THE GROCER'S COMPANION A X D MERCHANTS HAND-BOOK. CONTAINING A COMPREHENSIVE ACCOUNT OF THE GROWTH, MANUFACTURE AND QUALITIES OF EVERY ARTICLE SOLD BY GROCERS. ALSO, TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, AND INFORMATION OF A GENERAL NATURE OF VALUE TO GROCERS AND COUNTRY MERCHANTS. PRICE: $2.00. BOSTON : NEW ENGLAND GROCER OFFICE, 10 BROAD STREET. BENJAMIN JOHNSON, PUBLISHER. Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by BENJAMIN JOHNSON, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. IX TRODU CTIOX. IN presenting tliis volume to our readers and the Retail Grocery Trade of New England, our chief and indeed only object is to provide, in as concise and comprehensive form as possible, a truly- authentic and reliable history of the growth, culture, natural proper- tics, and preparation of the varied and numerous articles which are now incorporated in the "Grocery Trade," in order that the dealer and his assistants may not only be aided in an intelligent discrimination of the character and quality of the products daily brought under their notice, but give them a lively and constantly increasing interest in the trade, by adding to their store of practical scientific knowledge of the articles dealt in. This work comprises, within itself, all the uses of a Cyclopaedia, a Manual and a Hand-Book, all the necessary, well- ascertained and authenticated facts being condensed into the smallest space consistent with completeness and perspicuity. Desiring to ren- der its pages as interesting as possible, we have, in the treatment of the various sections, endeavored to steer clear of the ponderous argu- ment of the Treatise, the statistical monotony of the Cyclopaedia, and the meagre description of the Hand-Book so that it may prove to its possessor a multum in parvo, a handy and compact work of reference, which shall combine amusement, information and instruc- tion to every reader. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. ACID PHOSPHATES. The introduction of acid phosphates as a manufactured product into our commercial price-lists is of com- paratively recent date, though fhey long held a place in the Pharma- coeopia as a medicinal remedy. Its present existence as a popular food product, and as a powerful agent in building up and strengthen- ing the human system, is due to the scientific research and business enterprise of Prof. E. N. Horsford of Cambridge, Mass. The in- trinsic value of the preparation, and the extraordinary and uniformly beneficial results achieved by its use, have deservedly gained for it a permanent and firm place in the regular market quotations. Being comparatively unknown, as regards its chemical combinations, to the general public, a brief description of its composition, properties and , influence on the system may not be uninteresting. Phosphaiic salts, in one form or another, are always present in healthy animal organizations as phosphate of lime in the bones, phosphates of potassa and soda and iron in the cerebral, nervous and muscular systems, and as phosphoric acid in the < ellular structure of the stomach ; so that when there is an absence or deficiency of these phosphatic acids in the human body, sickness and disease inevitably results. In such a case, therefore, the individual can only be restored to health by the instant and constant supply of these phosphates in adequate and suitable proportion to the condition of the person. ADULTERATIONS. It has always been the fashion to blame the Retail Dealer for all the iniquities of adulteration, regardless of the fact that, in many cases, the grower, the merchant, or some one of the many intermediate parties having an interest in the product, are much more frequently the guilty parties. Adulteration is now 6 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. and has been extensively carried on in almost all departments of com- mercial and manufacturing produce. Even the articles used for adulterating purposes are themselves adulterated, and the evil has no limit. The retail grocer is never an advocate of adulteration, though by competition and prolonged rivalry he may be compelled unwillingly to sanction it. Manufacturers adulterate for the sake of profit, and are driven to it by the demand for cheap goods. A fair price is abso- lutely necessary to secure pure goods. But there is a great deal of the "wolf" about this cry of adulteration. Fifty per cent, of the supposed " adulterations " existing in the New England markets arc simply admixtures with inferior or damaged qualities, and disguised by manipulation. For instance, milk is generally found pure, though devoid of all cream ; the most popular brands of mustard are largely 44 adulterated " with farina, because it is too pungent for domestic use in its natural state. It cannot, however, be denied that a con- siderable amount of adulteration exists which is injurious to health, but as a rule it exists where it is least expected, and very rarely de- tected. Laws of a specially stringent character exist in many States of the Union ; but, unfortunately in most cases, the Retail Grocer, who is usually innocent and ignorant of the impurity, suffers the lo.-s both of money, custom and character. The chief articles of "gro- cery," subject to k ' adulteration " or "deterioration," may be enu- merated as follows : COFFEE. Owing to the present cheapness of pure coffee, there is but little bona fide adulteration. The presence of a coffee-mill in a grocer's store or household is a death-blow to the introduction ol' foreign substances, as by purchasing the roasted bean and grinding it themselves, nothing but pure coffee of some grade is obtained. More or less cheap mixtures are sold in package form, but it is uni- versally understood that they are mixtures, consisting of chicory, peas, rye, etc., and contain but a limited amount of coffee. There is no one article in the grocery warehouse so severely and success- fully manipulated as coffee. It commences from the time the berry is picked and prepared for the market, and continues until it reaches the consumer. The producer mixes the tail ends and leavings of the old crop with the new. The middle 'men or commission agents at the principal points where coffee is accumulated for shipment, manip- ulate it by changing packages and marks, polish it and color it by chemicals, and thus alter its color, marks and appearance, so as to make it sell more readily. On its arrival in this country, the coffee is turned out of its original packages, shovelled over, marks again changed, and bags turned inside out, the coffee sweated or artificially colored, as the trade may desire, or the necessity of removing the traces of damage require. Java skimmings are picked over by children, the black beans taken out, and the balance re-marked and sold as sound, though the taint remains beyond the power of human THE GROCERS COMPANION. 7 ingenuity to remove. An average of 6,000 mats of this coffee is bought monthly and distributed through the markets of the United States to the Retail Dealers as sound, first-class goods, liio coffee is polished by machinery, and colored in different shades the golden hue being imparted by turmeric and the light slate color by the use of soap-stone. TEA Is extensively adulterated in China by means of exhaust- ed tea leaves and the leaves of other trees, to the amount of many millions of pounds annually. China clay, fine sand, iron filings, etc., to the extent of from 20 to 40 per cent, are used, the tests for which are simple, and will be referred to under its proper head. BREAD. The chief adulterations are alum or sulphate of cop- per, to give solidity to the gluten of damaged or inferior flour ; chalk or carbonate of soda to correct the acidity of sour flour ; and boiled rice or potatoes to enable the bread to carry more water, and to swell its bulk. FLOUR And other farinaceous substances are sophisticated with phi.ster, potato starch, and similar cheap ingredients. BUTTER AND LAUD Are adulterated by the introduction of in- ferior fats and the addition of water, salt and starch. They are readily detected by inciting the butter and allowing it to stand, or by its peculiar feel, taste or odor. MUSTARD Is generally diluted with flour or other farinaceous matter, anil colored with turmeric to improve its appearance. The genuine material contains no starch, so that the addition of starchy matter may readily be detected by the iodine test. SPICES Generally arc largely adulterated. In so-called Ground Pepper*, gypsum, buckwheat husks, mustard husks and starch are frequently used, to the entire exclusion of the pepper. Ginger is adulterated with sago meal, turmeric and ground rice. In Cayenne Pi'jijmr, ferruginous earths, brick dust, vcrmillion and red lead are found. Exhausted tipices are commonly re-ground, for the purpose of adulteration. Other adulterations practiced to improve the appearance of the article may be thus briefly enumerated : The addition of alum and salts of copper to Bread the facing of IJ/ack Tun with Frankfort black and of Green Tea with indigo, Prussian blue, turmeric and China clay; the treatment of Pickles and Preserved Fruits with a. salt of copper, to make the color a bright green ; the addition of fer- ruginous earths to Sauces, Anchovies, Potted Meats and Prepara- tions of Cocoa ; the use of mineral pigments, such as green ai'senite of copper and chromatc of lead in Confectionery; the addition of sulphuric and other acids to Vinegar, etc. 8 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. i The minor adulterations are flour and terra alba to baking pow- ders ; starch and flour to chocolates ; gum arabic to licorice ; com- mon plaster to cream of tartar (sometimes as high as 60 per cent.) ; starch and farinaceous matters to indigo ; flour to powdered sugar ; syrups made from corn starch and sulphuric acid ; tapioca made from potatoes ; foreign leaves and paper mixed with tobacco ; liquors of all kinds " doctored" in numberless ways ; maple sugar made from muscovado ; nutmegs boiled and recoated ; artificial honey and jel- lies, etc., etc. ALCOHOL. Alcohol is obtained as a result of the fermenta- tion of sugar, whether in the starch of plants or vegetables, or from other substances ; it is also extracted by distillation from spirituous liquors. Alcohol is the essential element in all intoxicating drinks. Brandy and whisky contaiu about 50 per cent, of alcohol, Proof spirits from 5;> to GO per cent. It cannot be brought nearer purity than UO per cent., or a proportion of 10 per cent, of water. Pure or absolute alcohol is a colorless fluid, with a pungent, agreeable taste and fragrant odor. It is highly inflammable, and burns with a pale blue flame, without smoke. The action of alcohol on the system is that of a powerful and dangerous stimulant. If it is kept in large quantities in a store, it necessitates extra insurance. It cannot be sold without a United States license, which costs S25 per aunum for retailers and 200 for wholesale dealers The internal revenue tax is 90 cents per gallon. It is applied to various uses by manufac- turers, perfumers, and also for domestic purposes, and has a large retail demand in the New England States. ALDEX DRIED FRUIT. This term is applied to every kind of fruit which is capable of being dried, such as grapes, raisins, currants, etc., and has been submitted to the process known as the 'Alden Process of Evaporation." This process consists in extract- ing the water from the fruit, without impairing its flavor or freshness. The fruit is dried in a chamber constructed for this especial purpose, and the water extracted by means of hot air blasts. All kinds of fruits and vegetables are dried by this process, aud are now exten- sively sold in our markets, and command the h'ghest prices, from the exquisite delicacy and superiority of their flavor. The principal vegetables are also prepared in this manner, and a bushel of potatoes weighing GO pounds, when dessicattd by this process, is reduced in weight to 4i pounds. ALLSPICE-. Allspice is also known as Pimento and Jamaica Pepper, and is the dried fruit of a small West India tree called the Pimeuto, originally indigenous to the Carribee Islands, aud extensively cultivated in Jamaica and the East Indies. '1 he fruit is about the si/e of a small pea, and is gathered wheu green. It is called Allspice THE GROCER'S COMPANION 9 from its supposed resemblance in flavor to a mixture of cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves, and is rarely adulterated on account of its cheap- ness. The green berries are dried by spreading on a terrace exposed to the sun for about seven days, when they become a reddish brown. Their taste is warm, aromatic and slightly astringent. The berries are used as a spice in cooking, and as a carminative in medicine. The annual consumption in the United States averages about 20,000,000 pounds, of the value of $90,000, exclusive of duty. ALMONDS. Of these there are two kinds, sweet and bitter. The sweet almonds consist of three varieties the Jordan, Valencia and Brittle-shelled ; the first-named being the most highly esteemed. The Jordan almond is imported from Malaga, and is longer, narrow- er, more pointed, and more highly prized than those imported from Valencia. The tree from which almonds are obtained is a native of Barbara, and is cultivated throughout Southern Europe, Syria, Persia, and Northern Africa, though the chief supply is from Spain and the South of France. The kernels of the sweet almond are used, both in the green and ripe state, as an article of dessert, and are extensively employed in confectionery, cooking, perfumes, and for medicinal purposes. When young and green, they are preserved in sugar, like green apricots. They also furnish the almond oil of com- merce, which is used for the same purposes as olive oil. The Bitter almond is a most active poison, and destructive of animal life, from the large quantity of hydrocyanic or Prussic acid which it contains. Hence the great danger which arises from its use, and the great cau- tion necessary, when it is employed (as it is occasionally) in flavoring confectionery. The consumption of sweet almonds in the United States reaches $500,000 in value per annum. ALUML Alum is a mineral, of a tonic and astringent charac- ter, and is used, commercially, not only in its crude state, but also in various preparations, as an article of domestic consumption, and is commonly known as the sulphate of ammonia, in which form it is kept in almost every grocer's warehouse, and eagerly sought for by the public. It is frequently used by bakers to whiten their bread. There is a large quantity of alum present in many of the cheaper classes of baking powders ; consequently, the incomplete neutralization of this astringent, by the other elements, is productive of considera- ble annoyance and injury, It is very useful in the preparation of skins, and in 'fixing the color in colored prints, etc., and therefore invaluable in the laundry, hide dressing, and other preservative processes. But in all matters relating to articles of food, or food preparation, its use should be controlled by the greatest skill and dis- crimination. 10 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. AM MOM A. Ammonia is a chemical compound in the form of a transparent, colorless, and extremely pungent gas. It is chiefly- derived from a crystalline substance, originally obtained from the distillation of bituminous coal in making gas, and also from refuse animal matter. The ammonia of commerce is sold both in the crystal and liquid form, and is used for cleansing woollen and other fabrics, metals, etc., and also as a disinfectant. It combines with acids to form salts. A solution of this gas in water is used in medi- cine, under the name of hartshorn. Smelling' salts is the carbonate of ammonia, Ammonia, in combination with sulphuric acid, forms a white salt, and is sold in drug stores as sulphate of ammonia. There is also another form, obtainable at most retail grocery stores, called "water of ammonia," extensively used for laundry purposes, to take stains out of linen. ANCHOYIES. The anchovy is a small fish of the herring family, about six inches long, somewhat thicker than a sardine, and found in the Mediterranean Sea, on the Atlantic shores of Europe, and also ou the Atlantic and Pacific coasts in the United States. The true anchovy 1 may be distinguished by its round bark, though sardines are frequently sold as anchovies, from their comparative cheapness. When intended for exportation, they are salted and packed in small barrels. This fish is largely employed in the manu- facture of pastes and sauces, and is quite a favorite relish at United States breakfast tables. Anchovies should always be chosen small, fresh pickled, and the color white on the outside and red in. ANISE-SEED. Anise-seed is the fruit of pimpinella "/>i.or, time and attention necessary to carry out such a system will more than eat up all the profits. Besides, barter leads to a competition in buying which is far worse than all the cutting to which the local tradesman is subject in his ordinary business ; for the buyer who competes on produce, does not know the price at which the goods will sell in the city, and often finds he cannot realize his outlay after 16 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. all the charges are paid. No dealer can do two transactions for one profit ; hut few are capable of managing a double business, and. when goods are sold below their value or bought above it, it is well to let others control the market. The only principle which the retail deal- er can thrive on is, cash in buying and selling, as tar as practicable; credit, with great caution ; barter only in rare and exceptional cases. BEANS. These are the leading vegetables in our market gar- dens, and are extensively cultivated throughout the country, being universally used as food, both in the green and ripe state. In the green state, they are known as string beans, and the pod and seed are both eaten. The Lima and Wax beau are deservedly popular species, and are favorites at all tables. When ripe, they are shelled, and are then known as dry beans, in which condition they can be kept for an indefinite period. Lima and string beans are canned in large quantities, and the former, after drying, are often soaked in water, and sold in that state in our winter markets as fresh beans. In the early spring, string beans are largely shipped from the South to the Northern markets, where they find a ready sale. In the dry state, beans form an important article in the produce markets. The White Marrowfat is the variety generally cultivated to sell in a dry state. Besides the bush bean we have the pole bean, which grows 'to the height of ten feet, and requires training. The Lima is, how- ever, the best known, and was originally brought from India. The descriptions enjoying the "run" of the market are the Northern Pea Bean, Yellow-eyes, Red Kidneys and German Beans, of each of which there are two or three grades of qualities. BEESWAX. Beeswax is the material secreted by the bees, and of which their cells are manufactured. The wax, separated from the honey, is a valuable article of commerce. The honey being separated from the comb by pressure, or by means of a mechanical contrivance called the honey extractor, the residual wax is heated with water and stirred until it melts. It is then strained through a hair sieve into a vessel of cold water, where it solidifies into a thick yellowish cake. It is rendered white by the action of the sun and moisture. Purified beeswax is tasteless, colorless and odorless, in- soluble in water, and enters largely into the manufacture of candles and tapers, besides being used for domestic purposes, and by artists for modelling, etc. It is frequently adulterated with parafline and spermaceti. - BEET. This is one of our most extensively cultivated vegeta- bles, and is used for food by both man and beast. It is large, and extremely rich in sugar. In France and Germany, large quantities of sugar are manufactured from it. and known as Beet Root Sugar. The beet sugar manufacture is also rapidly increasing in America. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 17 Beet root sugar is similar to that obtained from the sugar cane, but is inferior in its sweetening power. The boiled roots are a common article of diet in all civilized countries ; and the young leaves (especially those of the white beet), are boiled and eaten in the same manner as greens or spinach. BENZINE. Benzine is a volatile oil prepared from petroleum, used for the removal of grease spots from AVOOC! and woollen cloth, and as a cleansing agent on type and other metallic surfaces^ It removes the stain by dissolving the grease or fat'y substances. It will also dissolve caoutchoue, gutta-percha, wax, camphor, etc. It is very inflammable, and any grocer keeping more than five gal- lons upon the premises must effect a special insurance. BIRD FOOD, ETC. There are a large number of articles included under this term, which should be found in every grocery store calculated to supply local wants, especially in country towns and rural districts, at a distance from cities. It comprises Smyrna and Sicily Canary Seed, Russian Hemp Seed, English and German Rape Seed, Unhulled Rice or Paddy, Millet, Maw Seed, Cuttle Fish Bone, Washed Silver Gravel, Mocking-bird Food, Clover Seed, Kurd Grass, Orchard Grass, Blue Grass, Red Top Seed, Flax Seed, Yel- low Mustard Seed, Hungarian Seed, and Excelsior Bird Food, the prices and the names of dealers in which may be found in the weekly Price Lists ot the NEW ENGLAND GROCER. The more important of these articles will be described in their alphabetical order. BLACKBERRY. This well-known fruit is sold in large quantities in the early summer markets. It is made into jelly and jam, and from it is made Blackberry cordial, a pleasant astringent wine, used in bowel complaints, and for invalids. There are a great many varieties, all natives of the United States. The common black- berry grows abundantly in all parts of the United States, along the borders of fields and in woods. In some of the Southern Stages, large quantities of the berries are dried and sent to market. They are also canned to some extent, but the fruit is rather insipid. The fruit of the blackberry is not a true berry, but a collection of drupes or stone fruits on a fleshy basis. It grows on a bushy bramble all through woods and fields, and is much improved by cultivation. DEWBERRY Is a fruit of the same species, but rather smaller, rounder and more juicy. It grows on a low, creeping bramble, and ripens several weeks before the blackberry. BLACKBERRY BRANDY Is the boiled juice of the fruit, with sufficient brandy in it to prevent fermentation. It is much used in all summer complaints. BLACKING. A preparation used for the blacking of boots, 18 THE GROCER'S COMPANION, shoes, etc. The principal ingredients are bone black, sweet oil, vin- egar or sour beer, sugar or molasses, and a little sulphuric acid. There is also a higher grade of blacking, in which wax is used instead of molasses, which produces a softer and more durable polish, and excludes moisture better than the ordinary blacking. Blacking is sold both in the paste and liquid form. Many varieties are in use, and differ in the proportion of the various ingredients used. Any blacking which will retain its oily consistence of a paste wheu ex- posed to the air, is superior to that which dries and becomes harsh. An excess of blacking is injurious to the leather on account of the acid present. For the production of a polish, a fine, soft brush is necessary, as a coarse one will scratch the polish. The last few years, a superior description of shoe polish (of which there are many manufactures), is sold in ornamental glass bottles by every shoe store and grocery store in the country. BLUEING. An article used in washing clothes to avoid their yellowish tint, and give them a whiter color. Indigo is the original form, but Prussian blue dissolved in water by means of oxalic acid is generally used in the manufacture of liquid blue. Spanish Float Indigo is a high grade of indigo in lumps. Blueing is sold in many forms, especially since the introduction of the aniline dyes, which are largely used for the same purpose. Liquid blue is very apt to freeze, and should therefore be kept in a warm place to prevent the bursting of the bottles. It is sometimes prepared from the acid solution of indigo, and neutralized by the addition of carbonate of soda. It is sold in both liquid and paste forms, as well as in the powder. BOLOGNA SAUSAGE. An article of food which takes its name from the town of Bologna, in Italy, where it was first pro- duced. It is properly made from bacon, veal and pork suet, chopped very fine and packed into a skin. The common imitations, made and sold so extensively in this country, are without the slightest sus- picion of veal, and consist mainly of tough and unsaleable beef taken from cattle too thin to cut up for market. BONDS OF SURETY. Business, in these days, cannot possibly be done too cautiously. Every retail tradesman should therefore require from his clerks and cashiers, book-keepers and managers, bonds of surety ; by which means many difficulties would be avoided. [For Business Forms, see Appendix.] BORAX. This is a combination of boracic acid and soda, and was formerly found abundantly on the shores of lakes in Thibet, Persia and India ; in South America, and on the lakes on the Pacific coast. Of late years, however, the large deposits in South-eastern California and Nevada are the chief sources of our supply. Borax THE GROCERS COMPANION. 19 Is a white salt, of a sweetish alkaline taste. The important practi- cal uses to which borax is put are almost innumerable. It is used iu soldering, as it dissolves any oxide that may be on the surface of iron or other metal, thus presenting a clean surface which enables the solder to take effect ; it is used as a substitute for. and in the manu- facture of, soap ; it replaces washing soda in the kitchen ; is used as a preservative agent for butter and other food products ; is the chief element in shampooing liquids for cleansing the hair ; is a powerful ingredient in many medical preparations, and is destructive to moth?. ants, cockroaches and other vermin. BORAX SOAP Is a manufacture the main element in which is borax, and is the oldest and best known of our medicated soaps. There are, of course, many imitations, some of which are merely white soaps, with only just sufficient borax to justify the title. BRANDY. A liquor obtained by distilling the fermented juice of the grape. In Europe, very little brandy is made from the pure grape, most of it being distilled from various wines. In the United States, it is distilled from t*hc fermented juice of other fruits, such as the pear, apple, cherry and peach ; and also from rectified whisky made from Indian corn, flavored by the addition of acetic ether, oil of cognac, tannin and burnt sugar (to give it a color). Large quan- tities of inferior whisky are exported to France from this country, and returned, after manipulation, to our ports as a sort of fictitious foreign brandy. In France, rum, beet-root spirits, and spirits from potatoes, are largely used in its manufacture. Brandies are distin- guished as pale and dark. When first distilled, the liquor is color- less, the pale amber tint it acquires being derived from the wood of the cask in which it is kept. New brandies are made to resemble old brandy by the addition of burnt sugar or other coloring matter. The best brandies are those obtained from the regions of Cognac and Armagnac, districts of France ; but a large proportion of those brands sold under that name are mere imitations. BRAWN. A preparation of meat made from the head and belly-piece of a young pig, with the addition of ox-feet to make it gelatinous. It has long been a well-known dish in England, and has come into this country as a new article in canned meats. BRAZIL NUTS. These grow on large trees in Brazil and Guiana ; a number of them laid over each other in a regular manner in a large seed vessel (shaped like two bowls closed together) as large as a man's head, and so hard that a blow from a sledge ham- mer is required to break it. The seeds (or nuts as they are called) , are wrinkled and of triangular shape, with a hard shell and pure white kernel, of agreeable taste. They yield a large quantity of oil, which is used in South America for illuminating purposes. They are 20 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. also called Cream nuts and Para nuts. The annual consumption in the United States amounts to about 3,000,000 pounds. BREAD. Bread made from wheaten flour forms the chief article of food throughout the civilised world. There is also /'// bread, made from rye flour, which is darker and coarser than wheaten bread, and used principally by the German population ; Corn breml , chiefly used in the Southern States, and eaten by the negroes in the form of hoe cake, etc. ; Oraham bread or Brown bread, which in Kugland and this country is made from unbolted wheat flour, or bran and flour mixed, is considered very healthy ; and New Enyland or Jioxton Brown Bread, made from a mixture of crushed rye, mo- lasses and other ingredients, forming a coarse, dark brown bread. Alum is sometimes added to flour, in the making of white bread. to increase its weight, as the alum retains a large proportion of water ; a mixture of potato starch and boiled rice is sometimes ad- ded for the same purpose. Alum may be detected in bread by dipping a piece in a weak solution of logwood, when a claret color will be produced if alum is present. BRETZEL. A hard, brittle roll of bread} frequently mis- spelt Pretzel, twisted into the shape of the letter B, and commonly used by Germans in this country and in Germany, who eat it with their beer. BRICK TEA.- A term applied to tea shaped, by heavy pres- sure, into cakes, divided by indented lines into small squares, Avhich are easily separated, and which expand when immersed in boiling water. It is claimed that tea in this form is compact, specially adapted for shipping and handling, and preserves its aroma more effectually. It has only recently been introduced into this country, but is not looked upon favorably, because of the readiness with which it could be adulterated, and the difficulty of detection. BROMA. A nutritious, agreeable and favorite preparation for the breakfast table, made from the cocoa beans. Its chief feature is in the preservation of the aroma and soothing qualities of the cocoa bean, Avithout the excess of fatty deposit found in some of the prepa- rations of cocoa. BROOMS. These useful domestic utensils are made of various materials ; but most commonly of broom-corn straw, a species of sorghum, introduced from Africa. The seeds arc combed out by machinery, and the handles vary from the cheapest to the most ex- pensive woods. For their quality, the brooms depend not alone upon their material, but on the way in which they arj put together. They should be securely fastened and wrapped with from two to six ties of twine or wire the more the better. The corn should be clean and THE GROCER'S COMPAXIOX. 21 tough. A broom has been recently patented, which lias a detached handle, affording great facility fur packing and shipping. There are also patent frames or ?>room racks, for the convenience of retail dealers in displaying the brooms in their store.- a great improvement on the old-fashioned method of stacking them in old flour barrels. BRUSHES. Brushes for domestic use are made from coarse hair, hogs' bristles, strips of whalebone or .short wire, and fastened to a handle, either in one bunch or in separate tufts. The smallest brushes (and pencils) are made from the hair of the camel, badger, squirrel, goat, etc. Hogs' bristles are, however, the principal ma- terial used ; the white and better kinds being employed for hair, tooth, clother; and hat brushes, and also for the better class of paiut brushes. The bristles are first selected according to color, and then arranged as to size, by passing them through combs of various widths. The paint brush, which is the simplest form of brush, is made by insert- ing full-length bristles between two projecting prongs in the handle, and securing them by a wrapping of twine, which is afterwards pro- tected by a coating of glue and red lead. Hair brooms and dusters are made by inserting tufts of bristles into a stock or head previously drilled with holes for their reception, the bores being triangular in shape. The root ends of the hair tufts arc dipped into melted pitch, then bound with thread, and again dipped, and then inserted in their respective holes with a screw-like motion. This description of brush is usually made with full-length bristles ; but where stiffness and strength is required, as in shoe, scrubbing and similar brushes, the tuft of bristles is doubled, so as to present both ends outward, and are then cut off square and even. The holes are drilled through a pattern board to insure uniformity. The tufts are fastened in their places by a loop of brass wire. The drawing wires are then covered Avith veneering, to strengthen and improve the appearance of the brush ; and when it has been finished off, sand-papered and varnished, the article is ready for sale. Brushes are also made by machinery. Woodlmry's brush-making machine will make an ordinary scrub- brush in one minute ; and as in these the holes do not pass through the wood, no back is required. BUCKWHEAT. This cereal is an annual plant, with a pur- ple stern from two to four feet hi'jh. It was first grown in Asia, and afterwards introduced into Spain by the Moors, but is now largely cultivated in the temperate regions of Europe and America. The plant is comparatively hardy, grows well on poor soil, and matures rapidly. It is sometimes raised for ploughing under as a manure, and for its flowers as a bee pasture, though the honey is inferior ; but its principal use is in producing flour from the seeds from which, in Germany and Poland, a popular gruel is made ; and in the pro- vincial parts of France, it is made into a dark bread and 22 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. The grain is of a triangular shape, and produces a dark flour of rather rank and bitter taste, which in this country and England is used in the manufacture of breakfast cakes or buckwheat cakes, as they are commonly called. It forms an extremely nutritious diet for winter consumption, but if used to excess, is apt to cause eruptions on the skin. The demand springs up very quickly with the first frosts of winter, and ends with the approach of warm weather in the spring. It is mixed with middlings to diminish the strong taste of the buckwheat, to make the dough lighter and sweeter, and to make the cakes brown more readily on the griddle. BUSHEL. A measure containing four pecks, or thirty-two quarts. The legal bushel of the United States contains 2150 42-100 cubic inches of distilled water, weighing about 77 pounds. The legal measure of various articles of merchandise is determined by weight. [See Tables of Weights and Measures.] BUTTER Was used by the Hebrews as a food in the Biblical times; but by the early Greeks and Romans only as an ointment; aad even at the present day, it is rarely used in the countries along the Mediterranean, being sold chiefly by the apothecaries. The fac- tory system of cheese-making and its immediate outgrowth, the creamery system of butter-making have very greatly improved the quality of the butter made in the United States. It is a very sensi- tive article, and absorbs any odor or flavor with which it comes in contact, and must, therefore, be kept in a cool, dry chamber, where it will be free from all such damage. The taste and smell of rancid butter is due to the butyric acid which forms as it grows older. As will be seen in the weekly Price Lists of the NEW ENGLAND GROCER. the lump butter leads the market, and always commands a good sah;, after which creamery, dairy, factory, dairy packed, and baker's but- ter (as it is called), take their places in public estimation, in the order we have named. There is no article of more vital importance to the retail grocer than good butter ; but the great difficulty is in maintain- ing a standard grade in home-made, as it is only in the factory-made article that perfect uniformity can be ensured. Butter is the fatty substance extracted from milk ; the milk used in this country being solely that of the cow. The composition of the milk and cream, and consequently the quality and flavor of the butter, depends upon and varies with the breed, age and feed of the cow all of which circum- stances must be taken into consideration in the making of butter. When milk is allowed to stand, the globules of fat rise to the surface and form a layer of cream. The component parts of cream may be thus tabulated : Butter, 33.43 parts in 100; caseine, 2.62; sugar, 1.56; salts, 0.72; water, 61.67. To procure the cream for the manufacture of butter, the milk is placed in a cellar, the temperature of which is from 55 to 60 Fr. The cream having risen (the opera- THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 23 tion taking from twenty-five to thirty-six hours) , it is skimmed off and put into a stone jar until sufficient is accumulated to perform the process of churning. Special care should be taken not to keep the cream too long, as it impairs the quality of the butter and gives it a cheesy taste. The process of churning consists in the violent agita- tion of the cream by the action of a dasher, which causes the fat globules to unite, and finally to entirely separate from the watery residue, which is called butter-milk. No other form of churn has yet been invented superior to the old-fashioned dasher-churn. Tlie operation of churning occupies from forty-five minutes to one hour. If the butter comes sooner, it is apt to be frothy ; and if much longer, it acquires a very disagreeable flavor. The butter is then washed in cold water, thoroughly worked or kneaded to expel the water, and made into rolls or moulded into prints, when required for immediate use. If it is to be kept for some time, it is packed in stone jars or wooden firkins (the latter being preferable for shipping) , and containing 56 or 100 pounds of butter in each vessel. About one ounce of salt (the purest made, either Ashton or Syracuse, made expressly for dairy use) , should be \ised to every pound so packed ; sugar and saltpetre are added to increase its keeping qualities. The leading butter factories adopt the following rule: For every 22 pounds of butter, 1G ounces of salt, one teaspoonful of saltpetre, and a tablespoonful of the best powdered white sugar. Butter mado from the milk of cows fed on rich pasture is of a deep yellow color ; consequently poor and inferior butters are frequently colored with annatto, tumcric or carrot juice. The average quality of manu- factured butter contains 83 per cent, of pure fatty matter, 1'2 per cent, water, 3i per cent, common salt, 1-60 per cent, sugar of milk, and 1-40 per cent, of caseine and albumen. The ordinary way of adulterating butter is by adding a large quantity of salt, so that it may absorb an excessive amount of water, aud also increase the weight. ARTIFICIAL BUTTER Or oleomargarine, will be considered in its proper place. BUTTERNUT. This article of dessert is the fruit of the jwjluus cinerea, a beautiful tree of from twenty to thirty feet in height. The fruit is oblong and clammy. The nut is thickly furrowed and sharply ridged, and about two inches in length. The kernel is sweet and pleasant, but from its abundance of oil, soon becomes rancid unless \vell dried. The half green fruit, gathered in June, and with its down removed, is used for making pickles. CABBAGE. This descriptive name includes a large number of vegetables, differing not only in appearace but in quality, such as Cauliflower, Kale, Brocoli, Bruncls, Sprouts, etc. Of the common cabbage, there are numerous varieties differing but slightly, and 21 TILE CROCK 1C S COMPANIOK. generally grouped iu two classes, viz., the <;'f late advanced considerably in popular favor. It makes a clear candle, resembling wax, and gives a very good, pleasant light. A little stearine is usually mixed with it, as the pure paraffine is apt to droop or bend when warm. Spermaceti candles are made from sper- maceti, which is formed in the cavities of the head of the sperm whale, and are the best candles in common use. \Vax candles are much more expensive, but not much better than other grades of can- dies. They are difficult to mould, on account of the wax adhering to the inside of the moulds ; they are consequently made by dipping, and by pouring the wax over the wicks, until a sufficient thickness is ob- 26 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. tained, and then forming the candle by rolling between marble or hard wood slabs. They are also sometimes formed by drawing them through a machine constructed for the purpose, in the same way as wire is drawn. It has, however, recently been found that wax can- dles may be successfully moulded by the use of glass moulds, Avhich, when the candles are to be withdrawn, are dipped for a moment in warm water, which causes the glass to expand sufficiently to loosen the candles and allow of their being readily extracted. The charac- ter of the wick is of great importance in the manufacture of candles, and much care is needed to adjust the size of the wick to the weight of the candle, and to determine the character of wick which shall give the best results with each variety of candle made. An impor- tant discovery has recently been made by De Milly, that by soaking the wicks in a weak solution of boracic acid, the formation of a mush- room of unconsumed wick might be entirely prevented. The wicks are soaked for two or three hours in a bath, holding in solution one and a half per cent, of boracic acid, and one and a half per cent, of am- moniac sulphate, after which the wick is dried and singed in a lamp flame, to remove the little filaments of adhering cotton. This discov- ery has been of great importance to the candle-making industry, in- creasing, as it does to an immense amount, the value of the candles and the extent to which they are used. Hotel candles are merely the ordinary tallow candles, of about half the usual size. CANNED GOODS. The preservation of fruits, vegetables, fish and meats, by hermetically sealing them in cans, is by no means a new process ; but the developments and improvements which have transformed that process into a vast and vitally important industry, is comparatively recent. During the Mexican war, it received its first impetus as a bona fide business in the United States, and during the Rebellion it expanded into a leading industry. To-day the list of articles preserved by canning are almost countless, and includes fish, meat, poultry, chowders, plum puddings, sauces, and fruits and veg- etables of all kinds. Custom has done away with most of the preju- dice arising from fear of poisoning, but there is great room for care in the canning of acid fruits or vegetables. Some goods are now packed in tin cans coated with paraffine wax, and the custom of soldering on the outside only is now very general. Most articles, when properly canned, are kept in as good a condition as when fresh, and in the case of lobster and crab meat, the advantage is very marked on the side of the canned article, as the lobsters and crabs which are carried to the cities and crawl around in the sun for hours, are generally half-dead before they reach the consumer ; and, as Paddy says " they have to be killed to save their lives!" while the tinned meat, being prepared in the neighborhood of where they are caught, is firm, fresh and in full flavor. The immense consump- THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 27 tion of canned salmon all over the world shows how well fish can be packed. Domestic canning has become an indispensable part of house- hold economy ; but the canning for market has now grown to> be so absolutely essential to the existence of the Produce, Pro- vision and Grocery sections of American commerce, that without it r her trade in these productions, both for export and home consump- tion, would be speedily annihilated. In canning for market, the division of labor is so nicely adjusted, and the employment of ma- chinery so extensive and complete, that the cost of the products and the time and labor expended, is brought to its lowest minimum.. These factories generally put up a large variety of the legion of arti- cles destined to undergo the canning process, so that operations can be carried on from years' end to years' end. In the prosecution of the process, the entire exclusion of air from the cans is the chief object, and all operations tend to that end. Of course a very large number of people are employed, and every operation has to be con- ducted with the utmost rapidity. A brief description of the process in the canning of fruit and sweet corn may prove interesting to our readers : In many of the peach canning factories for instance, the fruit is piled on the upper floor, thrown into hoppers, and conducted to tables on the lower floor, the cans being filled by placing them under the hopper and pressing the fruit in with the fingers. The cans are then passed to another table, where syrup about one pound of sugar to a gallon of water is filled in, and time given to allow the air between the peaches to escape. The cans are then cleaned from the syrup spilt on the sides and passed to the tinmen, who put on the circular covers, rapidly soldering them down. Each can has a small hole on the top to allow the air to escape, and after the cover is oa this hole is soldered up. The cans are then placed in a rack and lowered into a tank of water, which can be heated by steam. As the temperature increases, the imperfect cans are detected by the escape of air, and are taken out. The water is then raised to a boiling point, which is continued for half an hour, more or less, according t*> the size and kind of the peaches. After being boiled, the cans are allowed to cool slightly, and are then vented by opening the prick- hole in the cap, which allows the steam to escape ; and immediately closing it again, when the cans have cooled. If all right, the head will snap in by a slight pressure, showing that there is a good vacuum. The cans are then placed in the store-room, and labels put on them when sold. In canning tomatoes they are first slightly scalded, so as to remove the skin, and when peeled are thrown into pans to allow some of the watery portion to drain off. They are then packed in cans, and a little syrup added, made of water, sugar and salt, and are subsequently sealed, tested and boiled as before described. 