. BOUTON By Sundries Cr. To Balance By Balance 150 o 150 20 30 2 Dr. Jan. 2. To Sundries DODD, MEAD & CO. Jan. 4. By Sundries Cr. To Balance By Balance 241 oo 241 oo . . . 3 1 oo Dr. Jan. 2. To Sundries A. S. BAR NES & CO. Jan. i. By Goods Cr. To Balance By Balance 300 oo 300 oo . . . 90 oo ) Dr. D. AP PLETON & CO. Jan. i. By Goods Cr. To Balance 124 60 124 60 Dr. Tan. 31. To Sundries BILLS RECEIVABLE Cr. To Balance Balance 142 20 456 60 456 60 314 40 Dr. Jan. 31. To Sundries CASH 2,076 34 ACCOUNT Tan. 31. By Sundries Cr. To Balance Mar. 3 1 . Idem Balance 798 68 . . i. in 86 2,112 54 2,112 54 1,313 86 Dr. TRADE ACCOUNT Sin. 31. By Sundries .... Cr. . . 308 84 By Balance 1,913 04 700 20 2,613 24 2,613 24 Dr. BILLS PAYABLE Cr. By Balance 230 oo 844 34 844 34 .. 614 34 Dr. RAMSDEN & CO. Dec i By Bill Receivable Cr. Dr. S. GREEN Dec. i. By Bill Receivable, No. 105., Cr. 18 24 BOOK-KEEPING 827 THE LEDGER (continued) Dr. G. Nov. i. To Goods 8000 BERGER Dec. i. By Bill Receivable, No. 106. cr. So oo Dr. W. Nov. i. To Goods 120 oo SINN Dec. i. By Bill Receivable, No. 107. Cr. 120 OO Dr. V. S. Nov. i. To Goods 7420 BROWI* Dec. i. By Bill Receivable, No. 108. Cr. 74 20 Dr. LEGGAT Dec. 30. To Bill Payable, No. 105 52 20 BROS. Dec. 20. By Goods. ~~Dr. HOUGHTON, Dec. 30. To Bill Payable, No. 106 200 oo MIFFLIN & CO. Dec. 20. By Goods.. Cr. 52 20 Cr. 200 oo Dr. S. R. Dec. 30. To Bill Payable, No. 107 192 40 WELLS Dec. ao. By Goods. Lr. 192 40 Dr. JAS. R. OSGOOD Dec. 30. To Bill Payable, No. 108 170 80 & CO. Dec. 20. By Goods.. Cr. 170 80 In the preceding Ledger we have posted under the head of Trade Account all goods bought and charges incurred (both in busi- ness and family matters) to the Debit; and to the Credit, the amount of the capital and goods sold, consequently the balance of this account added to the amount of stock on hand always shows the profit of the busi- ness. For instance: Balance of the account 700 16 Value of stock on hand, as es- timated in the Balance Sheet by Single Entry 1,39028 Total balance in my favor as shown in the Balance Sheet by Single Entry 2,090 44 But in partnership accounts, such a plan would not do, because domestic expenses can not be charged to trade, nor should the respective capitals be included. In such cases separate accounts must be opened for each individual, which must be credited with their separate capitals and debited with their relative charges. At the end of the year, a balance is struck, the profit or loss deter- mined, and the sum total divided into proper proportions, and transferred from the general Trade or Profit and Loss Ac- count, to each individual's debit or credit, as the case may be. N. B. A Profit and Loss Account is merely another name for a Trade Account. All bad debts must be charged to that Ac- count which shows the Profit and Loss (whatever the name may be), and the bad Accounts themselves closed by transfer. Let us now see if the Ledger is correct. To determine this, first extract all the to- tals, Dr. Cr. (before the balances are struck) which must not only agree with each other, but correspond as well with the sum totals in the Journal. Put all the amounts at debit on one side, and the amounts at credit on the other. The to- tals must agree with the totals in the Jour- nal. If this prove to be the fact, it is thus demonstrated that everything in the Journal has been posted in the Ledger. Having thus seen that the totals on both sides of the Ledger not only agree with each other, but correspond as well with those of the Journal, which is proof posi- tive that the books are correct, the next and last care will be to see that both sides agree. NOTE. -The foregoing explains the system gen- ally preferred by accountants, but a more recent ethod, requmng less labor, and often preferred, provides for transferring direct from the original books of entry to the ledger; and the journal is used merely for recording such itraes as are not found in any of the other original books. A journalized day-book often takes the place now of the former day-book. THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR THE following tables show at a glance the price of any number of articles at any given rate: The first column of figures shows the number of articles, and the second, the total; e.g., 87 ar- ticles at J4 cent each, amount to 21 fy cents; 46 articles at 56^4 cents each, give for a total $25.87^. If the price be one not given in the tables, the sum is easily ascertained by adding together two- or more of those which are given, thus: 23 articles at 19 24 cents, 23 at 10 cents would be 2.30, at 5 cents 1.15, at 2 cents 46 cents, at ^2 11^2 cents, and at % 5^; adding these totals, 2.30+1.15+46 + 46 + \\y 2 + 5^4 = $4- 54/4 tne amount sought for. These tables, too, will operate in other directions, and show the number of articles, when the total amount and the price per capita are given; also when the number of articles and the total amount are given, the price per capita is easily ascertained. When fractions of a cent are involved, it is often confusing to an inexpert accountant to readily compute the amount. A reference to these tables will quickly give the required result, thereby saving that which is so important to the business man time. The convenience of these tables can not be overrated. Not only do they save time, but are also conducive to perfect accuracy, a result which is not always certainly obtained in a hurried calculation. At 54 Cent ,No. $Cts. No. $Cts. No. $Cts. No. $Cts. No. $Cts. | No. $Cts. i Y* 18 454 35 . 8# 52 13 69 1754 86 .2154 2 . X 19 4*4 36 9 53 .1354 70 1754 87 21*4 3 X 20 .5 37 . 9 1 A 54 .1354 71 17*4 88 .22 4 .1 21 5'/4 38 . 954 55 13*4 72 .18 89 .2254 5 .i!4 22 55* 39 9H 56 .14 73 .1854 90 .22 }4 6 i54 23 5 40 .10 57 .1454 74 .1854 9i .22*4 7 i*4 24 .6 4i .1054 58 .1454 75 .18*4 92 23 8 .2 25 .654 42 .1054 59 14*4 76 .19 93 .2354 9 .24 26 .654 43 .10*4 60 .15 77 .1954 94 .2354 10 .254 27 .6*4 44 .11 61 .1554 78 .1954 96 .24 ii 2*4 28 7 45 ."54 62 .155^ 79 .19*4 98 .2 4 '/S 12 3 29 .754 46 .n54 63 15*4 80 .20 IOO .25 13 354 30 .7H 47 .11*4 64 .16 81 .2054 200 .50 14 .m 3 .7* 48 .12 65 .1654 82 .2054 300 75 IS 3*4 32 .8 49 .1254 66 .1654 83 .20*4 400 1. 00 16 4 33 .854 50 .1254 67 .16*4 84 .21 500 1.25 17 -454 34 .854 Si .12*4 68 .17 1 85 .21*4 1000 2.50 (828) THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR 829 At Yi Cent Ne. $Cts. No. $Cts. || No. $Cts. i . J* 32 .16 63 .311/2 2 . i 33 l6 l /2 64 .32 3 1 y* 34 .17 65 3*y 4 . 2 35 'T-lYz 66 33 5 , 2y* 36 .18 67 33^2 6 3 37 .iSJ'z 68 34 7 38 .19 69 34 J /2 8 4 39 '*9 l /2 70 35 . 9 . 4/^ 40 .20 71 .355^2 10 . 5 .20 l /2 72 .36 ii 42 .21 73 36^ 12 ! 6 2 43 .21 l /2 74 37 13 . 6J4 44 .22 75 37^ 14 . 7 45 .22^ 76 .38 15 7/^ 46 23 78 39 16 . 8 47 23^ 80 .40 17 . 8H 48 .24 82 .41 18 . 9 49 24^ 84 .42 19 50 25 86 .43 20 .10 25^ 88 .44 21 .ioj^ 52 .26 90 .45 22 .11 53 .26^ 92 .46 .11 5^ 54 .27 94 47 .12 55 .27^ 96 .48 25 .I2j4 56 .28 98 .49 26 13 57 .28^ IOO .50 27 .13/4 58 - .29 200 i. 28 ' I4 I 59 .29^ 300 1.50 29 60 .30 400 2. 30 IS 61 .30^ 500 2.50 31 15^ 62 31 IOOO 5. At i Cent No. f $Cts. No. $ Cts. | j No. $ Cts. i . I 32 32 63 63 2 . 2 33 33 64 .64 3 3 34 34 65 .65 4 4 35 .35 66 .66 5 . 5 36 36 67 67 6 . 6 37 .37 68 .68 7 . 7 38 .38 69 .69 8 . 8 39 39 70 .70 9 9 40 .40 7i 71 10 .10 4i .41 72 .72 ii .11 42 42 73 73 12 .12 43 43 74 .74 13 13 44 44 75 .75 14 .14 45 .45 76 .76 15 15 46 .46 78 78 16 .16 47 47 80 .80 17 17 48 .48 82 .82 18 .18 49 49 84 84 19 .19 50 50 86 .86 20 .20 Si Si 88 .88 21 .21 52 52 90 .90 22 .22 53 S3 92 92 23 .23 54 54 94 94 24 .24 55 .55 96 .96 25 25 56 56 98 .98 26 .26 57 57 IOO I. 27 .27 58 58 200 2. 28 .28 59 59 300 3. 29 29 60 .60 400 4- 30 30 61 .61 500 5- 31 .31 62 .62 IOOO 10. At 2 Cents JSio. $Cts. No. $Cts. No. $Cts. i . 2 32 .64 63 1.26 2 4 33 .66 6 4 1.28 3 . 6 34 .68 65 1.30 4 . 8 35 .70 66 1.32 5 .10 36 72 . 67 1.34 6 .12 37 74 68 1.36 7 .14 38 76 69 1.38 8 .16 39 78 70 1.40 9 .18 40 .80 7i 1.42 10 .20 4i .82 72 1.44 ii .22 42 .84 73 1.46 12 .24 43 .86 74 1.48 13 .20 44 .88 75 1.50 14 .28 45 .90 76 1.52 15 .30 46 .92 78 1.56 16 32 47 94 80 i. 60 17 34 48 .96 82 1.64 18 36 49 .98 84 1.68 19 38 So . 86 1.72 20 .40 51 .02 88 1.76 21 .42 52 .04 90 i. 80 22 44 53 .06 92 1.84 23 .46 54 .08 94 1.88 24 .48 55 .10 96 1.92 25 So . 56 .12 98 1.96 26 .52 57 .14 IOO 2. 27 54 58 .16 200 4- 28 56 59 .18 300 6. 29 .58 60 I.2O 400 8. 30 .60 61 1.22 500 10. 31 .62 62 1.24 IOOO 20. At 5 Cents No. $Cts. No. $Cts. No. $ Cts. i . 5 32 .60 63 3-iS 2 .10 33 65 64 3.20 3 .15 34 .70 65 3-25 4 .20 35 75 66 3-30 5 25 36 .80 67 3-35 6 30 37 85 68 3-40 7 35 ?.8 .90 69 3-45 8 .40 39 95 70 3-50 9 .45 40 2. 7i 3-55 10 So 41 2.05 72 3.60 ii 55 42 2.IO 73 3-65 12 .60 43 2.15 74 3-70 13 .65 44 2.2O 75 3.75 14 .70 45 2.25 76 3.80- IS 75 46 2.30 78 3-9 16 .80 47 2-35 80 4- 17 .85 48 2.40 82 4.10 18 .90 49 2-45 84 4.20 19 95 50 2.50 86 4-30 20 i. 5i 2-55 88 4.40 21 1.05 52 2.60 90 4-50 22 .10 53 2.65 92 4.60 23 15 54 2.70 94 4.70 24 .20 55 2.75 96 4.80 25 .25 56 2.80 98 4.90 26 30 57 2.85 IOO 5. 27 35 58 2.90 125 6.25 28 .40 59 2-95 150 7-SO 29 45 60 3- 175 8.75 30 So 61 3-05 200 10. 3| 55 | 62 3.10 225 11.25 53 830 THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR At 10 Cents No. $Cts. Mo. $ Cts. AO. $Cts. I .10 32 3.20 63 6.30 2 .20 33 3-30 64 6.40 3 30 34 3-40 65 6.50 4 .40 35 3-50 66 6.60 5 50 36 3.60 67 6.70 6 .60 37 3-70 68 6.80 7 70 38 3.80 69 6.90 8 .80 39 3-90 70 7- 9 .90 40 4- 7i 7.10 10 I. 4i 4.10 72 7.20 ii 1. 10 42 4.20 73 7-30 12 1. 20 43 4-30 74 7.40 13 1.30 44 4.40 75 7-50 14 1.40 45 4-50 76 7.60 15 1.50 46 4.60 78 7.80 16 1. 60 47 4-70 80 8. 17 1.70 48 4.80 82 8.20 18 1. 80 49 4.90 84 8.40 19 1.90 So 5- 86 8.60 20 2. Si 5-10 88 8.80 21 2.IO 52 5-20 90 9- 22 2.20 53 5.30 92 9.20 23 2.30 54 5.40 94 9.40 24 2.40 55 5.50 96 9.60 25 2.5O 56 5.60 98 9.80 26 2.60 57 5.70 IOO 10. 27 2.7O 58 5.80 125 12.50 28 2.80 59 5-90 150 IS- 29 2.9O 60 6. 175 17-50 30 3- 61 6.10 200 20. 31 3.10 62 6.20 225 22.50 At 1254 Cents, or % of a Dollar No. $Cts. No. $Cts. No. $Cts. i .12^ 32 4- 63 7.87 '/$ 2 .25 33 4-12*4 64 8. 3 37*4 34 4-25 65 8.121^ 4 .50 35 4-37H 66 8.25 5 .6254 36 4-50 67 8.37^ 6 75 37 4-62*4 68 8.50 7 87*4 38 4-75 69 8.62^ 8 . 39 4-87*4 70 8.75 9 .1254 40 5. 7i 8.87.^ 10 25 4 5-12*4 72 9- ii 37*4 42 5-25 73 9.I2l/$ 12 So 43 5-37*4 74 9-25 13 .62 54 44 5-50 75 9-3754 U 1-75 45, 5.6254 76 9-50 15 I.87H 46 5-75 78 9-75 16 2. 47 5.87*4 80 10. 17 2.I2J4 48 6. 82 10.25 18 2.25 49 6.1254 84 10.50 19 2-37*4! 50 6.25 86 10.75 20 2.50 Si 6.37*4 88 ii. 21 2.6254 52 6.50 90 11.25 22 2.75 53 6.62*4 92 11.50 23 2.87*4 54 6.75 94 "-7S 24 3- 55 6.87*4 96 12. 25 3-12*4 56 7- 98 12.25 26 3-25 57 7-12*4 IOO 12.50 . 27 3-37*4 58 7-25 125 I5.62I4 28 3-50 59 7-37*4 150 18.75 ' 29 3.6254 60 7-50 175 2I.87J4 30 3-75 61 7-6254 200 25- 31 3-87*4 62 7-75 225 28.I2I/S At 25 Cents No. $ Cts. i i No. $Cts. No. $Cts. i .25 32 8. 63 15-75 2 .50 33 8.25 6 4 1 6. 3 75 34 8.50 65 16.25 4 i. 35 8.75 66 16.50 5 1.25 36 9- 67 16.75 6 1.50 37 9-25 68 17- 7 1-75 38 9-50 69 17-25 8 2. 39 9-75 70 17.50 9 2.25 40 10. 7i 17-75 10 2.50 4i 10.25 72 1 8. ii 2-75 42 10.50 73 18.25 12 3- 43 10.75 74 18.50 13 3-25 44 n. 75 18.75 14 3-50 45 11.25 76 19- IS 3-75 46 11.50 78 19-50 16 4- 47 "75 80 20. 17 4-25 48 12. 82 20.50 18 4-50 49 12.25 84 21. 19 4-75 50 12.50 86 21.50 20 5- Si 12.75 88 22. 21 5-25 52 13- 90 22.50 22 5-50 53 13.25 92 23- 23 24 5-75 6. 54 55 13.50 13-75 94 96 -'3.50, 2 4 . 25 6.25 56 14. 98 24.50 26 6.50 57 I4-25 IOO 25- 27 6.75 58 14.50 125 31.25 28 7- 59 14-75 150 37-50 29 7-25 60 IS- 175 43-75 30 7-So 61 15.25 200 50. 31 7-75 62 15.50 225 ? r '.-\S At 33*4 Cents, or *4 of a Dollar No. $Cts. No. $ Cts. 1 1 No. $ Cts. i 33*4 32 10.6654 63 21. 2 .6654 33 ii. 64 21.33*4 3 i. 34 "33*4 65 21.6654 4 1-33*3 35 11.6654 66 22. 5 1.6654 36 12. 67 22.33*4 6 2. 37 12.33*3 68 22.6654 7 2.33*4 38 12.6654 69 23- 8 2.6654 39 13- 70 23-33*4 9 3- 40 13-33*4 7i 23-6654 10 3-33*3 4i 13-6654 72 24- ii 3-6654 42 14. 73 24-33*3 12 4- 43 14-33*4 74 2 4 .6654 13 4-33^ 44 14.6654 75 25- 14 4-6654 45 IS- 76 25-33*3 15 5- 46 15-33*3 78 26. 16 5-33*4 47 15-6654 80 26.6654 17 5-6654 48 1 6. 82 27-33*3 18 6. 49 i6.33*4 84 28. 19 6.33*3 So 16.6654 86 28.6654 20 6.6654 Si 17- 88 29-33*3 21 7- 52 17-33*4 90 30. 22 7-33*4 53 17-6654 92 30.6653 23 7-6654 54 1 8. 94 31-33*3 24 8. 55 i8.33*4 96 32. 25 8.33*3 56 18.6654 98 32.6653 26 8.6654 57 19. IOO 33-33*3 27 9- 58 19-33*3 125 41-66*3 28 9-33*4 59 19-66541 ISO So. 29 9-66541 60 20. 175 58-3353 30 10. 61 20.33*4 200 66.6653 31 10.33*4 62 20.6654 225 75- THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR 831 At 43% Cents, or ^ of a Dollar No. $ Cts. | No. | $Cts. || No. $ Cts. i 43 %! 32 |I4- II 63 27-5654 2 .8754 33 14-43% 6 4 28. 3 1-3154 34 I4.8754 65 28.43% 4 1.75 35 I5.3I54 66 28.8754 5 2.18% 36 15-75 67 29.3154 6 2.6254 37 i6.i8%|| 68 29.75 7 3-0654 38 16.6254 69 30.18% 8 3-50 39 17.0654 70 30.6254 9 3-93% 40 17-50 7i 31.0654 10 4-3754 4i 17-93% 72 31.50 ii 4.8i54 42 18.3754 73 31-93% 12 5-25 43 18.8154 74 32.3754 13 5-68% 44 19.25 75 32.8i54 14 6.1254 45 19.68% 76 33-25 15 6-5654 46 20.1254 78 34-1214 16 7- 47 20.5654 80 35- i? 7-43% 48 21. 82 35.8754 18 7.8754 49 21.43% 84 36.75 19 8.3154 50 21.8754 86 37.6214 20 8-75 Si 22.3154 88 38.50 21 9.18% 52 22.75 90 39-3754 22 9.6254 53 23.18% 92 40.25 23 io.o654 54 23.6254 94 4i.i2}4 24 10.50 55 24.0654 96 42. 25 10.93% 56 24.50 98 42.8754 26 11-3754 57 24-93% IOO 43-75 27 11.8154 58 25-3754 125 54-68% 28 12.25 59 25.8154 150 65.6254 29 12.68% 60 26.25 175 76.5654 30 13-1254 61 26.68% 200 87.50 31 13-6554 62 27.1254 225 98.43% At 50 Cents No. $Cts. No. $Cts. No. | $ Cts. i .50 32 16. 63 31.50 2 i. 33 16.50 64 32. 3 1.50 34 17- 65 32.50 4 2., 35 17-50 66 33- 5 2.50 36 1 8. 67 33-50 6 3- 37 18.50 68 34- 7 3-50 38 19. 69 34-50 8 4- 39 19.50 7o 35- 9 4-50 40 20. 7i 35-50 IO 5- 41 20.50 72 36. ii 5-50 42 21. 73 36.50 12 6. 43 21.50 74 37- 13 6.50 44 22. 75 37.50 14 7- 45 22.50 76 38. 15 7-50 46 23- 78 39- 16 8. 47 23.50 80 40. 17 8.50 48 24. 82 41. 18 9- 49 24.50 84 42. 19 9.50 So 25- 86 43- 20 10. Si 25-50 88 44. 21 10.50 52 26. 90 45. 22 ii. 53 26.50 92 46. 23 11.50 54 27- 94 47- 24 12. 55 27-50 96 48. 25 12.50 56 28. 98 49. 26 13. 57 28.50 IOO So. 27 13-50 58 29. 125 62.50 28 14. 59 29.50 150 75- 29 14.50 60 30. 175 87.50 30 15- 61 30.50 200 IOO. 3 1 15-50 62 31- 225 | 1 12.50 At 5654 Cents, or ^ of a Dollar Ao. $Cts. || No. $Cts. || No. $ Cts. i -50/411 32 |i8. || 63 35-43% 2 I.I2J4 33 i8. 5 654|| 6 4 36. 3 | 1-68% 34 19.1214 jj 65 36.5654 4 2.25 35 i9.68%| 66 37-I2J4 5 2.8154 36 20.25 67 37-68% 6 3-37541 37 20.81 54 68 38.25 7 3.93% 38 21.3754 69 38.8154 8 4.50 39 21.93% 70 39-3754 9 5-0654 40 22.50 7i 39-93% 10 5.62}4 4i 23.06% 72 40.50 ii 6.18% 42 23.6254 73 41.0654 12 6-75 43 24.18% 74 4-. 62 54 13 7-3iJ4 44 24-75 75 42.18% 14 7.8754 45 25-3154 76 42.75 15 8.43*4 46 25-8754 78 43.8754 16 9- 47 26.43% 80 45- 17 9-5654 48 27. 82 46.i2}4 18 IO.I2J4 49 27-5654 84 47-25 19 10.6854 50 28.1254 86 48.3754 20 11.25 Si 28.68% 88 49-50 21 n.8i54 52 29.25 90 50.6254 22 12.3754 53 29.8154 92 51-75 23 12.93% 54 30.3754 94 52.87*S 24 13-50 55 30.93% 96 54- 25 14.0654 56 31-50 98 55-1254 26 14.6254 57 32.0654 IOO 56.25 27 15-18% 58 32.6254 125 70.3154 28 15-75 59 33-18% 150 84.3754 29 16.3154 60 33-75 175 98.43% 3 16.8754 61 34.3I54 200 112.50 31 17-43% 62 34.8754 225 126.5654 At 8754 Cents, or ^ of a Dollar "No7 $ Cts. No. $Cts. No. ^ Cts. i .8754 32 28. 63 55-I2J4 2 1-75 33 28.8754 64 56. 3 2.6254 34 29-75 65 56.8714 4 3-50 35 30.6254 66 57-75 5 4-3754 36 3i.5o 67 58.6214 6 5-25 37 32.3754 68 59-50 7 6.I2J4 38 33-25 69 60.3714 8 7- 39 34-125^ 70 61.52 9 7-8754 40 35- 7i 62.1214 10 8-75 4i 35.8754 72 63-' ii 9-6254 42 36.75 73 63.8754 12 10.50 43 37.6254 74 64.75 13 H.3754 44 38.50 75 65.6214 14 12.25 45 39-3754 76 66.50 15 I3.I254 46 40.25 78 68.25 16 14. 47 41-1254 80 70. 17 I4.8754 48 42. 82 71.75 18 15-75 49 42.8754 84 73-50 19 16.6254 So 43-75 86 75-25 20 17.50 51 44-6254 88 77- 21 18.3754 52 45-50 90 78.75 22 19-25 53 46.3754 02 80.50 23 20.12*4 54 47-25 94 82.25 24 21. 55 48.1254 96 84. 25 21.87*4 56 (49- 98 85-75 26 22.75 57 49.8754 TOO 87-50 27 23.6254 58 50.75 125 1109.3754 28 24.50 59 5I-62J4 ISO 131-25 29 25.3754 60 52.50 175 153.12^ 30 26.25 61 53-3754 200 175- 3 r 27.1254 62 (54.25 225 ip6.87 r /< 882 THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR At $1.25 N. $Ct* No. $Cts. No. $ Cts. ~ I 1.25 30 45- 7i 88.75 a 2.50 37 46.25 73 90. 3 3-75 38 47-50 73 91.25 4 5- 39 48.75 74 92.50 5 6.25 40 50. 75 93-75 6 7.50 4i 51.25 76 95- 7 8.75 42 52.50 77 96.25 8 10. 43 53-75 78 97-50 9 11.25 44 55- 79 98.75 10 12.50 45 56.25 80 IOO. li 13-75 46 57-50 81 101.25 12 15. 47 58.75 82 102.50 13 16.25 48 60. 83 103.75 14 17-50 49 61.25 84 105. IS 18.75 50 62.50 85 106.25 16 20. 51 63-75 86 107.50 17 21.25 52 65- 87 108.75 18 22.50 53 66.25 88 no. 9 23-75 54 67-50 89 111.25 20 25. 55 68.75 90 112.50 21 26.25 56 70. 9i "3-75 22 27.50 57 71.25 92 "5- 23 28.75 58 72.50 93 116.25 24 30. 59 73-75 94 117.50 as 31-25 60 75- 95 118.75 26 32.50 61 76-25 96 120. 27 33-75 62 77-50 97 121.25 28 35- 63 78.75 98 122.50 29 36.25 64 80. 99 123.75 30 37-50 65 81.25 IOO 125. 31 38.75 66 82.50 125 156.25 32 40. 67 83.75 ISO 187.50 33 4L25 68 85- 175 218.75 34 42.50 69 86.25 200 25O. 35 43-75 70 87.50 225 281.25 At $1.50 Islo. f Us. Na v nz No. $ Lts. I 1.50 36 54. 7i 106.50 2 3- 37 55.50 72 108. 3 4.50 38 57. 73 109.50 4 6. 39 58.50 74 in. 5 7-50 40 60. 75 112.50 6 9- 41 61.50 76 114; 7 10.50 42 63. 77 115-50 8 12. 43 64.50 78 117. 9 I3.50 44 66. 79 118.50 10 IS- 45 67.50 80 1 20. li 16.50 46 69. 81 121.50 12 1 8. 47 70.50 82 123. 3 19.50 48 72. 83 124.50 14 21. 49 73-50 84 126. IS 22.5O 50 75- 85 127.50 16 24. Si 76.50 86 129. 17 25.50 52 78. 87 130.50 18 27. 53 79-50 88 132. 19 28.50 54 to. 89 I33.50 20 30. 55 82.50 90 135. 21 31-50 56 8 4 . 9i 136.50 22 33- 57 85-50 92 138. 23 34-50 58 87. 93 139.50 24 36. 59 88.50 94 141. 25 37.50 60 90. 95 142.50 26 39- 61 91.50 96 144- 27 40.50 62 93. 97 145-50 28 42. 63 94-50 98 147. 29 43-50 64 9 6. 99 148.50 30 45- 65 97-50 IOO 150. 31 46.50 66 99. 125 187.50 32 48. 67 100.50 150 225. 33 49-50 68 IO2. 175 262.50 34 Si- 69 103.50 220 300. 35 52-50 70 105. 250 337-50 At $1.75 TT5T] $ Cts. 1 "H5T $Cts. nTo $Cts. ~N^n $Cts. pro $Cts. TToT- $ Cts. i 1-75 18 3i-5o 35 61.25 52 91. 69 120.75 86 150.50 2 3-50 19 33-25 36 63. 53 92-75 70 122.50 87 152.25 3 5-25 20 35- 37 64-75 54 94.50 7i 124.25 88 154. 4 7- 21 36.75 38 66.50 55 96.25 72 126. 89 155.75 5 8-75 22 38.50 39 68.25 56 98. 73 127.75 90 157.50 6 10.50 23 40.25 40 70. 57 99-75 74 129.50 9i 159-25 7 12.25 24 42. 41 71-75 58 101.50 75 131-25 92 161. 8 14. 25 43-75 42 73-50 59 103.25 76 133. 93 162.75 9 15-75 26 45-50 43 75-25 60 105. 77 134-75 94 164.50 10 17-50 27 47-25 44 77- 61 106.75 78 136.50 96 1 68. n 19.25 28 49- 45 78.75 62 108.50 79 138.25 98 171.50 12 21. 29 50.75 46 80.50 63 110.25 80 140. IOO 175. 13 22.75 30 52.50 47 82.25 64 112. Si 141.75 125 218.75 14 24.50 31 54-25 48 84. 65 "3-75 82 M3-50 150 262.50 15 26.25 32 56. 49 85-75 66 "5.50 83 145-25 i75 306.25 16 28. 33 57-75 So 87.50 67 117.25 84 147. 200 35o. 17 29-75 34 59-50 _?' 89-25 68 119. 85 148.75 393-75 THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR 833 RATE OF WAGES, FROM $1 TO $21 PER WEEK 50 Cts. 62^ Cts. 75 Cts. 87^ Cts. 50 Cts. 6 2 MCts. 75 Cts. 8 7 KC* DAYS $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. DAYS $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. 54 . 2 . 254 3 . 354 454 3754 4654 5654 .6554 54 . 4 . 554 . 654 754 454 .3954 4954 5954 69 1 / *4 . 654 . 7*4 . 954 .1054 5 >4 I 54 .52 .6254 73 i . 854 .1054 .1254 1454 554 4354 5454 6554 76! *54 .1054 .13 .1554 .1854 554 4554 5754 .6854 .80 154 .1554 .18*4 .22 554 4754 59*4 71*4 8354 X 54 !i 4 54 .18 21*4 2554 6 .50 .6254 75 8754 2 .1654 .2054 25 .29 7 .5854 .72*4 .8754 I.O2 254 .2354 .28 3254 8 6654 8354 . I.l654 254 [20 34 .26 3i54 9 75 93*4 .i 2 y 2 I.3I54 2*4 23 .28^4 3454 .40 10 8354 1.04 25 1-45*4 3 .25 .3154 .3754 43*4 ii 9154 I.I454 3754 i.6o54 354 354 .27 .29 3354 .3654 4054 .43?' .4754 .51 12 18 i. 1.50 1-25 1.8754 So 2.25 1-75 2.6254 3*4 .3154 .39 .4654 5454 24 2. 2.50 3- 3-So 4 .3354 .4154 .50 .5854 26 2.1654 2.71 3.25 3.79 . 454 -3554 44 53 .62 $1 $I.I2# $1.25 fi.37tf $1.50 $1.62^ fi-75 $1.87% DAYS $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. DAYS $ Cts. | $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. 54 4 . 4*4 554 554 54 . 654 . 654 754 1 - 754 54 . sy 2 954 .1054 ."54 54 .1214 .1354 .1414 -1554 N .ia# .14 1554 1754 54 .i8*4 .2054 21*4 -2354 i .l6*/2 .i8J4 .2054 .23 i .25 27 .29 3154 i54 .20 ?4 .2354 .26 .28l/ 2 i54 .3154" 33*4 .3654 39 || *5 .28 3i54 3454 i54 3754 4054 .43*4 4654 iH .29 .32^4 3654 .40 154 4354 .4754 .51 5454 2 .33^4 3754 4154 4554 2 .50 54 .5854 .6254 2^ .3754 .4254 46*4 .5154 254 5654 .61 .6554 7054 254 4154 .4654 52 5754 25/2 .6254 .6754 73 .78 2?4 45*4 .5154 5754 .63 254 .68*4 7454 8054 .86 3 So . .5654 .6*54 .68?4 3 75 8i54 8754 9354 35^ 54 .61 .67*4 7454 354 8i54 .88 94*4 1.0114 354 554 .6554 .72*4 .8054 35? .8754 9454 1. 02 1.0954 3?4 .6a54 7054 78 .86 3*4 9354 1.0154 1-0954 1. 1754 4 .6654 75 8354 -9154 4 I. i.o854 1.1654 1-25 454 .70*4 79*4 .8854 -9754 454 1.0654 1. 15 1.2354 1-32*4 454 .75 .8454 93*4 1-03 4*4 i.u54 1.21*4 1.3154 1.4054 4*4 79 .89 .98*4 i.o8$4 4*4 i.i8fi 1.2814 1-3854 1.4854 5 8354 93*4 1.04 I.I454 5 1-25 I -3554 1-45*4 I.S654 554 .8754 .9854 1-0954 1-2054 554 1-3154 1.4254 L5354 1.64 S54 91*4 1.03 I.I454 1.26 55! 1-3754 1-49 1.6054 i.7i*4 5f4 95*4 1.07^4 I-I954 i.3i54 554 1-43*4 1-5554 1.67*4 1-7954 6 i. I.W54 1-25 1-3754 6 1.50 1.6254 1-75 1.8754 7 I.I654 I.3I54 1-4554 1.6014 7 1-75 1.8954 2.04 2.1854 8 1-3354 1.50 1.6614 1-8354 8 2. 2.I6J4 2-3354 2.50 9 1.50 1.6854 1.8754 2.0654 9 2.25 2-4354 2.6254 2.8 1 1/ 10 1.665^ 1-8754 2.0854 2.29 10 2.50 2.7054 2.9154 3-125! ii 1.8354 2.0654 2.29 2.52 ii 2.75 2.98 3-2054 3-4354 ' 12 2. 2.25 2.50 2.75 12 3- 3-25 3-50 3-75 18 3- 3-375 / 2 3-75 4-I2J4 18 4.50 l| 4-87J4 5-25 5-6214 24 4. 4-So 5- 5-50 24 6. II 6.50 7- 7-50 26 4-3354 II 4.875^ 5-42 5.96 26 1 6.50 II 7.04 1 7-5854 | 8.I2I/ 884 THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR fr $2.50 *3 13-50 & * 18 *9 DAYS $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. DAYS $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cte. 54 . 8}4 .io}4 .I2 l /a .1414 54 25 .29 .3354 3754 54 ,i6}4 20*4 .25 .29 54 .50 5854 .6654 75 *4 .25 .3154 3754 43*4 X 75 .8754 I. 1.1254 i .3354 4154 .50 .5854 i i. 1.1654 1.3354 1.50 i54 .4154 52 .6214 .72*4 i54 1.25 1-4554 I.66J4 1.8754 .50 6254 75 .8754 i54 1.50 1-75 2. 2.25 i*4 .5854 73 .8754 i. 02 154 1.75 2.04 2-3354 2.6254 2 .66 J4 .8354 i. i.i654 2 2. 2.3354 2.66J4 3- 2 54 .75 93*4 1.12^ I.3I54 254 2.25 2.6254 3- 3-3754 25! .8354 1.04 1.25 1-45*4 254 2.5O 2.9154 3-3354 3-75 2*4 .9154 I.I454 1.3754 I.60J4 254 2-75 3.2054 3-6654 4.I2J4 3 i. 1.25 1.50 1-75 3 3- 3.50 4- 4-50 354 i.o854 1.3514 1.6254 1.8954 354 3-25 3-79 4-3354 4-8754 354 i.i654 1.46 1-75 2.04 354 3-50 4-0854 4-6654 5-25 3*4 1.25 1.5654 1.8754 2.18^4 354 3-75 4-3754 5- 5-6254 4 1.3354 1.6614 2. 2.3354 4 4- 4-6654 5-3354 6. 454 1.4154 1.77 2.12*4 2.47*4 454 4-25 4-95 y* 5-6654 6-3754 454 1.50 1.87^ 2.25 2.621,4 454 4-50 5-25 6. 6-75 4*4 1.5854 1-97*4 2-3754 2.77 4*4 4-75 5-54 6.3354 S' 1.6614 2.0854 2.5O 2.9154 5 5- 5.8354 6.6654 7-50 554 *.8354 2.29 2.75 3-20*4 554 5-50 6.4154 7-3354 8.25 6 2. 2.50 3- 3-50 6 6. 7- 8. 9- 7 2.3354 2.9154 3-50 4.o854 7 7- .8.1654 9-3354 10.50 8 2.6654 3-3354 4- 4-66I/S 8 8. 9-3354 io.6654 12. 9 3- 3-75 4-50 5-25 9 9- 10.50 12. 13-50 10 3-3354 4-16*4 5- 5-8354 10 10. H.66J4 13.3354 15- ii 3-6654 4-5854 5-50 6.4154 ii ii. 12.8354 14.6654 l6.5 12 4- 5- 6. 7- 12 12. 14. 1 6. 18. 18 6. 7-50 9- 10.50 18 1 8. 21. 24. 27- 24 8. 10. 12. 14. 24 24. 28. 32. 36. 26 8.661,4 10.8354 |l3. 15-1614 26 26. 30.3354 134-6654 139- *4 $4-50 15 15-50 $10 $n Us to DAYS $ Cts. |l $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. DAYS $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. 1 $ Cts. 54 i6/4 .1854 .2054 .23 54 4 1 53 .46 50 54 54 i 3354 .50 .6654 3754 .5654 75 .4154 .6254 .8354 -4554 .6854 .9154 1 i .8354 1.25 1.6653 .9i53 1.3754 1.8354 i. 1.50 2. i.o84 1.6254 2.1653 i54 .8354 93*4 1.04 i.\4 l /> i j4 2.0854 2.29 2.50 2.71 i54 2 2 5*4 254 254 I. I.I654 1-3354 1.50 ^835! 1-1254 I.3I54 1.50 I '-87 54 2.0654 1.25 1-4554 1.6614 1.8754 2.0854 2.29 1-3754 1.6014 1.8354 2.0654 2.29 2.52 J 54 iff 2 254 254 254 2.50 2.9153 3-3354 3-75 4-1653 2.75 3-21 3-6653 4.1214 4-5854 5-04 3- 3-50 4- 4.50 5- 5-50 3.25 3-79 4-3354 4.8754 5-415* 5.96 3 2. 2.25 2.50 2.75 3 5. 5-So 6. 6.50 2.1614 2-4354 2.7054 2.98 354 5-96 6.50 7.04 354 354 2.3354 2.50 2.6254 2.8154 3^4 3.2054 3.4354 354 354 5^354 6.25 6.4153 6.8754 7- 7-50 7.5854 8.1254 2.6654 2.8354 3- 3-3354 3-5454 3.6614 3.8954 6.6653 7.0854 7-3354 7-79 8. 8.50 8.665i 9.21 454 4*4 5 3. 3.1654 3-3354 3-3754 3-5654 3-75 3-75 3-9554 4.1254 4-3554 4-5854 454 4>4 5 7.50 8^33 54 8.25 8.71 a 9- 9-50 10. 9-75 10.29 10.8354 554 3.6614 4-1254 4-5854 5-04 554- 9.1653 10.0854 ii. 11.9155 6 4. 4-50 5- 5-50 6 10. ii. 12. 13- 7 4-6654 5-25 5.8354 6-4154 7 n.6653 12.8353 14. 15.1653 8 5-3354 6. 6.6654 7-3354 8 13-3354 14-6653 1 6. 17-3354 9 6. 6.75 7-So 8.25 9 16.50 1 8. 19.50 10 ii 6.6654 7-3354 7-50 8.25 8.3354 9-i654 10.085! 10 ii i6.*6653 18.3354 iS.33^4 20. 22. 23'.8354 12 8. 9- 10. II. 12 20. 22. 24. 26. 18 12. 13-50 15. 16.50 18 30. 33- 36. 39- 24 1 6. 1 8. 20. 22. 24 40. 44. 4 8. 52. 26 17-3354 19.50 21.6654 23-83J4 . 26 43-3354 47-66^3 52. 56.3354 THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR 835 $14 |I5 $16 $17 $18 10. ' $20 ffl DAYS $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. DAYS $ Cts. 1 1 $ Cts. $ Cts. $ Cts. 1 A .5854 .6254 .66% 7i 54 .75 79 .83 '/i 8754 54 i.i654 1.25 1.3354 1-41^ 54 1.50 1.5854 i. 66*4 1-75 X i.75 1.875* 2. 2.1254 2.25 - 2.3754 2.50 2.62^ i 2.3354 2.50 2.6654 2.8354 i 3- 3.1654 3-3354 3-50 154 2.91% 3.1254 3-3354 3-54 i54 3-75 3-96 4.i6*4 4-3754 '54 3-50 3-75 4- 4-25 i54 4-50 4-75 5- 5-25 1$ 2 4.0854 4*62/3 4.3754 5- 4-6654 5-3354 4.96 5-6654 i# 2 5-25 6. 5-54 6-3354 5.8354 6.66 54 6.1254 7- 254 5-25 5.6254 6. 6.3754 254 6.75 7.1254 7-50 7.8754 2 y 2 254 5.8354 6.4154 6.25 6.8754 6.6654 7-3354 7-0854 7-79 254 2*4 7-50 8.25 7-9154 8.71 8.3354 9.16*4 8-75 9-6254 3 7. 7-50 8. 8.50 3 9- 9-50 10. 10.50 354 ssi 7.5854 8.16% 8.1254 8.75 8.6654 9-3354 9.21 9.9154 354 354 9-75 10.50 10.29 ii.o854 10.8354 ii.66*4 11-3754 12.25 3*4 8.75 9-3754 10. 10.6254 3*4 11.25 11.8754 12.50 13.1254 4 9-3354 10. 10.6654 11-3354 4 12. 12.6654 13-3354 14. 454 9-91% 10.6254 "33^ 12.04 454 12.75 13.46 14.16*4 14.8754 454 10.50 11.25 12. 12.75 454 I3.50 14.25 15- 15-75 4*4 11.0854 11.8754 12.6654 13.46 4*4 14.25 15.04 15-8354 16.6254 5 11.6654 12.50 13-3354 14-1654 5 15- 15.8354 i6.66*4 17-50 sy 2 12.8354 13-75 14-6654 15.5854 554 I6.5O I7.4I54 iS.3354 19-25 6 14. IS- 16. 17- 6 1 8. 19. 20. 21. 7 16.3354 17-50 iS.6654 19.8354 7 21. 22.1654 23-3354 24.50 8 18.6654 20. 21-3354 22.6654 8 24. 25-3354 26.66*4 28. 9 21. 22.50 24. 25-50 9 27. 28.50 30. 3L50 10 ii 23-3354 25.6654 25- 27.50 26.6654 29-3354 28.3354 31.1654 10 ii 30. 33. 31-66% 34.8354 33-3354 36.66*4 35- 38. 12 28. 30. 32. 34- 12 36. 38. 40. 42. 18 42. 45- 48. 5i. 18 54. 57- 60. 63- 24 56. 60. 64. 68. 24 72. 76. 80. 84. 26 60. 6654 65- 69-33 T /2 73-6654 26 78. 82.3354 86.66J4 91. RATE OF BOARD BY THE WEEK TIME RATE RATE RATE RATE RATE W. D. $2.00 $2.25 $2.50 $3.00 $3-50 I .29 32 36 43 So 2 57 .64 .71 .86 i. 3 .86 .96 1.07 1.29 1.50 4 1.14 1.26 1-43 1.71 2. 5 J-43 1.61 1.79 2.14 2.5O 6 1.71 1-93 2.14 2-57 3- i.i 2.29 2-57 2.86 3-42 4- 1.2 2.57 2.89 3.21 3-86 4-50 1.3 2.86 3-21 3-57 4.29 5- 1.4 3-14 3-54 3-93 4.71 5-50 i-S 3-43 3-86 4.29 5.14 6. 1.6 3.7i 4.18 4.64 5-57 6.50 2. 4- 4-50 5- 6. 7- 2.1 4.29 4.82 5-36 6-43 7-50 2.2 4-57 5-14 5-71 6.86 8. 2-3 4.86 5.46 6.07 7-29 8.50 2.4 5-14 5-79 6-43 7-71 9- 2.5 5-43 6.1 1 6.79 8.14 9.50 2.6 5-71 6-43 7.14 8.57 10. 3- 6. 6.75 7.50 9- 10.50 3-1 6.29 7-07 7.86 9-43 ii. 3-2 6.57 7-39 8.21 9.86 11.50 3-3 6.86 7.71 8.57 10.29 12. 3-4 7.14 8.04 8.93 10.71 12.50 3-5 7-43 8.36 9-29 11.14 13- 3-6 7.71 8.68 9-64 11-57 13.50 4- 8. 9- 10. 12. 14- TIME RATE RATE RATE RATE RATE W. D. $4.00 $4-5o $5.00 $5-50 $6.00 I 57 .64 .71 79 .86 2 1.14 1.29 1-43 1-57 1.71 3 1.71 1-93 2.14 2.36 2.57 4 2.29 2.57 2.86 3.14 3-43 5 2.86 3.21 3-57 3-93 4.29 6 3.48 3-86 4.29 4.71 5.14 .1 4-57 5-14 5-71 6.29 6.86 .2 5-14 5-79 6.43 7.07 7.71 3 5.7i 6.43 7.14 7.86 8.57 4 6.29 7.07 7.86 8.64 9-43 5 6.86 7.71 8.57 9-43 10.29 .6 7-43 8.36 9.29 10.21 11.14 2. 8. 9- 10. II. 12. 2.1 8-57 9-64 10.71 11.79 12.86 2.2 9.14 10.29 "43 12.57 13-71 2-3 9.71 10.93 12.14 13.36 14-57 2.4 10.29 11.67 12.86 14.14 15-43 2.5 10.86 12.21 13-57 14-93 16.29 2.6 "43 12.86 14.29 I5.7I 17.14 3- 12. 13.50 IS- 16.50 1 8. 3-i 12.57 14.14 15-71 17.29 18.86 3-2 13.14 14.79 16.43 18.07 19.71 3-3 13-71 15.43 17-14 18.86" 20.57 3-4 14.29 16.07 17.86 19-64 21-43 3-5 14.86 16.71 18.57 20.43 22.29 3-6 15-43 17.36 19.29 21.21 23.14 4- 1 6. 18. 20. 22. 