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 ACADEMIA • HAR^ARDIANA 

 
 stories of the Nations 
 
 A Series of Historical Studies intended to present in 
 graphic narratives the stories of the different 
 nations that have attained prominence in history. 
 
 In the story form the current of each national 
 life is distinctly indicated, and its picturesqtie and 
 noteworthy periods and episodes are presented for 
 the reader in their philosophical relations to each 
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 FOR FULL LIST SEE END OF THIS VOLUME
 
 PORTUGAL
 
 PRINCE HENRY OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 {From an Engraving of the Miniature in the MS. of "The Discovery of 
 
 Guinea" 1448.)
 
 THE STORY OF THE NATIONS 
 
 PORTUGAL 
 
 BY 
 
 H. MORSE STEPHENS 
 
 BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD ; OXFORD UNIVERSITY EXTENSION LECTURER 
 AUTHOR OF "a HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION" 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
 
 LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN 
 1903
 
 Copyright, 1891 
 
 BY 
 
 G. P. Putnam's Sons 
 
 Entered at Stationers' Hall^ London 
 
 By T. Fisher Unwin 
 
 Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by 
 
 "Cbc IRnichcrbochcr press, IRcw lljorh 
 
 G. P. Putnam's Sons
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 This volume is written on a different plan to that 
 adopted in most of the volumes in the same Series 
 which have preceded it, and attempts to give a short 
 chronological history of Portugal. An episodical 
 history, though more interesting than a consecutive 
 narrative, in that it treats only of the most striking 
 events, demands from the reader a groundwork of 
 accurate knowledge. This is not given with regard 
 to the history of Portugal in any book in the English 
 language with which the author is acquainted. Dun- 
 ham, who combined a history of Portugal with that 
 of Spain, in five volumes published in Lardner's 
 Cabinet Cydopcedia between 1838 and 1843, based his 
 account on Vertot's Revolutions de Portugal, first 
 printed at Paris in 1678, and modern English standard 
 books of reference still make use of Dunham, and 
 contain the old blunders of identifying Portugal with 
 Lusitania, recognizing the fictitious Cortes of Lamego 
 in 1 143, regarding the victory of Ourique as a " pro- 
 digious" victory, &c., &c. Since the time of Dunham, 
 a few books have been published in England bearing
 
 viii PREFACE. 
 
 on special periods of Portuguese history, such as the 
 lives of the Marquis of Pombal and the Duke of 
 Saldanha, published by John Smith, Count of Car- 
 nota, and two volumes of a History of Portugal, by E. 
 MacMurdo, and which is still in progress ; but there 
 exists no book containing a complete and trustworthy 
 history to which students may be referred. 
 
 Yet within the last fifty years the history of Portu- 
 gal has been entirely rewritten. The modern school 
 of historians, which derived its first impulsion from 
 Niebuhr and Ranke, found a brilliant representative 
 in Alexandra Herculano, who saw that history could 
 only be written after a careful examination of con- 
 temporary documents, and who in his Historia de 
 Portugal, published between 1848 and 1853, swept 
 away much of the cobweb of legend which had 
 enveloped the early history of his country. Hercu- 
 lano undoubtedly owed much to Heinrich Schafer, 
 who wrote the history of Portugal in the Geschichte der 
 Europdischen Staatcn edited by Heeren and Ukert ; but 
 he went much further than Schafer, and the history 
 of the latter is now quite out of date. The works of 
 Herculano and his followers have*quite superseded the 
 histories of Lemos, Sousa Monteiro, and J. F. Pereira, 
 which are mentioned here only as books to be avoided 
 by the historical student. 
 
 It is not intended to give a complete bibliography 
 of the works of the modern Portuguese school of his- 
 torians, but the author thinks it worth while to refer 
 to some of the books which he has used, and which 
 can be recommended as trustworthy guides to those 
 who may wish to examine further into the history of
 
 PREFACE. IX 
 
 Portugal. First with regard to documents, the Col- 
 leccdo de Livros ineditos de Hist or ia Portiigueza, 
 edited by Correa da Serra, and the Colleccdo dos prin- 
 cipaes Anctorcs da Historia Portugueza, and the Porta- 
 gallicB Momivienta Historica, edited by Herculano, 
 contain the best editions of the old chroniclers ; while 
 perpetual reference must be made to the Quadro ele- 
 nientar das Relacoes politicas e diplomaticas de Portugal 
 of the Viscount of Santarem, which was continued by 
 Rebello da Silva as the Corpo diploviatico PortiigueZy 
 and contains in thirty-six volumes, published between 
 1856 and 1878, the "fcedera " of Portugal up to 1640, 
 and to the Colleccdo dos Actos piiblicos celebrados entre 
 a Coroa de Portugal e as mais Potencias desde 16^0 ate 
 Prescfite, edited by J. Ferreira Borges de Castro and 
 J. Judice Biker. As consecutive narratives, the short 
 history of J. P. Oliveira Martins, and the illustrated 
 popular history, which is the joint work of Antonio 
 Ennes, B. Ribeiro, E. Vidal, G. Lobato, L. Cordeiro 
 and Pinheiro Chagas may be read ; but it would be 
 far better to study the more scientific works of Alex- 
 ander Herculano, Historia de Portugal, 4 vols., 1848- 
 53, which goes to 1279, and Da Origetn e Estabeleci- 
 mento da Inquisicdo em Portugal, 2 vols., 1854-57 ; the 
 Historia de Portugal pendente XVI. e XVH. Scculos, 
 5 vols., 1860-71, by L. A. Rebello da Silva ; Historia 
 de Portugal desde os Fins do XVH. Seculo ate 18 14, 
 1874, by J. M. Latino Coelho ; and Historia da Guerra 
 civil e do Estabeleciinento do Governo Parlamentar em 
 Portugal, 6 vols., 1 866-1 881, by S. J. da Luz Soriano. 
 Among special books of interest in different languages 
 may be noted Memorias para a Historia e Tlieoria das
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Cortes, by the Viscount of Santarem, 1828 ; Las Rain- 
 has de Portugal, by F. da Fonseca Benevides, 1878 ; 
 History of the Revolutions of Portugal from the Founda- 
 tion of that Kingdom to the year 1677, with the Letters 
 of Sir R. Southwell during his Embassy there to the 
 Duke of Ormond, by R. Carte, 1740; Les Faux Don 
 Sebastien, by Miguel Martins d'Antas, Paris, 1866 ; Le 
 Chevalier de fant ; Relations de la France avec le Por- 
 tugal au temps de Mazarin, by Jules Tessier, Paris, 1 877 ; 
 and Life of Prince Henry the Navigator, by R. H. 
 Major, 1868. Coming to the history of the present cen- 
 tury, the great History of the Peninsidar War, by Gen. 
 Sir W. F. P. Napier, is justly famous in all countries, 
 and it is so well known that only a very few pages have 
 been devoted to the subject in the present volume ; 
 but reference has also been made to the Historia 
 geralda Lnvasao dos Franceses em Portugal, by Accursio 
 das Neves ; to the Excerptos Historicos relativos a 
 Guerra denominada da Peninsida, e as anteriores de 
 1 80 1, de Roussillon e Cataluna, by Claudio de Chaby ; 
 and to the Wellington Despatches. On the history of 
 the civil wars the best authorities are Memorias para 
 a Historia do Tempo que duron a Usurpacdo de Dom 
 Miguel, by J. L. Freire de Carvalho, 1841-43; His- 
 toria de Liberdade em Portugal, by J. G. de Barros e 
 Cunha, 1869 ; Despachos e Correspondencia do Dugue 
 dePalmella, 1851-54; Correspondencia Official de Co Jtde 
 de Carneira com Dugue de Palmella, 1 874 ; Memoirs 
 of the Duke of Saldanha, by the Count of Carnota ; The 
 Wars of Succession in France and Portugal, by William 
 Bollaert, vol. i., 1870, and The Civil War in Portugal 
 and the Siege of Oporto, by a British Officer of Hussars
 
 PREFACE. XI 
 
 [Colonel Badcock], 1835. Much valuable historical 
 material is also buried in magazines and the transac- 
 tions of learned societies, and special reference may 
 be made to two particularly interesting essays in the 
 Annaes des Sciencias Monies e Politicas, Dom Jodo II. 
 e a Nobreza, by Rebello da Silva, and Apontainentos 
 para a Historia da Conquista de Portugal por Filippe 
 II., by A. P. Lopes de Mendonga. 
 
 Apart from Portuguese history, Portuguese litera- 
 ture deserves to be studied. Several pages have been 
 devoted to it in the present volume, and with regard 
 to the early poetry of the troubadour epoch, the 
 author desires to express his obligations to the learned 
 introductions of Theophilo Braga, himself a poet of 
 no mean rank, to his Antologia PorUigiieza, 1876, and 
 his Canciojieiro Poriiiguez, 1878. The glory of Portu- 
 guese literature is Camoens, and it is fortunate that 
 his great poem. The Lusiads, has found an adequate 
 translator at last. I know of no translation of any 
 classic which can compare with Sir Richard Burton's 
 translation of The Lusiads. By his profound know- 
 ledge of the Portuguese character no less than of the 
 Portuguese language, by his intimate acquaintance 
 with the places which Camoens describes, and, above 
 all, by his temperament, which resembled that of the 
 conquistador-poet. Sir Richard Burton was fitted to 
 reproduce for the English people the thoughts and 
 words of the greatest Portuguese poet. Every lover 
 of Camoens, like every lover of Homer, has been 
 tempted to translate his mighty poem ; but, at last, so 
 it seems to me, the work of translation has been done 
 once for all for Camoens by the loving labour of Sir
 
 XII PREFACE. 
 
 Richard Burton, and Englishmen may read T/ie 
 Lusiads, reproduced faithfully into their own language, 
 alike in spirit and in words. That the life-poem of 
 a hero of the sixteenth century should have been 
 worthily translated by a hero of the nineteenth, seems 
 to me a circumstance of which all lovers of literature 
 in both England and Portugal should be glad and 
 proud. 
 
 In conclusion, the writing of this volume has been 
 to the author a labour of love. In the intervals of a 
 minute study of the history of another period, that of 
 the French Revolution, he has turned with pleasure 
 to the task of writing this " Story of Portugal." He 
 has not been able to work at original authorities as 
 thoroughly as he might wish, owing to the absorbing 
 nature of his more important work, but he hopes the 
 time may come when he will be enabled to spend a few 
 years among the Archives at the Torre del Tombo, 
 and investigate more thoroughly the history of the 
 early relations of England and Portugal, and of the 
 Portuguese in the East. Is he too presumptuous also 
 in hoping that a clearer knowledge of the old and 
 tried friendship of the English nation with the Portu- 
 guese may influence in some degree the attitude taken 
 by a portion of the English people towards their 
 ancient ally in the dispute with regard to the extent 
 of the" Portuguese possessions in Africa? 
 
 H. MORSE STEPHENS. 
 Oxford, 
 
 March i, 1891.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 I 
 
 Early History 
 
 The importance of, and features of interest in, Portuguese 
 history— Greeks, Phcenicians, and Romans — Portugal is not 
 the ancient Lusitania— The influence of Rome— The Visigoths 
 — The rule of the Mohammedans — The Christian princes 
 commence their incursions— Ferdinand " the Great " captures 
 Coimbra — The successes of the Almoravides — The formation 
 of the County of Portugal. 
 
 II. 
 
 The County of Portugal— Donna Theresa . 20 
 
 The character o f. Henry of Rur^rundy^ f^^<* ^''^""t nf p^^t-^oi 
 —The Countess Theresa— Her policy— Count Henry fights in 
 Spain- His death— The regency of Theresa— The nobility and 
 the bishops— The wars of Theresa— Theresa styled Infanta— 
 The battle of S. Mamede— Theresa introduces the r.jlifr^nu';- 
 military n rder-s— Death of Donna ineresa. 
 
 III. 
 
 Portugal becomes a Kingdom— The Reign of 
 
 Affonso Henriques 34 
 
 The youth of Affonso Th-nriciues— The heroism of Egas Muniz
 
 XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 — The Gallician wars — Affonso assumes the title of king — He 
 is recognized by the Pope — The Treaty of Z firrnn ^"-j" 
 jendence won hy Ae (ialliriap waroj— Thp gtatP r.f the Moors— 
 
 ionso's first war with the Moors — The victory of Qn riqne,— 
 Legends concerning it — The wars of conquest — The capture 
 of Santarem and Lisbon — The assistance of the English cru- 
 saders — Capture of Alcacer do Sal — The Treaty of Cella Nova 
 — Affonso taken prisoner at^j|daioz — Truce with the Moors 
 — Further fighting — Great victory over the Moors at Santaa^ 
 rem — Death of Affonso Henriques. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Portugal attains its European Limits . . 60 
 
 The reign of Sancho L — The successes of the Moors — 
 Sancho's internal administration — His quarrels with the clergy 
 and the Pope — The marriages of his children — The reign of 
 Affonso n. "the Fat" — Recapture of Alcacer do Sal and 
 defeat of the Moors — Arrival of the friars —The reign of 
 Sancho H. — The capture of Elvas — Hi^mjarrel^with^llis 
 Jji^jgjjs — He is deposed by the Pope — XliS ^£ig" "^ Affonso 
 in. — Kis con questof the_Algajae6 — His alliaSlSlM iitli Mm 
 ^Rple — TneCortes— His death. 
 
 V. 
 
 The Consolidation of Portugal .... 
 
 The reign of Diniz — The Order of Christ — His internal 
 administration — His encouragement of literature — Portuguese 
 poetry — Stanzas of Camoens on Diniz — Affonso IV. " the 
 Brave " — The victory of the Salado — Friendship between 
 Portugal and England— ^rh^gjuj^gyj^jjg^^^astro — Pedro 
 "the Severe" — Ferdinand "the Handsome^^ ^Wfr_Qaee n 
 J^jjno^-Riot in Lisbon — War between Portug al and Castile 
 — The wickedness of the queen — The Treaty of Salvaterra — 
 The Portu guese revo lt under Dom John o f Avi z— The defence 
 
 — The Tr4aty-of Windsor and allian'c^rtHirJOini ol (Jaunt — 
 Peace with Castile. 
 
 85
 
 CONTENTS. XV 
 
 VI. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Portugal during the Age of Exploration . -115 
 
 The policy of John " the Great "—The alliance with England 
 — His internal administration — The power of the feudal 
 nobility — The capture of Ceuta — The king's sons — The growth 
 of Portuguese literature — The reign of Duarte or Edward — 
 The expedition to Tangier — The " Constant Prince "—Dispute 
 as to the regency — Dom Pedro regent — Overthrown at battle 
 of Alfarrobeira — The reigjn of Affonso V - " thp African" — 
 His African expeditions — War with Castile — Defea 
 — His patronage of literature. 
 
 vn. 
 The Portuguese Explorers . . . .140 
 
 Prin rp Henry " th^ NaviiTj^^f^r 'land his work — The importance 
 "ot a direct route to India — The discovery of Madeira — The 
 story of Robert Machin — The discovery of the Azores — Cape 
 Bojador passed — The commencement of the African sJa iiO^ 
 trade — The discovery of Guinea, and of Cape Verde — The 
 ^roySje of Cadamosto — Death of Prince Henry — The equator 
 crossed — Discovery of the Congo — The Cape of Good Hope 
 reached and doubled. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 The Heroic Age of Portugal . . . . 15H 
 
 JaJuJ^,^^i^J^yj|gg^i;- Overthrow of the power of the 
 nobility — His foreign policy — Treat^)f_Jfli;ij£^i|ia^juii*-4^ip'^i'l " 
 — Friendship with England — His encouragement of explora- 
 tion—His riiiiit Ii''ii'n'\l1lli|l " thi rnrHiniln " E- rill iiin nf 
 t]j^JgjU^^His policy and marriages — The discoveries of the 
 Portuguese — The seeds of decline — John HI. — His policy — 
 The abandonment of the ports in Morocco — Corruption at 
 Court — Rapid depopulation of Ponugal — The Inquisition and 
 the Jesuits — Death John HI.
 
 XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 IX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Portuguese in India and the Eastern 
 
 Seas 1B5 
 
 Romantic interest of the story of the Portuguese in India — 
 The voyage ^f y-"-"" '^" nillTlfl — State of India, when he 
 reached it — His return — The voyage of Cabral and the victory 
 of Pacheco — The viceroyalties of Almeida and ^iJaaqwwi^u^ 
 — The capture of ^^jg^-Alboquerque establishes a factory at 
 Malacca and attacks Aden — The policy of Alboquerque — The 
 rule of his successors — Their policy and the nature of their 
 government — The Christian missionaries -^i^fisaaaisiiiiiwier 
 — The viceroyalty of Castro — His victory at Din — TVip suc- 
 cessors of Castro — The settlements in South-east Africa — The 
 Portuguese at Malacca and in the Spice Islands— Their com- 
 munications with China and Japan — The career of Mendes 
 Pinto — Extraordinary energy of the Portuguese in Asia. 
 
 X. 
 
 The Portuguese in Brazil 
 
 220 
 
 Importance of Brazil to Portugal — Cabral's discovery of the 
 country — Spain abandons its claims — The aboriginal inhabi- 
 tants — Early days — The first settlers and their government — 
 Emigration from Portugal — The viceroyalty of Thomas de 
 Sousa — The Jesuits and their work — The government of Dnnrte 
 da Cost a^ ^ Failure of the French H i|HJuenots {r. ^f-,fnh1igh 
 themselves inUrazii. 
 
 XL 
 
 The last Kings of the House of Aviz — Dom 
 
 Sebastian and the Cardinal Henry . . 236 
 
 The rapid decay of Portugal — The accession of Sebastian— 
 The regency of Queen Catherine — ^The regency of the Caiiiinal 
 ^toiry^The character of Sebastian — His crusading ardour— 
 The Portuguese in India — Athaide's defence of Goa— Sebastian 
 determines to invade Morocco — His applications for foreign 
 aid— His preparations— He lands in Africa- Tt^ itafnt ol. 
 Alcacer Ouibir— The de ath of Sebastian— The reign of the 
 Cardinal Henry.
 
 CONTENTS. Xvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 XII. 
 
 Portuguese Literature — Camoens . . .259 
 
 The " Golden Age " of Portuguese literature — The revival of 
 classical learning — Historj' of the University of Coimbra — Gil 
 Vicente — Bernardim Ribeiro — Sa de Miranda — Ferreira — 
 Camoens — His life — His " Lusiads " — Joao de Barros — Other 
 writers — Decline of Portuguese literature. 
 