28 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. The canning of corn is more difficult, though similar in opera- tion. The corn is boiled, cut from the cob, put into cans, and the spaces being filled with a little syrup of sugar and salt, the can is soldered tight. The cans are then boiled in a solution of chloride of calcium or refuse from salt-works. This solution has a much higher boiling point than water. After being boiled for several hours, the cans are taken out and vented, again soldered up and returned to the bath for another boiling of several hours' duration, when they are taken out and the process is complete. Canned soups are put up by many of the most prominent packers. The canning of shrimps is a very delicate process, but it has been brought to perfection. The New England dish of baked beans is now very extensively canned. Brawn [see article thereon] , has been quite generally introduced to the trade, and meets with considerable sale to saloon-keepers. The multitude of packers, and the great variation in the quality of goods packed, have caused a very general demand for a guarantee of one year on all canned goods. The subject has been persistently agitated in the NEW ENGLAND GROCER and the grocery press gen- erally, and the leading packers of the country have agreed to guaran- tee their goods. Defective canned goods are known as SWELLS which, on account of their growing frequency of oc- currence, are becoming of grave importance to those who handle canned goods, and we would warn grocers when they are making purchases not to omit to demand guarantees against the goods be- coming unsound. The "Swells" are usually caused by imperfect cook- ing of the fruit in packing, so that the oxygen is not entirely expel- led. Sometimes, also, they are caused by an almost imperceptible leak in the can which admits the oxygen. Whenever the grocer finds fi "Swell" among his cans, he should take it for granted that it is unsound, and return it at once to the wholesale dealer without open- ing, who, in his turn, can demand a rebate from the packer. The chief items in Canned goods, now having the "run of the markets," comprise : Corned Beef, Ox-Tongues, Potted Tongue, Pot- ted Beef, Lunch Tongues, Turkey and Tongue, Boneless Turkey. Boneless Chicken, Roast Beef, Boiled Beef, Ox-Tail Soup, Chicken Soup, Ham, English Brawn, Green Turtle Soup, Pigs' Feet. Tender- loin, Potted Ox-Tongue, Potted Ham, Tripe, Kidney Soup, Minced Collops, Minced Steak, Clipped Dried Beef, Mock Turtle Soup, Im- proved Smoked Dried Beef (Boston brand), Rolled Ox-Tongue, Blue Cross Pickles, Queen Olives, Baby Olives, Potted Turkey, Potted Chicken ; Walnut, Tomato and Mushroom Ketchups ; Capers in three grades ; Apples, Apricots, Asparagus, Blueberries. Blackberries ; Beans Lima, String, Champion and Baker ; Sweet Corn, Cherries, THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 20 Clams, Lobster, Crab, Mackerel, Oysters, Plums ; Peas Marrows, Early June and Sifted ; Pears, Peaches, Pineapples, Quince, Succo- tash, Salmon, Tomatoes, Raspberries, Strawberries, Sardines, Pump- kins, Squash, Standard and Extra Yellow Peaches, Standard Bart- lett Pears, Dessert Fruits (assorted), and Horse Radish Flour. CAPERS Are flower-buds of the Caper bush which grows in countries along the Mediterrean Sea. They arc put up as pickles, the smaller and better ones being packed in bottles, and the coarser ones in casks, and ai*e extensively used as ingredients of sauces for boiled meats. The buds of one or two plants are sometimes substi- tuted for capers. Copper is sometimes added to improve their color, although it renders them poisonous. Its presence may be detected by inserting a polished iron rod, the surface of the rod becoming coated with copper if it is present. CARAMELS. A species of chocolate candy, which is soft when fresh, but soon hardens. They are very nicely put up for the- trade in tin boxes. CARAWAY SEEDS. The seeds of the Caraway plant are cultivated in Europe and America. They are highly aromatic, used as flavoring in cooking and confectionery, and are employed in the preparation of perfumes, scented soups and liquors. CARBOLIC ACID. This is a sold substance obtained from the products of Coal Tar by distillation. It is a powerful disin- fecting agent, and, in its pure state, its use is entirely confined to the use or authorization of the medical faculty, being employed by them in various ways as a remedial agency. Mixed with other substan- ces so that it may not be improperly used, it has beome, under the title of Impure Carbolic Acid, one of the most effective and indis- pensable purifiers in the domestic circle. It can only be used exter- nally, in the dressing of wounds, in the dispersion and correction of noxious efliuvia, or in arresting the process of decomposition in de- composing vegetable and animal matter. Various preparations of this disinfectant are, or should be, found in all the grocery establish- ments of our towns and cities. CARROTS. The common Carrot is a biennial plant, a native of the East, but now naturalized in this country. It is cultivated for its root, which is used in soups and stews, and also boiled and eaten as a vegetable. The juice is sometimes emqloyed on the farm to give color to butter. A French variety of carrot, quite small, is put up in cans and jars, and, to some extent, imported into this coun- try. Carrots are also raised as food for animals. CASAVA OR MANDIOC. [Sec Tapioca.] 30 THE GROCE1CS COMPANION. CASSIA BARK Sometimes called China cinnamon, is a tree growing from forty to fifty feet high, and cultivated in China and other Eastern countries, as well as in Brazil. The China cassia is the best of all the cassias. The bark is very similar to cinnamon, both in appearance and quality, but is thicker, coarser, and less sweet *md delicate in flavor. As it is cheaper than cinnamon, it is largely used in its place, and also to adulterate the true article. Cassia bnrk is further distinguished from cinnamon by being more brittle and of less fibrous texture ; it is not so pungent, and has more of a mucilagi- nous or gelatinous quality. CASSIA BUDS Are the dried flower-buds of the same trees which yield Cassia bark. In appearance they resemble cloves, the flavor being similar to that of the bark. The best come from China, and are rounder. The annual importation of cassia to the United States exceeds 1,750,000 pounds. CASTOR-OIL. Oleum ricini, is a fixed oil obtained from the Castor-oil plant. It is a native of Asia, but has become naturalized in most of the warmer parts of the earth. It varies much in size and habit ; in Africa it is a tree, while in Europe and the Northern States of America it is an annual, varying from three to ten feet in height. It is often grown in gardens, where it is very ornamental. The seeds are about the size of a small bean, oval, the surface smooth, shining and beautifully marbled. The oil is obtained from the seeds by heat or pressure, or by both combined. It is of better any degree desired. The vacuum pan employed is a close, egg-shaped vessel of copper, about six feet high and four and a half feet in diam- eter. It is heated by steam coils within and a steam jacket without* enclosing the lower portion. In one side of the dome is a smalt win- dow, through which the gas illuminates the interior, while on the- opposite side is an eye-glass, through which the condition of the con- tents may be observed. The pan is also provided with a vacuum* gauge and test sticks. Much of the milk used in cities is simply concentrated without any addition of sugar. The process of concentration in continued ia the vacuum pan, until one gallon of milk has been reduced to less- than a quart one part of condensed milk being equal to about four and three-tenths its bulk of milk. Condensed milk, intended to be- preserved any length of time, has an addition of pure cane sugar made to it during boiling, and is usually put up in sealed cans. This- sugared, or ''preserved" milk, will keep for years. It is especially recommended for invalids and infants use, and is adapted to all do- mestic purposes for which milk is essential. CONFECTIONERY. This term necessarily includes candies, and all preparations which have sugar for their basis or principal in- gredient. Under "this definition jams, jellies, pastes, etc., would properly be included ; but we shall only notice those which come un- der the designation of candies, sweetmeats, etc., which now consti- tute an extensive industry. All the various kinds of candy may be brought under the general divisions of stick candy, as follows : MIXTURES. Machine- work, such as the fancy shapes of clear candy, cut or moulded into the shape of animals and various figures. 4G THE GROCER'S COMPANION. LOZENGES Which maybe considered a special class of machiue- \vork. HARDS OR COMFITS Which consist of a nut kernel, or other suitable article enclosed in a sugar coating. FRUITS Which include all the ways in which fruits can be pre- served crystallized, candied, juices and essences mixed with the sugar, or enclosed in a capsule, etc. GUMS OR PASTES Including such candies as gum drops, marsh mallows, etc., based on gum arabic or some other gum. CREAMS In the caramel and other forms in which chocolate, fruit essences, vanilla, etc., can be incorporated. PAN WORK Which includes taffy and other candies made in large, flat cakes. All these differerit varieties have sugar as their base, other ingre- dients being added to give flavor and consistency. SUGAR CANDY Is prepared from a solution of sugar, boiled to the point of crystallization. It may be prepared from cither brown or refined sugar to the latter cochineal or some other coloring ingre- dient being added. These solutions, when boiled to a proper degree, ,re poured into moulds, across which at sufficient intervals are stretched pieces of string. The sugar gradually crystallizes from its solution on the sides of the mould and on the strings the apartment being meantime kept at a temperature of 90 to 100. Sugar drops are made from fine sugar, mixed with a small portion of water, and coloring and flavoring matter as desired. The mixture is dissolved by heat but not allowed to boil, and is then poured in separate drops on a sheet of paper on which they quickly set and harden. What is termed boiled sugar that is, sugar which has boiled until by cooling and hardening it assumes a glassy appearance and fracture is the basis of another variety of confectionery. Of this class, barley sugar is the type and simplest example. It merely con- sists of sugar boiled as described, flavored, cut into strips, and rolled or twisted into sticks. Boiled sugar is prepared in various fancy forms by passing it, while still glutinous, through small machines, in which pairs of brass rollers, having patterns sunk in the surface, stamp these patterns into the material. It is also worked up in the ibriu ot balls, plaited into coils, and formed into many-colored sticks, tc. Most of the candy now manufactured is largely adulterated with starch, plaster, etc. The coloring matter is cochineal for red, and various dyes and pigments for the other colors, most of them being .poisonous in their nature. COPPERAS (Green Yitriol) .This is a mineral, largely used for dyeing black, and is soluble in water. It is also used in the THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 47 manufacture of common Mack ink, and is especially valuable as a disinfectant. It is ordinarily produced by dissolving iron in dilute sulphuric acid, filtering and evaporating the solution, and setting it ti.-nde to crystallize. Large quantities are made in this way from the refuse sulphuric acid which has been used in petroleum refineries. It is also obtained from the oxidation of sulphides of iron or pyrites, which, after i einbran removed, it is known as " bolted " meal. When the corn is finely broken or crushed it is known as Samp^ and is used in the 66 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. same manner as Hominy. Hulled Corn is prepared by soaking the grain in lye, to enable the hulls to be removed ; it is then thoroughly soaked in water, and afterwards boiled until tender. Corn enters largely into the manufacture of whiskey, and a great many distilleries are employed in its production. INDIGO Is a vegetable dye-stuff of much value, native to this country, Asia and Africa. There are over two hundred species, many of which yield the indigo of commerce. It is used in the man- ufacture of inks, for laundry purposes, and also in dyeing woollen and other fabrics. The best quality will float upon water, is glossy, and, when rubbed by the nail, produces a purple-red streak. When the streak is dull and wrinkles, the quality is poor. Good Indigo may be known by its lightness, which indicates its freedom from earthy im- purities, by its not parting from its coloring matter readily when tested by drawing a streak with it on a white surface ; but, above all, by the purity of the color itself. . Indigo is insoluble in water, until it is treated with sulphuric acid, when it becomes the Indigo Blue used in the laundry. INDIAN MEAL. The flour ground from Indian Corn or Maize. It is universally employed in making Corn bread and Johnny cake, and in the fomi of mush or hasty pudding. INK. The composition of the ink used by the ancients is not well understood, but it is believed that their ink far excelled ours in blackness and durability. The necessary elements of ordinary black ink are gall, sulphate of iron (known generally as green vitriol or green copperas) and gum. The gum is added that the coloring mat- ter may be retained, and to prevent the mixture from becoming too fluid. INSECTS. Insects of various sorts trouble the grocer, and great care should be taken to keep stores free from them, as they de- stroy stock and drive away customers at the same time. Cleanliness is the best prevention. Persian Insect Powder is cheap and effective for many of them, and Boi-ax will keep off ants and other small classes, but without scrupulous cleanliness, no permanent relief can be expected. INSURANCE. No dealer deserves credit who does not keep his goods insured. Every careful dealer will be as certain to keep up his insurance as he is to lock up his store, and will avoid keeping oils, alcohols, gunpowder or matches on the premises, in larger quan- tities than are permitted by his policy, without making special pro- visions and paying the extra premium. IRISH MOSS. A marine plant brought from Ireland, which is used us a basis for jellied puddings and mould custards, and is spe- THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 67 .daily suitable for the diet of invalids and children. It is also found on the coasts in this ceuntry. ISINGLASS 13 really a gelatine prepared from the swim- bladder of the sturgeon or cod. The best is that brought from Rus- sia, where great quantities are made from the fish from the North and Caspian Seas. It dissolves readily in boiling water, and is extremely useful in the preparation of jellies, blancmange, gum-drops and va- rious articles of confectionery. Fish glues or the coarse kinds of isinglass, are employed in various cements and sticking plasters. It is also used to clear coffee. Japanese Isinglass is prepared from a seaweed. Russia, Brazil and the United States furnish the greater portion of commercial Isinglass. Gelatine is generally superseding it in cookery on account of its lower price. GLUTEN The nutritious parts of Wheat and other grains. The claims made for most prepared wheat-foods, especially for in- fants is, that they are pure gluten and free from the starch of the grain, but the exact contrary is generally true. GOODWILL. In purchasing or selling a store, a good rule for estimating its value is to allow one-half to two-thirds of their orig- inal cost for fixtures, and take the net profits of the previous six or twelve months as the value of the goodwill. GOOSEBERRIES. Grown in any garden soil, they are much used for making preserves and jenies, and also in the manufacture of wine and vinegar. Their main use, however, is in the green state, when the peculiar tartness ma-kes them palatable in pies and tarts. When ripe it is a good dess^t fruit. It should be found canned on all grocers' shelves. GRACE (DAYS OF) .Three days are generaUy allowed for payment of a note after the date on which it falls due. Banks, in calculating discounts, include the days of grace and also the day on which the note is made that is, thirty-four days on a thirty-days' note. In some States all drafts, even those drawn at sight, are sub- ject to this allowance of three days. In Pennsylvania and New York sight drafts have no days of grace. In Massachusetts they have. GRAIN. A single, small, hard seed, such as a grain of corn or wheat ; hence taken to express the whole class of eatable seeds. It also applies to the parts composing any bulk substance, such as a grain of sugar. Grain is the smallest weight used in compounding drugs, etc. Seven thousand of such grains are required to make one pound avoirdupois. GRAPES. This fruit is an especial favorite in the United States. The European grape is not successfully cultivated in any 68 THE GROCERS COMPANION. section of this country east of the Rocky Mountains ; but in Califor- nia it is of easy growth, and the grape culture there is assuming vast proportions. There are four described species of the American grape, from which all the numerous varieties seen in our markets and at horticultural fruit shows, have been derived by cultivation. Among the best varieties for table grapes we would mention the Concord, Del- aware, lona, Hartford Prolific, Isabella, Catawba and Diana ; of these, the Concord, Delaware and Catawba take the lead. The fruit is largely consumed as it ripens, and also in making wines and rai- sins. The dried currants of commerce are a small grape peculiar to the Islands of Greece. California grapes are now the finest in our markets, and vine culture is spreading all over the United Stairs. GRAMME Represents the French unit of weight, being equiv- alent to 15.4325 grains Troy, or about 12-23 of a drachm avoirdu- pois. Its weight in distilled water at the temperature of maximum density of 4 C. or 39.2Fr., is a cubic centimetre. A kilogramme or 1,000 gramme equals 2.6793 pounds Troy, or 2.2046 pounds avoirdupois, often accepted as one hundred weight with 4,000 kilo- grammes to the ton, allowing for a slight deficiency. GRASS SEED. A term generally applied to Timothy seed r although it may be applied to the seed of any grass. It is one of the most valuable of all crops for the production of hay. It grows from two to four feet high, the flowers arranged on a single spike, one head to each stem. Large quantities of seed are raised in Illinois and Wisconsin, and shipped to the East, JAMS. Preserves made by boiling fruits together with water and sugar, and generally understood to be done without regard to the preservation of the shape of the fruit ; in which way it is different from preserved fruits, which retain, in some measure, their original form, and from jellies which are made much more solid. Jams have of late years become very important articles in the grocer's business. JARS. Glass or earthen-ware receptacles for holding or con- taining liquids or preserves. The ordinary glass-preserving jars should be put into stock by the grocer about the middle of May, be- fore the early berries arrive. They continue in demand until all the fresh fruits are out of market. JELLIES. The juice of fruits or meats, boiled and thickened to a consistency between fluid and solid. Jelly is made from nearly all fruits, and is put on the market in many forms, but generally in glass tumblers. Currant appears to be the popular flavor. Almost all the jellies in the market are of artificial manufacture, and are made with the cheapest substances obtainable to thicken them, with just sufficient sugar and fruit to give them a palatable taste. Gela- THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 69 tine is the base generally used in these manufactures, flavored by the various extracts, many of these also being artificial, and are then la- belled currant, strawberry, etc., according to the special demand at the time. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. The tubers of a species of sunflower, similar in appearance to potatoes ; they have a sweetish taste when boiled, are watery, and not as nourishing as potatoes. They are, however, quite palatable when properly prepared, and make excellent soup. They are usually pickled or eaten with vinegar. JORDAN ALMONDS. The best grade of sweet almonds, of a long, oval shape, grown at Malaga and other Spanish ports. [See Almonds.] JUTE. The material from which twine, bagging, mats, etc., are made. All the sugar and rice, pepper, ginger, cinnamon, gums, dye-stuffs, and many other commodities of Indian produce, come to us in gunny -bags made from jute. KEG. A small barrel or cask. Coopers, in various parts of the country, have long made five-ga lion kegs which only hold four and a half gallons, in order to avoid the local or state taxes on sales of liquor in quantities of five gallons or over. Manufacturers of many articles have put them up in short packages, and it is no longer safe to accept kegs as containing five, ten or twenty gallons, without gauging them to see how much they hold. KEROSENE. Kerosene may be considered one of the most formidable rivals to the use of coal gas as a source of illumination ia the home circle. When properly refined it is nearly or quite colorless in transmission, and is at present obtained in immense quantities al- most exclusively from petroleum ; though in past times it has been, and, to a small extent even now, is produced from bituminous coal, shale, asphalt, wood, resin and various oils especially Menhadea. Though originally brought into use in Great Britain more than a cen- tury since, both for illuminating and lubricating purposes, and also in medicine, Kerosene oil did not make its appearance in the United States until 1854, when the first factory was built upon Newtown Creek, L. I. , opposite New York city. This establishment obtained its sources of supply from the bog-head coal of Scotland, the cannel coal of Nova Scotia, and the western coal mines. Trinidad pitch, candle tar and numerous other substances. Shortly afterwards other factories were founded in Ohio, Kentucky and Pennsylvania, in the midst of the coal regions of the United States, and the demand exceeded the sup- ply to such an extent that the genius and enterprise of the country was awakened in the investigation and promotion of this new and 70 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. important industry. The first boring for petroleum oil wells recorded,, took place in Pennsylvania, Venango Co., in August, 185 ( J ; and, from that time to the present, the excitement has continued to en- hance and spread abroad, until, at this moment, it far exceeds ia magnitude, in amount of capital and labor employed, and in commer- cial importance, any other source of industry in the known world. As a matter of fact, more fortunes have been made and lost, more gambling has taken place in the production and sale of this oil, than even during the celebrated "South-Sea" bubble of England, or the wildest "wild-cat" operations of the stock exchanges of New York and its sister cities. Fully seven-eighths of the petroleum of com- merce is obtained from the "oil-region " of Pennsylvania ; though new and extensive deposits are constantly being discovered in Western Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Canada and Southern California, as well as in sections of Europe, Asia and the East Indies. Crude petroleum, as our readers probably know, furnishes a large number of valuable products to the commercial world, which need not be enumerated here more than a dozen of those products finding a prominent place in our national tariff; but the Kerosene, after it has been extracted from its source, has to undergo a large number of processes before it is eligible for a place in our list of marketable articles. In view of the dangerous character of much of the oil in use, the majority of the states of this country have passed laws requiring that all oil sold within their boundaries should be sub- mitted to one crucial test to determine its quality and that is the flash-test. There is considerable difference of opinion as to the value of the flash-test in determining the safety of the oil ; but common sense has dictated, and the public generally have acquiesced in the rule that the higher the flashing point the greater is the safety in the use of the oil. 100 is far too low, 120 is a very moderate aver- age, and 140 is a point at which the safety and illuminating power of the oil maybe assured. In the majority of the states the test has been fixed at 110 ; in a few others it has been raised to 120 ; but in Michigan alone it has reached the maximum of 140. There is hope, however, that in a short time the general test may be raised to that standard, as universal experience has proved that, with the test at 140, there is no fear of accident from its use. If this rule were only generally established, it would necessarily effectually do away with most, if not all, the cheaper and impure oils, and teach the public a valuable lesson that a pure article is by far the cheapest in the long run. A Mr. Ditman has patented a process to reduce petroleum to the density of a solid, in order to facilitate and cheapen the cost of transportation to distant markets. LABELS. Every year shows an improvement in the charac- ter, style and appearance of the labels on all kinds of grocer's shelF THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 71 goods ; and, by a judicious purchase of suitable packages, and a skil- ful arrangement on the shelves, the appearance of a store can be vastly improved. Some standard goods are put up with very plain and unsightly labels generally the original ones in which, a quarter or half a century since, they were first sold ; but poor labels, and es- pecially slovenly-looking ones, usually indicate corresponding want of care in putting up the contents. LAMP BLACK. Soot produced by burning resin, turpentine, pitch, oil or other substances, in such a way that volumes of smoke are formed and collected in proper receptacles. Lamp-black is used principally in the manufacture of paints, blacking and marking inks. Its quality depends chiefly upon its lightness and the intensity of its color. LAMPS AND LAMP-WICKS. Receptacles in which oU is burned by means of a wick, and used as an illuminating power. There was a time when lamps seemed destined to be entirely superse- ded by the use of gas ; but of late years, in consequence^of the high charge for gas, and the great improvement in the quality of the kero- sene, as well as the construction and style of the lamps themselves, they have become more popular than ever before, and many that for- merly used gas have now adopted kerosene in preference. The Ar- gand lamp, with its circular wick, through which a current of air passes, was the first great novelty, as applied to kerosene lamps (though invented more than one hundred years since) ; and a still more recent invention is the flat double-wick lamp, which came into vogue some three or four years ago, is of great service in the store. Grocers who adopt this system of lighting should take care to have only the best lamps and the finest oil, and keep them in the very best condition, as no stock needs so much light to show it off as the gro- cer's. But a most decided improvement on kerosene lamps, or any other description of light, would be to close the store earlier, and so dispense with their use a system which would become much more general among tradesmen, if the expense of the light, the injury done to the stock, and the loss or waste of time were taken into consider- tion, and compared with the small sales made after seven o'clock. WHY LAMPS EXPLODE. All explosions of petroleum lamps are caused by the vapor or gas which collects in the space above the oil. Of course the lamp at first contains no gas, but, immediately on lighting the lamp, the consumption of oil begins, leaving a gradually increasing space for the gas to form, which increases in volume as the oil is burnt, and after a time will accumulate a sufficient quantity to cause an explosion, if brought into immediate contact with any flame. The gas in a lamp will explode only when ignited. In this respect it is like gunpowder. Cheap or inferior oil is necessarily the most dangerous, from the presence of the earthy impurities which it 72 THE GROCEKS COMPANION. contains in excessive quantity. The flame is communicated to the whole in the following manner : The wick-tube in the lamp-burner is made larger than the wick which is to pass through it. It would not do to have the wick work tightly in the tube ; on the contrary, it is essential that the wick should move up and down with perfect ease. In this way it is unavoidable that a certain space in the tube is left along the side of the wick sufficient for the flame from the burner to pass down into the lamp and explode the same. Many things occur to cause this, which may be avoided by exercising proper care, and if the following precautions are taken, fully seven-eighths of the acci- dents may be prevented : 1st. Do not hold or stand the lamp in a, direct draught. 2d. Never take the lamp up quickly, or violently move it through the passing currents of air as in going up or down stairs rapidly. In these instances the mischief is done by the move- ment of the air down the lamp chimney, or by suddenly checking the flame. 3d. Never extinguish the light by blowing down the chimney. 4th. Never use a broken chimney. 5th. Never use a small-size wick in a large burner. 6th. Never use a defective or worn-out burner, but throw it away and replace it with a new one. LAMP-WICKS. Strips of cotton webbing, of various widths, for use in lamps. They are bought by the dealer in the gross, assorted in sizes, and usually retailed by him by the piece. LARD. The oily part of hogs' fat gathered from the tissue by boiling or rendering. The best lard is obtained from the fat sur- rounding the kidneys, and should rightly be the only material used ; but the lard of commerce (even when presumably pure) is derived from the fat of the entire animal. Pure lard should be firm and white, and free from titste or smell. To render the lard more firm, .and give it a whiter appearance, as well as to increase its weight, va- rious adulterating substances are added. Tallow, stearine, mutton- suet, potato starch and lime, are used to adulterate it so as to make it more firm. Alum is added to increase its whiteness. Water is also used, from twelve to fifteen per cent, of its weight being added. The amount of adulterating material is often as high as twenty-five per cent. It is put up in kegs, barrels and tierces, and also in tin cans, in quantities of two, five and ten pounds weight. The follow- ing is a simple test for detecting water in lard : Fill a clean glass , bottle with lard, leaving out the cork ; place it about six inches from the fire, allowing the lard to melt slowly without boiling, when the water will sink to the bottom and the lard will rise ; you will then discover the amount of water in the fraudulent article. Should the lard not settle clear, it is conclusive evidence that it is also adultera- ted with alkali, thus actually making a soap of it.. New tierces will absorb from two to three pounds when filled with hot lard, and if they weigh over that amount the grocer should THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 73 claim that allowauce for tare. Frequently honest packers have much trouble with tares. There are instances where the heads are changed, and consequently the weights differ. It is well to have the weight marked both on the side and cover, or head and bilge. The quality of lard differs much with various houses. Lard is extensively used in cooking articles of food, and in vari- ous culinary operations ; it is the chief material used by pharmacists in making ointments and cerates. When mixed with rosin, it is an excellent application for the preservation of leather and for lubrica- ting pumps and similar machines, as it preserves the metal from cor- rosion. When used in making soap, the rosin keeps the lard from getting rancid. The production of lard in this country is more than 280,000,000 pounds per annum ; the exports from this country to Europe exceeding 190,000,000 pounds annually, of the value of $25,000,000. LARD CHEESE. Lard cheese is thus prepared in New York and elsewhere in the United States : The skimmed milk is poured into a large cheese vat, and thoroughly mixed with the buttermilk, which has just been drained from the butter. Three hundred pounds weight of fresh milk are then poured into a large, tin bucket, beside which is another tin bucket of the same size, containing one hundred pounds of snow-white lard, that has undergone a steam-refining pro- cess, which removes its natural odor and renders it pure and tasteless. The lard and milk, in combination, having been heated to a tempera- ture of 135, are then put into the "mixing machine," where it is made into an emulsion. This mixture, which is two parts milk and one part lard, is then added to the buttermilk and skimmed milk in the cheese vat. This is then submitted to a heat of 100, the rennet is added, and the whole allowed to stand for about forty minutes, when it coagulates. The curd is then chopped, salted, drained and pressed, so as to consolidate the solid matter and press out the fluid the pressure to which it is subjected being very great. About thirty days are occupied in curing these cheeses, during which time they are turned every twenty-four hours. LARD-OIL. Much of this oil is exported, more than one hun- dred and sixty thousand gallons, at the value of a dollar and a fraction per gallon, being annually exported to Europe ; a great proportion of which is returned to this country mixed with olive-oil, and resold to the trade as "pure olive-oil." It is also found to be a valuable lu- bricant for machinery. Good lard-oil is a pale-yellowish or nearly colorless oily liquid, of a slightly fatty odor and a bland taste. Any mineral oil present can be detected by the failure of the adulterating substance to become soap. The admixture of cotton-seed oil with lard-oil is not readily detected, if the former was refined and of a pal 3 color. Any deep-colored lard-oil, or one having a pronounced yel- 74 THE GROCERS COMPANION. low tint, would necessarily be suspicious. There are no reliable chemical tests, cither to distinguish these two oils, or to prove the presence of both in one mixture. LEAKAGE. An opening or defect which allows a substance to waste or pass out. Allowance is made for leakage only when it can be proved that the goods were not shipped in good condition. LEMOX. The fruit of a tree closely related to the orange, citron and lime ; some botanists consider all these as simply of one- species the citron. The lemon grows wild in the north of India, and has been long cultivated among the Arabs who carried its cul- ture into Europe and Africa. It is now naturalized in the West Indies and other parts of tropical America. This fruit is oblong, wrinkled or furrowed, and of pale yellow color. The pulp of the fruit abounds in citric acid. There is, however, a variety cultivated in the south of Europe, the juice of which is very sweet. The acid juice of the common kind is largely employed in preparing the beverage known as lemonade. It is also used in calico-printing, and as a flavoring extract, and as an effective pre- ventive 'for sea-scurvy, though the juice of the Lime-fruit [which see] has of late years, to a great extent, taken its pla<-e, from its superior efficiency. Lemons vary very much in size, and the ordinary boxes contain from two hundred and forty to four hundred and twenty lem- ons each ; the brands L and LL being used to designate sizes, single L's being the largest. They are wrapped separately in order to pre- vent decay by crushing together. Thin-skinned lemons are the juiciest. There are over thirty varieties of lemons in cultivation, but they are generally classified according to the place of growth or ship- ping. The principal importations into this country are from Sicily (Messina lemons) and from Valencia. The lemon can be success- fully grown in Florida and California products which are receiving great attention. The oil of the lemon is largely used in cooking and confectionery ; the extract of lemon, sold for domestic use, being simply a dilute solution of the oil in alcohol. The pure juice of the lemon is extremely efficacious in attacks of acute rheumatism. LEMON PEEL. The outer skin of the lemon, which is put to many uses. By rasping and pressure an oil is extracted from the peel, which is put up in cans, and is employed largely in cookery and confectionery. The peel is also put to use by being candied or pre- served in sugar, in the same manner as citron. LEMONADE. A beverage made from the juice of the lemon, for the purpose of allaying thirst. It is also used for medicinal pur- poses, wheu it is made either hot or cold, according to the complaint. The vendors of lemonade use citric or tartaric acid, or even a few drops of sulphuric acid, to make their mixture, and only slice a THE GKOCEK'S COMPANION. 75 few lemons to float on the surface and please the eye. Most of the lemonade powders declared to be pure, are made in a similar way. Reliable brands of lime-juice are preferable, unless the fresh fruit is at hand. LENTILS. Lentils are the seeds of plants closely related to the pea, and have been used as an article of food from the earliest times. It is a native of Europe, Asia and Egypt, where they form an important article of food. They are largely used l>y the Roman Catholics during the Lenten season. They are imported into this country to a limited extent, but their use is mainly confined to Euro- peans. The Germans use the lentils in the preparation of soup. Lentils contain a large amount of nutriment ; and lentil meal, flavored with sugar and salt, is sold under high-sounding names, as a food for children. LETTUCE. A plant having small flowers, a leafy stem and oblong leaves. It is obtained in good condition during the whole summer, and is generally eaten with vinegar and oil as a salad. It is forced under glass by our market gardeners, and is extensively used in many salads, such as lobster, crab, etc. Lettuce as a food, con- tains but little nutriment, but has a cooling and soothing effect on the system. During the period of flowering, the plants abound in a i*ilky juice which is collected and evaporated, and has the properties of opium, but in a much milder degree. LICORICE. The black mass which comes on the market ia small, round rolls, is the boiled juice of the licorice plant, which grows in all parts of the world. It is most commonly done up in sticks, is dry arid brittle, and to be soluble in water should be pure. It is adulterated to such an extent that the pure article is rare indeed. A mixture of a little of the juice with the poorest kind of gum arabic, starch and flour, is what is generally put on the market for licorice. Its principal use is in medicine, and it is extensively used in the man- ufacture of tobacco and liquors, especially to give color and flavor to porter and brown stout, and also into some branded liquors. LICORICE PASTE Is an inferior article, generally coming from Turkey. POUTEPACT CAKES Are round lozenges of refined licorice, made at the town of that name, and impressed with a rude figure of the castle. LIMBURGEB CHEESE. Thousands of tons of Limburger Cheese (or rather an imitation), are now produced every season, mostly in the States of New York and Wisconsin, at a cost of less than half of the imported article. It is consumed mostly by our Ger- man-American population. The process of manufacture, in its first 7G THE GROCERS COMPANION. stages, does not differ from the usual way, except that a lower tem- perature is kept while the curd is forming the animal heat alone in summer being often high enough. Great care is taken to use pure milk, free from taint or filth, and cleanliness is requisite in every stage of the making. Upon the curd being formed, it is slowly and care- fully cut into squares, pieces the size of dice ; low temperature and careful handling being necessary to avoid breaking the butter glo- bules, upon which the richness of the cheese depends. It is slightly scalded and stirred, most of the whey drawn off, and, without being salted, the curd is dipped out into perforated wooden boxes or moulds, about five inches square, and left to drain without any pressure being applied. In a few hours the packages are carried into the curing cellar and placed edgeways on shelves, like bricks set to dry. Every and in Spain and Bohemia. It is also produced in large quantities in this country Rockland, Me., being an important seat of their in- dustry. LIME WATER "When mixed with an equal quantity or excess of milk, is an excellent remedy for vomiting caused by irritability of the stomach. A piece of lime as large as a hen's egg, dissolved in a pint of water, makes the ordinary mixture. LIME. A fruit resembling a miniature lemon. It is best known to commerce when prepared and sold as "pickled limes, " and also as the fruit from which lime-fruit juice is made [which see] . LIME-FRUIT JUICE. The lime is a fruit of the orange species, growing abundantly in the West Indies, in India and in some parts of Europe. Somewhat smaller than the lemon (about one and a half inches in diameter and almost globular) , it has a very thin skin and an abundant juice, which makes its relative value much greater than its comparative size would indicate. Its juice is also much stronger (from a pharmaceutical point of view), and has art aromatic flavor. During the last five years a marvellous progress has been made in its cultivation, the development of its properties, and its adaptation to a variety of domestic and medicinal uses not pre- viously attempted. Lime-fruit juice (when pure) , in any form, is an invaluable and infallible remedial agent in the purposes for which it is manufactured. In gout, rheumatism and like maladies, it is largely prescribed as an article of daily diet, and with the most beneficial results. As an anti- scorbutic, it is pre-eminent and without an equal ; and has stood the test of centuries, no other article having been found nearly so effica- cious. Prof. Doremus testifies : " It is not only a delicious beverage, commending itself to our taste, but a very acceptable and wholesome acid to the stomach, an adjuvant in its important share in the act of digestion." Those afflicted with rheumatic pains have been benefited by its use. Its valuable properties, as it is absorbed by the system, are well known to chemists, recognized by the medical profession, and thoroughly established by years of experience. Governments appreciate its high importance as a preservation of health and as an anti-scorbutic, and specially require it to be kept in stock in their na- val and other stores. The London Lancet, an authority universally acknowledged on all subjects of an hygienic or sanitary character, or any matters connected with food and food products, says: "We counsel the public to drink lime-juice whenever and wherever they are. They may be assured that, as a rule, lime-juice is particularly during the summer and autumn a far more wholesome drink than 78 THE GliOCER'S COMPANION. any form of alcohol ; and that, say an ounce or two of the pure juice in a tumbler of really cold water, sweetened to taste, is about the pleasantest beverage that can be taken when the thermometer is over 5 or 70. \Ve commend this drink to all restaurants and coffee- houses ; but caution them to procure the best and purest West Indian lime-juice, as much more wholesome than any mixture containing other ingredients." It is used for exactly the same purposes as lemon- juice ; and, indeed, there are many more uses to which it can be ap- plied, as will be seen by the following catalogue of forms in which it is now known and patronized by the trade generally. It is done up in various sized bottles, and is an extremely desirable article for fancy grocers. As a SAUCE for the table, and to be used with roast meats, steaks, cutlets, chops, fish, curries, gravies, game and soups, the MONTSERRAT LIME-FRUIT JUICE SAUCE is much appreciated by connoisseurs. In the shape of CORDIALS or LIQUORS, it is combined with aro- matic spices and fruits, such as the Jagonelle pear, Peppermint, Pine- apple, Raspberry, Strawberry, Sarsaparilla, etc., the fruits and root essences being of 'guaranteed purity. It is also combined with pure QUININE, and with the purest and most ninocuous tonic herbs as a BITTER. The most concentrated and useful form for confectioners, licensed victuallers and others, in which it is sold, is the LIMETTA CORDIAL being the concentrated extract of the lime, simply cordialized with sugar, but so prepared that the flavor, which is objected to by some, is entirely covered. It has also been brought in successful combination with fancy Iriscuits, and with crystallized and gelatinized fruits, and the most popular confections known in England and imported into this coun- try, being manufactured with this ingredient. LIMITATIONS (STATUTE OF). On account of the frailty of human memory and the uncertainty of such claims, all countries have set a limit upon the time within which rights may be litigated, called the Statute of Limitations. The statute begins to rim when the right is complete ; that is, the money is due and payable, subject to certain exceptions in favor of minors, persons beyond seas, and those not of sound mind ; and after it begins to run, is not estopped by anything except a payment on account, or an acknowledgment of the debt, accompanied by an express promise to pay it, which, in some states, must be in writing. In either event the debt is revived. And the statute begins to run over again from that date. The limita- tion being regulated by the legislatures of the various states, differ:; greatly throughout the United States. New Mexico is the only state without such a statute. It may be said generally that claims founded upon instruments in writing, under seal, are not within the statute of THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 79 any state. The period within which suits must be brought on con- tracts iu writing (like bills and notes), contracts not in writing (like sales of goods evidenced by book accounts) , is six years in Colorado, Dakota, Indiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont and Wisconsin. Five years in Montana and Nebraska. Three years in California, Delaware, Maryland and North Carolina. Two years in Nevada. In the other states a difference is made between suits on contracts in writing and on contracts not in writing, as store accounts, in respect to the period of limitation. It is six years in the former and four years in the latter case in Georgia ; six years in the former and three in the latter in Connecticut, District of Columbia, Mississippi and Washington Territory ; five years in the former and three in the lat- ter in Kansas, Louisiana and West Virginia ; five years in the former and two in the latter in Missouri and Virginia ; four in the former and two in the latter in Idaho, Texas and Utah. LINSEED-OIL Made from the seed of the flax-plant, is usu- ally of amber color, but when pure is quite colorless. It has a rather peculiar and unpleasant odor and taste. It is produced by crushing the flaxseed and pressing it. It is sold mainly by weight, seven and a half pounds being reckoned to the gallon. The cake, from which the oil has been expressed, is called oil-cake, and is used to fatten cat- tle. It is frequently boiled, when it is used to mix with oil-colors for artists and house painters. LIQUORS. A class of spirituous beverages, sweetened and flavored with aromatic extracts from seeds or fruits. They vary considerably in strength, flavor and quality. Ratafias are simple, light liquors, containing small quantities alike of the sugar, spirits and flavorings. Such are anise-water, noyeau, apricot and cherry ratafias, etc. Oils or fine liquors are much stronger, and among them we find Maraschino, Rosoglio, Curacoa, Dantzic water, etc. Various qualities and proportions of the ingredients are graded and designated by French names, such as Eau-de-Noyeau, or Creme-de Noyeau. LIQUID MEASURE. A measure by which all liquids are sold. [See Tables.] LIQUID RENNET Prepared from the dried rennet of the calf. It may be prepared by steeping the rennets in whey or brine for several weeks or months. It is used to coagulate milk, and iii the manufacture of cheese. It should be delicately prepared, and is sold generally to a nice class of customers. It comes in small bot- tles, about the size ordinarily used for extracts. 