24. AN OUTLINE OF PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND WE NEED not dwell on the value and advantages of shorthand. Every boy who learns it has a twofold advantage over those who do not, whether he goes to college or at once enters into business life. The collegian can take down a full report of his professor's lecture, while his fellow-students have only rough and often unintelligible notes. The young man who goes to learn a business, whether mechanical or commercial, takes down in a moment instructions given, conversations, examinations, details of any machine, method of working, etc. There is no walk in life in which it does not come into play. It looks difficult to many, but is really easy to acquire, and while, like everything else that is worth learning, constant and painstaking practice is required to render it at all serviceable, the general principles may be explained in small compass, so that the attentive student may master the system for himself. There are various systems in use some noted for speed, others for ease of learning but the best all-around method is prob- ably that of Isaac Pitman, which is treated in the following pages. THE ISAAC PITMAN ALPHABET AND OUTLINES AS in practically all systems of short- hand at present in use, the Isaac Pit- man alphabet is merely a series of lines and curves, alternately light and heavy. Thus, the light lines, upright, horizontal, and slanted, indicate the letters T, K, P, Ch; the heavy lines, upright, horizontal, and slanted, the letters D, G, B, J. The light curves indicate Th, S, F, Sh, M, N; the heavy curves, hard Th, Z, V, Zh, Ng. The matter is further simplified, when we re- member that all letters classed as "explo- dents" P, B, T, D, Ch, J, K, G are indi- cated by lines; all classed as "continuants" F, V, Th, Th, S, Z, Sh, Zh are indicated by curves, as are also the "nasals," M, N, Ng. The "linguals," L and R, and the "coalescents," W, Y, H, are separately treated, as are also final .? (initial, terminal, for plural terminations, etc.) and st. These matters will be explained in place. The vowels and diphthong* are repre- , (886) sented by dots, lines, and other marks, as will be subsequently explained, always be- ing added to the "outline" for thus the combination of signs for a word is called after it is completed. The names of the characters, as given in the accompanying alphabet, are used in talk- ing or writing about them, just as are the names for the letters of the ordinary alpha- bet, but do not represent the sounds always attaching to them in outlines. The naming of the signs is called the "nomenclature"; and it is important always to know a sign by its name, as will soon appear as we proceed. Remember each one of these signs is a part either of a circle, or a straight line, perpendicular, horizontal, or diagonal, as shown in the accompanying cut. Imitate the cut, as nearly as you can, in length and in depth of pressure on the heavy letters. The use of heavy letters simplifies the al- PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND 837 phabet, making a few directions answer double purpose. Continue to repeat your copying or reading of the signs, sounds, and letters (it is best to read aloud as you The Phonographic alphabet condensed. write), until you can skip about, and by covering up the signs, write them from the print from memory, or covering the print, read the signs. All the heavy signs, per- pendicular or diagonal, must be written from top to bottom; all the horizontal lines, heavy and light, from left to right. Learn this alphabet thoroughly before you go on. If you learn it in a week, you will do as well as many of the most rapid re- porters did when they began to learn. As it is all-important to thoroughly master it before you go on, take your time about it. Above is given the Phonographic alpha- bet, condensed in fact, all the consonants in the language in a "nutshell," except ray and aitch. You will find it handy for easy reference. If you have not mastered the letters as presented, by all means continue your study and practice by reading, writing, and sounding them, until you can call them one by one, not only in regular order, but by skipping, and immediately on sight. This cut represents the shape, but not the relative length. All the letters, light and heavy, should at first be written of the same length that is, about one-quarter of an inch long. You will notice the letters which are of the same form or direction, but which differ in depth and name, are placed opposite each other, so that you can com- pare the single and double letters more easily. Supposing, now, that you have learned the single letters, we proceed to give you a few examples of joining letters. Do not take off your pen or pencil between the letters in joining them. Double straight strokes should be made the full length of two single ones, as tt, kg, etc. The method of joining consonant strokes, straight and curved, is shown in Exercise I. In drawing a heavy line, let it taper off gradually as it joins to a light stroke. In like manner take some ruled paper and pen (which is better than pencil), and write Exercise 2, which you will see is a con- tinuance of the order in Exercise i, commencing with p, etc., joining the next CONSONANTS EXPLODENTS. P \ pee B \ bee CONTINUANTS. * \. *f V we T I D I OH / [ *; J / K - - G NASALS. M ^ N ^ NO ^ tee dee }chay jay kay gay em en ing TS ( TH ( ) ) S Z SH ZH ith thee * zee ish zhee LIQUIDS. L /"[&] /ay COMK8CBKT& B *"* C..SU] ray ASPIRATE. . aitch DOUBLE CONSONANTS whay LR ^" '**" KW GW MP MB kway C ^way | *~^emp down r dowa RCH) -x RJ r WL ?" rer wet ivhet letter on the right, until we come around to the letter from which we started. Let the first down-stroke letter come to the line, and the rest follow it If the first is hori- zontal, let the second letter rest on the line. 838 PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND If two horizontal strokes begin a word, let both rest on the line. To render the matter simpler, a hyphen (-) is placed between the single and the double letters in this exercise, but if you are fa- miliar with the alphabet you will not make a mistake, and try to write three letters in- stead of two. EXERCISE TWO dp, dt, d-ch, dg, db, dd, dj, dk, jp, jt, j-ch, jg, jb, jd jj, jk, kp, kt, k-ch kg, kb, kd, kj, kk, pm, tm, ch-m, km, bm, dm, jm, pn, tn, ch-n, kn, bn, dn, jn, p-th, t-th, ch-th, k-th, b-th, d-th, j-th, ps, ts, ch-s, ks, bs, ds, js. Now let us skip a little, and write three ,' letters together : kmt, mnt, mlt, Itn, ntl, tin, tkk, mkt, nkt, kpl, rnt, vnt, sup, sh-rp, Irn, h-ng. In reading the joined signs, commence with the letter on the left and top : p-t, b-g. H (ay), R (ay), W (ay), and Y (ay) are all written in the same direction. It must be remembered that, in writing shorthand, every word is spelled only as it sounds. Note this as we go on. The proper place for using the two kinds of R, sh, and circle, 5", will be fully ex- plained later. Since their uses rank among the advanced subjects of shorthand writing, they may be properly delayed until the stu- dent has mastered the simple primary rules of the subject. The student should under- stand, therefore, that he must faithfully practice the exercises already given before he is ready for these subjects, or for the exercises including vowels, diphthongs, etc. RULES ON CERTAIN LETTERS Note carefully that Ar (r) is written downward; Ray (r) upward; Lay (1) up- ward, and commences a word ; but if the vowel comes before it in the spelling, El (/) is written instead, and downward. The circle S (iss) may either commence, occur in the middle, or at the end of a word. It also stands for Z, except at the beginning of an outline. The words in which it hap- pens will not be confounded, as there is but little difference in the sound. Ch (ay) is always written downward, and a little more straight up than R (ay), which is always written upward and slanting to the right. If you try it you will notice how natural it is for you to make the distinction. G (ay) and ing are the only letters that do not come under the rule that all the heavy let- ters are to be written downward, and that, of course, like all other horizontal letters, are to be written from left to right. Make your heavy signs heavy enough to show the difference between the light and heavy ones, and let them taper from and to a fine point gradually. When R, L, H are to be made with down- ward strokes, they are indicated in the ex- ercises by SMALL CAPITALS: thus, R, L, H. DIRECTION IN MAKING STROKES While the direction of movement in mak- ing the several strokes in shorthand may seem to the beginner a somewhat indifferent matter, so long as the proper signs are writ- ten, he must carefully observe the rules laid down, remembering that two very important considerations depend upon the proper pro- duction of the strokes : (1) In making word outlines it is impera- tive that the several letter signs in each case be joined consecutively, so as to read easily and readily from left to right. (2) Another important matter the plac- ing of the vowel signs depends upon the proper production of the outlines, as will be explained in the succeeding section. THE VOWELS AND THEIR USES In taking up the study of the vowels, the student must understand three things : ( i ) The vowels are never included as parts of the outline representing a word, but are written as dots, short lines, etc., above or below, before or after, the line or curve representing the consonant with which they are immediately associated. (2) They always represent the sounds rather than the spelling of English syllables, and, as a consequence, are not combined to form diphthongs, as in longhand spelling. The diphthongal sounds are represented by special signs, as will be explained in place. (3) The vowel and diphthong signs rep- resent sounds rather than letters. Hence different signs are used for long and short vowels. Also, some sounds classed as diphthongal in longhand spelling are treated as simple vowels in shorthand. RULES FOR UPWARD OR DOWN- WARD STROKES By reference to the alphabet the student will learn that there are three simple letters, H, L, R, that may be written either up- PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND 839 ward or downward. Although the rules in this matter will not be of service until a later period in the study of phonography, they will be given here for reference. REGARDING THE ASPIRATE, H, it may be said that, when represented by one of its alphabetic characters and not by a tick or dot, as explained later the question of using the up-stroke or the down-stroke is decided solely by convenience in forming the outline with the subsequent strokes. STROKE R may be written upward or downward, according to convenience, in writing and deciphering outlines. There are several rules in the matter, however, that define the best practice: (1) R, when the first consonant in a word, is written downward, if preceded by a vowel ; upward, if followed by a vowel ; downward, when both preceded and fol- lowed by vowels. It may be written upward, however, in "earth," "origin," and other words, where the following consonant is a down-stroke. (2) Final R is generally written down- ward, when no vowel follows it, and up- ward, when followed by a vowel. (3) After a straight up-stroke it is writ- ten upward, continuing the movement of the stroke (W, R, L). (4) In outlines of three or more strokes, final R is generally written upward. INITIAL L is generally written upward, except when followed by a horizontal con- sonant, K, G, M, MP, N, NG, being then written downward. FINAL L is generally written upward, but, when ending a word (no vowel following) after F, V, KW, SK, R, W, Y, H, it is written downward. THE LONG VOWELS The first set of vowels to be taken up by the student are the long vowels, which rep- resent the sounds of ah, ay, ee, aw, oh, oo. Remembering that these signs always rep- resent sounds, we may combine them to form the following model sentence, which should be carefully memorized: Pa may \>e thought so poor. (1) The first three in this series are rep- resented by a heavy dot (), the second three by a short heavy dash ( ). (2) The sound represented in each case is determined by the position of the dot or dash with regard to the line or curve rep- resenting the consonant immediately fol- lowing or preceding. The ah dot is placed at the point whet*" '*-e stroke begins, which varies, of course, as the stroke is from be- low, upward, or from above, downward. The ay dot is placed at the middle of the stroke. The ee dot is placed at the point where the stroke ends. Similarly, the aw dash stands at the beginning of the stroke; the oh dash, at the middle; the oo dash, at the end. Accordingly, ah and aw are called first-place vowels; ay and oh are called sec- ond-place vowels; ee and oo are called third- place vowels. (3) If the vowel sound precedes the con- sonant, it is written to the left of an up- right or inclined line or curve, or above the horizontal line or curve. If it follows the consonant, it is written to the right of an upright or inclined line or curve, or below a horizontal line or curve. Thus: the word "ape" is written with the P (pee) line, with the dot in the second position to the left; the word "pay" with the same line with the dot in second position to the right. Also, the word "own" is written with the horizon- tal N (en) curve with the dash in second position above; the word "no" with the same curve, with the dash in second position below. If you commence making the letters from the top down, you begin to place the vowels from the top; if the letter is slanting and upward, you reckon the positions from the bottom, or where you commenced. Every stroke vowel sign must be written at right angles to the consonant line or curve to which it belongs. The consonant line or curve must be made first, and vowels put in afterward. Exercise 3 illustrates these rules, as is shown by the key that follows. KEY TO EXERCISE THREE The outlines of this exercise are explained by reference to the following list of words, which are arranged in lines precisely as in the exercise. LINE i. Palm, balm, calm, laugh. (Of course, / is omitted in the outlines. "Laugh" is supposed to be pronounced lahf.) LINE 2. DaRe, page, maRe, rake, lame, dame. LINE 3. Theme, peeR, female, peep, keep, weep. LINE 4. FaLL, bought, taLL, yawL, cawed ; also, maul. LINE 5. Pole, comb, coach, roar, cocoa, poach. LINE 6. Bcot, boom, tooth, food, rude, cool, fool. In like manner, read aloud and write out- lines for the following: .840 PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND EXERCISE FOUR Ape, ope, pa, paw, ate, ought or aught, oat, taw, to or toe, too, age, jay, jaw, Joe, Jew, ache, oak, key, caw, coo, be or bee, bay, bow or beau, each, chaw, chew, me, ma, maw, mow, own, oath, ace, ail or ale, all, lo, lieu, foe, she, Shae, shoe, eve, we, way, woe, woo, ye, yea, you. Beet, became, bail, oatmeal, Paul, game, fame, boat, caught, pool, teeth, bait, cake, goal, shame, shave, room, ball, tool, deal, delay, depot, potato, make, thaw, bathe, wreath, wreathe, zeal, leap, feed, deem, Hawk, shawl (sh and 1 upward), shoal, wade, rule, read, haughty, pooR, cheap, kneeL. Study the power of each vowel sign, by reference to the word underneath it, until you can detect the long vow r els in any other word you may read. The exercise will im- prove your pronunciation of words. Then pick out all the words you can in this read- ing matter which contain one or more long vowel sounds, and if they have no sound different from those in the words under the above scale, write them on paper, first the English word, and under it the phono- graphic consonant outline, with the vowel properly placed. WORD SIGNS At this point we may introduce another feature of shorthand writing, which the stu- dent should understand before proceding further. It is regarding the so-called "word signs," commonly used, whereby cer- tain familiar short words are expressed by their characteristic consonants, instead of by phonetic outlines. Many of these letter- words are written in the second position, or on the line, but others, above the line (first position) or below the line (third po- sition). Where these signs are written in the first or third positions they are indi- cated in the exercise keys by those numbers in parentheses; thus (i) and (3). In the terminology of shorthand, the words that are thus expressed by charac- teristic letters are called GRAMMALOGUES, while the shorthand letters representing them are called LOGOGRAMS. A number of common LOGOGRAMS are given in Exercise 3A, their longhand equiva- lents being appended. KEY TO EXERCISE THREE (A) Be, do, they (or them), the, we, give (or given), all (i), he, who, it, him (or may), which, go (i), have, was. It is well to understand this matter at the start, in order to avoid the confusion inci- dent on attempting to write outlines for words that are commonly represented by logograms. In studying the above exercise the student should carefully compare each sign with the alphabet already given, and learn what letters properly stand for the words. THE SHORT VOWELS The short vowel sounds are treated in shorthand in the same general fashion as the long vowels, already noticed, both as to signs and positions in the outlines. Furthermore, they correspond to the long vowels in representing the sounds of similar vowels in longhand writing. They are as follows: a, as in "hat"; e, as in "het"; f, as in "hit"; o, as in "hot"; u, as in "hut"; oo (or ), as in "hood." In speaking, they are called respectively, at, et, it, ot, ut, 56t. The short vowels may be learned in the order of their positions on the consonant signs by memorizing the following sen- tence : That p^n s not mch good. In writing, the short vowels are repre- sented by light dots and light dashes in the proper positions. Thus, short a is a light dot in the first place; short e, a light dot in second place; short i, a light dot in the third place; short o, a light dash in the first place; short u, a light dash in the second place; short oo (as in "good," "hood," "wood"), a light dash in the third place. As regards place and position, the same rules hold for both long and short vowels, particularly when, as is most commonly the case, one of the short vowels precedes a sin- gle consonant sound, as in at, add, am, an, ebb, err, it, ill, egg, odd, off, or, up, us, etc. In order, however, to prevent the uncer- tainty that will frequently occur regarding a light or a heavy dot or dash, certain rules of position are adopted for short vowels in outlines of more than one consonant sound. (1) First position vowels, long or short, are written after the first consonant. (2) Second position vowels, if long, are written after the first consonant; if short, before the second consonant. (3) Third position vowels, long or short, are written before the second consonant. These rules should be carefully memor- ized and observed in practicing and writing. Exercises 5 and 6 exhibit most of the pe- culiarities that the student needs to under- stand. By carefully studying them with the keys, with reference to these rules, the mat- ter will soon become clear. PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND 841 Exercise SA gives another series of word- signs (logograms), which the student should carefully note in passing, and eventually memorize. KEY TO EXERCISE FIVE Line I. Rag, tap, car, rap, Pat, tad. Line 2. Get, leg, wreck, peck, deck, Heck. Line 3. Pip, kid, fib, bit, jim, pill, fiLL. Line 4. Rob, lock, botch, notch, fop, chop. Line 5. Thumb, numb, jug, Dutch, gum, Hug. Line 6. Book, look, cook, push, shook, Hook. KEY TO EXERCISE FIVE (A) Had (i), can (i), come, if, think, shall, me or my (i), in or any (i), or (i), are, THE DIPHTHONGS In addition to the signs for the long and short vowel sounds already given, there are five others classed as diphthongs, although, like several of the long vowel sounds, they are not all the same sounds as are so rep- resented in English longhand writing. Thus, we have in this list the following: (1) / (or y) as in "my," "high," "lie," "die," etc., represented by an inverted point (or caret). That it is proper to represent this sound as a diphthong is evident, when we conisder that it is really a compound sound of long a (ah) and long e (ee) pro- nounced rapidly. Thus : ah-ee. (2) Ow, as in "now," "how," "cow" ; also representing the sound of ou in "thou," and of ough in "plough." However, it is EXERCISE ONE EXERCISE THREE EXERCISE FIVE EXERCISE THREE (A) \ I < . S- ^ . , I ^ / - V. ) EXERCISE FIVE (A) so or us, should, a or an (i), of, and (i), to, but, thing, on (i), wish (3). In like manner write, and read aloud as you do so, the following words : EXERCISE SIX Pick, pack, peachy, poach, putty, tick, tack, tuck, took, touch, tip, top, tug, chick, check, cup, cage, catch, cud, bit, biddy, budge, back, jot, jet, map, Mattie, muddy, among, nothing, ship, shape, shop, ask, bet, dimity, bush, merry, sham, shell (sh and / upward), Ned, bat, caddy, carriage, copy, gem, natty, nock, ship, aRm, fish (sh up- ward), knell, red, aRk, faK. necessary to remember that when ow is sounded oh, as in "bow" (the instrument to shoot an arrow), "mow" (the verb), "sow" (the verb), the second-place long vowel sign of oh is used, instead of the diphthong shorthand outlines always rep- resenting sounds rather than letters, as al- ready stated. The phonetic sign for the diphthongal sound of ow is a caret or point turned upward. (3) The sound of oi (or oy), as in "boy," "toy," "joy," "void," etc. This is a com- bination of the sounds of long o (oh) and long e (ee) pronounced rapidly. Thus : oh-ee. 842 PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND (4) The sound of ew or u with the af- fected pronunciation of yu, used by many people in such words as "new" (pronounced ne-yoo), "lute" (pronounced le-yoot), al- though the prevailing custom is to give a simple oo sound in most such words. How- ever, this diphthong sign would be used in such words as "view." The sign is a small semicircle, like an inverted U. (5) The sound of wi, as in "wide," "wine," "swine," etc., is a small right angle. All these signs are shown in Exercise 7, where they are represented as preceding the sign for T. According to the rule of use, the sign for oi is always written in the first place; yu and ow, in the third place, and the (as in "my," "thy") and wi in either of the three places, as is most convenient. These matters may all be understood by carefully studying Exercise 7 with its key. KEY TO EXERCISE SEVEN Line i. The diphthongs I, oy or oi, wi, ow, U. Line 2. Tie, ice, type, tide, time, like, chime. Line 3. Boy, envoy, annoy, alloy, coy, joy, toy. Line 4. Wide, widely, wife, Wite. Line 5. Out, cow, bow, thou, now, loud. Line 6. Pew, few, due, cure, fury. The following grammalogues are also rep- resented after this exercise: I (i), why (i), how, you, our (3), use (noun) or see (3), use (verb) or whose (3), by (i). In mastering this exercise, copy the out- lines given, and read aloud as you write, the above examples; but do not simply copy them unless you know how and why the signs mean what they read. Observe closely the angles of the diphthong signs, whether downward, upward, to the left, at the top, or bottom. We might give you, in this les- son, much more to study, but it is best not to try to do too much all at once. If you learn these perfectly, you can exercise your- self in making other words like them from such lists as the following, or from books or newspapers. The following words are carefully chosen with a view to illustrating the rules already given: Lime, mighty, joyous, pneumatic, noisy, enjoy, duty, owl, pioneeR, deny, isle, icy, en- dow, endue, accuracy, poweR, HigheR, re- view, NiLe, foiL, rout. iRish, July, piety, avenue. THE CIRCLE S (ISS) As will be seen by referring to the pno- netic alphabet already given, there are two signs for S used in shorthand ; the first is a part of a curve, called ess, the second a circle, called iss. The ess is, accordingly, called "stroke-S." The circle I'M also serves in some words for the Z (zee) stroke. The strokes for S and Z are used prin- cipally when a vowel immediately precedes or follows a consonant sign. The circles for S and Z are used principally when two consonant sounds one of which is S come together in a word. Thus the strokes for S and Z are used at the beginning or end of an outline always for some particular reason. (1) The circle S (iss) is always to be formed by a movement of the. pen or pen- cil backward i.e., from left to right or con- trary to the hands of a clock. It thus comes at the right side of an upright or slanting down-stroke; on the left side of an up- stroke, and on the upper side of a horizontal stroke. It is necessary to observe this rule carefully, since, when the circle is at the left or below, the significance is different, as will be explained in the section on "hooked consonants." (2) Circle S forms a convenient means of joining two strokes; and, as shown in Ex- ercise 9, when joining two straight lines, it is outside the angle formed by their meet- ing; when joining two curves, it is inside the curve. The direction followed in making the circle will always be apparent by ob- serving the manner in which the strokes of the outline are joined together. If this rule is always carefully observed, there will be no uncertainty in reading out- lines, since the direction followed in making the circle will always be apparent by ob- serving the manner in which the strokes are joined together. (3) When the single iss circle stands at the beginning of a stroke, it is always sounded first; when it stands at the end of a stroke 1 , it is always sounded last, no mat- ter what the place of the vowel, which is sounded before or after the stroke, as in- dicated by position before or after. (4) Double S, medial or final, is indi- cated by a large circle, formed counter- clockwise, and connected to the strokes pre- cisely like the single S. This is called sess, and corresponds to the sounds of ses, sez, zes, eez, size, etc., as in "exercise," "cen- sus," etc., as in Exercise 9. (5) Such a large circle at the beginning of an outline indicates SW, as in "swear," "sweet," etc. It does not indicate the sess, as in "cessation," "secede," "sesame," the stroke S (ess) being used in such cases, as will be explained in the following para- graphs. THE USES OF STROKE S (1) Stroke S (ess) is used, when S is the only consonant in a word. (2) Stroke S is used in a word beginning with a vowel followed by the S-sound. (3) In a word ending with a vowel sound (not a silent vowel), immediately preceded by S, the stroke S is used. (4) When the S-sound begins a word and S in respect to the way in which it is writ- fen and combined in outlines. Unlike the iss, however, the st loops are not circles but elongated ovals. (i) The "stay" loop, corresponding to the syllable st or sta, as in "stay," "stand," etc., is a small elongated loop, as shown in Ex- ercise 9, lines n, 12, 13, 14. It may be used initially, medially, or finally. When, however, ST is at the end of a word fol- lowed only by a vowel sound it is spelled by using circle S (iss) followed by T (tee), in order to leave a place to write the final vowel. This may be seen in the word "dusty," whose outline is the third of Line EXERCISE SEVEN 1 I: J I I Al J EXERCISE NINE NO tr t - ^9 ~s EXERCISE SEVEN (A) V L is immediately followed by a vowel with an- other S- or Z-sound, the first S is a stroke, the second a circle (iss). (5) Z-sound at the beginning of a word is always indicated by the stroke letter. (6) When initial S is followed by two vowel-sounds in different positions, or final S is preceded by two vowels in different po- sitions, the S-sound must always be repre- sented by the stroke letter, in order to give opportunity for writing the two vowels in the outline. If this is not done the vowels will be mixed up in the outline. "STAY" AND "STER" LOOPS The sounds of st and ster are commonly expressed by a sign resembling the circle 14, Exercise 9. Compare it with "dust," whose outline is the third of Line n, in the same exercise. (2) The ster loop, corresponding to the syllable, ster or stor, medial or final, in such words as "pastor," "minister," "master- piece," is formed like the stay loop, except that it is fuller or wider in proportion to its length. Its formation and use are shown in Exercise 9, Line 15. As may be seen in the fifth outline of this same line ("posters"), the S of the plural is formed by continuing the line of the loop through the stroke letter on which it is written, and making a small circle over or on the other side of the stroke. 844 PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND KEY TO EXERCISE NINE Line I. Pass, ties, chess, kiss, raise, house, yes. Line 2. Soap, sat, such, sack, sorry, sway, stow. Line 3. Face, thaws, cease, shows, mouse, neighs, laws. Line 4. Save, soothe, seize, sash, Sam, snow, seal. Line 5. Task, excite, opposite, Jessup, rasp, desk. Line 6. Dismay, dozen, rus(t)le, Kissam, raisin, cousin. Line 7. Mason, lacer, facile, loosely, sea- son. Line 8. (Examples of large circle sess with vowel inserted.) Exercise, excessive, exhaust, indexes, census, insist. Line 9. (Circle ses, sez, zes, sez.) Paces, rouses, causes, necessity, necessary. Line 10. (Large circle SW beginning of outlines.) Swear, swell, swathe, swarthy, swing. Line u. (st loop.) Cast, stick, dust, staid, statute. Line 12. Most, vestry, justify, elastic, (h)onest. Line 13. Story, stuff, stage, store. Line 14. (st loop with vowel following or between S and T.) Russett, rusty, dusty, rust, dust. Line 15. ("ster" loop medial or final.) Pastor, lustre, Chester, masterpiece, posters. EXERCISE TEN (All grammalogues thus far given.) We may go to see him if he can have us. I may give the thing to them. We shall see if they all think so. How can you see in it? It was put on my eye, but I think it may be had by all who wish to use it. How are you, and which hour do you wish to come? Why are we to use them? Shall we see whose they may be or can all of us have the use of them? We may have them, but they should all see our use of them. Carefully review the lists of logograms already given, reading them by means of their keys, and write this exercise out in shorthand. Then read it from the signs, etc., ; until all the logograms are thoroughly mem- orized. PHONOGRAPHIC HOOKS After the student has carefully mastered what has gone before, he is in a position to write shorthand with moderately good ease and effect. From some points of view, it is even advisable that he go no further until he has thoroughly mastered the characters and principles already laid down, so as to be able to write all previous exercises with ease. In entering, however, upon the study of what might properly be called the SEC- OND PART of this treatise, he must under- stand that the various abbreviations found in the hook characters are adopted for no other reason than to assist him to the end of making his outlines shorter and less com- plicated hence, to be more rapidly written and more easily read. Of course, the mat- ter demands earnest and careful study; but the further we go in this manner, the sim- pler seem all things that follow. THE W AND Y DIPHTHONGS When a word begins with either a W or Y sound followed by a long or a short vowel, it may be spelled with a W or a Y diphthong, so-called, instead of by the use of a hooked stroke way or yay, as given in the phonographic alphabet. These signs are called diphthongs, because, as phonographic teachers remind us, "W is really oo and Y is really ee" Hence another vowel sound fol- lowing either of them forms what is prac- tically a diphthong. The W diphthongs are represented by small semicircles, each laid on one side, and the Y diphthongs by small semicircles open- ing either upward or downward. Thus, wah, way, wee, are represented by small heavy semicircles opening to the right; wah, woh, woo, by small heavy semicircles opening to the left; the difference in each case being denoted by the position of the sign on the consonant outline, as in the simple long vowels already noticed. In other words, these diphthongs take first, second, or third place, according to the vowels with which they are compounded. The Y diphthongs, yah, yay, yee, are de- noted by small heavy semicircles opening upward, and occupy first, second, and third place, respectively. Yaw, yoh, yoo are small heavy semicircles opening downward, and occupying first, second, and third place, respectively. The diphthongs compounded with the short vowels, a, e, i, o, u, oo, may be rep- resented in similar fashion with W and Y, but by light semicircles. However, it will seldom be found necessary to make this dis- tinction in practical shorthand work. HOOKED CONSONANTS The most notable of the hooked conso- nants are the L hooks and the R hooks, as shown in the annexed diagram. As may be seen here, the L hook is formed in the same direction as the crook of the first nn- PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND 845 ger of the left hand: the R hook, in the same direction as the crook of the first finger of the right hand. Consequently, in order to remember which is which, the student need only recollect that L stands for left and R stands for right. These hooks are placed at the beginning of a stroke, which there- after has the sound of the consonant indi- cated followed by L or R. Both are shown Diagram of the L and R hooks. combined with the light strokes for K, P, T, CH, but can be as correctly combined with the heavy strokes for G, B, D, as occasion requires, in precisely the same man- ner. These hooks may also be combined with any other stroke letters. VOWELS INSERTED ON INITIAL HOOKS When an L or R hook is written on a ;troke consonant, as already explained, we have the combinations, GL, KL, PL, BL, GR, KR, PR, BR, etc., with any vowel sounds following, as in "gland," "grand," "clay," "gray," etc. When, however, a vowel sound is to come between the component conso- nants, as in "German," "chairman," "tor- ment," "school," etc., a variation in the vowel signs is necessary. (1) A dot vowel (ah, ay, ee, and short a, e, i) is written as a small circle, instead of a simple dot. The circle for a long vowel sound precedes the stroke letter at the left, or above the horizontal; the circle for a short vowel sound follows the stroke letter at the right, or below the horizontal. (2) A stroke vowel (aw, oh, oo, and short o, u, oo), or a diphthong sign is drawn through the stroke letter. (3) When an initial hook would interfere with a stroke vowel or a diphthong sign, the stroke or sign may be written before the hook. KEY TO EXERCISE ELEVEN W AND Y DIPHTHONGS 1. Twelve, twenty, wish, word, railway, frequent, Asia, India. 