 XIII. 
 The Sixty Years' Captivity 278 
 
 The claimants to the Portuguese crown — Defeat of the Prior 
 of Crato — Philip II. of Spain recognized as king of Portugal 
 — Further efforts and death of the Prior of Crato — The false 
 Dom Sebastians — The government of Spain and its disastrous 
 results — The reign of Philip II. — The Portuguese in Asia — 
 The conquest of Kandy — The missionaries and the Inquisition 
 — The Dutch and the English overthrow the Portuguese power 
 in Asia — The Dutch in Brazil— Count Maurice of Nassau — 
 Results of the rule of Spain. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 The Revolution of 1640 300 
 
 Discontent of the Portuguese at the rule of the Spaniards — 
 Fostered by Richelieu — The Duke and Duchess of Braganza 
 — The Duchess of Mantua, and her advisers — Preparations for 
 revolt — The leaders — The Revolution of December i, 1640 — 
 The Duke of Braganza crowned as John IV. — He obtains help 
 from Holland and France — The "Caminha" conspiracy — 
 The victory of Montijo— Brazil expels the Dutch — War with 
 Holland — The King despairs, and offers to abdicate — Treaty 
 of alliance with France — Death of John IV. 
 
 XV. 
 
 The English Alliance 326 
 
 The Queen as Regent — Schomberg organizes thearmy — Victory 
 of Elvas — Marriage of Charles J I. of England to Catherine of
 
 XVlll CONTENTS, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Braganza — Affonso VI. declares himself of age — The Ministry 
 of Cast el Melhor — Victoriesof the Portuguese — Court revolution 
 — Dom Pedro regent — Peace with Spain — The rule of Pedro II. 
 as Regent and King — His foreign policy — Death of Charles II. 
 of Spain — The Methuen treaty and its results — The war of the 
 Spanish Succession — Death of Pedro II. — The decline of the 
 Portuguese power in Asia — Prosperity of Brazil — Discovery 
 of gold there. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 Portugal in the Eighteenth Century — The 
 Marquis of Pombal 349 
 
 Portugal in the eighteenth century — Accession of John V. — 
 End of the war of the Spanish Succession — Peace policy of 
 the King — His long and prosperous reign — Accession of 
 Joseph — Early career of Pombal — The earthquake of Lisbon 
 — Pombal, prime minister — He attacks the Jesuits — The 
 " Tavora " plot — Banishment of the Jesuits — Short war with 
 Spain — Suppression of the Jesuits — Death of Joseph — The 
 administration of Pombal — His great reforms — Accession of 
 Pedro III. and Maria I. — Disgrace of Pombal — The reign of 
 Pedro and Maria — Death of Pedro III. — The Portuguese in 
 India in the eighteenth century — The prosperity of Brazil — 
 Discovery of diamonds there — Literature in the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 XVIL 
 
 The Era of the French Revolution — The 
 
 Peninsular War 382 
 
 The French Revolution — Persecution of sympathisers with it 
 in Portugal — Dom John sends help to Spain in the war against 
 France — Deserted by Spain at the Treaty of Basle — The 
 Treaty of San Ildefonso — Alliance with England^Dom John 
 declared Regent— The war of 1801 — The Treaty of Badajoz 
 — Policy of Napoleon against Portugal — Mission of Lannes — 
 Treaty of Fontainebleau, 1807 — ^Junot invades Portugal — The 
 Regent escapes to Brazil — ^Junot's rule — Forms the Portuguese 
 Legion — General insurrection against him — The Portuguese 
 appeal to England — Victory .of Vimeiro and Convention of
 
 CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cintra — Soult occupies Oporto — Expelled by Wellesley — 
 Beresford reorganizes the Portuguese army — The Regency — 
 Massena before Torres Vedras — The Portuguese troops during 
 the Peninsular War — Conclusion of the War — Death of Queen 
 Maria Francisca. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 Modern Portugal— Civil Wars and the Estab- 
 lishment OF Parliamentary Government . 409 
 
 John IV, his queen, and his sons Dom Pedro and Dom 
 Miguel — Oporto and Lisbon revolt against the Regency — The 
 Constitution of 1821 — Brazil declares itself independent — The 
 Constitution abrogated — Death of John VI. — The influence of 
 the army — The Charter of 1826 — Pedro IV. abdicates in favour 
 of Maria II. — Dom Miguel, Regent — Elected King — Reign 
 of Dom Miguel — The "Miguelile"\var, 1830-34 — Convention 
 of Evora Monte — Reign of Maria da Gloria — Civil wars and 
 " pronunciamentos " — Era of peaceful parliamentary govern- 
 ment — Reigns of Pedro V. and Luis I. — Accession of Carlos I. 
 — The Portuguese settlements in Africa — Material prosperity 
 — The literary revival — Lessons taught by the history of 
 Portugal — Conclusion , 
 
 Index 433 
 
 Genealogical Tables — 
 
 I. The Descendants of John " the Great " . . . '139 
 
 II. The Descendants of Emmanuel ..... . 279 
 
 III. The Dukes of Braganza 303
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PRINCE HENRY OF PORTUGAL .... Frontispiece 
 
 SPECIMEN OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE .... 9 
 VIEW OF OPORTO AND VILLA NOVA FROM THE SERRA 
 
 CONVENT l6 
 
 COIMBRA (PRESENT STATE) 27 
 
 A VIEW OF THE ANCIENT MOORISH BATH AT CINTRA . 42 
 ARCH OF THE WESTERN ENTRANCE TO AN OLD CHAPEL 
 
 AT LEIRIA 47 
 
 VIEW OF LISBON 5° 
 
 CONVENTO DE CHRISTO AT THOMAR . . . . 61 
 PRINCIPAL FACADE OF THE IGREGA DOS JERONYMOS 
 
 AT BELEM (PRESENT STATEi 68 
 
 GATE AND WINDOW OF THE MONASTERY OF BELEM . 77 
 
 FACADE OF LISBON CATHEDRAL 82 
 
 INES DE CASTRO 9^ 
 
 VIEW OF THE PALACE AT LISBON I08 
 
 TWO SIDES OF THE ROYAL CHAPEL OF THE MONASTERY 
 
 OF BATALHA (PRESENT STATE) . . . .112 
 
 KING JOHN THE GREAT I '6 
 
 QUEEN PHILIPPA 123 
 
 PORTUGUESE GOLD COINS 1 36. 137 
 
 ST. SALVADOR IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY . . . I42 
 
 STATUE OF PRINCE HENRY IJ^
 
 xxii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 TOMB OF PRINCE HENRY 
 
 CHART OF GOA 
 
 VASCO DA GAMA • . . . . 
 
 ALBOQUERQUE, FROM THE SLOANE MS. . 
 
 ALBOQUERQUE, FROM AN ENGRAVING BY SILVA . 
 
 DOM JOAO CASTRO 
 
 PROCESSION OF AN AUTO DA FE . 
 
 LISBON IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY . 
 
 VIEW UP THE DOURO TOWARDS OPORTO 
 
 LUIS DE CAMOENS 
 
 JOAO DE BARROS . 
 
 PHILIP II 
 
 FIGURES OF MEN AT AN AUTO DA FE . 
 
 PORTUGUESE GENTLEMEN 
 
 JOHN IV 
 
 CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA 
 
 PEDRO II 
 
 OPORTO (PRESENT STATE) 
 
 SPECIMENS OF PORTUGUESE SILVER AND COPPER 
 
 COINS 344. 345 
 
 THE MARQUIS OF POMBAL 35^ 
 
 BULL FIGHT 3^6 
 
 A PORTUGUESE MERCHANT, WITH HIS WIFE AND MAID- 
 SERVANT 384 
 
 MARSHAL JUNOT, DUKE OF ABRANTES . . . -394 
 
 PORTUGUESE PEASANTS 39^ 
 
 A FEMALE PEASANT FROM THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF 
 
 CALDAS DA RAINHA 4^3 
 
 [A number of the views illustrating Portuguese scenery are taken 
 from photographs ; others are copied from W. M. Kinsey's " Portugal 
 Illustrated," London, 1829; other volumes vv'hich have supplied illus- 
 trations are " Les Royaumes d'Espagne et Portugal," La Haye, 1720 ; 
 Murphy's " Travels in Portugal," 1798; Major's "Prince Henry the 
 iNavigator," &c. , &c.] 
 
 155 
 166 
 168 
 194 
 202 
 210 
 232 
 239 
 2t;n 
 269 
 
 275 
 282 
 
 293 
 310 
 322 
 328 
 
 335 
 339
 
 THE KINGS OF PORTUGAL 
 
 The House of Burgundy. 
 
 AffonsoHenriqiies (Count of Portugal 1 1 14), Kin;. 
 
 Sancho I. "the City-Builder" . 
 
 Affonso II. "the Fat" 
 
 Sancho II. ..... 
 
 Affonso III. "of Boulogne" (Defender of the 
 Realm 1246) .... 
 
 Diniz " the Labourer "... 
 Affonso IV. ''the Brave" . 
 Pedro 1. " the Severe " 
 Ferdinand "the Handsome'' 
 
 The House of Aviz. 
 
 John I. "the Great" . 
 Edward . . . . 
 Affonso V. " the African " . 
 John II. "the Perfect" . 
 Emmanuel " the Fortunate 
 
 John III 
 
 Sebastian . . . . 
 Henry " the Cardinal " 
 
 OATB 
 I 140 
 I 185 
 
 I2II 
 1223 
 
 1248 
 1279 
 1325 
 
 •357 
 1367 
 
 1385 
 U33 
 '438 
 1481 
 
 1495 
 1521 
 
 1557 
 1578 
 
 The Spanish Dominion. 
 
 Phihp I. (Philip II. of Spain) . . . 1580 
 
 Philip II. (Philip III. of Spain) .... 1598 
 
 Philip III. (Philip IV. of Spain). . . . 1631
 
 XXIV 
 
 THE KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 The House of Braganza. 
 
 John IV. . 
 
 Affonso VI. 
 
 Pedro II. (Regent 1667) 
 
 John V. . . . 
 
 Joseph 
 
 Maria I. and Pedro III. 
 
 Maria I. alone . 
 
 John VI. (Regent 1799) 
 
 Pedro IV. abdicated . 
 
 Maria II. . 
 
 (Miguel, 1828-1834. 
 Maria II. . 
 Pedro V. . 
 Luis I. . = . 
 Carlos I. . * . 
 
 1640 
 1656 
 1683 
 1706 
 1750 
 1777 
 1786 
 1816 
 1826 
 1826 
 
 1834 
 1853 
 1861 
 i88q
 
 PORTUGAL 
 
 J^^-^\ 
 
 
 '"iJ 'ft""; a" °'\Ms;; 
 
 .j^. ,-iifyjarda/ / , '
 
 THE STORY OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 The Story of Portugal possesses a peculiar interest 
 from the fact that it is to its history alone that the 
 country owes its existence as a separate natiori 
 Geographically, the little kingdom is an integral 
 portion of the Iberian peninsula, with no natural 
 boundaries to distinguish it from that larger portion 
 of the peninsula called Spain ; its inhabitants spring 
 from the same stock as the Spaniards, and their 
 language differs but slightly from the Spanish. Its 
 early history is merged in that of the rest of the 
 peninsula, and but for two great men, Afifonso 
 Hcnriques, the first king of Portugal, and John I., 
 the founder of the house of Aviz, Portugal would not 
 at the present day rank among the independent 
 nations of Europe. The first of these monarchs 
 created his dominions into a kingdom like Leon, 
 Castile, and Aragon, and the latter encouraged the 
 maritime explorations which gave the little country 
 an indi\'iduality and national existence, of which it
 
 2 EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 was justly proud. When Philip II. annexed Portugal 
 in 1580, it was at least a century too late for the 
 Portuguese to coalesce with the Spaniards. They 
 had then produced Vasco da Gama and Alboquerque 
 and other great captains and explorers, who had shown 
 Europe the way to India by sea ; and their tongue 
 had been developed by the genius of Camoensand Sa 
 de Miranda, from a Romance dialect, similar to those 
 used in Gallicia, Castile, or Aragon, into a great 
 literary language. Conscious of its national history, 
 Portugal broke away again from Spain in 1640, and 
 under the protection of England maintained its 
 separate existence during the eighteenth century. 
 There was some probability of a union with Spain 
 at the beginning of the present century, when, after 
 the conclusion of the Peninsular War against Na- 
 poleon, certaiti statesmen began to point out the 
 anomaly of the Iberian peninsula being divided into 
 two separate kingdoms, but a generation of great 
 historians and poets soon arose, who reminded the 
 people of the days of Portuguese greatness and of 
 the glories of the past, and made it impossible for 
 the modern Portuguese to lose the consciousness of 
 their individuality as a nation. 
 
 But, though the history of Portugal possesses its 
 peculiar interest as showing how one small portion 
 of the Iberian peninsula maintained a separate 
 existence, it presents also many features of romantic 
 incident, especially during the epoch when it was for 
 a time the leading nation of Europe. The extra- 
 ordinary vigour shown by the inhabitants of this 
 small corner of Europe during the latter half of the
 
 INTEREST OF THE STORY. 3 
 
 fifteenth and first half of the sixteenth centuries is 
 most remarkable. Not only were Portuguese navi- 
 gators the first to creep down the west coast of Africa 
 in small boats, in which modern sailors would hardly- 
 like to cross the English Channel, but they dared 
 to double the Cape of Good Hope, and to sail across 
 the Indian Ocean to India and Ceylon. Thence they 
 ventured round the point of Singapore, and estab- 
 lished themselves at Macao, from which centre they 
 explored the coasts of China and Japan. In the 
 other direction, to the west, they crossed the Atlantic 
 and discovered and colonized Brazil. Lisbon became 
 the storehouse and centre of distribution for the pro- 
 ducts of the East, and attained to a height of wealth 
 and luxury unrivalled since the days of ancient 
 Rome. The history of the Portuguese "conquista- 
 dores" in India for the first hundred years after the 
 discovery of the route round the Cape of Good Hope 
 is one long romance ; the vastness of their designs, 
 the grandeur of their exploits, and the nobility of 
 character of their great captains, combine to make 
 a story of surpassing interest. And when it is re- 
 membered that the soldiers and sailors of these 
 great discoverers and conquerors were inhabitants of 
 the smallest country in Europe, their success seems 
 the more extraordinary, and the interest in the story 
 of the nation which trained the Portuguese heroes 
 becomes the more absorbing. As invariably happens 
 during the heroic age of a nation's history, literature 
 and the arts flourished at a time distinguished by 
 military and naval prowess, and as Spenser and 
 Shakespeare illustrated the Elizabethan age in Eng-
 
 4 EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 land as much as Drake and Raleigh, the age of Vasco 
 da Gama and Alboquerque in Portugal could boast 
 also of Gil Vicente, Sa de Miranda and Camoens, 
 The abrupt fall of Portugal from the greatness and 
 wealth of its heroic period to an insignificant place 
 among the nations is as full of the great lessons which 
 history teaches as the story of its growth. Just as the 
 chivalry induced by the constant fighting with the 
 Moors, and the inspiration to great deeds fostered by 
 freedom and the good government of worthy kings, 
 produced a race of heroes, so not less surely did the 
 growth of luxury and absolutism, assisted by the 
 narrow-mindedness of a dynasty of bigots, lose for 
 Portugal the lofty place which her heroes had won 
 for her. These are things well worth pondering upon 
 and lessons well worth learning, for the great value 
 of the study of history is in teaching such truths 
 as these — truths which are eternal, while nations wax 
 and wane. 
 
 The early history of the country, which took the name 
 of Portugal from the county which formed the nucleus 
 of the future kingdom, is identical with that of the 
 rest of the Iberian peninsula, but deserves some slight 
 notice because of an old misconception, immortalized 
 in the title of the famous epic of Camoens, and not 
 yet entirely eradicated even from modern ideas. 
 Portugal, like the rest of the peninsula, was originally 
 inhabited by men of the prehistoric ages, whose 
 implements are frequently dug up at the present 
 day, and remains of the cave-dwellers have been 
 found all over the province of the Alemtejo, and 
 more especially in the great cave near Alter do Chao-
 
 EARLY INHABITANTS. 5 
 
 The most famous prehistoric monument is, however, 
 the beautiful " Anta de Guimaraens," about the exact 
 date of which Portuguese arch?eologists are much exer- 
 cised. These prehistoric people were conquered and 
 exterminated by the first waves of the great Aryan 
 race which has spread all over Europe. There seems 
 to be no doubt that the Celts, the first Aryan immi- 
 grants, were preceded by a non-Aryan race, which is 
 called by different writers the Iberian or the Euskal- 
 dunac nation, but this earlier race speedily amalga- 
 mated with the Celts, and out of the two together 
 were formed the five tribes inhabiting the iberian 
 peninsula, which Strabo names as the Cantabrians,\ 
 the Vasconians, the Asturians, the Gallicians, and \ 
 the Lusitanians. It is Strabo, also, who mentions the 
 existence of Greek colonies at the mouths of the Tagus, 
 Douro, and Minho, and it is curious to note that the 
 old name of Lisbon, Olisipo, was from the earliest times 
 identified with that of the hero of the Odj'ssey, and was 
 interpreted to mean the city of Ulysses. The Celtic 
 Iberians certainly possessed the elements of civili- 
 zation, and from a very early period they had learnt 
 to write, and it is a remarkable fact that the formation \ 
 of the letters of their alphabet is traceable rather to j 
 Greek than Phoenician characters. This is the more/ 
 remarkable, when it is remembered that the Phoe- 
 nicians, and not the Greeks, are always mentioned 
 in history as monopolizing the trade of Iberia. 
 The Carthaginians, though they had colonies all 
 over the peninsula, established their rule mainly 
 over the south and east of it, having their capital at 
 Carthagena or Nova Carthago, and seem to have
 
 6 EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 neglected the more barbarous northern and western 
 provinces. 
 
 It was for this reason that the Romans found far 
 more difficulty in subduing these latter provinces 
 than they had in taking possession of the former, 
 which the Carthaginians had already conquered. The 
 Romans were at first satisfied with these provinces, 
 which were ceded to them after the conclusion of the 
 second Punic war, but eventually they began to spread 
 over the hitherto neglected districts ; and in 189 B.C. 
 Lucius i^milius Paullus defeated the Lusitanians, and 
 in 183 B.C. Gains Calpurnius forced his way across the 
 Tagus. There is no need here to discuss the gradual 
 conquest by the Romans of that part of the peninsula 
 which includes the modern kingdom of Portugal, but 
 it is necessary to speak of the gallant shepherd 
 Viriathus, who sustained a stubborn war against the 
 Romans from 149 B.C. until he was assassinated in 
 139 B.C. because he has been generally claimed as 
 the first national hero of Portugal. This claim has 
 been based upon the assumed identification of the 
 modern Portugal with the ancient Lusitania, an 
 identification which has spread its roots deep into 
 Portuguese literature, and has until recently been 
 generally accepted. 
 