80 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. LOBSTERS. The common lobster of the United States has the general appearance of the craw-fish, but is of larger size and lives in salt water. It is distinguished from the rest of the lobster family by the immense size of its claws. There is only one American species found from the coasts of New York northward. The best are. taken on the rocky shores of New England, north of Cape Cod. The number of lobsters consumed annually in the United States is simply enormous ; it is estimated that Boston alone consumes 1,250,000 an- nually. In Boston the male lobster is preferred ; in New York the female has the preference. In winter the supply is chiefly derived from Maine, and they are there found in comparatively deep water. The limit of salable size in Massachusetts is ten and a half inches. During cold weather lobsters are shipped to the interior cities, and immense quantities of the meat of the fish are canned and sent to the various States of the Union, and to the remotest sections of the Amer- ican continent, as well as exported to Europe. It ranges in weight from one to fourteen pounds, and its best season is from October to May. It is a favorite article of food in all parts of the world, in all forms fresh, canned and mixed with salad. One peculiarity in the lobster is that it grows only while its skin or shell is soft ; or, in other words, while it is moulting or casting its shell, the rapidity of its growth at this time being wonderful. They are very voracious in their habits, and frequently have very animated combats among them- selves, when one of the combatants is pretty sure to lose some part of a leg or claw ; but another one grows in its place, which is always smaller than the one missing. LOGWOOD. A name applied to a dyewood obtained from a tree growing in Campeachy, Honduras and other sections of tropical America. It has recently become naturalized in Jamaica. Logwood was used as a dye" in England soon after the discovery of America, from whence it was obtained ; but it met with much opposition by Queen Elizabeth, an act being passed prohibiting its use. In 1661 the act was repealed, and the use of logwood was rapidly increased. It was obtained from the Spanish possessions in America, and by a special treaty the English were allowed to cut and ship wood in the Bay of Campeachy, from which it was frequently spoken of as Cam- peachy wood. LOVE APPLE. The Tomato was introduced into this country from France by this name ; though it is now only known under this name [which see] . / LOZENGES. Flat, circular or oval candies, composed chiefly of farinaceous matter, sugar, gum or isinglass ; employed largely in medical practice, as a convenient method of administering drugs and medications as a remedy for various maladies ; there are also various THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 81 kinds of lozenges flavored with fruits, etc.. which have become quite popular. LUCCA-OIL. A name for oilive-oil [which see] . MACARONI. This article of universal consumption in Europe and America is strictly an Italian invention, originally formed of cheese and paste. For a very long period its manufacture was en- tirely confined to that country, the finest qualities even to-day being made there. Correctly speaking, the name Macaroni only applies to wheaten paste manipulated in the form of pipes, while Vermicelli and paste are the same article in other forms. The very hardest wheat is the only kind properly applicable to its manufacture, in con- sequence of its glutinous properties. For choice sorts, native manu- facturers use the wheats of Odessa and Tagaroz. Briefly, the pro- cess of its manufacture is, the wheat is first ground into coarse meal, the bran being separated in the ordinary way ; in this state it is termed Semola ; during the grinding it is absolutely necessary to apply heat and humidity to make semola of good quality. The semola is worked into dough with the addition of water ; for macaroni and vermicelli the dough is then turned into a press supplied with a perforated bot- tom, and cut in desired lengths as it passes out ; a wire hangs in the centre of each hole in the press, to form the hollow in the centre, the paste being partially baked during this process to maintain its form. The whole of the manufacturing in Italy is executed in the most pri- meval manner. The finest quality is that possessing the whitest ap- pearance, and which when boiling, does not split, but swells consid- erably and becomes quite soft, at the same time maintaining its form. If it fails to bear either of these tests, it has been made from inferior wheat. vThe consumption of macaroni in this country constantly in- creases ; and as it is a nutritious, cheap and convenient article of food, it is becoming deservedly popular. Vermicelli is made in tin' .same way and of the same material, the only difference being that it is smaller, thinner and without perforation. Cooked with sharp cheese, boiled plainly and eaten as a vegetable with plenty of salt, in soups and in many other ways, it makes a palatable and economical dish, suited to all classes. American manufacturers have, in some cases, pro- duced an article fully equal to the imported, but in too many cases have injured the reputation of the domestic article. We believe that no better and cheaper articles of food cnn be generally introduced to the American public than Macaroni nd Ver- micelli. The immense supplies of wheat in this country call for the use of eveiy mode of preparing it for the table that can bo developed. We cannot eat it as a vegetable with meats in any other form than this, which the Italians have taught us, and except in bread, there seems to be no usual way of eating it without svrcetening. In cake, 82 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. and in whefttcn-grits porridge, our flour is generally surfeited with sugar to such .an extent as to make it anything but a staple for diet. Healthy, cheap and very nutritious, we cannot too strongly advocate the general adoption of macaroni upon our tables. The American manufacturers are steadily improving their product, and turning out an article which is firm and retains its shape even after continued boiling, and does not have a slimy or pasty surface after being cooked. There is a flavor about the foreign article which is seldom reproduced in the domestic manufacture, aud we must acknowledge that, although some of our home brands are equal to any Italian goods in the mar- ket in sweetness of flavor, being made from better flour, but few of them are equally firm when cooked. MACE. Mace is the inner covering which envelops the nutmeg. It is carefully cut out, and resembles a lacerated membrane, being blood-red and somewhat fleshy when fresh. It is then prepared for the market by being dried for several days in the sun, and carefully flattened out. It becomes yellow in drying out. It has a peculiar strong, yellow, volatile oil, which can be extracted by the ordinary processes of distillation. It also contains a ]*ed, buttery fixed oil, which, when mixed with other substances, is known as Nutmeg Bal- sam. Mace has much the flavor of nutmeg, but has a peculiarity which, to most tastes, is preferable. Care should be taken in select- ing to choose that with a deep orange color, wax-like appearance, clear and transparent. Dull-looking parcels should be avoided, never being genuine mace, but what is usually termed "commerce mace." It comes usually from Penaug and Singapore.* MACHINE AND LUBRICATING OILS. These maybe of either animal, vegetable or mineral origin. Sperm oil mixed with spermaceti, and refined whale oil, are the best of the animal oils for lubricating purposes ; after which comes lard-oil, which is excellent. Neats-foot oil is used, to some extent, as a machine oil. Vegetable oils, found ready formed in the seeds, nuts and other parts^ of various plants and obtained by pressure, are of very great variety, and are naturally divided into classes : 1. Drying oils, of which linseed-oil is an example. 2. Fatty or non-drying oils. The dry oils cannot }>e employed as lubricants, but auy of the second class may be used for this purpose. The best mineral lubricating oils are such as have been subjected to fractional distillation, and the more volatile compounds expelled. Of these the best example is the heavy lubricating oil obtained from the paraffine oil of the petroleum refineries. It is produced in great quantities, and is of excellent quality. Crude petroleum is consider- ably used, and is tolerably good under light pressure. Most of the machine oils in market are mixtures of a variety of different oils, usually consisting of one which will give good body mixed with THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 83 other less valuable ones. Mineral oil with lard oil is a common mixture. MACKEREL. The most important species of this numerous family are the S. vernalis of the North American Atlantic waters, and the S. vulgaris of the European seas. The common mackerel of our coast is found in all the North Atlantic waters. Mackerel fishing is extensively carried on in Massachusetts and Maine Gloucester and Yarmouth being the great centre of fishery in this country. They are usually caught by seining ; but in the gulf of St. Lawrence the fish are taken by hook and line. The mackerel is considered by many the most beautiful of all the fish which find the way to our markets their time of arrival being usually about the beginning of May. They are seldom brought in a live state to our markets, and are generally hand - salted in barrels, but of late years they have been largely packed in tin cans. The fish are carefully selected and placed in the barrels, and numbered for the market, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., according to the quality. It is necessary that No. 1 quality should not be under thirteen inches, free from taint, damage and rust, and fine, fat fish. No. 2 must be fat and free from rust, and not less than eleven inches. No. 3 is what are left in thfc selection of Nos. 1 and 2. No. 4 is what are left in the selection of the other three brands, but must be without damage or taint. Mackerel are packed into barrels or kits, containing from fifteen to two hundred pounds ; and whether packed in that way or in cans, can be opened and sold without injury to the fish or risk to the dealer. Mackerel taken in June are considered superior to the fall catch. The packing and repacking of mackerel is an extensive business ; and the result of repacking is not always satisfactory, either to dealers or consumers. For example : a barrel of mackerel should weigh two hundred pounds; two half-barrels, then, should weigh one hun- dred pounds each ; but it too often happens that the half-barrels come fifteen or twenty pounds short of their proper weight. If a half-bar- rel weighs eighty pounds, the repacker has saved for his own profit forty pounds (or two kits of mackerel) of course, so much dead loss to the buyer. This system of underweight has now assumed such a magnitude that there is an urgent demand for some law, properly en- forced, to regulate weights and measures, or some system of inspec- tion to prevent the fraud and robbery now going on. Some of these, or perhaps the majority of cases of short weight, are specially en- acted for the benefit of the country trade. The country dealer, sup- posing that his half-barrel of mackerel weighs one hundred pounds, bases his sale-price and profits on the one hundred pounds ; finding, when he reaches the bottom of the barrel, that he is short twenty pounds and, of course, a good share of, if not all, his profits on that half-barrel. If he finds out the short weight before commencing to 84 THE GliOf.'KIi'S COMPANION. sell, the loss of the twenty pounds is made up in increase of price tf> the consumer. The same system of packing is carried on in respect to kits, which ought to contain one-tentli of a barrel, or twenty pounds. They are often short three, four or five pounds. The remedy i.s easy test the weight before buying. We would advise oar readers tc* weigh all their purchases of fish, and learn if the weight paid for lias been furnished. There have been inspected in Massachusetts alone, during the ten years preceding 1874, 2,316,083 barrels, or an average of 231.000 annually ; during the last nine years that is, to 1883 the annual inspection has included from 250,000 to 260,000 barrels, which, at the low estimate of 12.50, gives an annual product of 63,250,000 from the salt-mackerel department of the fishery industry of Massa- chusetts. As late back as 1850, Prof. Storcr estimated that upwards of eight thousand barrels of fresh mackerel were sold in the Boston market alone. During the thirty-three years which has elapsed, the increased facilities for transportation has augmented this traffic fully fourfold, so that the trade ia fresh mackerel at the "Hub," can be fairly reckoned at seventy-two thousand barrels per annum. Immense quantities are carried to New York market direct during the spring and early summer, counting which and other places, it would seem a safe calculation that more fresh mackerel are sold than salted. Esti- mating their values on the same basis as the salted fish, and allowing only the low estimate of $6,000,000 for all the mackerel caught in Maine and the other States, we have 66,000,000 annual income to the industry of the State, on an outlay of 813,000,000. This $6,000,000 is purely productive ; every dollar comes from the ocean. Not even farming is so pre-eminently and entirely a productive industry. The fisherman ploughs an untaxed furrow that needs no replenishing year by year. It is almost incredible how fast mackerel may be caught by a trained crew. The mackerel sometimes come up so fast that the whole side of the vessel shines like silver. In July, 1842, a crew of eleven men and boys " struck a school" of biting mackerel on St. George'* Bank. In tiventy-jive minutes they caught twenty-three strike-barrels, barrels so full that the live mackerel jumped out. Spain, Spanish America and the south and west of the United States, are the great markets for salt mackerel, the annual customs receipts of which now reaches 580,000 pounds, valued at $2, 900. 000. MADDER Is a red dye made from the roots of a plant of that name. It is a native of Southern Europe, and largely cultivated in France, Asia Minor and Holland. Its cultivation in the United States, though perseveringly tried, has not been very successful. It is largely used in the printing of calico, and i.s often adulterated with sawdust of pine barks, mahogany, logwood, etc., which materially impairs its efficiency as a dye. Madder ha.s the peculiar property, when fed to animals, of tinging the milk, urine, and bones, red. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 85 MALAGA GRAPES Is the name given to the large, white, imported grapes which come hero packed iu barrels and half-barrels, weighing about sixty and thirty pounds net. Though termed Malaga, it would be quite erroneous to suppose that that was the place where they were grown, for it is only the port of shipment. They arrive iu the month of August, and continue until late in the year. It is al- ways best to keep them in a cool, shaded, dry place, and when un- packed, care should be taken to brush them well with a soft brush, to remove the cork dust in which they are packed. The finest of them are of excellent flavor, and among the best fruits in our markets. MALT. Grain sweetened by being allowed to germinate or sprout, and afterward dried by a certain process, and subsequently used in brewing. Wheat, rye, oats or barley, are steeped in water for twenty-four hours, and then heaped up until the sprouts on the grain are one-eighth of an inch long. They are then spread out to dry, and afterwards kiln-dried, which arrests further germination, and retains the sweetening or saccharine properties. MALT EXTRACT Made from an infusion of the kiln-dried grain with water at 165. After draining and evaporation, it is used as a remedy in irritable forms of indigestion, and very generally as an anti-scorbutic The genuine extract contains all the soluble in- gredients of malt and the bitter principle of the hop. There are sev- eral excellent "extracts" in the market. MALT VINEGAR. A strong vinegar in general use in Eng- land, especially for pickling purposes, aud giving an entirely different flavor from American goods put up in cider vinegar, or the adulterated .acid preparations made in the various ways described under " Vine- gar" [which see]. MANGO. An East Indian fruit much valued by the natives, and made the basis of Chutney sauce. The unripe fruit is used to make tarts, and is preserved in various forms. MANILLA Is a species of Hemp shipped from the port of that name in the Philippine Islands, where hemp is extensively grown and exported from thence. This hemp, on account of its strength, is often used to make rope and paper, which also bears its name, and is in great demand among grocers and other tradesmen, for bags and wrapping purposes. MANUFACTURERS. Formerly the distinction between the jobber and the manufacturer was much more distinctly marked than at present, it being very usual now for wholesale grocers to put up goods under their own brands. This >rces the manufacturer to seek Ihe retail trade direct, and makes many vital changes in the mode of 8G THE GROCER'S COMPANION. doing business ; for, as a rule, a manufacturing jobber in groceries cannot sell goods bearing his own brand to other manufacturing job- bers who put up similar goods, nor to any other jobbers, except at some distance from the point of manufacture. Consequently the largo jobbing grocery houses, having their goods in the market, cannot en- courage or push the sale of goods regularly manufactured by the orig- inal manufacturers, without injuring themselves, or, at any rate, having to resort to extraordinrry means to keep their own goods on the trade-lists. This state of affairs has been growing more and more serious and threatening for several^ years, until now it has become a necessity for the legitimate manufacturer to become himself a jobber, in order merely to hold his own. There was a time Avhen jobbers were content to sell the goods of the manufacturer, and not make and put up their own soap, starch and baking powders, cigars, canned goods, and the thousand and one items pertaining to the grocery trade, thus becoming monopolists in the worst sense of the word, and driving competition to a ruinous issue. It is no longer a question of the right of the individual, but a matter of serious moment, and even commercial existence, to one or both parties. We thoroughly appreciate the position of both the manufacturer and the jobber. They naturally wish all the trade they can get, and desire to avoid giving offence to any leading house. We can conceive of but one satisfactory solution to the problem and that is for the manufacturer* to bring themselves into direct contact and competition with the very trade that the leading jobbing manufacturing grocery houses control, and sell their goods to the general jobbing and best retail trade in the country. The retail merchants of the country at. large are deeply interested in this subject. Whether they are to be simply the agents, so to speak, of one house selling all its goods under its own name, and chiefly confined to what the house chooses to push on them, or whether they are to have the choice of all the best goods made in the country, are questions which demand their immediate consideration. The advocacy of the latter policy has ever been enforced by the NEW ENG- LAND GROCER, and other honest, fearless trade-journals ; the maxim of perfect freedom to all classes, and perfect identity of interests and direct communication between the manufacturer and the retail dealer. having been the fundamental principle which has guided its effort* and controlled its columns. MAPLE SUGAR. This is made in large quantities in the Northern United States from the sap of the sugar maple tree, a native of the United States and Canada. The sap is collected by boring tho trees several feet above the ground, to the depth of half an inch, with an auger. A spout or lip is then inserted in the holes, and pails placed beneath to catch the flowing sap. The trees an- tapped in the early spring, just atcer the fir^t thaws. A good tree will yield about THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 87 six or seven pounds of sugar each season. The juice is boiled to a pyrup, then strained, clarified and crystallized. It appears in our markets in cakes, and as it commands a good price, is often adulter- ated with other sugars ; and when sold as a syrup in cans or bottles, is often nothing but ordinary syrup, flavored to resemble maple sugar. Both the maple sugar and the syrup are much prized on account of their extremely pleasant flavor ; and as this flavor would be destroyed by any refining process, the sugar is never refined. The sources of supply are Vermont, New York, Ohio, New Hampshire, Michigan, Pennsylvania and Indiana the annual yield of maple sugar being about 30,000,000 pounds, and of maple syrup 1,100,000 pounds. MATCHES. The progress from rubbing sticks together to pro- duce fire, up to the flint and steel and tinder, which appeared to be always damp on to the first match, which was merely tipped with sulphur and used in the tinder ; thence to the " light-box," in which sulphuric acid served to ignite a prepared match ; and thence past the first clumsy "Lucifers," which were drawn through a folded piece of sand-paper, up to the modern or " Congreve" match, marks the progress of civilization and the growth of comfort and convenience, with its developments. The chemist Faraday introduced the first Lucifer matches. The wood used in making matches is the best straight-grained soft pine, which is cut into blocks and then shaved into strips by knives which act transversely. These strips are the length of two matches, and are passed through a hopper which drops them at reg- ular intervals into a revolving tape or belt, which binds them into a circular bundle like a double brush. This bundle is then flattened down with a heavy planer of the same size, and put into a kiln to dry. One end is then dipped into melted sulphur or paraffine wax, and when it is dry the other end is dipped also. Then follows the dipping into the phosphorus preparation, after which the belt is un- rolled and the matches are made, except that they are of double length and tipped at both ends. They are then cut in two by ma- chinery, and packed into boxes. SAFETY MATCHES Are those which will not ignite unless they are rubbed on a specially prepared surface ; but, being found incon- venient, they are not generally used. PARLOR MATCHES Are generally perfumed, and are dipped in paraffine instead of sulphur. CARD MATCHES Are made in the form of a comb, and are universally used in New England. As they are very convenient for the pocket, and not so liable to be dropped, they are well suited to the use of railway, and warehousemen, and farmers. Matches are a most troublesome article in stock. Dangerous at all times, difficult y* THE GROCER'S COMPANION. to ship with other goods, and refused by most railroads, unless on special days and under strict terms, they are a necessary evil, and should be made to pay a good profit. MARJORAM (SWEET) Is a herb used for seasoning in cooking. It is used in medicine as an infusion, in which it is a val- uable stimulant, tonic and remedy for nervousness. The oil is used as a remedy for toothache and rheumatism. The Sweet Marjoram of our gardens is a native of Greece, and used in the same way as wild marjoram. MARMALADE. A conserve, made of the harder fruits, such as the Apple, Pear, Quince, Pineapple, Orange, Lemon, etc., with proportions of the rinds of the two last named, and a large quantity of sugar. It is evaporated sufficiently to assume given forms in a. mould. Conserves are sometimes made of apricots, peaches, plums, berries and the softer fruits, but these are, properly speaking, jams. Oranges and lemons are the most popular marmalades known, and are thus made : The rind is boiled by itself first, then the white in- side coating is removed. The rind is then cut up into small strips and boiled with the expressed juice of the pulp, and a quantity of sugar equal in weight to the other ingredients. After the mixture has attained its proper consistence, it is treated like other preserves. The Seville bitter oranges have, for a long time, been the favorite fruit used in the manufacture ; but of late years, several houses in Florida and the surrounding region, have been successfully engaged in the manufacture from native fruit. MARROWFAT. A variety of large pea (grown for domestic use), which ripens quite late in the season. MARTYNIAS. The fruit of a plant native to the valley of the Mississippi and the plains of Mexico. The whole plant has a clammy appearance, with a viscid, pubescent and fetid odor. The long-beaked fruit, when young, is used for making pickles. MATS. Mats, properly speaking, are textures formed of barks, rushes or reeds. Coffee, figs, sugar and various other articles, are shipped from the Pacific ports in such bags, and are called mats of coffee, etc. Dates are similarly packed, but their coverings are called frails. MEAD. A fermented liquor made from honey. The honey is mixed with water, and fermentation is produced by the use of soda and yeast. It was at one time a fashionable drink. MEAL. Meal is any kind of grain coarsely ground, such as Oat meal, Corn meal, etc. It is used in various forms as an article of food. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 83 MEASURES. [See "Weights and Measures," and " Sealer of Weights and Measures".] MEAT (FRESH). It is both dangerous and unprofitable for a grocer to sell meats, unless he has his store suitably fitted up, so that he can handle them with a certain degree of safety. [See "Store Fittings".] With the grocer, the great enemy in hot weather is the fly, which leaves its eggs in some moist crevice of the meat. It is surprising with what rapidity the eggs hatch, or become live maggots ; consequently it is very needful that a keen watch should be kept, in order to arrest their development. When discovered, apply salt water or vinegar, which will, as a rule, remove all traces. Meat kept on ice loses its flavor, and does not grow tender, as is the rule, with age. But, when put on ice, it is advisable not to thaw it unless ready to cook, as it soon becomes spoiled. When a grocer handles meats, they should invariably be of the best quality. MEDICINES (PATENT). This term covers all proprietary medicines, and, of course, includes many that- are positively worth- less, and a few that are valuable ; but it is useless to decry the entire class because the majority are worse than valueless. Many simple forms of medicine for external application or relieving colds, etc., are of great value, because they can be conveniently and reasonably procured. They pay the dealer a good profit, and the trade is very wisely giving more attention to them every year. MELONS. This class includes a large variety, from the Can- taloupe to the Watermelon. The most popular is the watermelon, which is supposed to be a native of Africa, though seldom found wild. It is very extensively cultivated in all warm climates, and flourishes best on the warm soils of New Jersey and the Southern States. The Mountain Spro'at or Carolina, is, perhaps, the first to make its appearance in the northern markets. There are also the, Slack Spanish, a good variety, almost round, a medium size, sweet and delicious. The White Japan, Skillman's Netted, Persian Ispa- han and Christina follow. The Citron Melon is small, nearly round, with variegated shell and seedy flesh. It is used for making pre- serves, syrups and sweetmeats. METRICAL SYSTEM. The French system of measurement of liquids and solids, which is based on the decimal calculation, and is destined to become universal, has become legalized in the United States. It is intended to regulate and simplify the weights and mea- sures of every nation, and supply a uniform standard, which shall be understood and acted upon by every government official on the face of the globe. The customs officers of the United States and thy European governments have already acquired a knowledge of its gen- 90 THE GROCERS COMPANION. eral principles, and in the course of a few years, the present complica- ted system of weights, and measures, and coinage, will undoubtedly be entirely superseded by the metrical system. MILDEW. A certain diseased condition of vegetables, fruits and fluids, caused by the growth of small fungi. Mauy of the most destructive mildews are of a red and brown color as the mildew of the pear. MILK. This necessary fluid, the produce of the cow, needs no description. Investigation proves that there are very few cases of adulteration, properly so called, except with water, which, unfortu- nately, is but too prevalent. The presence of starch may be tested by dropping a little iodine^ into it ; if a violet blue color forms, starch is present. Chalk settles, and if these settlings are dissolved in vine- gar, they will foam up. MILLET. A grain, of which there are many kinds : some fur- nishing the best of fodder ; others used for feeding caged-birds ; while that grown in Peru is made into a white flour, which is extensively used in that country as an article of food. MINCE MEAT. The season for mince meat opens about Octo- ber 1st, and continues as long as the cold weather. It is important to have a supply on hand before the actual demand sets in, rather than after it has commenced. In common with all mixed articles, mince meat can be made in various ways, and much that is offered 13 trash ; so much so, that many families prefer to prepare their own sup- plies. For information regarding the best makes, the prices, etc., we refer our readers to the columns of the NEW ENGLAND GROCER. MINERAL WATERS. Bottled Mineral Waters are termed "soft goods" by saloon-keepers, and are profitable stock to retail grocers, both in the profit-margin they leave, and because they draw good trade from the more extravagant classes. The higher grades, f-nch as genuine Apollinaris Water, and the various mineral spring waters, are easy to handle, if kept in a cool place and laid on their sides. MINT. There are various species of this plant, all of which are more or less medicinal, containing an essential oil. The Pepper- mint, the strongest of its kind, is used for making oil of peppermint, which is extensively used for flavoring candy. MOLASSES. Molasses is the syrup, or, as it is termed in the immediate districts where it is manufactured, the mother-water that is separated from the crystals or grains of raw sugar in the process of manufacture ; when the sugar is becoming dry or crystallized, the syrup drops from the grains as honey does from the comb. The uame THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 91 molasses in this country, is erroneously given to sugar-house syrup r known as black strap, which in England is called treacle, made from, the last boilings of common sugar. In France and the rest of Europe, treacle and molasses bear the name of molasses indiscriminately, with the exception of Germany, where they are both designated as syrup. The quality of molasses depends entirely on the color, strength,. and most of all the treatment of the raw sugar from which it is ob- tained ; consequently it is impossible to get fine, bright, clear, good- flavored mo'asses, except from sugar of excellent quality, both in celor and flavor. A strong, but in other respects undesirable, quality of molasses is obtained from clayed sugar, but it has a tendency to become acid, which, even in the best quality, can easily be detected by its tainted flavor. By strong molasses, we mean that most capa- ble of producing a large percentage of granulated sugar. The heav- iest molasses, although containing much less water, and, therefore, a greater quantity of saccharine or sweetening matter, is not, as a rule, the strongest its thickness very often being the surest sign of the presence of grape sugar, and many other impurities detrimental to obtaining good granulated sugar. The best molasses is that ob- tained from the first crops collected previous to the copious periodical rains, which occur where the cane is cultivated. Molasses generally is of a dark-brown color, but the best grades are those produced at St. Croix, Barbadoes and Porto Rico, being; of that bright amber color and sweet, clear flavor, so much esteemed by lovers of this cheap and appetizing adjunct to our table. It is a strange feature with molasses, that its consumption is almost entirely confined to English-speaking communities. The more the improvements taking place in the manufacture of cane sugar the less molasses we shall have, because it is not nearly so profitable as to crystallize the sugar. Molasses is handled in barrels, tierces, puncheons and hogsheads, which contain approximately forty- five, eighty, one hundred and twenty, and one hundred and fifty gal- lons. New Orleans molasses is always shipped in cypress barrels, and the new crop arrives in market about November 1st. Do not buy molasses that has had the original gauge of the hogshead changed. Only the outs are liable to change. Every grocer should have an out or ullage stick (United States standard) , which can be procured for about one dollar of the hardware dealers. MUCILAGE. The Mucilage of commerce has for its basis gum arabic dissolved in water. The cheaper kinds contain a large amount of gum tragacanth, shellac or other inferior kinds. It is sold in bottles of the size and shape of the ordinary writing-ink bottles. MUSH. Mush or Corn-meal Porridge, is now prepared and supplied to the trade in tin pans, holding about five pounds each. Families buy it for frying. It obviates the risk of lumpiness, bum- 92 THE GROCERS COMPANION. ing, etc., against which some housekeepers fail to provide, and is quite saleable. MUSHROOMS. Mushrooms are eaten as a fruit with salt, or as a dressing with meats. In France they grow very profusely in the neighborhood of vaults, catacombs, and heaps of refuse. They are much valued by epicures, and sold in cans by the trade. They are gathered in considerable quantities in the pasture fields around the large cities. The gathering of these fungi is said to be a profitable employment. The mushroom springs up in the night, and withers as soon as the sun comes up ; consequently the gatherers have to begin their search before the break of day. An active man or boy can se- cure, when they are at all plentiful, from one to ten quarts in a morn- ing, and they are disposed of readily at from twenty -five to fifty cents per quart. It requires a quick and experienced , eye to distinguish between the edible mushroom and the poisonous toadstool, and gath- erers who are not well-known, have some difficulty in disposing of their collections. The hotels and wealthy people take pretty much all the mushrooms that are gathered. Why is it that nobody cultivates mushrooms in America? If anybody is in the business, it must be on a very small scale. Even the wild mushrooms are seldom gath- ered, yet, when they are brought to market, they are rapidly sold at good prices. Forty cents a quart is not a small sum to ask for what can be picked up in five minutes. The mushroom is a delicacy liked by every one, and to raise it is an easy matter. As it is, by far the greater part of our mushrooms come in cans from France, and are not to be compared to the fresh article. MUSK-MELON. This is said to be a native of Persia. The fruit is very variable in size ; it reaches its perfection in the Southern States, but is also successfully cultivated in the North. There are many mixed varieties, but the purest and most generally used are the Green Citron, a medium fruit deeply netted, green flesh, delicious flavor and almost round. The Nutmeg, fruit nutmeg-shape, skin deep green, thickly netted, flesh greenish yellow, sugary and of excellent flavor. Musk-melons for shipping, are commonly packed in crates containing from one to two dozen. MUSTARD. There two kinds of mustard-seed, black and white. When the condiment now known in the grocery stores as Mustard was first introduced into England, it was nothing more than the crushed seed. The manipulation gradually developed, as it be- came necessary for the manufacturers to cater to the public taste, aud the result is that each manufacturer now has his own recipe for making the condiment. Genuine mustard is easily attainable, but it is found that it does not answer the purposes and supply the wants of the pul>- Jic so well as the preparations made by eminent manufacturers. The THE GROCER'S COMPANION. duty on ground mustard, imported into this country, is fourteen cents. per pound, and as the whole mustard-seed comes in free of duty, it is. unquestionably to the interest of the trade and the public to handle good brands. There are several good brands of made mustards imported in fancy jars, from France and Germany the French mustard being very piquant in flavor, and the German mustard mild and palatable. As commonly prepared, mustard is largely adulterated ; rape-seed, turnip-seed too old to vegetate, and wild radish, are often ground with it. After being ground it is adulterated with wheat flour and turmeric ; as mustard contains no starch grains, the presence of wheat flour may easily be found by the use of the microscope. Turmeric may be known by its being colored brown by a weak solution of am- monia. Mustard is largely used as a condiment, and also in medi- cine ; swallowed in any quantity with water, it acts as a prompt emetic, and is useful in cases of poisoning ; mixed with water and made into a paste, it is applied to the skin in the form of a plaster. Mustard was little known before the year 1729. About that time, an old woman of the name of Clements, residing in Durham, England, began to grind the seed in a mill, and to pass the flour through the several processes necessary to free it from the husks. She kept the secret to herself for many years, during which she sold large quantities of mustard throughout the country, but especially in London. Here it was introduced to the royal table, and received the approval of George I. From the circumstance of Mrs. Clement* being a resident of Durham, it was ever afterwards known as Dur- ham Mustard. Though there is no "official" record of its introduc- tion to America, there is every evidence to prove that it was well- known in the American colony long before the "Boston Tea-Party" administered their famous ' ' Mustard Plaster " to the mother country, in the shape of the Declaration of Independence. MUSTARD (OiL OF). From the mustard-seed an oil is extracted by expression, which is called Oil of Mustard; it is a fixed oil, with but little smell and not unpleasant taste. After the fixed oil is ex- tracted from the seed, there is obtained from the residue a volatile oil which is of an exceedingly pungent odor, and having sulphur among its constituents ; sulphur is also present in flour of mustard, and is the element that causes silver to turn black when the mustard is mixed with water or vinegar. NAILS. Nail making by machinery was introduced into Mas- sachusetts in 1810, and has since reached great perfection. The fact, that in 177G, when nails were made by hand, it took an entire day to turn out six pounds of nails, and that now one thousand pounds are completed in the same time, will give an idea of the improvement which has been effected in this industry. Many persons are puzzled 5)4 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. to understand the meaning of tho terms by which the various sizes of 'nails are distinguished, such as " tenpenny," " fourpenny," etc. "Fourpeuny " signifies four pounds weight to the one thousand nails ; * 'sixpenny" six pounds to the thousand, and so on. It is an English term, and meant at first "ten-pound," etc., which was afterwards clipped to " ten-pun," and from that degenerated into " ten-penny." When a thousand nails weigh less than a pound, they are called tacks, brads, etc., and are reckoned by the ounce. NASTURTIUM. Sometimes called Indian cress ; used as a alacL The buds and seed-pods are pickled and used as capers. It is a native of South America. They are gathered in August. NUTS. The nuts which may be considered of the greatest commercial value are the hazel-nut, black Spanish, the Barcelona, the Smyrna, the Jerusalem filbert and the common filbert, the pea- nut, shellbark, English walnut, chestnut, hickory, Pecan, butternut, almond, cocoauut and the Brazil or Para nut. The more important are spoken of separately in their proper place. NUTMEGS. This well-known spice is the kernel of a fruit called Myristica, of which there are forty different species, all of them of tropical growth, and native to South America, Asia and Madagas- car. The Penang Nutmeg is the finest and best. In purchasing, those are the best quality which have an oily appearance and are heavy ; light, dry, dull kinds should be avoided. Various ingenious methods are resorted to for concealing defective nutmegs, and it is said they are perforated and boiled in order to extract the essential oil, and the orifice carefully closed to avoid detection ; but they may easily be told by their light weight. Mace and nutmegs are used as condiments, and, to some extent, in medicinal preparations. The an- nual consumption of nutmegs in the United States is estimated to amount in value to $750,000. The nutmeg trees bear fruit nearly all the year round, are very fruitful, bearing from three thousand to four thousand on a tree, and are very long-lived, existing from sev- enty to eighty years. As an article of commerce, they are popular and profitable. An extract of nutmeg, used for flavoring purposes, has become quite popular within a few years. OATMEAL. The ground grain of oats, peculiarly adapted for human food, and specially conducive to a healthy and vigorous con- stitution. The several varieties of manufacture are distinguished by the terms pin-head cut, rough-cut, medium and fine-cut. After tin- grinding, the meal is passed through sieves, and the siftings graded according to size. It would be well for grocers to remember that, in a certain sense, oatmeal is a perishable article. By exposure to the air for a few weeks, it becomes old, rank, and acquires a bitter, di--;:- greeable taste. In the oatmeal mills a sort of funnel, air-tight, c;c- THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 95 tends from the top to the bottom of the mill, in which the oatmeal is packed. In keeping oatmeal in stores, it must be protected from the air ; packing in air-tight boxes or paper bags will preserve it. The i;>e of oatmeal is rapidly increasing in our large towns and cities, un- der the influence of the universal approbation of physicians and medical experts, though it is not so extensively consumed in this country as in many of the European countries. The Scotch oatmeal is consid- ered the best, and it is a staple article of diet in that country. The grain is very rich in gluten and fat, and contains a considerable quan- tity of starch and sugar, being everywhere recognized as a valuable food. It cannot be leavened into bread, but it makes good cakes. GROATS Are the whole kernel of the oat when freed from its husk ; it is boiled in milk or water for the preparation of gruel, and requires a long time to thoroughly cook it. OILS (VEGETABLE). The liquid vegetable oils are very numerous ; first in rank, from a commercial point of view, is Olive- oil, made from the ripe fruit of the common olive ; when good and fresh, it is of a pale, greenish-yellow color, almost free from smell or taste, except a sweetish, nutty flavor, much esteemed by those who use it. The culture of the olive is one of the chief commercial re- sources of the countries of Southern Europe and the Northern States of Africa. It has been cultivated from the earliest times, and is com- monly mentioned in the Scriptures. The finest qualities are Prov- ence oil, Florence oil and Lucca oil. Common kinds are easily de- tected by their brownish color and disagreeable smell ; those are used for cooking. The Genoa is used for the same purpose in Europe, and the Gallipoli, which is still more inferior, is used in cloth-dress- ing, Turkey-red dyeing, and other manufacturing purposes. The high price of the best qualities makes adulteration very tempting. The finest quality is obtained by gently pressing the fruit. All of the other liquid vegetable oils are obtained from seeds. Very large quan- tities of cotton-seed oil are exported from here to the south of France and other countries, and imported again as olive-oil. The manufac- ture of olive-oil must be commenced in the first half of November, because the fruit ripens at this time in Provence. When it is once begun, it must be continued uninterruptedly, day and night, until the close of the harvest. According to circumstances, the harvest may continue during three or four months. Before the olives are brought to the mill, they have been previously carefully spread out upon the floors of well-ventilated storehouses, where they are allowed to remain for three days, if the wind is south, and for four or five days if the wind is north. The first operation consists in crushing the olives between two granite stones turning against each other vertically. The mass is then transferred in rush baskets to an iron press, where it is sub- 96 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. jectcrl t'> a very gentle pressure. This produces the so-called virgin oil (//? .'