2. Associate, association, year, yearly, yard, period, folio, ratio. 3. Boxwood, password, patriot, fuchsia, recreation, variation, various. 4. Area, Persia, piano, sinew, mania, curi- ous, warm. VOCALIZATION OF INITIAL R AND L HOOKS 5. Well, weal, well, Willie, wile, while, wool, woolly, wolf. 6. Willing, wealthy, weakness, wakeful, wall, wail, walker. 7. Willow, woollen, careless, cheerless, term, dark, perfect, charm. 8. Parliament, external, dormant, north, curtain, churl, churlish, former. 9. Tell, till, garment, girl, parcel, darling. EXERCISE ELEVEN I wall, *! weh, j woo. "} yah, v j yeh, ,' yee, j yaw, A | yoh, A | yoo. t. 2. 3. 4 5 r 6 7 VI \ V "V r , r t_ -V i. *-( r. r KEY TO EXERCISE TWELVE 1. Pray, pry, brew, adder, eager. 2. Play, addle, eagle, glue, through. 3. Broke, baker, couple, paper. 4. Block, buckle, copper, coffer. 5. Bible, teacher, cover, measure, lever. 6. Gather, sugar, liver, leisure, Homer. 7. Talker, tanner, dinner, banner, joiner. 8. Banker, finger, linger, lumber. 9. Flow, flee, flame, flock. 10. Fled, panel, funnel, flannel. DOUBLE CONSONANTS In order to prevent confusion in the stu- dent's mind regarding the distinction be- tween the L and R hooks combined with stroke letters and the double consonants, KW, GW, WH, WL, and WHL, and with the characters for W and Y, as shown in the alphabet, it is necessary only to call at- tention to the fact that the hooks of the double consonants are to be made deliber- ately larger than those of the L and R 54 846 PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND characters. Thus, KW will not be con- fused with KL, nor GW with GL. Re- garding the WH, we may call attention to the fact that it is to be made with an up- stroke, and consequently can not be con- fused with CHN, which is a down-stroke. Regarding W, Y, WL, and WHL, the same remark applies. In writing WL the hook is made smaller than in WHL. CIRCLE S (ISS) BEFORE INITIAL HOOKS When it is necessary to write S before any hooked consonant of the L or R series, the circle S (iss) is used, only, contrary to the rule previously stated, it is written with a forward movement i.e. in the same direc- tion as the hands of a clock. WITH THE R SERIES, the circle S making signs for the sounds of SKR, SPR, STR, etc., or outlines with these and other con- sonants of the series is merely written to the left of the upright and slanting strokes, and below the horizontal strokes. The meaning is thus unmistakable, since with the simple S sound the circle is to the right of the uprights and slants and above the hori- zontals, as we have already stated. WITH THE L SERIES, the circle S making the signs for the sounds of SPL, STL, SCHL, SKL, etc. is written inside of and at the shorter end of the L hook, although written counter-clockwise. The same rule applies to the double consonant; KW, in which the hook is larger than in KL. When a consonant sound indicated by either an L or an R hook follows S in the middle of a word, the S circle is always written on the shorter end of the hook, un- less the sign having the R hook follows a straight stroke made in the same direction. In the latter case the combined S and hook sound is indicated as if initial. An ST loop or an SW circle may be writ- ten to a consonant sign of the L or the R series by observing the same rule of making the direction of movement the same as the hands of a clock; the stroke continuing the circle or loop. In connection with the R series, it is de- sirable to remark at this point that the pho- nographic symbols for H, both up-stroke and down-stroke, represent the characters not liable to be used. Thus, the down- stroke H might indicate the combination SCHR, which would scarcely represent any English word. The up-stroke H could in- dicate nothing else than SRR, which would have to be otherwise written in an outline. FINAL CONSONANT HOOKS Just as the sounds of L and R may be added to other consonants at the beginning or middle of a word by the use of hooks, so the sounds of N and of F and V may be indicated by the use of the proper final hooks. The final N hook is made in the same direction as the initial L hook (being indicated by the crook of the left fore- finger), and the final F or V hook, in the same direction as the initial R hook (being indicated by the crook of the right fore- finger). Thus, when N is the last sound in a word not being followed by a vowel it may be indicated by a hook at the finish of a straight stroke, turning to the left for slants and uprights, and to the right for slanting up-strokes, R, W, and H. With curved strokes, it simply continues the di- rection of the curve. The final F or V hook is used most usu- ally with straight strokes, and with them is the reverse of the N hook being written to the right of slanting and upright down- strokes, and to the left of slanting up- strokes, R. W, H. The N and F hooks can be used medially in any word, provided a sufficient space be allowed to draw them in. When a vowel sound follows N, F or V, at the end of a word, the proper stroke letter must be used instead of the hook. (A similar rule applies in the use of the ST Icop as already explained.) VOCALIZING FINAL HOOKS Final hooks may be vocalized (i.e. a vowel may be inserted between the component con- sonants) in precisely the same manner as has been explained in connection with the initial hooks. Dot vowels are expressed by circles, before for long, after for short; stroke vowels or diphthongs may be drawn through the stroke consonant. Also, when the final hook might interfere with the stroke vowel or the diphthong sign, either of them may be placed after the hook. CIRCLE S AND FINAL HOOKS Circle S may be added to a final hook (F, V, or N) in precisely the same manner that it is prefixed to an initial L or R hook, as already explained. In so doing it is essential only to carefully make the circle in the opposite direction from that in which it indicates simply final S. Thus, while circle S is written to the RIGHT of slanting and upright down-strokes, PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND 847 n the UPPER SIDE of a horizontal straight stroke, and to the LEFT of up-strokes, the final NS circle (the N hook continued and closed into a circle) is at the LEFT of slant- ing and upright down-strokes, BELOW a hori- zontal straight stroke, and to the RIGHT of up-strokes. Noting, however, that the final S circle merely continues the bend of a curved stroke, the distinction is made with NS by making the N hook continue the bend and drawing the S circle on the short end of the hook. The distinction between the NS and the VS or FS circles is preserved by using the stroke N and circle S wherever way, a large final hook stands for the sound represented by the syllables, tion, sion, and tian,. sian, with the sound of SHUN or ZHUN. Several rules govern the use of this hook : (1) After a stroke letter beginning with a hook or circle (L, R, S, etc.) it is written on the side opposite to 'the hook or circle. (2) After a simple stroke letter it is writ- ten on the side opposite to the vowel or to the accented vowel, if there are more than one (as before and after the stroke). (3) After a curved stroke it is written within, as a continuant of the curve. (4) After T, D or J, straight strokes, EXERCISE TWELVE EXERCISE THIRTEEN 1. X \v V '1 2. i -V i "( : t- L L 8- V 9. 10. 9 10 b V/T v 10 w, O ^ ' X there might be confusion of word outlines. Circle NS is used most generally for the NZ sound, and stroke N with circle S for Jhe NS sound. The circle S with F and V hooks is written on the same plan as with the initial L hooks, on the short end of the hook, which is made to the right of the inclined and up- right down- strokes, above a horizontal, and to the left of up-strokes. THE "SHUN" HOOK As we have already learned, the size of a hook or circle modifies the sound indicated. Thus, a small circle indicates S, or Z (written heavier), and a small hook, R or L initial or N or F, V, final ; while a large circle stands for SW, and a large hook, for KW (qu), GW, WH, etc. In the s~ne without hooks, circles or loops, the SHUN hook is written to the right of the stroke. (5) When circle S precedes this hook, as in "possession," "position," etc., it is ex- pressed by continuing the circle to the op- posite side of the stroke letter. (6) When circle S (final) follows a SHUN hook, also preceded by an S sound, a circle may be written upon the extended hook made as explained in Rule 5. (7) The SHUN hook may be used medi- ally, like other hook and circle letters. These matters will be made clear by ref- erence to the following exercises. KEY TO EXERCISE THIRTEEN DOUBLE CONSONANTS 1. Way, whey, ware, where. 2. Wail, whale, quire, quiet, quibble. 848 PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND CIRCLE S AND INITIAL HOOKS 3. Screw, scrap, scrimmage, scribble. 4. Scraper, supply, suffer, squabble, squall. FINAL N AND F HOOKS 5. Bone, bun, tune, town, twine, dine. d Puff, proof, beef, brief, bluff, tough, trough "SHUN" HOOK 7. Nation, motion, occasion, action, do- nation. S AND FINAL HOOKS 8. Pass, pans, dose, deigns, cheese, chance. 9. Lawns, loans, tosses, pounces, tenses, expenses. FINAL HOOKS AND FINAL VOWELS 10. Wave, wavy, mastiff, mystify, tin, tiny. DOT, CIRCLE AND TICK SIGNS Several notable shorthand abbreviations are formed with ticks, circles, and dots, as follows : THE PREFIX CON OR COM is indicated by a light dot at the beginning of a stroke let- ter, above a slant or upright, and to the left of a horizontal (not in any vowel position). THE SyFFix ING is a precisely similar light dot at the end of a word stroke. THE SUFFIX INGS is a small detached cir- cle at the end of an outline. THE SUFFIX ING followed by "the" is a small detached dash following an outline. NOTE. Whenever it is more convenient, the stroke NG (ing) may be used, instead of the cir- cle, dot, or dash already mentioned. THE ASPIRATE, HV is expressed by two stroke signs, one upward, the other down- ward, but may be indicated by a tick joined at an angle or across the top to the end of the stroke letters. It is then read before the vowel preceding the stroke consonant. H may also be expressed by an additional dot before a vowel dot or dash preceding a stroke consonant. HALVING CONSONANT STROKES The principle of halving consonant strokes is another notable method of saving time in writing phonographic outlines. According to this principle thin strokes made at half length indicate not only P, T, CH, K, F, TH, S, etc., but these letters followed by T. Thus, the curve stroke M made at full size and followed by the sign of the diphthong I (as in "my"), spells "my," but made at half length and followed by the same diph- thong spells "mite." Heavy strokes indicate the same letters, or their heavy equivalents, followed by D. There may be uncertainties at times re- garding those halved outlines, but generally the matter is simple. Thus, when the curves for M, N, L, R are halved and thickened to represent MD, ND, LD, RD, there is no un- certainty in reading the outline, since the rule is never tc halve the heavy curves, MP, NG. LER, RER, except when they have a final or initial hook. KEY TO EXERCISE FOURTEEN DOWNWARD H 1. Hoe, high, huge, highly, hack. UPWARD H 2. Hod, hobby, heady, haughty. TICK H 3. Hussy, hem, home, whom, Hume, DOT H 4. Half, hath, heaven, manhood, handy- help. UPWARD AND DOWNWARD L AND R 5. Dare, deary, char, chary, vile. 6. Villa, fell, fellow, ear, ray. HALVING LETTERS 7. Sent, send, sound, hand, made, mad, middle. 8. Fatted, fitted, spotted, plated, coated, cheated. 9. Beautiful, doubtful, rapid, habit, al- phabet. 10. A friend in need is a friend indeed. PUNCTUATION MARKS It is necessary to avoid all marks and signs that might be confused -with steno- graphic signs. Consequently, the period (.) is denoted by a small cross (x), and the dash ( ) by a line with two tails ( < ,). In in- dicating a capital letter, as, for example, a, proper name, two slanting parallel lines are written to the left of the outline (^ ). Many stenographers consider that the best practice is to write a proper name in long- hand, in order to avoid confusion. All other punctuations are the same as in longhand. All numbers are expressed by numerals (i, 2, 3, 4, etc.-). A few general rules for practical short- hand writing are as follows: (.1) Use abbreviated forms as soon as your facility in writing is established. The rule is to indicate the accented syllables, as Blet (2) for believe it; Diet (2), for de- liver it, etc. PHONOGRAPHY, OR SHORTHAND 849 (2) Write words ending in er same as the primitive word (without er), with the addition of downward R ; as pardoner, Par- Den-Ar, instead of Per-Dee-Ner; Dinner, Den-Ar, instead of Dee-Ner ; Tinner, Tenor, Ten-ar, instead of Tee-Ner. (3) Make all words ending with R, with downward R ; and all words with a final vowel following the R, with upward R ; but R before J is always Ray. This is an es- tablished rule, yet often departed from with perplexing frequency; but it is suggested as a standing and unexceptional rule. So also with Ret and Ard, down or up, as fol- lowed or not by a vowel. So also with Lay and El, Let and Eld. As disposal, Dees Pees-El ; down-hearted, Den- Art ; re- tained, Ret-End; ordained, Ard- End, and numerous others. This rule thus provides a distinction between words ending in er, ry, el, and ly, which, in many cases, accord- ing to the Standard Dictionary, are written alike. (4) Retain the Pitman Ler sign for Ir, instead of Lay-Ar, which is longer, es- pecially in compound words, as Chandler, Chent-Ler, instead of Chay-End, Lay-Ar. (5) Write all words ending in tionist with the half-length ess up or down on the end of the shon hook; as abolitionist, Bee- Layshonst ; protectionist, Pret-Kayshonst ; prohibitionist, Per-Beeshonst ; and as in revolutionist, resurrectionist, secessionist, rationalist. (6) Write half the "I" sign in all phrases and compound words, as eyelid, eyelet, I am, I may, etc. (7) Write 77rer joined, and of under- stood, instead of double length Veether (i), to express of their; except when of is em- phasized. (8) Write Ret for on, before p, b, t, d, ch, j, b, v, n, ng, s, z, sh, zh, el, th, th, and y; Chet before k, g, Lay, Ar, Ray, w and m. (9) Write Ret for I, above the line, be- fore p, b, t, d, ch, j, k, g, s, and th; Chet before Ar, and Ray ; Pet before m, and mp. (10) Should, on the line, by Ret before p, b, d, t, ch, j ; Chet before k, g, m. (n) When new and now commence a phrase, write them below the line without the tick ; as nowadays, En-Dees ; knew- there-were, Enther-weh. (12) Write "society" by S through the preceding word in all possible cases ; in a few other instances, join the S, as in "good society," "modern society," etc. (13) "I should" may be joined to the rest of the verb, before Ray or Lay, by Ret-Chet. As, I should rather, I should like. (14, "Never have" may be written with Nef I i.e., En and Vee hook. (15) "Being," if written alone, should be Bee-Ing; but in phrases simply Bee as "for the time being," Ef-Tee-Bee. (16) Write half-lengths to express ality, idity, bility, ility, inity as Frugality, Fer- Gelt; piincipahty, Per-Pelt; timidity, Tee- Med; fluidity, Fel-Det; stability, Stee-Belt; possibility, Pees-Blet; facility, Efs-Elt; fu- tility, Fet-Elt; vicinity, Vees-Net. But after N hook, write Bee, or omit the hook, as in trainable. Above all the student must practice writ- ing from dictation. Whatever he writes he must read over and over again in order to become familiar with his notes. WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY THE following list of prominent names has been selected with a view to answering questions regarding the identity of charac- ters frequently mentioned in literature and conversation. To enlarge it very much would involve filling a space that can not be spared in the present volumes, and any attempt to make it "complete" would speedily fill many hundred such pages as these. Then, again, it is by no means easy to decide exactly what constitutes a title to dis- tinction in human affairs. Many persons have a place in history only because of their colossal wickedness, while many whose virtues should justly have rendered them immortal have all but been forgotten. Still others have rendered some small services to the progress of the race and are remembered, while many of the greatest benefactors of humanity still remain nameless. On the whole, fame consists more in continu- ing to become frequently mentioned than in the possession of noble qualities or in the performance of great services. This seems to be the verdict of history, and we must abide by it. PROMINENT NAMES FROM ALL AGES Aahmes or Amasis (572-528 B.C.), King of Egypt. Aasen, Ivar Andreas (1813- ), Norwegian phi- losopher, botanist, and poet. Abano, Pietro d' (1250-1316), Italian physician and astronomer. Abbadie, Jacques (i654 : i727), French Protestant theologian. Abbas I (1557-1628), Shah of Persia. Abbas Mirza (1783-1833), Persian prince and war- rior. Abbatucci, Charles (1771-96), French general. Abbe, Cleveland (1838- ). b. New York. A- tronomer and meteorologist. Abbey, Edwin Austin (1852- ), b. Philadelphia. A noted painter and illustrator. Abbon of Fleury (945-1004), French theologian and diplomatist Abbot, Ezra, (1819-84). b. Maine. Biblical scholar. Abbot, George (1562-1611), b. England. Arch.- bishop of Canterbury. Abbott, Austin (1831-96), b. Massachusetts. Law- yer and legal writer. (850) Abbott, Benjamin Vaughan (1830-90), b. Massa- chusetts. Lawyer and legal writer. Abbott, Henry Larcom .(1831- ), b. Massachu- setts. Soldier. Abbott, Jacob (1803-79), b. Maine. Clergyman and author. Abbott, John Stevens Cabot (1805-77), b- Maine. Historian. Abbott, Lyman (1835- ), b. Massachusetts. Clergyman and journalist. Abdallatif (1162-1231), Arabian physician and phi- losopher. Abd-el-Kadir. (1807-83), b. Algeria. Arab chief. Abd-er-Rahman (731-87), b. Damascus. Mussul- man warrior. Abdul Aziz (1830-76), Sultan of Turkey. Abdul Hamid I (1725-89), Sultan of Turkey. Abdul Hamid IJ (1843- ), Sultan of Turkey. Abdul Kasim Mausur ("Firdusi") (940-1020), great epic poet of Persia. Abegg, Julius F. H. (1796-1868), b. Bavaria. Jurist WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY 851 Abel, Niels Henrik (1802-29), Norwegian mathe- matician. Abelard, Peter F. (1079-1142), French scholar. Abbot of St. Gildas. Abercrombie, James (1706-81), b. Scotland. Brit- ish general. Abercrombie, John (1780-1844), Scottish physician and philosopher. Abercromby, Sir Ralph (1734-1801), b. Scotland. British general. Abernethy, John (1764-1831), English surgeon and medical writer. Abert, John James (1788-1863), b. Virginia. Mili- tary engineer. About, Edmond F. V. (1828-85), French novelist, dramatist, and journalist. Abrabanel, Isaac (1437-1508), b. Portugal. Jewish scholar and statesman. Abraham-a-Sancta-Clara (1644-1709), b. Baden. Preacher and satirical writer. Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra (1092-1167), b. Spain. Scholar, astronomer, and mathematician. Abt, Franz (1819-85), b. Saxony. Composer of music. Abulfeda, Ismael ben-Ali Emad-eddin (1273-1331), b. Damascus. Arabian geographer and histo- rian. Accius, Lucius (abt. 170 B.C.), Roman tragic poet and prose writer. Accolti, Benedetto (1415-66), Italian jurist and writer. Accolti, Francesco (1418-83), Italian jurist. Accorso, Francesco (1180-1260), Italian jurist. Accum, Friedrich Christian (1769-1838), German chemist. Achard, Louis A. E. (1814-75), French novelist and dramatist. Achenbach, Andreas (1827- ), German painter. Achenbach, Oswald (1827- ), German land- scape painter. Achenwall, Gottfried (1719-72), German scholar and professor. Achmet I (1589-1617), Sultan of Turkey. Achmet III (1673-1736), Sultan of Turkey and warrior. Ackermann, Johann C. G. (1756-1801), German medical writer. Ackermann, Konrad Ernst (1712-71), German actor. Icland, John Dyke (d. 1778), English soldier and politician. Acosta, Gabriel de (1591-1647), Portuguese phi- losopher. Acosta, Jose de (1540-1600), Spanish Jesuit his- torian. Acton, Sir John F. E. (1736-1811), b. France. Naval officer, and later Prime Minister at Naples. Adair, John (1759-1840), b. South Carolina. Poli- tician and soldier. Adair, Sir Robert (1763-185$). English diplomat and historical writer. Adam of Bremen (d. abt. 1076), German ecclesi- astical historian. Adam, Mme. Edmond (1836- ), French jour- nalist and editor. Adam, William (1751-1839), b. Scotland. British lawyer and politician. Adamnan, Saint (624-704), b. Ireland. Celtic ec- clesiastic. Adams, Charles Francis (1807-86), b. Massachu- setts. Statesman and diplomatist. Adams, Charles Francis, Jr. (1833- ), b. Mas- sachusetts. Soldier and historical writer. Adams, Hannah (1755-1832). b. Massachusetts. Author. Adams, John, (1735-1826), b. Massachusetts. A leader of the Patriot party; delegate to the Continental Congresses; signer of the Dec- laration of Independence; second President of the United States 1797-1801. Adams, John Couch (1819-92), English astron- omer. Adams, John Quincy (1767-1848), b. Massachu- setts. U. S. Minister to the Netherlands, Prussia, Russia, and England; member of the Senate and of the House; Secretary of State 1817-25; sixth President of the United States 1825-29. Adams, Samuel (1722-1803), b. Massachusetts. A leader of the Patriot party; member of the Continental Congresses; signer of the Dec- laration of Independence; Governor of Mas- sachusetts. Adams, Thomas (d. abt 1640), English Puritan divine. Adamson, Robert (1852- ), Scottish philosoph- ical writer. Addison, Joseph (1672-1719), English essayist, poet, and statesman; noted for his papers in the "Taller" and "Spectator." Adelard of Bath (i2th century), English philo- sophical writer. Adelung, Friedrich von (1768-1843), German philologist. Adelung, Johann Christoph (1732-1806), German philologist. Adenet (i3th century), French poet. Adler, Felix (1851- ), b. Germany. Educator, establisher of the New York Society for Ethical Culture. Adlersparre, Count Georg (1760-1835), Swedish author, statesman, and general. Ado, Saint (800-75), Archbishop of Vienna. Adrian or Hadrian I, Pope (772-95). Adrian or Hadrian II, Pope (884-85). Adrian or Hadrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear), b. England. Pope 1154-59- Adrian or Hadrian VI (1459-1523), b. Holland. Pope 1 522-23. Adrian de Costello (1460-1521?), Italian ecclesias- tic and scholar. jEschines (389-314 B.C.), noted Athenian orator; political antagonist of Demosthenes. ^Eschylus (525-426 B.C.), Greek poet; father of the Greek tragic drama. jEthelbert (552-6.16), King of Kent 560-616. ^Ethelred II, surnamed "The Unready" (968- 1016), King of England 974-1016. Aetius (395-454), b. Silistria. Roman general. Afranius Nepos, Lucius (d. 46 B.C.), Roman con- sul and general. Afzelius, Adam (1750-1837), Swedish naturalist. Afzelius, Arvid August (1785-1871), Swedish writer and scholar. Agardh, Jakob Georg (1813- ), Swedish nat- uralist. Agardh, Karl Adolf (1785-1859), Swedish natural- ist and political economist. Agassiz, Jean L. R. (1807-73), Swiss- American naturalist; professor of geology and zoology at Harvard. Agesilaus II (d. abt. 360 -c.). King of Sparta 399-61. Agoult, Comtesse d' (1805-76), French author. Agricola, Cnseus Julius (37-93). Roman soldier and statesman. Agrippa I, Herod (n B.C. 44 A.D.), Roman com- mander and statesman. Agrippa II, Herod (27-93), King of northern Pal- estine 52. 852 WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanfac (63-13 >.c.), Roman commander. Affuesseau, Henri Francois d' (1668-1751), French jurist. Aguilar, Grace (1816-1847), English author. Agumaldo, Emilio (1870- ), h. Luzon. Leader of the Philippine insurrection; captured by General Funston 1901. Ahab, King of Israel (abt. 876-854 B.C.). Anastjeras. Name of several Median and Per- sian kings. Ahaz, King of Judah (abt. 742-727 B.C.). Ahrene, Heinrich (1808-74), German philosoph- ical writer and jurist. Airy, Sir George Biddell (1801-92), English as- tronomer. Akbar or Akhbar (1542-1605), Mogul emperor in India. Akenside, Mark (1721-70), English poet and phy- sician. Alarcon, Hernando de (i6th century), Spanish navigator. Alarcon -y Mendoza, Juan R. de (1588-1639), Spanish dramatic poet. Alaric (abt. 376-410), King of the Visigoths. Albert or Albrecht (1414-86), Elector of Branden- burg. Albert or Albrecht (1490-1568), Margrave of Brandenburg- Ausbach. Albertus Magnus (b. abt. 1200 d. 1280), German -cholastic philosopher. Albucasis or Abul-Casira (d. abt. 1106), b. Spain. Arabian physician. Albumazas (abt. 805-85), Arabian astronomer. Albuquerque, Affonso de (1452-1515), Portuguese navigator and conqueror. Alcseus (abt. 611-580 B.C.), Greek lyric poet. Alcibiades (b. abt 450 B.C. d. 404), Athenian general and politician. Alcman (7th century B.C.), Spartan lyric poet; orig- inally a Lydian slave. Alcott, Amos Bronson (1799-1888), b. Connecticut. Philosophical writer and educator." Alcuin (735-804), English prelate and scholar. Aldred (d. 1069), English ecclesiastic; Archbishop of York 1060. Aldrorandi, Ulisse (1522-1605), Italian naturalist. Alembert, Jean B. C R. d' (1717-83), French mathematician. Alesius, Alexander (1500-65), Scottish controver- sialist and reformer. Alexander III, surnamed "The Great" (356-323 B.C.), King of Macedon and "conqueror of the world." Alexander III (Rolando Ranuccio), d. 1181; born Italy. Pope 1159-81. Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia) (1431-1503), b. Spain. Pope 149.7-1503. Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), English theologian and philosopher. Alexander I of Russia (1777-1825), crowned Em- peror 1801. Alexander II of Russia (1855-81), emancipated the serfs 1861. Alexander III of Russia (1845-94), crowned 1 88.. Alexander, Archibald (1772-1851), b. Virginia. Clergyman and educator. Alexander, Sir William (b. abt. 1567 d. 1640), Scottish poet and statesman. Alexander Nevski, Saint (1219-63), Russian na- tional hero. Alexander Severus, Marcus Aurelius (abt. 205- 235)1 b. Phoenicia. Emperor of Rome 222-235. Alexis or Alexei (1629-76), Czar of Russia. Alexius I (Comnenus) (1048-1118), Byzantine emperor 1081-1118. Alfieri, Count Vittorio (1749-1803), b. Piedmont. Italian dramatist. Alfonso III, surnamed The Great" (848-913), King of Asturias and Leon. Alfonso VI, surnamed "The Valiant" (1030-1109), King of Leon and as Alfonso I of Castile. Alfonso X, surnamed "The Wise" (1221-84), King of Leon and Castile. Astronomer. Alfonso I (abt. mo d. 1185), first King of Por- tugal. Alfonso V, surnamed "The Magnanimous" (1385- 1458), King of Aragon and as Alfonso I of Sicily and Sardinia, and of Naples Alford, Henry (1810-1871), Dean of Canterbury; poet and scholar. Alfred or ^Elfred, surnamed "The Great" (849- 901), King of the West Saxons. Legislator and scholar. Alger, Cyrus (1781-1856), American inventor. All, surnamed "The Lion of God" (b. abt. 600 d. 661), b. Mecca. Adopted son of Mo- hammed and fourth calii. Alison, Sir Archibald (1826- ), b. Scotland. British general. Allen, Ethan (1737-89), b. Connecticut. Revolu- tionary commander; capturer of Fort Tico- deroga. Allen,' Ira (1731-1814), b. Connecticut. Revolu- tionary soldier and politician. Allen, Joel Asaph (1838- ), b. Massachusetts. Naturalist. Alleyne or Allen, Edward (1566-1626), English actor. Allouez, Claude Jean (1620-90), b. France. Jes- uit priest and explorer in America. Allston, Washington, (1779-1843), b. South Caro- lina. Portrait and historical painter. Almansur or Almansor (abt. 712 -d. 775), Abba- side calif and patron of learning. Alma-Tadema, Laurence (1836- ), b. Nether- lands. Painter, resident in England. Almquist, Karl J. L. (1793-1866), Swedish author. Alting, Johann Heinrich (1583-1644), b. Prussia. Theologian. Alva, Duke of (1508-82), Spanish general. Gov- ernor of the Netherlands. Alvarado, Alonzo de (abt. 1490 d. 1556), b. Spain. Soldier and aider of Cortez in the conquest of Mexico. Alvarado, Pedro de (1485-1541), b. Spain. Sol- dier and aider of Cortez in the conquest of Mexico. Alvinczy, Joseph, Baron von (1735-1810), b. Tran- sylvania. Austrian, field-marshal. Ambrose, Saint (7340-397), b. Gaul. Bishop of Milan. Amenemhot III (reigned abt. 2300 B.C.), Egyp- tian king. Amenemhotep III (reigned abt. 1500 B.C.), Egyp- tian king and warrior. Amherst, Jeffrey, Lord (1717-97), British field- marshal. Ampere, Andr Marie (1775-1836), . French physi- cist and electrician. Amurath I or Murad (1319-89), Sultan of Turkey 1359-80. Anacreon (?s63-478 B.C.), Greek lyric poet. Anaxaporas (500-428 B.C.), Greek philosopher Anaximander (610-547 B.C.), Greek philosopher. Anderson, Robert (1805-71), b. Kentucky. Amer- ican general, defender of Fort Sumter. Andrassy, Gyula, Count (1823-90), Hungarian statesman. Andre, Major John (1751-80), b. England. Brit- ish spy. Andrews, Lancelot (1555-1625), English divine. Andronicus, Uvius (abt. 284-204 B.C.), Latin dramatic poet. Andros, Sir Edmund (1637-1714), English colo- nial governor successively of New York, New England, and Virginia. WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY 863 Anne, Queen of England (1664-1714). . Anselm, Saint (1033-1109), b. Italy. Archbishop of Canterbury 1093-1109. Anson, George, Lord (1697-1762), b. Ireland. English admiral. Anthony of Padua, Saint (1195-1231), Franciscan monk and theologian. Anthony, Susan Brownell (1820- ), b. Massa- chusetts. Reformer. Antiochus, surnamed "The Great" (237-187 B.C.), King of Syria 223-187. Antipater (d. 319 B.C.). Macedonian general. Antiphon (abt. 480-411 B.C.), Athenian orator. Antony, Mark, Marcus Antonius (abt 83-30 B.C.), Roman triumvir and general. Apelles (fl. 330 B.C.), Greek painter. ApoIIodorus (fl. abt. 404 B.C.), Greek painter. Apollonius, surnamed "Tyaneus" (abt. 4 B.C. 97 A.D.), b. Asia Minor. Pythagorean philoso- pher. Aquinas, Thcmas, Saint (?i22S-74), Italian the- ologian and philosopher. Arago, Dominque Francois (1786-1883), French astronomer and physicist. Aratus (271-213 B.C.), Greek statesman and gen- eral. Archimedes (abt. 287-212 B.C.), b. Syracuse. Ge- ometrician, inventor of the water-screw. Ariosto, Ludovico (1474-1533), Italian poet. Aristarchus (2oth century B.C.), Greek gramma- rian and critic. Aristides, surnamed "The Just" ( ?d. 468 B.C.), Athenian statesman and general. Aristophanes (abt. 450-380 B.C.), Greek comic poet. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), Greek philosopher. Arius (256-336), Greek patriarch of Alexandria and founder of Arianism. Arkwright, Sir Richard (1732-92), b. England. Inventor of the spinning-frame. Arminius (18 B.C. 21 A.D.), German chieftain and patriot. Arnim, Count Harry K. K. E. von (1824-81), German diplomatist. Arnold of Brescia (1100-1155), Italian reformer. Arnold, Benedict, surnamed "The Traitor" (1741- 1801), b. Connecticut. Arrian, L. Flavius Arrianus (b. abt. 100), b. Asia Minor. Greek historian and philosopher. Artaxerxes I, surnamed "The Long-handed," King of Persia 465-425 B.C. Arthur, Chester Alan (1830-86), b. Vermont Vice-President 'and 2ist President of the United States 1881-85. Asbury, Francis (1745-1816), first Methodist bishop in America. Ascham, Roger (1515-68), English scholar, in- structor of Queen Elizabeth. Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Lord (1774-1848), English financier and statesman. Asurbanipal or Sardanapalus, King of Assyria, 668-626 B.C. Asurnazirpal, King of Assyria, 884-860 B.C. Athanasius, Saint (?2g6-373), Greek father of the Church. Atticus, Titus Pomponius (109-32 B.C.), Roman scholar. Attila, surnamed "The Scourge of God" ( -453). King of the Huns. Audubon, John James (1780-1851), b. Louisiana. Ornithologist Augustine, Saint (354-430), b. Africa. Latin Church father. Augustus, Caius Julros Caesar Octavianus (63-14 B.C.), first Roman emperor and noted war- rior. Augustus III, Frederick '(1696-1763), elector of Saxony and King of Poland. Aurelian, Claudius Domitius (?2 12-2 75), Roman emperor. Aurung-Zeb (1619-1707), Emperor of Hindustan 1658-1707. Avicenna (980-1037), b. Bokhara. Arabian phy- sician and philosopher. B Bach, Johann Sebastian (1685-1750), German mu- sical composer. Bacon, Francis, Lotd Verulam (1561-1636), En- glish statesman and essayist Balfour, Arthur James (1848- ), English poli- tician. Balzac, Honore de (1799-1850), French novelist Bancroft, George (1800-1891), American historian. Barneveldt, Jan van Olden (1547-1619), Dutch statesman. Barnum, Phineas Taylor (1810-1891), American showman. Barrow, Isaac (1630-1677), English theologian and scholar. Bartham, Jonn (1699-1777), American botanist Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste (1834- ), Frenck sculptor. Barye, Antoine Louis (1795-1875), French sculp- tor. Basil, St. (329-379), Father of the Church. Baxter, Richard (1615-1691), English preacher. \ Bayard, Pierre du Terrail, Chevalier (1476-1524), French knight. Beauharnais, Eugene de (1781-1852), Viceroy of Italy under Napoleon. Beaumont, Francis (1506-1536), English dram- atist. Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant (1817-1893), Confederate general. Becket, Thomas a (1119-1170), English archbishop. Bede (Venerable) (673-735), English monk and scholar. Beecher, Henry Ward (1813-1887), American preacher. Beecher, Lyman (1775-1863), American preacher. Beethoven, Ludwig van (1770-1827), German mu- sical composer. Belisarius (505-564), Byzantine general. Bell, Alexander Graham (1847- )> inventor of telephone. Bell, Currer, pseudonym of Charlotte Bronte. Bellamy, Edward (1850-1898), American economist and writer. Belshazzar, last king of Chaldean dynasty i Babylon. Benedict, name of fourteen Popes. Benedict, St. (480-543), founder of monasticisni in West. Benvenuto Cellini (1500-71). Berlioz, Hector (1803-1869), French musical com- poser. Be'ranger, Jean Pierre de (1780-1857), Frenck poet. Berkeley, George (1684-1753), English bishop ant philosopher. Bernard, St (1091-1153). Beza, Theodore (1519-1605), Genevese reformer. Bjornson, Bjornstjerne (1832- ), Norwegian poet, novelist, and dramatist. Bismarck - Schoenhausen, Otto Edward Leopold, Prince von (1813-1898), German general and chancellor. Black, William (1804-1898), English novelist 854 WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY Blackmorc, Richard Doddridge (1825-1900), En- glish lawyer and author. Blackstone, Sir William (1723-1780), English jurist. Blucher, Gcbhard Lcberecht von, Prince of Wahl- stadt (1742-1819), Prussian general. Boccaccio, Giovanni (1313-1375), Italian author. Boleyn, Anne (1507-1536), second wife of Henry VIII of England. Bolivar, Simon (1783-1830), Venezuelan statesman and general. Bonaparte, Napoleon (1769-1831), French Em- peror. Bonheur, Rosalie Marie (1822-1899), French painter. Boniface, name assumed by nine of the Popes. Boniface, St (Winifred) (680-755), Papal legate and martyr. Boone, Daniel (1735-1820), American pioneer. Booth, Edwin (1833-1893), American actor. Booth, John Wilkes (1839-1865), American actor. Borgia, Cesare (1478-1507), Tyrant of Romagna. Borgia, Lucrezia (1480-1520), Duchess of Ferrara. Bossuet, Jacques Benigne (1627-1743), French preacher and bishop. Boswell, James (1740-1822), English biographer of Dr. Johnson. Botticelli, Sandro (1447-1515), Italian painter. Bourbon, name of royal dynasty in France and Spain. Bourget, Paul (1853- ), French novelist and critic. Bourrienne, Louis Antoine Fauvelet de (1769- 1834), biographer of Napoleon I. Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth (1848-1895), Norwegian- American novelist and poet. Bozzaris, Marco (17 -1823), Greek patriot. Bradford, William (1590-1657), American pioneer and historian. Bragg, Braxton (1817-1876), Cbnfederate general. Bright, John '(1811-1889), English politician. Bronte, Charlotte (1816-1855), English novelist. Brooks, Phillips (1835-1893), American bishop and writer. Brougham, Henry, Lord Brougham and Vaux (1778-1868), English orator and reformer. Brown, John, Captain (1800-1859), abolitionist. Browne, Charles Farrar (Artemus Ward) (1836- 1867), American humorist. Browning, Elizabeth Barrett (1809-1861), English poetess. Browning, Robert (1812-1889), English poet. Bruce, name of Scotch family of historic fame. Brutus, Marcus Junius (85-42 B.C.), Roman poli- tician. Bryant, William Cullen (1794-1878), American poet. Bryce, James (1838- ), English historian and politician. Buchanan, James (1791-1868), isth President of the United States. Buff on, George Louis Leclerc, Comte de (1707- 1788), French naturalist. Bulwer-Lytton (1803-73), English novelist. Biilow, Friedrich Wilhelm von (1755-1818), Prussian general. Bunsen, Christian Karl Josias, Baron (1791-1860), German statesman and author. Bunyan, John (1628-1688), English writer. Buonarotti, Michelangelo (1475-1564). Italian sculptor and painter. Burdett-Coutts, Right Hon. Angela Georgina, Baroness (1814- ), English philanthropist. Burke, Edmund (1730-1797), English philosopher and politician. Burne- Jones, Sir Edward (1833-1898), English painter. Burns, Robert (1759-1796), Scotch poet. Burr, Aaron (1756-1836), American politician. Burritt, Klihu (1811-1879), American linguist. Burroughs, John (1837- ). American essayist Butler, Benjamin Franklin (1818-1893), Ameri- can general. Byron, George Gordon, Lord (1788-1824), English poet Cable, George Washington (1844- ), American novelist. Cabot, Giovanni ( -1498), Venetian navigator and discoverer. Cabot, Sebastian (1477-1557), Venetian navigator and discoverer. Caesar, Caius Julius (100-44 B.C.), Roman general and dictator. Calhoun, John Caldwell (1782-1850), American statesman. Caligula (12-41), Roman emperor. Calvert, George, Lord Baltimore (1580-1632), founder of Maryland. Calvin, John (1509-1564), Protestant reformer. Cambyses, name of several kings of the Medea and Persians. Camoens, Luis de (1524-1580), Portuguese poet Campbell, Sir Colin, Lord Clyde (1792-1863), British general. Campbell, Thomas (1777-1844), English poet. Canning, George (1770-1827), English orator and statesman. Canova, Antonio (1757-1822), Italian sculptor. Carlyle, Thomas (1795-1881), English essayist and historian. Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi (1837-1894), French politician. Catherine, name of two empresses of Russia. Catherine de Medici (1519-1589), Queen of Henry II of France. Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536), first wife of Henry VIII of England. Catherine Parr (is3-i547). sixth wife of Henry VIII of England. Catiline (108-62 B.C.), Roman politician. Cato, Marcus Porcius (234-149 B.C.), Roman orator. Cavour, Count Camilla Benso di (1810-1861), Ital- ian statesman. Caxton, William (1422-1491), introduced print- ing into England. Cecil, William, Lord Burleigh (1520-1598), En- glish statesman. Cecilia, St. ( ' -230), Christian martyr. Cellini, Benvenuto (1500-1572), Italian gold worker and sculptor. Cervantes, Saavedra Miguel de (1547-1616), Span- ish writer. Channing, William Ellery, D.D. (1780-1842), American preacher. Charlemagne (768-814), king of the Franks and Roman emperor. Charles, name of several kings of England and France and Sweden, and emperors of Germany. Chateaubriand, Francis Auguste, Vicomte de (1769-1848), French author. Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of (1708-1778), En- glish orator and statesman. Chatterton, Thomas (1752-1770), English poet. Chaucer, Geoffrey (1340-1400), English poet. Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, Earl of (1694-1773), English statesman and author. WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY 855 Cboate, Rufus (1799-1859), American lawyer and orator. Choiseul-Amboise, Etienne Francois (1719-1785), French statesman. Chopin, Frederic (1810-1849), Polish pianist and musical composer. Christian, name of several Swedish kings. Cbrysostom, John (347-407), orator, bishop, and reformer. Churchill, Randolph Henry Spencer (1849-1895), English politician. Cibber, Colley (1617-1757), English poet-laureate. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106-43 B.C.), Roman orator. Cincirtnatus, Lucius Quinctius (abt. 400 B.C.), Roman consul. Claude Lorrain (Claude Gelee) (1600-1682), French artist. Clay, Henry, (1777-1852), American statesman. Clemens, Samuel Langhorne (Mark Twain) (1835- ), American humorist. Clement, name assumed by fourteen Popes. Clement of Alexandria (A.D. 190), father of the Church. Cleopatra (69-30 B.C.), last queen of Egypt. Clive, Robert, Lord, Baron of Plassey (1725-1774), English general and statesman. Cobden, Richard (1804-1865), English politician. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (1772-1834), English philosopher. Coligni, Gaspard de- (1517-1572), French admiral and general. Collins, William Wilkie (1825-1889), English nov- elist. Colonna, Vittoria (1490-1547), Italian poet. Columbus, Christopher (1436-1502), Italian navi- gator and discoverer. Commodus, Lucius Aurelius (161-192), Roman emperor. Comte, Auguste (1795-1857), French philosopher. Conde, a family celebrated in French history. Confucius (551-479 B.C.), Chinese sage. Constantine, 272-323, Emperor of the West. Cook, Captain James (1728-1779), English navi- gator. Cooper, James Fenimore (1789-1851), American novehst. Cooper, Peter (1791-1883), American manufac- turer and philanthropist. Copernicus, Nicolas (1473-1543), Prussian astron- omer. Copley, John Singleton (1737-1815), American painter. Coppee, Francis Eduard Joachim (1842- ), French writer. CoqueHn, Benoit Constant (1841- ), French actor. Corneille, Pierre (1606-1684), French tragedian and poet. Cornwallis, Charles, Marquis (1738-1805), English general and statesman. Correggio, Antonio Allegri (i494-iS34) Italian painter. Cortes, Hernando (1485-1547), Spanish soldier, conquero- of Mexico. Cotton, John (1585-1652), American preacher. Cousin, Victor (1792-1867), French statesman and writer. Coverdale, Miles (1488-1568), first translator of the Bible into English. Cowper, William (1731-1800), English poet. Crabbe, George (1754-1832), English poet. Cranmer, Thomas (1489-1556), English reformer. Crichton, James dS5i-iS73). Scottish scholar and adventurer. "rcesus (500 B.C.), King of Lydia. Cromwell, Oliver (1599-1658), English general. Curtis, George William (1824-92), American jour- nalist and orator. Curzon, George Nathaniel (1859- ), English statesman. Custer, George Armstrong (1839-1876), American soldier. Cuvier, George Cretien Leopold Dagobert, Baron (1769-1832), French naturalist. D Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mand (1789-1851), French painter and inventor. Damien, de Venster, Joseph (1840-1889), mission- ary to lepers. Dante, Alighieri (1265-1321), Italian poet Danton, Georges- Jacques (1759-1794), French rev- olutionist. Darius, name of several Persian kings. Darnley, Lord (Henry Stuart) (1541-1567), sec- ond husband Mary Queen of Scots. Darwin, Charles, F.R.S. (1809-1882), English naturalist. Daubigny, Charles Frangois (1817-1878)-, French painter. David, Jacques Louis (1748-1825), French painter. Davis, Jefferson (1808-1868), President of Con- federate States. Davy, Sir Humphry (1778-1829), English scientist. Decatur, Stephen (1779-1820), American naval officer. Defoe, Daniel (1661-1731), English novelist. Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor Eugene (1799-18637, French painter. Demosthenes (382-322 B.C.), Greek orator. De Quincey, Thomas (1785-1859), English writer. Descartes, Ren6 (1596-1650), French philosopher. Dewey, George (1837- ), American admiral. Dickens, Charles (1812-1870), English novelist. Diderot, Denis (1713-1784), French encyclopedist and philosopher. Diocletian, Valerius (245-313), Roman emperor. Diogenes (412-323 B.C.), cynic philosopher. Diogenes, LSertius (2d century A.D.), Greek bi- ographer. Disraeli, Benjamin, Earl of Beaconsfield (1805- 1881), author and statesman. Disraeli, Isaac, D.C.L. (1766-1848), English author. Donatello, Donato di Betto Bardo (1383-1466), Italian sculptor. Dor6, Paul Gustave (1833-1883), French painter. Douglass, Frederick (1817-1895), American orator and journalist. Dow, Gerard (1613-1675), Dutch genre painter. Draco (600 B.C.), Athenian law-giver. Drake, Sir Francis d539-'595). English admiral. Dryden, John (1631-1700), English poet. Dudley, Joseph (1647-1720), American politician. Dudley, Robert, Earl of Leicester dS33-is88), En- glish courtier. Dudley, Thomas (1576-1652), colonial politician, Governor of Massachusetts. Dumas, Alexandre (1803-1870), French novelist Duma's, Alexandre, fils (1824-1895). French novelist. Duns Scotus, Johannes (1265-1308), scholar 1 and philosopher. Dunstan, St. (925-988), English bishop. Dupont, Samuel Francis (1803-1865), American admiral. Duquesne, Abraham, Marquis (1610-1688), French naval officer. 806 WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY Durer, Albrccht (1471-1528), German painter. D wight, Timothy (1752-1817), American theologian. Dyck, Sir Anthony van (1599-1641), Flemish painter. Ebers, Georg (1837-1898), German Egyptologist and novelist. Edward, name of several kings of England. Edwards, Jonathan (1703-1801), American the- ologian. Eiffel, Alexandre Gustave (1832- ), French engineer. Elizabeth (1533-1603), Queen of England. Eliot, George (Marian Evans) (1820-1880), En- glish novelist. Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803-1882), American philosopher. Endicott, John (1589-1665), Governor of Massa- chusetts colony. Epaminondas (414-362 B.C.), Theban general. Epictetus (A.D. 50), Greek philosopher. Epicurus (341-270 B.C.), Greek philosopher. Erasmus, Desiderius (1467-1536), Dutch human- ist and reformer. Erastus, Thomas (1524-1583), Swiss theologian. Ericsson, Joh (1803-1889), Swedish-American en- gineer and inventor. Euclid (300 B.C.), Greek mathematician. Eugenius, name assumed by four Popes. Euripides (480-406 B.C.), Greek tragedian. Eusebius (264-340), ecclesiastical historian. Evans, Marian. See Eliot, George. Evelyn, John (1620-1706), English writer. Everett, Edward (1794-1865), American states- man and orator. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, (1686-1736), German scientist. Faraday, Michael, D.C.L. (1791-1867), English scientist. Farragut, David Glasgow (1801-1870), Vice-Admiral of American navy. Fawkes, Guy (1570-1606), English conspirator. Feiix, name assumed by four Popes. Fenelon (Francois de Salignac de la Mothe), (1651-1715), French prelate, orator, and writer. Ferdinand, name of several emperors of Germany and Austria and kings of Spain and Sicily. Ferrier, James Frederick (1808-1864), Scottish metaphysician. Feuillet, Octave (1821-1890), French novelist and dramatist. Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (1762-1814), German phi- losopher. Field, Cyrus West (1819-1892), founder of At- lantic Cable Company. Fielding, Henry (1707-1754), English novelist. Fillmore, Millard (1800-1874), President of United States. Firdusi, Abul-Rasim Mausur (915-940), Persian poet. Fiske, John (1842-1902),' American historical writer. Flaxman, John (1755-1826), English sculptor. Fouche, Joseph, Duke of Otranto (1763-1820), French revolutionist. Fourrier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, Baron (1768- 1830), French mathematician. Fox, Charles James (1749-1806), English states- man. Fox, George (1624-1691), originator of Society of Friends. . Foxe, John (1517-1587), English martyrologisL Fra Diavolo (Michael Pezzo) (1760-1806), Italian brigand and renegade monk. Francis, name of several kings of France and em- perors of Germany. Francis de Sales, St. (1567-1622), bishop and writer. Francis of Assisi, St. (1182-1226), founder of Franciscan order. Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790), American states- man and philosopher. Franklin, Sir John (1786-1847), English Arctic explorer. Fremont, John Charles (1813-1890), Ameri- can traveler and explorer. Frobel, Friedrich (1782-1852), founder of kinder- garten system. Frobisher, Sir Martin (?I535-I594), English navi- gator. Froissart, Jean (1337-1410), French poet and historian. Froude, James Anthony (1818-1894), English his- torian. Fry, Elizabeth (1780-1845), English female philan- thropist and preacher. Fuller, Sarah Margaret, Marchioness Ossoli (1810-1850), American writer. Fulton, Robert (1765-1815), American engineer and inventor. Gage, Thomas (1721-1787), British general. Gainsborough, Thomas (1727-1788), English painter. Galba, Servius Sulpicus (3 B.C. A.D. 67), Roman emperor. Galen (130-201), Greek physician. Galilei, Galileo (1564-1642), Italian physicist and astronomer. Garna, Dom Vasco da (1469-1525), Portuguese navigator. Gambetta, Lon (1838-1882), French lawyer and statesman. Garibaldi, Giuseppi (1807-1882), Italian statesman. Garrick, David (1716-1779), English actor. Garrison, William Lloyd (1805-1879), American abolitionist. Gates, Horatio (1728-1806), American general. Gautier, Theophile (1811-1872), French poet, nov- elist, and critic. Gay, John (1688-1732), English poet. Genghis Khan (1155-1227), Mongolian conqueror. George, name of several kings of England. Ge>ome, Jean-Lon (1824- ), French painter. Gibbon, Edward (1737-1791), English historian. Giotto (Ambrogiotto Bordone), (1276-1336), Ital- ian painter. Gladstone, Right Hon. William Ewart (1809- 1900), English statesman. Gluck, Christoph Willibald von (1714-1787). Ger. man musical composer. Godfrey de Botiillon (1061-1100), English con- queror and protector of Jerusalem. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1749-1832), Ger- man poet. Goldschmidt, Madame (Jenny Lind), (1821-1887), Swedish singer. Goldsmith, Oliver (1728-1774), English writer. Gonzales, Manuel (1833-1893), Mexican general and statesman. Gough. John B. (1817-1886), American temper- ance lecturer. WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY 867 Gounod, Charles Francois (1818-1893), musical composer. Grant, Ulysses Simpson (1822-1885), eighteenth President of the United States and general in the Civil War. Gray, Asa (1810-1888), American botanist. Gray, Thomas (1716-1771), English poet Greeley, Horace (1811-1872), American journalist. Greene, Nathaniel (1742-1786), American Revolu- tionary general. Gregory, name assumed by sixteen Popes. Grenze, Jean Baptiste (1725-1805), French painter. Grey, Lady Jane (1537-1553), Queen of England for ten days. Grimm, Jacob Ludwig (1785-1863), German writer. Grimm, Wilhelm Karl (1786-1859), German writer. Grote, George (1794-1871), English politician, his- torian, and philosopher. Grotius, Hugo (1583-1645), Dutch statesman and scholar. Guido, Reni (1575-1642), Italian painter. Guise, name of family famous in French history. Guizot, Francois Pierre Guillaume (1787-1874), French statesman and historian. Gustavus, name of several kings of Sweden. Gutenberg, Johannes (Gensfleisch), (1400-1460), inventor of movable type. " H Hadrian, Publius ^Elius Hadrianus (117-138), Roman emperor. Hahnemann, Samuel (1755-1843), German phy- sician. Hale, Edward Everett (1822- ), American author, editor, and preacher. Hale, Nathan (1755-1776), American patriot. Hall, Charles Francis (1821 - 1871), American Arctic explorer. Hallam, Henry (1777-1859), English historian and critic. Hamilcar, name of several Carthaginian generals. Hamilton, Alexander (1757-1804), American statesman. Hampden, John (1594-1643), English patriot. Handel, George Frederick (1685-1759), German musical composer. Hannibal, name of several Ca r thaginian generals. Harrison, Benjamin (1833 - 1901), twenty-third President of the United States. Harrison, William Henry (1773-1841), ninth Pres- ident of the United States. Harold, name of two kings of England. Haroun al Raschid (786-809), Abbaside Calif, hero of Arabian Nights. Harte, Francis Bret (1839-1902), American poet and novelist. Harvey, William (1578-1657), physician and dis- coverer of circulation of blood. Hasdrubal, name of several Carthaginian generals. Hastings, Warren (1732-1818), governor-general of India. Hawkins, Sir John (1520-1595), English navigator. Hawthorne, Nathaniel (1804-1864), American writer. Haydn, Joseph (1732-1809), German musical composer. Hayes, Isaac Israel (1832-1881), American Arctic explorer. Hayes, Rutherford Birchard (1822-1893). nine- teenth President of the United States. Hazlitt, William (1778-1830), English essayist and critic. Heber, Reginald (1783-1826), English poet and bishop. Hegel, George Wilhelm Friedrich (1770-1831), German philosopher. Heine, Heinricb (1799-1856), German poet and wit. Henry, name of several kings of England and France and emperors of Germany. Henry, Patrick (1737-1799), American orator and patriot. Herbert, George (1593-1632), English poet and clergyman. Herder, Johann Gottfried von (1744-1803), Ger- man philosopher. Herodotus (484-408 B.C.), Greek historian. Herrick, Robert (1591-1674), English poet. Herschel, Sir William (1738-1822), English as- tronomer. Hesiod (7th century B.C.), Greek poet. Heyse, Johann Ludwig Paul (1830- ), German novelist and poet. Higginson, Thomas Wentworth (1823- ), Amer. ican author. Hippocrates (460-354 B.C.), Greek physician. Hogarth, William (1697-1764), English painter and engraver. Holbein, Hans (1450-1526), German painter. Holmes, Oliver Wendell (1809-1894), American poet, novelist, and essayist. Homer (850 B.C.), Greek poet. Honorius, name assumed by four Popes. Horace (68-8 B.C.), Roman poet. Hord, Thomas (1798-1845), English poet. Howells, William Dean (1837- ), American novelist and poet. Hudson, Henry (unknown), English navigator. Hugo, Victor Marie, Vicomte (1802-1885), French writer. Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander, Baron von (1769-1859), Prussian naturalist. Hume, David (1711-1776), English philosopher and historian. Hunt, James Henry Leigh (1784-1859), English poet and essayist. Hunt, William Holman (1827- ), English painter. Huss, John (1373-1415), Bohemian reformer and martyr. Hutchinson, Anne (1590-1643), American relig- ious enthusiast. Hutchinson, Thomas (1711-1780), American mag- istrate and historian. Huxley, Thomas Henry (1825-1895), English nat- uralist. I Ibsen, Henrik (1828- ), Norwegian dramatic poet. Inglis, Sir John EaHley Wilmot (1814-1862), defender of Lucknow. Inness, George (1825-1894), American landscape painter. Innocent, name assumed by thirteen Popes. Irving, Edward (1792-1834), Scotch preacher. Irving, Washington (1783-1859), American writer. Isabella (1451-1504), Queen of Spain, wife of Ferdinand. Ivan, name of a number of Russian Czars. J Jackson, Andrew, General (1767-1846), seventh President of the United States. Jackson, Thomas Jonathan (Stonewall Jackson), (1824-1863), Confederate general. 858 WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY James, name of several kings of England and Scotland. James, George Payne Rainsford (1801-1860), En- glish novelist. James, Henry (1843- ), American novelist Jay. John (1745-1829), American jurist and states- man. Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826), third President of the United States. Jeffreys, George, Baron (1648-1689) English judge. Joan of Arc (Jeanne D'Arc or Dare), (1412-1431), French national heroine. Johnson, Andrew (1808-1875), seventeenth Presi- dent of the United States. Johnson, Samuel (1709-1784), English writer and lexicographer. Jones, John Paul (1747-1792), Scottish-American naval officer. Jonson, Ben (1573-1637), English dramatist. Josephine, Marie Rose (1763-1814), Empress of French, wife of Napoleon. Josephus, Flavius (37-90), Jewish historian. Jugurtha ( -104 B.C.), King of Numidia. Julian (The Apostate), (331-363), Roman emperor. Julius, name assumed by three Popes. Justinius, name of two emperors of the East. Justinus (118-165), "Father of the Church." K Kane, Elisha Kent, M.D. (1820-1857), American Arctic explorer. Kant, Immanuel (1724-1804), German philosopher. Kaulbach, Wilhelm von (1805-1874), German painter. Kean, Edmund (1767-1833), English actor. Keats, John (1796-1821), English poet. Keble, John (1792-1866), English clergyman and poet. Kellogg, Clara Louise (1842- ), American opera singer. Kemble, Frances Anne (1809-1893), Anglo-Ameri- can actress, Shakespearian reader, and author. Kempis, Thomas a (I379-I47O, Prussian monk and writer. Kepler, Johann (1571-1630), German astronomer. Kidd, Captain William ( -1701), notorious pirate. Kitchener, Horatio Herbert (1850- ), British general. Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb (1724-1803), German poet. Knox, John (1505-1572), Scottish reformer. Kosciusko, Tadeusz (1746-1817), Polish general and patriot. Kossuth, Lajos (1802-1894), Hungarian patriot and orator. Kreutzer, Rodolphe (1766-1831), French violinist and composer. Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yoes Gilbert Motier, Marquis de (1757-1834), French gen- eral in American army. Lafontatne, Jean de (1621 - 1695), French fab- ulist Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monnet Chevalier de (1744-1829), French naturalist Lamartine, Alphonse (1792-1869), French writer. Lamb, Charles (1775-1834), English poet and eS' sayist Landseer, Sir Edwin Henry, R.A. (1802-1873), English painter. Laplace, Pierre Simon, Marquis de (1749-1837), French mathematician and astronomer. La Salle, Robert Cavalier, Sieur de (1643-1687), French explorer. Latimer, Hugh (1490-1555), English prelate and reformer. Laud, William (1573-1644), English bishop. Lavater, Johann Kasper (1741-1801), French phy*. iognomist Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent (1743-1794), French chemist. Lawrence, Sir Thomas (1796-1830), English painter. Layard, Austen Henry (1817-1894), English trav- eler, politician, and writer. Le Brun, Marie Anne Elizabeth Viglee (1755- 1842), French painter. Lecky, William Edward Hartpole (1838- ), British historian. Le Co te, John Lawrence (1825-1883), American naturalist. Lee, Robert Edward (1807-1870), general in Con- federate army. Leech, John (1817-1864), English caricaturist. Legendre, Adrien Marie (1752-1833), Frencfc mathematician. Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of (1531-1588), English courtier. Leighton, Frederick, Lord (1830-1896), English painter. Leo, name assumed by thirteen Popes. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Italian painter. Leonidas ( -480 B.C.), King of Sparta. Lesseps, Vicomte Ferdinand de (1805-1894), French engineer and diplomatist. Lessing, Gotthoid Ephraim (1729-1781), German dramatist Lincoln, Abraham (1809-1865), sixteenth Presi- dent of the United States. Li Hung Chang (1823-1901), Chinese statesman. Liszt, Franz (1811-1886), Hungarian musical com- poser. Livingstone, David (1813-1873), African explorer and missionary. Logan, James (1674-1751), American colonial poli- tician. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (1807-1882), Amen :an poet. Lowell, James Russell (1819-1891), American poet, essayist, scholar, and diplomatist. Loyola, Ignatius de (Inigo Lopez de Recalde), (1491-1556), founder of Society of Jesus. Lubbock, Sir John (1834- ), English naturalist. Luther, Martin (1483-1546), German reformer. Lyell, Sir Charles (1797-1875), British geologist Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer, first Baron Lytton (1803-1873), English nov- elist, poet, dramatist, politician, and orator. Lytton, Edward Robert Lytton Bulwer, first Earl of Lytton (Owen Meredith), (1831-1891), English diplomatist, politician, and poet. M Macaulay, Thomas Babinpton (1800-1859), En- glish historian and essayist. Macchiavelli, Niccoli di Bernadino del (1499-1527), Italian diplomatist. Mackenzie, Sir Alexander ( -1820), Scottish explorer. Macready, William Charles (1793-1873), English actor. Madison, James (1751-1836), fourth President of the United States. WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY 859 Maeterlinck, Maurice (1864- ), Belgian poet and dramatist. Marat, Jean Paul (1743-93), French revolutionist. Marcus Aurelius Antonius (.121-180), Roman em- peror. Maria Louisa (1791-1847), second wife of Napo- leon 1, Austrian princess. Maria Theresa (1717-80), Empress of Austria, mother of Marie Antoinette. Marie Antoinette de Lorraine, Josephine Jeanne (1755-93), wife of Louis XVI of trance. Marius, Caius (157-86 B.C.), Roman general. Marlowe, Christopher (1565-93), English dram- atist. Marquette, Jacques (1637-75), French missionary and explorer. Mather, Cotton (1663-1728), American theologian. Mather, Increase (1639-1723), American theolo- gian. Maupassant, Henri Rene Albert Guy de (1850- 93). French novelist. Maurice, Prince of Orange, Count of Nassau (1567-1625), Dutch general. Mazeppa, Ivan Stepanovitch (1644-1709), Cossack chief. Mazzini, Giuseppe (1805-72), Italian patriot and revolutionist. McClellan, George B. (1826-85), general in Amer- ican army. McKinley, William (1843-1901), twenty-fifth Pres- ident of the United States. Medici, name of famous Italian family. Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest (1811-91), French painter. Melanchthon, Philip (1497-1560), German re- former. Mello, Cus;odio ]os& de (1845- ), Brazilian naval officer and revolutionist. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix (1809-47), German musical composer. Menes (b. 5702 B.C.), traditional first king of united Egypt. Mesmer, Friedrich Anton (1733-1815), German physician, originator of mesmerism. Metternich - Winneburg, Prince Clemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von (1773-1859), Austrian statesman and diplomatist. Michelangelo (Buonarotti), (1475-1564), Italian sculptor and painter. Michelet, Jules (1798-1874), French historian. Mill, John Stuart (1806-73), English philosopher and economist. Millais, John (1829-96), English painter. Miller, Hugh (1802-56), Scotch geologist. Millet, Jean Francois (1814-75), French painter. Miltiades (500 B.C.), Athenian general. Milton, John (1608-74), English poet. Mirabeau, Gabriel Honor6 Riquette, Comte de (1749-91), orator of French Revolution. Miramon, Miguel (1832-67), Mexican general. Mithridates (The Great), (132-63 B.C.), King of Pontus. Mohammed (570-632), founder of Islam. Moliere, Jean Baptiste (Poquelin), (1622-73), French dramatist. Moltke, Count Helmuth Karl Bernhard von (1800-91), Prussian field-marshal. Monroe, James (1758-1831), fifth President of the United States. Montaigne, Michel Eyquetn de (1533-92), French philosopher. Montcalm Gezan de Saint VeYan, Louis Joseph, Marquis de (1712-59), French general. Montezuma II or Xocoyotzin (1470?-! 520), A2r tec war-chief or emperor. Moore, Thomas (1779-1852), English poet. Morris, Gouverneur (1752-1816), American states- man. Morse, Samuel Finley Breese (1791-1872), Amer- ican painter, inventor of telegraph. Mozart, Johann Chrysostom Wolfgang Gottlieb (1756-91), German composer. Muir, John (1836- ), American naturalist, ex- plorer,- and writer. Murat, Joachim (1771-1815), French field-marshal, King of Naples. Miinchausen, Karl Friedrich, Baron (1720-97), German soldier and raconteur. Murillo, Bartolome Esteban (1618-82), Spanish painter. . ( Musset, Louis Charles Alfred de (1810-57), French poet and dramatist. Mustapha, name of several Turkish Sultans. N Nansen, Fridtjof (1861- ), Norwegian Arctic explorer. Napier, Sir Charles James (1782-1853), English general. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821), first emperor of the French. Nebuchadnezzar (605-561 B.C.), King of Babylon. Nelson, Horatio (1758-1805), English admiral. Nero, Claudius Cassar Drusus Gcrmanicus (37- 68), Roman emperor. Newman, John Henry (1801-90), English cardinal and theologian. Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), English scientist and mathematician. Ney, Michel (1769-1815), French marshal, Prince of the Moskwa. Nightingale, Florence (1820- ), English philan- thropist. o O'Connell, Daniel (1775-1847), Irish agitator and orator. O'Donoju, Juan (1755-1821), last Spanish ruler in Mexico. Offenbach, Jacques (1819-80), German composer. Ohlenschlager, Adam Gottlieb (1779-1850), Dan- ish poet and dramatist. Oliphant, Margaret (nee Wilson), (1820-97), En- glish novelist. Omar Khayyam (d. A.D. 1122), Persian astrono- mer and poet. O'Meara, Barry Edward (1786-1836), Irish sur- geon and biographer of Napoleon I. Otho or Otto, name of several emperors of Gr- tnany. Otis, James (1725-83), American patriot and orator. Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso), (43 B.C. A.D. 18), Latin poet. Oxenstierna, Axel, Count (1583-1654), Swedish statesman. Paderewski, Ignace Jan (1860- ), Polish pi- anist. Paez, Jos6 Antonio (1791-1873), Venezuelan poli- tician. Paganini, Nicolo (1784-1840), Italian violinist Paine, Thomas (1737-1809), American political writer. 860 WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY Palissy, Bernard (1509-89), French potter and enameler. 1'arkman, Francis (1823-93), American historian. Farnell, Charles Stewart (1846-91), Irish agitator. Parrhasius (400 B.C.), Greek painter. Parry. Sir William Edward (1790-1855), English admiral and Arctic explorer. Pascal, Blaise (1623-62). French philosopher. Patti, Nicolini, Adelina (Baroness Cedarstrom), (1843- ), so'rano singer. Peary, Robert Edwin (1854- ), American Arctic explorer. Pedro 1, Dom Antonio Pedro de Alcantara Bour- bon (1798-1834), first emperor of Brazil. Pedro II, Dom Pedro de Alcantara (1825-91), sec- ond emperor of Brazil. Peel, Sir Robert (1788-1850), English statesman. Penn, William (1644-1718), founder of Pennsyl- vania. Pepin (d. A.D. 768), King of the Franks. Pepys, Samuel (1633-1703), English politician and writer. Perier, Jean Paul Pierre Casimir (1847- ) French President. Perry, Oliver Hazard (1785-1819), American naval officer. Peter I, The Great (1672-1724), Czar of Russia. Petrarca, Francesco (1304-1374), Italian poet. Phidias (500-430 B.C.), Greek sculptor. Philip, name of several kings of Macedon and Spain. Phillips, Wendell (1811-84), American orator and abolitionist. Pichegru, Charles (1761-1804), French patriot and general. Pickett, George Edward (1825-75), Confederate general. Pierce, Franklin (1804-69), fourteenth President of the United States. Pindar (522-443 B.C.), Greek poet Pinto, Fernao Mendez (1509-82), Portuguese ex- plorer of America. Pisistratus (605-527 B.C.), tyrant of Athens. Pitt, William (1708-78), English statesman and orator. Pitt, William (1759-1806), English statesman; Prime Minister. Pius, name assumed by ten Popes. Pizarro, Francisco (1475-1541), Spanish soldier, conqueror of Peru. Plato (427-347 B.C.), Greek philosopher. Pliny (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus), (62- 110), Roman writer. Pliny (Gaius Plinius Secundus), (23-79), Roman naturalist. Plutarch (42-120 abt.), Greek biographer. Poe, Edgar Allan (1809-49), American poet and writer. Polk, James Knox (1795-1849), eleventh President of the United States. Polo, Marco (1254-1324), Venetian traveler. Polybius (204-122 B.C.), Greek historian. Polycarp (ist century A.D.), bishop of Smyrna and Christian martyr. PoJycletus (sth century B.C.), Greek sculptor and architect. Pompey, Cneius Pompeius Magnus (106-48 B.C.), Roman general. Ponce de Leon, Juan (1460-1521), Spanish soldier, discoverer of Florida. Pope, Alexander (1688-1717), English poet. Porter, David Dixon (1813-91), American admiral. Praxiteles (4th century B.C.), Greek sculptor. Prescott, William Hickling (1796-1859), American historian. Proudhon, Pierre Joseph (1809-65), French so- cialist. Ptolemy, name of several rulers of the Greek dynasty in Egypt. Pythagoras, (582-500 B.C.), Grecian philosopher. Puvis de Chavannes (1824-98), French decorative painter. Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques (1796-1874), Belgian mathematician and astronomer. Quincy, Josiah (1772-1864), American lawyer, orator, and writer. Quinet, Edgar (1803-75), French philosopher, his- torian, poet, and politician. R Rabelais, Francois (1483-1553), French humorist. Racine, Jean (1639-99), French dramatist. Raleigh, Sir Walter (1552-1618), English courtier and historian. Rameses I (1400 B.C.), founder of nineteenth dy- nasty of Egyptian kings. Rameses II (1300 B.C.), one of the most famous of Egyptian kings. Randolph, Peyton (1723-75), president of first Continental Congress. Raphael, banzio (1483-1520), Italian painter. Reaumur, Rene Antoine Ferchault (1683-1757), French physicist. Rembrandt Hermanszoon (Rembrant van Rhyn) (1607-69), Dutch painter. Renan, Joseph Ernest (1823-92), French theolo- gian and Orientalist. Reszke, Edouard de (1856- ), Polish bass singer. Reszke, Jean de (1853- ), Polish tenor singer. Revere, Paul (1735-1818), American patriot. Reynolds, Sir Joshua (1723-92), English painter. Richardson, Samuel (1689-1761), "founder of En- glish novel." Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal, Due de (1585-1642), French cardinal, statesman, and writer. Ric liter, Jean Paul Friedrich (1763-1825), German scholar. Riedesel, Baron Friedrich Adolph von (1738-1800), German commander in American Revolution- ary army. Rienzi, Cola di (1313-54), Italian reformer, "Last of the Tribunes." Rittenhouse, David (1732-1803), American astron- omer. Ritter, Frederic Louis (1834-91), American com- poser, conductor, and musical writer. Robbia, Lucca della, Luca di Simone di Marco dclla Robbia (1400-82), Italian sculptor. Robert, name of several kings of France and Scot- land. Roberts, Sir Frederick Sleigh, Baron (1832- ), British general. Robespierre, Maximilian Marie Isidore de dysX- 94), French revolutionist. Rodin, Auguste (1840- ), French sculptor. Roebling, John Augustus (1806-69), American civil engineer. Rontgen, Wilhelm Konrad (1845- ), German scientist, discoverer of X-rays. Roosevelt, Theodore (1858- ), twenty - sixth President of the United States. Rosas, Juan Manuel de (1793-1877), dictator of Buenos Ayres. WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY 861 Rosecrans, William Starke (1819-98), American general. Rossetti, Dante Gabriel (1828-82), Frerapbaelite painter and poet. Rossini, Gioacchino Antonio (1792-1868), Italian composer. Rothschild, Meyer Amschcl, Baron (1743-1812), German-Jewish banker. Rousseau, Jean Jacques (1712-78), French philo- sophical writer. Rousseau, Pierre Etienne Theodore (1812-67), French painter. Rubens, Peter Paul (1577-1640), German painter. Rubinstein, Anton (1829-1894), Russian pianist and composer. Rush, Benjamin (1745-1813), American physician and statesman. Ruskin, John (1819-1900), English writer on ar- chitecture and art. Ruyter, Michael Adrianszoon van (1607*76), Dutch admiral. Sachs, Hans (1494-1576), German poet. Sackville, Thomas, Earl of Dorset (1536-1608), poet and statesman. Sadi, Sheikh Muslih Addin (1184-1291), Persian poet. Saint-Saens, Charles Camille (1835- ), French composer and pianist. Saladin (1137-93), famous Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Salisbury, 3d Marquis of, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne Cecil (1830-1903), English Conserv- ative statesman. Sallust, Caius Crispus (86-34 B.C.), Roman his- torian. Sampson, William Thomas (1840-1902), American naval officer. Sand, George (Armadine Lucile Aurore Dupin, Baroness Dudevant), (1804-76), French nov- elist. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez (1798-1876), Presi- dent of Mexico. Sappho (b. 600 B.C.), Greek poet Sardanapalus (710-606 B.C.), last king of Assyrian Empire. Sardou, Victorien (1831- ), French dramatist. Sarto, Andrea del (1486-1531), Florentine fresco painter. Savonarola, Girolamo (1452-98), Italian monk and reformer. Saxe, John Godfrey (1816-87), American poet and journalist. Saye and Sele, first Viscount (William Fiennes), (1582-1662), English politician. Scanderbeg, George Castriota (1403-68), Albanian commander. Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von (1775- 1854), German philosopher. Schiller, Johann Christoph (1759-1805), German poet. Schlegel, August Wilhelm (1767-1845), German critic. Schley, Winfield Scott (1839- ), American naval officer. Schopenhauer, Arthur (1770-1838), German phi- losopher. Schubert, Franz Peter (1797-1828), German mu- sical composer. Schumann, Robert (1815-56), German musical composer. Schuyler, Philip (1733-1804), American patriot and general. Scipio, Publius Cornelius (234-183 B.C.), Roman general. Scott, Sir Walter (1771-1832), English author. Scott, Winfield (1786-1866), American general. Scotus, Duns (i4th century), scholar and phi- losopher. Seabury, Samuel (1729-96), American divine and bishop. Sedgwick, John (1813-64), American general. Seneca, Marcus Annaeus, Roman rhetorician. Sennacherib (702-680 B.C.), Assyrian king. Sevigne, Marie de Rabutin Chantal (1626-96) French writer. Seward, William Henry (1801-72), American statesman. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of (1801-80), English statesman and philan- thropist. Shakespeare, William (1564-1616), English dram- atist and poet. Shalmaneser, name of four Assyrian kings. Shay, Daniel (1747-1825), American insurgent. Shelley, Percy Bysshe (1792-1823), English poet. Sheridan, Philip Henry (1831-88), American gen- eral. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley (1751-1816), English writer. Sherman, William Tecumseh (1818-90), American general. Siddons, Sarah (Kemble), (1755-1831), tragic actress. Sidney, Sir Philip (1554-86), English author. Sigismund (The Great), (1467-1548), King of Po- land. Silliman, Benjamin (1779-1860), American physi- cist. Silva Paranhos, Jose Maria de (1819-80), Brazil- ian diplomat. Simonides (556-467 B.C.), Greek lyric poet. Sims, James Marion (1813- ), American sur- geon. Sismondi, Jean Charles Leonard (de Simonde) de (1773-1842), Swiss economist. Smith, Gerrit (1797-1874), American philanthro- pist. Smith, John (1579-1608), English adventurer. Smith, Joseph (1805-44), Mormon prophet and founder. Smith, Rev. Sydney (1771-1845), English author. Smithson, James (1766-1829), founder of Smith- sonian Institution. Smollett, Tobias George (1721-71), English nov- elist. Sparks, Jared (1780-1866), American historian. Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903), English philosopher. Socrates (469-399 B.C.), Greek philosopher. Solon ><638-559 B.C.), Greek lawgiver. Solyman ("The Magnificent"), (1490-1566), Sul- tan of Turk /. Sontag, Henrietta (1806-54), German operatic vocalist. Sophocles (495-380 B.C.), master of Greek tragedy. Soto, Hernando de (1500-42), Spanish soldier, dis- coverer of the Mississippi River. Soublette, Carlos (1790-1870), Venezuelan general and statesman. Soult, Nicolas Jean de Dieu, Due de Dalmatie (1769-1851), French marshal. Southey, Robert (1774-1843), English poet. Spenser, Edmund (1553-99), English poet. Spinoza, Benedict (1632-77), Dutch philosopher. Spurgeon, Charles Haddon (1834-96), English, clergyman. Stael-Holstem, Anne Louise Germaine Necker, Baronne de (1766-1817), French writer. 55 862 WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY Stanley, Arthur Penrhjm (1815-81), French scholar and divine. Stanley, Sir Henry Morton (1841-1904), African explorer. Stan ton, Edwin McMasters (1814-69), American statesman and jurist. Steele, Sir Richard (1672-771 j), English author. Stephenson, George (i78i-i.48), founder of En- glish railways. Sterne, Laurence (1713-68), English author. Steuben, Frederic William (1730-94), officer of American Revolution. Stevenson, Robert Louis Balfour (1850-94), Scot- tish poet and writer. Story, Joseph (1779-1845), American jurist. Strabo (63 B.C. A.D. 24), Greek geographer. Strauss, Johann (1804-49), German composer. Stradivari, Antonio (1644-1737), Italian maker of violins. Stuart, Gilbert Charles (1756-1828), American painter. Stuyvesant, Peter (1602-82), last Dutch governor of New York. Suckling, Sir John (1608-42), English poet and dramatist. Sue (Marie Joseph) Eugene (1804-57), French novelist. Suleiman Pasha (1840-92), Turkish general. Sulla, Cornelius (138-78 B.C.), Roman general. Sullivan, Sir Arthur Seymour (^642-96), English composer and conductor. Sully, Due de, Maximilian de Bethune, Baron de Rosny (1560-1641), French Protestant states- man. Sully, Thomas (1783-1872), American painter. Sumner, Charles (1811-74), American statesman. Swedenborg, Emanuel (1688-1772), Swedish re- ligious writer. Swift, Jonathan (1667-1745), British author. Swithin, St. (820-893), English bishop. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius (50-90), Roman historian. Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe (1828- ), French critic. Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles Maurice (1764-1838), French statesman. Tasso, Torqnato (1544-95), Italian poet. Tauchnitz, Karl Christian Phi'in (1761-1836), German publisher. Taylor, Bayard (1825-78), American author. Taylor, Jeremy (1613-67), English theologian. Taylor, Zachary (1784-1850), twelfth President of the United States. Tell, William (1290-1354), Swiss patriot. Tennyson, Alfred (1810-92), English poet-laureate, Teresa, Saint (1515-82), canonized 1621. Tertullian (150-220), father of the Church. Tesla, Nikola (1857- ), Austro Hungarian physicist and electrician. Thackeray, William Makepeace (1811-63), English novelist. Themistocles (514-449 B.C.), Athenian statesman. Thiers, Louis Adolphe (1797-1877), French states- man. Thomas, George Henry (1816-70), American gen- eral. Thomas, Theodore (1835- ), American musical conductor. Thoreau, Henry David (1817-62), American es- sayist. Thorwaldsen, Albert Bietel (1770-1844), Danish sculptor. Thucydides (471-400 B.C.), Greek historian. Tiberius, Claudius Nero (43 B.C. A.D. 37), second Emperor of Rome. Ticknor, George (1791-1871), American scholar and author. Tilly, John Tzercla*, Count of (1559-1632), Ger- man general. Titian, Veceili (1477-1576), Italian painter. Tocqueville, Alexis Charles Henri Clerel de (1805- 59), French statesman. Tolstoi, Count Lyoff Nikolaievich (1829- ), Russian novelist and reformer. Torquemada, Tomas de (1420-98), Dominican prior, first inquisitor-general in Spain. Torrey, John (1796-1873), American botanist and chemist. Townshend, Charles, Right Hon. (1725-67), En- glish orator and statesman. Trollope, Anthony (1815-82), English novelist. Tromp, Martin Harpertzoon (1597-1653), Dutch admiral. Trumbull, John (1756-1843), American painter. Tschaikowsky, Peter Hitch (1840-93), Russian composer. Tupac, Amaru Jos6 Gabriel Condor Canqui (1742- 81), Peruvian revolutionist. Turenne, Henri de la Tour, d'Auvergne, Vicomte de (1611-75), French general. Turgenieff, Ivan Sergeyevich (1818-83), Russian novelist. Turner, Joseph Mallard William (1775-1851), En- glish painter. Tyler, John (1790-1862), tenth President of the United States. Tyndall, John (1820-93), British physicist. Van Buren, Martin (1782-1862), eighth President of the United States. Vancouver, George (1758-98), British navigator. Vanderbilt. Cornelius (1794-1877), American financier. Van Dyck, Sir Anthony (1599-1641), Flemish painter. Vane, Sir Henry (1612-62), English Puritan statesman and patriot. Van Rensselaer, Stephen (1769-1839), American statesman. Varas, Antonio (1817-86), Chilian jurist and statesman. Vauban, Sebastien le Prestre de (1633-1707), French marshal and engineer. Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva (1599-1660), Spanish painter. Verdi, Giuseppe (1814- ), Italian musical composer. Verestchagin, Vasili (1842-1904), Russian painter. Vergil, Publius Vergilius Maro (70-19 B.C.), Ro- man poet. Vernet, Emile Jean Horace (1789-1863), French painter. Vespasian, Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus (9-79), Roman emperor. Vespucci, Amerigo (1452-1512), Italian navigator. Vibert, Jehan Georges (1840-1902), French painter. Victor Emmanuel I (1820-78), King of Italy. Victoria, Alexandrina (iSip-igoi), Queen of Great Britain, Empress of India. Vieuxtemps, Henri (1820-81), Belgian violinist and composer for violin. Vinci, Leonardo da (1452-1519), Italian painter. Vokes, Rosina (1858-94), English actress. Voltaire, Francois Marie Arooet (1694-1778), French writer. WHO'S WHO OF HISTORY 863 W Wagner, Wilhelm Richard (1813-83), German musical composer. Wallace, Lew (1827- ), American general, diplo- matist, lawyer, and author. Wallack, James William (1795-1864), Anglo- American actor and dramatic manager. Wallack, James William (1818-73), Anglo-Ameri- can actor. Wallack, Lester (John Johnstone), (1820-88), American act r. Wallenstein, Albrecht Eusebius von (1583-1634), Austrian general. Walpole, Horace (1717-97), English author. Walpole, Robert (1676-1745), English statesman. Walsingham, Sir Francis (1536-90), English states- man. Walton, Izaak (1593-1683), English author. Ward, Artemas (1727-1800), American general. Ward, Artemus (C. F. Browne), (1834-67), Amer- ican humorist. Washburne, Elihu Benjamin (1816-87), American statesman and diplomatist. Washington, George (1732-99), American soldier and statesman, first President of the United States. Watt, James (1736-1819), Scotch mechanician, inventor of the steam-engine. Wayne, Anthony (1745-96), American general. Weber, Baron Karl Maria Friedrich Ernst von (1786-1826), German musical composer. Webster, Daniel (1782-1852), American statesman, orator, and lawyer. Webster, Noah (1758-1843), American lexicog- rapher and author. Wellesley, Arthur (Duke of Wellington), (1769- 1852), English general and statesman. Wesley, John (1703-91), founder of Methodism. West, Benjamin (1738-1820), American - English painter. Whistler, James Abbott McNeill (1834-1903)1 American-English painter. White, Gilbert (1720-93), English naturalist. White, William (1748-1836), bishop and one of the organizers of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America. Whitefield, George (1714-70), one of the founders of Methodism. Whitman, Walt (Walter), (1819-93), American poet. Whitney, Josiah Dwight (1819-96), American ge- ologist. Whitney, William Dwight (1827-94), American philologist. Whittier, John Greenleaf (1807-92), American poet and author. Wieland, Christopher Martin (1733-1813), Ger- man poet. Winthrop, John (1587-1649), colonial governor. Wolfe, James (1727-59), English general. Wolsey, Thomas (1471-1530), English statesman and cardinal. Wordsworth William, (1770-1850), English poet. Wren, Sir Christopher (1632-1723). English arch- itect. Wyclif, John (1324-84), English reformer. St. X (1506-52), Spanish Jesuit Xavier, Francis, missionary. Xenpphon (430-357 B.C.), Greek historian. Xerxes (519-465 B.C.) Persian king. Ximenes de Quesada, Gonsalo (1498-1576), con- queror of New Granada. Young, Brigham (1801-1877), and president Mormon prophet Zinzendorf und Pottendorf, Nicolaus Ludwig (1700-60), German religious reformer. Zola, Emile (1840-1902), French novelist. Zwingli, Ulrfch (1484-1531), Swiss reformer. NOTED EVENTS IN THE WORLD'S HISTORY WHILE it would be quite impossible to give anything like a full or adequate account of the leading events in the history of the human race on earth, the following list of some of the more prominent will serve ordinary ends of reference and instruction. The list has been compiled solely with a view to giving a number of facts very often mentioned and referred to, so that the reader may readily determine the approximate dates of occurrence. The study of history is a fascinating one, but it involves such a vast amount of space to treat even the record of one nation that little can be attempted without literally devoting the entire work to this subject alone. EVENTS FROM 3317 B.C. TO 19O4 B.C. 3317 (about) The Noachian Deluge. 1652 The Exodus from Egypt. 1184 (about) Destruction of Troy. 878 Carthage founded. 753 Rome founded. 721 The Ten Tribes carried into captivity. 660 The Japanese Empire founded. 558 Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 536 Restoration of the Jews to Jerusalem. 509 Expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome* 490 Battle of Marathon. 480 Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis. 479 Battle of Plataa. 431 The Peloponnesian War began. 390 Rome taken by the Gauls. 338 Battle of Chxronea. 334 Battle of Granicus. 333 Battle of Issus. 332 Battle of Arbela. 264 First Punic War began. 222 The Romans conquered Cis-Alpine GatlL 218 Second Punic War began. 216 Battle of Cannae; 70,000 Romans slain. 209 Battle of the Metaurus. 150 Third Punic War began. 146 Carthage destroyed by the Romans. 146 Greece subdued by Rome. 112 The Jugurthine War began. 60 Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed the first Triumvirate. 55 Caesar invaded Britain. 48 Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalia. 31 Octavrus became master of the civilized world. 4 Birth of Jesus Christ (864) A.D. 30 The Crucifixion. 64 First persecution of Christians (by Nero). 70 Jerusalem destroyed by Titus. 80 Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed. 272 Aurelian conquered Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. 313 Constantino converted to Christianity. 325 First Ecclesiastical Council at Nice. 395 The Roman Empire divided. 410 Rome sacked by the Visigoths. * 449 The Saxons invaded England. 452 Battle of Chalons defeat of the Huns. 455 Rome sacked by the VandaK 476 End of the Western (Roman) Empire, 496 The ki dom of the Franks founded. 597 Tht English converted to Christianity. 609 Mahomet began his alleged mission. 711 The Arabs invaded Spain. 714 Battle of Tours. The Arabs driven from France. 800 Charlemagne crowned. 827 Egbert became first king of all England. 905 The Normans took Neustria (afterward called Normandy). 912 Five German nations confederated under Conrad. 1000 Leif Erikson visits North America. 1066 Battle of Hastings. Norman conquest. 1076 Jerusalem taken by the Turks. 1099 Jerusalem taken by the Crusaders. 1147 The Second Crusade. 1172 Henry II conquered Ireland. 1 1 88 The Third Crusade. 1 202 The Fourth Crusade. 1215 Magna Charta signed by King John. NOTED EVENTS IN THE WORLD'S HISTORY 865 1217 1228 1248 265 270 291 291 314 1315 1346 1356 1376 1415 1431 1453 1455 1462 1471 1479 1483 1485 1492 1498 1499 1508 1509 1510 1513 1519 1521 1524 1526 1531 1532 1534 1534 1539 1540 1541 1545 1552 1558 1565 1565 1566 1572 1579 1580 isss 1590 1598 1600 1604 1605 1606 1607 1609 (610 1616 1618 1618 1619 1620 The Fifth Crusade. The Sixth Crusade. The Seventh Crusade. The first regular .English Parliament. Eighth and last Crusade. The Holy Land retaken by the Turks. Rise of the Swiss Republic. Battle of Bannockburn. Battle of Morgarten. Swiss independence established. Battle of Crecy. Artillery first used. Battle of Poictiers. The English Parliament divided into two Houses. Battle of Agincourt. Joan of Arc burned. Constantinople taken by the Turks. The "Wars of the Roses" began. The Bible first printed (at Mentz). Caxton set up his/printing press. The kingdoms ,.# Castile and Aragon united. Martin LutLer born. Battle of Bosworth Field. "Wars of the Roses" ended. Columbus discovered America. Savonarola burned. Brazil discovered by Cabral. League of Cambray. Rise of Protestantism. "First Holy League" formed (against France). Battle of Flodden Field. Cortez conquerc A Mexico. Magellan discovered the Philippine Islands. Battle of Pavia. Francis I of France de- feated. Second Holy League (against Charles V). League of Smalcald (Protestant German States). Pizarro conquered Peru. England separated from the Roman Church. Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence. Monasteries closed in England. The Order of Jesuits founded. De Soto discovered the Mississippi. The Council of Trent. Peace of Passau (established Protestantism). Elizabeth crowned Queen of England. St. Augustine (Florida) founded. The Netherlands revolted from Spain. The Holy League formed in France to ex- tirpate heresy. Massacre of St. Bartholomew. The Netherlands formed a republic. Drake circumnavigated the globe. The Spanish Armada destroyed. Battle of Ivry. Edict of Nantes. The East India Company chartered. First settlement in Massachusetts (tempo- rary). First permanent settlement in Canada. The Gunpowder Plot (in England). The independence of Holland established. Jamestown, Va., founded. Henry Hudson discovered the Hudson River. Dutch settlement of Manhattan (New York). Shakespeare died. "The Thirty Years' War" began. Harvey announced his discovery of the cir- culation of the blood. Slavery introducad into Virginia. Landing of the Pilgrims. 1627 Delaware settled. 1630 Boston founded. 1632 Battle of Lutzen. Death of Gustavus Adolphus. 1633 Connecticut settled. 1634 Maryland settled. 1638 The Scottish Solemn League and Covenant formed. 1640 Cromwell's Long Parliament assembled. 1643 The United Colonies of New England formed. 1643 Battle of Rocroi. 1644 Battle of Marston Moor. 1645 Battle of Naseby. 1646 The Westminster Confession of Faith com- pleted. 1648 Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War. 1649 Charles I beheaded. The English Common- wealth declared. 1650 Battle of Dunbar. 1651 Battle of Worcester. 1651 Navigation Act passed in England. 1653 Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector. 1660 Restoration of the Stuarts. 1664 New York taken from the Dutch. 1665 The Great Plague in London. 1666 The Great Fire in London. 1667 Peace of Breda end of naval war between . England and Holland. 1668 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1673 Joliette and Marquette explored the Mis- sissippi. 1675 King Philip's War in New England began. 1679 The Habeas Corpus Act passed in England. 1682 Pennsylvania settled. 1682 Peter the Great became Czar of Russia. 1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 1687 Newton announced the principle of gravi- tation. 1688 James II of England abdicated. 1688 The siege of Londonderry. 1690 Battle of the Boyne. 1690 The first newspaper in America (at Boston) printed. 1697 Peace of Ryswick between France and Eng- land. 1701 "The Grand Alliance," England, Holland, and Germany. 1702 War of the Spanish Succession. 1704 Battle of Blenheim. 1704 Gibraltar taken by the English. 1707 Final union of England and Scotland. 1708 Battle of Oudenarde. 1709 Battles of Pultowa, Mons, and Malplaquet. 1713 Peace of Utrecht. 1714 Accession of the House of Hanover in England. 1715 First Jacobite rebellion. 1717 Grand Lodge of Free Masons established in England. 1718 The Quadruple Alliance England, France, Austria, Holland. 1720 The South Sea Bubble. 1739 Wesley founded Methodism. 1740 War of the Austrian Succession. 1745 Second Jacobite rebellion. 1745 Battle of Fontenoy. 1746 Battle of Culloden. 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1752 French and Indian War. 1753 The Lisbon earthquake. 1754 Congress of American colonies, at Albany. 1755 Braddock's defeat. 1756 The Black Hole of Calcutta tragedy. 866 NOTED EVENTS IN THE WORLD'S HISTORY 1756 The Seven Years' War in Europe. 1757 Battle of Plassey, India. 1759 The English conquered Canada. 1763 Peace of Paris. 1763 Steam-engine invented. i 1763 Mason and Dixon's line established. 1765 The Stamp Act enacted. 