 The first Portuguese writer who assumed the 
 identity of Portugal with Lusitania was Dom Garcia 
 de Meneses, Bishop of Evora, who wrote in the reign 
 of John IL at the close of the fifteenth century, 
 though the two terms had been used distinctively 
 by early chroniclers, such as Lucas de Tuy in his 
 "Chronicon Mundi," and Matthew de Pisano in his
 
 PORTUGAL IS NOT LUSITANIA. >J 
 
 " Guerra de Ceuta." The mistaken notion was further 
 developed in the days of the Renaissance and of 
 the Revival of Learning, and became generally 
 accepted by the close of the sixteenth century, 
 and exaggerated by the very title of such books 
 as the " Monarchia Lusitana " of Bernardo de Brito 
 and the " De x'^ntiquitatibus Lusitaniae " of the great 
 antiquary Andrea de Resende. In fact, the Por- 
 tuguese writers of that epoch delighted in calling 
 Portugal by the classical name of Lusitania, and 
 Camoens, the very greatest of them all, has, by the 
 title of his famous epic, " Os Lusiadas " or " The 
 Lusiads," stamped the mistake permanently on Por- 
 tuguese literature. 
 
 This false identification has had important his- 
 torical consequences. Modern writers have on this 
 supposition spoken of the Portuguese as a distinct 
 branch of the Celtic population of the Iberian penin- 
 sula identical with the tribe of Lusitanians spoken of 
 by Strabo. They have further identified them with 
 the Lusitanians who struggled so gallantly against the 
 Roman Republic under the leadership of Punicus 
 and Viriathus ; they have found passages in the 
 Latin historians describing the Lusitanians, and have 
 moralized upon the manner in which the character- 
 istics of the ancient Lusitanians re-appear in the 
 modern Portuguese. The identity of two nations 
 must consist in proving their perfect succession in 
 either race or territory, and in neither respect can 
 the identity be shown in the present instance. The 
 Celtic tribe of Lusitanians dwelt, according to Strabo, 
 in the districts north ofthcTagus, while the Lusitania
 
 8 EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 of the Latin historians of the Republic undoubtedly lay- 
 to the south of that river though it was not used as 
 the name of a province until the time of Augustus, 
 when the old division of the peninsula into Hispania 
 Citerior and Hispania Ulterior was superseded by 
 the division into Betica, Tarraconensis, and Lusi- 
 tania. Neither in this division, nor in the division of 
 the peninsula into the five provinces of Tarraconensis, 
 Carthaginensis, Betica, Lusitania, and Gallicia, under 
 Hadrian, was the province called Lusitania co- 
 terminous with the modern kingdom of Portugal. 
 Under each division the name was given to a district 
 south of the Tagus, and therefore not embracing the 
 modern provinces of the Entre Minho e Douro, Tras- 
 os-Montes, and Beira. 
 
 It is important to grasp the results of this mis- 
 conception, for it emphasizes the fact that the history 
 of Portugal for many centuries is merged in that of 
 the rest of the Iberian peninsula, and explains why 
 it is unnecessary to study the wars of the Lusitanians 
 with the Roman Republic, as is often done in histories 
 of Portugal. Like the rest of the peninsula Portuga' 
 was thoroughly Latinized in the days of the Roman 
 Empire ; Roman colonice and vinnicipia were estab- 
 lished in places suited for trade, such as Lisbon 
 and Oporto, and commanding high-roads, such as 
 Lamego and Viseu ; Roman institutions vv^ere gene- 
 rally adopted, and the Latin language super- 
 seded the old Celtic dialects. The chief Portuguese 
 towns, like those in the rest of the peninsula, were 
 granted the "Jus Latinum " by Vespasian, and all 
 the inhabitants became Roman citizens under the
 
 SPECIMEN ni- KOMAN AKCll 11 Kl TUKE. 
 
 {^The Castellum of Q. Scitoriits at Evora.)
 
 lO EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 famous decree of Caracalla. The influence of the 
 mighty sway of Rome has left its traces all over the 
 peninsula, and to as great degree in Portugal as in 
 Spain. Portuguese law is based on the old Roman 
 law, as well as the Portuguese language upon Latin ; 
 and many Portuguese institutions show the direct 
 influence of Roman government. Notably is this 
 the case with regard to municipal institutions ; many 
 Portuguese cities can boast of distinct existence ever 
 since the Roman Empire, and the duumviri and 
 boni homines of those days have their counterparts 
 in the municipal government of the present day. 
 During these days of peace and prosperity Portugal 
 also received the Christian religion, and welcomed it 
 as cordially as France and Spain, and bishoprics were 
 founded which still exist. In more material things 
 the dominion of Rome has left its traces in the roads 
 and bridges made by that race of engineers, in the 
 beautiful remains at Leiria, and in the aqueduct and 
 the ruins of the temple of Diana at Evora. 
 
 Peaceful existence under the sway of Rome con- 
 tinued until the beginning of the fifth century, when 
 the Goths first forced their way across the Pyrenees. 
 During the first barbarian occupation, the Suevi 
 seized Gallicia and Tarraconensis, the Alans Lusitania 
 and Carthaginensis, and the Vandals Betica or 
 Andalusia. The irruption of the Visigoths changed 
 this settlement ; the Alans and the Vandals crossed to 
 Africa, and the Suevi occupied Betica and Lusitania. 
 The Visigothic Empire left but slight traces in Portu- 
 gal, slighter even than in Spain, and the Portuguese 
 nobility do not, like the Spanish, invariably lay claim
 
 THE VISIGOTHS. II 
 
 to Gothic descent. Ethnologically the Gothic ele- 
 ment is very shght in Portugal, though the country 
 passed under the rule of the Visigoths during the 
 reign of Ataulphus, who married the sister of the 
 Roman Emperor Honorius, and remained part of 
 their dominion for three centuries. While the Roman 
 rule left so many traces of its existence, and entirely 
 modelled the language and civilization alike of Spain 
 and Portugal, that of the Visigoths, which lasted 
 nearly as long, left hardly any traces at all. The 
 cause is to be found in the natural assimilation of a 
 race in a low state of civilization to the status of a 
 higher race. The number of Romans who actually 
 settled in the peninsula must have been very small, 
 yet the Celts adopted their language and civilization, 
 while the conquering Visigoths, on the other hand, 
 adopted the religion and civilization of the people 
 they had conquered. The Visigothic power reached 
 its zenith in the reign of Euric at the end of the fifth 
 century, and afterwards steadily declined, being torn 
 by internal dissensions, and especially by the great 
 struggle between the nobility and the rulers of the 
 Christian Church. It was the leaders of the latter 
 party. Count Julian and Archbishop Oppus, who 
 invited the Mohammedans from Africa into Spain, 
 and in fighting against them, Roderick, the last Visi- 
 gothic king, was killed near Xeres, at the battle of 
 the Guadelete, in 711. 
 
 The history of the Mohammedans in the Iberian 
 peninsula has been treated in another volume of this 
 Series,' and it is only necessary to note here that under 
 
 • " The Moors in Spain." i5y Stanley Lanc-I'oole. 4th e<l. 1890.
 
 12 EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 the wise and tolerant rule of the Ommeyad sultans, 
 the rich plains alike of Spain and Portugal maintained 
 the prosperity which they had enjoyed under the 
 Roman emperors and the Visigothic kings, and that 
 the old Roman colonicB and municipia retained their 
 Roman self-government, and Lisbon and Oporto 
 increased in wealth and commercial importance. 
 Though the Arabs were fanatical conquerors, the 
 Ommeyads were enlightened rulers, and the Chris- 
 tian religion was protected, though not encouraged, 
 as long as the Christian bishops refrained from active 
 exertions against the Mohammedans. In Portugal 
 also, owing to its distance from Cordova, the duties 
 of government were granted almost entirely to the 
 Mosarabs, as the numerous native converts to Islam 
 were called, men who felt the importance of keeping 
 the adherents of the two prevailing religions from 
 coming to blows. 
 
 But this peaceful state of things was not to last ; 
 the Iberian peninsula, which had remained prosperous 
 under Romans, Visigoths, and Mohammedans, was to 
 suffer centuries of fierce war, war which was to devas- 
 tate its fields and destroy its cities, but from which its 
 people were to develop into a race of hardy and 
 chivalrous warriors. The people of the peninsula 
 under the rule of foreign sovereigns had become soft 
 and weak, occupied only in accumulating wealth, in 
 which to live in comfort and luxury. Architectural 
 remains of the first thousand years of the Christian 
 era show to what a pitch of comfort the people had 
 attained, but the easy conquests of the Visigoths and 
 the Moors prove that they had become enervated by
 
 OPORTO CAPTURED FROM THE MOORS. 13 
 
 luxury. During the next five hundred years a dif- 
 ferent state of things was to appear. The land and 
 the cities alike of Spain and Portugal were to be 
 ravaged and destroyed in terrible wars, and a race of 
 soldiers, bred in all the laws and customs of chivalry, 
 was to arise — a race which, after finding no further 
 exercise for its energies at home, was to extend its 
 power to India and to the New World, as yet unknown, 
 across the Atlantic. Whether it were better to spend 
 lives of luxurious ease or to become warriors was 
 a question not asked of the people of the Iberian 
 peninsula ; they had no choice in the matter ; but it 
 must not be forgotten in watching the gradual develop- 
 ment of this race of warriors in one part of the 
 peninsula, in Portugal, that it was, when formed, to 
 do great things for Europe and for the advancement 
 of a higher civilization than that of the stormy 
 centuries in which it arose. 
 
 Towards the close of the tenth century as the 
 Ommeyad caliphate grew weaker, the Christian 
 princes of Visigothic descent, who dwelt in the 
 mountains of the Asturias, began to grow more 
 bold in their attacks on the declining power ; 
 and in 997 Bermudo II., king of Gallicia, won 
 back the first portion of modern Portugal from the 
 Moors by seizing Oporto and occupying the province 
 now known as the Entre Minho e Douro. At the 
 beginning of the eleventh century, the great Moorish 
 caliphate finally broke up, and independent Moham- 
 medan emirs established themselves in every large 
 city, against whom the Christian princes waged 
 incessant and successful wars. In these wars the
 
 14 EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 Celtic inhabitants of the peninsula took but little 
 part ; the Moorish armies consisted of Mohammedans, 
 the descendants of the fierce soldiers of Abder-Rahman 
 and a few Mosarabs, while the Christian armies 
 consisted only of the feudal chivalry of the northern 
 mountains. 
 
 In each army different customs prevailed ; the 
 strength of the Moors lay in their perfect military 
 discipline and absolute obedience to their generals ; 
 that of the Christians in the new impulse to valour 
 given to each individual knight by the laws of 
 chivalry. On neither side was personal ambition 
 without an incentive ; Moorish generals hoped to 
 become emirs, Christian knights, feudal counts. The 
 finest soldiers of both armies were foreigners to the 
 peninsula, being on the one side Africans, on the 
 other either of Gothic descent or else the flower of 
 the chivalry of northern Europe, which went to win 
 its spurs in the wars against the unbelievers, and 
 especially admired and followed the Cid, Rodrigo 
 Diaz de Bivar. Between these two contending bands 
 of warriors the unfortunate Celtic inhabitants of the 
 middle zone of the peninsula were crushed ; those of 
 the mountains of the north were by feudal custom 
 obliged to take up arms to follow their lords, and 
 after a century or two those of the centre by the force 
 of necessity became warriors also, and proceeded to 
 drive the Moors back to Africa. 
 
 The eleventh century was at first marked by great 
 Christian successes, especially in the west of the 
 peninsula. In 1055 Ferdinand "the Great," king of 
 Leon, Castile, and Gallicia, invaded the Beira ; in 1057
 
 THE COUNTY OF £01 M BRA. 1 5 
 
 he took Lamego and Viseu ; and in 1064 Coimbra, 
 where he died in the following year. He arranged for 
 the government of his conquests in the only way 
 possible under the feudal system, by forming them into 
 a county, extending to the Mondego, with Coimbra 
 as its capital. The first count of Coimbra was 
 Sesnando, a recreant Arab vizir, who had advised 
 Ferdinand to invade his district and had assisted in 
 its easy conquest. He had married a Christian, and was 
 ready to defend his new religion and the dominions 
 he held under the Christian king with all the more 
 vigour from the knowledge that the Moorish emirs 
 and walis to the south regarded him as an apostate. 
 But though Sesnando's county of Coimbra was the 
 great frontier county of Gallicia, and the most 
 important conquest of Ferdinand " the Great," it was 
 not thence that the kingdom which was to develop 
 out of his dominions was to take its name. Among 
 the counties of Gallicia was one called the " co- 
 mitatus Portucalensis," because it contained within 
 its boundaries the famous city at the mouth of the 
 Douro, known in Roman and Greek times as the 
 Portus Cale, and in modern days as Oporto, or " The 
 Port." This county of Oporto or Portugal was the 
 one destined to give its name to the future kingdom, 
 and was held at the time of Ferdinand's death by 
 Nuno Mendes, the founder of one of the most famous 
 families in Portuguese history. 
 
 Ferdinand " the Great " was succeeded in his three 
 kingdoms of Castile, Leon, and Gallicia, by his three 
 sons, Sancho, Alfonso, and Garcia, the last of whom 
 received the two counties of Coimbra and Oporto a"
 
 THE WARS WITH THE MOORS. 17 
 
 fiefs of Gallicia, and maintained Nuno Mendes and 
 Sesnando as his feudatories. Under them were many 
 feudal barons, who held their lands on condition of 
 military service. It is fortunately not necessary to 
 enter into the history of the wars between the sons 
 of Ferdinand ; it is enough to say that t|ie second 
 of them, Alfonso of Leon, eventually united all his 
 father's kingdoms in 1073, as Alfonso VI. The 
 successes of the Christians aroused the stubborn 
 resistance of the Moors ; a fresh wave of fanaticism 
 passed over the Mohammedans of Africa and of the 
 peninsula, and a new dynasty, that of the Almoravides 
 arose, which subdued the vr.rious emirs and walis who 
 had usurped the govern r.^ient of various portions of 
 the old Ommeyad caliphate, and once more united 
 the Moorish power. The new dynasty collected great 
 Moslem armies, and in 10S6 Yijsuf Ibn Teshfln routed 
 Alfonso utterly at the battle of Zalaca, and recon- 
 quered the peninsula up to the Ebro. In this battle all 
 the chivalry of the Moors and Christians was engaged, 
 and among the latter was Sesnando, Count of Coimbra, 
 followed by his knights, Alfonso tried to compensate 
 for this defeat and his loss of territory in the east 
 of his dominions by conquests in the west, and in 
 1093 ^^c advanced to the Tagus and took Santarem 
 and Lisbon, and rnade Sueiro Mendes count of the 
 new district. But these conquests he did not hold for 
 long ; the Almoravides were in the full flush of 
 success, and their armies were made almost irresistible 
 by the fresh fanaticism inspired into them. Their 
 conquests in the east of the peninsula after the battle 
 of Zalaca were followed by rapid successes in the
 
 lO EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 west. In 1093 Seyr, the general of the Almoravide 
 caliph Yusuf, took Evora from the Emir of Badajoz ; 
 in 1094 he took Badajoz itself, and killed the emir ; 
 and retaking Lisbon and Santarem forced his way up 
 to the Mondego. To resist this revival of the Moham- 
 medan power, Alfonso summoned the chivalry of 
 Christendom to his aid. Among the knights who 
 joined his army eager to win their spurs, and win 
 dominions for themselves were Count Raymond of 
 Toulouse and Count Henry of Burgundy. To the 
 former, Alfonso gave his legitimate daughter Urraca 
 and Gallicia; to the latter, his illegitimate daughter 
 Theresa, and the counties of Oporto and Coimbra, 
 with the title of Count of Portugal. 
 
 The history of Portugal now becomes distinct from 
 that of the rest of the peninsula, and it is from the 
 year 1095 that the history of Portugal commences. 
 The son of Henry of Burgundy was the great 
 monarch Affonso Henriques, the hero of his country 
 and the founder of a great dynasty. Up to this time 
 it has been impossible to separate the history of 
 Portugal from that of Spain, but it has been necessary 
 to point out the fact that the history of the two 
 countries had been hitherto identical, in order to 
 dissipate the common error that the Spaniards and 
 Portuguese belong to distinct races. The fact that 
 the history of Portugal does not begin until such a 
 comparatively recent date teaches another important 
 lesson, that the nations of modern Europe must not 
 be looked upon as having been complete entities from 
 the earliest times, but in some instances owe their 
 distinct nationality at the present day to fortuitous 
 circumstances.
 
 THE COUNTY OF PORTUGAL. I9 
 
 In 1095 ^ powerful county of Portugal was formed : 
 its growth to a kingdom and the extension of its 
 dominions by conquests from the Moors will now have 
 to be studied, as well as its difficulty in maintaining its 
 independence among the other nations of the penin- 
 sula, before it can be seen as the leading nation of the 
 world, in the van of the march of European civilizatioUc
 
 TI. 
 
 THE COUNTY OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 Count Henry of Burgundy, his wife Theresa, and 
 his son Afifonso Henriques, were the three founders 
 of Portugal, and they were all of them individuals 
 of marked personality. They were typical figures of 
 their epoch, possessing the curious mixture of virtues 
 and vices which characterized the age of chivalry. 
 
 Count Henry was the second son of Henry, who 
 was the third son of Robert, first Duke of Burgundy, 
 and he was like his father and grandfather, a knight 
 of the old French school, combining a passionate 
 love for adventure and for war with an ambitious and 
 self-seeking temperament. He had come to Spain to 
 the assistance of the Christians, as much with the 
 purpose of founding a dynasty as for the love of war, 
 and from the first he turned his thoughts more to the 
 hope of succeeding his father-in-law, Alfonso VI., in 
 one at least of his kingdoms, than to carving a king- 
 dom for himself out of the dominions of the Arab 
 caliphs. He received his county of Portugal, the dowry 
 of his wife, Theresa, illegitimate daughter of Alfonso 
 VI., as a direct fief of the crown of Gallicia, one of the
 
 COUNT HENRY OF BURGUNDY. 21 
 
 three kini^doms of his father-in-law. This kingdom 
 Alfonso had granted, as a fief, not as a kingdom, to 
 Count Raymond of Toulouse, who had married his 
 legitimate daughter, Urraca, and Count Henry highly 
 disapproved of being in some sort a feudatory of his 
 fellow-adventurer. At first the jealousy between 
 Henry and Raymond did not show itself; for Count 
 Henry had to fight hard to defend his southern fron- 
 tiers against the incursions of the Mohammedan 
 general Seyr. To his help he summoned the chivalry 
 of France, and the knights of his native country 
 flocked to his assistance, and were promoted to high 
 military positions and to feudal dignities by him. 
 Battle succeeded battle without either side gaining 
 any decisive victory, until after seven years' hard 
 fighting both Christians and Moors decided to rest 
 awhile to recover from their exhaustion. 
 
 Count Henry was, however, too much the restless 
 knight of the Middle Ages to remain quiet long. 
 Since his Portuguese warriors were weary, and the 
 battle-ground for miles on each bank of the Tagus 
 was laid utterly waste, he could fight no longer in his 
 own country against the unbelievers, and so hurried 
 off in 1 103 with Maurice, Bishop of Coimbra, to fight 
 them in Palestine. For two years he served in the 
 expedition known as the Second Crusade, and when 
 he returned he was still ready for more fighting at 
 home. His restlessness was typical of his epoch. The 
 knights of the Crusades were always knights-errant, 
 always in search of adventure, and never satiated 
 with war. This spirit was encouraged by the Church, 
 and while the Almoravide caliph Yusuf was orga-
 
 22 THE COUNTY OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 nizing his military forces for a fresh assault on the 
 Christians, Count Henry, on the other hand, went off 
 in search of adventure abroad, leaving his county 
 under the government of his wife, Theresa. 
 