/' I'icrfje), to which the Provence oils owe their great reputa- tion. After this first pressing, the mass in the baskets is again com- minuted or broken up, and again subjected to a somewhat stronger pressure in a lever press. The product constitutes the well-known commercial finest oil. The mass is now removed from the baskets, and again transferred to the mill where it is completely ground up, when it is once more packed into the baskets, and subjected to hy- draulic pressure. During this latter operation, the effect of partial fermentation is utilized by pouring boiling water on the mass, in order to facilitate the separation of the oil. By this method of manipula- tion, not only a larger yield of oil is obtained, but, at the same time, the deterioration of the larger portion of the oil contained in the olives is prevented, because only the very last pressing is performed with the aid of heat. And the last product is even superior to that ob- tained from fermented olives, since the latter assume frequently a musty, putrid odor, which may contaminate the oil of the first press- ing a drawback which is obviated by using hot water. The aggre- gate annual importation of olive-oil into the United States has been computed to amount to 195,000 gallons, valued at $153,000. SALAD OIL OR SWEET OIL Is the name applied to olive-oil after being purified by settling, filtering, washing and by various chemical operations. Of this salad oil, the importations are calculated in round numbers to be not less than 197,500 gallons, valued at S356,UOO. Much of the table oil imported from France is adulterated with lard oil obtained from the United States, and reshipped as Oil of Lucca or Provence. It is also largely adulterated with the oil from the com- mon peanut, which is grown in Northern Africa for that special purpose. RAPE OIL Is the name which commonly covers the product of several descriptions of seeds, such as rape, turnip and radish seed. The oil is of a clear brown color, sweet, with a mustard-like flavor ; it is extensively used for dressing wool, and its illuminating power is excellent. It is often sold as olive-oil. HEMP-SEED Yields a green oil, and is extensively used in Hol- land in the manufacture of soft soap. In Russia it is used with dif- ferent kinds of food, and is greatly liked by all classes. OILS (COMMERCIAL) .WHALE or SPERM OIL is obtained from the whale, the finest oil being taken from the reservoir behind the head. The oil of the sperm whale is of superior quality, and known to the trade as Sperm Oil. TALLOW Is a solid animal oil produced from the fat of cattle and sheep. LARD OIL Is a pale yellowish or nearly colorless liquid, ob- THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 97 tained from lard, etc., used chiefly as a lubricant, and also in the adulteration of olive-oil. OLEOMARGARINE Sometimes called ARTIFICAL BUTTER OR SCENE, was first brought into existence by the French chemist, Mege. Its introduction into this country was bitterly opposed, both by the trade, the public, and the press generally throughout the Union. Laws have been passed in several States obliging .those who sell it to brand all packages plainly as Oleomargarine. Jt is made of clean, fresh fat, because it would be almost impossible, and would entnil considerable expense, to make a creditable article out of fats having the least taint. One establishment in New York city turns out more oleomargarine than the whole State of New York does of butter. Many factories now exist in all parts of the Union. A brief descrip- tion of the composition of oleomargarine may be of interest : Butter contains the three fats Oleine, Palmitine and Stearine. The same is true of suet, with the exception of less oleine, and by removing the excess of palatine and stearine, a mixed fat remains of the con- sistence of butter ; this fat or oleomargarine is then poured into a churn, while still liquid, with about half its volume of fresh milk and nearly as much water. A little annatto is then added for coloring, and the whole is then churned, yielding a butter which is treated in the same way as ordinary butter. OLIVES. Olives, in different varieties, are grown in almost every country. Used as a pickle, they are effective iq, promoting di- gestion. The fruit is produced in great profusion ; and, consequently, an olive tree increases' in value proportionately with its age. It is chiefly from the covering of the fruit that the oil is obtained, and not from the seed, as is the general rule in the vegetable kingdom. Olive- oil is extensively used as an article of food in the countries where it is produced, and, to a smaller extent, in countries to which it is ex- ported for medicinal and other uses. Olives gathered before they are quite ripe are pickled in various ways ; they are, first of all, steeped in lime water, by which they are rendered much milder in taste. They are generally considered disagreeable at first, but soon become a relish, and in many parts of Southern Europe, are consid- ered a valuable article of food dried as well as pickled olives being used. The wood of the olive tree is of great value, being beautifully streaked, and capable of being highly polished. A gum resin is ob- tained from the old stems, which much resembles the storax ; it has an odor like vanilla, and is often substiuted for that flavor, and used as such in perfumes. ONION. A common garden vegetable, cultivated in great va- riety, and supplied to the markets nearly all the year round. The field onions are dug in August, and allowed to remain on the ground for 98 THE GROCERS COMPANION. two or three weeks till they are thoroughly dried, and then packed away in a cool, dry place. Our early markets are supplied with ripe onions from the Bermuda Islands, and they are of excellent quality. The use of the onion is very general in most parts of the world as an adjunct in cookery, for soups, broths and the like. Many va- rieties are also palatable when cooked as vegetables by themselves. The strong smell and taste of onions is due to a pungent, volatile oil, rich in sulphur. Moderate-sized onicns contain ninety-one per cent, of water. Grown in warm places, the onion is milder and sweeter than when grown in colder climates. But a few years ago the principal part of the onions raised in this country for market were produced in Massachusetts. Five or ten years ago, a buyer, by spending a day or two in Essex county, in the fall of the year, could form a pretty correct opinion of the onion crop of the country, the probable / price, and all the necessary facts to form a judgment of the future of the trade. Now this has all changed. Less onions are raised in Massachusetts than formerly, and the supply from various other points has increased greatly, while the facilities for cheap and rapid transportation have made impossible any very wide fluctuation in the general market. Western farmers, in some sections, have paid increased attention to the onion crop. Rhode Island and Connecticut now raises large crops of onions, mostly of the red variety, for the New York market. Thus, while but a few years since Massachusetts supplied most of the Atlantic cities with onions, now the trade has been usurped by producers from other States. Boston market demands chiefly yellow onions ; in New- York red onions sell nearly as well as white or yellow ; in Halifax and St. John, red onions have the preference. There is but little difference in the quality, and the choice is largely a matter of taste or fancy. Western farmers raise chiefly the yellow variety. But few western onions are shipped so far east as New England, except when prices are very high, since they come directly in competition with the Massachusetts supply ; yet the western affect prices, and prevent any material advance in our home lots, besides restricting the sale of our onions. The first new onions are received about May 1st from Bermuda. They formerly came packed in palm-leaf hampers, holding from one- half to one bushel each, but now they are freighted in wooden boxes, holding about one bushel each. The onions are large and flat, of a yellowish red color, though not of so deep a red as specimens of that variety grown in. this country. Bermuda onions are sweet, and make excellent eating. Following this supply comes the Virginia crops of onions, shipped about June loth. Few onions are exported from Bos- ton, except to the British Provinces. Onions, to keep well, must be well matured, with their topa properly dried off", and then stored in a cool place. Small white and THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 99 yellow unions, for pickling, are culled out of the regular growth, find sometimes sell as low as fifty cents to one dollar per barrel, al- though when really scarce they command nearly as much as the larger samples. Small onions should never be packed with the mar- ketable lots. ., ORANGE. The Orange (fruit) is a large thick-rinded berry, separated into numerons divisions by membraneous partitions, each rontaining a few seeds surrounded by large cells filled with juice. The leaves and flowers of the orange tree or shrub abound in aro- matic oils, and the pulp of the fruit contains citric acid, All species of the orange are natives of tropical India, and by cultivation have become domesticated throughout the warmer portions of the globe. The sweet and bitter oranges are not distinguishable by any impor- tant botanical properties ; the bitter fruit has a rougher rind, which is of a deep reddish color, and its juice is more sour and bitter ; all parts of the bitter orange are more strongly aromatic than the corresponding parts in the sweet orange. The orange was introduced into Arabia and Syria, from which it found its way to Italy, Sicily and Spain, about the eleventh century ; apparently the bitter orange was first introduced, and there is reason to believe that the sweet was not cultivated until the fifteenth century. The first importation of oranges into England was in 1290, in a cargo of assorted fruit from Spain. The time required after blossoming, for the orange to mature, varies in different climates ; it is at least six months, and sometimes longer. In Italy the fruit that goes into commerce is picked as soon iis mature and yet green, while that reserved for home-use hangs on the tree all winter, and is in its greatest perfection the following spring and summer. The Seville orange of commerce is a bitter variety, not common in our markets ; its chief consumption is in making mar- malade, and its rind is used as a tonic aromatic in several medicinal preparations ; the peel is also candied and used in flavoring puddings and other cookery. The ordinary oranges of commerce are sub-vari- ties of the sweet orange, although they differ greatly in sweetness, and are distinguished by the names of the countries producing them, or the ports whence they are shipped : the Messina, St. Michael's, Maltese arid other oranges from the south of Europe, are medium- sized, smooth, rather thin-skinned, and somewhat flattened fruit, with an abundant but not very sweet juice ; these are imported in boxes, each orange being wrapped in soft paper. The St. Michael's orange is needless, and the blood orange of Malta has a crimson pulp. The Mandarin or noble orange which originated in China, is one of the most highly esteemed of all the varieties, and when occasionally offered in our markets it brings the highest price ; it is a small, flat- tened, smooth fruit, of a rich color ; the rind, when the fruit is fully ripe, separates spontaneously from the pulp, which is exceeding rich .and agrconhk'. In China it is held in high regard, and is used as 100 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. presents to the mandarins ; it was introduced into Europe early in the present century, and is now cultivated in Algeria, the Azores, Brazil and other countries. The Havana oranges, which also come from other parts of the West Indies, are large, often rough-skinned, and very sweet ; as they are imported in bulk, they are packed in a very green state, and are rarely seen in the market in their best condition. A similar orange from Florida, having a shorter voyage and gathered when more nearly ripe, is generally of a better quality. The navel orange of Brazil, rarely offered for sale, is of superior excellence ; it is usually seedless, very sweet, and has often a small protuberance at the upper end, from which it receives its name. The myrtle-leaved orange, which can hardly be regarded as a variety of commerce, is sold by the florists for a table decoration. The chief use of the orange is as- a dessert fruit, and to afford a refreshing beverage in fevers. The flowers of the orange, on account of their charming fragrance and pure whiteness, are considered essential to the bridal wreath, and the trees are cultivated by florists solely for their flowers. By distillation with water, orange flowers afford an essential oil, and the water from which this is separated is sold as orange-flower water, which is used in pharmacy to flavor mixtures. The oil of orange peel, or oil of orange, as it is known in commerce, is contained in the rind of the fruit ; though a volatile oil, it is obtained by pressure. The method* of cultivating the orange differ but little. ' In this country the orange is cultivated as an object of profit in Florida, Louisiana and Southern California ; Texas and some other States produce a small number for home consumption. In various parts of Florida there are immense groves of wild oranges. In Florida there are three methods of es- tablishing an orange grove to clear up a wild grove, removing all trees not needed, and budding with sweet fruit those that remain ; tx> take up young wild trees and set them in prepared ground, and then bud them ; and to raise stocks from seed, bud them in nursery rows, and when of sufficient size set them in the plantation. The Jesuit missionaries early introduced the orange into the gardens of the mis- sion stations of Southern California. The American settlers soon extended the culture of oranges, and it is now one of the principal industries of Los Angeles and its vicinity. In England, orange cul- ture became popular in the seventeenth century. The imports of oranges into the United States from the Mediterranean and West India ports are very large. Every grocer keeps in stock this luscious fruit. OYSTER. The oyster is a marine acephalous mollusk of the genus ostrea. Oysters are found in almost all seas, usually in from two to six fathoms of water, and never at a great distance from the shore. They are especially fond of tranquil waters, or the gulf's formed by the mouths of great rivers. They cannot live in fresh water, but some species remain dry during the greater part of every THE GROCERS COMPANION. 101 tide. The tree oysters, which attach themselves to mangrove and other bushes in the tropics, enclese within the shells a sufficient quan- tity to keep up the respiratory currents. Oysters have been highly esteemed as food from the times of the Greeks and Romans to the present day ; they are of easy digestion, but not very nutritious, and act rather as a provocative to appetite than as a satisfy ing food. They ure eaten all the year round, except in "the months without the it" (May, June, July and August), which is the spawning season ; and they are good even then. The common oyster of Europe, abundant on the coasts of Great Britain and France, occurs in large banks or beds, sometimes extending for miles, usually on rocky bottoms ; from about the middle of May to the middle of August, they are dredged from the bottom by a kind of iron rake, drawn by a boat under full sail, several hundreds being taken at a single haul ; these arc trans- ferred to Artificial beds or parks, where they are preserved for sale, continually growing in size and improving in flavor. The growth of the oyster is slow, it being only as large as a half dollar at the end of four to six months, and twice that size at the end of a year. The west coast of Scotland and Hebrides have the best oysters of the British coasts, and here in sheltered bays they acquire the green color so esteemed by the epicure, and supposed to be due to conferva;, and similar colored growths in the breeding places ; other English beds extend from Gravesend, on the Thames, along the Kent coast, and in the estuaries of the Colne and other rivers along the Essex coast. The British beds are kept up by careful culture and by the introduc- tion of broods from all quarters ; since 1872 several varieties of American oysters have been introduced. Not many years ago the beds of France were nearly exhausted, but have since been re- stocked, and now the culture is yearly extending along the entire At- lantic and Mediterranean coasts of that country. The Danish cfoast is well supplied with beds. The Neapolitan Lake Fusaro, is the great oyster park of Italy. The species most esteemed in America ure the Virginian oyster ( Virginiana) and the northern oyster (bore- alis) . In the Virginian oyster the shell is elongated and narrow, and the backs pointed and not much curved ; it often measures twelve to fifteen inches in length, but is seldom more than three inches in length. This is the common oyster from Chesapeake Bay south- ward ; it is sometimes found in the vicinity of Boston, and also at the mouth of the river St. Lawrence ; it multiplies so rapidly on some of the low shores of the southern coast as to impede navigation and to change the course of tidal currents. In the northern oyster the shell is more rounded and curved ; the surface is very irregular, with the margins more or less scalloped ; a common size is five or six inches long, but it grows to the length of a foot, and to a width of six inches. This is the common New York oyster, said also for- merly to have been very abundant in Massachusetts Bay. 102 THE GROCERS COMPANION. Boston market is supplied principally from artificial beds derived from the Virginia and New York oysters ; large quantities of the Providence River oysters are also consumed in Boston, they being considered the best and commanding a high price. The flats in the vicinity of our maratime cities are generally thickly beset with poles indicating the localities of the oyster beds. The principal sources of supply are the Chesapeake Bay, the coast of New Jersey, Long Island Sound, the Providence River and "VVareham, Mass. For- merly the northern beds were almost wholly kept up by the restock- ing them with bed oysters from Chesapeake Bay and from the Hudson River, but of late years the spat is secured at spawning time, and new ground is brought under cultivation, until the area of the oyster beds in Long Island Sound is now computed by miles rather than acres. "Wareham oysters principally fiud a market in the city of Boston, at which place they bring the highest market price. These oysters have a peculiar flavor which is not found in oysters from any other place. The oysters that grow on the grants in the Marion River, a few miles from Wareham, are not considered by epicur- eans so finely flavored as those grown on the Wareham grants, and it is generally known that they do not bring so high a price in the market. The oysters raised near Buzzard's Bay, Cohasset Narrows, are the same in flavor as those from the river grants in Wareham, and bring about the same price, although the meat is not so fat and white in appearance. It is, however, just as palatable and as anx- iously sought after. The oyster beds of the Chesapeake Bay cover an area of over three thousand square miles, and the annual yield of oysters from these alone is estimated at upwards of thirty million bushels, valued at $15,000,000. The total oyster trade from Maine to California has been valued at $60,000,000 annually. The oysters, after being taken from their beds, are for the most part carried to large oyster houses, where several hundred people are employed in opening them and packing them for the markets. They are put up either in cans or in bulk, and are of several grades, the best being known as selects; following which come standards and various lower grades. Oysters may be eaten raw (when they are easily and rapidly di- gested), or cooked in a dozen different ways roasted, stewed, broiled, fried, scolloped, etc., and in whatever way they are eaten, will be found a delicate, nourishing and delicious dish, a fit article of diet for the invalid or the healthy, for the child or the adult. OYSTER PLANT. The oyster plant is a vegetable, the roots of which are boiled or stewed like carrots, or half- boiled, or grated fine, made into small flat balls, dipped in batter and fried like oysters, which they strongly resemble. The young flower-stalks, if cut in the spring of the second year and dressed like asparagus, resemble it in. taste. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 103 PACKAGES (EMPTY) . Empty packages are returnable by many freight lines without charge. In reference to oil and liquor packages, we would remark that retail grocers and others, who retail coal-oil or burning oils of any kind, and do not destroy the brand- marks of the inspector, arc liable to a fine of $300 for each and every brand or package not destroyed or defaced ; and retailers of liquors are under a similar penalty in like cases. This duty is often omitted through carelessness, and instances are known of a dozen dealers in a single town incurring penalties of from $50 to $300 each, by the accidental visit of a government detective happening to look in on the town. PADDY. This is a name commonly applied to rice before the hull has been beaten off. This is the form in which it is brought into the southern cities, where large mills are erected, whose business is confined to rice cleaning. On the plantations the hulls are beaten off the paddy by pounding and rubbing it in a mortar with a large wooden pestle, and this primitive operation involves great labor. A band-mill to clean rice would be worth millions to its inventor, but thousands of attempts at inventing one, have as yet, proved unsuc- cessful. PAILS. Wooden vessels, of different shapes and sizes, now made by machinery, .and varying in price from the best brass-bound cedar stock to the cheapest two-hoop soft pine article. They should be kept out of the sun, as they are liable to slacken (especially the cheaper grades) and fall apart. PALM -01 L. Palm-Oil is made from the fruit of the palm- tree, universally admitted to be one of the best materials for soap making. A soap made purely of palm-oil, with barely enough al- kali to produce saponification, is very superior for the toilet use and the bath, for shaving, and the teeth. Very little of the soap that is manufactured, advertised and sold under the title of Palm-8Op, is really genuine. It is mainly imported from Africa, and especially from Liberia. PAPER. Paper, of all kinds, especially that used by the gro- cer, such as straw wrapping-paper, is sold by the number of sheets, and is most frequently short of the professed quantity. An excellent water-proof paper has lately appeared in the market, specially made for wrapping of butter, lard or any greasy or wet material. It is made of thin, transparent paper, dipped in a solution of some kind of wax or paraffine. Straw paper should be kept in the cellar, or where it will not dry out, as it becomes very brittle when too dry. Wrapping-paper is generally made from straw, flax, hemp, inanilla and rags. It is packed for market in bundles, and sold cither by the 104 THE GROCERS COMPANION. ream or by the pound. Paper sacks and bags are manufactured by machinery, and immense quantities are used by the retail trade. Two kinds of wood pulp are used in the manufacture of printing paper, respectively designated as " mechanical pulp" and " chemical pulp." Any ordinary wood which is fibrous, free from knots and decay, and is easily disintegrated, is suitable for making chemical pulp, though the whiter the wood and the less acid it contains the better. The wood is cut into small pieces, diagonally with the grain, by revolving knives, just as logwood is cut for dyeing purposes. It is then treated with a superheated bath of caustic alkali, then bleached, and afterward subjected to the same processes as are clean rags. In making mechanical pulp, no chemicals are used not even lime. Any ordinary white wood is suitable for the purpose, but poplar is pre- ferred, although the dark heart is not used. Water power is used, and it is estimated that one cord of wood, with two stones or emery wheels, and thirty-horse power, will produce the equivalent of from one thousand to twelve hundred pounds of dry pulp per day, with the labor of three men one to -attend to barking and sawing the wood, one to attend the stones, and one to look after the pulp. The wood is used soon after it is cut, or, if seasoned, it must be steamed. The sticks are pressed endwise against the stones or wheels, and with a bountiful supply of water they are literally ground to pulp, thus .de- stroying the fibre. Unlike the chemically-prepared article, this pulp is not allowed to dry before being used. The damp sheets are folded, packed in bundles and sold, with an allowance of forty per cent, for the moisture. To manufacture paper from it, the addition of some kind of fibre is essential say from twenty to eighty per cent., accord- ing to the kind of paper required. Good printing paper is made from the chemical pulp without the addition of any other fibre, and the u^e of it is desirable in making even the best book paper. Some excel- lent book paper is made of forty per cent, of this pulp, and the print- ing paper now being used by the government is made wholly of white spruce pulp. Machinery of the capacity for making, say seven thou- sand pounds of rag paper per day, will turn out from twelve thousand to thirteen thousand pounds per day, if forty to fifty per cent, of pulp is used. At the present time, chemical pulp is almost as expensive as rags in manufacturing ordinary printing paper. To the various raw materials already employed in manufacturing paper, such as rags, esparto, straw and wood, all of which are ex- pensive, a new and cheaper one, namely, white moss, will shortly be added. This moss is found in immense quantities in Norway and Sweden, but it is not the living plant as it grows in the fields which is used for making paper, but the remains of this kind of moss, which has gradually accumulated in the woods. The mouldering which the rnoss has gradually undergone, constitutes a preparation for the paper manufacture made by nature herself. Near the place in Swedeu THE GROCERS COMPANION. 105 where the first factory is now building, examination lias shown that many millions of pounds of this raw material are to be found, a suf- ficient quantity to support a large manufactory for a number of years. Paper of different thicknesses and pasteboard, made of the white moss, are shown, the latter even in sheets three-quarters of an inch thick. It is harder than wood, and can easily be painted and pol- ished. This manufacture is well suited for taking the place of wood tor many purposes. It has all the good qualities, but none of the de- fects of wood, as it neither cracks nor warps. The pasteboard can, consequently, be used for door and window frames, for architectural ornaments or all kinds of furniture. A company, founded on shares, has been formed for building factories in Sweden, as well as in Norway. PAPER BAGS. There are many different varieties of bags in the market, from the old-fashioned hand-made bags to the square- bottom, and the machine-made square-bottom. They are made in all qualities, those most desirable being made from tough manilla paper. Formerly it was the practice for grocery's clerks, in their leisure hours, to cut out and paste together strips of paper for bags ; now they are all purchased of paper dealers, ready made, in quanti- ties to suit. PARAFFINE. Paraffine is a white waxy substance, free from taste or smell, which will not burn except in conjunction with a wick, when it gives a bright, smokeless flame. It is these qualifica- tions which give such advantages to candles made from it. Large quantities of paraffine are used for the apparently trivial and unim- portant purpose of manufacturing chewing-gum. The extent to which this single article is sold by wholesale confectioners must be simply enormous, one manufacturer of chewing gum alone using about sev- enty thousand pounds of paraffine in a single year. Confectioners also use it considerably to impart to certain of their confections a high gloss or lustre. Its most important application is in the manufacture of candles. It is also used very considerably in waterproofing fabrics and leather for shoes. Dress silks are frequently treated with it, being thus protected from stains, if liquids chance to be spilled upon them. It is employed to a considerable extent in the manufacture of electrical apparatus, being valuable for its high resistance to the pas- gage of the electric current. PARIS GREEN. Paris Green is a chemical compound very much used in coloring paint, paper, etc., especially Avail paper. In paint it produces one of the finest green colors possible to be obtained. Its use on wall paper has been much condemned, as children are often poisoned by chewing such paper ; and, not unfrequently, people are poisoned by inhaling the minute particles which become separated from the paper so colored, and float about the room. Since the ap- 106 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. pearance of the Colorado potato beetle, Paris Green has become famil- iarly known and very generally used throughout the entire country, for the destruction of this insect pest. For this purpose it is mixed in the proportion of one part of Paris green to twenty, thirty or even more, of some dry substance, such as gypsum or flour ; or two or thi-ee spoonfuls are stirred into a pail of water, and the vines are then sprinkled with this dry or wet mixture. Thus employed, it is very effective in destroying the beetle, and is the only true remedy where the insect appears in great numbers. Strong fears wore entertained, when it was first used in this way, that ill effects would rosult from the poison being absorbed by the potato, or that wells in the vicinity would become poisoned by it. It has been conclusively proved, how- ever, that it is soon rendered insoluble and harmless by combining with other elements found in the soil. Its long-continued use through- out the western United States, withotit a single evil result being re- corded, is a sufficient answer from experience to any fears that may be entertained. It is of course necessary that great care be exercised in handling Paris green, as many accidents have resulted from care- lessness in leaving it where it might be gotten at by children and ani- mals. A preparation of Paris green, to be used as an exterminator, is prepared and sold. PARSLEY. Parseley is a herb cultivated in gardens, and used largely for ornamenting meats and flavoring stews, soups and various dishes in the domestic economy. It is very nutritious and stimulating. The bruised leaves are sometimes used for poultices. It comes into use during the fall, winter and spring. PARSXIP. This plant is universally cultivated for its root, which is boiled and eaten with various boiled meats. It is excellent food for cattle in the winter. The best varieties are rich and mar- row-like. A number of varieties are in cultivation, but they closely resemble each other, and their peculiarities are doubtless determined by the soil on which they are raised. PASTES. Pastes are forms of prepared flour similar to Maca- roni, Vermicelli, etc., but not of the same character. They are made in many pretty forms, such as letters, animals, stars and fancy shapes, and are generally used in soupes. In confectionery pastes are stiff-forms of candy such as jujube paste, fig paste, etc. Fish pastes are prepared from anchovies, bloaters, etc. Furniture paste or cream is a compound of beeswax and turpentine. PEA. The Pea is one of our most valuable table vegetables, its nutritious character making it very desirable. When purchased in the pod they should be kept in a dry, cool place, and never allowed to get damp or warm. They are very extensively canned, both ia this country and in France, and very much in quality, many of the THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 107 cheaper packings being dry peas soaked in water and canned, a prac- tice often resorted to when the market has advanced to tempting figures, They are eaten both in the green and dry state. The can- ning of green peas has become quite a large industry, and is always found on grocers' shelves. The native country of the pea is un- known. The common garden pea are of two kinds, the round, smooth pea, and the wrinkled or marrow-pea, which is much larger than the round pea. Probably no other vegetable differs more in quality than this, owing to variety, degree of matutity, and length of time since gathering. The wrinkled varieties are much sweeter and better flavored than the round, but on account of the great earli- ness of the round sort, the first peas of the season are always of that kind. An experienced person can always tell by the feel of the pods when they are in condition to pick for the table ; if too young the seeds are very small in proportion to the pod, while if too aged there is a want of firmness and flavor. PEACHES. The peach is cultivated to a very great extent in New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and the South, the principal mar- kets being Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore and New York. They are sold in baskets, which vary very materially, there being no regu- lation size, and it is therefore necessary for the buyer to exercise care in the selection in order to get full value. The main distinctions in peaches are the yellow and white varieties, and those with clingstones and freestones. Canned peaches vary in size and quality ; they are divided into two distinct grades table peaches and pie peaches. Peaches are also evaporated and sold by weight, but as they lose some of the flavor in the process, they are not very popular. Peaches are imported from Bermuda at the end of April, when they realize fancy prices, and come from the South during June, and from New Jersey about July 20th. The season is at its height in the middle of August, and ends in September. Peach trees and fruit are subject to a very serious disease known as the yellows, which, in many sections of the country, threatens to entirely prevent the growing of the fruit. The disease also renders unfit for use many of the peaches which are now sold in our markets. The symptoms of this disease are in the tree, a production of numer- ous wire-like shoots from the sides of the limbs, and a yellow color of the leaves ; in the fruit, first, premature ripening, the fruit being; ripe from two to four weeks before its proper time ; second, the pres- ence of patches and spots of a deep purple color upon the peach, no- matter what its proper tint ; third, a deeper color, watery condition, and insipid taste of the flesh. The cause of the disease is not well understood. Many have been led to believe that it was caused by an attack of fungoid parasites, whilst others have supposed that it was due to overbearing and poor cultivation It is undoubtedly true that trees which have become weakened by such means, are more liable to 108 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. the attacks of the disease than strong and vigorous ones. It is also -a question of dispute whether the disease is contagious or not, although it is well known that if the disease makes its appearance in an or- chard, the whole will soon be destroyed unless the diseased trees be at once removed. The yellows are known only in the northern Uni- ted States the southern United States and Europe having never been troubled by the disease. No effective remedy is known. PEACH BRANDY Is made in considerable quantities by distilling ripe peaches. Its consumption is rapidly diminishing. PEACH WATER Obtained by bruising the leaves into a pulp with water, and distilling ; is used for flavoring, and in medicine as a sedative and worm-remedy. PEANUTS. The tree is a native of South America. It is cultivated in the southern United States, Europe, Asia and Africa. Peanuts furnish a very important article of food among many of the negro tribes of Africa, and they are also grown in large quantities in that country for the manufacture of an essential oil, which ia largely used in the adulteration of olive-oil ; and, in very many instances, it is sold as genuine olive-oil, without the admixture of an ounce of the real article. An average crop of peanuts is fifty or sixty bushels to the acre. Hand-shelled nuts are largely used for eating, and by con- fectioners, both in Europe and in this country ; but those which are machine-shelled are only fit for oil-crushing and cattle-feeding pur- poses. The oil-cake of the nuts, when pure, is highly esteemed for its fattening properties horses, cattle, pigs and poultry being very fond of the peanut in its natural state. A heaped imperial bushel of the nuts weighs from twenty- five to thirty-two pounds. Divested of their shell, the kernels furnish as much as forty-five to fifty per cent, of oil. Besides the great value of its seeds for oil, this plant is also a good fodder herb, since it is very productive and yields a quick return. The yield on light soils is fifty bushels per acre ; in some other parts of the United States, it is from eighty to one hundred and twenty bushels an acre. Previous to 1860, the product in this coun- try did not exceed 150,000 bushels ; at the present time, the supply for home consumption amounts to 1,500,000 bushels annually. The wasted seeds are sometimes used as a substitute for chocolate, since they abound in starch as well as oil, and a large proportion of albu- minous matter. In Brazil the seeds are parched for food, and econ- omists urge the more extended use of pvanut meal as a food, claiming that the residue from the peanut, even after the oil has been expressed, far exceeds the ordinary green pea or the lentil in its possession of flesh-forming elements, its general nutrition, and the fat and phos- phoric acid they contain. Although in the raw state it has a some- what harsh odor, this flavor entirely passes off in cooking. The pea- nut is held in high estimation throughout the United States, by youth THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 109> and adults, whether roasted, raw or imbedded in candy, as the flour- ishing sale stands at almost every street corner will testify. Virginia, Tennessee and North Carolina, are the great peanut-producing States. Of late peanut flour has been quite extensively manufactured. PEANUT OIL. This oil is largely used for domestic and culinary purposes ; for mixture with olive-oil, and for cloth-dressing, though its chief use in Europe is for the manufacture of soap and for lubri- cating machinery. As a lamp oil it burns longer than olive-oil, though its illuminating power is less. A bushel of peanuts will yield a gallon when expressed cold ; while, if heat is employed, a larger quantity will be obtained, though its quality will be consider- ably inferior. Peanut oil has the advantage over other vegetable oils of being able to be kept for a much longer time without becoming; rancid. In Brazil the oil is used for cooking, medicinally for rheu- matic affections, and for lighting. PECAN NUTS. A kind of Hickory nut, generally grown in the western and southern parts of the United States. They are agreeable in flavor, and arrive about December. The nuts are of oblong shape, and have a smooth, thin shell, and easily separated kernel. They are seasonable until April. PEARS. Few fruits have been as carefully cultivated and im- proved as the Pear. It appears in countless varieties in our markets, varying in size from the little brown Seckel pear to the large Bartlett. The different varieties ripen at various seasons, and the consumption of the fruit extends over much the same time as that of the apple. Very fine pears are now shipped in crates from California, and find ready sale in our eastern cities. Canned pears are a staple article ia every retail grocer's stock. PEPPER. The common kinds of Pepper, black and white, are in reality one and the same, the only difference being in the prepa- ration which it undergoes. Black pepper is simply the dried fruit of the tree, and though not so agreeable to the eye as white, possesses- more of the essential flavor of the spice. White pepper is prepared by putting the pods in water and removing the black or outer cover- ing ; sometimes it is bleached afterward, to make its appearance bet- ter, consequently the degrees in quality are very numerous. Long pepper is an entirely distinct species, being used for pickling. It is more pnngent than either black or white pepper. Jamaica pepper or Pimento, is used in the manufacture of allspice, and is larger than black pepper. Cayenne pepper, sometimes termed u Chillies," is the powder of what is commonly called Cayenne pods, produced by grind- ing ; when pure is the most pungent of all. It enters largely into the composition of botanical medicines. Pepper is used as a condi- ment, aud is a warm, carminative stimulant ; it strengthens the stom- 110 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. ach and assists digestion. In the tropics the inhabitants use it with 11 their food, drink it in decoction, and make fermented liquors from it. The ground pepper of our stores is largely adulterated with mus- tard, ground rice, wheat, etc. Pepper dust, the refuse and sweep- ings of warerooms, is used to mix with the ground article. The annual consumption of pepper in the United States is not less than $1,100,000 in value. PEPPERMINT. Peppermint is an essential oil distilled from the mint plant. New York and Michigan produce over two-thirds of the peppermint oil of the United States. It is used for flavoring and in medicine. PERFUMED LYE Is a superior description of lye or alka- line manufacture, in a fine powder, perfumed so that it makes scented soap. It is covered by a patent, and is now manufactured by the Pennsylvania Salt Company. PICKLES. This term, as known to the trade, refers to all the numerous kinds of vegetables preserved in vinegar and flavored with various spices such as Mixed Pickles, Gherkins, Cauliflowers, Onions, Cabbage, Cucumbers, Green Beans, Mushrooms, Capers, Olives, Melons, Pears, Limes, Peaches, Unripe Nuts, Indian Pickles, Piccalilli, Chow-chow, etc. Large quantities of pickles are imported, but most of our supplies are obtained from this country. Chow-chow and Piccalilli are prepared by the mixture of a quantity of the flour of mustard with the vinegar. They are generally prepared by being allowed to steep some time in salt water, and then parboiled and transferred into vinegar, along with salt and various spices, such as ginger, pepper, allspice, mustard, pepper-pods, etc. East India pickles are flavored with curry powder, mixed with garlic and mus- tard. The vinegar is sometimes put on the article in a cold state, or it may be boiling. Immense quantities of pickles are used, especially on ship-board, and they form an almost necessary article of diet. In order to render them more attractive, they are often colored by the addition of sulphate of copper, or by boiling the vinegar in copper vessels. Most of the vinegar used in pickling contains sulphuric acid, and this, acting on the copper of the kettle, forms a sulphate of cop- uer, a deadly poison. Pickles are now put up colored and uncolored, so that there is no necessity for using the colored article. One of the noticeable differences of flavor between American and English pickles is caused by the general use of malt vinegar in Great Britain. The greening of pickles is a very delicate operation, and novices at the business turn out a very dark, unsightly article. The admixture of mustard makes them look muddy, except when very expertly done. To TEST PICKLES. The use of copper to brighten pickles is Siighly injurious to health, and its presence can easily be detected by THE GROCEFCS COMPANION. Ill putting a steel knitting or packing needle into a jar of pickles, when, if mucb copper is present, the needle will soon become coated with it. If diluted ammonia is put into a bottle containing a doubtful pickle, the slightest trace of copper will cause the ammonia water to turn blue. PIPES. This necessary article to smokers is manufactured iu this country as well as imported, and present an almost endless va- riety. The common clay article is necessarily the first, from its cheapness and general use. The next in order are those manufac- tured irom briar-root, cherry and other woods, and the last and most expensive, are those made from meerschaum, a peculiar mineral de- posited in the soil in various parts of Europe and Asia. By far the choicest and finest clay pipes come from France. They readily absorb the oil of the tobacco, and color quickly a val- uable quality in the eyes of tobacco-smokers. The T. D. pipes come from Glasgow, Scotland, are sold wholesale at from a half cent to one cent a-piece, and retail from one to two cents. There are several clay-pipe factories in Philadelphia, Baltimore and Canada. The red clay pipes are chiefly made in Providence, Rhode Island. The JFooeZ- stock clay pipe is a great favorite, especially in the rural districts. Americans object to the use of porcelain pipe bowls, so popular in Holland and Germany, from the fact that they are not porous, and become unpleasantly hot in smoking. PINT. A measure holding one-eighth of a gallon. [See Weights and Measures. J PLACARDS. A very striking method of advertising, which, if judiciously carried out, will result in a good return for money in- vested. Grocers need not make their own placards, as neat and tasty placards, excellently designed, can be had at very low prices from show-card printers and artists. Do not disfigure your store with clumsy-looking placards ; have good ones or none. PLUMS. Among the best varieties of the cultivated plums to be found in the United States, are the Washington, Duane's Purple, Green Gage, Yellow Egg, Huliug's Superb. Bleecker's Gage, JeiTer- son, McLaughlin, Prince, Chickasaw, Beach and Blackthorn. The American wild plum grows wild in thickets, along fence rows and banks of streams, from Canada to Texas. The fruit, in its wild state, is red, rather small and unpleasant flavor, but has been much improved both in flavor and condition by cultivation, and although of a pleasant flavor when fully ripe, is not adapted for cooking pur- poses. The garden plums, when ripe, are among the most delicious of our fruits. Green Gages ripen about August 15th, and last till October. Some other varieties ripen earlier. French plums are im- ported largely from Europe, and are known by various brands. They 112 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. are prepared for the market as soon as gathered, by being dried by the action of the sun's rays until they become quite soft. They are then collected and put in a heated oven, and further dried. "When sufficiently dried, they are made round by the stone being turnod round and the fruit pressed at the ends, and are then packed in the desired form for the market. Prunes are prepared in a similar man- ner, but not with such care, and form a lower grade of fruit. [See Prunes. J PLUM PUDDING. This popular and world-famed dish has now become more popular than ever in its comparatively novel form that of an article in canned goods. It is the most convenient and toothsome dessert dish that the grocer can offer to puzzled house- keepers. Large quantities of our American Plum Puddings, in this form, are actually sent to England, thus supplying John Bull with his national luxury in a vastly improved shape. They come in one pound, two