1770 The Boston massacre. 1772 First partition of Poland. 1773 The "Boston Tea-Party." '773 Steam-engine perfected by Watt. 1775 Battles of Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill. 1776 Declaration of Independence. < 1776 Battles of Fort Moultrie, Long Island, and Trenton. 1777 Battles of Princeton, Brandy wine, German- town, Bennington, Stillwater, Saratoga. 1777 Treaty between the United States and France. 1777 Sufferings at Valley Forge. 1778 Battles of Monmouth and Savannah. 1780 Battles of Camden, Guilford Court-House, and King's Mountain. 1780 Benedict Arnold's treason. 1781 Battles of the Cowpens and Yorktown. 1781 Society of the Cincinnati organized. 1782 Wreck of the "Royal George," Portsmouth,' England. 1783 New York evacuated by ihe British. 1783 Peace of Paris, United States, and Great Britain. 1787 The Northwest Territory constituted. 1787 The Constitution framed. 1788 First settlement in Australia. * 1788 Trial of Warren Hastings. 1789 Washington inaugurated first President. 1789 The French Revolution began. 1791 Canada divided into ten provinces. 1792 The French Republic established. 1793 Louis XVI of France beheaded. "The Reign of Terror." t '793 The cotton-gin invented by Whitney. i '794 Jay's treaty. 1795 Second Triple Alliance (Great Britain, France, The Netherlands). . 1796 Bonaparte's first brilliant campaign. ,, 1796 Vaccination introduced by Jenner. 1798 The Irish rebellion. 1798 War between the United States and France. 1799 Napoleon repulsed at Acre. 1799 Napoleon declared First Consul. 1799 Battle of Seringapatam, India. 1799 Death of Washington. 1800 Battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden. . 1 80 1 Union of Great Britain and Ireland. 1801 War between the United States and Tripoli. 1802 Peace of Amiens. 1803 Louisiana purchased from France. -1804 Napoleon proclaimed Emperor. * 1805 Battles of Ulm, Austerlitz, and Trafalgar. Death of Nelson. 1806 Confederation of the Rhine formed. 1806 Battle of Jena. 1807 Battles of Eylau and Friedland, 1807 Treaty of Tilsit. 1807 Fulton's first steamboat sailed. ' 1807 The Peninsular War. 1809 Battles of Corunna, Wagram, etc. 1809 Peace of Vienna. - 1812 United States declared war against Great Britain. . 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia. 1813 Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 1813 Battles of Lutzen and Bautzen. 1813 Creek Indian War. 1814 Battle of Pittsburgh. 1814 Washington burned by the British. 1814 Sweden and Norway federated. 1815 The Holy Alliance Austria, Russia, Pros* sia, France, The Netherlands. 1815 Battle of New Orleans. 1815 Peace of Ghent 1815 Battle of Waterloo. 1816 American Bible Society founded. 1817 Seminole Indian War. 1818 Congress of Sovereigns (Holy Alliance) at Aix-la-Chapelle. 1819 The first steamship crossed the Atlantic. 1819- Florida obtained from Spain. 1820 The "Missouri Compromise" adopted. 1822 The massacre of Scio, Greece. 1823 The Monroe Doctrine declared. 1824 Mexico's independence established. 1827 The Treaty of London. 1827 Battle of Navarino. 1828 The first passenger railway in the United States opened. 1829 The Catholic Emancipation Act, Great Britain. 1829 The first Oxford-Cambridge boat race. 1830 The kingdom of Belgium established. 1830 Three Days' Revolution in Paris. Lotus Philippe made King. 1831 The Black Hawk War. 1832 A reform bill passed by Parliament. 1832 South Carolina Nullification Ordinance. 1832 Peace of Adrianople. 1833 Slavery abolished in the British Colonies. 1834 The Quadruple Alliance England, France, Portugal, Spain. 1835 Morse invented the telegraph. 1835 Great fire in New York. 1835 The Seminole War. 1836 Battle of San Jacinto. Independence of Texas. 1836 First telegraph message sent. 1837 Accession of Queen Victoria. 1840 The Ashburton Treaty between Great Brit- ain and the United States. 1845 Texas annexed. 1846 Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma (Mexican War). 1846 Irish potato famine. :-46 British corn laws repealed. 1847 Battles of Buena Vista, Vera Crnr, etc. (Mexican War). 1848 French Revolution. A Republic established. 1848 'Gold discovered in California. 1848 Peace of Guadaloupe. End of the Mexican War. 1848 Salt Lake City settled. 1849 Battle of Temesvar. Subjugation of Hun- gary. 1851 First International Exhibition, London. 1852 Louis Napoleon became Emperor. 1852 The first Harvard-Yale boat race. 1853 The Crimean War began. 1854 Battles of Alma, Balaklava, and Inker- man. 1854 Treaty of Austria. 1854 Japan made her first foreign treaty. 1855 The Panama Railroad opened. 1856 The Seminole War. 1857 The great mutiny in India. 1850 The Austrian-Italian War began. 1859 John Brown's raid into Virginia. 1860 Secession of South Carolina. 1 86 1 The War of the Rebellion began fa the United States. NOTED EVENTS IN THE WORLD'S HISTORY 867 1 86 1 Battle of Bull Run k 1861 Emancipation of the Roman serfs. 1862 Battles of Fort Donelson, Shiloh, Williams- burg, Fort Pillow, Seven Pines, Seven Days, Cedar Mountain, Groveton, Second Bull Run, Antietam; Perryville, Fred- ericksburg, Murfreesboro, etc. 1862 Lincoln's emancipation proclamation. 1863 Battles of Fort Hindman, Chancellorsville, Vicksburg, Gettysburg, Chickamauga, etc. 1864 Battles of The Wilderness, Spottsylvania, Cold Harbor, Kenesaw Mountain, Mai- vern Hill, Jonesboro, Winchester, Cedan Creek, etc. 1865 Sherman's march to the sea. 1865 Battles of Fort Fisher, Fort Steadman, Five Forks. m "1865 Lee's surrender at Appomattox. .1866 Formal proclamation of the end of the Civil War. . 1866 Grand Army of the Republic organized. t i866 Alaska purchased. . 1866 First successful Atlantic cable laid. 1866 Battle of Sadowa. 1867 Monarchy of Austria-Hungary established. .1867 The Dominion of Canada established. 1868 Poland incorporated with Russia. 1868 The Fourteenth Amendment to the Con- stitution adopted. 1 869 The Suez Canal completed. 1870 Rome became the capital of Italy. 1870 The Franco-Prussian War. 1871 Feudalism in Japan abolished. 1871 William of Prussia becomes German Em- peror. 1871 The Irish Church disestablished. 1871 Great fire in Chicago. 1872 Great fire in Boston. 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. 1877 The Russo-Turkish War began. 1877 Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India. ' 1 88 1 President .Garfield assassinated. 1882 British occupation of Egypt. 1882 Third Triple Alliance Austria, Germany, Italy. 1883 Eruption of the volcano Krakatoa 36,000 perished. 1884 New Orleans' World's Industrial Exposition. 1889 Brazil became a republic. 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago. 1894 The war between China and Japan began. 1894 Mid- Winter Exposition, San Francisco. 1895 The Cuban Rebellion became general. 1895 Cotton States' Exposition, Atlanta. 1897 War between Turkey and Greece. 1897 Tennessee Centennial Exposition, Nashville. 1898 The Spanish- American War. 1898 Trans-Mississippi Exposition, Omaha. 4*1899 The Hague Court of Arbitration established. 1899 The Filipino insurrection. 1900 Hawaii annexed. 1900 Boxer insurrection in China. 1900 Tornado at Galveston, Texas. 1900 Italian Polar Exposition reached 86 33' N. 1901 Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo. 1901 Assassination of President McKinley. 1901 Death of Queen Victoria. 1901 Exposition at Charleston, S. C. 1902 First Congress of the Republic of Cuba. 1902 Anthracite coal strike in Pennsylvania. 1902 Accession of Edward VII. 1902 Civil Government established in the Philip- pines. 1902 Great Volcanic Eruption in Martinique. 1903 Massacre of Jews in Kishineff, Russia. 1903. Cable laid from the United States to the Philippines. 1903 Wireless Messages sent from .America to England. 1903 Leo XIII died. Accession of Pius X. 1904 Irish Land Bill passed by Parliament. 1904 The Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis. 1904 Independence of Panama Republic. 1904 War between' Japan and Russia. 1904 The burning of the excursion steamer "Gen- eral Slocum" with loss of a thousand lives. HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS THE questions connected with the practical management of the house- hold, particularly such as refer to culinary processes, are not only inevitable, but important. As in nearly every other department of present-day activity, the first requirement is a knowledge of the facts of what to do, when to do, and how to do the things that all know should be done. It is, therefore, not a surprising matter that house- keeping, including cookery and the allied arts, is a thing to be studied and learned, like any other calling. Indeed, in order that a housekeeper should be successful, should make her means go as far as possible and with complete satisfaction to all concerned, she must learn, in the first place, that hers is an art to be studied and learned, like any other calling, trade, or profession. Furthermore, as in other branches of human effort, experience and observation alone furnish the real preparation, yet much can be learned from reading and careful observance of rules and regu- lations formulated by authorities in this department. To supply the needed rudiments of the housekeeping art, the follow- ing pages have been written. Of course, many questions will naturally arise for which no answer is here found; yet a careful observance of the rules here following can furnish the best possible preparation for answer- ing them as they occur. CHOICE OF ARTICLES OF FOOD NOTHING is more important in the af- fairs of housekeeping than the choice of wholesome food. MACKEREL must be perfectly fresh. The firmness of the flesh and the clearness of the eyes must be the criteria of fresh mackerel, as they are of all other fish. FLOUNDERS, and all flat white fish, are rigid and firm when fresh; the under side should be of a rich cream color. COD is known to be fresh by the rigidity of the muscles (or flesh) ; the redness of the gills, and clearness of the eyes. SALMON. The flavor and excellence of (868) this fish depend upon its freshness, and the shortness of time since it was caught. HERRINGS can only be eaten when very fresh. FRESH WATER FISH. The remarks as to firmness and clear, fresh eyes apply to this variety of fish, of which there are pike, perch, etc. LOBSTERS recently caught have always some remains of muscular action in the claws, which may be excited by pressing the eyes with the finger; when this can not be produced, the lobster must have been too long kept. When boiled, the tail pre- HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 869 serves its elasticity if fresh, but loses it as soon as it becomes stale. CRABS have an agreeable smell when fresh. PRAWNS AND SHRIMPS, when fresh, are firm and crisp. OYSTERS. If fresh, the shell is firmly closed; when the shells of oysters are open, they are dead and unfit for food. The small-shelled oysters are the finest in flavor. Larger kinds are generally con- sidered only fit for stewing and sauces, though some persons prefer them. BEEF. The grain of ox beef, when good, is loose, the meat red, and the fat inclining to yellow. When meat pressed by the finger rises up quickly, it may be considered as that of an animal which was in its prime; when the dent made by pressure returns slowly, or remains visible, the animal had probably passed its prime, and the meat con- sequently must be of inferior quality. VEAL should be delicately white, though it is often juicy and well flavored when rather dark in color. On examining the loin, if the fat enveloping the kidney be white and firm looking, the meat will prob- ably be prime, and recently killed. MUTTON. The meat should be firm and close in grain, and red in color, the fat white and firm. Mutton is in its prime when the sheep is about five years old, though it is often killed much younger. If too young, the flesh feels tender when pinched; if too old, on being pinched it wrinkles up, and so remains. In young mutton, the fat readily separates; in old, it is held together by strings of skin. LAMB. This meat will not keep long after it is killed. The large vein in the neck is bluish in color when the forequarter is fresh, green when becoming stale. In the hindquarter, if not recently killed, the fat of the kidney will have a slight smell, and the knuckle will have lost its firmness. PORK. When good, the rind is thin, smooth, and cool to the touch; when changing, from being too long killed, it be- comes flaccid and clammy. BACON should have a thin rind, and the fat should be firm and tinged with red by the curing; the flesh should be of a clear red, without intermixture of yellow, and it should firmly adhere to the bone. To judge the state of a ham, plunge a knife into it to the bone; on drawing it back, if par- ticles of meat adhere to it, or if the smell is disagreeable, the curing has not been effectual, and the ham is not good; it should, in such a state, be immediately cooked. VENISON. When good, the fat is dear, bright, and of considerable thickness. TURKEYS. In choosing poultry, the age of the bird is the chief point to be at- tended to. An old turkey has rough and reddish legs; a young one, smooth and black. Fresh killed, the eyes are full and clear, and the feet moist. When it has been kept too long, the parts about the vent begin to wear a greenish, discolored appearance. COMMON DOMESTIC FOWLS, when young, have the legs and combs smooth ; when old, they are rough, and on the breast long hairs are found instead of feathers. Fowls and chickens should be plump on the breast, fat on the back, and white legged. GEESE. The bills and feet are red when old, yellow when young. Fresh killed, the feet are pliable, stiff when too long kept. Geese are called green while they are only two or three months old. DUCKS. Choose them with supple feet and hard, plump breasts. Tame ducks have yellow feet, wild ones red. PIGEONS are very indifferent food when they are too long kept. Suppleness of the feet shows them to be young; the state of the flesh is flaccid when they are getting bad from keeping. Tame pigeons are larger than the wild. PARTRIDGES, when young, have yellow legs and dark-colored bills. Old partridges are very indifferent eating. WOODCOCK AND SNIPE, when old, have the feet thick and hard; when these are soft and tender, they are both young and fresh killed. When their bills become moist, and their throats muddy, they have been too long killed. SEASONABLE FOODS There is an old maxim, "A place for everything, and everything in its place." To which we beg to add another, "A season for everything, and everything in season." JANUARY [Fish, poultry, etc.. distinjjuished by italics are to be had in the highest perfection.] FISH. Cod, crabs, eels, flounders, her- rings, lobsters, oysters, perch, pike, stur- geon, porgies. MEAT. Beef, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal, and doe venison. 870 HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS POULTRY AND GAME. Capons, chickens, ducks, wild-ducks, fowls, geese, partridges, pheasants, pigeons (tame), pullets, rabbits, snipe, turkeys (hen), woodcock. VEGETABLES. Beets, sprouts, cabbage, car- doons, carrots, celery, onions, parsnips, pota- toes, turnips. FRUIT. Almonds, apples. FEBRUARY FISH. Cod, crabs, flounders, herrings, oysters, perch, pike, sturgeon, porgies. MEAT. Beef, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal. POULTRY AND GAME. Capons, chickens, ducklings, fowls (wild), green geese, par- tridges, pheasants, pigeons (tame and wild), pullets, rabbits, snipe, turkeys, woodcock. VEGETABLES. Beets, cabbage, carrots, cel- ery, mushrooms, onions, parsnips, potatoes, turnips. FRUIT. Apples, chestnuts, oranges. MARCH FISH. Eels, crabs, flounders, lobsters, mackerel, oysters, perch, pike, shrimp, stur- geon, smelts, porgies. MEAT. Beef, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal. POULTRY AND GAME. Capons, chickens, ducklings, fowls, green geese, pigeons, rab- bits, snipe, turkeys, woodcock. VEGETABLES. Beets, carrots, celery, cress, onions, parsnips, potatoes, turnip tops. FRUIT. Apples, chestnuts, oranges. APRIL FISH. Shad, cod, crabs, eels, flounders, halibut, herrings, lobsters, mackerel, oys- ters, perch, pike, salmon, shrimps, smelts, sturgeon, trout, porgies. MEAT. Beef, grass-lamb, mutton, pork, veal. POULTRY AND GAME. Chickens, duck- lings, fowls, green geese, leverets, pigeons, pullets, rabbits, turkey-poults, wood-pigeons. VEGETABLES. Onions, parsnips, spinach, small salad, turnip tops, and rhubarb. FRUIT. Apples, nuts, oranges, pears. MAY FISH. Shad, cod, crabs, eels, flounders, halibut, herring, lobsters, mackerel, mullet, perch, pike, salmon, shrimps, smelts, stur- geon, trout, clams. MEAT. Beef, grass-lamb, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal. POULTRY AND GAME. Chickens, fowls, green geese, pigeons, pullets, rabbits. VEGETABLES. Artichokes, green peas, as- paragus, kidney-beans, cabbage, carrots, onions, peas, potatoes, radishes, rhubarb, salad, spinach, turnips. FRUIT. Apples, pears. JUNE FISH. Cod, shad, crabs, eels, flounders, herrings, lobsters, mackerel, perch, pike, salmon, clams, smelts, sturgeon, trout, cat- fish, blackfish. MEAT. Beef, grass-lamb, mutton, pork, veal. POULTRY AND GAME. Chickens, duck- lings, fowls, green geese, pigeons, pullets, rabbits. VEGETABLES. Asparagus, beans, white beets, cabbage, carrots, cucumbers, leeks, lettuce, onions, parsley, peas, potatoes, rad- ishes, salad of all sorts, spinach, turnips. FRUIT. Apples, apricots, cherries, cur- rants, gooseberries, melons, pears, straw- berries. JULY FISH. Cod, crabs, flounders, herrings, lobsters, mackerel, perch, pike, salmon, trout, bluefish, blackfish, bass, pickerel, cat- fish, eels, clams, porgies. MEAT. Beef, grass-lamb, mutton, veal, buck-venison. POULTRY AND GAME. Chickens, ducks, fowls, green geese, leverets, pigeons, plovers, rabbits, wild-pigeons. VEGETABLES. Artichokes, balm, aspara- gus, beans, carrots, cauliflowers, celery, cu- cumbers, herbs of all sorts, lettuce, mint, mushrooms, peas, potatoes, radishes, salads of all sorts, spinach, turnips, tomatoes, Carolina potatoes. FOR DRYING. Mushrooms. FOR PICKLING. French beans, red cab- bage, cauliflowers, garlic, gherkins, onions. FRUIT. Apples, apricots, cherries, cur- rants, damsons, gooseberries, melons, nec- tarines, peaches, pears, oranges, pineapples, plums, raspberries, strawberries. AUGUST FISH. Cod, eels, crabs, flounders, her- rings, lobsters, mackerel, perch, pike, sal- mon, bluefish, blackfish, weakfish, sheeps- head, trout, porgies, clams. MEAT. Beef, grass-lamb, mutton, veal, buck-venison. POULTRY AND GAME. Chickens, ducks, fowls, green geese, pigeons, plovers, rab- bits, wild ducks, wild pigeons, reedbird, curlew. VEGETABLES. Artichokes, beans, white- beet, carrots, cauliflowers, cucumbers, pot- herbs of all sorts, leeks, lettuce, mushrooms, onions, peas, potatoes, radishes, salad of all sorts, spinach, turnips, tomatoes. FOR DRYING. Basil, sage, thyme. FOR PICKLING. Red cabbage, tomatoes, walnuts. FRUIT. Apples (summer pippin), cher- ries, currants, damsons, gooseberries, mel- ons, grapes, mulberries, nectarines, peaches, pears, plums (green gages), raspberries. SEPTEMBER FISH. Cockles, cod, crabs, eels, flounders, lobsters, oysters, perch, pike, shrimps, por- gies, blackfish, weakfish. MEAT. Beef, mutton, pork, veal, buck- venison. POULTRY AND GAME. Chickens, ducks, fowls, green geese, partridges, pigeons, plov- ers, rabbits, turkeys, wild ducks, wild pig- eons, quail. VEGETABLES. Artichokes, beans, cabbages, carrots, cauliflowers, celery, cucumbers, herbs of all sorts, leeks, lettuce, mush- rooms, onions, parsnips, peas, potatoes, rad- ishes, salad of all sorts, turnips, tomatoes, Carolina potatoes. FRUIT. Apples, damsons, grapes, hazel- nuts, medlars, peaches, pears, pineapples, plums, quinces, strawberries, walnuts. OCTOBER FISH. Cockles, cod, crabs, eels, gudgeons, halibut, lobsters, mussels, oysters, perch, pike, salmon-trout, shrimps, smelts, porgies. MEAT. Beef, mutton, pork, veal, doe- venison. POULTRY AND GAME. Chickens, ducks, fowls, green geese, larks, partridges, pheas- ants, pigeons, reedbird, blackbird, robins, snipe, turkeys, wild ducks, wild pigeons, rabbits, woodcock, teal. VEGETABLES. Artichokes, cabbages, cauli- flowers, celery, herbs of all sorts, onions, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes, salad, spinach (winter), tomatoes, turnips, Caro- lina potatoes. FRUIT. Almonds, apples, black and white damsons, hazelnuts, grapes, peaches, pears, quinces, walnuts. NOVEMBER FISH. Cockles, cod, crabs, eels, gudgeons, halibut, lobsters, mussels, oysters, perch, pike, salmon, shrimps, smelts, porgies, flounders. MEAT. Beef, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal, doe-venison. POULTRY AND GAME. Chickens, ducks, fowls, geese, larks, partridges, pheasants, pigeons, rabbits, snipe, turkeys, wild ducks, woodcock, robins. VEGETABLES. Beets, cabbages, carrots, celery, herbs of all sorts, lettuce, onions, parsnips, potatoes, salad, spinach, tomatoes, turnips. FRUIT. Almonds, apples, chestnuts, hazel- nuts, grapes, pears. DECEMBER FISH. Cod, crabs, eels, gudgeons, hali- but, lobsters, oysters, perch, pike, salmon, shrimps, smelts, sturgeon. MEAT. Beef, house-lamb, mutton, pork, veal, doe-venison. POULTRY AND GAME. Capons, chickens, ducks, fowls, geese, guinea-fowl, hares, larks, partridges, pea-fowl, pheasants, pig- eons, rabbits, snipe, turkeys, wild ducks, woodcock. VEGETABLES. Beets, cabbages, carrots, celery, herbs of all sorts, lettuce, onions, parsnips, potatoes, salad, spinach, turnips. FRUIT. Apples, chestnuts, hazelnuts. NAMES AND SITUATIONS OF THE JOINTS The method of cutting up the carcasses varies. That which we describe below is the most general. BEEF. Forequarter. Fore rib (five ribs) ; middle rib (four ribs) ; chuck (three ribs). Shoulder piece (top of fore leg) ; brisket (lower or belly part of the ribs) ; clod (fore shoulder-blade) ; neck; shin (below the shoulder) ; cheek. Hindquarter. Sirloin; rump; aitchbone these are the three divisions of the upper part of the quarter; buttock and mouse- buttock, which divide the thigh; veiny piece, joining buttock ; thick flank and thin flank (belly pieces) and leg. The sirloin and rump of both sides form a baron. Beef is in season all the year; best in the winter. 872 HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS MUTTON. Shoulder; breast (the belly); over which are the loin (chump, or tail end). Loin (best end) ; and neck (best end) ; neck (scrag end). A chine is two necks; a saddle, two loins; then there are the leg and head. Mutton is best in winter, spring, and autumn. LAMB is cut into forequarter and hind- quarter; a saddle or loin; neck, breast, leg, and shoulder. Grass-lamb is in season from June to August. . PORK is cut into leg, hand, or shoulder; hindloin; foreloin; belly part; spare rib (or neck), and head. Park is in season nearly all the year. VEAL is cut into neck (scrag end) ; neck (best end) ; loin (best end) ; loin (chump or tail end) ; fillet (upper part of the hind leg) ; hind knuckle (which joins the fillet knuckle of foreleg) ; blade (bone of shoul- der) ; breast (best end) ; breast (brisket end), and hand. Veal is always in season, but dear in the winter and spring. VENISON is cut into haunch (or back) ; neck, shoulder, and breast. Doe-venison is best in January, October, November, and December, and buck-venison in June, July, August, and September. OX-TAIL is much esteemed for purposes of soup; so also is the cheek. The tongue is highly esteemed. CALVES' HEADS are very useful for various :es nausea. BAD BREATH. There is no permanent cure for this affliction, but a general ton- ing up of the system will tend to alleviate it, as well as strict attention to keeping the teeth clean. It may be temporarily relieved by using a gargle made by dilut- ing a little bromo-chloralum with 8 or IO parts of water. A few drops should be swallowed as well. BALDNESS, TREATMENT FOR. (i) Take of eau de cologne 2 ounces, tincture of cantharides 2 drams, oil of lavender or rosemary 10 drops. Mix well and wash the head once or twice a day. BATHTUBS, To CLEAN. The dirt collected around the sides of porcelain bathtubs may be removed with kerosene. Apply with a cloth saturated with the oil ; rinse out, and rub with hot water and soda. The white HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 895 blotches that form on zinc-lined tubs may be removed in the same manner. BEDBUGS. (i) Make a creamy paste of 2 ounces of red arsenic, J4 pound white soap, and l /2 ounce camphor, dissolved in a teaspoonful of spirits rectified. Put this paste into the openings and cracks of the furniture and of picture-frames and mir- rors. (2) Remove all clothing from the room, stop the cracks in the windows, and then fumigate the room and bedding, if there is any, with brimstone or a sulphur candle. The latter should be placed in a deep tin pail or vessel to prevent it from setting fire to anything. Let the room re- main closed for 24 hours. BED SORES, To PREVENT. Change the po- sition of the invalid as often as possible and keep the under sheet smooth and dry. If the skin is not broken, sponge the parts that touch the bed with alcohol or whisky and water, applying it three or four times a day. BEE STINGS, CURE FOR. Put a pinch of salt on the place, dissolve it with water and rub it briskly. If this fails to relieve, wet the place with aqua-ammonia, being careful if the sting is on the eyelid not to get the ammonia in the eye. Soda and saleratus are good substitutes, spirits of hartshorn applied with a soft rag is a capital remedy* and fresh wood ashes moistened with water and made into a poultice frequently renewed is another. BLACK CLOTHES, To RESTORE. Having boiled three ounces of logwood in a quart of vinegar until the color has been extracted, put in a piece of carbonate of iron the size of a large chestnut. Let it boil five minutes. After you have sponged the article of cloth- ing with hot water and soap, sponge it with the dye. It now remains to set the color, for which a third sponging is necessary this time, and while the article is thoroughly wet, with a teacupful of warm water in which a teaspoonful of saleratr has been dissolved. Do not wring or wrinkle the article before hanging it up to drain. BLOOD-STAINS, To REMOVE. Mix starch as if for laundry use, and lay a thick coat- ing of it, wet, on the stain. If this does not answer, steep the article in a solution of iodide of potassium in four times its weight of water. BOTTLES, To CLEAN. Put powdered char- coal with hot or cold water into the bot- tles and shake thoroughly, then allow the water to stand a little while. BRASS OR COPPER, To CLEAN. Powder some rottenstonp very fine and sift it, and then add oil of turpentine and soft soap, mixing the whole until it is like putty. Having removed every trace of grease from the article, with warm water, mix a little of the compound with water and rub it over the metal, then repeat the rubbing, using a dry rag or piece of leather. The metal will be polisi- d as well as cleaned. BRONCHITIS. Relief is sometimes ob- tained by holding a small quantity of salt- petre, say a cent's worth, in the mouth and swallowing it as it dissolves. Often the attack may be cut short by giving a hot mustard foot bath, with 10 grains of Dover's powder, or a hot lemonade at bed- time. BURNS. Common wheat flour sprinkled thickly on a burn will prevent blistering and scarring, and baking soda is similarly efficacious. A mixture of sweet oil and lime water will relieve the pain. If the burns have been produced by powder, wrap the hand or finger in a cloth saturated with i per cent solution of carbolic acid. Keep the cloth wet for two days. CARPETS, To CLEAN. (i) Sprinkle with moist tea leaves; then sweep thoroughly, using soft-soap and warm water on the grease and dirt spots. (2) A teaspoonful of ammonia in a gallon of water will re- store the color; or, after the carpet has been well beaten, scrub it with ox-gall ; I pint to 3 gallons of water for a large carpet. CEMENT FOR CHINA. Dissolve gum ara- bic in water until you have a very thick solution. Stir in plaster of Paris until the mixture becomes a sticky paste. Apply with a brush to the fractured edges and stick them together. A paste of white of egg and flour answers well for small arti- cles, but vases mended in this way will not hold together if water is put in them. CEMENT FOR EARTHENWARE. Grate a pound of cheese into a quart of milk; let it stand 14 hours, stirring frequently. Pul- verize a pound of unslaked lime in a mor- tar and add. Mix by beating; then beat in the whites of 25 eggs. CHAPPED HANDS AND LIPS, To CURE. (i) Take the yolk of one egg, 2 oz. honey, I oz. oil almonds, a little scent of some kind and V* oz. powdered orris root. Use as little of the mixture as possible at one time. (2) Heat together, until dis- solved, % oz. powdered gum camphor, 4 teaspoonfuls oil of sweet almonds, i% oz. spermaceti. Stir constantly and when cool use freely on hands and lips. 896 CLOTH, To BLEACH. Add the str-ined juice of one lemon to a quart of cold water; spread the cloth on the grass in the sun and wet it several times a day. It may take a long time to whiten the cloth perfectly. COCKROACHES, To DRIVE AWAY. (i) Mix a teaspoonful of powdered arsenic with a tablespoonful of mashed potato and sprinkle wherever the insects congregate. (2) Sprinkle powdered borax thickly in every place infested. (3) Cut up green cucum- bers and put them at night in places in- fested. Fresh pieces should be used for several nights running. CORNS, TREATMENT OF. Either hard or soft corns may be removed by applying night and morning with a soft brush the stronge t acetic acid (vinegar), or by apply- ing every night a poultice of bread wet with cider vinegar. COTTONS, To WASH. A teaspoonful of black pepper stirred into the first suds in which cottons are washed will prevent the colors from running. A handful of salt in a pailful of water makes a solution which fixes colors, but does not prevent their fad- ing. Many use salt in preference to sugar of lead for pinks, blues, and lavenders. Five cents' worth of sugar of lead crystals dissolved in a pailful of water makes a solu- tion which will establish the tone. The fabric should remain in the salt or sugar of lead bath a half hour or so before going to the suds. The garment should not be hung in the sun to dry. Alum water is a sure fixative, but it sets grime as well as hue. CRACKS IN IRON STOVES OR STOVEPIPES. To mend these, make a paste of wood ashes and common salt and apply, whether the iron or pipe be hot or cold. DANDRUFF. See HAIR WASH. CURTAINS, LACE, To CLEAN. Pin a sheet to the carpet so it will lie without a v/rinkle; then scatter over it dry Indian meal and powdered borax mixed in the pro- portion of one cupful of meal to one tea- spoonful of borax. Pin a curtain tightly over the sheet and cover this with the mix- ture; on this place