 Fortunately for Portugal, Theresa was a singularly 
 able woman. Beautiful and accomplished, the idol of 
 poets and musicians, and capable of inspiring the 
 deepest devotion, she threw herself heart and soul into 
 the task which her restless husband abandoned, and 
 spent the years of his absence in training the Portu- 
 guese for fresh struggles. She too possessed all 
 the faults and virtues of her epoch ; passionate to 
 a degree in every sense, she became the adored 
 divinity of her nobles, and prepared herself during 
 this brief regency for the longer regency of her 
 widowhood. Her great aim at this time, as it was 
 throughout her stormy life, was to make the Portu- 
 guese nobles regard themselves as Portuguese, and 
 not as GalHcians, and thus prepare them to make 
 their country independent. But though her chief 
 endeavour was to heighten and animate the spirit of 
 her nobles, she did not neglect other classes of her 
 subjects ; she encouraged the citizens of her cities in 
 their ideas of municipal independence, and urged 
 them to keep their fortifications in good repair, and 
 to be ready to go forth to war under captains of their 
 own choice, instead of under hereditary leaders from 
 among the nobility. The result of this policy was that, 
 in the next generation, the military retainers of the 
 great nobles, who resided in their castles, went forth 
 to fight side by side with the free citizens under their 
 elected leaders, and that her son was able to lead two
 
 DEATH OF ALFO\'SO VI. 23 
 
 distinct classes of soldiers under his banners, who 
 vied with each other in prowess against foreign foes, 
 while they were a check upon each other at home, 
 and could be played off against one another in case 
 either class became dangerous to their suzerain. 
 
 When Count Henry returned from Palestine in 
 1 105, he became united with his former brother-in- 
 arms, Count Raymond of Gallicia, by a common 
 feeling of jealousy. Both looked forward to inherit- 
 ing portions of King Alfonso's dominions, and were 
 extremely suspicious lest the old monarch should 
 favour his natural son, Sancho, whose mother was 
 a Moorish princess, Zaida, daughter of Ibn Abbad, 
 Emir of Seville. In their dislike for Sancho they 
 were encouraged by the priests, to whom Alfonso's 
 affection for a Moorish woman was abhorrent, and 
 an agreement was made between the brothers-in-law 
 by an ambitious French monk, named Hugh of 
 Cluny, afterwards Bishop of Oporto, to oust the son 
 of the infidel. This peaceful arrangemeiit had no 
 result, owing to the death of Count Raymond in 
 1 107, followed by that of young Sancho at the battle 
 of Ucles with the Moors in 1108, and finally by the 
 death of Alfonso VI. himself in 1109. 
 
 The king's death brought about the catastrophe. 
 He left all his dominions to his legitimate daughter, 
 Urraca, with the result that there was five years of 
 fierce fighting between Henry of Burgundy, Alfonso 
 Raimundcs, the son of Count Raymond, /Vlfonso I., 
 of Aragon, and Queen Urraca, during which the 
 Almoravides quietly consolidated their power and 
 prepared for a fresh attack upon the Christians.
 
 24 THE COUNTY OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 Nothing proves more certainly that the crusading 
 spirit was often only a cloak for personal ambition 
 than this terrible internecine war, in which princes 
 and nobles changed sides and broke their plighted 
 words with a recklessness supposed to be distinctive of 
 a most abandoned age. While they fought with each 
 other, the Mohammedans advanced. The Almora- 
 vide Ali, who had succeeded his father, Yusuf, in 
 Spain and Morocco, reconquered Talavera and Madrid, 
 and laid siege to Toledo, while his famous general, 
 Seyr Ibn Abi-Bekr, reconquered the Moorish emirs of 
 the western towns, who had revolted, and in 1112 
 besieged Santarem, which then formed the southern- 
 most outpost of the county of Portugal. Before he 
 took it however, Seyr died, and Count Henry, who 
 had been forced to come south in order to meet the 
 invaders, once more returned to continue his wars with 
 the Christian princes. Only one incident in Count 
 Henry's march against the Mohammedans deserves 
 record, and that is the refusal of the citizens of 
 Coimbra to admit their count into their city, or to 
 follow hijn to the front, unless he confirmed the privi- 
 leges granted to them by Donna Theresa, and granted 
 them certain fresh concessions. Henry was forced to 
 grant them, and on the death of Seyr, he again ad- 
 vanced into Spain, and joined in further intrigues. 
 These did not last long, for on May i, 11 14, Count 
 Henry died at Astorga, not without a suspicion that 
 he had been poisoned by Queen Urraca, leaving his 
 wife Theresa as regent during the minority of his 
 son, Affonso Henriques, who was but three years old. 
 Theresa, who made the ancient city of Guimaraens
 
 THE POLICY OF THERESA. 25 
 
 her capital, devoted all her energies to building up 
 her son's dominions into an independent state ; and 
 under her rule, while the Christian states of Spain 
 were torn by internecine war, the Portuguese began to 
 recognize Portugal as their country, and to cease 
 from calling themselves Gallicians. This distinction 
 between Portugal and Gallicia was the first step 
 towards the formation of a national spirit, which 
 grew into a desire for national independence. The 
 people were the same in origin, and spoke the same 
 language. The province of Gallicia had both in 
 Roman and Gothic times spread as far south as the 
 Tagus, and no distinction had been made between 
 the Gallicians of the north and south until Alfonso 
 VI. had given Count Henry his large domain. It was 
 Donna Theresa who first tried to make the distinction 
 more marked. Count Henry had loolced upon his 
 county as a step to the succession to the kingdom of 
 Gallicia, if not to the two kingdoms of Leon and ' 
 and Gallicia. Donna Theresa, on the other hand, \ 
 looked upon Portugal as an independent country, and j 
 desired rather to extend her frontiers at the expense ' 
 of Gallicia than to succeed to the throne of that 
 kingdom. 
 
 In her efforts to promote the unity of Portugal and 
 its independence of Gallicia, Donna Theresa was 
 warmly seconded by her peo])]e, and especially by 
 the inhabitants of the cities whom she favoured, while 
 among the ruling classes she had the support of the 
 clergy and the opposition of the greater part of the 
 nobility. Most of her nobles owned great estates 
 in both Gallicia and Portugal, for the feudal grants of
 
 26 THE COUNTY OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 land conquered by the Christian kings from the Mo- 
 hammedans were generally made to noblemen, who 
 had led large contingents to their help. These nobles 
 were naturally opposed to a separation between Por- 
 tugal and Gallicia, which would make them feuda- 
 tories to two different lords, and often oblige them in 
 case of disputes between their suzerains to sacrifice 
 one of their properties. On the other hand, the Portu- 
 guese bishops were suffragans of the reconstructed 
 archbishopric of Braga, and owed no obedience to any 
 Gallician bishop ; indeed, they were especially hostile 
 to the wealthiest of them, the powerful bishop of the 
 great pilgrim city of Santiago daCampostella. It has 
 been said that many of the Christian bishoprics con- 
 tinued to exist during the Moorish occupation, and 
 had a continuous history from the first conv^ersion of 
 the people to Christianit}', but some had lapsed owing 
 to the poverty of their sees. The advance of the Chris- 
 tian princes, which was due as much to religious as to 
 political motives, brought about the re-establishment 
 of the bishoprics which had lapsed, and the increased 
 endowment of those which had continued to exist 
 The new bishops held a very different position from 
 their predecessors. They were not the poor shepherds 
 of poor flocks, in a land ruled b\' infidels, but powerful 
 barons, holding great estates on military tenure, who 
 united the influence of their sacred rank to their 
 temporal power. The metropolitan of these Portu- 
 guese bishops was the Archbishop of Braga, and it was 
 naturally his policy to support the independence of 
 the county of Portugal, for it was better for him to 
 be the head of the Church of an important county

 
 28 THE COUNTY OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 than to be merely one of the archbishops of the 
 kingdom of Gallicia. This was the attitude taken up 
 by the first great Archbishop of Braga, Mauricio 
 Burdino, a Frenchman, and the companion in Pales- 
 tine of Count Henry, who had promoted him from the 
 bishopric of Coimbra to the metropolitan see. In it 
 he was supported by Hugh, Bishop of Oporto, the 
 most wealthy of his suffragans, and the history of the 
 ensuing century gives many instances of the patriot- 
 ism of the Portuguese bishops, and of their efforts to 
 promote and maintain the independence of the new 
 state. 
 
 The regency of Donna Theresa was marked by 
 many struggles, the history of which it is now difficult 
 to trace, but throughout them all, the growing unity 
 of Portugal can be perceived. She took a keen inte- 
 rest in the politics of Gallicia, for she hoped to extend 
 her frontiers to the north, and in 1116 she led her 
 forces in person to the assistance of Diogo Gelmires, 
 Bishop of Santiago da Campostella, and the Count de 
 Trava, who had headed a rising, intended to depose 
 Queen Urraca, and to place her young son Alfonso 
 Raimundes at once upon the throne of Gallicia. In 
 this war Theresa took the towns of Tuy and Orense, 
 and the warrior countess met, in the course of it for 
 the first time, the young hidalgo, Don Fernando 
 Peres de Trava, with whom she fell passionately in 
 love, and whose history was for the future to be linked 
 with hers. In 11 17 the Moors, under their caliph 
 All in person, invaded her dominions, and besieged 
 her in Coimbra, but she succeeded in beating them 
 off, and spent the following years in peace and quiet,
 
 WAR BETWEEN THERESA AND URRACA. 29 
 
 in the constant company of her lover, whom she 
 made governor of Coimbra and Oporto, and Count 
 of Trastamare ; while to his elder brother, Bermudo 
 Peres de Trava, she gave the hand of her second 
 daughter by Count Henry, the Donna Urraca, and 
 the governorship of Viseu. 
 
 But this quiet enjoyment of peace and love was 
 not long allowed to the beautiful ruler of Portugal. 
 Her half-sister Urraca, the Queen of Castile, Leon, 
 and Gallicia, had been hitherto too much engaged in 
 fighting with her second husband, Alfonso I.of Aragon, 
 to pay any attention to her ; but she too was a warrior 
 princess, and in 1 121 she ordered Theresa to surrender 
 the city of Tuy. Theresa refused, and Urraca led an 
 army against her, which defeated the Portuguese at 
 Tuy, and eventually the queen took the Countess of 
 Portugal prisoner after a long siege of the castle of 
 Lanhoso. It seemed as if the nascent independence 
 of Portugal was about to be crushed, but Bishop 
 Gelmires came to the assistance of Theresa, who had 
 done so much for his friends and relatives, the De 
 Travas, and threatened to attack Urraca unless she 
 made peace with her half-sister. Urraca was forced 
 to comply, and the treaty of peace which was then 
 signed marks another stage in the growth of the 
 independence of Portugal, for in it Donna Theresa 
 is styled Infanta, and treated as the equal of Queen 
 Urraca, who further promised to cede to her the 
 cities and districts of Toro, Zamora, and Salamanca. 
 For the next few years the careers of the half- 
 sisters were singularly similar. Queen Urraca 
 showered favours on her lover, Don Pedro de Lara,
 
 30 THE COUNTY OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 until her young son, Alfonso Raimundes, assisted by 
 Bishop Gelmires, revolted against her ; while Donna 
 Theresa, with equal blindness, devoted herself to her 
 love for Don Fernando Peres de Trava, and thus 
 aroused the hatred of her boy-son Afifonso Henriques 
 and of Paio Mendes, who in 1121 had succeeded 
 Mauricio Burdino as Archbishop of Braga. Her 
 quarrel with Paio Mendes commenced in the year 
 after he became archbishop, and well illustrates the 
 attitude of the Portuguese bishops. As long as 
 Theresa had remained the living symbol of Portu- 
 guese unity and independence the bishops had 
 followed her, but as soon as she showed her love for 
 a Gallician nobleman they turned against her. Paio 
 Mendes was quite ready to lead the malcontents, for 
 he was the brother of Count Sueiro Mendes of Oporto, 
 surnamed the Great, who was the head of the purely 
 Portuguese, as opposed to the mixed Portuguese and 
 Gallician, nobility. In 1122 Archbishop Paio pro- 
 tested against the gift of so many important posts 
 to Don Fernando, and the proud countess imme- 
 diately cast him into prison. She was obliged in a 
 few days to release him, for fear of a papal inter- 
 dict ; but she had made a bitter enemy, who was 
 soon to have an opportunity for revenge. 
 
 The discontent with Theresa did not show itself 
 openly until 1 127, when Alfonso Raimundes, who had 
 succeeded his mother Urraca in the preceding year, 
 and taken the title of Alfonso VII., King of Castile, 
 Leon, and Gallicia, invaded Portugal and forced 
 Theresa to recognize him as suzerain, and to sur- 
 render her claims to Tuy and Orense. The citizens
 
 DEFEAT OF DONNA THERESA. 3 1 
 
 of Guimaraen?, the capital of the county, at once 
 declared Affonso Henriques of age, and competent to 
 reign ; but Alfonso VII. marched against the city, and 
 Egas Moniz, the former tutor of the young count, 
 who was its governor, in order to make peace, 
 promised on behalf of his former pupil that he would 
 ratify Theresa's submission. Affonso Henriques, how- 
 ever, though only a boy of seventeen, absolutely refused 
 to recognize the submission made by his mother and 
 his tutor, and in 11 28 he raised an army with the de- 
 clared intention of expelling Donna Theresa and her 
 lover from the country. In this movement the boy 
 was encouraged by Archbishop Paio and his brother 
 Sueiro Mendes, by one of his brothers-in-law, Sancho 
 Nunes, by his half-brother, Pedro Affonso, an ille- 
 gitimate son of Count Henry, by Emigio Moniz, and 
 by Garcia Scares. Donna Theresa also collected an 
 army, consisting chiefly of Gallicians, but she was 
 defeated by her son at the battle of S. Mamede, near 
 Guimaraens, and taken prisoner, and was shortly after- 
 wards expelled, with Don Fernando, from the county 
 she had ruled so long. 
 
 Thus ended the regency of Donna Theresa. She 
 had not added a single town to her son's dominions, 
 for her early conquests had been recaptured by Queen 
 Urraca and Alfonso VII. But she had done more 
 for Portugal than making conquests. She had asserted 
 its independence, and though she seldom called her- 
 self Queen, she never took any title less than that of 
 Infanta. She had also prepared for the extension of 
 Portugal towards the south at the end of her regency 
 by encouraging the settlement of the orders of
 
 32 THE COUNTY OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 religious knights there. To the Knights Templars 
 .she had granted, in 1 128, the frontier town of Soure ; 
 to the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre S. Payo de 
 Gouvea, Lodeiro, and Pagos de Penalva ; and to the 
 Knights of the Hospital, the town of Le^a. From 
 these beginnings great results were to arise during 
 the reign of her son. 
 
 The last years of Theresa's life were quite out of 
 keeping with the brilliancy of her regency. After 
 her expulsion she wandered about in the mountains 
 of Gallicia with her lover until her death, in poverty, 
 on November i, 11 30. Her body was taken to 
 Portugal, and buried beside that of Count Henry, her 
 husband, in the Cathedral of Braga, and both of them 
 are reverenced by modern Portuguese as the founders 
 of the independence of their country. Her history is a 
 strange one. To political instincts and a capability 
 for government which rank her among the most re- 
 markable women of the whole period of the Middle 
 Ages; to a manly courage, which inspired her to lead 
 her soldiers in person to the fight and enabled her to 
 withstand a Moorish siege, she joined the most 
 feminine of qualities — that of entire devotion to the 
 man she loved. Her love for Fernando Peres may 
 have made her deviate from the path she should have 
 followed as regent of Portugal, but it does not make 
 her a less interesting character in the eyes of posterity. 
 If she loved too greatly, she was greatly punished, 
 and her death in exile more than atoned for the 
 favour she bestowed on her lover. The task com- 
 menced by Count Henry and Donna Theresa was 
 destined to be accomplished by one greater than
 
 AFFOXSO HENRIQUES. 
 
 33 
 
 either of them, by the hero of early Portuguese 
 history, Affonso Henriques, who united his father's 
 restless and chivalrous valour with the political 
 ability of his mother.
 
 III. 
 
 PORTUGAL BECOMES A KINGDOM. THE REIGN 
 OF AFFONSO HENRIQUES. 
 
 Affonso Henriques, the only son of Count 
 Henry and Donna Theresa, who at the age of seven- 
 teen, after the battle of S. Mamede, began his long 
 and prosperous reign, was one of the heroes of the 
 Middle Ages. He succeeded to the government of 
 Portugal when it was still regarded generally, in spite 
 of Theresa's claims, as a county of Gallicia, and after 
 nearly sixty years of incessant fighting he bequeathed 
 to his son a powerful little kingdom, whose indepen- 
 dence was unquestioned, and whose fame was spread 
 abroad throughout Christendom by the victories of 
 its first monarch over the Moors. The story of his 
 early years abounds in miraculous legends and 
 tales, like those told of the youth of Arthur and 
 Charlemagne, which, if not credible in themselves, are 
 interesting as showing the feelings of the Portuguese 
 chroniclers and poets towards him. His boyish 
 exploits in the mountains around Guimaraens, in 
 which he is said to have fought wolves as he after- 
 wards fought the Moors, and the tale of the fire
 
 AFFONSO HENRIQUES. 35 
 
 which played about his cradle without hurting or 
 even terrifying the youthful hero, savour of the 
 marvellous and were evidently invented in after 
 years. But in telling the tale of his education and 
 bringing up his biographers were on firmer ground. 
 His father had died when he was but an infant, and 
 his mother was too much occupied with her lover 
 and with the cares of government to pay much 
 attention to him. He was handed over entirely to 
 the cha'rge of a gallant Portuguese nobleman, Egas 
 Moniz, the governor of Guimaraens. The young 
 count showed himself an adept in all knightly 
 exercises ; he became a skilful horseman and a 
 fearless hunter ; and added to these accomplishments, 
 a knowledge of reading and writing rarely acquired 
 in those times by any but ecclesiastics. His disposi- 
 tion was that of knight of the Middle Ages ; with 
 the greatest personal bravery, he possessed a love for 
 poetry and romance, and delighted in the tales of 
 chivalry which were sung before him ; and he was 
 moreover a typical Christian of the period, uniting a 
 belief in superstitions, which made him a fanatic, 
 with a looseness of life, when love for women or 
 romantic adventure was in question, which directly 
 belied his religious professions. 
 