pound, three pound and four pound cans. POLARISCOPE. This is an instrument to determine the amount of saccharine matter in sugars ; or, in other words, to ascer- tain the amount of adulteration in the samples presented, by testing the variations with which they polarize light. It may be considered the best way of obtaining the comparative value of raw sugars, and was for a considerable time in use at the New York Custom House, but was resisted by the sugar importers of that city as illegal, and subsequently withdrawn. There is no doubt, however, if Congress were to enact a law adopting the polariscope as a test, that it would furnish the most reliable method of determining the intrinsic value of sugar. POLENTA Forms the chief food of many Italian peasants, and is a flour ground from chestnuts. It is highly nutritious, and is cooked in the same manner as our American corn-meal cakes or pone. POLLOCK. An Atlantic fish, very plentiful, and usually salted and sold as cod-fish, to which family they belong. They are inferior to the genuine cod. PORTER. A description of malt liquor, made of high-dried malt, which derives its dark color from the burnt malt or burnt sugar. It is said to be fattening in its qualities. POP-CORN. Pop-corn is made from any kind of corn or maize, especially those descriptions of grain which are small and compact, and which are used for popping. The corn, which has been burnt by heat, so that it exhibits the inner kernel, is sometimes eaten with salt and milk, and still more frequently sugared and eaten as a confection. The articles kno\vn as Snowdrift and Snowflake are THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 113 pimply ground Pop-corn, and come in half-pound boxes, and are eaten as a breakfast or supper dish, with milk and sugar, or without sweetening. PORK AND ITS PRODUCTS. The importance of the trade iu Pork and Lard is so great that a somewhat detailed descrip- tion of this essential product should be given, witli the olh'cial regu- lations enforced in the curing, packing and branding of the article. The great pork-packing points in this country are the cities of Chicago and Cincinnati. After the animals have been killed and cooled off, they are ready to be cut up ; they are carried from the cooling room to the cutting room, each hog being weighed as he is brought up, and a record kept of the weight. Having been rolled on the block, one blow from an immense cleaver severs the head from the body ; another blow severs the saddle or hind parts containing the hams ; another lays it open on the back ; another one for each leg. The leaf lard being already loosened, is now stripped from the carcass. The remainder of the hog i? then cut up into the various kinds of meat it is most suited for. the whole operation taking but a few moments of time two good men having dressed two thousand beasts in less than eight hours. A day's work is ordinarily from eleven hundred to twelve hundred head. The trimmings and the fat are now collected and placed in huge tanks, where it is to be rendered into lard. When the tanks are filled they are closed, and the entire mass is subjected to a jet of steam from the boilers, of a pressure of fifteen pounds per inch. By this process every particle of lard is set free. One of the tanks is re- served for making white grease, in which the paunches, intestines, etc. , and the refuse from the slaughter houses, are placed and subjected to the same steaming process. Another tank is used for trying out dead hogs, which have been killed by accident, into which they are dumped whole. The product of this i,s known as yellow grease. After the mass in the several lard tanks has been sufficiently treated by the steam process, the lard is drawn off by means of faucets, into an im- mense open iron tank, called a clarifier, where all the refuse matters which rise to the top are skimmed off, and the sediment or heavier matters are withdrawn. The remaining lard is then run into coolers and thence into barrels, where it is weighed and branded pure lard. After the lard has been drawn from the tanks, a large manhole is opened at the bottom, and the whole mass is drawn out in large wooden tanks set even with the floor. The mass is again subjected to a boiling heat, and all the remaining lard is set free and runs to the surface. The water is then drawn off, and the solid matters re- maining are used in the preparation of manure. The curing room occupies the lower floor. The first process is 114 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. to dress all the meats, except the shoulders, with a solution of salt- petre, which is applied with a swab to the green meat, and while wet with it, is covered and rubbed with salt, and then packed in tiers to cure. In three weeks it is all handled over and treated to a second dressing of salt, and again in seven days more, when it is pronounced cured. After a few days the English meats (that is, the meats in- tended for export) , are carefully scraped and smoothed off, prepara- tory to packing. These meats are usually packed in square boxes containing five hundred pounds. The barrel meat is packed in the second story. Enough pieces of the various kinds are weighed out for a barrel; it should be two hundred pounds, but one hundred and ninety or one hundred and ninety-six pounds is generally put in, as it is found the pork increases in weight by the absorption of brine. It is then packed, a layer of meat, then salt, until filled ; the whole are then headed and branded. Each barrel is then filled with brine, and allowed to stand with a small bung open a short time. More brine is added, if necessary, and the bung closed. Most of the hams are cured and smoked. The curing process varies with different houses, some applying the saltpetre and salt and packing in bulk to cure, while others prepare a pickle (sweet pickle) by the use of three ounces of saltpetre and one to two quarts of molasses for a brine the brine being made to show 30 of saltness by the meter. After the meat has lain a sufficient time in the pickle, it is taken out apd packed in bulk for curing, or hung up and allowed to remain for several weeks ; after this the hams may be smoked if so desired. For sum- mer shipment the hams are wrapped in paper and canvassed ; the canvass being generally covered with a preparation of chrome yellow ; and in its use great care should be taken, as it is a deadly poison. Hams shipped to England are seldom smoked, but are shipped in pickle. The various terms applied to Packed Pork may be thus ex- plained : CLEAR PORK Is pork obtained from the sides of extra- heary, well-fatted hogs, the backbone and half the rib-bone being taken out. MESS PORK Is made of the sides of the thickest and fattest hogs, cut into strips six or seven inches wide, running from back to belly. ORDINARY MESS PORK Is cut in the same manner, but from lighter hogs, ranging from one hundred and seventy to two hundred pounds. PRIME MESS PORK Is cut from a still lighter class, raaging from one hundred to one hundred and fifty pounds, the shoulder being included. It is generally cut into four-pound pieces, so that fifty- should make a barrel. THE GROCER'S COMPANION, 115 In the cutting of meats for export, the following system is pursued : SHORT RIBBED MIDDLES. This is the side of the medium- weight hog (shoulder and ham off) , the bone removed, and the ribs cracked through the middle. SHORT CLEAR Is the same part cut from the best hogs with backbone and all the ribs taken out. LONG CLEAR Is the side, including the shoulder, with all the bones removed. LONG RIB Is the same as above, with the shoulder and back- bone out ; ribs left in. CUMBERLANDS Is the shoulder and side together, with the backbone out, the shank cut short. STRETFORDS Sides and shoulders together, the shoulder and bone taken out, shank left in ; backbone and upper half of rib re- moved. LONG ENGLISH HAMS Is the whole hipbone being left in, and the ham left the full size. PICKLED HAMS AND SHOULDERS. The number of pieces and green weight meat must be branded 9n the head of each tierce. Long, short, clear and back, are packed in the months of June, July, August and September by some houses, two hundred pounds in the barrel, and will not gain in weight unless put in the ice-house, and then goes back when exposed to a warm temperature ; one hun- dred and eighty pounds, packed in cool weather, when thoroughly salted, will weigh out two hundred pounds, and often overrun from five to ten pounds. One hundred and eighty pounds is the quantity of fresh pork put in barrels in cool weather by all the leading pack- ers. It is known that some pack one hundred and ninety pounds to the barrel, after the pork has been salted on the premises of the packer hence there is no gain and the retailer is the loser. It is best to buy of the principal packers whose reputations are fixed. BACON Made from the shoulders and ribs, and known as rt/>, clear rib, having the backbone sawed out, and dear being free from both backbone and ribs. LARD OIL Is made by placing the lard in heavy duck bagging, and subjecting it to heavy pressure ; the residuum stearine being largely used in the manufacture of candles. To recapitulate the manufactured products we have from the hog ; they comprise 1. No. 1 Lard; 2. Common Lard or grease; 3. Inferior 116 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. Grease ; 4. Lard Oil ; 5. Red Oil ; 6. Oleine Oil ; 7. Glycer- ine ; 8. Stearine. PETROLEUM OR COAL OIL. Petroleum is found in many parts of the world, and is believed to be a result from the de- composition of huge masses of antediluvian fish, in the same way that coal was produced by the decomposition of trees and plants, or to be the actual distillation from coal when the rocks were hot. It is found in great abundance in Pennsylvania. The Indians used it as a liniment, and it was sold as Seneca or Rock oil for many years before the processes for refining it were devised. In its crude state it was not as economical as many of the vegetable or animal oils. In 1855 the perfection of refining began to render it truly valuable. In the process of refining the crude oil, various products are secured, such as naptha, benzine, gasoline, paraffine oil and wax, and the refined kerosene or illuminating oil. As petroleum is highly inflam- mable, laws have been passed in different States which restrict its sale for illuminating purposes to certain degrees of lk flash" or fire- test. It is .safe at 130, and is said to lose some of its qualities when refined to a higher grade. The Standard Oil Company has monopolized the oil business of the United States for several years, and dictates prices and terms very generally. Dealers should look well to the gauge of their oil barrels and destroy the inspector'* brands on all the empty packages, or they may lose in the gauge and be fined by the government. To TEST COAL OIL. Put a small quantity of the oil to be tested in a cup, set in a tin of water, and slowly warm the water, noticing the degree of heat in the oil by keeping a thermometer immersed in it. When the temperature rises, pass a lighted match (an electric spark U the best) quickly over its surface, at intervals. As soon as the gas or vapor given off by the heated oil, flashes or burns, its test is de- termined ; that is, if it ignites when the mercury stands at 120, it is an oil of 120 flash test. This is a simple and reliable method of proving the quality of oil. PICKEREL. The common Pike or Pickerel is a fish which abounds in all the rivers and lakes of the northern United States, and is excellent for eating. Large numbers are taken through the ice iu winter, by means of a hook, and sent to market in a frozen condi- tion. The lake Pickerel is also salted and packed in barrels, but its flesh is not very good in this condition. PORT WINE. Port wine is a wine supposed to be shipped from Oporto and Lisbon, Portugal ; but, as a matter of fact, not more than one-eighth of the wine bearing that name can legitimately claim Portugal as its birth-place. It is made from grapes. Wheu perfectly pure the wine does not acquire its full strength and flavor THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 117 until it has stood for years. Its value, therefore, increases with age. It is one of the most extensively imitated of all wines, being in small eupply and of sufficient market value to make the imitation a paying investment. POTASH. Potash is the solid substance or ash which remains in the pot in which is evaporated the water impregnated with wood ashes. When deprived of its carbonic acid, it is known as caustic potash. It is used in making soap, soap powder, and all washing preparations. POTATO. The potato is a native of the table-lands of Mexico, Peru and Chili, where it is yet found growing in its wild state. Its culture is said to have been carried from Florida to Virginia by the Spanish explorers, and from Virginia to England in 1565 by Sir John Hawkins ; it was cultivated in Ireland in 1610, where it furnishes three-fifths to four-fifths of the entire food of the people. In the eighteenth century it was cultivated in the New England States, and is now in univereal cultivation in Europe and America, and is the most productive of our food-bearing plants ; the same area of ground producing thirty times greater weight of potatoes than of wheat. They should be placed as soon as gathered in a cool, dark place. Potatoes, besides water, consist almost wholly of starch, with a small proportion of sugar. As a sole article of food they are not adaptable, and are eaten in connection with other foods, animal and vegetable. A large number of varieties are ia cultivation, and new ones are con- stantly being added. The best varieties seem to deteriorate by long cultivation, and new ones must take their place. Among the best varieties now in cultivation are the Early Rose, Peach Blossom, /Snowflake, Extra Early Vermont, and Comptou's Surprise. The annual production of potatoes in the United States exceeds 185,000,000 bushels. Of late years the Colorado beetle has done serious damage .to the crops, but its ravages are now stayed by artificial means, and no great alarm is now manifested. Potatoes yield, by distillation, a brandy, known as potato spirit, and largely used in the adulteration of wine brandy. Potatoes are extensively used in the manufacture of starch. PINK APPLE. A tropical fruit, so called from its resemblance in form and external appearance to the cones of some species of pine. As the pineapple has become naturalized in parts of Asia and Africa, its American origin has been disputed, but there is little doubt that it is a native of Brazil and perhaps of some of the Antilles. The pine- apple in cultivation rarely produces seeds, but in ripening the whole flower cluster undergoes a remarkable change ; all parts become enor- mously enlarged, and when quite ripe, fleshy and very succulent, l>eing pervaded by a very saccharine, highly-flavored juice. Instead 118 THE GROCERS COMPANION. of being a fruit in the strict botanical sense of the term, it is an ag- gregation of accessory parts, of which the fruit proper, the ripened ovary, forms but a small portion ; in this succulent mass, gorged with juice and blended together, are the stem, corollary and ovary ; in- deed the pineapple is analagous in structure to the mulberry, though that ripens its seed. The first pineapples known in England were sent as a present to Cromwell ; the first cultivated in that country were raised about 1715, though they were grown in Holland in the previous century. Pineapples are taken from the West Indies to England in considerable quantities, but the fruit is so inferior to that raised under glass, that its cultivation for the market is successfully prosecuted. Better West India pineapples are sold in our markets than in those of England, as we are 1 nearer the places of growth. The importations are very large, the receipts in New York, in a sin- gle year, aggregating 5,000,000 pineapples. The larger numbers come from Eleuthera, San Salvador and Harbor Island. The busi- ness of canning pineapples is largely pursued at Nassau, New Provi- dence, whence many are also exported whole, both to England and the United States. Aside from its use as. a dessert fruit in its whole state, large quantities are canned in Jamaica and other localities for exportation. The juice is used in considerable quantities in flavoring ices and syrups for soda water. The expressed juice is put into bot- tles, heated through by means of a water bath, and securely corked while hot ; if stored in a cool place it will preserve its flavor perfectly for a year. The leaves of the pineapple contain an abundance of strong and very fine fibres, which are sometimes woven into fabrics of exceeding delicacy and lightness. POULTRY. To select good dressed poultry, see that the eye is bright, feet soft, moist and limber, and the body perfectly free- from bruises or stains. Young poultry should have a breastbone no harder at the lower end than the gristle of a man's ear ; and after it becomes too stiff to bend at all, the fowl is generally tough and old. POULTRY SEASONING. This is a preparation of spices and herbs already mixed for use in stuffing fowls. It meets with- considerable sale during the fall and winter holidays. PRESERVES. A term rather indiscriminately applied to any kind of fruits, preserved by any means and for any use. Fruits used by confectioners are preserved by boiling the fruit with from one-half to its equal quantity of sugar. Preserves made of the juice only, by carefully straining it from the solid portions, and boiling it until it becomes thick when cool, are known as Jellies. The fruit is also boiled ivhole, in sugar or syrup, and allowed to crystallize, when they are sold as Crystallized or Candied Fruits. Very good qualities of preserves are put up iii five and ten pounds in pails for the trade, and' retailed by the pound. Care should be taken to keep such good* THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 119 closely covered, for one fly will often do much mischief, and spoil a grocer's reputation. A wooden spoon should be used to take them out, as metals are apt to turn their bright color to a duller hue. POTTED MEATS. Various meats rendered highly nutritious by evaporation, packed in convenient jars and ready for table use. PRUNES. The Prunes of commerce are the dried plums of certain cultivated varieties, and are obtained from France, Spain, Austria, Hungary, Germany, and various parts of Turkey. The best prunes are those from Bordeaux. Various modes of curing are re- sorted to. The fruits are not gathered until the dews are dried off them by the sun. They are then picked by hand and spread in shal- low baskets, which are kept in a cool and dry place. When they become soft they are shut up close in spent ovens and left for twenty- four hours. They are then taken out and replaced, after the ovens have been slightly reheated. On the following day they are taken out and turned, by slightly shaking the sieves in which they have been laid. The, ovens are heated again, and they are put in a third time, and after remaining twenty-four hours more, they are taken out and allowed to get quite cold. After some further manipulation they are submitted to oven heat twice more, and then packed into jars or boxes for sale. This treatment is only accorded to the finer kind of prunes, though some of them are still further treated in different ways, being given a dark color by a harmless pigment, and kept moist for pack- ing in boxes by the addition of a coat of glycerine. This is to please the eye only, for it adds nothing to the flavor or quality of the fruit. The drying process requires considerable skill, the aim being to de- velop the saccharine properties of the fruit, without changing its fla- vor or deteriorating its fruit-like quality, so that they may be ready at any time for use on the table or in the sick room ; for prunes are often ordered by physicians for their cooling and aperient qualities, and also as a vehicle in which to take unpalatable medicines. They are also used in cookery. French Prunes of the better grades are put up in tin boxes and glass jars, which are hermetically sealed and labeled, and are then ready for market. If the seaspn has been good, the quantity of large and prime fruit is considerable. The largest fruit and highest grade or quality of French prunes, run about forty to the pound. From this ihey range in number, according to grade, to one hundred and thirty to the pound. The figures fifty to fifty-five, eighty to eighty-five, etc,, found in our price-lists, refer to the number of prunes to the pound ; the best prunes coming from the cultivated trees grafted from the wild plum stock. The common sorts are roughly shaken from the trees, and as carelessly packed in casks. They have to be stewed before they can be brought into the market. The Servian, Turkish and Austrian prunes are all of this common quality ; but there are 120 - THE GROCER'S COMPANIOX. some good samples from Hungary. The fresh crop arrives in De- i-ember. The annual value of the prunes and plums consumed in the United States, may be stated in round numbers as $2,000,000. PRUNELLES Are a peculiar kind of Prunes, with the stones re- moved ; but they are not so popular as the ordinary article. PULVERIZE. A term signifying to reduce to powder, and referring to any granular article, such as sugar, cereals, etc. PUMPKINS. This fruit is of various forms, sizes and colors. The flesh of the riud is usually yellow, and the cavity loosely filled with a yellow, stringy pulp. It is generally raised with Indian corn. Pumpkins are largely offered for sale in all our markets, and are used in soups and making of pies the ki Pumpkin pie " of New England being a prominent feature in American domestic history. The pump- kin is of great value as food for cattle ; but as a garden vegetable it is inferior to the squash, which may be said to have taken its place. They are also dried ; and ground pumpkin, in the form of ki flour " or 44 meal," is also an article of commerce. QUINCE. The Quince is very closely allied to the peach. It has a rich yellow, orange color, with a strong odor ; is a hard fruit, seldom eaten raw, but when stewed with sugar is very agreeable, and is used either by itself or to flavor apples. It is also used for making a preserve, erroneously called marmalade. A very delicious drink is made from it resembling cider. Gum is also extracted from it. It is very generally cultivated in this country. Among the best varieties are the Orange and Portugal. Quinces are in season from October to December. QUINTAL. A weight, varying in different countries. Gen- erally, and in the United States, it is about one hundred pounds. BABBITS. These animals are plentiful in this country, both in the wild and domestic state. They are tender when under one year old. Their age can be easily ascertained by their paws and ears, which should be very soft if they are young. Domestic rabbits should not be eaten, unless they have had a wide range, free from manure or heaps of refuse, and plenty of opportunity to burrow in dry soil. RACAHOUT DBS AR ABES. An Arabian substitute for chocolate ; a preparation of roasted acorns, ground and mixed with sugar and aromatic spices. RADISH. A plant of the mustard family, cultivated chiefly for its root, which is sometimes long and sometimes globular, and varies in size from a chestnut to a turnip. They may be white, red or black in color. They are raised in immense quantities, and used as a table relish, but do not contain much nutriment, and are THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 121 rather indigestible. Early radishes are largely raised in the Southern markets, aud shipped to the North, where they bring good prices and liiid a ready sale. Among the best varieties for summer cultivation, are the Long Scarlet, Short Top, Scarlet Turnip, Scarlet Olive- shaped and White Turnip and Long White. For fall and winter use, we have the Yellow and Gray Turnip Rooted, Rose-Colored Chinese and Black Spanish. The season begins in April. RAISINS. Raisins are made from grapes, and prepared in two ways by drying. One method is to partly cut through the stalks and allow them to dry on the vine in the sun. These are by far the best sort, and all Muscatels or Malaga raisins are so treated. The other mode consists of drying them after they are taken from the vine, either in the sun or in ovens, and sometimes dipping them in a solution of alkali made out of wood ashes and water. After this dipping, the fruit is laid on benches to drain and exposed to the sun for two weeks, when they are removed from the stalks and packed for export. There are really four different kinds in the market, varying widely in quality. Muscatels are a large, black fruit, and when of fine quality possess a rich purple bloom. Vcdencias, another Spanish variety, are best when of a dry, bright yellow appearance, and free from all but the very small stalk. Sultanas or seedless raisins come from Asiatic Turkey, and are finest when of a pale yellow, transparent color. Smyrna raisins are similar in appear- ance to Valencias, but are considered the lowest class on the markets, the fruit being usually very stalky and small. A very agreeable wine is made from raisins. They are packed in casks, frails and boxes. The whole box should contain a specified number of pounds, and the half and quarter boxes should be proportionate parts of the same ; but as gross deception in weight had crept into the trade, a general protest was made against tho abuse, and in some degree it has beeu rectified. Dealers should insist on having full net weights. The value of the raisins consumed annually in the United States averages $2,600,000. The European grape succeeds perfectly in California, and the production there increases each year. RAPE SEED Also known as Kale seed, when handled by grocers, is used as food for cage-birds. It is largely cultivated for the manufacture of oil for lubricating machinery, known as Rape oil; the residue, after the oil is expressed, is pressed into a very close- mass, called Rape cake, which is used to feed cattle, for which also even the stalks are utilized. RASPBERRIES. This delicious fruit grows wild, but the cultivated species are generally sold in our markets. The fruit is used a? a dessert, usually accompanied by red and white currants. It is also made into jams, jellies, and for making various descriptions 122 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. of flavoring extracts ; and is furthermore mixed with brandy, wine or vinegar, for the pi*eparation of Raspberry Syrup, Raspberry Vin- egar, etc. Raspberries fermented, either alone or with cherries or currants, make a very agreeable wine. Blackberries are of the same species as raspberries. They are seasonable from June loth to August 15th. The delicate flavor of these berries is entirely lost after they have been kept a few days. They are much used, with currants, for cooking in pies and puddings. RASPBERRY VINEGAR. This is a preparation made from Rasp- berry juice, vinegar and sugar. It is best made by putting carefully gathered, very ripe raspberries into jars, and, when full of fruit, fill up the space with vinegar ; let it stand for eight or ten days, and pour the liquid off carefully. This process is sometimes repeated three times. The liquid is then gently boiled for five minutes with its own weight of refined sugar, and then tightly corked in bottles. Added to water it makes a refreshing summer drink. BATS. A most destructive pest, and one which should be vig- orously exterminated. If a grocer finds his store overrun Avith these vermin, he should get rid of them at once, their destructiveness to property being astounding. A good cat is the best remedy. If poisons are used, and any of them die about the premises, chloride of lime or other disinfectants will neutralize the odor. REAM. A quantity of paper which should contain four hun- dred and eighty sheets of any size, but seldom running full count, especially in grocers' straw wrappers, which average less than four hundred and fifty sheets to the ream. Count your paper and get what you pay for, but bear in miud that if a ream containing four hundred and fifty sheets is really worth forty-five cents, it will be ne- cessary to pay forty-eight cents for full count. RENNET. Rennet is prepared from the stomach of a young calf, by soaking it in water for several weeks, or if need be a whole year. It is used to coagulate milk, and in the manufacture of cheese. It should be prepared with great care and delicacy, and is sold generally to a select class of customers. It comes in small bot- tles, about the size ordinarily used for extracts. REVALENTA ARABICA. The Farina made from the in- terior of the Lentil, which is used as food for infants and invalids. RHUBARB OR PIE-PLANT. A plant of the Buckwheat family, very valuable for its properties, and as cultivated iu the gar- dens, furnishes many varied dishes for the household its fleshy, acid stalks being used in early spring as a healthy substitute for fruit in making pies and puddings. The principal varieties are the Lin- naeus, Victoria and Cahoon from the last-named variety a popular THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 123 household wine is made. It is largely cultivated in all our chief cities, and is to be found in every market garden. The thick end of the leaf-stalks alone are used, the leaves being unwholesome. If these stalks are dried in the sun, they may be kept for a very long time ; and, if soaked in water over night, will be found almost as good as when freshly gathered. It is in season from April to Sep- tember. RHUBARB ROOT OR MEDICINAL RHUBARB Is quite a different species from the above, which grows principally in Turkey and China or Chinese Tartary, and is sold by chemists and druggists every where, as it is universally used as a medicine iu the pulverized form, and also in the form of a tincture. RICE. Rice is the seed or grain of a description of grass, and is commonly grown in all tropical and semi-tropical countries. Ifc has been cultivated from the remotest antiquity, and was iirst intro- duced into this country from Madagascar, in 1G94, by the captain of a vessel, who presented a bag of paddy to one of the merchants of Charleston, arid from this seed originated a crop which now amounts, in the United States alone, to many millions of dollars an- nually. It is of the lirst importance as a food-product, nearly three- fourths of all the human race subsisting on this grain ; so that in fact* it is equal in value, as a food-product, to wheat. Patua rice, of small pearl-white grains, is the most esteemed of eastern products, but the large white, sweet-grained rice of South Carolina is superior to all other descriptions, and the most widely cul- tivated. The eastern rice is usually shipped in its hulls, while that from the southern States is always decorticated or cleaned. It grows best on lands that can be flooded, and on the islands of the coast the fields are usually dyked in, or surrounded by ditches, and regularly flooded at high tide, so that the water is retained on them after the ebb. Two crops can be secured in one year, and the total product of rice is estimated at six times that of wheat. Its use in the more- northern countries, iu the place of potatoes, which are generally more expensive and always more uncertain in quality, is much restricted by the general ignorance of how to cook it. Grocers in the northern States, who handle rice mainly as a luxury, and sell a few pounds to> go in soups and puddings, can have no idea of its wide sale in tho South, where a very moderate-sized store will have four tierces of it open at ouce, close to the doorway, and labeled with price-cards, each tierce being a different grade as fancy, whole, middling and bmall. The grades depend almost wholly on the damage done to the grain in hulling it ; there is no limit to the grades which can be reckoned, from the fancy head rice down to the finely-powdered article. The broken rice, if freed from grit, is equally as good as the whole grain. The small rice is sometimes ground into flour, and is 124 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. used to a considerable extent to adulterate wheat flour, to give it whiteness. Although rice constitutes so large a portion of the food of the human family, with us it is used more as a luxury in the form of puddings, cakes, jellies and soups. It is easy of digestion, and an excellent food for invalids. In the East, wines and fermented liquors are made from rice. The average annual imports into this country are not less than 75,000,000 pounds, of the value of $2,000,000 ; and the exports for the same period aggregate 15,500,000 pounds, at a value of $428,617. ROPE. This is a general name for all kinds of cordage, but more correctly applied to cordage of more than an inch in circumfer- ence, the smaller sorts being called twines, cords and lines. The varieties of rope are numerous, including the Manilla, sizal, cotton, hemp, and cordage made of different kinds of grasses. The culti- vated hemp and flax are preferred in making rope, as the fibres pos- sess great tenacity. [For approximate weight and strength, see tables in this book.] ROSIN. The residue remaining, after distilling crude turpen- tine, obtained from the pine tree. The water and volatile oil pass over, and the rosin remains as a pale yellow, and transparent or brownish yellow, and translucent, according to the purity of the crude turpentine, and the care taken in its manufacture. Rosin enters largely into use in the manufactures and arts. It is used in varnish and cements, in plasters and ointments, in caulking of ships, in the manufacture of soap, and in covering the surface of the bows of vio- lins, to produce vibrations. It was formerly employed in the produc- tion of Rosin otZ, and used for illumination. The rosin of commerce is mostly furnished by North Carolina and Virginia. ROOT BEER EXTRACT. Root Beer Extract is put up in convenient packages, which country dealers will find very salable. Each package makes about five gallons of the beer, and many dealers find it profitable even to bottle it. ROQUEFORT CHEESE. This dainty, the use of which is confined to the richest families, is made from the milk of sheep and goats, at the town of Roquefort, in France. The milk is skimmed, strained, and warmed to a boiling point left to gather into curds, the rennet added, and then made into cream. Then bread, made from the finest barley, which is put into a damp place until every c-rumb has become covered with mould, is mixed with brewers' yeast, kneaded until it comes into a paste, and again thoroughly baked. This hard crust is then pounded in a mortar into a fine powder, and layers of the bread and curd are placed alternately in the cheese moulds, wrapped in linen and dried. After laying in this condition for several days, it is taken to certain vaults in the limestone caves in THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 125 the rocks close to the town, where the cheese, wrapped in linen, is piled up and salted, and frequently rehandled and rubbed, so that the salt will penetrate them, after which they are scraped and pricked with long needles, so that the mould may run entirely through them, and they are again piled up until perfectly dry and covered with long, white mould. Very few people who know the cheese well, are aware of the care taken to please their palates. [See Cheese.] RUM. A spirit made by fermenting and distilling the sweets- that accrue in the manufacture of sugar. It is also made from the skimmings of scum from the hot molasses ; but this is of inferior quality. When first distilled it is white, but is usually colored with burnt sugar or caramel. The quality of rum is much improved by age, and as much as sixteen dollars has been paid for an imperial pint bottle of old rum. It is imported from all sugar-growing countries. Its adulteration and very strong odor has considerably checked its use in this country, as compared with other liquors. The term "Pine- apple Rum" is derived from a custom adopted in some West India Islands to put slices of pineapple in the casks to flavor the rum. RUST. Rust does more mischief than any amount of wear and tear. All goods subject to rust, such as tinware, etc., should be kept in a dry place, whether intended for immediate sale, for show or for storage. All such packages should be plentifully rubbed with oil, to- prevent rust. Articles already rusted can be cleansed with emery cloth and sweet oil ; and if considerably rusted, a good soaking in sweet oil for a week will restore them to their normal condition. RUSSET. A species of eating apple, of reddish-brown color,, coming to maturity in the fall. [See Apples.] RYE. One of the staples of American and European produce, very similer to wheat and next in order to it in quality, though not nearly so nutritious. It is extremely hardy, and of all the cultiva- ted grains has not shown any material improvement from that grow- ing wild. When made into bread, it is heavy, close and coarse. In Russia it is the chief food of the working population ; but in America the chief consumption is among the Anglo-Saxon or native sections of the community. Bread made from rye has aromatic and stimulating properties, which are increased in baking, which make it a special favorite with the Germanic and North-of-Europe emigrants ; but there are only a few mills which make the production of rye-flour a specialty, and these are of rather a primitive character. SACK. A bag or package made of course, heavy hemp or other fibrous material, in which flour and other pulverized grain is brought to market. Salt and other coarser goods are also sold iu sacks. These sacks are by no means uniform in the weight and quality of their contents, sis they vary with each brand. 126 THE GROCERS COMPANION. SAGE. Sage is an aromatic herb, much used in culinary prep- arations, on account of its peculiar smell and astringent character. It is the basis, also, of a strong essential oil. The leaves are dried and sold in packages for flavoring soups, preparing sauces, stuffing fowls, etc. SAGE CHEESE. A specialty, in which sage is the principal element ; is made by cutting up the sage very finely, and mixing it with the curds. It is sometimes termed green cheese. [See Cheese.] SAGO. Sago is a kind of starch prepared from several of the. species of .the palm-tree. When it is taken from the tree it is in a coarse powder, which is mixed with farina and water, and is strained through sieves until the water is drawn off. It is then dried into a ineal, and moulded into any desired form. As it comes to this coun- try, it is prepared by making it into a paste with water, and then granulated. It is less nutritive than most other farinaceous foods, as it is almost pure starch. The best sago is of a slightly reddish color, and readily dissolves in hot water, though it is soluble in cold water. A single tree will yield from five hundred to six hundred pounds of sago. When boiled it swells considerably and forms a jelly. Sago is adulterated by the addition of potato starch, but may easily be de- tected by the microscope. Alcohol may be distilled from it in con- siderable quantities. SALADS. Under this general head, lettuce, endive, cabbage of various descriptions are necessarily included, which are eaten raw and dressed with vinegar, oil and other condiments. Cresses, parsley, beet-root, mint, young onion tops, capers, dandelions and various other vegetables of an aromatic nature, are also mixed with those first named, seasoned and flavored with oil, vinegar, salt and pepper, and form one of the most inviting dishes for the dinner or supper table, in summer and fall. Meats, when used in salads, whether lobster, crab, flesh or fowl, should not be minced, but cut in small, square pieces, from half an inch to one inch square. Salads are growing rapidly in favor ; and all grocers desiring to preserve a select trade, should keep a choice assortment of salad oils, mustards, vinegar and spices, during the season, as salads are in daily increasing demand. SALAD DRESSING. This is a preparation put up in conven- ient form, in bottles, ready for use, so that housekeepers and fam- ilies have merely to add to it the green meat grown in their own garden, or obtained from the grocer, and place it on the table. SALT. The most important item in the manufacture of butter and cheese, and in the preservation of meat and other material for preservation, is the character and quality of the Salt used. We do not propose to recommend any special brand of salt, but merely to THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 127 recommend to dairy produce men and grocers the principles on which they should select their salt for its respective uses. Salt is produced from nearly all sections of the civilized world, large supplies of the several descriptions of salt coming from France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Central and South America. The pages of history prove that the European supplies (which were at one time sufficient to supply the home demand for the entire continent, and also leave a considwr- able amount for export), were chiefly from Russia, France, Spain, Portugal and Italy the largest portion of the salt being found in mines and beds, in connection with other geologic formations, and consequently known as Rock-salt. These beds were doubtless formed by portions of the sea cut off from the main body, and, the water having evaporated or drained off, the entire saline constituents, in perfect purity, are left behind in solid beds, needing only to be ex- tracted bodily and sold. Very frequently these natural salt beds are contaminated with various impurities, coloring matters being present which make it of a blue, red or yellow color. In this country there are large deposits of rock-salt in Louisiana, which served for the al- most entire supply of the Southern States during the rebellion. No country is better supplied with sources of salt, nor with better water for making salt than our own. The State of New York has a bed of salt underlying nearly all of its southern half, which extends under Lake Erie, and crops out in Upper Canada, Michigan, and still farther west. Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia have their special deposits, and the Southern and south-western States have also an apparently inexhaustible supply. Natural, brines furnish nearly all the salt manufactured in the United States. They are found abundantly at Syracuse and Onondaga, New York, in the Saginaw Valley, Michigan, at Saltville, Virginia, in Ohio, Nebraska, and va- rious other localities. These brines are treated in somewhat different manners, according to the quality of the salt which the manufacturer desires to produce. For the production of coarse salt, artificial heat is not employed, the evaporation being effected by solar heat alone. In this country the evaporation is conducted in wooden vats, supplied with wooden covers, for excluding rain and to lessen the cooling of the brine during the night. In order to remove the impurities of the brine (which consist chiefly of sulphate of lime, gypsum, chlorides of calcium and magnesium, and carbonate of iron) , several different vats are used in the evaporation, the^brine being drawn successively from one vat to the other. For the production of common fine salt, large iron pans or kettles are used. After the impurities are removed, it is allowed to drain for some hours, the salt is removed to the stove rooms, where it is dried for two or three weeks, when it is fit to be barrelled and sent to market. There are two methods of evapora- tion used in the manufacture of salt, according to which the name of the salt is determined. That made by exposure to the air is called 128 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. " Solar ;" that produced by boiling ie called " Boiled." Solar salt, as it comes from the vat, is called " Ordinary Coarse." When screened, the coarsest is called " Diamond C ; " the second grade is called " Diamond B C," and the finest " Diamond F." " Common Coarse," when ground, is called " Ground Solar," and an equal mix- ture of" Common Coarse "and "Common Boiled, "is called "Ground Alum." " No. 2 Ordinary Coarse " is dirty, unscreened solar salt, and is used for salting hides and other purposes, where cleanliness is of no special consequence. The chief brands of Boiled Salt are three in number : The salt, as it comes from the kettle, is termed " Common Fine." If, in the process of boiling, an ingredient is thrown in to cut and soften tho grain, it is denominated "Anthracite ;" and, if made from the water as it comes from the wells, it is termed "Agricultural," signifying the use to which it is devoted. From the "Common Fine," or com- mon boiled salt, the "Factory-Filled," or FF salt, for dairy and do- mestic purposes, is made. It is put through a special chemical pro- cess, by which all the impurities are removed, then dried, ground, and put up in barrels, bags, pockets, etc., just as it appears in the market. In the use of American or any other salt, care should be taken to use the several brands for the purpose they were intended for. The solar salts are designed for packing, curing and preserving pro- visions and fish ; the solar salt for packing meat, the factory-filled for culinary purposes and dairy produce. There are two kinds of salt used for fertilizing purposes : the "Refuse" (dirty salt of all kinds), and the "Agricultural," which is boiled from the unsettled and unpu- rified water as it comes from the wells, and containing all the impu- rities, which makes it all the more valuable as a fertilizer. On many soils salt acts as a solvent of other ingredients in the soil, thus setting free for use, as plant-food, elements which would otherwise be una- vailable, because insoluble. The quality of both coarse and fine salt depends upon the amount and kind of impurities present in the brine, and the care exercised in removing them in the process of manufac- ture. The chlorides of calcium and magnesium, and the sulphate of magnesium, is present in large proportions in the brines of Michigan and Ohio hence the difficulty in usiug either of them for dairy pur- poses, as dairy salt should be entirely free from these bitter salts. The New York salt, being comparatively free from them, is found specially suitable for that use. Ordinary coarse salt is chiefly used in salting pork and beef, whilst common fine salt answers well enough for ordinary table use, and large quantities are converted iuto "soda," to be used in the manufacture of soap and glass, and by the house- keeper in cooking. Hydrochloric or muriatic acid, used extensively in the arts, and chlorine, employed in the bleacherics for bleaching cloths, are made by decomposing common salt. The imported brands THE GROCERS COMPANION. 