another curtain and a layer of the mixture until all the curtains have been used. Pull out the pins, roll the curtains tightly so they will be covered by the sheet; lay the roll aside for two or three weeks and then shake the curtains free of the mixture. DISINFECTANTS. An unpleasant odor in a room may be removed by hanging up a cloth saturated with a weak solution of carbolic acid. (2) Heat an iron shovel hot and pour vinegar upon it. The doors and windows of the room should be open at the time. (3) Roast coffee until it is of a dark brown color, pulverize it, and burn it on a shovel, or sprinkle it about the room. (4) Take % cupful of common salt and 2 or 3 oz. sulphuric acid. Pour upon the salt % oz. of the acid and stir every 15 minutes till all the acid is used. The mix- ture should then be sprinkled about. To disinfect a sink or other place needing thor- ough cleansing, put ^ Ib. of copperas in 2 qts. boiling water, and, when the copperas is thoroughly dissolved, flush the pipes with the solution. EARACHE, CURE FOR. (i) Put a pinch of black pepper in a bit of cotton wool wet in sweet oil and insert it in the ear. (2) Put live coals in a pan, sprinkle them with brown sugar, invert a funnel over the coals and put the tube in the ear, which will soon feel the soothing effect of the fumes. EYELIDS, INFLAMED. Mix in a glass mor- tar one scruple of prepared calomel and % oz. spermaceti ointment. Apply a small quantity to each corner of the eye night and morning, and also to the edges of the lids. The bowels should be kept in a laxative state as long as this preparation is used. FEATHERS, To WASH AND CURL. Wash the feathers in warm soap suds and (if they are white) rinse in water slightly blued, then dry in the wind. To recurl, which should be done over a hot flatiron, use a bone or silver knife, drawing the fibres of the feather between the thumb and the dull edge, three fibres at a time. Begin at the point of the feather and curl one- half the other way. FLIES, To KILL. Boil quassia chips in water, sweeten with syrup of some kind, and pour the liquid into plates. A room may be kept free from flies by pouring a little alcohol into saucers and adding to each a teaspoonful of oil of lavender. A piece of clean sponge should be placed in the saucer. FOOT WASH (For Tired Feet) .Dissolve a pint of sea salt in 2 qts. water; pour into a covered jar or bottle and let it stand 24 hours. Pour I qt. brine into I qt. of hot or cold water and bathe. As the brine is used the bottle may be filled with clear water, repeating the process till all the salt is gone. FRAMES, GILT. To CLEAN. Having dust- ed the frames, rub on gently with a camel's hair brush, the white of an egg. This will HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 897 remove all kinds of dirt. Still better is a mixture of white of egg, 2 oz. ; chloride of potash or soda, i oz. FROST-BITES, TREATMENT OF. Rub the parts affected with pure oil (not essence) of peppermint. This will also prevent the after effect of chilblains. FROZEN LIMBS, CURE FOR. Dissolve from /-4 to y 2 Ib. of alum in a gallon of warm water and immerse the feet or hands in it for ten or fifteen minutes. FURNITURE, To CLEAN AND POLISH. (i) Mix 3 parts linseed oil with I of turpentine, and apply with a woolen rag. This will not only clean but also give a fine lustre. (2) Mix (and shake well) cold linseed oil, I qt. ; gin or spirits of wine, % pint ; vinegar, Y 2 pint ; butter of antimony, 2 oz. ; spirits of turpentine, % pint. It must be applied to the surface with a rubber, and if the furniture is new several applications will be necessary. FURNITURE VARNISH FOR UNPAINTED WOOD. Sandpaper the wood thoroughly and lay on a very thin coat of varnish with a piece of sponge or wadding covered with linen. When dry, rub down with pumice dust and apply a second coat of varnish. Three or four coats may be necessary. FURS, To RESTORE. Sprinkle them with hot flour and sand and brush thoroughly with a hard brush ; then beat' with a stick or cane, comb with a wet comb and press carefully with a warm iron. If the fur is ermine, substitute plaster of Paris for the flour and sand. GLASS, To PREVENT CRACKING OF. Put your chimneys, tumblers, or other articles in a pot filled with cold water and a little cooking salt; let the mixture boil well and then cool slowly. GLOVES, To CLEAN. (i) Wash the gloves when on your hands in spirits of turpentine and dry them before removing. (2) Pour i teacupful of benzine into a pint bowl and put a pair of gloves into it, soaking them and rubbing them together as though they were cotton rags ; then rinse in fresh, clean benzine; squeeze them as dry as possible, beat them against each other and hang them in the air for an hour or so. Care should be taken not to do the cleaning near a gas jet or candle flame. GREASE-SPOTS, To REMOVE. (i) Cover the spots with buckwheat flour, magnesia, French chalk, or potter's clay; over this put a piece of brown paper: set a moder- ately warm iron on this and let it remain till it gets cold. The iron must not be so hot as to scorch or change the color. If the article is of woolen, apply fuller's earth ; if the grease is wax or tallow, warm care- fully with an iron; then apply the fuller's earth. If the article is of silk, lay a piece of woolen cloth or baize upon a pine table and upon this the part stained, right side downward. Over this, place a piece of brown paper and for about five seconds apply a flatiron just hot enough to scorch the paper; then rub the stained part briskly with a piece of smooth writing paper. HAIR WASH. (i) A good wash to keep the hair from falling out and to prevent dandruff is made by taking i oz. powdered borax, i oz. powdered camphor, and mix- ing them with I qt. boiling water. When cool, pour into a bottle and apply it to the head, once a week, with a flannel rag or sponge. (2) Take 48 grains resorcin, % oz. glycerine, and enough alcohol to finish filling a 2-oz. bottle. Mix and apply to the scalp every night, rubbing it well in. HEADACHE. Mild attacks may be cured by (i) water applied as hot as the skin can bear it; (2) draughts of hot water, and a warm foot bath, ashes or soda having been added to the water; (3) soaking the feet in hot water, drinking herb tea and taking a sweat. Severe attacks of a nerv- ous kind have been relieved by giving ^4 grain of ipecac every half hour or hour, and cured by administering the ipecac in i to 3 grain doses three or four times daily. HOARSENESS, REMEDIES FOR. (i) Take green horseradish root, boil it down and sweeten it into a thick syrup. (2) Boil 2 oz. of flaxseed in I qt. of water; strain, add 2 oz. rock candy, % pint syrup or honey, and the juice of 3 lemons; mix and then boil ; cool and bottle. Take a cupful, hot, before going to bed. (3) To the white of i egg, beaten up, add the juice of I lemon and sweeten with white sugar. Take a tea- spoonful from time to time. INK STAINS, To REMOVE. (i) Soak the stained part in strong salt water ; then wash with ammonia. (2) Apply to the stain muriatic acid diluted with five or six times its weight in water, and after a few minutes wash it off. If the article is of linen, dip the ink-spot in pure melted tallow; then wash out the tallow and the ink will come out with it. IRON-RUST STAINS. To remove these, moisten the stained parts with a solution of oxalic acid ; then lay in the sun, and when the stain is out rinse thoroughly. 898 HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS The acid must not come in contact with any abraded surface of the hands or face. Another way is to moisten the pares with lemon juice, sprinkle them with salt, and then lay the article in the sun. IVY, OR SUMACH, POISONING. The sim- plest remedy for this is hot water applied as hot as the skin will bear it. A cloth should be dipped in the water and laid on the flesh. Vaseline sometimes relieves the itching, and for the same purpose one can use a weak solution of ammonia in water, applying it with moderation. Another ex- ternal application consists of a teaspoonful of calomel in a pint of lime water. The following is recommended, also : Bromium dissolved in olive oil, cosmoline or glyc- erine in the strength of 10 to 20 drops of bromium to an ounce of oil. Rub the mix- ture on three or four times a day; as it is volatile, it must be renewed within twenty- four hours. Bathing the parts affected with sweet spirits of nitre three or four times a day is often efficacious. KID SHOES, To SOFTEN. Melt V Ib. of tallow, pour it into a jar and add the same weight of olive oil ; stir and let stand till cold. Apply a small quantity occasionally with a piece of flannel. Should the shoes be very dirty, clean with warm water. LACES, To CLEAN. If your lace is black, mix a gill of rain-water, a tablespoonful of borax, and one of alcohol ; squeeze the lace several times through this ; then rinse in a cup of hot water in which a black kid glove has been boiled; pull the lace out carefully till nearly dry; then press 2 or 3 days between sheets of paper under a heavy weight. If the lace is white, draw a stock- ing leg over a bottle and fasten it at each end. On this tack the lace and put it in a kettle of cold water with shavings of white soap in it. Raise the water to the boiling point, remove and rinse. If a cream color is desired, rinse in cold coffee or saffron-water. Dry and remove from the bottle. Pick out the purling with a pin, and lay between soft papers and under a heavy weight. LINIMENT, To MAKE. (i) Take of lin- seed oil and lime water equal parts and mix. This is useful for burns and scalds and in preventing rheumatism after such accidents. (2) Dissolve gum camphor in sweet oil and rub on three times a day with flannel or woolen cloth, wrapping up the wound with the cloth after rubbing it in. This is useful for strains, sprains, and bruises hi man or beast. LOOKING-GLASS, To CLEAN. (i) Dampen a sponge with water or spirits of wine and remove every speck and stain ; then dust the surface with the finest sifted whiting or powder-blue, and polish it with a silk hand- kerchief. MARBLE, To CLEAN. (i) First go over with a soft sponge and strong, cold soap suds; then wash off the soap with clear water. Having removed the dirt and grease, rub over with fine powder of cal- cined tin moistened with water and applied with a cushion of cotton. After rubbing with this for a short time, finish by rubbing with a piece of canton flannel or soft leather, which will restore the gloss. (2) Make a paste with soft soap and whiting. Wash the marble with it and then leave a coat of the paste upon it for two or three days. Afterward wash off with warm (not hot) water. MATTING, STRAW, To CLEAN. Use a cloth wet in clean salt and water to wash the matting. Wipe dry immediately. MOTHS, PROTECTION AGAINST. Take an ounce of gum camphor and the shell of a red pepper, macerate them and let them stand in 8 oz. of strong alcohol for a few days ; then strain. Sprinkle this over arti- cles to be preserved and roll them up in sheets. MUMPS, To TREAT. Keep the face and neck warm, and avoid taking cold. Drink warm herb teas, and if the symptoms are severe, 4 to 6 grains of Dover's powder ; or if there is costiveness, a slight physic, and observe a very simple diet. If a severe cold has been taken and other glands are affected, physic must be taken, and leeches or cooling poultices applied to the swelling. Sweating must be resorted to in this case. NAUSEA, To RELIEVE. Beat up one egg for about twenty minutes, add I pint fresh milk, i pint water, and sugar to make it palatable; boil and cool. This makes an agreeable drink. NEURALGIC PAINS, LOTION FOR. Take equal parts of opodeldoc, spirits of wine, and sal ammoniac ; shake and bottle. (2) Pre- pare horseradish by grating and mixing in vinegar, the same as for the table, and apply to the temples when the head is affected, or to the wrist when the pain is in the arm or shoulder. (3) Facial neu- ralgia may be relieved by applying to the gums with a linen cloth a mixture of i part aconite, I of chloroform, and 2 of alcohol or cologne water. NOSE-BLEED, TREATMENT OP. Keep the HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 899 head raised; find which nostril the blood flows from, and on that side raise the arm perpendicularly, and hold the nose firmly with the finger and thumb. At the same time a towel wet with ice water or filled with snow should be applied to the fore- head, though often it is more efficacious when placed on the back of the neck. OIL PAINTINGS, To CLEAN. Wash the canvas or panel with soap and soft water slightly warmed. Dry the surface with a soft cloth and rub it with a warm silk hand- kerchief before a fire. PAPER, WALL, To CLEAN. Remove the dust with a soft cloth; then make a lump of stiff dough of flour and water, and rub the wall gently downward as far as the arm will sweep. Having gone around the room, return and begin your stroke a little above where the last one ended. Do not cross the paper or rub upward. PEWTER, To CLEAN. (i) Use a solution of oxalic acid; then rub with whiting and water. (2) Use a paste of fine wood ashes mixed with vinegar and salt. PIN HOLES IN LEAD PIPE. To stop these up, place the head of a tenpenny nail over the hole and give the other end two or three slight blows; this will force the lead together. POISON, ANTIDOTE FOR ANY. Stir a heap- ing teaspoonful of common salt and one of ground mustard into a glass of water and drink it all at once. When this emetic has acted, take the whites of 2 eggs instantly. For corrosive sublimate, swallow 6 raw eggs at once after the emetic. For lauda- num, take a cup of clear strong coffee; for arsenic, % cup sweet oil or lard after the emetic. RAT POISON. (i) Take of flour 3 Ibs. ; sugar, V* lb. ; sulphur, 2 Ibs. ; phosphorus, 2 Ibs. ; mix and spread on pieces of bread. (2) Mix i oz. arsenic, i oz. lard, and mix into a paste with meal. RHEUMATISM, REMEDY FOR. To i oz. of Castile soap cut into small bits or grated, add a heaping tablespoonful of red cayenne pepper. Pour on this y 2 pint boiling hot water. Stir until all is dissolved and add a little cider-brandy or alcohol when bot- tling. After applying this to the joints, rub on a little sweet oil to relax the muscles. RUST, To REMOVE FROM A STOVE. Scrape some bath brick to a fine powder, mix a little oil with it, and rub the spots well with a piece of flannel dipped in the mix- ture; after which apply some whiting and rub it well in. Several applications may be necessary before the rust disappears. SEA WATER, To MAKE SUITABLE FOR WASHING. Put in soda till the water be- comes turbid; the magnesia and lime in it will then be precipitated. SHIRT BOSOMS, To MAKE GLOSSY. Take 2 oz. fine gum-arabic powder, pour on a pint or more water, and then, having cov- ered it, let it stand all night. In the morn- ing pour it carefully from the dregs into a clean bottle, cork and keep for use. Add a teaspoonful of the gum water to every pint of starch. SHOE SOLES, To MAKE WATER-TIGHT. Warm a little beeswax and mutton suet until in a liquid state and apply over the stitches. SILK, To CLEAN. Take equal quantities of alcohol (whiskey will do), soft soap made of wood ashes and molasses. Mix and rub on with a cloth; afterward rinse in clear water once or twice and dry it or wrap in a cloth till ready to iron. SILVER, To GIVE LUSTRE To. Make a strong brine of alum dissolved in water; skim carefully, then add soap. Apply with a linen rag, rubbing gently. SOAP, HARD. To 5 pails soft soap add 2 Ibs. salt and i lb. resin. Simmer together and when thoroughly fused turn out in shallow pans so as to be easily cut. SOAP, SOFT. Boil 25 Ibs. fried grease in 2 pails of strong lye. On the following day another pailful of hot lye; also on the next day if there is grease on the top of the soap. Afterward add a pailful of hot water each day until the barrel is filled. STAINS ON THE HANDS. Dissolve five cents' worth of crystals of oxalic or citric acid in a 6 oz. bottle of water. Rinse from the hands before they are dried. This should be labeled "Poison" and put where no child can get at it. A few drops of oil vitriol (sulphuric acid) in water is excel- lent for fruit or dye stains, but it must be used with great care, as it eats holes in cot- ton fabrics and takes the color out of woolens. STOVES, To GIVE LUSTRE To. Mix a teaspoonful of lye with the polish. This will give a permanent lustre. Polish may be made to stay on by adding to it a little vinegar or a pinch of granulated sugar. SUMMER SUITS, To WASH. The water should be tepid and the soap should not be applied directly to the fabric. The articles 900 HINTS TO HOUSEKEEPERS should be washed and rinsed quickly and turned; than hung in the shade. When starched in thin starch, they should be folded in a delicate white cloth ; then ironed on the wrong side quickly. It is well to wash in water in which hay or a bag of bran has been boiled. A little salt will set the colors of light cambrics and lawns ; a little oxgall is good for yellow and purple tints. SUNSTROKE, TREATMENT OF. While wait- ing for the physician, give the afflicted person cool drinks of water, or cold black tea or cold coffee, if able to swallow. If the skin is hot and dry it should be sponged with cold water, or cold water should be poured over the body and limbs, and pow- dered ice should be applied to the head, wrapped in a towel, or cloth. If no ice is procurable, use cloths wet in as cold water as possible. If the person is faint and the pulse is feeble, inhaling ammonia, or drink- ing a teaspoonful of aromatic spirits of am- monia in 2 tablespoonfuls of water with .a little sugar, will be restorative. TAN AND SUNBURN, To PREVENT. Before going into the open air, rub the juice of a fresh lemon over the face, letting it dry. At night, dust a little oatmeal over the face ; in the morning wash it off and rub on a little cold cream or buttermilk. TEETH, DENTIFRICE FOR. Dissolve 2 oz. borax in 3 pints warm water; before this becomes cold add I teaspoonful of tincture of myrrh and i tablespoonful of spirits of camphor; then bottle. Use a wineglassful at a time in a pint of tepid water. A little lemon juice occasionally squeezed into the tooth-brush will remove tartar. TINWARE, To MEND. Fill a vial two- thirds full of muriatic acid, put in little bits of zinc, as long as the acid will act ; add a bit of sal-ammoniac, and fill with water. With the cork of the bottle dampen the spot to be mended, then apply a bit of sheet zinc over the hole and apply a lighted candle under the place; wet the zinc with the solution, or a little solder may be used instead of the zinc, TOOTHACHE REMEDIES. (i) If there is a cavity in the tooth, a strong solution of common baking soda held in the mouth often gives quick relief. (2) Apply to the defective tooth a bit of cotton saturated in ammonia. (3) Insert in the cavity a piece of cotton damp with the oil of cloves; if after a time this fails to relieve, mix an equal quantity of oil of cloves and oil of cinnamon, oil of peppermint or creosote. Press the cotton dry before applying it, to prevent the swallowing of the liquids. WARTS, To REMOVE. Avoid, if possible, the use of the knife or of caustic. A simple remedy, if the warts are on the hand, is to make a strong solution of borax in water as hot as the flesh can bear it, and to let the hand remain in the water for say twenty minutes. Dry the hand and then rub the warts briskly. Do this four or five times and the warts will disappear without leaving scars. WASH GOODS, To KEEP COLOR IN. Im- merse them for 3 hours before washing in i gallon cold water to which has been added I tablespoonful of ordinary turpen- tine. WHOOPING COUGH. Sufferings from this disease may be mitigated by mixing equal parts of oil of pale amber and spirits of hartshorn, and applying the liquid night and morning along the soles of the feet and along the spine, especially the upper part. WOOLENS, To WASH. Use hot soap suds ; rinse in clear, cold water and shake out the wet without wringing. Never wring wool- ens after washing them. INDEX Absolute possessives, Spanish, 150-151. pressure, 400. temperature, 399. Accent, acute, 68. acute in Spanish, 141. circumflex, the, 68. German, 101. graphic, 141. grave, the, 68. musical, 279, 280. poetical, rules of, 43, -44-45. in poetry, 40. tonic, 141. Acne, 691, 694-695. Adams, John, 202. Adams, John Quincy, aoa. Adjective declensions, German, US- Adjectives, English, 3, 12-13. endings of, 5 1-52. French, 78-79. pronominal, German, in* 112. relative, German, 116-117. Spanish, 154-156. Administration of estates, 767. Adverbs, English, 4, 14. Agency in law, 764. Agreements, 781, 783, 788. Agriculture, 600-620. Aguinaldo, Emilio, 210. Air, relation of, to health, 511 Alabama, 195, 202, 203. Alabama, Confederate cruiser, 205. Alaska, 205, 207. Algiers, 200; war with, 202. Aliens and Naturalization, 779. Allegory, in rhetoric, 26, 31. Allgaier gambit in chess, 466. Alliteration in poetry, 41. of colors, 499. Allodial tenure in New York, 203. Alphabet, English, 1-3. French, 67-68. German, 99. Spanish, 139-140. Alternating electric current, 419- 423- America, discovery of, 194. first legislative body in, 196. origin of name of, 194. slavery introduced in, 196. Americus Vespucius, 194. Ampere, defined, the, 406. Ampere-hour defined, the, 422. Ampere-turn* the, defined, 417. Amphibrach, a poetical measure, 41. Anapest, a poetical measure, 41. Angular advance of the eccen- tric, 392. Animal food, 720-721. Animals, farm, choice of, 613. Anne, Queen of England, 221. Anode defined, 421. Antenna, wireless telegraphy, 424. Antithesis, in rhetoric, 26-31. Anthracite coal strike of 1902, 211. Apocopation in Spanish, 154- 155- Apostrophe, in rhetoric, 25, 31. Appogiatura, or grace note, 285. Apposition defined, 18-19. Arbitration in law, 764. Architecture, 371-380. Byzantine, 377. Chinese, 377. Composite, 376. Corinthian, 375. Doric, 374-375- Egyptian, 372-373. Gothic, 377-379- Grseco-Gothic, 377. Greek, 373. Ionic, 375. Italian, 376-377. Lombard, 377. Moorish, 377. Norman, 379. origin of, 371-372. Queen Anne, 379. Roman, 375-376. Romanesque, 377. terms used in, 373-374. Tudor, 379. Tuscan^ 376. Arkansas, 202. Arm, human, 251, 252-253. Armature, dynamo, 418. sculpture, figure, 263. Arnold, Benedict, 198, 199-200. Arpeggio, musical, 283-284, 325. Arrest in law, 765. Art, anatomy of, 250-254. Arthur, C. A., 206, 207. Articles, English, 6. German, loi-m. Spanish, 147. Articles of Confederation, aoo. Articulation on cornet, 340. in singing, 348, 351-35*. Ashburton treaty, the, 202. Assembly, French, the, 186. Assignments, 789-790. Assist in euchre, 445-446. Associations, organizing, 733. Asteroids, the, 234. Astronomy, descriptive, 230-337. Attachment, in law, 765. Attorney-General, 214. Attributes, English, 18, 19. Automobiles, 429-434. differential gear of, 431. electric, 430, 433-434- gasoline, 430, 432-433- history of, 429-430. rubber tires, 432. speed-changing in, 432-434. Steam, 430. steering of, 431-432. Storage batteries of, 433-434- tinderframes of, 432. Auxiliary verbs, English, 7. French, 83-84, 88, 90-91. German, 121-122, 126-131. Spanish, 157-159. Ballroom, behavior, 501-502, 507. Baltimore, Lord, first, 196, 197. Barbary States, war with, 202. Barre on guitar, 325-327. Baseball, rules for, 558-560. Bathing, 516, 685, 707. Batter-cakes, to make, 888. Batteries, electric, 404, 412, 421- 423. "Be" in Spanish, 158-159. Beauregard, Gen. P. G. T., 204. Beauty, femate standard of, 688. Bedroom, airing of, 519. Beds, hard and soft, 519. Bennett, James Gordon, 206. Benzoin, milk of, 703. Bertillon identification card, 39, Beverages, 515. Bill of Rights (1689), 219. Bills of exchange, 789, 790. Births and deaths, laws on, 766* Biscuits, to make, 887-888; Black Hawk War, 202. Body, human, height of, 250. muscles of, 251-252. temperature of, 519. Boilers, steam, 384-385. Bones, fractured, treating, 570. Bon Homme Richard, ship, tQQ. Boston, 195, 198, 205. British evacuation of (1776). 198. great fire in, 205. harbor, 198. retreat to (1775), 198. "tea party," the, 198. Bow of a violin, 309-311. Bowing of violoncello, 330-331. Boxer War in China, an. Boxing, 574-581. Brace in music, the, 276. Brackets, use of, 24. Brain and mental exercise, 51)^. Brass work, hammered, 264-267. Breadmaking, hints on, 887. Breakfast, working before, 5i Breathing, cornet playing, 340. for singing, 347-348, 351. Bridge, game of, 454-456. cards in, exposed, 456. chicane in, 454-455. doubling in, 455. dummy in, 456. honors in, 454, 455. revoke in, 456. rubber In, the, 454. scoring in, 454-455. slam in, 454-455- tricks in, 454-455. British Parliament, 197. Broom-corn, 610. Bruises, treatment for, 718. Brushes, dynamo, 418. INDEX Bryan, William J., 308, 210. Buchanan, James, 203. Buckwheat cakes, to make, 888. Buffalo, N. Y., 307, 21 0-2 1 1. Bundesrath, German, 228-229. Buns, to make, 888. Burns, treatment for, 717. Burr, Aaron, 200. Byzantine architecture, 377. Cabinet, English, 220-221. French, 225. King and, in England, 221. United States, 214. Cabot, John, 194, 195. Cabot, Sebastian, 194, 195. California, 203, 212. conquered, 203. gold found in, 203. missions in, 212. Calling, etiquette of, 494-495. in poker, 450. Camera, photographic, 246. Canada, 195, 201. Canter, the, 536. Cards, playing, antiquity of, 435- cutting, 435. dealing, 435, 439. forcing, in sleight of hand, 479-480. games with, 435-458. making the pass with, 479. shuffling, 435, 439. tricks with, 479-482. trump, 435. Carmine liquid, 704. Carolina, Colony of, 197. Carteret Colony, 197. Carving meats, hints on, 883. Carving, wood, 268-270. designs for, 269, 270. flat, 268. intaglio, 268. lowered work, 268. modeling for, 268. sunken work, 268. tools for, 268. (cut), 269, 270. Caryatides, 375. Cases of nouns in English, 6. Castling in chess, 462. Cathode defined, 421. Cattle, 659. Causative auxiliary, German, 129. C. E. M. F., 419- Centennial Exhibition, 205-206. Ceres, the asteroid, 234. C G. S. units, 405. Chamber of Deputies, French, 226. Chambers of French Govern- ment, 225-226. Chancellor, German, 228. Characters in fiction, 35-36, 38. Charles I of England, 196. Charles II of England, 197, 219. Charles V of Spain, 195. Check, in chess, 462. Checkers, game of, 468-471. games in, 469-470. losing game of, 470-471. origin of, 459. rules of, 468-469. Checkmate in chess, 462. Chesapeake, U. S. frigate, aoi. Chess, 460-468. Allgaier gambit in, 466. castling in, 462. check in, 462. checkmate in, 462. finishing game in, 467-468. gambit in, 463, 465, 466, 467. laws of, 463-464. mating power in, 463. Munzio gambit in, 466-467. notation of, 461. openings in, 465, 466. origin of, 459. pieces and powers in, 460- 461. queening a pawn in, 463. ranks and files in, 462-463. Scotch gambit in, 467. stalemate in, 462. terms used in, 462-463. Chicago, 205, 207, 208. Chicane in bridge, 454, 455. Children, care of, 706-718. bathing of, 707. care and rearing of, 707. colds in, 709. convulsions in, 712. diseases of, 712-718. sleep of, 708. teething in, 710. vaccination of, 714. Chili-Peru War, 207. Chili pays indemnity, 207. treaty with, 207. China, 191, 211, 377. China, painting on, 257-258. ChoJera invasion prevented, 207. Chords, musical, 289, 291, 318, on guitar, 325. on mandolin, 318. perfect, table of, 361. Christ, a miracle of, 32. Chromatic scale, the, 275. Chyle, the, 513. Chyme, the, 513. Circuit, electric, 404. Ohm's law of, 405. Citizenship, conditions of, 780. how obtained, 779, 780. minors and, 780. Civil Service Bill, 207. rules, 792-799. Civil War, 204. Clay, Henry, 202. Compromise Bill, 202. Clay, modeling in, 261-263. Cleanliness, importance of, 516. Clearness in writing, 27, 28-29. Clefs, bass and treble, 275, 276. Clermont, steamboat, 201. Geveland, Grover, 207, 208. Climbing ladders, etc., in gym- nastics, 530-S3I. Clinton, Sir Henry, 198, 200. Coal, structure of, 243. Coal strike in Pennsylvania, 211. arbitrated, 212. conference on, 211-212. Clothing and climate, 519. Codicil to a will, 784. Cceur d'Alene Mine strike, 207. Coherer, wireless telegraphy, 424, 426. Coil, Ruhmkorff, the, 425. Tesla, 428. Cold cream recipe, 703. Cold, catching, 516, 709, 710. curing, 710. Colds, cause of, 516. Coligni, Admiral, 195. Colombia, canal treaty with, 21 h Colonies, New England, 197. Colorado, 205. Colors, alliteration of, 499. and glazes, mixing of, 257. enamel, 258. for terra cotta, 257. French, 259. mixing, 259. moist and dry, 258. necessary for painting, 257. Columbian Exposition, 207, 208. Columbus, Christopher, 194, 208. Comets, 230, 236-237. Comma, the, uses of, 24. Commands, in German, 125. Commission, Venezuela Bound* ary, 208. Commons, House of, English, 221. Compression in steam engine, 392-393- Complexion lotions, 703. Composite architecture, 376. Composition of food, 719. Composts, 607. Compromise Bill, Clay's, 202. Commutator, dynamo, 418. Concord, battle of, 254. Conditional mood, Spanish, 161, Confederation, articles of, 200. the German, 227. Congress, Confederate, 204. Continental, first, 198. Continental, second, 198. Houses of, 215. United States, 186. U. S. President and, 214. Conjugation of English verbs, 710-712. progressive Spanish, 163. Conjugations, Spanish, 162. Conjunctions, co-ordinate, 14. English, 4, 1 4. subordinate, 14. Connecticut Colony, 197. Connotation in writing, 27. Consistency in writing, 32. Consonants, double German, 100. English, 2-3. French, 69. Spanish, 141. Constitution, form for, 733. English, the, 219-220. French, 224. German, 227, 228. United States, 201-206, 213- 215. Constitution, U. S. frigate, 201. Continental Congress, . 