 His initiation into public life began at the age of 
 fourteen, when he was taken by his tutor and guardian 
 to Zamora to receive the honour of knighthood, 
 in the cathedral from his cousin, Alfonso VH. It 
 was at the feast of Pentecost, in 1125, that he thus 
 devoted his life to chivalry, and he made his vows 
 and watched his arms throughout the night in the
 
 36 PORTUGAL BECOMES A KINGDOM. 
 
 cathedral with all the ardour of his age and tempera- 
 ment. He was to fight in many a war with the 
 cousin who then made him a knight ; but neither of 
 them, though failing to lead moral lives, ever failed 
 to acquit himself as a chivalrous knight. Affonso 
 returned to Guimaraens with Egas Moniz, and many of 
 the Portuguese nobility at once proposed that he should 
 assume the government of his county in person and 
 deprive his mother of the regency. He was trained 
 to this idea by Archbishop Paio Mendes and his 
 party, and when Donna Theresa and Egas Moniz 
 promised for him that he would submit to Alfonso 
 VII. he refused to ratify their promises, and declared 
 himself of age in 1128. He speedily defeated his 
 mother at the battle of S. Mamede, and then became 
 the real ruler of his county. In his conduct after 
 this behaviour of his ward and pupil, old Egas Mon'^ 
 showed how fit he was to have been the tutor cf a 
 hero. When the old nobleman understood that 
 Affonso would not make the submission to the King 
 of Castile, Leon, and Gallicia, which he had promised 
 in the young count's name, he went to Toledo with 
 his wife and children, and, surrendered himself to 
 Alfonso VII. The young king honoured the old 
 man's loyalty to his word, and, instead of punishing 
 him, pointed him out to his courtiers as a model to 
 be imitated, and said aloud, "What great things will 
 not the pupil of such a noble knight be able to 
 perform ! " 
 
 The reign of Affonso Henriques may be divided 
 into four clearly marked periods — the regency of 
 Donna Theresa; the wars of dismemberment, by which
 
 THE WARS OF AFFONSO HENRIQUES. 37 
 
 the independence of Portugal was established ; the 
 wars of acquisition against the Moors, by w hich the 
 southern frontier of the country was extended ; and 
 the period of partial decline after the defeat and 
 imprisonment of the king in 1166. Of these four 
 periods the first has been described, but each of the 
 others deserv^es a close examination, for each of them 
 possesses a distinct importance in Portuguese history. 
 The four wars of Afifonso Henriques with Alfonso 
 VII. ended in the recognition of the Portuguese hero 
 as king, and in the abandonment by him of all inter- 
 ference in Gallicia. The first Gallician war consisted 
 of an incursion by Afifonso Henriques into Gallicia, 
 in 1 1 30, the year of his mother's death, which was 
 caused by the desire of the Count to punish Fernando 
 Peres, who was preparing on his side an invasion 01 
 Portugal. From this incursion Afifonso was recalled 
 by the news that Fernando's brother, Bermudo Peres, 
 who had married Affonso's sister, and was governor 
 of Viseu, was in open insurrection. Affonso instantly 
 returned, took Bermudo's castle of Seia, confiscated 
 his estates, and forced him to become a monk ; and 
 the Gallician party in Portugal received a blow from 
 which it never recovered. In 1135 Affonso made a 
 second incursion into Gallicia, took the town of Limia, 
 and built the great castle of Celmes. Alfonso VII., 
 who had in this year been elected Emperor, and whose 
 supremacy was acknowledged not only all over Spain, 
 but in Provence as well, was not likely to brook this 
 insolence on the part of the Count of Portugal, and 
 speedily sent an army, which captured Cclmcs and 
 then withdrew. Affon.so did not feel grateful for the
 
 38 PORTUGAL BECOMES A KINGDOM. 
 
 leniency with which he had been treated, but in 11 37 
 made a third incursion into Gallicia, at the invitation 
 of Gomes Nunes of Tuy, and Rodrigo Peres of 
 Limia, and utterly defeated the counts true to 
 Alfonso VII., headed by his old enemy Fernando 
 Peres, and by Rodrigo Vela, in the hard-fought battle 
 of Cerneja. This defeat at last roused the Emperor 
 Alfonso, who came in person with a powerful army 
 to punish the count, or as he now termed himself, 
 the Infante of Portugal. Fortunately for Affonso the 
 two armies did not come to blows ; the ecclesiastics 
 on both sides argued that it was monstrous for two 
 Christian princes to fight with each other instead of 
 with the Moors, and by the mediation of the Arch- 
 bishop of Braga and the Bishop of Oporto, on behalf 
 of Affonso, and of the Bishops of Tuy, Segovia, and 
 Orense for the Emperor, the Peace of Tuy was signed 
 on July 4, 1 1 37. By this peace Affonso Henriques 
 promised to abandon all interference with Gallician 
 affairs, and to submit himself as a vassal to the 
 Emperor, and both princes swore to turn their arms 
 against the Mohammedans. But the Portuguese 
 prince did not abide by the terms of the Peace 
 of Tuy, in so far as it made him a vassal ; and after 
 winning his famous victory over the Moors at 
 Ourique, in 11 39, he again invaded Gallicia, and in 
 1 140 the last battle between the sons of the two 
 brothers-in-arms, the French counts, Raymond and 
 Henry, was fought. Affonso Henriques was wounded, 
 and it was agreed, in consonance with the ideas of 
 the times, to refer the ryreat question of Portuguese 
 independence to a chivalrous contest. In a great
 
 AFFONSO RECOGNIZED AS KING. 39 
 
 tournament, known as the " Tourney of Valdevez," 
 the Portuguese knights were entirely successful over 
 those of Castile, and in consequence of their victory 
 Affonso Henriques assumed the title of King of 
 Portugal. 
 
 This is the turning-point of Portuguese history, and 
 it is a curious fact that the independence of Portugal 
 from Gallicia was achieved by victory in a tournament 
 and not in war. Up to 11 36 Affonso Henriques had 
 styled himself Infante, in imitation of the title borne 
 by his mother; from 1136 to 1 140 he stjled himself 
 Principe, and in 1140 he first took the title of King. 
 There is no document extant in which the Emperor 
 acknowledged his cousin as a sovereign as early as 
 this date, and, indeed, the agreement is only known 
 as the " Truce of Valdevez," but he obviously ac- 
 quiesced in it, on condition that Affonso Henriques 
 gave up all idea of interfering in Gallician politics or 
 of extending his frontiers towards the north. But a 
 more important consent than that of the Emperor had 
 to be obtained before the Portuguese prince could 
 obtain admission into the sacred circle of Christian 
 kings, and this was the consent of the Pope. The 
 head of the Church at this period was Innocent II., 
 who was earnestly desirous of promoting the cru- 
 sading spirit, and was especially grieved at the very 
 existence of the Moors in Spain. He despatched 
 Cardinal Guy de Vico to establish union amongst 
 the Christian princes there, and the cardinal in 1143 
 drew up a regular peace and treaty between the 
 Emperor and Affonso Henriques at Zamora. By 
 this treaty the latter was recognized as sovereign
 
 40 PORTUGAL BECOMES A KINGDOM. 
 
 monarch of Portugal, and the Emperor also granted 
 to him the lordship of Astorga as a fief, in 
 order that he might thus exercise some control over 
 the Portuguese king. In reward for the mediation 
 of the cardinal, Affonso Henriques further declared 
 himself by letter to be a vassal of the Pope, and 
 promised to pay four ounces of gold a year, by which 
 measure he placed himself under the protection of 
 the Spiritual Head of Christendom, and secured a 
 guarantee for the perpetuation of his dynasty. 
 
 Portugal was now an independent kingdom. The 
 wars of dismemberment were over ; the wars of 
 extension and establishment were now to take their 
 place. The next twenty-five years of the reign of 
 Affonso Henriques were spent in one long crusade 
 against the Moors, and were full of incident and 
 adventure. 
 
 But before entering upon a summary description of 
 these wars, which spread the fame of the Portuguese 
 and of their monarch throughout Europe, something 
 must be said of the Moorish wars, which were carried 
 on simultaneously with the wars of dismemberment. 
 These Gallician wars have been described first and by 
 themselves, because of the common mistake made 
 that it was by his successes against the Moors that 
 Affonso Henriques won his crown. This mistake is 
 of old standing ; the early Portuguese chroniclers 
 always ascribed the independence of their country as 
 due to the successes of their first king over the infidels, 
 and it was not until the modern school of historians 
 arose in Portugal, which examined documents and 
 did not take the statements of their predecessors on
 
 MARRIAGE OF AFFONSO HENRIQUES. 4I 
 
 trust, that it was clearly pointed out that Affonso 
 Henriques won his crown by his long struggle with 
 his Christian cousin, and not by his exploits against 
 the Moors. This fact is such an important one that 
 it ranks amongst the most startling discoveries made 
 by the modern scientific school of historians, and to 
 bring it into clearer prominence the early years of war 
 with the Moors have been purposely passed over until 
 now ; although there can be no doubt that the exploits 
 of the great Portuguese crusader made the Emperor 
 more ready to recognize him as an independent sove- 
 reign, and the Pope more anxious to comply with his 
 desire to be admitted among the sovereigns of Europe, 
 As a proof of his admission it may be noted here that 
 Affonso Henriques married in 1146 the daughter of 
 a European prince, Matilda of Savoy, daughter of 
 Amadeus II., Count of Savoy, Maurrienne, and 
 Piedmont. 
 
 The condition of the Moorish power in Spain had 
 been particularly favourable to his early enterprises in 
 Gallicia, for it had left him comparatively free from 
 the fear of invasion from the south, and given him 
 opportunities for winning signal victories. The wave 
 of Mohammedan fanaticism, which had established 
 the Almoravid dynasty in Spain and Morocco, and 
 defeated the Christian chivalry at the battle of Zalaca, 
 had lost its power, and the Almoravides had degene- 
 rated.i Independent Mohammedan dynasties had 
 again established themselves in the different pro- 
 vinces of Spain, while in Africa, the successor of 
 the Mahdi, Abd-el-Mumin, was destroying the power 
 
 ' See " The Moors in Spam," chap. x.
 
 A VIEW OF THE ANCIENT MOORISH BATH AT CINTRA. 
 
 {From Mutphy's " Travels in Portugal,'' 1795.)
 
 AFFONSO AND THE MOORS. 43 
 
 of the Almoravides with a fresh fanatical movement. 
 The three independent emirs with whom the 
 Portuguese had to deal were those of the Alfaghar or 
 Algarves, of Al-kasr Ibn Abi Danes, which comprised 
 Badajoz, Elvas, and Evora, and of the Belatha, which 
 included the Mohammedan possessions to the north 
 of the Tagus with the important cities of Lisbon, 
 Santarem, and Cintra. Under these emirs were 
 numerous "walls" of districts, " vezirs " of cities, and 
 "kaids " of castles, who were semi-independent ; and 
 as not only the emirs, but their subordinates were 
 constantly at war with each other, and could expect 
 but little help from the Almoravide caliph, the 
 incursions of the Portuguese were generally crowned 
 with success. 
 
 After his accession to the government, Affonso 
 Henriques had chiefly left the duty of harassing the 
 Moors to the Knights Templars and Knights Hospi- 
 tallers, who engaged in frequent expeditions from 
 their headquarters at Soure and Thomar, where they 
 had been established by Donna Theresa. Busied as 
 he was with his schemes for independence, Affonso 
 did little to assist these knightly monks, except to 
 build a great castle at Leiria, which was intended at 
 once to cover his capital Coimbra, and to serve as a 
 base for expeditions against Santarem and Cintra. 
 The erection of this castle alarmed the Moham- 
 medans of the Belatha, and caused them for a moment 
 to drop their quarrels with each other. They raised 
 a large army, and in 1135, the very year in which the 
 castle of Leiria had been built, they stormed it, killed 
 the 240 knights who had been left as its garrison, and
 
 44 PORTUGAL BECOMES A KINGDOM. 
 
 defeated a Christian army at Thomar. At the time 
 of these disasters Afifonso was in GaUicia, but when 
 affairs there were temporarily settled by the Peace of 
 Tuy, he prepared to undertake a great expedition 
 against the Moors and gathered all the chivalry of 
 Portugal to follow him. 
 
 When he had collected his army in May, 1 1 39, 
 he determined to do more than make one of the 
 usual expeditions into the ruined and devastated 
 districts of the Belatha, and to force his way to the 
 south of the Tagus, and thus drive the war into 
 the heart of the enemy's country. He knew that 
 the opposition would not be so serious as it would 
 have been in previous years, because Teshfin, the last 
 Almoravide caliph, who had succeeded his father in 
 1 137, had in 1138 taken the flower of the Moham- 
 medan chivalry of Spain across the straits to Africa 
 to make a last effort to subdue the growing power 
 of the Almohades or followers of the Mahdi. He 
 knew also that his cousin Alfonso was making his 
 second incursion into the heart of Andalusia, and he 
 therefore boldly crossed the Tagus and entered the 
 province of Al-kasr Ibn Abi Danes, as the western 
 portion of the old Moslem emirate of the Gharb 
 was called. The emir, Ismar or Omar, tried to collect 
 an army, but Affonso advanced with rapidity and 
 utterly defeated him, with four of his " walis," at Orik 
 or Qli£iq3i?> eight leagues south of Beja, on Julv 25, 
 
 This is the famous victory of Ourique, which, until 
 fmodern investigators examined the facts, has been 
 considered to have laid the foundations of the inde-
 
 THE BATTLE OF OURIQUE. 45 
 
 pendence of Portugal. Chroniclers, two centuries 
 after the battle solemnly asserted that five kings were 
 defeated on this occasion, that two hundred thousand 
 Mohammedans were slain, and that after the victory 
 the Portuguese soldiers raised Affonso on their shields 
 and hailed him as king. This story is absolutely 
 without authority from contemporary chronicles, and 
 is quite as much a fiction as the Cortes of Lamego, 
 which has been invented as sitting in 1 143 and passing 
 the constitutional laws, on which Vertot and other 
 writers have expended so much eloquence. One 
 ought, perhaps, to speak with more reverence of the 
 legend which tells how Christ crucified appeared to 
 Affonso in his tent, on the evening before the battle, 
 and promised him the victory, even though there is no 
 contemporary tradition referring to it ; because it would 
 have been quite in keeping with the mysticism of the 
 Middle Ages for Affonso to assert that he had seen 
 such a vision in order to encourage his soldiers. This 
 tradition was certainly current a century after the 
 battle, and the kings of Portugal to this day bear the 
 five wounds of Christ in a chief upon their coat of 
 arms in memory of it.'' These legends all deserve 
 record, if only to show how great was the fame of the 
 victory of Affonso, rather from his courage in pene- 
 trating so far into the enemy's country than from his 
 success in the battle itself. That success was a 
 victory over five provincial walis in a country which 
 hated the Almoravides, at a time when the flower of 
 
 ' Some writers have ascribed the five " inescutcheons " on the shield 
 of Portugal to the five Moorish kings killed at Ourique, the version 
 adopted by Camoens in "The Lusiads," canto iii. stanza 53.
 
 46 PORTUGAL BECOMES A KINGDOM. 
 
 the Moslem chivalry was fighting in Africa, and it 
 was not by such victories, but by hard struggles with 
 his Christian cousin that Affonso achieved the inde- 
 pendence of his country. If any other further proof 
 that the victory was not all that poets and later 
 historians painted it was needed, it might be found in 
 the fact that in the very next year Ismar or Omar, the 
 emir who was defeated at Ourique, was able to raise 
 a fresh army with which he took the castle of Leiria 
 by storm. 
 
 For many years after the recognition of Affonso's 
 independence the history of his reign is filled by 
 accounts of the wars against the Moors. But the 
 warfare no longer comprised single expeditions, such 
 as that crowned by the victory of Ourique, but steady 
 persevering conquest of the Belatha. The efforts of 
 the Portuguese were at first directed against cities and 
 castles, and the country districts were ravaged and 
 left to lie waste. The whole of the district between 
 Coimbra and the Tagus was one great battle-ground, 
 and Affonso had all he could do to take and hold the 
 cities, and was obliged to leave the villages in a state 
 of desolation. The population of his original kingdom 
 was not large enough to colonize the new conquests, 
 and Affonso therefore confined his efforts to laying 
 waste the fields and garrisoning the cities he took from 
 the Moors with any soldiers he could manage to take 
 into his pay. It must be noted that the war was 
 not one of extermination ; the Mohammedan and 
 Christian soldiers fought fiercely enough, but the 
 Celtic inhabitants of the cities, and the large inter- 
 mixture of Jews, who dwelt amongst them, passed
 
 ,...^,:-,>iViJ.>fe'-> 
 
 
 ARCH OK THE WESTERN ENTRANCE TO AN OLD CHAPEL AT LEIRIA.
 
 48 PORTUGAL BECOMES A KINGDOM. 
 
 from the dominion of the one race to that of the 
 other quietly enough. The war was a war of soldiers, 
 and Affonso's difficulty was to get enough of them 
 to make a successful attempt to maintain his con- 
 quests. The nobility of Portugal followed him gladly 
 with their vassals, and the religious orders of knights 
 repaid him by their services for the liberality with 
 which Donna Theresa had received them, but neither 
 of these sources of military strength were so valuable to 
 him as the crusaders of northern Europe. He gained 
 their assistance in two ways. Pope Innocent II. had 
 declared it as praiseworthy to fight the infidels in 
 Spain as in the Holy Land, and many crusaders ful- 
 filled their crusading vows by coming to Portugal and 
 taking service there. But most of the warriors of the 
 cross preferred rather to make their way to Palestine, 
 and as those from England, Flanders, and the north 
 of France went round by sea, and invariably touched 
 at Oporto, Affonso was able to persuade many of 
 them to do a little fighting under his command 
 against the Moors before proceeding to attack the 
 Saracens in the Holy Land. This was what he did 
 in 1 143, when, with some French crusaders, he ravaged 
 the district around Lisbon. 
 
 The history of the Portuguese conquest of the 
 Belatha is of the greatest importance in itself, and it 
 is noticeable that Affonso's first incursion into the 
 country, held by the Moors after the signature of the 
 Treaty of Zamora, took place at the invitation of a 
 Moorish emir. Ahmad Ibn Kasi, Emir of Mertola, 
 wrote to him in 1 144 under the name and title of Ibn 
 Errik, Lord of Coimbra, and begged him to come to
 
 CAPTURE OF SANTAREM. 49 
 
 his assistance against the Emir of Eadajoz. But the 
 Moorish soldiers of Ahmad Ibn Kasi refused to fight 
 in the same ranks with the Christians, and Affonso was 
 requested to retire and loaded with presents. After 
 this he felt increasingly that it was more advan- 
 tageous for him to conquer the neighbouring cities 
 one by one than to make these distant expeditions. 
 It was obvious that his first attack should be directed 
 against the great and beautiful city of Santarem, 
 which commanded the upper reaches of the Tagus, 
 and lay at but one day's march from his capital at 
 Coimbra. Abu Zekeria, the " vezir " of Santarem, 
 was the most famous Mohammedan warrior in the 
 Belatha, and haci inflicted a signal defeat upon the 
 Knights Templars at Soure, and in him Affonso had 
 a worthy opponent. The only way to take his city 
 ivas to surprise it, and for this end the Portuguese 
 king made elaborate preparations. He told no one 
 of his real intention, except one old soldier, Mem 
 Ramires, and the first Portuguese canonized saint, St. 
 Theotonio, then prior of the convent of Santa Cruz 
 at Coimbra. On March 2, 1147, he led his army 
 forth, and, surprising the city before its " vezTr " had 
 time to provision it, he laid siege for a few days, and 
 on March 15th carried it by storm with but slight 
 resistance from the dispirited garrison. 
 