129 from Liverpool come in bags weighing two hundred and twenty-four pounds ; that from New York State in barrels and bags of two hun- dred and forty and two hundred and eighty pounds ; the Saginaw in two hundred and forty pound barrels ; the table salt comes in cases containing sixty boxes, each containing two pounds. Salt also comes in small packets, put up in sacks, three sizes, viz., twenty-five ten- pound packets, forty six-pounds, and eighty three-pounds. The an- nual production of salt in the United States aggregates about 25,000,000 bushels, the home consumption amounting to 15,000,000 bushels. The Onondag* salines, in New York State belong to the State, which receives a royalty of one-cent a bushel, the cost of manufac- ture is about six cents a bushel, and the average yield exceeds 8,000,000 bushels ; those ia the valley of the great Kanawha, in West Virginia, yield about half the quantity of the Onondaga. Salt manufactured in the United States is much better than that made in Spain or the Azores. Large quantities of salt are imported into this country from Turk's Island. SALMON. Whether in Europe or the United States, Salmon is and always will be a favorite dish. It is the most delicious eating of all the tinny tribe. In the United States it is found in some of the rivers of Maine ; on the Pacitic coast it has achieved the-magnitude of a commercial pursuit, and on the Columbia River, in Oregon, large numbers of men make it a very profitable occupation. The fish are taken only at night ; and when the water is clear and the weather favorable, two men with a boat and tackle, will realize twelve hundred pounds weight in a single night. Salmon are found in great abundance in the waters of Alaska, considerable quantities being packed in barrels and shipped to the eastern markets. The artificial production of salmon is now being carried on by the United States Fish Commission, and the principal streams have been stocked with the young fish. Salmon is sold fresh, in bulk, but chiefly as canned goods ; the oldest and most popular brands of salmon com- mand high prices, but many of the newer and less known are quite equal in flavor and quality, and bring as good a price. Dried and smoked salmon (in which form they first appeared in our interior markets) still maintain their importance. It is also canned with va- rious spices. The take of salmon on the Columbia River, averages about 1,700,000 annually, weighing not less than oO, 500, 000 pounds. The salmon on the Pacific coast weigh from ten to thirty pounds, and are canned in factories located at the river's edge ; the great care taken both in the selection, the preparation and the canning of the Pacific salmon, has placed them at the top of the quotations, both for home consumption and for export. The salmon is very extensively distributed in northern Europe 130 THE GROCERS COMPANION. and America, being found in Great Britain, the Orkneys, France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland, getting across from the English Channel and to north- ern seas by the Tweed, Tay, Severn, Loire, Rhine, Elbe, etc. ; it does not occur in rivers falling into the Mediterranean, and does not come below the 45th parallel of latitude ; in North America it fre- quents the rivers of Labrador, Canada, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New England, and those of New York communicating with the St. Lawrence, ascending even to Lake Ontario. Salmon can live with- out access to the sea, as is seen in Sebago and other landlocked lakes of Maine, but they are of inferior size and quality. The river Thames Eng., was once celebrated for its salmon, but its stream is now too impure to invite them to enter. The Merrimac River, Mass., for- merly swarmed with salmon, weighing from nine to twelve pounds, but the numerous dams and manufacturing establishments have driven them away, and the northern markets are now supplied from the Kennebec River and the British Provinces, and from the Pacific coast. The salmon enters the rivers of Nova Scotia in the latter part of April, the rivers emptying into the Bay of Fundy a month later, and those emptying into the Gulf of St. Lawrence in June. The flesh of the salmon is exceedingly delicate, and of a tint of pink which has received therefrom the name of salmon-colored. SALTPETRE. The scientific name of this product is Nitrate of Potassium, and is also generally known as Nitre. It is chiefly obtained from Peru and the East Indies ; forms the principal ingre- dient in gunpowder, is a powerful antiseptic, and is largely used in the preservation and corning of meats, butter, etc. Saltpetre imparts a bright red color to animal substances into which it is rubbed. SAMP. A term sometimes used for hominy, especially the large-grained description (so common in the Southern States), the half-kernel and the whole kernel samp. SAMPLES. The sending of samples by mail, by all tradesmen, has become an important arrangement in every New England city : and has proved almost as advantageous to the grocery trade as to the dry goods, the grain trade and other departments of commerce. Mer- chandise, seeds, cuttings, etc., anything which is not liable to be destroyed, defaced or damaged, or of a nature calculated to damage the usual contents of the mail-bag, can be mailed at the rate of one cent per ounce. Metallic packages have been constructed for the mailing of samples of flour, soap and other similar articles. The list of unmailable articles includes liquids, poisons, explosive and imflam- mable substances, liquefied or liquefiable fats or oils, live or dead an- imals (not stuffed), insects and reptiles, fruits or vegetable matters, confectionery, pastes and strong-smelling substances. THE GROCERS COMPANION. 131 SANDWICH MEATS. A novel article in canned goods, prepared ready for use in making sandwiches, and usually consist- ing of thin slices of ham, tongue, etc. ; they are also sold minced. very fine. SAPOLIO. A description of soap specially designed for cleansing metals, wood, etc., and other domestic purposes the prin- cipal element in it being a finely-powdered silica, mixed with alkali and other cleansing material. SAPONIFIER. Another washing or cleansing compound, used for soap-making, softening water, and other domestic purposes. It is a strong lye, and comes in one-pound tin cans. SAP-SAGO. A delicately -flavored cheese, made in Germany and Switzerland. It is of a dark-green color, flavored with melitot- leaves, and when prepared for table use should be grated. SARDINES. These "little fishes boiled in oil" originated an industry which has contributed materially to the prosperity of the coast population of France. They took their name from the place in which they were first caught, viz., in the Mediterranean Sea, near Sardinia. They are from three to five inches in length, and the fish- ery gives employment to about thirty-five thousand people, and in the preparation of the fish to quite as many more. Large quantities of these fish are shipped to the United States, but they are not so gener- ally used as they formerly were, the fish having degenerated, through the substitution of ground-nut and cotton-seed oil for the pure olive- oil, which should be used. The plentiful supply of canned fish, meats and poultry, have also contributed greatly to their diminution. The "American Sardine," as it is called, is simply a preparation of the smaller " whitefish" or menhaden, which are canned at Eastport, Lubec, Jonesport and several other places in Maine. There are also several factories in operation at the present time in New Jersey. The fish are prepared by softening the bones by steam, and trimming the body to the proper size. Many of the retail dealers of New York and other cities regard the American sardines with suspicion and even dislike. The entire packing done in the United States is a little over seventy-two thousand cases. SAUCES Are compounds of vegetables, meats, spices, etc., mixed with wine or vinegar, reduced to a liquid form and used as a relish or condiment to use with other food. There are a large num- ber in the market, both English and American, and are very various both in quality and flavor, each . manufacturer generally having one or more recipes in his possession, which he makes a specialty. The American sauces have, however, latterly reached such a pitch of perfection, that they have gained a decided precedence in their own markets and also in foreign markets. 132 THE GROCERS COMPANION. SAUERKRAUT. A dish of German origin, and consisting of close heads of white cabbage, cut into fine shreds, placed in a cask or barrel, with salt, peppercorns, caraway seeds or anise seeds, etc., and placed under heavy pressure. After a severe pounding, it is al- lowed to remain for some days in a warm place until fermentation takes place, when it emits a very disagreeable acid, fetid odor. Some strong brine is then added, and it is considered ready for use. It is partly washed from the salt before using, and is eaten boiled or fried with meats, or cold as a salad. It requires about two hours to com- plete its cooking. SAUSAGE. Pork, beef or other meats, chopped up very finely, and mixed with various seasoning herbs and other ingredi- ents, and enclosed in a skin. Portable machines are now sold for making them, and housekeepers can make their own sausages, without the labor and tediousness of chopping with a knife. SCOOPS. These are very essential articles in a grocery store ; and every grocer should supply himself with a plentiful number of good, strong scoops of all sizes, and of a lasting and satisfactory character. Steel scoops and three-ply wooden scoops arc among the best. SCRAPPLE. Another German dish, composed as follows : A young pig's head, well boiled ; then chopped up very fine, and mixed with the liquor in which it has been boiled ; which is after- wards thickened with buckwheat and Indian meal, and seasoned with spices and herbs. It is then placed in pans to cool, when it is sliced and fried for the table. SCALES. Among all the fittings pertaining to the storekeeper, there is no article requiring such constant care and attention as the Scales. In this article particularly, the best will be found by far the cheapest in the long run. There should always be two or more pairs kept of a size suitable to the bulk and character of the goods to be weighed on them ; and special care should be taken not to get them out of order by overstraining them with the bulky or heavy goods. SEALING WAX. Though the use of this article has been largely superseded in many departments of trade and commerce by the gummed envelope, the rubber ring and other ingenious devices, there are yet remaining many ways in which it^ use may be made advantageous. It is usually made by mixing shellac, Venice turpen- tine, Peru balsam, vermillion and sulphate of lime ; and in the cheaper kinds, led lead is substituted for vermillion, and common rosin is also added. Black sealing wax is made by substituting ivory black for the vermilion or red lead. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 133 SEA-MOSS. This marine vegetable (for, growing near the sea, it partakes more of the character of seaweed) is also known by the names Sea-moss Farine, Iceland Moss, Reindeer Moss and Lich- enine. It is universally known for its nutritious, restorative and medicinal qualities. As a diet for infants, weakly children and in- valids, it is invaluable. It is sometimes pounded and made into bread; boiled in water or milk (generally milk), and made into a jelly ; is often made up into puddings, pastry and blancmanges, and mixed with cocoa, chocolate or broma in either way proving highly nutritious and palatable. It is composed almost entirely of starch ; grows abundantly on the shores of the northern seas, and, in some southern countries, on the mountain lands. SEEDS. Seeds, both for the flower and kitchen garden, are articles which every grocer may keep on his shelves without incon- venience, as they do not take up much room, find a ready sale, and afford a good margin for profit. The only precautions necessary are not to lay in too heavy a stock, and to carefully protect them from, the action of the air or artificial heat. SELF-MEASURING FAUCETS. These are specially de- signed for grocers' use, and will be found very desirable in measuring liquids (especially molasses, oils, etc.), as they can be used in the coldest weather without the chance of freezing or congealing. The faucet holds exactly one gill, or quarter of a pint (standard measure ), at one time hence its title of self-measuring. SEMOLINA. A preparation of wheat grown in Italy and southern Europe, similar to macaroni, and which is the residue of the grain not reduced to powder after passing through the bolting machine. There are various inferior imitations, but the true semolina is dry and hard. It is very nutritious, and is used like rice, in soups and puddings. A similar preparation is made from maize and millet, but it is very inferior, both in quality and flavor. SHAD. Fish principally inhabiting the northern hemisphere living in the sea for the greater part of the year, but ascending the rivers in the spring for the purpose of depositing their spawn. They abound in the Hudson and Delaware Rivers, and in Chesapeake Bay, and furnish a very large proportion of the fish supply to the commu- nity, being sold both fresh and salted in our markets, and preserved for a still greater length of time by the process of freezing. Through the exertions of the United States Fish Commission, the rivers con- nected with the Gulf and on the Pacific slopes, have been stocked with young shad, artificially hatched. When fresh, the fish are solid, scales bright and gills crimson; those stale and unfit for food may easily be distinguished by their soft, flabby condition, and the whitish 134 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. color of the gills. They are in season from April to June. The shad roes are a favorite and exceedingly palatable dish. SHADINE. These, strictly speaking, are young shad, and are frequently trimmed, put up in oil, and sold as sardines. They are not over six inches in length, and are caught off the New York and New Jersey coasts. SHADDOCK. A fruit of the orange species, frequently seen and sold in our fruit stores, imported from the West Indies. It is considerably larger than the lemon, keeps fresh for a longer period, has an abundance of juice, and has also a much stronger acid. It is chiefly used to flavor punches, make (so-called) lemonades, and fig- ures largely in preserves, but its flavor is not so delicate. SHAKER GOODS. This term includes a large number of articles Dry Goods, Cereal Products and Groceries all of which are specially characterized by their great purity and extreme cleanli- ness. The Shaker communities exist in various sections of the United States, and bring to our markets agricultural produce of all kinds, such as canned goods, herbs, fruit-butters, jellies, apple-sauce, etc. SHELLS. The shells or outer coverings of many of our food- products are capable of beiug utilized with advantage, both to the consumer and the tradesman. One of the most useful and popular of these, from a domestic point of view, is the shell of the cocoa bean, after preparation by roasting. It contains all the nutritive properties of chocolate and cocoa, but is not so rich, and therefore much more healthy as a beverage. Its use is chiefly confined to New York and New England, where it is universally used, not only in the domestic circle, but at the hotels and restaurants. SHELLS ARK. One of the many varieties of nuts commonly used as a dessert. It is a species of hickory, and has a very thin shell. It is also used as a confection or candy, under the name of *' Shellbark caramels." SHOT. Even in times of peace, shot is a necessary article to every community, and must necessarily be kept in abuudant and con- stant supply at every store professing to keep pace with the wants of the people. They are manufactured from a compound of lead and arsenic, the arsenic being added to render the lead more capable of being moulded into the required form. Shot are made in several sizes, to suit the purposes for which they are required, and are distin- guished both by numbers and letters. The smallest-sized shot i No. 12, and the size increases in proportion until it reaches No. 1, which represents buckshot, fifty to the pound. SHOW-CASES. Show-cases are a positive necessity to every THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 135 tradesman the grocer more particularly. The days when blacking and violet-powder could be huddled up with salt fish and soda on one shelf, have long since passed away.. If a grocer wishes to sell his goods, he must display them in such a way as to be perfectly protected from dust and rough handling, and this cannot possibly be done without show-cases on his counter, especially in reference to the finer class of goods. SHERBET. This beverage, originally introduced from the East, Turkey, etc., is made of the juices of various fruits, principally the orange, mixed with sugar and water. It is frequently scented with rose-water and other essences, and flavored with spices. It is very generally used as a substitute for fermented and intoxicating liquors, and is really a very refreshing beverage. In some countries, rum and various home-made wines are mingled with it, and called by the same name. SHERRY. A description of wine, supposed to be the product of grapes from Andalusia or Jerez. It contains about twenty per cent, of alcohol ; is dry and very exciting. There are two kinds, pale and brown ; both of which are very easily, and unfortunately very frequently, adulterated with inferior'vintages brought up to the requisite alcoholic strength by the addition of bad and spurious brandies. SHRIMPS. A small and favorite fish, similar in form to the lobster, but very diminutive in size. It is imported here in the pot- ted or canned form, and also in sauces, and are deservedly looked upon as a great delicacy. The common shrimp of the United States is quite a different article, and used principally as fish bait. In reference to the shrimp, lobster, salmon, crab, and all similar goods imported in cans, we would urge upon every grocer and con- sumer the absolute necessity of keeping the can on ice until the con- tents are used, in order that the flesh may be firm and fresh. Nothing can possibly be more disgusting than to find the contents flabby and warm when placed on the table. SHRUB. A beverage better known in England than in the United States, but originated in the West Indies, and composed of rum, lime-juice, sugar and water. SIEVES. Sieves of all kinds, texture and sizes, are manufac- tured for domestic as well as store use, a full stock of which should always be kept on hand. They are made to suit all purposes such as the sifting of flour, fruits, teas, etc., and are constructed of wire gauze, wire, cane, etc., according to circumstances. SMELT. A very small and delicate fish (weighing about two ounces each) , abundant both in American and European waters, of 136 THE GROCERS COMPANION. the salmon or trout family. It is eaten, like whitebait, bones and all ; and when fresh, has an odor very similar to cucumbers. SMOKED MEATS. A very favorite American dish, espe- cially in summer. In order to be kept sweet and palatable, great care should be taken to keep them in a cool place, and remove them from the package or tierce as soon as possible after their arrival. The fresher the smoked meats are, the more palatable they will be ; it is much better therefore to purchase in small quantities, so as to ensure a fresh supply. The above term of course applies to hams ; they should not be kept in their canvassed bags longer than possible. SMOKED SARDINES. American Sardines are mostly made up in this form. The operation of smoking usually reduces the size of the fish very materially ; and consequently they are considered equal to the finest quality of imported sardines, and in many instances, are made to assume that character. SNTJFF. Snuff is an article which every grocer is bound to keep, and is supposed to be made from tobacco, crushed into a fine powder. The grinding or pounding is usually done in a wooden mor- tar. Some descriptions are prepared from kiln-dried tobacco, while others are made from soft leaves. There are a large number of va- rieties, some of which are claimed to have strong medicinal proper- ties. Snuff-taking is not as much resorted to in the northern and east- ern States as formerly; but both snuff-taking and snuff-rubbing (an extremely dirty habit) is extensively adopted through the South and south-west large quantities being manufactured expressly for that trade. The perfumed oils and essences used to flavor the snuffs are extremely injurious. The snuffs sold in the northern arid New Kngland States are chiefly plain and unscented. SOAKAGE. This term is used to represent an allowance made on all salted articles, when packed, to compensate for the amount of water absorbed by the cask or barrel ; and the amount allowed is al- ways calculated according to the size of the barrel and the condition of its contents. SOAP. The Soap manufacture in America has truly arrived at a colossal magnitude, and now exceeds Germany in its powers of production, and some of our soap-works possess greater facilities than the oldest on the European continent one American establish- ment alone turning out 40,000,000 pounds of soap annually. The varieties of soap manufactured in the United States are so numerous that they cannot be enumerated. There are between one hundred and fifty and two hundred different brands of bar and household soap, nearly twice as many descriptions of fancy and toilet soaps, and a large number of medicated and patented soaps designed for specific pur- THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 137 poses to which lists large additions are being made daily. Every thing known in the trade (whether of foreign make or not) has its counterpart in American manufacture, especially in bar-soap for household use. The staple household article is a curd-soap, contain- ing more or less rosin. Soft soaps, such as are known in Germany, are not manufactured here, the chief cause being the cheapness of the hard soaps. Soft soaps (imported) can be brought free to any part of the continent at three dollars per hundred weight. As to the quality of soap made in America, it is no worse nor no more varia- ble than that made elsewhere ; it depends entirely on the price. The fats used for hard soaps are almost exclusively tallows and bone fats ; oleic acid, cotton-seed oil and lard play a very subordinate part. Cocoa- nut-oil and palm-oil are but little used, the prices being too high probably on account of the import duty. The lyes are almost exclu- sively prepared from caustic imported from England, as only those soaperies which possess an extensive plant for the purpose, can afford to causticise their own lye. The fatty acids are combined with some metallic base, usually soda or potassa. The. chief fats and true oils are the palmitic, oleic and stearic, with glycerine as a base. When treated with the alka- line hydrates or lie, these fats are decomposed, the potash or soda of the lye uniting with the acids and forming soap, while the glycerine is set free. Commercial soaps are now almost entirely made with a soda base, on account of the great cheapness of soda as compared with potassa. Soaps made from soda are generally hard ; those made from potash are soft. There is a great deal of soft soap still used for domestic purposes, in which the refuse kitchen fats are employed, the lye being furnished by the leaching of wood ashes ; the grease and lye being simply boiled together, until complete saponification takes place. It is by no means a pure soap, but it is very useful for all the coarser uses to which soap is applied, such as scouring wool and yarn, or the cleansing of any article in which there is a large amount of oil or grease. A good quality of hard soap is prepared by adding slacked lime to soda ash, the combination forming carbonate of lime, and leaving a solution of caustic soda or lye. The fats may be either animal or vegetable, or both, but they must be clean and sweet. If rosin is added, it is simply as an adulterant, and to cheapen the pro- duction. After the soap is boiled and become solid, it is left for about a week to cool off, when it is cut into bars with wires. BOKAX SOAP Is made of tallow and borax, and is a" hard, white soap r possessing remarkable cleansing qualities. CASTILE SOAP Is made of olive and rape-seed oils. There are a great many brands, both of American and English manufacture, professing to be pure Castile soaps, which are very inferior in quality, in making Castile soap, great care must be taken to avoid an excess 138 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. of alkali or soda only just enough being used to neutralize the oil. For this reason the soap is much milder, and may be used in cleansing wounds and other surfaces where a common soap would irritate and cause pain. Its mottled appearance is caused by the presence of a small amount of copperas, stirred into it while liquid, which, when exposed to the air, turns red. White Castile is the same as the other, without the coloring matter. Though called Castile soap, it is far from being exclusively made in Spain, by far the largest propor- tion coming from the south of France. The spurious Castile soap may be easily detected by the coloring matter being in streaks, instead of mottled, as in the genuine. CocOANUT-OiL SOAP Is generally known as Marine soap, and is specially designed for washing in sea water, as it is not readily de- composed by the salt. It is very hard, and, from its peculiar prop- erties, is much used at sea and in seaport towns. COLD WATER SOAPS Are specially manufactured for domestic use, where there are not the usual facilities for warm water ; and for use in summer, when fires are comparatively unnecessary. OLEINE SOAP Is made from red vegetable oil, one of the best materials used in soap manufacture ; it is more expensive than other brands, but is undoubtedly superior to others in general use. SAND SOAP Is manufactured with silver sand, or some of the silicates, in addition to the usual ingredients. SAPOLIO Is an article similar to silica, and is considered by the trade the best of its class. It is used to cleanse metals and wood, marble, etc. SILICATED SOAP Is made by the addition of sand or finely- powdered pumice-stone to ordinary hard soap. SOFT SOAP Is a semi-fluid compound, consisting of potash or alkaline wood ashes boiled with fats or oils, and containing the gly- cerine and a large proportion of water. TOILET SOAPS Are made from very pure and sweet oils, the saponification being conducted without the aid of heat, and the soap perfumed by the addition of essential oils. TRANSPARENT SOAP Is made by dissolving the soap in alcohol and solidifying it again ; shaving soaps are included in this class. YELLOW SOAP Differs from the other kinds, by having rosin added to the lye. As it makes an excellent lather, it is an ingredient in most laundry soaps, and is at the same time a universal vehicle for all adulterating purposes. ADULTERATIONS OF SOAP. One of the chief adulterations is the THE GROCERS COMPANION. 139 increase of its weight with water, which is held in solution by the in- troduction of certain chemicals, or by the addition of some soluble and insoluble mineral substances such as hydrated alumina, silica, glue and other gelatinous matters. Waterglass, starch, gypsum, clay, bone ash and barytes, are also often used. Soap is readily soluble in alcohol, and the solution mixed with camphor and oil of rosemary, is known in drug stores by the name of Opodeldoc. SOAP POWDERS. This term may be said to include wash- ing powders, and every article used to take the place of, or economise the use of, soap. They all have the same base, viz., carbonate of soda, lime, ammonia and borax, in various quantities, the relative proportions being in fact the only point of difference. They have a number of fancy names, such as Pearline, Lavine, Soapine, Sudseua, etc., but they are all manufactured on the same principle. SOAPSTONE. This substance is a magnesian mineral, so called from its soft, greasy feel, and under the name of Mineral pulp, is ground into a fine powder for the purpose of adulterating flour and butter, in order to add to its weight. SODA Is a mineral alkali, of which there are several varieties that is, having the same elements in different combinations the three principal being Caustic soda, Neutral or Sal soda, and Carbon- ate of soda or Cooking soda. It is largely obtained from common salt by a process of evaporation, and produces each of the three va- rieties we have named. Prior to the discovery of this process of evaporation by M. Leblanc, it was entirely derived from the ashes of burnt seaweed or kelp. The caustic soda is a prominent article in the manufacture of soap ; neutral or sal-soda is the was/ting soda of commerce; and the carbonate of soda, known as cooking soda, is a predominant element in baking powders, bread preparations, and all substitutes for yeast, besides being used as a summer beverage, in combination with certain acids, and forming an important item in medicinal preparations. The articles sold as saleratus and soda, are practically the same thing. Concentrated lye is a strong solution of caustic soda and carbonate of soda. SORGHUM SUGAR. Sorghum is sometimes called the Chinese Sugar-cane, being a native of that country, and occupying the same position there as our sugar-cane does in the West Indies and the other sugar-producing districts. It was introduced into America by the French consul at Shanghai, some thirty years since, when it attracted much attention ; and at the present moment, having become perfectly acclimated, gives promise to thoroughly revolution- ize the sugar trade, and open up a vast field for profitable industry, and at no very distant period to utterly annihilate the present monop- oly in that important article of commerce. The only circumstance 140 THE GROCERS COMPANION. which seems to complicate the question, and somewhat arrest pro- gress, is the great production of glucose from corn, but even this ap- parent difficulty will doubtless find its level. Sorghum sugar, as an article for cultivation in the United States, possesses many points of advantage, one of the chief being the large amount of good and pala- table syrup to be drawn from it, which is readily obtained, and will soon replace molasses in the domestic economy. The cheapness of its culture, the easiness with which it is grown, and the uniform ex- cellence of its produce, place it upon a wholly different footing to the sugar beet. It will grow on almost any soil, requires but little labor, and the juice is free from any disagreeable flavor three features which the sugar beet cannot claim to possess. Professor Collier, of the Agricultural Department at Washington, says that "there is no difficulty in making from sorghum an abundance of sugar of first-rate quality." The fact has been conclusively ascertained from the agricul- tural authorities and other experts, that the average yield of first-class sugar from the sorghum canes will amount to fully two tons per acre. SORREL. A well-known perennial plant, cultivated to a fair extent in the United States, chiefly for the sake of its leaves, which impart an agreeable acid, and is used mostly by the Germans and French in soups and sauces. It takes the same place in the French markets as spinach does in ours, and is nearly as abundant. It is very wholesome. SOUP. There are a great many descriptions of soup, both meat and vegetable, separate and combined, carefully packed in her- metically sealed cans, which add very considerably to the conven- ience of the housewife and cook, as they can be made ready for the table in a very few minutes. There is also another form recently introduced to the market, still more compact, viz., the dry soups or packages of ingredients, finely chopped, ready for use, which are very convenient and available. SOY. A very exquisite, delicate and popular sauce, prepared from a bean grown in China and Japan. The genuine article, being of a very choice nature, there are of course many very inferior and disgusting counterfeits. It should be neither too sweet nor too salt, and though syrupy and thick, should be perfectly clear. If genuine, the bottle or glass containing it, when shaken, should be enveloped in a bright yellowish film. SPECIALTIES. This term embraces everything out of the ordinary line of grocery goods, or not strictly within its range. Every enterprising grocer, who desires to improve the character and extend his trade, should take hold of every attractive and genuine novelty he can see ; of course taking special care that the specialties THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 141 he handles are really good for something, and calculated to please his patrons. SPECULATION. There are two kinds of speculation, judi- cious and reckless the latter leading directly to bankruptcy, and the former to certain prosperity. As a rule, speculation, in the ordinary sense of the word, is an evil which should be avoided by all trades- men whether it be considered on account of its riskiness or the amount of distraction it occasions, by diverting the mind of the grocer from his regular business developments. The only speculation which would be warranted by common sense, is limited by the probalik'. do- mands of his business in the immediate future. The legitimate exten- sion and improvement of his trade will or should engross all his timc r energy and capital. SPERM-OIL. Prepared from the blubber of the sperm-whale, and used not only for illuminating and lubricating purposes, but as an insect exterminator, as, when mixed with a little water and sprinkled over rose bushes, it Avill exterminate the bugs which infest them. SPERMACETI. A solid, oily substance, of a white color and waxy consistence, found in a cavity in the head of the whale, and obtained from the oil and brains of the spermaceti whale, which is usually found in the Southern Ocean. It comes to market in nearly transparent flakes, is dry and crumbling, though soft ; has the taste of butter and a tallowy odor, and is largely used in making candles* for medicinal purposes in general, and also in the laundry, to impart a gloss to the surface of the articles washed. SPICES. Spices are vegetable productions, distinguished by their extremely pungent and aromatic qualities. They are" almost endless in their variety of form and flavor, are indispensable in cook- ery and confectionery, and are almost entirely the product of tropical climates. Their special commercial value is in the amount of aroma and pungency contained in their essential oils. Various sections of the plants are manufactured into spice the peppers, pimento, mace, nutmeg and vanilla, being derived from the fruit ; cinnamon and cas- sia from the bark, and such as ginger from the root. A large num- ber of spices arc natives of South America, but the majority arc natives of the East Indies. Spices are of special value in the manu- facture of sauces, soups, salads, confectionery, and numerous culinary and manufacturing operations, and form an important and not unprof- itable item in the grocer's catalogue. The various spices are de- scribed under their appropriate heads [which see]. SPINACH. A garden vegetable, originally imported from Kurope, but now universally cultivated in this country as a favorite article of domestic consumption. It is easy of culture, and is in sea- 142 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. son the year round. For spring use it is sown in the fall, and pro- tected from frost during the winter. It is of the same character as dandelion. The varieties used are the round, prickly and New Zea- land species. SPRATS. A small fish of the herring family, and used .smoked, dried and fresh. They are frequently packed and sold as sardines, differing but slightly from that fish in size and flavor. SQUASH. A species of vegetable partaking of the character of the pumpkin and the gourd, but much more delicate in flavor than the former, and of great importance as an article of food. It is used both as a vegetable and as a fruit, and may be looked upon as a standard New England dish. They vary greatly in size, form, color and quality, are rapid growers, and are raised with little trouble. They form a prominent article in our markets, both winter and sum- mer, the winter squash having special excellencies. Whether stewed or baked, in pies and tarts, or otherwise cooked, the demand for them is large and quite equal to the supply. The best of the summer va- rieties in cultivation are the Yellow and White Bush Scalloped, Sum- mer Crookneck and Boston Marrow ; the favorite winter selections being the Hubbard and Marblehead. STARCH. This substance forms a large part of our cereals and vegetables wheat, rice, corn, peas and beans, sago, horse-chest- nuts and potatoes consisting of quantities ranging from twenty to sixty per cent. In the starch of commerce there are only two known descriptions those used for food and those employed for manufactur- ing and laundry purposes. The starch in our markets is largely manufactured from the potato. The Corn-starch, which enters so largely into the food for in- valids and infants, and various articles of confectionery and the do- mestic pantry, is prepared from Indian corn two large factories alone furnishing more than 40,000,000 pounds of starch annually, and con- suming in its production upwards of 2,000,000 bushels of corn Its manufacture, as now conducted by the new chemical process, is so su- perior in quality and flavor as not only to have superseded and driven out the foreign brands, which formerly found a ready sale in the United States, but it has created for itself a large export demand to Europe and other parts of the world, which is rapidly and constantly increasing. The new process of which we speak, entirely obviates the process of souring the grain, formerly resorted to, the gluten being separated from the corn by the action of acids and alkalies. The food-starches, of which maize, the sago-palm and manioc forms the basis, are the arrow-root and corn-starch, and consequently far less acid than the laundry and manufacturing article, which is made from THE GROCERS COMPANION. 148 rice, wheat and potatoes. The potato or sprout starch, as it is sometimes called, from a special process in its manufacture, is inferior in char- acter, and mainly used by calico manufacturers and others in the " dressing" of textile fabrics. Wheat starch is made in three grades the first, or finest, being used for laundry starch ; the second (a standard grade) adapted to the finer kinds of manufacturing work ; and the third, or common, only used for the coarser and subordinate operations already referred to. Starch making from potatoes is the great manufacturing industry of Aroostook county, Maine. It originated in 1874. The ma- chinery for making starch from potatoes is very simple, requiring but little mechanical skill in its construction. It is a hopper, into which the potatoes are emptied by the bushel basketfull, from whence they pass through a cylinder about three feet long, where the potatoes are rattled about without ceremony among the frame work and arms in- side, until they are washed perfectly clear of all dirt, water in abund- ance being constantly poured upon them by pipes from above. From thence the potatoes pass down upon a grater, two feet in diameter, made of staves four inches thick, three feet six inches long, with heavy cast-iron heads. The cylinder is covered with sheet iron, per- forated with holes from within, so that the grater is perfectly fit for the work it has to do. In less than a minute a bushel of potatoes is worn up by the rapidly revolving grater, and reduced to the finest pulp. From thence the pulp goes on to a metallic sieve, which has a rapid oscillatory motion, with a stream of water pouring upon it the whole time, washing the starch from the pulp while the other con- stituents of the potato pass off the end of the sieve into the stream below. The water which pours through the sieve, and in which is held the starch, runs off into large vats in a mill, twenty feet square and six feet deep. When -these vats are full, the water is drained off and the starch remains at the bottom, some four inches deep. The starch is then shoveled over into two smaller vats, clean water pumped in, filling them full, the whole stirred up by machinery, and, when the starch is completely mixed in water, it is left again to settle. After it is settled, the water is again drained off, and the starch re- mains perfectly pure and clean. It is then shoveled up, taken on wheelbarrows over a long passageway to the attic of the dry-house, where it is spread over a large platform, made of slats with openings an inch wide between them, so that the heat from the furnace below comes in contact with the starch. As it dries and crumbles, it falls through upon other platforms below, and so through a succession of similar platforms until, in the course of twenty-four hours, it comes out twenty feet below, perfectly dry and ready for barreling. When tke starch is ready, it is put up into casks, holding some over five hundred pounds each, and is ready for shipment. In barreling it, one man gets into the cask and treads it down, while another shovels 144 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. the starch in. A cooper stands by to put in the head, make it secure and drive the hoops. In from twenty-four to thirty-six hours after the potatoes are/dumped into the cellar, the starch is ready for ship- ment. The annual length of the season for starch making is about ten weeks, that is from the 1st of September to the middle of No- vember. STARCH POLISH. A comparatively new article, which has been brought into demand by the refinements and improved taste engendered by civilization. It is specially intended to give a glossy finish to starched goods, and is usually riade from the fol- lowing ingredients : Starch, White Castile Soap, Paraffine, Borax aud White Wax. Another variety is made from spermaceti, white wax, castor oil, mutton tallow, borax, salt, gum arabic and isin- glass. Either of these articles impart a high finish to the goods, and to a certain extent, preserve the fabrics on which they are used. STOVE POLISH. A preparation, the groundwork of which is or should be, either graphite or black lead ; but unhappily it is so enormously adulterated in all its stages of preparation that the grocer can place but little reliance on its genuineness, with a very few exceptions. It is sold in powder, rolls and sticks, and is used for polishing iron-work generally. STRAWBERRIES. One of the most delicate and lueious fruits of which the United States can boast. It is a native of North America, and grows wild in several of the States ; but the cultivated article is so greatly improved, and the demand for it so great, that a large number of new varieties are constantly being introduced from the seed. As an article of food, it is very wholesome, the best known varieties being "Wilson's Albany," the "Monarch of the West," the "Agriculturist," and " Hovey's Seedling." The eastern markets are chiefly supplied from New Jersey and Dela- ware, while the western markets rely for their supplies on Illinois and the Lake shore. Large quantities are annually canned and re- shipped from California, and sent to every known locality on this continent and in Europe. SUCCOTASH. This is an old friend under a new name, and finds great favor in the Southern and Western States, and is rapidly gaining ground in the Northern and Eastern sections of the Union. The dish from which it obtained its name (borrowed from the native Indians) differs considerably from the modern preparation, and is made on the following plan : A number of ears of young green sweet corn, shaved from the cob, shucked and silked, and the inside of the kernels taken out, are placed in a kettle with a small quantity of water, and allowed to boil for a little over a quarter of an hour ; THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 145 they are kept well-stirred ; salt, pepper, butter and sweet cream (about half a tea-cupfull) added, and they are then prepared for the table. SUGAR. The cultivation of the several descriptions of Sugar in the tropical and semi-tropical sections of the world, and its influ- ence not only on the vast industry which has arisen in the United States during the last century, but on the future interests of that commerce of Avhich it forms so large a portion, is a problem of vital and urgent importance to every citizen and merchant in the civilized world, and one which demands our immediate and serious attention. The fact that it is an indispensable necessary of existence in every community, and that sugar more than any other commodity has been made a subject of speculation, manipulation and even gambling to such an extent as to jeopardise the commercial standing and safety of both grower and merchant, and that every department of the sugar interest is more or less paralysed, until a fundamental change is made these fact.s fully justify us in asserting that a speedy and utter revolution must be made at once, and the personal interest of all parties interested in its cultivation must be permanently secured, if we desire to avert the annihilation which so imminently threatens to overwhelm grower, shipper and grocer in one irremediable wreck. Sugar, like starch, is to be found in almost every animal that breathes, and every plant that grows, in greater or less proportion. At the commencement of the present century, neither the beet, the maple, nor the sorghum were considered as probable or even possible, adjuncts to our sugar supplies. Our communities increased in num- bers, and the demand for a better supply, both as to quality and. quantity, increased in the same proportion, but this only opened the door to wholesale adulteration, and the introduction of worthless sub- stitutes for genuine sugar. And even in this matter, the worst and most inveterate enemies to the restoration of the sugar trade to its le- gitimate and natural condition were the grocers themselves in making a "decoy" of the article, and selling it at or below cost, for the pur- pose of coaxing or increasing trade thus giving substantial encour- agement to the professional adulterator, and ruining the honest retailer who persisted in his efforts to do a legitimate trade at fairly remuner- ative prices. The experience of the past two years in the "Grocers' Associations," and the encouraging success of their efforts to put down the fraudulent practice of selling "sugar at cost," has shown them what can be done by united and earnest effort. We are per- suaded that the great and only lever which will restore the " sugar trade " to its proper position, and enlarge the area of commercial profit by adding the " sorghum " to our other sources of supply, will be the " Retail Grocers' Associations," in enforcing their avowed policy of acting honestly and fairly in all things. 