198. Contracts, legal, 766. Conversation^ etiquette of, 495- 496, 500, 501, 506. Conversations in fiction, 37. Conveyances of lands, 783. Convulsions ire children, 712. Copartnership, articles of, 782. Corinthian architecture, 375. Cornet, self-taught, 377-343. breathing for playing, 340. demi-legato on, 341. pitch of the, 338. portato on, 341. position in- playing, 328. Cornet, practicing on the, 342. slurs on, 341. tongueing for, 340-342. tonguemg-in on, 341-342. tuning the, 342. valves and tones of, 337- 338. Corns, treatment for, 697. Cornwallis, Lord, 199. Corporations, how formed, 767. Cosmetics, 684, 689-691, 703-705. Coulomb denned, the, 407. Council of Ministers, French, 225. of State, French, 225. Court, Supreme, U. S., 215, 217. Courts, Federal and District, 215. Cows, pasturage of, 658. Crackers, to make, 888. Crayons, sketching, 258. Cricket, rules for, 555-558. Croquet, regulations in, 565-568. Croup and its treatment, 715. Cuba, 195, 208, 209. Current, electric, 403-404, 419, 423. Custer, General, 206. Cut-off of steam engine, 391-392. Cuts and their treatment, 717. Cutting cards, 435, 439. Cycle, gas engine, 396-398. Cylinders, steam engine, 387. D Dactyl, a poetical measure, 41. Dancing, lessons in, 723-732. Dandruff, cure for, 698, 705: Dark room, photographic, 363. Dash, use of the, 25. Davis, Jefferson, 204. Deal in euchre, the, 445. in poker, the, 449. Dealing cards, 435-439- Debt, when outlawed, 773. Declaration of Independence, 198. Deed of gift from father to son, 783. of personal estate, 783. on conditions, 784. ; without covenants, 783. Degree of scale, 286, 290-291. Delaware, settlement of, 197. Demi-legato on cornet, 341. Democracy, Jefferson's, 200. Denotation in writing, 27. Depolarization of electric cells, 4i3, 414. Deputies, Chamber of, French, 226. Developing, photographic, 365. Dewey seizes Manila, 209. Diaphragm, exercises for the, 348-349. Diaphragms, photographic, 364. Diaphragmatic breathing, 347- 348, 351. Diatonic scale, the, 275. Dickens, Charles, 29, - 36. Dielectrics, 408. Dietaries, food, calculation of, 720. Differential gear, automobile, 43i. Digestibility of food, 721. Digestion, process of, 513, 515. Dinner parties, 502-505, 508. INDEX Diphtheria, 716. Diphthongs, French, 68-69. German, 100. Discussion, value of, to a writer, 28. Diseases of children, 712-718. Divorce, grounds for, 774. Domino pool, 475-476. Dominoes, all fives in, 472-473. drawing game in, 473-474. English game of, 474. four game of, the, 476. French game of, 473, 474. general maxims in, 471-472. matador game of, 474-475. origin of, 460. Sebastopol game of, 477. tiddle-a-wink, 477. whist with, 476. Doric architecture, 374-375. Doubling in bridge, 455. Dower of a widow, 770. Draining farm lands, 607-609. Drake, Sir Francis, 195. Draughts, game of, 459, 468- 471. games in, 469-470. losing game of, 470-471. rules of, 468-469. Drawing-out in singing, 352. on violin, 315. Draw poker, game of, 449-453. Dressing, etiquette in, 497-499. Driving, etiquette of, 497. Drowning, treatment, 571-573. Drugs, administration, 648-654. Due bills, 789, Dummy in bridge, 456. whist, 445. Dynamo, electric, the, 418-419. Dyne defined, the, 406. Earth, crust of the, 244. the, as a planet, 232. Eating as affecting the organs, 514. moderation in, 515. relation of, to bodily or- gans, 514. repose after, necessary, 514. rules for, 513. Eccentrics, steam engine, 390-391. Eczema, 694. Egyptian architecture, 372-373. writing, 172. Egyptians, figure proportions of, 250. Election, Presidential, of 1876, 213. Electoral College, 213-214. Electric automobiles, 430, 433. batteries, 404, 414. calculations, 406. cell, Leclanche, the, 414. Electric circuit, 404. Ohm's law of, 405. varieties of, 409-412. Electric circuits, parallel, 410, 411, 412- series, 410. series-multiple, 410-411. Electric current, 405. alternating, 419, 423. effects of, 414. polyphase, 419, 423, single-phase, 423. three-phase, 433. 903 Electric dynamo, the, 418-419. gas engine ignition, 399. horsepower, 407. induction, 414. insulators, 408. motor, the, 418-419. motors, efficiency of, 420. motors, power of, 420. oscillations, 427. potential, 404. power estimates, 407. resistivity, 408. secondary batteries, 421. 423- storage batteries, 421-423. units, 405-407, 408. Electricity, generation of, 402. heat ind, compared, 404. historical facts on, 402. n-.ure of, 402. principles of, 402-423. . static and current, 402. Electrolyte defined, 413. Electro-magnet invented, 402. Electro-magnets, winding, 416- 418. Electromotive force, 404. Elegance in writing, 27, 32. Elegiac verse, 47. Ellipsis, a figure of rhetoric, 25. Emancipation Proclamation, 204. Embargo Act of 1807, 201. E. M. F., 404. Enameling, photographic, 36^. England, 197. Cabinet of, 220-221. government of, 219-223. House of Commons of, 221. House of Lords of, 221. King and Cabinet in, 221. King of, powers of, 220. liberties in, 219. organic law of, 219-220. parliament of, 219, 221. Prime Minister of, 220, 228. privy council of, 220. real rulers of, 220. royal family of, 220. rule of precedent in, 220. sovereign of, laws on, 220. sovereigns of, list, 2-2.2-223. succession to throne of, 219. war feeling in (1895), 208. English, ancient words in, 14 and Spanish words, 141.. dominions, 474. foreign words in, 5-6. grammar, 1-26. Epigram, a figure of rhetoric; 26. Estates, administration of, 767. Etiquette, 493-510. of amusements, 509. of the ballroom, 507-502, 507. of calling, 494-495. of cards, 494, 495- of conversation, 494-496, 500, 501, 506. of dancing, 500, 501-502. of dinner parties, 502-505; 508. of dressing, 497-499- of driving, 497. of funerals, 508-509. of games, 500, 501. of introductions, 493-494? 507. INDEX Etiquette, of jewelry, wearing, 49, 499. of parties, 499-501, 507. of perfumery, 498. riding, 497. of salutations, 507-508. street, 496-497, 509-510. traveling, 509. visiting, 494-495, 505, S'O. Etymology, English, 1-14. Euchre, 445-449. assist in, 445-446. deal in, the, 445. maxims in, 446. misdeals in, 447. order up in, 445-446. partners in, 449- pass in, 445-446. revoke in, 448. score in, the, 446. take-up in, 445-446. two-handed, 447. trumps in, making, 448-449. with joker, 443. Euphonic changes in Spanish, 164-165. Exaggeration in rhetoric, 25-26. Exchange, notes and bills of, 776. Exclamation and interrogation, 26. Executive Department, United States, 214. Mansion, Washington, 207. ! xercise, rules for, 517. active and passive, 517^ bodily, amount of, 518. dancing as, 517. fencing as, 517. jumping as, 520. mental, 518. repose and, 518. riding as, 517- running as, 520. varieties of, 520-599. walking as, 517, 520. with apparatus, 520-531. Exercises for piano, 302-306. Exposure, photographic, timing, 365. Eye, sculptured, 263. Eyebrows and eyelashes, care of, 699. Fahrenheit degrees, 385, 386. Farinaceous foods, merits of, 515- Farm animals, 613. buildings, 613. crops, 614. fences, 613. gates, 613. hedges, 614. implements, 613. machines, 609-612. Farragut, Com. D. G., 204. Federal, Elections Bill, 208. Hall, New York, 200. Feet, care of the, 696. Fencing as exercise, 517. Fermentation products unhealth- ful, 516. Feudal system in New York, 203. Fevers and their treatment, 714. Fiction, rules for writing, 34. Fifteenth Amendment, 205. Figure, female, developing, 7*1. Figures, rhetorical rules for, 31. Fillmore, Millard, 203. Fingering the guitar, 323. the piano, rules for, 307. the violin, 311. Finish in whist, the, 443. Firing, point of, 396. Flash point of oil, 396. Flat, double, musical, 286. Florida, 195, 202, 203. Flux, magnetic, 418. Focus, equivalent, 364. Food, adulteration of, 722. animal, vegetable, 720, 721. choice of articles of, 862. combinations of, 720. farinaceous, merits of, 515. nutrition and, 512. preservatives of, 722. proper kinds of, 514. seasonable, 869. variations in, 515. Football, rules for, 560-561. Force in writing, 27, 29-31. Foreign words in English, 5-6, 48-62. Fossils, 239, 242, 243, 345. Fourteenth Amendment, 205. Fractures, treatment of, 571. France, 195, 197. Cabinet of, 225. Chamber of Deputies, 126. Council of State of, 225. government of, 224-226. grammar, 78-93. Kings of, list, 226. president of, 224-225. presidents of, list, 226. Freckles, cure for, 764. Fremont, Gen. John C., 203. French accents, 69. adjectives, 78-79. alphabet, 67-68. auxiliary verbs, 83-84, 88, 90-91. consonants, 69. declensions, 78. diphthongs, 68-69. impersonal verbs, 89. irregular verbs, 91-93. language, the, 67-97. numerals, 77. phases, 94-97. pronominal verbs, 88. pronouns, 80-8 1. pronunciation, 68-69. sequence of tenses in* 90. syntax, 87-91. u, the, 66, 67, 68. verbs, 81-93. vocabulary, 70-77. vowels, 68-69. Frets of a mandolin, 317. Frolic, British brig, 201. Fruit, cultivation of, 620-625. Fuels, 385-386, 396. Funerals, etiquette of, 508-509. Galvanic batteries, 412, 413. Gambit, chess, 463, 465, 466, 467. Games, card, 435-458. etiquette of, 500, 501. outdoor, 545-568. of skill, 459-477- Gamut, meaning of word, 274. Gardening, indoor. 670-683, Garfield, J. A., 206. Gas engine, the, 395-401. air-cooling, 399. cycles of, 396-398. cylinder cooling, 399. Diesel, 398. electric ignition in, 399. fly-wheel of, 396. four-cycle, 396-397. hot-head ignition in, 398. ignition in a, 398-399. indicator diagram of, 401. initial pressure in, 401. operation of a, 400. Otto, 398. parts of a, 396. steam engine and, 396. theory and operation of, 395- trunk piston of, 396. two-cycle, 397-398. water-jacket of, 399. Gasoline automobiles, 430, 434- 433- Gates, Gen. Horatio, 199. Gender in German, 98, 101. Geology, outlines of, 238-245. Georgia, 197, 198, 199, 203, 204, 205. German accent, 101. adj ective-declensions, 115. alphabet, 99. article, the, 101, in. auxiliary verb, 121-122, 126- 131- causative auxiliary, 129. contingent assertions in, 129. declensions, 110-115. diphthongs, 100. double consonants, 100. inflection, in. irregular verbs, 131-135. modal auxiliaries, 126-131. modal idioms, 130-131. modified vowels, 100. nouns, 112-114. numerals, 117-118. phrases, 135-138. plurals, in, 112-113. prepositions, iio-m. pronominal adjectives, III- 112. pronouns, 118, 119. relative adjectives, 116-117. relative clauses, 119-120. sequences of tenses in, i2& syntax, 125-131. Umlaut in, 100. verbal prefixes, 124-125. verbs, 120-135. vocabulary, i o I - 1 1 o. Germany, confederation of, 227. constitution of, 227, 228. Emperor of, 227, 228. government of, 227-229. Gilbert, the, defined, 417. Glazes and colors, 257. Gold found in California, 203. Gold standard affirmed, 208. Glissando on mandolin, 321. on violin, 315. Glycin, in photography, 366. Golf, 552-555- clubs, 552. etiquette of game, 553. forms of, 553- green, laying out a, 554* INDEX 905 putting, SS3. style, 553. forms, definition of, 554. Goods, order for, 789. Gorman-Wilson Bill, 208. Gothic architecture, 377-379. Government, French, 225-226. of England, 219-223. of France, 224-226. of Germany, 227-229. representative, 219. United States, 213-218. Grace notes, 285. on guitar, 327. Graeco-Gothic architecture, 377. Grain, how to shock, 616, Grains, edible, 614-616. Gramme, the, 186. Grant, U. S., 204, 205, 207. Great Britain, 198, 205, 208, 210. Greek architecture, 373, 374-375- Greely, Lieut. A. W., 206. Griddle-cakes, to make, 888. Gruppeto, 284-285. Guam ceded to U. S., 210. Guerriere, British frigate, 201. Guitar, self-taught, 322-323. Guitar, arpeggio on, 325. chords on, 325. description of the, 322. double fingering for, 323. harmonies on, 327-328. keys for, best, 323-325. position in playing, 322-323. sextolets on the, 327. shifting on, 323. stopping on, 323, 325. strings and tones on, 333. triplets on the, 327. tuning the, 328-329. Gymnastics, simple, 520-533. H Habeas Corpus Act, 219. Hague Tribunal, 212. Hair, care of the, 697-699. Hands, care of the, 695. Harmonies, artificial, 336. on guitar, 327-328. on violoncello, 335-336. Harrison, Benj., 207. Harrison, Gen. W. H., 201, 202. Hawaii, 208, 210. Hty, John, 32, 211, 212. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, 211. Hayes, R. B., inaugurated, 206. Health, preservation of the, 511- 519- Health, air and, 511-512. cleanliness and, 516. exercise and, 516-518. food and, 512-516. mental activity and, 518. perspiration and, 516. rest and, 518-519. Health hints for women, 684-705. acne, 691, 694, 701. bath, the, 685. cosmetics and the complex- ion, 689-691. cosmetics, evil effects of, 684. cosmetics, how to make them, 703-705. dandruff, cure for, 698, 705. eczema, 694. fcyebrows and eyelashes, care of, 699. falling hair, care for, 698. feet, care of the, 696. figure, development of, 701. hair, care of the, 697. hair, to change color of, 699. hands, care of the, 695. liver spots, 695. physical exercises (women), 686-688. pimples and blotches, 694. skin diseases, treatment for, 700. skin, irritation of, 701. standard of beauty, female, 688. sunburn, 690. teeth, care of the, 695. wrinkles, treatment for, 691, 694-695. Hearts, game of, the, 457-458, Heating surface, boiler, 385. Hebrew poetry, 39. Hemp, 620. Herschel, the planet, 235. Hertz, Heinrich, 424, 425. resonator of, 426. Hertzian waves, 424, 425, 426. Hexameter verse, 39, 41. Hieroglyphic writing, 1 72. Hobart, G. A., Vice-Preside nt, 208. Holding over, oath of, 789. Honolulu, cable opened to, 212. Honors in bridge, 454, 455. whist, 440, 443. Hops, 620. Horizon in drawing, the, 247. Horizontal bar, use of, 522-526. Horse, the, 630-654. age of, to tell, 539. carriage, the, 642. clipping or singeing, 644. clothing for, 640. color of, 632. defects, diseases, and faults of, 645- domestication of, 633. exercise and work, 644. feeding, 644. feet, management of, 645. for light harness, 643. hack or riding, 641. harness for stable, 646. harnessing, and putting to harness, 647. how to purchase a, 641. hunting, the, 642. ladies', the, 641. mounting a, 534. points of a, 630-633. stable, management of the, 643- stables, plans for, 638. stable vices, 645. thoroughbred, points of a, 635-637. tricks and vices, 536-538, 646. treatment of, 539, 54. varieties of, 633, 637. vices of the, 536-538, 646, vaulting, the, 522, 527-529. Horsepower, electrical, 407. of a steam engine, 394. Hotels, etiquette at, 509. House, agreement for building, 782. House, agreement for purchase of, 781. Housekeepers, hints to, 868-9001, Hoyle, Edmund, 435. Hudson, Henry, 190. Human figure, oroportions of, 250-2151. Hyperbole, in vnetoric, 25-26, 31. Iambic, a poetical measure, 41. Idaho, mining troubles in, 207. Idioms, modal German, 130-131. Ignition, gas engine, 398-399. Illinois, 202. Impersonal verbs, French, 89. Inclination of lines in drawing, 247- Indefinites, Spanish, 152-153. India ink, 259. Indiana, 202. Indians, American, 195, 19/3, 197, 201, 204, 206. Indicative, the Spanish, 159. Indicator, steam engine, 388-389. Indies, East, 191-192. Induction, electric, laws of, 415-416. Injuries, treatment for, 569. Insulators, electric, 408. Intensifying, photographic, 366- 367- Interest and usury, 771. Irterior, Secretary of, 214. Interrogation, in rhetoric, 26. Intervals, augmented, 290. consecutive, 290. diminished, 290. inverted, 290. major, 290. minor, 290. musical, 290-291. perfect, 290. piano, 299. Introduction, etiquette of, 493- 494. 507- letters of, 494, 507. Ionic architecture, 375. Iowa, 203. Irregular verbs, French, 91-93. German, 131-135. " Spanish, 165-167. Irrigation, 607. Isthmian Canal, treaty on, 211. Italics, use of, in printing, 25. Italy, architecture of, 376-377, Jack-pot in hearts, the, 458. in poker, the, 453, Jackson, Andrew, 202. James I of England, 196. Japan, treaty with, 203. Japanese athletics, 595-599. Jeannette, Arctic steamer, ?o6L Jefferson, Thomas, 186, 200, 102. Jewelry, wearing of, 498, 499. Jiu-jitsu, 595-599. Johnson, Andrew, 205. Joker, euchre with, 447. Jones, Capt. John Paul, 1551. Joule defined, the, 407. Judiciary Dept., U. S., 214, 2ljj Jumping as exercise, 520. in gymnastics, 520. Juno, the asteroid, 234, Jupiter, the planet 234. Jury, trial by, founded, 219. 906 INDEX K Kansas, 204. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 203. Keys for guitar, best, 323-325. Kilogram, the, 186, 189. Kilometre, the, 189. King and Cabinet in England, 221. Labial consonants, 2. Lacquering for brass, 266. Ladders, gymnastic, 522. Ladies, dressing of, 497-498. Lamps, electric, in circuit, 411. Landlord and tenant, 772. Landlord's agreement, 788. Land sale agreement, 782. Lands, conveyances of, 783. Landscape, colors for, 257. painting, 255. elements of a, 247-249. sizing up a, 256. Language, classes of, 63. original forms of, 65. Languages, learning, 65. La Salle, Father, 197, 200. Law, outlines of, 763-791. Lawn tennis, rules of, 562-565. Laws, State and Federal, 215. Lead in whist, the, 440. returning, in whist, 443. Leaping in gymnastics, 520. Lease, agreement for a, 787. assignment of, 790. Lee, Fitzhugh, 208, 209. Lee, Gen. Robert E., 204, 205. Left hand in violoncello, 330. Legacy, power to receive, 787. Legal documents, 781-791. Legato on mandolin, 321. Legato passages, musical, 281, 282. Leger lines in music, 276. Legislative Department, United States, 214, 215. Lenses, photographic, 364. Letter-writer, the, 746-753. Letter-writing, examples of cor- rect, 748. essential points in, 746. Lexington, battle of, 204. Lien laws, 773. Light, zodiacal, the, 231, 236. Lighting, artificial, in sculpture, 262. Limitation of action in law, 773. Lincoln, A., 32, 203, 204, 205. Link-motion, steam engine, 390- 39>- Stephenson, 384. Literary form, 28. Litre, the, 186, 187. Lombard architecture, 377. Longfellow, H. W., 41, 43, 45. Lord's Prayer in eight lan- guages, 64-65. Louis XIV of France, 197-201. Louisiana, 197, 200, 203. Love, analysis of, 37. Lungers, the, in exercise, 522. M McKinley, William, 207, 208, 210, an. Madison, James, 201. Magic, parlor, 478-492. Magna Charta, 219. Magnetic circles, 416. field, 418. flux, 418. lines, 417. units, 417. Magnetism, 416-418. Maine, 202. Maine, U. S. ship, 208. Major scale, the, 286-288. Mandolin, frets or touches of a 317. holding the, 317. plectrum of, 317. positions on the, 312, 313, 314, 320. self-taught, 317-321. strokes on the, 318. Mandolin, self-taught, 317-321. Manila, cable completed to, 212. surrendered, 210. Manila Bay, battle of, 209. Marconi, G., 424, 427. 428. Marquette, Father Jacques, 197. Marriage, 774. and divorce, 774. contracts for, 774. Married women, rights of, 775- Mars, the planet, 233-234. Maryland, 196, 197, 204. Massachusetts, 201. colony, 196, 197. governors of, 196. Matadore dominoes, 474-475. Mating-power in chess, 463. Maxwell, the, defined, 417. Measures, musical, 277, 279. Measures, weights and, 191. Megohm defined, the, 408. Mercury, the planet, 231-232. Merrimac, Confederate ship, 204. Merrimac, U. S. collier, 209. Merritt, Gen. Wesley, 210. Metaphor, in rhetoric, 26, 31. Meteor, German yacht, 212. Metol, in photography, 266. Metonymy, in rhetoric, 26, 31. Metre, musical quality of, 45. rules of, 43-44. Metre, the, 186, 187. Metres, English, 41-43, 45. Metric system, 186-190. Mexico, 203, 205, 207. Gulf of, 197. war with, 203. Michelangelo, 261. Michigan, 202. Microhm defined, the, 408. Mil defined, the, 408. Miles, Gen. N. A., 209. Mil-foot, the, 408. Mills Bill, 207. Milton, John, quoted, 41. Mining troubles, 207. Minnesota, 203. Minor scale, the, 288-289. Misdeals in euchre, 447. Mississippi, 195, 202, 203, 204. Mississippi River, 197, 200, 202, 205, 206. Missouri, 202. Compromise Bill, 203. Modal auxiliaries, German, 126- 131. Modeling, sculpture, 260-263. Modoc Indians, war with, 205. Money order, 790. Monitor, U. S. ship, 204. Monroe Doctrine, 205, ao8. Monroe, James, 198, 202. inauguration of, 202. Monterey, capture of, 203. Moon the, 232-233. Moore, Captain Jack, hanged. 205. Moorish architecture, 377. Mormons driven from Illinois, 203. Morse telegraph invented, 402. Mortgage, assignment of a, 790 chattel, 766, 786. of lands, 785. Motor, electric, the, 418-419, 420-442. Mumps and its treatment, 716. Munzio gambit, 466-467. Muscles, the, 251-254, 516. Muscular exercise, 516, 517. Music, 274-362. clefs in, 275. cornet, 337-343. dictionary of, 292-297. guitar, 322-329. intervals in, 275, 290-291. mandolin, 317-321. measure in, 277. notes in, 275. piano, 298-307. poetry and, 39, 44. rudiments of, 274-291. sight-reading in, 353-362. syncopation in, 280. terms in, 292-297. time in, 275, 279. violin, 308-316. violoncello, 330-336. vocal, 344-352. "Must," in French, 89. N Napoleon I of France, 200. Napoleon III founds Mexican empire, 205. Natural scale, the, 286. Naturalization laws, 779-780. Naturalized citizens, children of, 780. Navy, Secretary of, 214. Nebraska, 205. Neptune, the planet, 235-236. Nevada admitted to Union, 205. New England, 196. New Haven colony, 197. New Mexico, 195, 203. New Netherlands, 196. New Orleans, 201-202, 204, 207. Ne-v York, 203. City, 196, 200, 20 1. Nightmare, 519. Norman architecture, 379. North Carolina, 195, 201. Notes, promissory, 789. O Octave, meaning of word, 274. Odd trick in whist, the, 443. Oersted, the, defined, 417. Ohio admitted to Union, 200. Ohm defined, the, 406. Ohm's law of circuits, 405. Order-up in euchre, 445-446. Oregon, 195, 203. Osceola, Indian chief, 202. Ottava in music, 276. Otto gas engine, 398. Outdoor games, 546-568. Oysters, cooking of, 879-882. INDEX 907 Pacific Ocean, 194, 203. Painting, 256, 257, 258. Pallas, the asteroid, 234. Panama Canal Co., New, 211 Pan-American Fair, 210-211. Parables of Christ as allegoric* 26. Parallax of stars, 237. Parallel bars, 521-527. Parenthesis, the, uses of, 24. Paris, Treaty of (1783), 200. Parliamentary procedure, rules for, 733-745- Parties, 499-501, 507. Partner, forcing, in whist, 444 Partners in euchre, 449. Partnership, 776, 783. Pas., in euchre, 445-446 Patents, laws governing, 779. assignment of, 790. Patroon estates in N. Y., 203. Peking, siege of (1900), ai I. Penn, William, 197. Pennsylvania coal strike, 211. settled, 197. Pentameter verse, 39. Perfumes, when to use, 498. Perry, Com. O. H., 201, 203. Personification, a figure of rhet oric, 25, 31. Perspective, 246-249. Perspiration, function of, 516. Petition cf Right (1628), 219. Philadelphia, 197, 198, 199. 200, 205, Philippine Islands, 209, 210, 212-, Photographic camera, 246. Pnotography, 363-370. developing in, 365. diaphragms for, 364. formulas for, 366, 367, 369. instantaneous, 364. lenses for, 364. portraiture by, 369-370, printing in, 367-368. retouching in, 367. toning in, 368. utensils needed in, 363. Piano, exercises for, 302, 303, 304. 305, 306. fingering for, 300, 301-302, 307. keyboard of, 298, 299. octaves, playing on, 307. position at, 299. practice on, 300, 305. self-taught, 298-307. tone-production on, 300-301. touch on, 299-300. Pierce, Franklin, 203. Pimples and blotches, 694. Planet, meaning of word, 230. Plates, photographic, overex- posed, 366. Play-writing, 35. Plectrum of mandolin, 317. Pleonasm, in rhetoric, 25. Plutonic rocks, 238. Poetry, 25, 32, 39-47. elements of, 40-41. Hebrew, 39. Latin and Greek, 39. and music, 39, 44. uses of, 47. Point, vanishing, the, 347. Poker, draw, 449-453. Polarization, 413. Polish for brass, 266. for wood, 270. Polk, James K., 203. Polo, origin of, 546. rules for, 547-552. Portamento on mandolin, 321. Portato on cornet, 341. Porto Rico, 210. Portraits, photographic, 369-370 Positions, mandolin, 320-321. on the guitar, 323, 325. on violoncello, 331-335. Postmaster-General, 214. Potatoes brought to Ireland, 196 Potential, electric, 404. Poultry, 660-678. Practicing on the cornet, 342. on piano, rules, 305. on violin, 315. Prefixes, English, list of, 52-53 verbal, German, 124-125. Prepositional case, Spanish, 146- 147- prefixes, English, 14. President, French, 224-225. U. S. electing, 213-214. U. S., powers of, 214. President, U S. frigate, 201. Presidents, U. S., list of, 216. Printing, photographic, 367-368 Privy Council of England, 220 Progressive conjugation, Span ish, 163. Property, exemption, 777 Protestantism in England, 219. Punctuation, rules for, 24. Puns, reasons for avoiding, 496. Putnam, Gen. Israel, 198. Pyrogallic acid, 366. Pyrography, 271-373. Quantity in poetry, 40. Queen Anns architecture, 379. Queening a pawn in chess, 463. R Racquet, tennis, holding, 564. Raising in poker, 450. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 195. Ranks and files in chess, 462- 463- Real estate, 537, 781, 790. Redoubling in bridge, 455. Reducing, photographic, 367. Reichstag of Germany, 228, 229. Rent, security for, 788. Repetition, musical, 278, 283. Representative government, 219. Representatives, election of, 215. House of, 202, 215. Resistance, electrical, 405, 413. Resistivity, electrical, 408. Respiration, checking, 519. Retouching, photographic, 367. Revoke in bridge, 456. in euchre, 448. in whist, the, 439-440. Revolution, American, 198, aoo. Rhetoric, figures of, 25-26. outline of, 25-26, 27-38. Rhode Island, 197, 203. Rhyme in poetry, 41. Rhythm in poetry, 40-41. Richmond, Va., 204, 205. Riding, 497, 517, 534. Right hand in guitar, 323. Rights, Declaration of. igjjj. Ripple marks in rocks, 242. Recks, analysis of, 239-241. aqueous, 238. crystalline, 244. igneous, 243-244. metamorphic, 238. organic, 243. plutonic, 238. sedimentary, 241-242. stratified, 238, 239. varieties of, 238. volcanic, 239. Roman sculpture, 263. Romanesque architecture, 377. Rome, 192, 375-376- Roosevelt, T., 210, 211, 212. Root-words, English, 54-62. * Rubber in bridge, 454. Rubber tires, automobile, 432. Running as exercise, 520. Russia, 192. cholera brought from, ag St. Augustine, Fla., foundud 195- Salem witchcraft, 197. Salutations, etiquette of, 507* 508. Samoan Islands, 210. Sampson, W. T., admiral, 209, San Domingo, 205. San Salvador, Island of, 194. Sanscrit, vowels in, a. Santa Anna, Gen., 203. Santiago, naval battle of, 209. Saracenic architecture, 377. Saturn, the planet, 234-235. Scalds, treatment for, 718. Scale, musical, 274. chromatic, the, 275, 289. degrees of, 290-291. diatonic, the, 275, 302-303. major, 286-288. minor, 288-289. Scansion, poetical, rules of, #}, Scarlatina, 715. Schley, W. S., 206, 208, 209. Schuyler, Gen. Philip, 198. Science, value of, 245. Score in bridge, 454-455. in euchre, the, 446. in whist, the, 436, 440. Scotch gambit in chess, 467. Scotland, sovereigns of, 223. Scott, Gen. Winfield, 201, 203. Sculpture, antique in, the, 263. expressive power in, 261. Greek, 263. modeling, 260-263. modern, 263. portrait, 262, 263. Roman, 263. Sebastopol dominoes 477. Semitones, 274. Senate, French, 225-22?. United States, 214, 213 Sewell, Arthur, 208. Shake, musical, 282. Sherman, Gen. W. T., 205. Shifting on violoncello, 335. Shiloh, battle of, 204. Short whist, rules of, 444. Shuffling cards, 435, 439. Sight-reading, musical, 353-362, Simile, in rhetoric, 26, 31. Singing a natural act, 344-34$. articulation in, 348, 351. 90S INDEX Singing:, diaphragm in, the, 347- 348, 349- instruction in, need of, 350. octaves in, 352. rudiments of, 345-347. sight-reading for, 355-363. study of, 344-352. tone-production in, 347, 348, 349-350. Skin, diseases of, 700, 707. Slam in bridge, 454, 455. Slang, vulgarity of, 496. Slavery abolished, 204. discussions on, 202. introduced in America, 196. laws on, 203. prohibited in Constitution, 205. Sleep, amount of, required, 519. of children, 708. phenomena of, 518. Sleight-of-hand tricks, 438-493. Slide valves, 391-392. Slur, musical, 281. 327, 341. for cornet, 341. for guitar, 327. Smith, Capt. John, 196. Smith, Joseph, Mormon prophet, 203. Soils and their treatment, 600. analysis of, 602. Sonnet, the, defined, 47. South Carolina, 199, 202, 203. Spain, 193, 194, 195, 197, 308, 209, 210. Spanish accent, 141. adjectives, 154-156. alphabet, 139-140. apocope in, 154-155. conjugations, 162. consonants, 141. declension in, 153-154. double letters, 141. euphonic changes, 164-165. passive in, 158. personal pronouns, 147-149. prepositional case, 146-147. progressive conjugation, 163. verbs, 156-168. vocabulary, 141-146. Spiccato on violoncello, 335. Spondee, a poetical measure, 41. Staccato, musical, 281, 282, 315, 321. Staff, musical, 275. Stalemate in chess, 462. Stamp Act, the, 197, 198. Stanza, varieties of, 46-47. Stars, fixed, the, 237. States and Territories, 218. Steam engine, 381-394. angular advance on, 393. compression in a, 392-393. Corliss, 390. crosshead of, 390. cycle of a, 393. cylinder, 387. eccentrics of, 390-391. gas engine and, 396. history of, 381-384. horsepower of a, 394. indicator, 388-389. link motion, 390-391. Newcomen's 381-383. 387. parts of a, 389-391. piston, 387. slide valve, 390. Watt's, 383-384, 387. Stephenson link motion, 384. Stephenson, Robert, 384. Stevens, Alex. II., 204. Stevenson, Adlai E,, 210. Stopping on guitar, 333. on the mandolin, 318. oii the violin, 311. on the violoncello, 331. Storage batteries, electric, 431- 423. 433-434- Straddle in poker, 449. Stuyvesant, Peter, 197. Style, English, 27-33. Succession, Presidential, 214. Sun, the, description of, 231. Sunburn, 690; wash for, 704. Supreme Court, U. S., 215, 317. Swimming, 541. Syncopation, musical, 280. Synecdoche, in rhetoric, 26, 31. Syntax, English, i, 15-25. German, 125-131. of French verbs, 87-91. Table manners, 502-506, 508. Take-up in euchre, 445-446. Taylor, Gen. Zachary, 202, 203. "Tea Party," Boston, the, 198. Tea rolls, to make, 887. Teeth, care of the, 695. Teething, 710. Telegraphy, wireless, 424-428. Tennessee, 200. Texas admitted to Union, 203. Thermal unit, British, 385-386. Thirteenth Amendment, 205. Thumb in guitar playing, 323. Tiddle-a-wink dominoes, 477. Tie, musical, 280. Tones, on violin, 310. names of, 355-356. natural, 274-275. Tongueing-in, cornet, 341-343. Tongueing on cornet, 340-343. Toning, photographic, 368-3691. Tooth powder, 704. Tories, massacres by, 199. Torque denned, 420. Touch on piano, 299-300. Tourniquet, an improvised, 570. Treasury, Secretary of. 214. Treaty, Arbitration, 208. Hay-Pauncefote, an. of Washington, 205. Reciprocity, with foundland, 212. with Chili, 207. with China, 205. with Japan, 203. with Mexico, 203. with Spain (1898), aio. Tricks in bridge, 454, 455. in whist, the odd, 443. with cards, magic, 479-482. Tncopherous, recipe for, 704. Trochee, a poetical measure, 41. Tropes or rhetorical figures, 30. Tudor architecture, 379. Tuscan architecture, 376. Tyler, John, inaugurated, 202. U U, the French, 66, 67, 68. Umlaut, the, in German, too. Underclothing, the best, 519. United States, the, 203, 194-313. Constitution, 213, 315. United States, Government, 313- 218. Government depts., 314. history of, 194-313. President, electing, 313, 314. Presidents, list of, 316. settlement of, 195-197. _S tales and Territories, 218. Uranus, the planet, 235. "Usted," Spanish word, 148-149. Vaccination, 714. Van Buren, Martin, 202. Vanishing point, the, 247. Vaulting horse, 522, 527-529. Ventilation, need of good, 513. Venus, the planet, 232. Verbs, auxiliary, English,- 7. auxiliary, French, 83, 88 90. auxiliary, Spanish, 757-159, English, 3, 4. French, 81-93. German, 120-135. impersonal, English, 7, 15 impersonal, French, 89. irregular, French, 91-93. irregular, German, 131-135, irregular, Spanish, 165-167. pronominal, French, 88. pronominal, Spanish, 163. Spanish, 156-168, 161-168. Verse, elements of, 40-41. Vespucius, Americus, 194. Vesta, the asteroid, 234. Violin, self-taught, 308-316. Violoncello, self-taught, 330-336. Virginia, 200, 201, 205. governors of, 195, 196. Vocal music, 344-352. Volt defined, the, 406. W Wales, sovereigns of, list, 33jT~ War, Secretary of, 214. Washington, D. C., 206, 207, 211, 379- Washington, George, 186, 200. Wasp, United States sloop, 201. Water colors, 258. Watt defined, the, 407. Watt, James, 383-384, 387. Watt-hour defined, the, 407. Webster, Daniel, 203. Weights and measures, 191. Wendell, Prof. Barrett, 29, 30, West Virginia, 204. Whiskey poker. 453. Whist, game of, 435-445. Whooping cough, 712. Wills, 771, 778, 784. Williams, Roger, 197. Winthrop, John, 196. Wire gauges, 409. Wireless telegraphy, 424-428. Women, health of, 684-705. physical exercises for, 68$ 688. ^ Wood carving, 268-270. Wounds, treatment for, 569. Wrinkles, 691, 694-695. Yorktown, battle of, 200, 206. Zeugma, a figure of rhetoric, 25. Zodiacal light, the, 231, 336. THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW. Series 9482 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 000824135 8