 This feat of arms was surpassed in the same year 
 by a still greater event, the capture of Lisbon, the 
 important city at the mouth of the Tagus, the future 
 capital of Portugal, and the port from which the 
 Portuguese ships were to sail forth on their voyages 
 of discovery both to the east and the west. Affonso
 
 CAPTURE OF LISBON. 5 1 
 
 Henriques had long wished to capture this great city, 
 for if he possessed it as well as Santarem, he would 
 be able to defend the Tagus as his southern boundary, 
 and have a much better base of operations. This 
 ancient city was, from its position on the Tagus, the 
 natural capital of the western coast of the Iberian 
 peninsula, and had been an ancient Greek colony. 
 The legend that it was founded by Ulysses, who gave 
 its name, Ulyssipo, afterwards corrupted into Olisipo 
 and Lisbon, is an ancient one ; and it certainly held 
 that name up to the time of Augustus, when a Roman 
 colony was fixed there, and its name was changed to 
 Felicitas Julia. Its capture by the Moors in 714 had 
 marked one of their greatest stages of advance, and it 
 remained the capital of their province of the Belatha 
 for more than four hundred years. It had three times 
 been captured by the Christians — in 792 by Alfonso 
 the Chaste, of Castile ; in 851 byOrdonho I., of Leon; 
 and in 1093 by Alfonso VI., the father-in-law of 
 Count Henry, but had only remained in their posses- 
 sion twenty years after the first recapture, and only a 
 few months upon the second and third occasions. On 
 this occasion Affonso hoped to be permanently suc- 
 cessful, and to make it the capital of his kingdom. 
 
 It is very doubtful if the Portuguese king would 
 have entered upon this hazardous feat of arms so 
 soon after his capture of Santarem, had not the news 
 reached him from Oporto that a great fleet of crusaders 
 had put in there, and that the Bishop of Oporto had 
 persuaded the soldiers of the cross to commence their 
 holy war against the infidels by assisting to take 
 Lisbon before they proceeded on their way to Pales-
 
 52 PORTUGAL BECOMES A KINGDOM. 
 
 tine. The bulk of these crusaders were Englishmen, 
 and as a letter describing the expedition and siege by 
 one of their number has lately been discovered and 
 published/ it is possible to trace the whole history of 
 this most important event in the history of Portugal. 
 The fleet which had sailed from Dartmouth consisted 
 of 164 ships, under several captains, of whom the most 
 important were Arnold of Aerschot and Christian 
 Ghistell, commanding the Germans, Flemings, and 
 men of the county of Boulogne ; Hervey Glanvill, con- 
 stable of the men of Norfolk and Suffolk ; Simon of 
 Dover, "constable of all the ships of Kent ;" Andrew 
 of London, and Saher de Arcellis. The English 
 crusader tells in his letter that the proposition of the 
 Bishop of Oporto was not universally well received, 
 and that two " pirates," named William Vitulus and 
 Ralph his brother, succeeded in leading away for a time 
 the men of Hampshire, Bristol, and Hastings, whose co- 
 operation was, however, soon secured by the eloquence 
 of Hervey Glanvill. The northern crusaders thus 
 re-united set sail for the Tagus, and having disem- 
 barked at the mouth of the river, marched up to join 
 Affonso and his Portuguese knights. Even with this 
 large reinforcement, the King of Portugal had not 
 sufficient soldiers to blockade the great city, and he 
 concentrated all his efforts on one particular spot, 
 where at last he forced an entrance on October 24th. 
 The resistance does not seem to have been very obsti- 
 nate ; the Moors of the Belatha had been dispirited 
 
 ^ Crucesignati Anglici Epistola de Exfugnatione OHsiponis, printed 
 in vol. i. pp. 392, &c., of the Portugallice Momwienta Historica, pub- 
 lished by the Academy of Lisbon.
 
 COXQUESTS OF AFI-'ONSO HENRIQUES. 53 
 
 by the capture of Santarem ; those of the provinces 
 to the south were either distracted by internecine war 
 or paralyzed into inaction by fear of the Almohades ; 
 and Affonso was allowed to achieve and consolidate 
 his conquest. 
 
 In addition to its intrinsic importance, the capture 
 of Lisbon is worth noticing because of the assistance 
 rendered to the Portuguese by the English ; it is the 
 first instance of the close connection between the two 
 nations, which has lasted down to the present century, 
 a connection which makes the history of Portugal of 
 especial interest to Englishmen. After the conquest, 
 most of the crusaders sailed on their way to the 
 Holy Land, but the Portuguese king, by liberal offers, 
 managed to persuade a few to settle down in his 
 dominions, some of whom founded great families. It 
 was no wonder that Affonso was almost astounded at 
 his own success. Cintra, Palmella, Mafra, and Almada 
 surrendered to him without a blow in 1147; Alemquer, 
 Obidos, Torres Novas, and Porto de Moz in 1 148 ; and 
 he found himself master of the whole of the southern 
 Beira and of Estremadura. His great difficulty was 
 how at the same time to occupy and settle his new pos- 
 sessions, and to prepare for a further advance, and it 
 was only sheer lack of men that checked his con- 
 quering career. Gilbert of Hastings, an Englishman, 
 whom he had made Bishop of Lisbon, went to England 
 to preach the crusade in Portugal with the full consent 
 of King Henry II., but he did not bring many men back 
 with him, and Affonso had to wait ten years before he 
 made his next decisive step in advance. He spent 
 these years in strengthening the fortifications of his
 
 54 PORTUGAL BECOMES A KINGDOM. 
 
 new cities, and attracting inhabitants to them from 
 his older cities ; nor did he forget to show his 
 gratitude to the Church, which had allowed its sworn 
 soldiers to help him ; for he founded, in 1 1 53, the magni- 
 ficent monastery of Al9oba5a, the future resting-place 
 of the kings of Portugal, and the finest specimen of 
 mediaeval architecture in the whole country. All this 
 time he was impatiently longing to take a step further 
 in advance and to capture the wealthy city of Alcacer 
 do Sal. In 1152 he was beaten back in his first 
 attack on that city; in 1157 he was again repulsed, 
 although he had the assistance of Thierry of Alsace 
 and a body of crusaders ; but at last, on June 28, 1 158, 
 he was successful, and reached the height of his great- 
 ness and prosperity. 
 
 During these years, in which he had been fighting 
 the Moors, Affonso Henriques had observed the terms 
 of the Treaty of Zamora, and had prudently avoided 
 all interference in the affairs of Spain ; but the death 
 of his cousin, the Emperor Alfonso, in 1 157, which 
 left him the oldest and most famous warrior in the 
 peninsula, seems to have tempted him to abandon 
 this prudent policy. The Emperor had divided his 
 kingdoms, leaving Castile to his son Sancho, and 
 Leon and Gallicia to his son Ferdinand, a divisTon 
 which also seems to have tempted Affonso to believe 
 he could play a part in Spanish affairs. His alliance 
 was sought on all sides, and in January, 1160, he 
 betrothed his eldest daughter. Donna Matilda, to Ray- 
 mond Berenger, heir to the throne of Aragon ; and a 
 little later in the same year he promised his second 
 daughter, Donna Urraca, to King Ferdinand ; and
 
 INVASIO\' OF THE ALMOIIADES. 55 
 
 concluded the Treaty of Cella Nova, by which it was 
 agreed that each monarch should prosecute his wars 
 against the Moors independenll)', and that the course 
 of the Guadiana should be the limit between their 
 respective lines of conquest. This treaty was, un- 
 doubtedly, caused by the fact that the Moors in 
 Africa had again become united under the rule of the 
 Almohade caliph, Abd-el-Mumin, and that a great 
 invasion of Spain b\- the Mohammedans was to be 
 expected. 
 
 This invasion occurred in the very next year, 1161. 
 Abd-el-Mumin crossed the straits of Gibraltar with 
 eighteen thousand tried Almohade soldiers, and after 
 subduing the independent Mohammedan emirs, in- 
 flicted upon Aflbnso Henriques his first real defeat, and 
 drove him back to Lisbon and Santarem. The death of 
 Abd-el-Mumin in 1163 again changed the aspect of 
 affairs. A disputed succession kept the Almohade 
 warriors busy in Africa, and independent bands of 
 " salteadors," who were little better than brigands and 
 free lances, began to establish themselves as petty 
 feudal princes in the various cities and districts of the 
 Alemtejo, the province south of the Tagus, which now 
 became the battle-ground between the Christians and 
 the Moors. Affonso Henriques let them do as they 
 liked ; he had a greater ambition, and as he had for- 
 merly schemed and planned to take Santarem, Lisbon, 
 and Aicaccr do Sal, he now cast his eyes upon the great 
 city of Badajoz, although it lay upon the eastern side 
 of the Guadiana which he had agreed to leave to the 
 King of Leon. With this object in view he took Bcja 
 in 1162, Truxillo and Evora in 1 165, and Caceres in
 
 56 PORTUGAL BECOMES A KINGDOM. 
 
 1 1 66, thus gradually working up to the city which he 
 coveted. King Ferdinand was not the man to allow 
 these breaches of treaty to pass unnoticed, and founded 
 the city of Ciudad Rodrigo, to command and threaten 
 the north-eastern districts of Portugal. 
 
 But Ferdinand was at this time engaged in fighting 
 his nephew, Alfonso IX. of Castile, and Affonso 
 thought that he could take advantage of him. In 
 1 167 he once more occupied Tuy and Limia, the 
 two Gallician frontier cities, which he had formally 
 surrendered by the Treaty of Zamora ; and in 1 169 he 
 laid siege to Badajoz. This breach of treaty naturally 
 incensed King Ferdinand, who collected a vast army, 
 and besieged his father-in-law in his camp. The 
 Spaniards were in every way successful ; the Portu- 
 guese were everywhere defeated ; their warrior 
 monarch, now in advanced years, had his leg broken, 
 and was forced to capitulate. 
 
 Ferdinand used his victory with moderation ; he 
 remembered what great things Affonso had done for 
 Christendom ; and after two months' captivity, he 
 allowed the Portuguese king to return to his country 
 on his surrendering the cities in Gallicia, and on the 
 left bank of the Guadiana, which he had taken in 
 violation of treaties. But the spirit of the old warrior 
 was broken ; he was never again able to mount a 
 horse, and about the year 1 172, he associated his son 
 Sancho with him in the government of Portugal, to 
 whom he gave the title of King, and assigned all the 
 duties of war apd the leadership of the Portuguese 
 armies. 
 
 Sancho was however a mere boy at this time,
 
 WARS WITH THE MOORS. 57 
 
 though he aftcnvards proved himself a worthy son 
 of his father, and it was necessary for Affonso to take 
 other measures against the Moors, who were now 
 united under the Almohade cah'ph Yiisuf. He first 
 promised the Knights Templars one-third of whatever 
 they might conquer in the future, if they defended 
 the Alemtejo. But the Templars were too weak in 
 numbers to do much, and Yusuf speedily reconquered 
 the whole of the Alemtejo, and then laid siege to 
 Santarem. Here however he was foiled ; the defences . 
 had been strengthened with all the military skill 
 known in the Middle Ages, and the city was well 
 provisioned. Yusuf was obliged to retire, and when 
 he did so, Affonso, for the first time in his long 
 career, made a truce with the infidels for seven years.' 
 When his son Sancho, who had in 11 74 married 
 Donna Dulce, daughter of Raymond Bcrenger, Count 
 of Barcelona, and Petronilla, Queen of Aragon, came : 
 to years of discretion, he broke this truce ; and in 1 176 
 he made an incursion into Moorish Spain as far as 
 the city of Seville, and brought back much booty with 
 him. This incursion revived perpetual fighting with 
 the Mohammedans, and for the next few years the 
 Alemtejo once more became a great battle-ground. 
 In 1 179, in which year Pope Alexander HI. affirmed 
 the independence of Portugal by a special papal bull, 
 the Moors were beaten back from Abrantes ; in 11 80, 
 they destroyed Corruche, and in 1181 they were 
 defeated at Evora. The greatest struggle was yet to 
 come. In May, 1 184, Yusuf crossed the straits with 
 the finest and best-equipped Moslem army the Almo- 
 hades ever brought into Spain ; and in June he laid
 
 58 PORTUGAL BECOMES A KINGDOM. 
 
 siege for the second time to Santarem. Pestilence 
 defended the Portuguese city, and on 4th of July, 1 184, 
 Sancho utterly defeated the fever-stricken army of 
 the Moors in a great battle, in which Yusuf himself 
 was mortally wounded. A legend runs that Affonso 
 Henriques was carried in his litter at the head of 
 the reinforcements, that enabled Sancho to win this 
 signal victory, which, whether he himself were present 
 or not, formed a worthy close to the reign of the 
 great crusader-king. 
 
 During these last years of the Moorish wars, Affonso 
 preserved all the quickness of intellect, if none of the 
 bodily activity of his early years, and as his son Sancho 
 was always at war, he devoted himself entirely to his 
 last remaining daughter. Donna Theresa. The beauty 
 of this princess was sung by the troubadours in all 
 the courts of Europe, and her hand in marriage 
 was eagerly sought by many suitors. In 11 83, the 
 old king at last accepted an offer for her, and she left 
 her father and her country to marry Philip, the wealthy 
 Count of Flanders. Poets and chroniclers agree in 
 saying that the departure of this dear daughter broke 
 the old king's heart ; he lived however to hear of, 
 even if the legend be unfounded that he was not pre- 
 sent at, the last great victory at Santarem, and he 
 died on 6th of December of the following year, 1185, 
 at Coimbra. He was buried in the church of the 
 priory of Santa Cruz, in that city of which his friend 
 S. Theotonio had been prior, and his tomb has been 
 rightly reverenced as that of the true founder of 
 Portuguese independence. 
 
 It is seldom the case that in one man's reign a
 
 IMPORTANCE OF AFFONSO S REIGN. 59 
 
 small inconsiderable county has grown into a powerful 
 compact little kingdom, even during the Middle Ages, 
 and that the new kingdom should be perpetuated to 
 modern times is quite unparalleled in the history of 
 Europe. This is what gives the history of the reign 
 of Affonso Henriques such unusual interest and im- 
 portance in general, as distinct from Portuguese, 
 history. There is no geographical or ethnological 
 reason wh\- the part of the Iberian peninsula called 
 Portugal should have formed an independent kingdom, 
 more than Leon or Castile. It was the greatness of 
 one man which made it an independent country. 
 This is the first lesson taught by the Story of Portugal, 
 that nations are not always marked out by natural 
 geographical limits, or race divisions. The second 
 lesson is, that a nation, which has thus become 
 independent, may under certain circumstances develop 
 a distinct individuality, which gives it a different 
 character in every way to its neighbours. It has 
 been shown that chance, the foresight of Donna 
 Theresa and the greatness of Affonso Henriques 
 made Portugal independent ; the course of the his- 
 tory to be narrated will show how, while the other 
 kingdoms of the peninsula coalesced into Spain, 
 Portugal remained independent and developed sepa- 
 rately. Spain and Portugal are now two separate 
 countries with different languages, literatures, and 
 national characteristics ; how they began to separate 
 has been shown ; how they became finally distinct is 
 now to be related.
 
 IV. 
 
 PORTUGAL ATTAINS ITS EUROPEAN LIMITS. 
 
 Sancho I., the Povoador or City-builder, had 
 already won his reputation as a warrior in his father's 
 life-time, and his fame as king rests rather on the 
 success of his internal administration of his country. 
 But before he had time to gratify his inclination 
 towards the more peaceful duties of government, he 
 had to continue the life and death struggle with the 
 Moors, The great victory won the year before his 
 accession, gave him a little breathing space, and in 
 II 88 he even proposed to take part in the Third 
 Crusade, for which great preparations were being 
 made all over Europe. But the Moors were not 
 likely to forget their repulse at Santarem, and in the 
 same year Ya'kub, the son of Yusuf, the new Almo- 
 hade caliph landed in the peninsula, and marched with- 
 out a check until he was once more driven from before 
 Santarem by the conjoined influence of pestilence 
 and of the courage of the Portuguese knights. In the 
 following year King Sancho took his revenge ; he 
 stopped at Lisbon first an army of Dutch, Frisian, 
 and Danish crusaders ; then a body of French crusaders

 
 62 PORTUGAL ATTAINS ITS EUROPEAN LIMITS. 
 
 under Jacques d'Avesnes, Bishop of Beauvais, and the 
 Count of Bar ; and finally a well-equipped force of 
 Londoners, all on their way to the Holy Land — and 
 with their help he not only reduced the whole of the 
 Alemtejo, but even took Silves, the capital of the 
 distant emirate of the Alfaghar or Algarves. Ya'kub 
 was astounded at these successes. He collected a 
 large Mohammedan army, and again crossed to 
 Spain. But ill-luck followed his advance ; his army 
 was badly equipped, and not well supplied with pro- 
 visions ; he was foiled by one hundred young London 
 crusaders in an attack on Silves ; he was driven back 
 from Thomar, the headquarters of the Knights Tem- 
 plars, by their Grand Master in Portugal, Gualdim 
 Paes ; and was finally obliged to abandon the siege 
 of Santarem by a pestilence, which the Portuguese 
 ascribed to a visitation from God. But the great 
 Almohade caliph determined to be more successful 
 the next time ; he spent two years in Africa in preach- 
 ing the Holy War against the Christians, and in 1192 
 crossed to the peninsula with the finest Mohammedan 
 army which had appeared there since the days of 
 the Almoravides. King Sancho and his Portuguese 
 knights had to oppose this formidable invasion un- 
 aided, for the crusaders had gone on their way to 
 Palestine, and were there fighting under Richard Coeur 
 de Lion, and Philip Augustus of France. The Moham- 
 medan soldiers advanced in a triumphal march ; 
 they easily reconquered Silves and the Algarves, and 
 then swept across the Alemtejo, taking in rapid suc- 
 cession Beja, Alcacer do Sal, the hard-won conquest 
 of Affonso Henriques, and even Palmella and Almada
 
 THE REIGN OF SANCHO I. 63 
 
 — the cities which guarded the approach to Lisbon 
 from the south. Sancho, seeing that resistance was 
 of no avail, was only too glad to be permitted to make 
 a treat)' with the Aloors, which fixed the Tagus as his 
 southern boundary, and the vast Mohammedan army 
 turned into Andalusia and utterly defeated Alfonso 
 VIII. of Castile at the battle of Alarcos in 1 195. 
 