146 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. The sugars of commerce consist only of two kinds the " Su- crose," which includes the ordinary " cane suyar," and that made from the beet, the maple and the palm. The second is called "Dex- trose " or glucose, and variously known as grape sugar, starch sugar juid fruit sugar, and made from almost everything having starch or woody fibre, acted upon by strong sulphuric or muriatic acid. It is chiefly manufactured from potatoes and corn, roots, wood, paper and even rags being added, and is largely used as a substitute for sugar in syrups, confectionery, and home-made or fruit wiues. There are at least sixty establishments in Germany, whose sole business is the manufacture of sugar from the potato and similar vegetables, the annual produce of which is nearly 80,000,000 pounds of sugar and syrup. The cane sugars grow luxuriantly in Louisiana, West Indies, Central America, along the entire coast of northern South America, the Brazils, throughout large portions of Asia, the East Indies, and large portions of the Chinese and Tartar territories. The raw sugar, after the molasses is extracted, is not sent as it used to be some years since, direct into the market as Muscovado, clayed sugar, etc., but is transferred to the great sugar refineries, from whence it issues in the shape of " Powdered," " Granulated," " Standard A," " Extra C," " Extra Yellow C," "Cube," "Cut Loaf," "Crushed," and "Pul- verized " (frosting) sugars. For the production of 4 'A" sugar, the loaves, while still quite moist, are placed on a cutting-machine and shaved fine. The shaved sugar is then carefully dried, and the powdered portions sifted away, the remainder, being sold as granulated sugar. At other times the loaves are dried in hot-air chamber*, broken in a crushing-machine, the product separated by sifting, and respectively sold as powdered and crushed sugar. The dried loaves are also sometimes cut into cubes and sold as cube sityar. The mother liquor, after being drained and set in moulds, is converted into a sugar of light buff color, and known as "C" sugar. The residue of the mother liquor, known as " green syrup," having been collected from the various vacuum pans, is transferred to the centrifugal machine, and its operation results in the production of a dark sugar, called " X " or yellow sugar. The balance of the syrup is again diluted, filtered and concentrated, when it is sold as " golden syrup." Loaf "A," and other white sugars when dry, are pure cane sugars, divested of all foreign elements ; " C " sugar contains about ninety per cent, and yellow sugar a little over eighty per cent. The sugars and syrups manufactured in the northern United States, are, us a rule, obtained from the " sorghum" sugar cane. Maple sugar and syrup never enters the refinery, for the reason that the peculiarly delicate and pleasant flavor it possesses would be entirely destroyed by the refining process. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 14T More than one-third of the sugar manufactured in every country is made from the sugar beet, of which there are several varieties cul- tivated the European nations (England excepted) depending almost entirely on that source for their supply. The manufacture of beet sugar has been in existence for about three-fourths of a century. Good beets contain about ninety-six per cent, of juice, twelve per <*ent. of which is cane sugar. In the East, large quantities of sugar *ire made from various species of the palm-tree, made in a similar manner to the maple, that is by tapping. It is of a dark color, but agreeable taste, and is known by the name of Jaggery. The impor- tations of foreign sugar into the United States are nearly all raw, and amount annually to about 1,000,000 tons; the exports of refined sugar reaching 30,000 tons ; and the consumption to nearly 1,000,000 tons, or about forty-seven pounds per head. SUGAR-HOUSE SYRUP. This precious compound is vulgarly termed " black-strap," the produce of the process of boiling out the residue of the crystallizable sugar from molasses. It is a thick, dark mass. SULPHUR. A substance produced extensively in Sicily, Ice- land and California the latter place furnishing all the supplies of that article necessary to manufacture the " Oil of Vitriol," which is one of its staple products. Its chief use, under the name of " Brim- stone" of commerce, is in the manufacture of matches. In its re- fined form as " Sulphur," it is employed to a great extent in medi- cine, as a liquid for the destruction of insects, in bleaching processes, and in the production of sulphuric acid and gunpowder. It is also sold in the powdered form by chemists, as "Flowers of Sulphur,'' and used as a remedy for cutaneous diseases, both in men and animals. SWELLS. In our article on "Canned Goods" we have re- ferred to the frequent occurrence of "Swells," and its probable cause. It requires constant vigilance on the part of the packer to prevent the disastrous results which inevitably follow, viz., the decom- position of the contents from fermentation. The fermentation may be either alcoholic, or acetous, and produces carbonic acid gas and alcohol, which, acting upon the contents by producing putre- faction, and upon the metal can by creating a virulent poison. The only advice which can be given to the packer is, that he make sure that his cans do not leak. SYRUP. As observed in our description of Sugar, this is the liquid drawn off from the refined sugar, and is brought to the condition in which it is sold by a filtering process through charcoal its light or dark color depending entirely on the amount of impurity it contains. The substance known as Treacle is derived exclusively 148 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. from can sugar, and the " Syrup" of the store should be only a puri- fied form of treacle. But this is the case with a very small portion of that in the market, as that is generally a starch syrup containing lime, sulphate of iron and pure sulphuric acid the result or residue of the process used in making glucose. An analysis recently made of a score of syrups, obtained from as many different establishments, resulted in the following finding: Only two specimens were made of pure, cane sugar, the remaining number were more or less sophis- ticated with deleterious and even poisonous ingredients, in greater or less quantity. TALLOW. A substance manufactured from the melted fat of various animals, but chiefly beef fat. It is produced in all countries where animal food is consumed, and its quality and con- dition, which is very variable, depend entirely on the care taken in the rendering, the state of the material when made into tallow, and the precautions taken to protect it from the action of the air in the course of transit. Its principal use is in the manufacture of candles and soaps and for softening leather. TAMARINDS. The tree bearing this fruit is cultivated in all warm climates. The fruit, as it reaches us, including both the juice and the pulp, is imported in kegs containing fifty pounds weight the repacking into jars being done here. It makes a very pleasant and useful beverage ; the effect being slightly aperient, it may be drank in warm or cold water ; it also makes a delicious pre- serve. It has recently been offered in various attractive forms as a medicine, and as a suitable vehicle for taking numerous draughts. TANKS FOR OIL. Cleanliness, economy, convenience and preservation of stock should be the first care of the storekeeper, and in no possible way can he so effectually secure these desirable ends as by the use of the cheap and durable oil tanks which are now placed at the service of the trade in all our cities. They are so in- geniously contrived that there is no possible waste or dirt, and a large amount of space and waste of time is avoided. TAPIOCA. This useful and necessary article of food is man- ufactured from the prepared roots of the maudive plant, which is subjected to a process of cleansing and pressure by which the juices (a deadly poison) is thoroughly expelled, leaving behind only the dried fibres of the root, which is then wholesome and nutrious, and from its peculiar properties cannot easily be adulterated or mixed with interior substances. It is the most wholesome, easily digested and nutritious of all the food-roots presented to our notice, and uni- versally employed in making puddings and other household dishee. The mandioc plant, from which tapioca is made, grows in the West THE GROCERS COMPANION. U9 Indies, South America and Africa. There are three species. The first is the bitter cassava, indigenous to Brazil ; it has a large, tuber- ous root, which sometimes weighs thirty pounds. This root contains a large proportion of starch, which is associated with a poisonous, milky juice. The other two species do not contain the poisonous juice. All are used alike in the preparation of tapioca. The root is well washed, then scraped or grated to a pulp, and this when of the poisonous kind, is thoroughly pressed in order to remove the juice ; well washed with cold water and afterward dried, this is the tapioca of commerce, sometimes called Brazilian arrow-root. TARE. This is a term used to designate the deduction always made by the merchant to the retailer from the gross weight of the goods, to compensate for the weight of the package, and other losses liable to occur during transit. There are three kinds of tare, viz : Actual, Estimated and Average. The actual tare is when each package is weighed on its own merits and the proportionate deduction made. The average tare is taken by weighing a few of the packages and deducting a given average amount for each. The estimated tare is when the weighing is dispensed with and a certain amount deducted for the supposed weight of the package. TARTARIC ACID. This chemical agent is the crude pro- duct of the encrustation found inside of wine casks the Cream of Tartar [which see] being a prepared product of the argol or tartar, of which the before-mentioned crust consists. The tartar is dissolved in hot water until the efferescence ceases and the acid only remains. Its chief use is in dyeing, but it forms a part in the manufacture of all the baking powders [which see] and, when comb'ined with bicar- bonate of soda, is a refreshing and effervescing summer beverage. TEA. More than a century before the celebrated " Boston Tea Party" assembled on the shores of the Charles River the tea plant flourished, and its fragrant, aromatic leaves were looked upon as a priceless treasure, and a luxury only to be enjoyed by the most wealthy of the land. So early as the year 1057, it was scarcely known, except to its originators the Chinese ; and prior to that period we look in vain for any record of its introduction or its use. Even in Europe, where its existence was first made known, it was not heard of until the early part of the sixteenth century ; but* since that period, tea has caused more excitement and heart-burnings in one way or the other, than any other article holding a place in the long list of American or English importations. Notwithstanding the various long-named descriptions of tea both black and green which invite the attention of the consumer, there is but one species of the tea tree the only difference in quality or flavor being ascri- bable to a slight variation in the soil, climate or growth, in the age 150 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. of the picking (whether old or young leaves), and in the preparation for consumption. The distinction between black and green color of the teas are not due to being taken from different varieties, but to the method in which the leaves are treated. The tea plant is very prolific, there being as many as four har- vests in the year. The first picking of the young plant occurs in April, the buddings being very choice in character, and realize very high prices, but the produce is never imported to this country ; it is specially retained for the use of the chief mandarins and millionaires of the Chinese empire, a small quantity being also sent overland to Russia. The second picking commences in May, from which the finest selections sold in the United States and European markets are obtained. The leaf is very carefully picked by skilled experts, who pick about ten pounds per day each each leaf being picked sepa- rately and very delicately handled, as they are extremely susceptible of injury and subsequently these leaves, notwithstanding the care exercised, are subjected to a second sorting, the bruised or damaged leaves being all rejected, or transferred to an inferior class. This second picking is known as " first-crop tea," and includes the de- scriptions bearing the names of the finest Young Hyson, Gunpowder, Congou, Souchong and Oolongs. At a later period. June or July, the third crop is gathered, of which the more matured leaves form the greater portion, and the vigilant selection as to bruised or defec- tive leaves is not maintained, consequently they contain much more* tannin, are of a more astringent and harsher character, and the infu- sion has a less delicate aroma, and much more bitter. As the weeks and months go on, after June or July, various small gatherings arc made, but each successive picking is inferior both in taste and quality, and the preparation is neither so carefully conducted, nor accurately carried out as in the second and third crops. The special processes to which the leaves are subjected, in order to obtain the black and green varieties, are fully explained in John- ston's " Chemistry of Life," some of the facts related we hereby briefly subjoin : In the process of drying, the leaves are roasted and scorched in such a manner as to necessarily effect many chemical changes in them, resulting in the variations of flavor, odor and taste, by which the several varieties of tea in the market are distinguished. The distinction between the Mack and r/rcen varieties are due solely to the mode in which the leaves are treated, the black undergoing a sort of fermentation before drying ; while the green arc submitted, immedi- ately after gathering, to a high temperature in iron pans. The man- ufacture of black tea closely resembles haymaking. The leaves tiro placed in heaps and allowed to ferment for a given time, which im- parts to them a dark color, and they become flaccid. They then un- dergo the manipulation of the twisters, who either twirl them between the thumb and forefinger, or rub and roll them with the hands on a THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 151 table of split bamboo, until the operation is completed. The leaves are then taken to the drying-room, and heated for sonic minutes iu an iron pan ; after which the twisting operation is repeated ; and they are subsequently put in wicker cylinders and dried on a slow- fire the .process being repeated several times until they are black and crisp. In the manufacture of green teas the leaves are placed, im- mediately after picking, into firing pans, over charcoal fires ; and after a short ti.ne are removed and subjected to the operation of the rollers, Avho roll them in the different forms in which they appear on the market. They are again put on the fire for drying, and the op- eration is repeated until they become dry and crisp, when they are stowed away, either for home use or for the market. The greea teas of commerce are artificially colored by turmeric powder and a mixture of gypsum and Prussian blue, or of gypsum and indigo. Some of the teas are flavored or scented, by placing among the leaves uuring the several stages of preparation, the aromatic flowers of cer- tain plants. Among the tea-producing countries, China comes first in rank, Japan second, and India (which promises to outvie each of its orien- tal neighbors, although the culture of tea did not commence until 18oG) is third. Then come .Java, the island of Ceylon and Brazil, in the order named. California could well, and possibly may, be- come a prolific tea-producing State, if it can only overcome the diffi- cult question of labor. Tea is certainly the foremost of all beverages, in reference to its invigorating and restorative qualities. It has a remarkable influence iu diminishing the daily waste or disintegration of the human tissue ; therefore, if the waste is lessened in any degree, the necessity for food to repair the waste will be proportionately diminished, in other words, by the consumption of a certain quantity of tea, the health and strength of the body will be maintained in an equal degree upou a smaller quantity of food. Tea, therefore, saves food stands to a large extent iu its place while at the same time it soothes the body and enlivens the mind. GREEN TEAS. Some time since the English government passed a law prohibiting the importation of faced green tea and that action naturally made this country and Canada the only outlets for the nu- merous vile concoctions of which theChine.se and their darker-skinned neighbors, the Japanese, have shown themselves only too capable iu manipulation. Faced tea is easily detected by connoisseurs, as it has a blueish hue, and when drawn has a collection of scum of the same color on the top of the liquor. Gunpowder t-hould be round, like small shot, with a delicate bloom which will not bear to be breathed upon, has a greenish hue, 152 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. and a fragrant, pungent taste. It is of a dark green color. This kind of tea -is often adulterated by inferior kinds, artificially colored, glazed and manufactured to look like the gunpowder with which it is mixed. When the leaf is opened and loose, the outside of a darker shade, and the taste metallic and unpleasant, it should be rejected. Imperial is very similar to Gunpowder, only more loosely rolled and coarser. Young Hyson is divided into two distinct kinds, Moyune and Ping Suey. Moyune is usually packed in half chests, Ping Suey in boxes. Moyune does not possess the same good make and handsome regu- larity of leaf for which Ping Suey is noted, but it is finer in flavor, drawing a rich, mellow and delicious liquor. Ping Suey, not being so fine, is more bitter and coarser. Moyune, Hysons and Gunpow- der arc much less subjected to adulteration than the other green teas. Old Hyson is similar in character to Young Hyson, but is much larger and more irregular in leaf. It draws a good liquor, but its color and style does not recommend it when sold by itself. It is usu- ally employed for mixing with black teas, and gives a good body to teas sold at more moderate prices. Some of the Old Hyson is simply the true hyson, rather aged, and after repeated drying and freshing up, is sent to the market a second time. Twarikay consists of the broken and mixed leaves, and is of an inferior quality. It is a more unsightly tea than hyson, with larger, yellowish, badly-rolled leaves, and is ranked by the trade among the cheapest of the Chinese and Japanese greens, though occasionally some good parcels may be had. It is very seldom retailed by itself. The infusion is of a deep yellow color, and clear, sharp taste. Japan furnishes us with both colored and uncolored green tea the greater proportion being colored and subjected to considerably more adulteration than Chinese teas. They have an agreeable odor, and in the cup Japan tea should be of light color and fragrant ; the better qualities having a mild and pleasant taste. BLACK TEAS. Oolongs are very highly dried, of wiry, brittle leaf, and valued according to the degree of strength and pungency and freedom from dust, and are divided into three distinct classes, according to the localities and district of their growth, viz., Formosa, Foochow and Amoy. The Formosa Teas are rapidly rising in public favor, and will, without doubt, shortly become the leading black tea in the market. Though ranked in this country under the head of Black Tea, it would be more correct to grade it between the uncolored green and the black teas of India and China the liquor decidedly resembling that of the uncolored greens. Formosa and Foochow rank first in quality and THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 153 aroma, the latter possessing a more distinctive flavor, while all the commoner grades may safely be classed under the Amoy kinds. The finest is free from stalk, fine twisted leaf, and of delicate flavor and full strength. The Formosa Oolong Tea is the most satisfactory arti- cle where fine taste is consulted. The aroma and flavor are vastly superior to any other kind of tea, with the exception of the early- picked Rose Leaf Japan ; and for body and strength it far exceeds all other varieties. It is susceptible of reduction in strength to a larger degree without destroying the flavor, and is the only tea that furnishes u satisfactory second dressing. SCENTED TEAS Are chiefly divided into Foochow and Canton, the Foochow being the highest scented, but generally drawing a weaker water. Those from Canton draw a good, deep liquor, and are strong and rough to the palate. These two teas are chiefly used by the manufacturing classes of England and America. In all scented teas those are considered the best which have an olive color, and the infusion a bright green. Scented Orange Pekoe is a long leaf tea, well twisted. One par- ticular brand of it is termed " spider-legged," from the length of its leaves. The small-leaved Orange Pekoe, known as Owe/mm, draws a darker liquor than Foochow, and is in some cases quite as delicate in flavor. Scented Caper is, in appearance, much like Gunpowder, only black instead of green. In character it is like Pekoe, but slightly different in flavor. About twenty years since, this tea got into great disrepute, owing to the method in which it was made. By collecting the dust of other teas, and adding gum and steel filings to it, they were able to make a pretty-looking tea by strongly facing it with black lead ; but the public taste is now so opposed to faced teas of any kind, that dealers who know anything of the trade resolutely re- ject everything with facing on. Congou is really the black tea of China, and is commonly known in this country as English Breakfast Tea, which is in reality mis- called, as all descriptions of tea are sold in England, and they seldom sell any particular brand by itself the English being great adepts in mixing and blending, so as to suit the tastes and palates of their cus- tomers in different parts of the country. In fact, blending tea is con- sidered in England as one of ike fine arts of the trade. Congou com- prises the following brands : Moning, Kaisow, Souchong and New- Make. Moning is again subdivided into N ing-Chow, Oopack and Barfa, the quality ranging in the order as named. Kaisow is sub- divided into Ching-Woo, Panyongs and Saryquues. The Ning-Chow and Ching-Woo, of both Moning and Kaisow kinds, are the purest and finest teas imported from China. Souchong is a strong, black 154 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. tea; the leaves are large, rough, and often broken. The infusion is clear and aromatic. Java. Tea. is very similar in character to some of the varieties grown in British India. With a little more care in the drying and manipulation of the Java teas, the consumption cannot fail to increase. Most of our tea trade with China is carried on from the ports of Shanghai, Foochow and Amoy. The annual importation into the United States aggregates about 70,000,000 pounds, which would give about one and three-quarter pounds to each person in this country. Of this amount Japan tea takes the lead. Tea prepared for shipping is more highly fired than that for home use that coming across the Pacific being generally superior to that from other routes. The tea sent overland to Russia is usually in the form of bricks. Tt is made by mixing the dried leaves with some glutinous substance, putting it in moulds, and drying it in an oven. Tea as generally ex- ported is packed loose in wooden chests lined with sheet lead. Tea dust has of late years made its appearance in our markets, but it can- not be recommended, cither for cleanliness, purity or quality. In the steeping of tea the amount should be regulated by weight, as the bulk and weight are not reconcilable. A given bulk of Gun- powder is three times heavier than Oolong. Soft water is much pre- ferable to well water, and the water used should be newly boiled. The water should be applied to the tea while boiling, and the tea al- lowed to stand for five minutes, when it mav be served. Black and Japan teas require more steeping to extract their essential qualities than green teas. In this country sugar and milk are generally added ; in Russia lemon juice is used ; but in its native country, the tea is drank clear. The Tea. Trade has long been known as one of the most specu- lative in existence. It has puzzled the cleverest merchants and tea- tasters in China to make anything like a sure Ibreca.-t r.s to the run of the markets, and at the lust moment the most careful calculations are liable to be upset by some unforeseen circumstance. INDIAN TEAS. Indian Teas, though principally drank in Ire- land, are rapidly making their way into this country, and therefore deserve a passing mention. They are broadly divided into three classes Pekoe, Pekoe Sjw/(o7, and Connou, each nf which are distinctly characterized by perfect purity, and entirely free from the artificial means used in China and Japan to give <-olor, fragrance, strength and flavor to the leaf, nor are they put through the same mode of drying and curing. They rely entirely upon their natural strength and flavor for their popularity. Not being .subjected to arti- ficial flavoring, their differences, though perhaps greater in variety, are neither so distinct in flavor or character, which accounts in some THE GROCERS COMPANION. 155 measure for the comparatively small parcels of Indian teas as com- pared with China and Japan. Any attempt to classify these teas, therefore, under the same heads as those of China and Japan, would be unjust both to the tea and to the dealer. The Indian Pekoe is the finest, being both perfect in the leaf, abso- lutely pure, and of fine, rich flavor and full body. The rich Pekoe tips add considerably to its appearance. Pekoe Souchong is not nearly so well made a tea, being larger in leaf and altogether rougher in appearance. In the cup there is not so much difference. Some par- cels draw a remarkably fine liquor, both for strength and flavor. Congou does not form any large extent of the production in India, and comes nearer in character, though not in appearance, to the Congou of China. TESTING TEA. The first essential in this important operation is a sensitive, unvitiated palate on the part of the taster persons habituated to chewing tobacco or drinking spirituous liquors, are ut- terly incapable of acquiring the excessive delicacy of taste necessary to proper judgment of the peculiar qualities of this herb. The only other necessaries, a druggist's balance, a ten-cent piece for a weight, a small gas-stove and kettle for the boiling of water, and a dozen small china cups of equal size. TEA CADDIES. There are various descriptions made in this coun- try, in imitation of the original Japan and Chinese chests ; they are made in all sizes and shapes, and may be made a source of consider- able convenience and profit to the grocer. TIL TEA Is a special description of tea made in China, in the form of a brick ^ and chiefly sold to the Tartars, Armenians and Rus- sians inhabiting the Asiatic and more northern territories. The method of its preparation differs considerably from that of ordinary tea, being stewed with milk, butter, salt and herbs, and partaking more of the character of an urticle of diet than of a beverage. THYME. A herb used chiefly for seasoning of meats, soups and various dishes. It is largely cultivated in Europe, but not in this country the supply being wholly imported. Its odor is agreeable, pungent, strong and penetrating. TIERCE. A cask containing in liquids about forty-two gallons or one-third of a pipe the regulation-quantity of which u one hundred and twenty gallons. The word tierce is also applied to casks of a similar size used for packing lard, rice, hams, etc., but has no reference to the measurement of its contents. TIN CANS. Almost every article of a fluid or semi-fluid character, and those liable to deterioration from exposure to the air, is packed in tin cans, the cost of which has been reduced to an almost l.jG THE GROCERS COMPANION. nominal rate by the introduction of machinery in their manufacture indeed, their cost may be said to be more than counterbalanced by the saving effected in the prevention of waste and leakage. TOBACCO. Tobacco, in all its forms, is now as much a ne- necessury and staple article in every grocery store, as tea or sugar. It would be needless for us to describe the process of manufacture, as that is well-known to every one, whether connected with the trade or not. Whether it be in the form of cigars, plug, chewing and smok- ing tobacco or snuff, a constant and fresh supply should always be kept in stock, and sold at a moderate rate of profit. Cheap or infer- ior stock should always be avoided, for if the grocer confines his sale to the best brands, he will be able to give satisfaction to all classes of his customers ; sell quite as cheaply as any cigar dealer can, and at the same time realize a fair profit, say from twenty to thirty per cent. The sale of the lower grades of quality will not add either to his reputation nor to his receipts, and will certainly repel the better class of customers. The distinctive and valuable properties of tobacco are found mostly in the leaves, for which the plant is cultivated. The oil dis- tilled from tobacco, and called tobacco oil, is a virulent, deadly poison. In the process of manufacture, the leaves are partially fer- mented before drying, resulting in the development of a powerful aroma, with strong narcotic and acrid properties. After it has been cured, it is dried and shipped which operation can only be performed in damp weather. In a crop of tobacco there should be four sorts second, bright, yellow and dull which are of course tied into bundles aud kept separate for convenience in Bulking. The best time for packing is during the mild, pleasant weather of spring or summer. Jt is generally packed in hogsheads, the brand and grade being usu- ally marked and certified by a State inspector, on the head of each hogshead or package. They vary much in size and weight ; in Vir- ginia and adjacent States, the hogsheads contain from two hundred and fifty to twelve hundred pounds each. The inferior growths of Maryland, consisting of stems, lugs, etc., packed for export, weigh- ing from six hundred and fifty to eight hundred pounds per hogs- head. Western tobacco reaches fifteen hundred pounds, or more. Leaf tobacco is also packed in bales of two hundred and fifty pounds weight for export, and manufactured tobacco in cases of the same average weight. Lugs are the lowest quality of tobacco exported, and consist of stems, strippings and broken leaves. The best full leaves are commonly packed as wrappers, and usually bring the high- est prices. Manufactured tobacco, as it is called in the trade, is spe- cially distinguished from both the whole leaf and cigars or muff, and is usually made from inferior or defective leaves ; they are piled one upon the other, and then cut in a machine, similar to our straw or THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 157 chaff cutters, worked by horse or steam power, which can be regu- lated to cut the leaf either coarse or fine. The dark leaves, after being cut. are rendered still darker by the addition of syrups and lico- rice, subjected to additional pressure, and finally labelled, cut into blocks and cakes of various forms and sizes, and christened by vari- ous fancy and attractive names, such as adorn the price-lists of the NEW ENGLAND GROCER. The better sort of leaves are spun into- rolls of different sizes ; what is known as Negrohead, consisting 'of large, coarse rolls, weighing from six to eight pounds. Pigtail i.-; also spun, but is made into fine rolls about the size of a pipe-stem all of these being rendered palatable by the addition of sweetening. The outsides of these rolls are wrapped round with whole leavrs. The style of plug known as Cavendish is first cut by machinery, and 1 being softened and flavored, is, by powerful pressure, formed into- cakes, packed into oak boxes or caddies, and sent to market. It is used both for the purposes of chewing and smoking. The names Cavendish, Navy-twist, Negrohead, etc., are standard names or brands by which the different forms of solid or pressed tobacco are known. "Fine-cut" chewing is shredded and loose, and cut by delicate machinery from the better qualities of leaves, flavored by sweetening. In fine cut, the length of the shreds and a bright color, are tests of good quality. Smoking tobacco is made of all grades and styles, but mostly from stems, broken leaves, and other inferior parts. In the trade the numerous styles and names are constantly changing Killikinneck, Cut Cavendish, and the common cut leaf, embracing most of these classes. For these kinds of smoking, the tobacco is either granulated in a mill or shaved in a fine cutting ma- chine. Most of the operations in the manufacture of tobacco are done by machinery. Shorts is a name given to the siftings of tobacco, and is used both for smoking and chewing. SNUFF Is manufactured from the leaf-stalks and leaves of the tobacco, combined with leaves of other plants, rosewood dust, salt,, and various drugs. The material is well dried before being ground into powder, which is effected by mills constructed for the purpose. In the earlier half of this century, snuff was made by grinding the to- bacco in small mortars, the pestles of which were moved by machinery. The standard branches of snuff in the market are the Maccaboy (orig- inally from Martinique and Spain), Rappee, a French variety, air.l that known as Scotch snuff. The revenue tax on manufactured snuff is twenty-four cents per pound. Though snuff is so largely adulterated, there is but little adulteration in manfactured tobacco, except possibly in the poorer descriptions of smoking. The internal revenue receipts on all descriptions of tobacco, amount annually to more than $47,000,000. Most of our exported tobacco goes to Ger- many and the Low Countries ; the next in order to precedence being England, France, Italy, etc. 158 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. Bremen and Liverpool are the greatest general tobacco markets in Europe the United States producing considerably more than half of the tobacco consumed in the world. The average annual crop of the United States exceeds 550,000,000 pounds. The produc- tion of Cuba is of a superior quality, and is almost wholly consumed in the manufacture of cigars, either at home or abroad. One of the best tobacco-growing districts in the United States is Virginia, where the seed is sown about the first week in January, and the plants are transplanted from the seed-beds about the beginning of June to the end of July this operation only being performed in wet weather. The crops require great care in being kept clear of weeds, and when the flowers-buds appear they have to be nipped off, otherwise the plant would be much weakened ; but in Turkey and Greece, where the small leaves are preferred, and especially in the more select classes of tobacco, such as the celebrated Latakia brand, both leaves, buds iind flowers are used. Tobacco is usually cut at mid-day, when the morning and evening dews are absent, and the sun is at its full strength. The cutting is always done by hand, and only such plants selected as are fully ripe, which is known by a sort of glutinous exu- dation covering the leaf and giving it a spotted appearance. The government of the United States exercises a very strict surveillance over the weight and quality of all tobacco grown and cured within its jurisdiction. A large tobacco export has been carried on by Para- guay during the past ten years ; the quality, though fair and steadily improving, is not equal to the State-grown tobacco ; it is packed in linen bales. The quality of Turkish tobacco is very peculiar ; small in the leaf and of a light color bright yellow, yellowish-greeu or yello wish-brown, and, being extremely mild, is a great favorite with a large class of smokers. The advantages or disadvantages arising from the use of tobacco have always been a great and exciting subject of controversy many of its opponents asserting that its use is more productive of injury than even alcoholic beverages, while others make equally positive as- sertions of its beneficial influence. Dr. Richardson, however, in a pamphlet recently published, has chosen the happy medium, in which, usually, truth can only be found. He says, "Before the full matu- rity of the system is attained, even the smallest amount of smoking is hurtful ; subsequently the practice is only hurtful when carried to ex- cess. We cannot honestly say more against tobacco than can be urged against any other luxury, it is the least injurious. It is innocuous as compared with alcohol ; it does infinitely less harm than opium ; it id in no sense worse than tea ; and by the side of high living altogether, it contrasts most favorably." The evil is greatest with chewing, smoking next, and snuffing last. Tobacco is used to a slight extent in medicine. THE GROCERS COMPANION. 159 TOLU. This is a balsam or gum obtained from a tree cultiva- ted in South America. It has a fragrant odor, is of a pale brown color, and dissolves readily in spirits. It is the foundation of the combination sold by liquor dealers, and known to the trade as " Rock- and-Rye," and is also used by confectioners in various cough candies. TOMATO. A plant native to tropical America, and largely cultivated both in this country and Europe. It is called by some Love Apple, and the fruit is eaten both raw and cooked. They enter considerably into the manufacture of soup, sauces and pickles ; and, during the last ten years, an extensive trade has been developed in them as " Canned Goods." The varieties in cultivation are very nu- merous, especially in the northern United States the fruit season being at its height in August and September. Large quantities are also brought from the West Indies in May and June. The best kinds now in cultivation are the Canada Victor, Trophy and General Grant, but new and excellent varieties are constantly being added. Besides being used as an article of diet, it is considered as an efficacious rem- edy for dyspepsia and indigestion. The process of canning is a large and profitable industry. The tomatoes are first scalded and taken to the factory in wooden pails, where a small army of women are employed in paring them, and, at the rate of live cents a pail, earn very fair wages. After critical in- pection they are passed through a funnel-shaped machine into the cans, having been cut into pieces on their passage. The contents are subjected to a slight pi-cssure, and a portion of the juice poured off, when the tops are carefully soldered on the cans ; they are then con- veyed to the " bath room," where they are placed in vats of water heated by steam, and slowly cooked. After this they are allowed to cool, carried to the storehouse and labelled. TONGUE. Tongues are procured from several animals, but chiefly from the ox and calf, and are, without doubt, the most deli- rate and tenderest meat used for food those with plenty of thick, firm fat on the under side being usually selected. They are exten- sively canned, and many of the best brands are quite as good, both in quality and flavor, as when bought and cooked fresh. " Lunch tongues "are generally pig tongues, canned in western markets. " Compressed tongue," as its name indicates, is subjected to pressure, either before canning or during the process. Dealers should never sell any canned goods of meat, tongue or fish, during warm weather, without reminding the buyer of the necessity of thoroughly cooling it before cutting it open. TONQUA BEANS. These productions are natives of South America, are aromatic in odor and strong in taste, and chiefly used in perfuming snuff and scenting clothes, having the peculiar property 160 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. of preventing the incursion of moths and other destructive insects. The essential oil obtained from them is employed in the manufacture of toilet essences. TRICHINA. These small parasites or worms are found in large numbers in pork and in dried raw or partly-cooked meats, used by Germans in the form of smoke-dried sausages, with whom they are a favorite article of diet. After entering the human system they breed very rapidly, pass directly through the walls of the intestines, and bury themselves in the muscles and tissues, causing various dis- eases similar in character to diphtheria, membraneous crqup, etc. The young are almost invisible to the naked eye, and exist in extra- ordinary numbers in the smallest possible compass. More than twenty millions have been discovered in a single person. Thoroughly salted meats are free fiom them, and they do not survive a certain temperature, and death renders them harmless ; but even in cooked meat, say in the centre of an ordinary joint of meat, the temperature is not. sufficient to ensure the entire destruction of the parasite. In fact trichina would escape almost entirely the action of boiling water in cooking. TRIPE. An article of food prepared from the stomach and intestines of the ox and cow, with the fatty structure adhering to them. It is prepared by thoroughly cleansing them from all impuri- ties, and gently boiling them in water for an hour. It is easy of di- gestion and agreeable in flavor, and is eaten both fresh and pickled. When dark or thin, the quality is invariably poor. TROUT. A fish of the salmon family, varying in size from twenty-four to sixty inches in length, spotted on the back and sides, and the under part of crearn color. These are called Great Trout, and weigh from five to one hundred and twenty pounds, and are known by the name of Mackinaw trout. They are found in the deep waters of our lakes, and are taken both by net and hook. They are, to a great extent, eaten fresh, and are canned in that condition, and considered a great delicacy. They are also salted and packed in bar- rels, in a similar manner to the mackerel. The Speckled or Brook Trout, found in the clear streams of northern North America, are from six to twenty inches long. TRUCK. This is a term applied to a low barrow or team, driven by hand, and is chiefly used by grocers and other traders in their local custom, for moving their goods about their own premises, and to customers in the immediate vicinity of their store. The term is also used in the middle States to designate all vegetables or fruit, which is called " Garden Truck." A Truck farm is one entirely de- voted to the growth of vegetable produce. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 161 TRUFFLES. The general name of a species of fungi, not generally grown in America, but plentiful in Europe ; and, from its extremely agreeable flavor, much sought after as an article of domestic cookery, and usually eaten with poultry and rich meats. It is only from six to twelve inches below the surface ; and in France, where it is especially plentiful, pigs and trained dogs are employed to find them, which they do by scent, the attendants digging them out with a trowel. Truffles are usually found in chalky soils, growing near the roots of oak and other trees. TUNNY FISH. These fish are of the mackerel family, and are found in great abundance in the Black and Mediterranean Seas, and also in the Atlantic Ocean. They are usually caught in a net of a peculiar shape, measure from twelve to twenty feet in length, and often weigh more than one thousand pounds. In America it is met with all along the New York coast, and thence northward to Nova 8cotia. The flesh is eaten both fresh and salted, and is considered a delicacy. It yields a considerable quantity of oil as much as twenty gallons being obtained from a single fish, by boiling the head and belly. TURMERIC. The Turmeric of commerce is simply certain dried roots reduced to a powder. It is used chiefly as a coloring matter in various preparations for domestic use, and as a vehicle to disguise or admit of adulterations in various articles, such as mus- tard, spices, etc. It is also used as a condiment with many kinds of food, and is one of the principal ingredients in every powder in the market. TURNIP. The Turnip is extensively cultivated in all temper- ate climates, and used for the food of both man and beast. It is not very nutritious, containing nearly ninety per cent, of water, which renders it unpopular, though it is frequently used with other vegeta- bles in soups. It is mainly used as winter food for cattle. The Swedish turnip or Ruta-baga, is a distinct variety, having an elonga- ted root. There are a large number of varieties both of these and the flat turnip. The best-known varieties are the White Dutch, Yellow Aberdeen and the Loring, and also the improved American Ruta-baga. TURTLE. This popular marine animal (for it partakes of the character of fish, flesh and fowl, in almost equal proportions) is highly esteemed for the delicacy and rich character of its meat. Though not found within the waters of the United States, it is im- ported in large quantities into this country, and is used in the form of steaks, stews, soups, etc. The Green turtle leads all other varie- ties in the market. It is frequently dried in the West Indies and 162 THE GROCERS COMPANION. sent here in that condition ; and is almost if not quite equal to fresh turtle in quality and flavor, while considerably lower in price. Ter- rapins or Snappers are a small variety of turtle, much used in soups ; and canned Green Turtle and Terrapin soups, are to be found for sale in all the leading stores of our cities and towns. ULLAGE Is a term used to signify the vacant or unfilled space in any cask containing liquids, and of course varies consider- ably, according to the nature of the goods and the customary practices of the dealer. YALENCIAS. Raisins prepared by dipping the bunches of grapes into a warm alkali, made of wood ashes, oil and lime, and afterwards drying them in the sun ; they are used for pastry, while the muscatels, dried on the vine, are the class generally enten un- cooked for the dessert. YANILLA. The Vanilla plant is found native in South Amer- ica, Mexico and the West Indies, but it is only in the wild valleys near the eastern coast of Mexico that the Vanilla bean used in con- fection and for flavoring chocolates can be obtained. The great valley of the Mazatlan produces it in great luxuriance, and the sur- rounding region may properly be termed the great centre of supply for the world. The wild bean is only good for perfumery, but is not suitable for flavoring, and realizes from fifty to sixty cents per pound. The French confectioner, both here and in France, use the bean instead of the extract in their preparations. There is an article produced in Germany, imitative of Vanilla, and called "Vanillan," from the common hemlock. VEGETABLES. The grocer who undertakes to handle vege- tables and fruits without thoroughly understanding them and their peculiarities, had much better leave them alone. Fruits and vegeta- bles give a good margin of profits to those who handle them judi- ciously, but they prove a certain source of ruin to the ignorant or careless dealer. To obtain the earliest and best supplies from the foreign markets, is of the most essential importance. Fruits and light vegetables should be sold and eaten before the close of the day on which they are marketed, or they will prove unsatisfactory to the purchaser, and a bar on the reputation of the dealer. A large ice chest, with compartments, will be of great service to those who keep fruits and berries to any extent on sale. VINEGrATC. One of the most useful and frequently seeded articles in the long catalogue of domestic wants, and yet but seldom to be obtained the ordinary article sold being a diluted and impure solution of acetic acid. Acetic acid is the most common of the vege- table acids, occuriug in the juices of a large number of plants. Vine- THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 163 gar in the United States is made chiefly from cider, although whiskey and other alcoholic liquors are brought into service ; and even the re- fuse maple-sap, too poor for sugar, is boiled down, diluted and made into vinegar. The flavor and quality of the vinegar depends entirely upon the material of which it is made, and the quality and condition of that material thus wine vinegar is the color of the wine produc- ing it. Of all the sources for the production of vinegar, cider made from sound, ripe, sweet apples by a good process, and without adul- terations, is undoubtedly the most agreeable and serviceable descrip- tion in use. From the high price of acetic acid, vinegar is frequently adul- terated with sulphuric, muriatic or nitric acids, and, in some cases, there is not a trace of acetic acid to be found, the flavor being given by the addition of ether, alum, red pepper, mustard, etc., these adul- terations being exceedingly injurious to the delicate organism of the stomach. WALNUT. This favorite nut is the produce of a large tree growing on both sides of the Atlantic, though the English walnuts are much superior in size and quality to its American sister, from the fact that the American walnut seldom reaches perfection. Large quantities of the English walnut are imported, and form an important item of dessert, while the young, immature parts of the English and the American walnut, as a rule are generally used for pickling the green nuts, gathered before the shell has had time to harden, being pickled whole, and very highly prized as a table condiment. The kernel of the nut is very rich in oil, which is much esteemed by artists and varnish makers. The timber of the black walnut is also very valuable, and extensively used by cabinet makers. WASHING POWDERS AND FLUIDS. The sole object of all washing preparations is to lessen the actual labor of washing. All of them, no matter by what name they may be called, have the same essential elements. If fluid, they are composed of soda, lime, ummonia, alcohol and water, or potash, borax, salt, soapwash and water ; if in the shape of a powder, there will be the hydrous silicate of soda or potash, in dry, fine powder, carbonate of soda, soda ash and lime. The only difference in all the numerous varieties is the relative quantities of these elements. WAX. The wax commonly known to grocers is the substance of which the cells of the honeycomb is composed. It i.s more or less yellow in color, and has an odor resembling that of honey. After the wax has served its original purpose in the hive, it is collected for manufacturing purposes, the honey is pressed out, water and aque- ibrtis is then blended with it in proper proportions, and after cooling 164 THE GROCER'S COMPANIOX. off it is exposed to the action of the air on a bleaching ground, and gradually loses both color and odor ; after which process it is ready for market. MYRTLE WAX Is obtained from a plant commonly called the Candleberry or Tallow Tree, a native of the United States, and par- ticularly abundant in the southern States. A bushel of berries will yield from four to five pounds of wax, which is chiefly used for the manufacture of candles. Candles made of this wax burn slowly, emit little smoke, and give a fragrant, balsamic odor, but have not much illuminating power. A good, exquisitely-scented soap is, however, made from it. WAXED PAPER A new article in the market ; is used to wrap butter, lard and cheese ; bought at retail, and is very convenient and cleanly. Being very cheap, and, when well made, without taste or odor, it is rapidly getting into general use. WHEAT. This is a staple grain in the United States, and one of the most valuable and universally used of all cereals, furnishing the chief article of food in all civilized nations, especially in temper- ate climates. Besides being ground into flour and baked into bread, the grain itself is crushed, with the husk or shell, and either sold in that condition, or else the bran is sifted from it ; it retains the gluten oatmeal. WHEAT CRACKED. A palatable, nourishing and highly popu- lar article of diet, and a valuable addition to the domestic catalogue as a delicate food for invalids and children, and especially suitable for the breakfast table. For its nutritious and health-giving qual- ities it holds a place in the same rank as oatmeal, and is highly re- commended by eminent medical practitioners. WHEAT CRUSHED. This is a preparation of the entire wheat product, which has come into quite general use. The wheat is thoroughly cleansed and purified from all extraneous admixture, and prepared in such a manner that all the elements of the grain are pre- served. It is said to be a favorite food with people of sedentary habits. WHEAT FLOUR. This is the kernel or grain of the wheat, Divested of its co'at or husk, and ground into a fine powder ; the qual- ity depending not only upon the quality of the wheat from which it was made, but upon the method of grinding, and the special processes to which it has been subjected. The process adopted with the ordi- nary flour is termed Inw milling, in which it is cleansed from other seeds or detective grain. It is then passed through the bolting appa- ratus, if intended for the higher grades, the commercial value of the product being finfilly determined by the amount of care and attention THE GROCERS COMPANION. 165 which has been given to it. The celebrated new process flour is ob- tained by slow grinding, subsequent careful bolting, and, in many- cases, even a regrinding, which renders it rich in gluten and com- mands for it the highest prices. SELF-RAISING FLOUR Is made by mixing with the flour certain proportions of bicarbonate of soda and cream of tartar, or tartaric acid. When this flour is moistened and made into dough, the acid reacts upon the soda, and causes the same effects as yeast, only much more rapidly, viz., the rising of the bread. Flour. is frequently adulterated with potato starch, white corn flour, rice flour, plaster of Paris, chalk, alum, sulphate of copper, etc. The alum is used to cause the flour to absorb a larger quantity of water, and add to the weight potato starch serving the same purpose. Sulphate of copper is used to impart a delicate whiteness to the bread the other ingredients named being simply added for the purpose of increasing the weight with injurious and much cheaper articles. WHISKEY Is extensively sold by grocers in all our towns and cities, and is distilled in this country from barley, Indian corn, rye, potatoes and turnips ; it usually contains about fifty per cent, of alcohol. Bourbon whiskey is prepared from a mixture of Indian corn and small grain with about ten per cent, of malt Monongahela being made entirely from rye, with the addition of ten per cent, of malt. A large proportion of the cheaper whiskeys are artificially prepared from the raw products of malt, or potato spirits, and other substances mixed with water, creosote being added to give it the whiskey flavor. The principal manufactories in the United States are located in Illi- nois, Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, Pennsylvania and New York. The average annual manufacture of distilled spirits in this country is about 70,000,000 gallons, of which fully 200,000 gallons are exported. The revenue tax on proof spirit is ninety cents per gallon. WINE. Wine is, strictly speaking, the fermented juice of the grape, and our readers can judge pretty fairly how nearly (or rather how far from this natural standard) the foreign or imported wines can justify their claim to this interpretation. Of the secrets or par- ticulars of the various manufactures called by this name we will say nothing, simply referring to those of American production, as those in which we are most interested. Of American wines, those of Cal- ifornia are rapidly outrivalling those of the Old World, on account of their purity, their improved treatment, and the judicious selection of the fruit. In some portions of the eastern United States, large quantities of wine are made from the juice of the Catawba grape ; but, in con- sequence of the presence of a great proportion of malic acid, it is gen- erally considered an inferior production. The production of wine in the United States averages fully 4,500,000 gallons, of which Califor- nia produces from fifty to fifty-five per cent. I6 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. YEAST. Throughout the entire Union the manufacture of home-made bread is a specialty, and, notwithstanding the great in- crease in bread preparations and baking powders, the sale of Yeast still maintains its original status, in the form of Compressed Yeast, which was originally introduced into this country from Holland. Ita purity, economy and convenience, naturally commend its use to all housekeepers ; but it would be invidious and superfluous to mention any special manufacture when all are excellent. WEIGHTS, MEASURES, ETC. UNITED STATES MONEY. 10 Mills make one cent. 10 Cents " one dime. 10 Dimes " one dollar. 10 Dollars " one eagle. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. By this weight all articles in the grocer's trade are bought and sold. 27 11-32 Grains make 1 dram. 16 Drams " 1 ounce. 16 Ounces " 1 pound. 25 Pounds " 1 quarter. 4 Quarters or 100 pounds " 1 hundred weight. 20 Hundred weight " 1 ton. The grain avoirdupois, though never used, is the same as the grain in Troy weight; 7,000 grains make the Avoirdupois pound, and 5,760 grains the Troy pound. LIQUID MEASURE. 4 Gills make 1 pint. 2 Pints . 4 Quarts 31i Gallons . . . 63 Gallons 2 Hogsheads 2 Pipes 1 quart. 1 gallon. 1 barrel. 1 hogshead. 1 pipe or butt. 1 tun. Five ounces Avoirdupois of water will make 1 gill. The gallon of water should contain exactly 10 pounds of pure water, at a temperature of 62 Fr. , the barometer being at 30 inches. 168 THE GROCERS COMPANION. DRY MEASURE. 4 Gills make 1 pint. 2 Pints " 1 quart. 8 Quarts . .' " 1 peck. 4 Pecks or 32 quarts " 1 bushel. 8 Bushels " 1 quarter. The legal bushel of the United States is the old Winchester measure of 2,150.42 cubic inches. The Imperial bushel of England is 2,218.142 cubic inches; so that 32 English bushels are about equivalent to 33 of ours. TROY WEIGHT. 24 Grains make 1 pennyweight or 24 grains. 20 Pennyweights " 1 ounce or 480 grains. 12 Ounces " 1 pound or 6,760 grains. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 20 Grains make 1 scruple. 3 Scruples " 1 dram. 8 Drams " 1 ounce. 12 Ounces " 1 pound. 45 Drops=l teaspoonfull or a fluid drachm; 2 tablespoonfulls=l oz. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 144 Inches .ma ke 1 square foot. 1 square yard. 1 rod, perch or pole. 1 square rood. 1 square acre, or 43,560 sq. ft. 1 square acre. 1 souare mile. 40 Square Rods Gunter's Chain equal to 22 yards or 100 links. MISCELLANEOUS TABLE, units make 1 dozen. dozen . . gross . . . things . sheets . . quires . . reams . . bundles. 1 gross. 1 great gross. 1 score. 1 quke of paper. 1 ream. 1 bundle. 1 bale. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 169 100 pounds 196 pounds 200 pounds 100 pounds 14 pounds 214 stones , 8 pigs 2 weys (328 Ibs.) 12 sacks (39 cwt.) 3 inches 4 inches 9 inches 18 inches 22 inches (nearly) 3 feet "... 1 quintal of fish. 1 barrel of flour. 1 barrel of pork or beef. 1 firkin of butter. 1 stone of iron or lead. 1 Pig- 1 fother. 1 sack of wool. 1 last. 1 palm. 1 hand. 1 span. 1 cubit. 1 sacred cubit. 1 common pace. Pork, full weight, should contain 200 Ibs., but the standard has been reduced to 190 Ibs. ; pickled beef, hams in barrels, 306 and 220 Ibs. ; clear sides in bulk, in boxes, 500 Ibs., and in hhds. from 800 to 1000 Ibs. WEIGHTS OF ORIGINAL PACKAGES. COFFEE. Lbs. Brazil, bags, old style 160 " " new style 132 Domingo, bags 130 Laguira, ' 110 Maracaibo, " 120 Ceylon " .150 Manilla, mats 70 Jamaica, packages 200 Java and Singapore, bags 130 " " mats 60 SUGAK. Lbs. Cuba, hhds about 1,350 " boxes 400 Domestic, hhds 1,100 Java, baskets 50Q " bags 60 Manila, bags 70 East India, bags 150 Brazil, bags 150 In the transportation of freights, actual weight is generally given, but when that cannot be done, the following articles are estimated as follows : Ale and Beer 320 Ibs. per bbl. " " 170 ' i " " " 100 4 " Apples, dried 24 ' bu. ' green 56 ' " " " 150 ' bbL 170 THE GROCERS COMPANION. Barley 48 per bu. Beans, white 60 " " " castor 46 " " Beef 320 ' bbl. Bran 20 ' bu. Brooms 40 ' doz. Buckwheat 52 ' bu. Cider 350 ' bbl. Charcoal 22 ' bu. Clover Seed 60 Corn 56 " in ear 70 " meal 48 " " 220 ' bbl. Eggs 200 Fish 300 Flax Seed 56 ' bu. Flour 200 ' bbL Hemp Seed 44 ' bu. High Wines 350 " bbl. Hungarian Grass Seed 45 " bu. Lime 200 " bbl. Malt 38 ' bu. Millet 45 ' Nails 108 ' keg. Oats 32 ' bu. Oil 400 bbl. Onions 67 ' bu. Peaches, dried 33 " " Pork 320 " bbl. Potatoes, common 150 " " " " 60 " bu. " sweet 55 ' " Rye 56 ' " Salt, fine 56 ' " " " 300 ' bbl. Salt coarse 350 " " 200 ' sack. Timothy seed 45 ' bu. Turnips 56 Vinegar . 350 ' bbl. Wheat 60 ' bu. Whiskey 350 ' bbl. One ton weight is 2,000 Ibs. FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. REDUCED TO THE STANDARD OF THE UNITED STATES. Aham, in Amsterdam 41 gallons. Almude, in Portugal 44 gallons. Almucle, in Madeira 4.68 gallons. Alqniere, in Madeira over U peck. Alquiere, in Portugal 1 1 to nearly 1 k pecks. Alquiere, in Bahia 1 busheL THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 171 Alquiere, in Maranham 1$ bushels. Alquiere, in Rio Janeiro and Pernambuco 1 to li bushels. Anna, of rice, in Ceylon 2GO 2-5 pounds. Arroba, in Portugal' and Brazil 323 pounds. Arroba, in Spain and the Argentine Confederation. 25 pounds. Arroba, in Spain (liquid measure) 46 gallons. Arroba, in Havana 3.10 gallons. Arroba, in Malaga, of wine about 4 gallons. Arsheen, in Russia 28 inches. Bahar, in Batavia 3 to 44 piculs. Bale, of cinnamon, in Ceylon, net 104 1 pounds. Barile, in Naples equals about 1 1 gallons. Barde, in Leghorn, of wines 12.04 gallons. Candy, Ceylon 545 pounds. Candy, Bombay 5tiO pounds. Candy, Bombay (grain) 358 pounds. Candy, Bombay (rice), nearly 25 bushels 215.93 pounds. Candy, Madras ." 500 pounds. Cantar, in Levant, contains 44 oakes 118.80 pounds. Cantar, in Leghorn, of oil 88 pounds. Cantar, in Malta * 171-i pounds. Cantar, in Naples 106 to 196 \ pounds. Cantar, in Sicily 175 to 192A pounds. Carro, in Naples, of grain 52A bushels. Cairo, in Naples, of wine 264 callous. Catty, of tea, hi China 1$ pounds. Cayang or Koyang, in Batavia 3.581 pounds. Chetwert, in Russia 595 bushels. Fenega, in Spain 1 ,575 bushels. Fenega, Havana 1,123 bushels. Hectolitre, in France 2.84 bushels. Killog, in France and Netherlands 2.21 pounds. Last, in Amsterdam, of grain 85i bushels. Last, in Bremen, of grain 80 bushels. Last, in Cadiz, of salt 74 4-5 bushels. Last, in Dantzic, of grain nearly 93 bushels. Last, in Flushing, of grain 90i bushels. Last, in Hamburgh, of grain 89.04 bushels. Last, in Lubec, of grain over 91 bushels. Last, in Portugal, of salt 70 bushels. Last, in Rotterdam, of grain 85.136 bushels. Last, in Sweden 75 bushels. Last, in Utrecht, of grain over 59 bushels. Lispound, in Hamburg 16 pounds 5 ounces. Lispouud, in Holland 18 pounds 4 ounces. Mark, Holland 9 ounces. Maud, in Calcutta 75 to 84 pounds. Maund, Bengal 85.285 pounds. Maund, Bengal (Factory) 74.667 pounds. Mauud, Bombay 28 pounds. Maund, Madras 25 pounds. Mina, in Greece 2.205 pounds. Miuo, in Genoa, of Grain 3.43 bushels. Mount, in France 1 ton. Moy, in Lisbon 24 bushels. Moy, in Oporto 30 bushels. Moyo, in Portugal contains over 23 bushels. 172 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. Moke, in Smyrna 23 pounds. Ohm, Hamburg 38.28 gallons. Orna, in Trieste, of wine 14.94 gallons. Orna, of oil 17 gallons. Oalmo, in Naples is a little over 10 incljes. Pfiiml, Austria and Bavaria 1,235 pounds. Pfund, Bremen 1.99 pounds. Pfuncl, Denmark 1.102 pounds. Pfund, Hamburg 1.0G8 pounds. Pond, Netherlands (Metric) 2.505 pounds. Punt, Russia 9.028 pounds. Pecul, in Batavia and Madras 135.68 pounds. Pecul, in China and Japan - 1334 pounds. Pipe, in Spain, of wine 160 to 164 gallons. Pood, in Russia is equal to nearly 36 pounds 2 ounces. Quarter, in England, of grain 8 bushels. Quintal, in Portugal 89.05 pounds. Quintal, in Smyrna 139.48 pounds. Quintal, in Spain 96 pounds. Quintal, in Turkey 167 pounds 3 ounces. Rottoli, in Portugal 12 pounds 4 ounces. Rottoli, in Genoa 24 pounds. Rottoli, in Leghorn 23 pounds. Salma, in Sicily, of grain 9.77 bushels. Salma, in Malta, of grain 8.22 bushels. Scnefl'el, in Germany varies from 14 to nearly 3 bushels. Shippound, in Hamburg and Denmark 331 pounds. Shippouud, in Holland 368 pounds 4 ounces. Staro, in Trieste 2f bushels. Tael, in China 1 J ounces. Vara, in Rio Janeiro nearly 14 yards. Vara, in Spain 100 are equal to 920 yards. W erst, in Russia 350| feet. WEIGHTS OF PRODUCE. The standard weight for Corn, Oats, Potatoes and other articles of produce sold by weight, is as follows : Beans, medium, per bushel 62 pounds. Beans, pea and marrow, per bushel 62 Beans, yellow eye, per bushel 62 Beans, red kidney, per bushel 58 Rye, per bushel 56 Barley, per bushel 48 Buckwheat, per bushel 48 Clover Seed, per bushel 60 Corn, per bushel 56 Oats, per bushel 32 Herd's-grass, per bushel 45 Red Top, per bag 50 Flaxseed, per bushel 65 Peas, per bushel 65 Potatoes, per bushel 90 Turnips, per bushel 90 Wheat, per bushel 60 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. ITS RAPID PROGRESS OF MARKING GOODS AT ANY DESIRED PER CENT. PROFIT. Retail merchants, in buying goods by wholesale, buy a great many ar- ticles by the dozen, such as boots and shoes, hats and caps, and notions of various kinds ; now the merchant, in buying, for instance, a dozen hats, knows exactly what one of these hats will retail for in the market where he deals ; and, unless he is a good accountant, it will often take him some. time to determine whether he can afford to purchase the dozen hats :uid make a living profit by selling them by the single hat; and in buying his goods by auction, as the merchant often does, he has not time to make the calculation before the goods are bid off. He therefore loses the chance of making good bargains by being afraid to bid at random ; or if he bids, and the, goods are cried off, he may have made a poor bargain, by bidding thus at a venture. It then becomes a useful and practical problem to determine INSTANTLY what per cent, he Avould gain if he retailed the hat at a cei'tain price, to tell what an article should retail for to make a profit of 20 per- cent. RULE. Divide what the articles cost per dozen by 10, which is done by removing the decimal point one place to the left. For histance if hats cost $17. 50 per dozen, remove the decimal point one place to the left, making $1.75, what they should be sold for apiece to- gain 20 per cent, on the cost. If they cost $31.00 per dozen, they should be sold at $3. 10 apiece, etc. We take 20 per cent, as the basis, for the fol- lowing reasons, viz. , because we can determine instantly by simply remov- ing the decimal point, without changing a figure, and, if the goods would not bring at least 20 per cent, profit in the home market, the merchant could not afford to purchase, and would look for cheaper goods. The reason for the above rule is obvious, fof if we divide the cost of a dozen by 12, we have the cost of a single article; then if we wish to make twenty per cent, on the cost (cost being 1-1 or 5-5), we add the per cent., which is 1-5, to the 5-5, making 6-5 or 12-10; then as we multiply the cost, divided by 12, by the 12-10, to find at what price one must be sold to gain 20 per cent., it is evident that the 12s will cancel and leave the cost of a dozen to be divided by 10 to do this remove the decimal point one place to the left. EXAMPLE 1. If I buy 2 dozen caps at $7.50 per dozen, what shall I retail them at to make 20 per cent.? Aus. 75 cents. EXAMPLE 2. When a merchant retails a vest at 4.50, and makes 20- per cent., what did he pay per dozen? Ans. $45. EXAMPLE 3. At what price should I. retail a pair of boots that cost $85 per dozen, to make iO per cent.? Ans. $8.50. Now, as removing the decimal point one place to the left, on the cost of a dozen articles, gives the selling price of a single one with 20 per cent, added to the cose, and, as the cost of any article is 100 per cent., it is ob- vious that the selling price would 20 per cent, more, or 120 per cent. ; hence, to find 50 per cent, profit, which would make the selling price 15i> per cent., we would first find 120 per cent., then add 30 per cent, by in- creasing it one- fourth itself; for 35 per cent., increase it one-eighth itself, etc lieuce, to mark an article at any per cent, profit, we find the fol- lowing : GENERAL RULE. First find 20 per cent, profit by removing the deci- mal point one place to the left on the price the articles cost per dozen ; then, as 20 per cent, profit is 120 per cent., add to or subtract from this amount the fractional part that the required per cent., added to 100, is- more or less than 120. 171 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. Merchants, in marking goods, generally take a per cent, that is an aliquot part of 100, as 25, 33 1-3, 50, etc. The reason they do this is be- cause it makes it much easier to add such a per cent, to the cost; for in- stance, a merchant could mark almost a dozen articles at 50 per cent, profit in the time it would take him to mark one at 49 per cent. The following is arranged for the convenience of business men in marking the prices of all articles bought by the dozen : To make 20 per cent, remove the point one place to the left, 80 60 50 44 40 37 35 33 1-3 32 30 28 26 25 12 1-2 162-3 183-4 and add 1-2 itself. 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-12 1-15 1-20 1-24 subtract 1-16 1-36 1-96 If I buy a dozen shirts for $28, what shall I retail them for to make 50 per cent.? Ans. $3.50. EXPLANATION. Remove the point one place to the left, and add 1-4 Itself. t MARKING GOODS. In marking goods it is usual with merchants to make use of a pri- vate mark, phrase, or key-word, to designate the cost and selling price of their goods, the object being to conceal these points from all except their own salesmen. The following words tmd phrases present a choice from which to make a selection : GAS FIXTURE. FISH TACKLE. BROWN SUGAR. BLACK HORSE. CASH PROFIT. NOW BE SHARP. MISFORTUNE. SO FRIENDLY. ELUCIDATOR. IMPORTANCE. GAINFUL JOB. OF INDUSTRY. It will be noticed that each word or phrase contains ten letters.no two alike, the object being to use letters instead of figures in marking the goods. For instance, take the phrase GAS FIXTURE. 123 4567890 In marking the cost and selling price on a ticket, we assume that the cost is $3.25 and the selling price $4.37 ; this would be represented by the tc. MARYLAND. No real estate exempted. Personal property : necessary tools, apparel, books, etc. MASSACHUSETTS. Real estate : homestead to value of $800. Personal property : $100 furniture, $50 library, clothing, animals, stock and mate- rials, $100. MICHIGAN. Real estate : 40 acres in country, or city lot and residence to value $1,500. Personal property: $250 furniture, $250 stock in trade, 150 books, farm animals and minor articles. MINNESOTA. Real estate : 80 acres and dwelling in country, or lot and house in town. Personal property : $500 furniture, $400 tools or stock in trade, $300 funning utensils, library, clothing. MISSISSIPPI./ Real estate : M.I acres in county, or $2,000 town property, including homestead. Sundry personal effects. MISSOURI. Real estate : 160 acres, worth $1,500 in country, or build- ings in city to value of $1,500 to $3,000. $300 worth of personal property. NEBRASKA. Real estate: 16u acres, with improvements. Peisonal property : $500 exempted when no real estate is owned. 180 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. NEVADA. Real estate to the amount of $5,000. Personal property r 01,500 exempted. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Heal estate : homestead Avorth $500. Personal property : $100 furniture, $200 in library, $100 in tools, $50 in fuel and provisions, clothing, domestic animals. NEW JERSEY. Real estate to amount of $1,000. Personal property to amount of $200. NEW YORK. Real estate : homestead to value of $1000, Personal property : $25 mechanics' tools, furniture, instruments, library, etc. NOKTII CAROLINA. Real estate to value of $1,000. Personal property to value of $500. OHIO. Real estate to amount of $1,000. Personal property : clothing, bedding, and $500 additional exemption, if no real estate is owned. OREGON. No real estate exemption. Personal property : $300 furni- ture, $100 clothing, $400 tools, etc., $50 for each member of family, farm animals. PENNSYLVANIA. No real estate exemption. $300 in personal property. RHODE ISLAND. No real estate exemption. Personal property : cloth- ing, cow and hog, $200 furniture, $50 tools, etc., of profession. SOUTH CAROLINA. Real estate : homestead worth $1,000. Personal property : clothing, $500 furniture, etc. TENNESSEE. Real estate: homestead worth $1,000. $500 personal property. TEXAS. Real estate : 200 acres with house in country, or lot and resi- dence worth $5,000 in town. Personal property : $500 furniture, horse, saddle and bridle, clothing, books, animals and one year's provisions. VERMONT. Real estate : homestead worth $500 and growing crops. Personal property : clothing, furniture, farm animals and sundry stores, $200 in teams, $200 professional library. VIRGINIA. $2,000 in real or personal property. WEST VIRGINIA. Real estate : homestead worth $1,000. $500 worth personal property. WISCONSIN. Real estate : 40 acres with house in country, or house and quarter acre in town. Personal property : $200 furniture, farm ani- mals, $50 farm tools, $200 mechanics' tools, $200 professional library. INTEREST RULES. FOUR PER CENT. Multiply the principal by the number of days to run; separate the right-hand figure from product, and divide by 9. FIVE PER CENT Multiply by number of days, and divide by 72. Six PER CENT. Multiply by number of days; separate right-hand figure, and divide by G. SEVEN AND THREE-TENTHS PER CENT. Multiply by number of days, and double the amount so obtained. On $100 the interest is just 2 cents per day. EIGHT PER CENT. Multiply by number of days, and divide by 45. NINE PER CENT. Multiply by number of days ; separate right-hand figure, and divide by 4. TEN PER CENT. Multiply by number of days, and divide by 36. TWELVE PER CENT Multiply by number of days; separate right- hand figure, and divide by 3. FIFTEEN PER CENT. Multiply by number of days, and divide by 24. EIGHTEEN PER CENT. Multiply by number of days ; separate right- hand figure, and divide by 2. TWENTY PER CENT. Multiply by number of days, and divide by 18. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 181 LEGAL HOLIDAYS IN VARIOUS STATES. INDEPENDENCE DAT (July 4) and CHRISTMAS DAY (December 25), to- gether with THANKSGIVING DAY (usually last Thursday in November), are lega i holidays in all States. NEW YEAR'S DAY (January 1), in all States except Arkansas Dela- ware, Georgia, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Hew Hampshire, North Carolina, Rhode Island and South Carolina. WASHINGTON'S BIRTHDAY (February 22), in all States except Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Tennessee and Texas. GENERAL ELECTION DAY (generally on Tuesday after first Monday in November), in California, Maine. Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ore- gon, South Carolina and Wisconsin. DECORATION DAY (May 30), in Colorado, Connecticut, Maine, Michi- gan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Massachusetts and Vermont. GOOD FRIDAY, in Florida, Louisiana, Minnesota and Pennsylvania. SHROVE TUESDAY, in Louisiana and cities of Mobile, Montgomery and Selma, Alabama. MEMORIAL DAY, in Georgia. ANNIVERSARY OF BATTLE OK NEW ORLEANS (Januarys), LINCOLN'S BIRTHDAY (February 12), FIREMEN'S ANNIVERSARY, in Louisiana. ANNIVERSARY OP TEXAN INDEPENDENCE (March 2), and BATTLE or SAN JACINTO (April 21), in Texas. PAINTING. 1 gallon priming color will cover 50 superficial yards. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 white zinc white paint lead color black paint stone color yellow paint blue color green paint bright emer. green bronze green 50 44 50 50 44 44 45 45 25 45 One pound of paint will cover about 4 superficial yards the first coat, and about yards each additional coat. One pound of putty for stopping every 20 yards. One gallon of tar and 1 pound of pitch will cover 12 yards superficial the first coat, and 17 yards each additional coat. WHITE PAINT. Inside work. Outside work. White lead, ground in oil 80 80 Boiled oil 14.5 9 Raw oil 9 Spirits turpentine 8 4 New wood-work requires 1 pound to the square yard for three coats. 182 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. SPEED FOR CIRCULAR SAWS. 36 inches in diameter 1000 revolutions per minute. 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 950 900 870 840 800 760 725 700 675 650 625 600 575 500 545 530 515 500 485 475 Shingle machine saws 1400 TO MEASURE CORN IN THE CRIB. This rule will apply to a crib of any size or kind. Two cubic feet of good, sound, dry corn in the ear, will make a bushel of shelled corn. To get, then, the quantity of shelled corn in a crib of corn in the ear, measure the length, breadth and height of the crib, inside of the rail ; multiply the length by the breadth, and the product by the height ; then divide the pro- duct by two, and you have the number of bushels of shelled corn in the crib. To find the number of bushels of apples, potatoes, etc., in a bin, mul- tiply the length, breadth and thickness together, and this product by 8, and point off one figure in the product for decimals. AGES OF ANIMALS, ETC. Elephant, 100 years and upwards ; Rhinoceros, 20 ; Camel, 100 ; Lion, 23 to 70 ; Tigers, Leopards, Jaguars and Hyenas (in confinement) , about 25 years; Beaver, 50 years; Deer, 20; Wolf, 20; Fox 14 to 16; Llamas, 15; Chamois, 25; Monkeys and Baboons, 16 to 18 years; Hare, 8; Squirrel, 7; Rabbit, 7; Swine, 25; Stag, under 50; Horse, 30; Ass, 30; Sheep, under 10 ; Cow, 20 ; Ox, 30 ; Swans, Parrots and Ravens, 200 ; Eagle, 100 ; Geese, 80; Hens and Pigeons, 10 to 16; Hawks, 30 to 40; Crane, 24; Blackbird, 10 to 12; Peacock, 20; Pelican, 40 to 50; Thrush, 8 to 10; Wren, 2 to 3 ; Nightingale. 15 ; Blackcap, 15 ; Linnet, 14 to 23 ; Goldfinch, 20 to 24 ; Redbreast, 10 to 12 ; Skylark, 10 to 30 ; Titlark, 5 to 6 ; Chaffinch, 20 to 24; Starling, 10 to 12; Carp, 70 to 150; Pike, 30 to 40; Salmon, 16; Codfish, 14 to 17; Eel, 10; Crocodile, 100; Tortoise, 100 to 200; Whale, estimated, 1,000; Queen Bees live 4 years; Drones, 4 months; Working Bees, 6 months. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 183 TO DETERMINE WEIGHT OF LIVE CATTLE. Measure in inches the girth around the breast, just behind the shoul- der blade, and the length of the back from the tail to the fore part of the shoulder blade. Multiply the girth by the length, and divide by 144. If the girth is less than 3 feet, multiply the quotient by 11. If between 3 and 5 feet, multiply by 16. If between 5 and 7 feet, multiply by 23. If between 7 and 9 feet, multiply by 31. If the animal is lean, deduct 1-20 from the result, or take the girth and length in feet, multiply the square of the girth by the length, and multiply the product by 3.36. The result will be the answer in pounds. The live weight, multipled by 6.05, gives a near ap- proximation to the net weight. TO ESTIMATE THE AMOUNT OF HAY IN A MOW. A gentleman largely engaged in the growing of hay and stock in Orange County, N. Y., writes :. " In this part of the country we sell hay by measurement, in a mow, and allow 512 cubic feet for a ton, and it comes out very generally correct. I have just sold a mow of hay and weighed it, and measured the mow, and this rule proved correct." The above rule no doubt approximates as closely as possible to a cor- rect standard, the number of cubic feet required for a ton varying a little on account of the difl'ereut degrees of pressure to which the hay has been subjected, and also with the quality of the hay as regards fineness. A CAR LOAD. As a general rule the following quantities constitute a car load through- out Canada and the United States, viz., 20,000 Ibs., or 70 bbls. of salt. 70 of lime, 70 of flour, 60 of whiskey, 200 sacks of flour, 6 cords of hard wood, 7 do. of soft wood, 16 head of horses, 18 to 20 head of cattle, 50 to 60 head of hogs, 80 to 100 head of sheep, 9,000 feet of solid boards, 17,000 feet of siding, 13,000 feet of flooring, 40,000 shingles, one-half less of hard lum- ber, one-fourth Ifess of green lumber, one-tenth less of joists, scantling and all other large timber ; 340 bushels of wheat, 360 of corn, 680 of oats, 400 of barley, 360 of flaxseed, 360 of apples, 430 of Irish potatoes, 356 of sweet potatoes, 1,000 bushels of bran. SAVINGS BANKS. These institutions, which are scattered thickly throughout New Eng- land, are of the greatest value to our people. They furnish a convenient and safe place for keeping the savings ol the thrifty, and they undoubt- edly cause much money to be saved which would otherwise be wasted. Let no family be content till a Savings Bank book is begun for the younger members. It will give them an excellent start in life. Moreover these small sums being brought together are made available for buildings and improvements, which without them, could not be made. They form a large part of the CAPITAL of the courr.ry, and it is the CAPITAL of the country which enables the labor of the country to maintain itself, and make further savings. WOKK LKAKX SAVK! These are the watch- words for us in New England; so shall we maintain the proud position won by our fathers, and so shall we maintain and increase our prosperity. 184 THE GROCER'S COMPANION. INTEREST LAWS OF ALL THE STATES. States and Territories. PENALTY OF USURY. g, 3 Special. Alabama 8 No penalty 10 No limit Arkansas ti ti fi ti 11 it 10 ti it ti 11 10 11 11 Connecticut Forfeiture of all interest 7 11 11 Dakota 7 18 per ct C 6 " District of Columbia < ' " all interest (] 10 " Florida No penalty 8 No limit 7 12 per ct Idaho 300 fine or imp. 6 months, or both* 10 21 " Illinois Forfeiture of all interest (j 10 " Indiana " interest and costs (] 10 " 6 10 " Kansas " " over 12 per cent 1 12 " Kentucky ' ' all interest (] 10 " Louisiana 5 8 " (] \o limit Maryland Forfeiture of excess C, (5 per ct Massachusetts No penalty. 6 per ct. on judgment . G No limit. 10 per ct ' " " ' over 7 percent 12 " No penalty f, No limit Missouri (i 1 u per ct. 10 Nebraska Forfeiture of all interest and costs . 10 12 per ct. Nevada .. ... ...... No penalty 10 No limit. New Hampshire Forfeiture of 3 times interest rec'd (i G per ct. " i ' an interest o C No penalty 6 12 <; North Carolina ' " interest. ... > r, 8 Ohio ... n 8 Oregon ' " priucip'l, int. and excess 10 12 Pennsylvania ' " excess Act of 1858.... n G ' Rhode Island ' " unless bv contract. J ... C, No limit. No penalty Tennessee Forf of over G per ct and $100 line 6 10 per ct. s Xo limit Utah i 11 10 Vermont ....... Forfeiture of excess on R. R bouds 6 7 per ct. Virginia G 12 " 10 No limit \Vest Virginia Forfeiture of excess (', 6 per ct. TiVisconsin 7 10 " 10 No limit * Liable to nriest for misdemeanor. t Also punisli:ii)!e as a misdemeanor. Banks forfeit interest only, or double the interest if churned in advaure. J Also, G pur cent, ou judgment. THE GROCER'S COMPANION. 185 DUTIES ON PRODUCE. Barley 10 cents per bushel. Barley malt 20 " " Buckwheat 10 per cent. Beeswax 20 " Beans 10 " Butter 4 cents per pound. Cheese 4 " " Cider 20 per cent. Corn 10 cents per bushel. Cornmeal 10 per cent. Flaxseed 20 cents per bushel. Flour, wheat 20 per cent. Hay $2.00 per ton. Hops 8 cents per pound. Honey 20 cents per gallon. Oats 10 cents per bushel. Oatmeal 4 cent per pound. Onions 10 per cent. Peas, dried 10 " Peas, green 10 " Potatoes 15 cents per bushel. Poultry, dressed 10 per cent. Rice, clean 2| cents per pound. Rice, unclean 14 " " Rye 10 cents per bushel. Rye flour 4 cent per pound. Seed, grass 20 per cent. Turnips 10 " Vinegar 74 cents per gallon. Wheat 20 " per bushel. Starch, corn or potato 2 " per pound. Starch, rice 24 " " Starch, other 24 " " ^^ Apples, eggs, bed feathers, fire wood, wood ashes and live poultry are admitted FREE OF DUTY. UNIFORM PACKAGES OF FLOUR. American export flour is put up in 140 and 280 pounds bags, while our barrels hold 196 pounds. There is little or no complaint on this side of the water about the large bags being unwieldy or too heavy to carry on a man's back, for the reason that we have better modes of handling these packages, as well as our barrels. In this matter American methods are as much superior in every way as in elevator work. In French ports, for in- stance, wheat is loaded and unloaded in sacks, which are carried to or fro by men, while Americans load and unload with mechanical appliances, which reduce not only the manual labor but the time occupied in the work to a minimum. This does not, however, alter the fact that it would be better for the trade of both countries, as well as all others concerned, if uniform packages were adopted for flour, and, as a correlative, for wheat measurement. Barrels, half barrels, bags, bushels, quarters and centals, form a sad mixture, and must eventually simmer down into one set of weights, to be universally adopted. 186 THE GROCER'S COMPANION FREIGHTS. QUANTITY OF GOODS WHICH COMPOSE A TON. [FROM THE BY-LAWS OF THE NEW YORK CHAMBER OF COMMERCE.] That tlie articles, the bulk of which shall compose a ton, to equal A TOX of heavy materials, shall be in weight as follows : 1568 Ibs. coffee in casks, 1830 Ibs. in bags; 1120 Ibs. of cocoa in casks, 1307 Ibs in bags. 950 Ibs. pimento in casks, 1110 in bags. Eight barrels of flour, 196 Ibs. each. Six barrels of beef, pork, tallow, pickled fish, pitch, tar and turpen- tine. Twenty hundred pounds of pig and bar iron, potashes, sugar, logwood, fustic, Nicarauga wood, and all heavy dyewoods, rice, honey, copper ore, and all other heavy goods Sixteen hundred pounds of coffee, cocoa and dried codfish, in bulk, and twelve hundred pounds of dried codfish, in casks of any size. Six hundred pounds of ship bread in casks, seven hundred in bags, and eight hundred in bulk. Two hundred gallons (wine measure), reckoning the full contents of the casks, oil, wine, brandy, or any kind of liquors. Twenty-two bushels of grain, peas or beans, in casks. Thirty-six bushels of grain in bulk. Thirty-six bushels of European salt. Thirty-one bushels West India salt. Twenty-nine bushels of sea-coal. Forty feet (cubic measure) of mahogany, square timber, oak plank, pine and other boards, beavers, furs, peltry, beeswax, cotton, wool and bale goods, of all kinds. One hogshead of tobacco, and ten hundred pounds of dry hides. Eight hundred pounds of China raw silk, ten hundred pounds of net bohea, and eight hundred do. green tea. EXCHANGE ON ENGLAND. 5 per ct., $4. 66. 7 7 per ct., $4.75.6 85 per ct., $4.83.3 104 per ct.,. $4.91.1 54 4.68.0 74 4.76.7 9 4.84.4 101 4.92.2 5| 4.70.0 74 4.77.8 94 4.85.6 11 4.93.3 6 4.71.1 71 4.78.9 9-i 4.86.7 114 4.94.4 64 4.72.2 8 4.80.0 <)4 J5 4.87.8 114 4.95. R 64 4.73.3 84 4.81.1 10 4.88.9 HI 4.96.7 61 4.74.4 84 4.82.2 104 4.90.0 21 4.97.8 Old par value of the Pound Sterling is $4.44.4. Present standard value is $4.84.4. When exchange is at 9 per cent., it is then at par value ; if less than 9 it is below ; if higher than 9 it is above. To reduce old par value, $4.44.4, to dollars, multiply by 40 and divide by 9. To reduce dollars to old par value, reverse by multiplying by 9 and dividing by 40. The shillings and pence must first be reduced to decimals of a pound. INDEX. PAGE Acid Phosphates 5 Adulterations 5 Alcohol 8 Alden Dried Fruit 8 Allspice 8 Almonds 9 Alum 9 Ammonia 10 Anchovies 10 Anise-Seed *. 10 Annatto 10 Annear Sauce 11 Apples 11 Apricots 11 Arrow-Root 12 Artichoke 12 Asparagus 12 Axle-Grease 13 Avoirdupois 13 Bags (Paper) 13 Bananas 13 Baking Powders and Bread Prep- arations 14 Barley 14 Barrel 15 Barter 15 Beans 1C Beeswax 16 Beet 16 Benzine 17 Bird Food, etc 17 Blackberry 17 Blacking 17 Blncing 13 PAGB Bologna Sausage 18 Bonds of Surety 18 Borax 18 Brandy 19 Brawn 19 Brazil Nuts 19 Bread 20 Bretzel 20 Brick Tea 20 Broma 20 Brooms 20 Brushes 21 Buckwheat 21 Bushel 22 Batter 22 Butternut 23 Cabbage 23 Caddy 24 Camphor 24 Canary-Seed 25 Candles 25 Canned Goods 2(> Capers 29 Caramels 2!) Caraway Seeds 2!> Carbolic Acid 2!) Carrots 29 Casava or Mandioc 29 Cassia Bark 30 Cassia Buds 30 Castor Oil 30 Catsup 30 Cauliflower 31 Cayenne 31 188 INDEX. PAGE Cereals 31 Celery 31 Chalk 31 Champignons 32 Charges 32 Cheddar 32 Cherries 32 Cheese 32 Chestnuts 34 Chicory 35 Chloride of Lime 35 Chocolate 35 Chow-Chow 36 Chowder 36 Chutney 36 Cider 36 Cigars 36 Cinnamon Bark 37 Citron 37 Clams 38 Cloves 38 Cocoa or Cacao 38 Cocoanuts 38 Cod-fish 39 Coffee 40 Compressed Yeast 44 Condensed Milk 45 Confectionery 45 Copperas (Green Vitriol) 46 Coriander Seed 47 Cork 47 Corn 47 Cotton-Seed OU 47 Crabs 48 Crackers 48 Cranberry 49 Craw Fish 49 Cream 49 Creamery 49 Cream of Tartar 50 Cucumbers 50 Currants 50 Currants (Dried) ~> 1 Curry Powder or Curry Paste. . . 51 Cusk ." HI Cuttle-Fish 51 Damaged Goods 51 Dandelion 52 Dates 52 Dermestes 52 Dextrine or British Gum 52 Dutch Standard 52 Dyes 53 Eggs PAGE Egg Plant 54 Eleme 54 Epsom Salt 54 Evaporated Goods 54 Extract of Meat 55 Extracts for Flavoring 55 Figs 56 Filberts 56 Fireworks 57 Fruit Augurs 57 Fruit Butters 57 Fruit (Green) 57 Game 57 Garlic 57 Gauge Rod 58 Gelatine 58 Ginger 58 Glauber's Salt 59 Glue 59 Glucose 59 Gluten 67 Goodwill 67 Gooseberries 67 Grace (Days of) 67 Grain 67 Grapes 67 Gramme 68 Grass Seed 68 Grease 59 Grist 60 Grits 60 Groats 60 Grocer 60 Gauva 60 Gum 60 Gumbo or Okra 60 Gunny Bags 60 Gunpowder 61 Hake 61 Halibut 61 Hay 61 Hazel-Nut 61 Head Cheese 61 Hemp 61 Herbs 62 Hermetical Sealing 62 Herring 62 Hickory-Nut 63 Hominy 63 Honey 63 Hops" 64 Horehouud 65 Horse-Radish 65 INDEX. PAGE Huckleberry, Whortleberry or Blueberry 65 Indian Corn 65 Indigo 66 Indian Meal 66 Ink 66 Insects 66 Insurance 66 Introduction 3 Irish Moss 66 Isinglass 67 Jams 68 Jars 68 Jellies 68 Jerusalem Artichoke 69 Jordan Almonds 09 Jute 69 Keg 69 Kerosene 69 Labels 70 Lamp Black 71 Lamps and Lamp-Wics 71 Lard 72 Lard Cheese 73 Lard-Oil 73 Leakage 74 Lemon 74 Lemonade 74 Lentils 75 Lettuce 75 Licorice 75 Limburger Cheese 75 Lime 76 Lime Fruit 77 Lime-Fruit Juice 77 Limitations (Statute of) 78 Linseed-Oil 79 Liquors 79 Liquid Measure 79 Liquid Rennet 79 Lobsters 80 Logwood 80 Love Apple 80 Lozenges 80 Lucca-Oil 81 Macaroni 81 Mace 82 Machine and Lubricating Oils ... 82 Mackerel 83 Madder 84 Malaga Grapes 85 PAGB Malt 85 Malt Vinegar 85 Mango 85 Manilla 85 Manufacturers 85 Maple Sugar 86 Matches 87 Marjoram (Sweet) 88 Marmalade 88 Marrowfat 88 Martynias 88 Mats 88 Mead 88 Meal 88 Measures 89 Meat (Fresh) 89 Medicines (Patent) 89 Melons 89 Metrical System 89 Mildew 90 Milk 90 Millet 90 Mince Meat 90 Mineral Waters 90 Mint 90 Molasses 90 Mucilage 91 Mush 91 Mushrooms 92 Musk-Melon 92 Mustard 92 Nails 93 Nasturtium 94 Nuts 94 Nutmegs 94 Oatmeal 94 Oils (Vegetable) 95- Oils (Commercial) 96 Oleomargarine 97 Olives 97 Onion 97 Orange 99 Oyster 100 Packages (Empty) 103 Paddy 103 Pails 103 Pulm-Oil 103 Paper 103 Paper Bags 105 ParaHine 105 Paris Green 105 Parsley 106- Parsnip 106- 190 INDEX. PAGE Pastes 106 Pea 106 Peaches 107 Peanuts 108 Pecan Nuts 109 Pears 109 Pepper 109 Peppermint 1 10 Perfumed Lye 110 Pickles 110 Pipes Ill Pint Ill Placards Ill Plums Ill Plum Pudding 112 Polariscope 112 Polenta 112 Pollock 112 Porter 112 Pop-Corn 112 Pork and its Products 113 Petroleum or Coal Oil : . . . . 116 Pickerel 116 * Port Wine 116 Potash 117 Potato 117 Pineapple 117 Poultry 118 Poultry Seasoning 118 Preserves 118 Potted Meats 119 Prunes 119 Pulverize 120 Pumpkins 120 Quince . Quintal 120 120 Rabbits 120 Racohout des Arabcs 120 Radish 120 Raisins 122 Rape Seed 122 Raspberries 121 Rats 122 Ream 122 Rennet 122 Revalenta Arabica 122 Rhubarb or Pie-Plant 122 Rice 123 Rope 124 Rosin 124 Root Beer Extract 124 Roquefort Cheese 124 Rum 125 llust 125 PAOR Russet 125 Rye 125 Sack 1 25 Sage 12G Sage Cheese 12G Sago 12G Salads 12G Salad Dressing 126 Salt 126 Salmon 129 Saltpetre 130 Samp 130 Samples .130 Sandwich Meats 131 Sapolio 131 Sapouifier 131 Sap-Sago 131 Sardines 131 Sauces 131 Sauerkraut 132 Sausage '. 132 Scoops 132 Scrapple 132 Scales 132 Sealing Wax 132 Sea-Moss 133 Seeds 133 Self-Measuring Faucets 133 Semiolina 133 Shad 133 Shadine 134 Shaddock 134 Shaker Goods 134 Shells 134 Shellbark 134 Shot 134 Show-Cases 134 Sherbet 1 35 Sherry 1 ;>5 Shrimps 135 Shrub 1 35 Sieves 1135 Smelt 135 Smoked Meats 13-> Smoked Sardines 136 Snuff 13G Soakage 136 Soap 136 Soap Powders 139 Soapstone 131) Soda 1 ,'!!) Sorghum Sugar 139 Sorrel 110 Soup 140 Soy 110 INDEX. 191 PAGE Specialties 140 Speculation 141 Sperm Oil 141 Spermaceti 141 Spices 141 Spinach 141 Sprats 142 Squash 142 Starch 142 Starch Polish 144 Stove Polish 144 Strawberries 144 Succotash 144 Sugar 145 Sulphur 147 Swells 147 Syrup 147 Tallow 148 Tamarinds 148 Tanks for Oil 148 Tapioca 148 Tare 149 Tartaric Acid 149 Tea 149 Thyme 153 Tierce 155 Tin Cans 155 Tobacco 156 Tolu 159 FAOB Tomato 159 Tongue 159 Tonqua Beans 159 Trichina 160 Tripe 160 Trout 160 Truck 160 Truffles 161 Tunny Fish 161 Turmeric 161 Turnip 161 Turtle 161 Ullage 162 Valencias 162 Vanilla 162 Vegetables 162 Vinegar 162 Walnut 163 Washing Powders and Fluids ... 163 Wax 163 Wheat 164 Wheat Flour 164 Whiskey 165 Wine 165 Yeast. .16G WEIGHTS, MEASURES, ETC. United States Money 167 Avoirdupois Weight 167 Liquid Measure 167 3>ry Measure .- . . 168 Troy Weight 168 Apothecaries' Weight 168 Measure of Surface 1C8 Miscellaneous Table 168 Weights of Original Packa- ges 169 Foreign Weights and Meas- ures 170 Weights of Produce 172 Rapid Progress of Marking Goods at any desired per cent. protlt 173 Marking Goods 1 74 Metric System of Weights and Measures 175 Aliquot Parts of One Hundred and One Thousand 175 Water in Different Woods 175 Business Laws 176 To find the Capacity of Bins, Boxes, etc 177 How to Conduct a Successful Business 178 Tensile Strength of Different Kinds of Wood 178 Comparative Yield of Various Vegetables 178 Homestead and other Property Exemptions 179 Interest Rules 180 Legal Holidays in Various States. 181 Painting ". 181 Speed for Circular Saws 182 To Measure Corn in the Crib 182 192 INDEX. PAGE Ages of Animals, etc 182 To Determine the Weight of Live Cattle 183 To Estimate the amount of Hay inaMow 183 A Car Load 183 FAGB Savings Banks 183 Interest Laws of all the States. .184 Duties on Produce 185 Uniform Packages of Flour 185 Freights The Quantity of Goods which compose a ton 186 UCSB LlBRAFf University of California REGI ? NAL L| BRARY FACILITY Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. L LIBRARY FACILITY A 000 607 1 70 8