 King Sancho recognized the fact that the Moors, 
 while united under their great Almohade caliph, were 
 too powerful for him to attack, and he therefore 
 turned his attention to the disputes among the 
 Spanish sovereigns, and to matters of internal ad- 
 ministration. It is fortunately not necessary to 
 relate the history of Sancho's wars with his Christian 
 neighbours. The independence of Portugal was now 
 an established fact, and the minute details of the 
 various wars waged up to the year 1200 have no 
 especial importance or interest, except in so far as 
 they contribute to a knowledge of the causes of the 
 quarrel which ensued between Sancho and the Pope. 
 It will be remembered that the eldest daughter of 
 Affonso Henriques, Donna Urraca, had married 
 Ferdinand II., King of Leon, and that she was the 
 mother of Alfonso IX. This monarch had commenced 
 his reign on friendly terms with Affonso Henriques, 
 and his successor Sancho, and this friendliness had 
 culminated in 1191, in the marriage of Alfonso 
 IX. of Leon to Sancho's daughter. Donna Theresa. 
 This princess, whose virtues were such that she was 
 canonized as a saint in 1705, was thus first cousin 
 to her husband, and as the canon law was very strict 
 against such marriages, Pope Cclcstine III. by threats
 
 64 PORTUGAL ATTAINS ITS EUROPEAN LIMITS. 
 
 of excommunication and of interdict, forced her 
 husband to repudiate her and to send her back to 
 Portugal in 1195. This insult not only brought 
 about the wars with Leon, which have been men- 
 tioned, but left in the mind of King Sancho a rank- 
 ling animosity against the Papacy, which found its 
 outlet later in his great quarrel with Pope Innocent 
 III. 
 
 His truce with the Moors in 1 192, and his determina- 
 tion to abandon all interference in Leon and Gallicia 
 after 1200, left King Sancho time to attend to the 
 crying wants of his people. He recognized clearly that 
 there was no use in his pushing across the Tagus and 
 conquering the Alemtejo and the Algarves, when the 
 little kingdom he actually ruled was not half popu- 
 lated. During his father's reign there had been 
 nothing but fighting, and except in Oporto and 
 Lisbon, where a flourishing trade existed, fostered by 
 the frequent visits of the crusading fleets from the 
 north, and in the northern provinces of the Entre 
 Minho e Douro and the Tras-os-Montes, where agricul- 
 ture survived, the scanty population subsisted chiefly 
 on the spoils taken in the yearly invasions of Mo- 
 hammedan territory. The population of the Beira 
 and the northern part of Portuguese Estremadura 
 lived entirely in towns, or in villages clustered round 
 the castles of the nobility, and looked upon war as 
 the only means for obtaining a livelihood. This 
 habit of mind had made a nation of warriors, but it 
 had left the land uncultivated. Tracts of wilderness 
 extended between the towns and villages especially in 
 the more recently conquered districts to the south of
 
 SANCHO " THE CITY-BUILDER.'" 65 
 
 Coimbra, and now that the truce with the Moors had 
 deprived the population of their chief means of sub- 
 sistence. King Sancho saw that it was necessary to 
 revive the pursuit of agriculture. 
 
 But, first of all, King Sancho devoted himself to the 
 task of repairing the old city walls, and to the found a 
 tion of new towns in commanding strategic positions, 
 which gave him his sobriquet of "O Povoador" or 
 the City-builder. This policy was dictated by the 
 threatening attitude of the Moors under the Almo- 
 hades ; for Sancho, like most of his contemporaries, 
 could not believe that the Moslem dominion in 
 the Peninsula was nearing its close, and he made 
 every preparation for resisting fresh invasions. His 
 first care was to see that all the walls of old cities were 
 put into thorough repair by the citizens, and adequately 
 manned by the city militia ; his next, to found new 
 cities, which should command important roads, wher- 
 ever they were not already in close proximity to power- 
 ful towns. Among these new cities, his favourite, and 
 the one which afterwards attained the greatest histori- 
 cal importance was Guarda, which was founded to 
 the westward of the threatening Spanish fortress ot 
 Ciudad Rodrigo. In matters of city government 
 Sancho wisely followed the example of the Moham- 
 medans in continuing the old Roman system of 
 municipal administration, which left all matters ot 
 internal government entirely in the hands of the 
 citizens, and when he granted the lordship of a city 
 to a bishop, baron, or military order, he carefully 
 regulated their functions, and allowed them only to 
 take a fixed share of the municipal revenue for ful-
 
 66 PORTUGAL ATTAINS ITS EUROPEAN LIMITS. 
 
 filling certain fixed duties, such as leading the contin- 
 gent of the city in war, or holding courts of justice. 
 The rural districts he treated on a different principle. 
 He granted large tracts to noblemen, military orders, 
 and cities on the express condition that they should 
 be cultivated and populated within a fixed period 
 under pain of revocation of the grants. This plan 
 proved effective in the Beira and northern Estrema- 
 dura, which King Sancho hoped would be sufficiently 
 secured against invasion by the great fortresses on the 
 Tagus, Lisbon, Santarem, and Abrantes, but was quite 
 inapplicable to the Alemtejo. This province he had, 
 in imitation of his father's policy, entirely portioned 
 out among the great military orders before its recap- 
 ture by Ya'kub. He not only confirmed his father's 
 and grandmother's large grants to the Templars, 
 Hospitallers, and Knights of the Sepulchre, but 
 greatly increased them ; he showed especial favour 
 to the Portuguese order of chivalry, the Knights of 
 St. Benedict of Aviz, which Affonso Henriques had 
 founded ; and he introduced from Spain the Order 
 of Caceres, to which he granted Alcacer do Sal, Pal- 
 mella, and Almada, and that of Calatrava, to which he 
 granted Evora, Alcanede, and Jurumenha, thus attract- 
 ing to his kingdom some of the most famous warriors 
 of Spain. It was true that the conquests of Ya'kub 
 had annulled the effect of these grants, but the knights 
 looked upon their possessions across the Tagus, as only 
 in the temporary occupation of the Mohammedans, and 
 were inspired by this feeling into redoubled alacrity 
 in guarding the line of the Tagus, and with an ardent 
 desire for the war against the Moors to begin again.
 
 SANCHO'S QUARREL WITH THE POPE. 67 
 
 The latter years of Sancho's reign were signalized 
 by his quarrels with his bishops and the Pope, and 
 naturally enough since the Pope was Innocent III. 
 This struggle bears a close resemblance to the contest 
 between Hcnr>' II. of England and the Pope a few 
 years before, and also possesses an importance of its 
 own. The main points were that Sancho insisted 
 upon priests accompanying their flocks to battle, and 
 in making them amenable to the civil courts. These 
 ideas seemed monstrous to Pope Innocent III., who 
 sent legate after legate to demand Sancho's with- 
 drawal of these claims and the payment of his tribute 
 to the Holy See. But Sancho had in his chancellor, 
 Juliao, a great statesman, who had been the first Portu- 
 guese to study the revival of Roman law at Bol6gna, 
 and who had learnt broad notions there as to the extent 
 of the Papal authority ; and he in the king's name 
 asserted the supremacy of the royal power in every- 
 thing, and even his right to resume the estates held by 
 the Church in Portugal. Pope Innocent declared these 
 notions to be heretical, but the king supported his 
 chancellor, who in return took every opportunity to 
 support the royal authority. The lower clergy of 
 Portugal were not unwilling to comply with their 
 sovereign's demands, and the military orders stood by 
 him as a valiant crusader ; his cliicf difficulty was with 
 his bishops, and especially with the wealthiest among 
 them. The bishops of Lamego, Viseu, Lisbon, and 
 Guarda were all poor, the latter not even possessing a 
 cathedral or a palace in his newly established see ; but 
 the Archbishop of Braga, and the bishops of Oporto 
 and Coimbra were ecclesiastical princes disposing of
 
 
 
 '^■^,13;:^
 
 DEATH or SANCHO I. 69 
 
 vast revenues, and it was with them that King Sancho 
 quarrelled. His quarrel with the Bishop of Coimbra 
 is worth noting, as affording evidence of the super- 
 stitious disposition of even a crusading monarch in 
 those times, for it arose about a so-called witch, whom 
 the king insisted on keeping in his palace. His con- 
 test with Martinho Rodrigues, Bishop of Oporto, is far 
 more complicated, but need not be related at length. 
 It is enough to say that the bishop offended not only 
 the king, but his chapter and the people of his city, 
 and that he was eventually shut up in his palace and 
 besieged there for five months. When he made his 
 escape he fled to Rome, and Pope Innocent III. 
 forthwith placed the kingdom of Portugal under an 
 interdict. For a time, Sancho supported by his 
 chancellor and by the inferior clergy, who refused to 
 obey the interdict, paid no attention to the Pope, and 
 went on building towns and castles, notably those of 
 Celorico and Linhares ; but at last in 12 10, feeling that 
 his health was declining and that he was about to 
 die, he made his submission, received the Bishop of 
 Oporto back into the kingdom, and paid the Pope one 
 hundred marks of gold. He then retired to the 
 convent of Al9oba9a, where he died on March 26, 
 121 1, leaving a reputation as a warrior and a states- 
 man second only to that acquired by his father. 
 
 Nothing proves more certainly the assured position 
 attained in so short a time by the little kingdom of 
 Portugal than the great marriages made by some of 
 King Sancho's daughters, and the relations he entered 
 into not only with the kings of Spain, but with the 
 more distant princes of Christendom. It has been
 
 70 PORTUGAL ATTAINS ITS EUROPEAN LIMITS. 
 
 noted that one of Sancho's daughters, Donna Theresa, 
 married Alfonso IX. of Leon, and was repudiated by 
 the order of the Pope, because the marriage infringed 
 the laws of consanguinity. The same interference 
 for the same reason took place with regard to her 
 sister Donna Mafalda or Matilda, who married Henry 
 I. of Castile after her father's death, and was forced 
 to leave him by Pope Innocent III. The beauty of the 
 Portuguese princesses was so famous that their hands 
 were sought by distant kings. King John of England 
 sent an embassy in 1199 to ask for the hand of an 
 infanta in vain ; and Sancho's youngest daughter, 
 Donna Berengaria, married King Waldemar of Den- 
 mark in 12 13. Not less brilliant were the marriages of 
 his sons. The eldest, Dom Affonso, married Donna 
 Urraca, daughter of Alfonso VIII. of Castile and 
 Eleanor of England, and sister of Blanche, the famous 
 queen of France and the mother of Louis IX., the 
 crusader-saint ; the second, Dom Pedro, married a 
 daughter of the Count of Urgel, and became lord of 
 Segorba ; and the third, Dom Ferdinand, married 
 Joanna, Lady of Flanders, and fought at the head of 
 the Flemish troops by the side of John of England 
 at the battle of Bouvines. These alliances show 
 how thoroughly Portugal was recognized at this 
 early date as one of the kingdoms of Europe, 
 although at the death of Sancho her southern boun- 
 dary was the Tagus, and she had lost all the con- 
 quests made by Affonso Henriques in the Alemtejo. 
 
 The reign of Affonso II., "the Fat," is chiefly im- 
 portant in the constitutional history of Portugal, and 
 is onl} remarkable for one memorable feat of arms,
 
 THE REIGN OF AFFONSO IT. 71 
 
 the recapture of Alcacer do Sal. On his father's 
 death the young king, probably by the advice of the 
 chancellor JuHao, summoned a "Cortes" or parlia- 
 ment, consisting of the bishops, " fidalgoes " and 
 " ricos homens " of the realm, which was the first 
 regular assembly of notables ever held in Portugal, for 
 the Cortes of Lamego, generally asserted to have met 
 in 1 143, is apocryphal. In the presence of this Cortes 
 Affonso II. gave his solemn adhesion to the final 
 compact which his father had made with the Church, 
 and he then propounded a law of mortmain, drawn up 
 by Juliao, by which religious foundations could receive 
 no more legacies of land, because they could not 
 perform military service. The new king proved to 
 be no such warrior as his father and grandfather had 
 been, but he was very tenacious of the wealth and 
 power of the Crown, and he refused to hand over to 
 his brothers the large estates which King Sancho had 
 bequeathed to them by his will. It was not until 
 after a long civil war, in which Alfonso IX. of Leon, 
 Alfonso VIII. of Castile, and Pope Innocent III. 
 intervened, that he gave his sisters their legacies, at 
 the same time taking care that they became nuns ; 
 but his brothers were forced to become exiles, and 
 never received the estates bequeathed to them at 
 
 all. 
 
 Though Affonso himself was no soldier, the Portu- 
 guese infantry showed how free men could fight in 
 the great battle of Navas de Tolosa in 1212, in which 
 Mohammed En-Nasir, the successor of Ya'kub, was, 
 utterly defeated ; and the Portuguese statesmen, bis- 
 hops, and captains determined to take advantage of
 
 72 PORTUGAL ATTAINS ITS EUROPEAN LIMITS. 
 
 the weakness of the Almohades after this reverse to 
 reconquer the Alemtejo. Fortunately for their 
 purpose there arrived at Lisbon in July, 1217, a great 
 fleet of English, Dutch, and German ships bearing 
 crusaders to the Holy Land. The leaders of the 
 English crusaders were the earls of Wight and 
 Holland, both friends of the exiled prince, Dom 
 Ferdinand, who had fled to his aunt, Donna Theresa, 
 in Flanders. Sueiro, Bishop of Lisbon, made an 
 effort to detain this powerful army, and succeeded 
 in persuading the English division to stop, though the 
 eighty Frisian ships sailed away. The English knights 
 and men-at-arms disembarked at Lisbon, under their 
 earls, and a Portuguese army, not raised by the royal 
 summons or commanded by the royal officers, was led 
 by Sueiro, Bishop of Lisbon, the Abbot of Algobaga, 
 Martinho, Commander of Palmella, and Pedro Alvitiz, 
 Grand Master of the Portuguese Templars, to join 
 them. The two armies formed the siege of Alcacer do 
 Sal, the city which Affonso Henriques had won with so 
 much difficulty, and which Sancho L had been forced 
 to surrender. The defence was most obstinate, and 
 in September, 12 17, a Mohammedan army of forty 
 thousand infantry and fifteen thousand cavalry came 
 up to relieve the city, under the command of the 
 zvd/is of Badajoz, Seville, Jaen, Cordova, and Xeres. 
 The Christian and Mohammedan armies met in 
 battle on September 12th ; the latter were de- 
 feated with immense loss, and were pursued by the 
 Templars for three days ; the wa/is of Cordova 
 and Jaen were killed ; and on October i8th the 
 city of Alcacer do Sal surrendered, and its gallant
 
 DEATH OF AFFONSO II. 73 
 
 defender, Abu-Abdallah, in admiration of the valour 
 of the Christians, consented to be baptized. 
 
 In this expedition the king took no part ; he was 
 more bent upon filling his treasury, a tendency which 
 soon brought him again into conflict with the Church. 
 His chancellor, Goncalo Mendes, who had inherited 
 the policy of Juliao, and the chief officers of his Court, 
 Pedro Annes, the Mordomo Mor or Lord Steward, 
 and Martim Fernandes, the Alferes Mor or Grand 
 Standard-bearer, encouraged him to lay hands on the 
 great estates of Estevao Soares da Silva, the noble 
 and learned Archbishop of Braga. Pope Honorius 
 III. at once espoused the cause of the archbishop, 
 excommunicated the king, and laid an interdict on 
 the kingdom, in order to force Affonso to make resti- 
 tution to the archbishop and to expel Pedro Annes 
 and Gongalo Mendes from his Court. Affonso refused 
 to submit, and he was still under the interdict of the 
 Church when he died on the 25th of March, 1223. 
 This avaricious monarch had devoted himself to 
 increasing the wealth and power of the Crown ; to 
 this must be attributed not only his quarrels with his 
 brothers and sisters and with the Church, but the great 
 constitutional measures which distinguish his reign. 
 It was for this purpose that he summoned the 
 first Portuguese Cortes to assent to his law of 
 "mortmain," and despatched the first " inquiracao 
 geral " through the kingdom to examine on oath into 
 the titles of all holders of landed property by sworn 
 juries of inhabitants of the vicinity, a proceeding 
 exactly similar to the commissions sent by Henry II. 
 to inquire into cases of " mort d'ancestor " and
 
 74 PORTUGAL ATTAINS ITS EUROPEAN LIMITS. 
 
 " darrein presentment." Yet the reign of this irreli- 
 gious and excommunicated king was marked by a 
 revival of religion in Portugal, Sueiro Gomes, one of 
 the earliest followers of S. Dominic, was a Portuguese, 
 and was sent by his master to found branches of the 
 order of preaching friars in his native land, and though 
 in every way checked by Affonso, he made much 
 progress in all the great cities and towns. Far greater 
 was the success of the Franciscan friars, who were 
 introduced into Portugal by Donna Sancha, one of 
 the king's sisters, who had taken the veil and was 
 canonized in 1705, and for whom Queen Urraca built 
 two splendid convents at Lisbon and Guimaraens. 
 The order took deep root, and its fame was sealed by 
 the martyrdom of the five friars sent by S. Francis of 
 Assisi to Morocco, whose bodies were brought to 
 Portugal by Dom Ferdinand, the king's brother, and 
 were buried at Santa Cruz in Coimbra, where they 
 were covered by the most sacred shrine in Portugal. 
 
 Sancho II. was only thirteen when he succeeded 
 his father, and, as might have been expected during a 
 minority, the turbulent nobility and intriguing bishops 
 tried to undo the effect of the late king's labours to 
 consolidate the royal authority. The old statesmen 
 and advisers of Affonso II., Gon^alo Mendes, the 
 chancellor, Pedro Annes, and Vicente, Dean of 
 Lisbon, saw that it was necessary to get the interdict 
 removed if there was to be any peace during the 
 king's minority, and prudently retired into the back- 
 ground, and Sueiro Gomes, the great Bishop of 
 Lisbon, came to the front, and with the help of the 
 pious infantas, the king's aunts, made peace with the
 
 THE REIGN OF SANCHO II. 75 
 
 Archbishop of Braga and with Pope Honorius III., 
 who solemnly confirmed the crown to the boy king. 
 The archbishop then became the most powerful man 
 in the kingdom, and with Abril Peres, the new 
 IMordomo Mor agreed with Alfonso IX. of Leon 
 that the Portuguese should attack Elvas, at the same 
 time that the Spaniards laid siege to Badajoz. The 
 opportunity was a favourable one ; a disputed succes- 
 sion had resulted in a civil war amongst the Moham- 
 medans both in Spain and Morocco, and Elvas was 
 stormed in 1226. At this siege the young king per- 
 formed prodigies of valour, and the Portuguese 
 knights and soldiers looked on him with admiration 
 as a worthy successor of Affonso Henriques. Confi- 
 ding in the love and support of his people, young 
 Sancho, though only seventeen, then took the reins of 
 power into his own hands, and recalled his father's 
 friends to power making Vicente chancellor, Pedro 
 Annes Mordomo Mor, and Marti m Annes Alferes 
 Mor. 
 
 This change of power greatly disconcerted the 
 party of the bishops, who began to intrigue for the 
 overthrow of the young king, but he wisely continued 
 to occupy himself with fighting the Mohammedans, 
 knowing well that no pope would dare to attack a 
 crusading monarch. He tried in everything, in his 
 internal administration and his crusading ardour, to 
 imitate his cousin, Louis IX. of France, and this wise 
 policy secured him the protection of the Pope, who, 
 in 1228, sent a legate, John of Abbeville, Cardinal of 
 S. Sabina, with full powers, and with orders to rebuke 
 the Portuguese bishops. The legate did his best to
 
 76 PORTUGAL ATTAINS ITS EUROPEAN LIMITS. 
 
 settle long-standing quarrels in the Church, and 
 especially that between Martinho Rodrigues, Bishop 
 of Oporto, the old adversary of Sancho I., and his 
 chapter, and showed his approval of the king's 
 advisers by making the chancellor, Vicente, Bishop of 
 Guarda. The legate also expressed his satisfaction 
 at the king's favourable treatment of the friars and 
 the military religious orders, and as the bishops still 
 intrigued against him, he persuaded Pope Gregory IX. 
 to administer a severe rebuke to them by an encyclical 
 letter. The people, the friars, and especially the mili- 
 tary orders, simply adored their young monarch at this 
 time, and it was impossible to foresee the catastrophe 
 which was to sadly terminate his reign. The most 
 distinguished military orders at this time were the 
 Knights Hospitallers, whose prior, Affonso Peres 
 Farinha, was the greatest warrior of his time, and 
 who, in 1231, captured the important towns of Moura 
 and Serpa ; and the knights of Santiago, u^hose 
 valiant prior, Paio Peres Correia, in 1234, took 
 Aljustrel. But the king himself was-the most ardent 
 crusader of them all, and his youngest brother, Dom 
 Ferdinand, who from Serpa ravaged the districts held 
 by the Mohammedans every year, soon won a reputa- 
 tion second only to his own. In these halcyon days 
 King Sancho II. imitated his grandfather in attempt- 
 ing to settle and cultivate the lands of the Alemtejo, 
 on the same principles that Sancho I. had acted upon 
 in the Lower Beira and Estremadura, while peace 
 was maintained with the neighbouring kingdom of 
 Leon, where, indeed, the greatest men at this period 
 were of Portuguese birth, namely, Dom Pedro, the
 
 GATE AND WINDOW OK TIIF, MONASTERY OK HELEM.
 
 78 PORTUGAL ATTAINS ITS EUROPEAN LIMITS, 
 
 king's uncle, who was Mordomo Mor of that king- 
 dom, and Martim Sanches, an illegitimate son of 
 Sancho I., who was the principal general of its armies. 
 
 Meanwhile the wise advisers of the youth of Sancho 
 II. gradually died off, and his Court was thronged with 
 gay young knights and troubadours, who filled him 
 with conceit and encouraged him in foolish courses. 
 The first result of the removal of his old counsellors 
 was to be seen in a serious quarrel with the Church. 
 When on the death of Sueiro Gomes, the famous 
 Bishop of Lisbon, in 1237, the royal candidate was 
 not elected as his successor, the king sent his brother 
 Dom Ferdinand to the city, where he burnt the house 
 of the opposition candidate, Joao the dean, and killed 
 several priests ; and the king's uncle, Rodrigo Sanches, 
 acted in much the same high-handed manner at 
 Oporto. Such behaviour was not to be tolerated 
 even in a crusading monarch, and a papal interdict 
 was laid on the kingdom ; but prompt submission on 
 the part of Sancho, and the journey of his brother, 
 Dom Ferdinand, to Rome to do solemn penance for 
 his misbehaviour, made atonement and the interdict 
 was removed. The king then once again turned his 
 arms against the Mohammedans, and invaded the 
 Algarves, capturing Mertola and Ayamonte in 1239, 
 Cacello in 1240, and Tavira in 1244. 
 
 Unfortunately in the interval between these two 
 last campaigns. King Sancho paid a visit to the Court 
 of Castile, where he fell in love with Donna Mencia 
 Lopes de Haro, the widow of a Castilian nobleman, 
 Alvares Peres de Castro, whom he probably married. 
 This woman became the evil genius of his life ; the
 
 DEPOSITION OF SANCHO II. 79 
 
 king grew lazy and sensual, and his Court degenerated 
 into a hotbed of vice and intrigue. The connection 
 was most distasteful to the people of Portugal, and 
 gave an opportunity for the bishops and discontented 
 feudal nobility to overthrow Sancho, whom they had 
 always hated, if they could only find a leader and 
 obtain the assistance of the Pope. Even his brother, 
 Dom Ferdinand, deserted him in disgust, and became 
 a vassal of Castile, and his worthless courtiers and 
 favourites, while urging him on to despotism and 
 vicious indulgences, made him more and more un- 
 popular. Pope Innocent IV., who had been forced to 
 fly from Rome to France by the Emperor Frederick 
 II., longed to show his spiritual power over some 
 monarch, and was easily persuaded by the Portuguese 
 bishops that Sancho was both impious and cowardly. 
 A leader was not hard to find, and in 1245, the king's 
 next brother, Affonso, who had settled at the Court 
 of Blanche of Castile, the mother of Louis IX., and 
 who had there married the heiress to the county 
 of Boulogne, offered himself to the malcontents as 
 a candidate for the throne of Portugal. The Pope 
 then issued a bull " Grandi non immerito," of which 
 the terms were used as precedents in depositions of 
 the more important monarchs in later days, and Joao 
 Egas.Archbishopof Braga,Tiburcio,BishopofCoimbra, 
 and Pedro Salvadores, Bishop of Oporto, went to 
 Paris and offered Affonso of Boulogne the crown of 
 Portugal on certain conditions, which he accepted 
 and swore to observe. Civil war had already broken 
 out before the arrival of Affonso at Lisbon in 1246, 
 when he declared himself Defender of the kingdom :
 
 8o PORTUGAL ATTAINS ITS EUROPEAN LIMITS. 
 
 Donna Mencia behaved in a most disgraceful manner 
 to the king, whom she had ruined ; Sancho and the 
 Castilian troops which he brought to his help were de- 
 feated, and the unfortunate monarch, whose early years 
 had been so full of promise, retired to Toledo where 
 he died, deserted and unhappy, on January 8, 1248. 
 
 With such a commencement it might have been 
 expected that the reign of Affbnso III. would have 
 been a period of civil war and internal dissension, or 
 at the least of complete submission to the Church and 
 the feudal nobility ; but, on the contrary, it was from 
 a constitutional point of view the most important of 
 all the early reigns, and also that in which Portugal 
 concluded its warfare with the Mohammedans in 
 the Peninsula and attained its European limits. In 
 short, Affonso III. proved by the events of his reign 
 to be essentially a politic king, if not a high-minded 
 man. On his brother's death he exchanged his title of 
 " visitador " or " curador " of the realm for that of 
 king-, and, in order to establish his fame as a warrior 
 and a crusader, he at once prepared to complete the 
 conquest of the Algarves, where most of the acqui- 
 sitions of Sancho II. had been lost to the Moors 
 during the civil war. Aided by his uncle, Dom Pedro, 
 and the Knights Hospitallers under Gongalo Peres 
 Magro, he was speedily successful, taking Faro, Albu- 
 feira, which he granted to the knights of Aviz, and 
 Porches, which he assigned to his chancellor, Estevao 
 Annes, in 1249, and Ayamonte, Cacello, and Tavira in 
 1250. This extension of the Portuguese territory was 
 by no means acceptable to Alfonso X. " the Wise," 
 who was now king of Castile and Leon ; and after a
 
 REIGN OF AFFONSO III. 8l 
 
 short war, Affonso III. consented to marry Alfonso's 
 illegitimate daughter, Donna Beatrice de Guzman, 
 though the Countess of Boulogne was still alive, and 
 to hold the Algarves in usufruct only. 
 
 Affonso then turned his attention to his own 
 position in Portugal, and determined to bridle the 
 power of the bishops in spite of his oath at Paris. 
 Perceiving that this could only be done with the 
 assistance of the great body of his people, he 
 summoned a great Cortes at Leiria in 1254, to which 
 representatives of the cities of the kingdom were 
 elected to sit with the nobles and higher clergy. ' 
 This Cortes is of the greatest importance in the 
 constitutional history of Portugal, and its composition 
 shows that Affonso III. understood, like Simon de 
 Montfort and Edward I. in England, that it was only 
 by an alliance with the people that he could check 
 the power of feudalism and sacerdotalism. His 
 policy was rewarded ; the bishops recognized the 
 need for submission ; and with the consent of the 
 Cortes, Affonso dared the interdict laid on the 
 kingdom for his second marriage, and forced the 
 clergy to continue their functions. Abroad he main- 
 tained peace through his alliance with Alfonso the 
 Wise, and finally, on the petition of the now sub- 
 missive prelates of Portugal, Pope Urban IV. 
 legalized the king's second marriage and legitimated 
 his son Diniz in 1262. He was everywhere honoured 
 and successful, and in 1263 Alfonso X. made over 
 the full sovereignty of the Algarves to him, when 
 he assumed the title of King of Portugal and the 
 Algarves.
 
 DEATH OF AFFONSO III. 83 
 
 The people now began to make their power felt in 
 the Cortes, and Affonso soon had to pay for the 
 assistance which they had previously rendered to him. 
 In a full Cortes held at Coimbra in 1261, the repre- 
 sentatives of the cities boldly denounced the king's 
 habit of tampering with the coinage, and compelled 
 his recognition of the principle that taxes were not 
 levied by the inherent right of the king, but by the 
 free consent of the people. As a popular king, he 
 completely mastered the bishops, in spite of their 
 ability and learning, and he was much aided in this 
 work by the orders and regulations specially issued 
 by Pedro Hispano, the great Portuguese scholar and 
 theologian, who had been the king's friend when 
 Archbishop of Braga, and who became a cardinal, 
 and afterwards for a short time pope, as Pope John 
 XXI. After a prosperous and successful reign. 
 Nemesis came upon Affonso III. for his behaviour 
 tQ his brother, in the rebellion of his son Diniz in 
 1277, who remained in arms until 1279, when the king 
 died in a state of despair, and cf misery at his son's 
 ingratitude. 
 
 During the reigns of Sancho I., Affonso II., 
 Sancho II., and Affonso III., Portugal attained its 
 European limits, and started on the way to become a 
 great, free, and wealthy nation. The period of war 
 and of territorial extension in the peninsula was now 
 over, and the period of civilization was to dawn. 
 Territorially and constitutionally, Portugal was now 
 an established kingdom ; it remained for it to become 
 civilized and thoroughly homogeneous before the 
 great heroic period of exploration and Asiatic con-
 
 84 PORTUGAL ATTAINS ITS EUROPEAN LIMITS. 
 
 quest should begin. The kingdom and its people 
 had passed through the stage of childhood ; now 
 was to come its stirring youth, in which the great 
 qualities of the Portuguese were to be trained and 
 developed, before the period of glorious manhood 
 was to mark the height of its greatness.
 
 V. 
 
 THE CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 No better ruler than Diniz, or Denis, could be 
 found for a country which, after centuries of war, 
 needed to have a period of peace and quiet. He was 
 a poet, and loved literature ; he was a great adminis- 
 trator, and loved justice ; he was a statesman, and 
 avoided foreign wars ; he was a far-seeing man, and 
 prepared for the extension of Portuguese energies 
 beyond the sea by encouraging commerce ; and, 
 above all, he saw the need of agriculture^ and of the 
 arts of peace to take the place of incessant wars, and 
 in every respect he nobly earned the sobriquet of the 
 " Re Lavrador," or " Denis the Labourer." From all 
 these points of view his reign is of vast importance 
 in the history of Portugal, for it marks the develop- 
 ment of the people into an independent nation, 
 but, like all peaceful reigns of quiet progress, it is 
 not signalized by many striking events. 
 
 The civil war, which Diniz had waged with his 
 father, was followed on his accession to the throne 
 by a fierce struggle between Diniz and his brother 
 Affonso, who disputed his legitimacy, which ended
 
 86 THE CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 in a compromise. He then married, in 1281, Donna 
 Isabel, daughter of Pedro III. of Aragon, who was 
 canonized in later years for her pure and unselfish 
 life. His reign is only marked by one war with 
 Sancho IV. and Ferdinand IV. of Castile and Leon, 
 which was terminated in 1297 by a treaty of alliance, 
 according to the terms of which Ferdinand IV. 
 married Constance, daughter of Diniz, while Affonso, 
 the heir to the throne of Portugal, married Beatrice 
 of Castile, the sister of Ferdinand, but his reputation 
 none the less stood very high in the peninsula, as is 
 shown by his being chosen in 1304 to act as joint 
 arbitrator with the King of Aragon between 
 Ferdinand of Castile and his cousin, Ferdinand of 
 Lacerda. Still more interesting are the king's rela- 
 tions with Edward I. of England, with whom he 
 exchanged many letters, chiefly on commercial 
 subjects, and with whom he made a treaty of 
 commerce in 1294, He had much correspondence 
 also with Edward II., and in particular he agreed 
 with the English king in 131 1 that the Knights 
 Templars had been greatly maligned. When that 
 famous order was suppressed by Pope Clement V. in 
 compliance with the wishes of Philip le Bel of 
 France, Dom Diniz took a course which demonstrated 
 his political wisdom. He recollected the great 
 services which the military orders had formerly 
 rendered to Portugal, and bore in mind their influ- 
 ence and power, and he therefore founded the Order 
 of Christ in conjunction with Pope John XXII. in 
 1 3 19. and invested it with all the property of the 
 Templars, thus at once obeying the Pope and avoid-
 
 THE REIGN OF DINIZ. 87 
 
 ing a serious disturbance at home. He showed the 
 same wisdom with regard to the knights of Santiago 
 in Portugal, whom he persuaded Pope Nicholas IV. 
 to release from the control of the Grand Master of the 
 Order in Castile, and to establish on an independent 
 footing. 
 
 These few lines touch on every important event, in 
 regard to foreign affairs, which occurred during the 
 long reign of Dom Diniz, but they give no idea of the 
 progress of Portugal during this period of nearly 
 fifty years. Agriculture was greatly encouraged by 
 the monarch, who founded agricultural schools and 
 homes for farmers' orphans, and established model 
 farms. He did much by showing honour to agri- 
 cultural pursuits to raise them in the consideration 
 of his nobility, and he attempted to wean his people 
 in general from the notion that war was the only 
 occupation fit for a free man. He undertook several 
 important agricultural experiments himself, established 
 farmers in the still barren province of the Alemtejo, 
 paid special attention to the cultivation of vines in 
 the north, and planted the great pine forest of Leiria 
 by which he hoped to reclaim the sandy regions in 
 that neighbourhood. He was also a great builder, 
 and did much to improve the three royal cities of 
 Lisbon, Coimbra, and Santarem, in which the Court 
 used to reside, and he built the towns of Salvaterra 
 and Villa Real. In administrative matters, the 
 feudal system, under which the country districts 
 were ruled was left almost untouched, as were the 
 charters and franchises of the greater cities and 
 town.s, and the only important measures passed
 
 88 THE CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 by the Cortes in 1286 and 1291 were still more 
 stringent laws of mortmain directed against the 
 Church than that passed in 1250. It was in the 
 administration of justice that the greatest reforms 
 were introduced. The period of great chancellors, 
 who were statesmen rather than lawyers, which 
 commenced with Juliao, and included Goncalo 
 Mendes, Vicente, and Estevao Annes, was over, and 
 a new class of chancellors was appointed. These 
 men were invariably ecclesiastics, and looked forward 
 to a bishopric, as the reward of their services. They 
 were essentially lawyers, learned in the Roman law, 
 which they had studied at Padua and Bologna ; and 
 applying the maxims of their studies to the common 
 law of Portugal, which was largely founded on 
 Visigothic ideas, they began to build up a system 
 of Portuguese law, of which the importance became 
 visible later. Diniz did not venture to abolish the 
 feudal courts, though he checked their abuses, and 
 - among other reforms, he appointed royal " corregidors" 
 in every city and town belonging to the Crown in 
 • lordship, who were to act as judges of appeal from 
 the feudal and city courts, as well as to take charge of 
 the police. His wise encouragetnent of commerce 
 appears in his commercial treaty with England, and 
 by his establishment of a royal navy, commanded by 
 a new official, entitled the " Almirante Mor," or Lord 
 High Admiral, which office was first granted to a 
 distinguished Genoese sailor, Emmanuel Pessanha. 
 
 But the greatest qualification of Dom Diniz for the 
 sovereignty of a country, which had at last got time 
 to learn the arts of peace and to become civilized.
 
 D/A7Z AS A POET. 89 
 
 was his affection for literature and his encouragement 
 of education. It was Diniz, who, in 1300, founded the 
 first Portuguese university at Lisbon, which after 
 many changes between that city and Coimbra, found 
 its permanent home in the latter city, and became 
 the centre of literary influence in Portugal. The 
 king was also a poet of exquisite taste, and in the num- 
 ber, beauty, and variety of his songs he proved himself 
 the greatest poet of his Court. Educated by Aymeric 
 d'Ebrard of Cahors, whom he made Bishop of Coimbra, 
 he shows in his poems the influence of the troubadours, 
 and not of the trouveres who had thronged his father's 
 Court. He had inherited poetic feeling and power of 
 expression from his father, Affonso III., who was no 
 mean poet, and who is said to have written a powerful 
 "sirvente" against Alfonso X., but his father had 
 during his long residence at Paris been impressed with 
 the poetry of northern France, and had invited trou- 
 veres only to his Court. Dom Diniz, both by educa- 
 tion and feeling, belonged to a different school, and 
 preferred the softer themes and methods of the 
 troubadours. With the Courts of Love which he 
 introduced into Portugal came the substitution of the 
 Limousin decasyllabic for the national octosyllabic 
 metre, and the ancient forms were lost in the intricacies 
 of the " ritournelle." But the best service done by 
 Diniz and his poetic courtiers was in developing the 
 Portuguese dialect into a beautiful and flexible 
 literary language. The king went further ; as he 
 grew older, he threw off the trammels of Provencal 
 forms, and perceiving the beauty of his people's 
 lyrics, he wrote some quaint and graceful " pasto-
 
 go THE CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 rellas " inspired by their influence, which are full of 
 poetic life and truth. The effects of the influence of 
 Dom Diniz, in the words of a recent writer on Por- 
 tuguese literature, "pervade the whole of Portuguese 
 poetry ; for not only was he in his ' pastorellas ' the 
 forerunner of the great pastoral school, but by 
 sanctifying to literary use the national storehouse of 
 song, he perpetuated among his people, even to the 
 present day, lyric forms of great beauty." ^ Literary 
 excellence and the growth of a national poetry form 
 the natural sequel of the attainment of national 
 independence; and it is interesting to observe that the 
 king, who peacefully consolidated the Portuguese 
 kingdom, was the founder of Portuguese literature. 
 Camoens happily hits off in a couple of stanzas the 
 characteristics of his reign. 
 
 " See, next that Diniz comes in whom is seen 
 the ' brave Afonso's ' offspring true and digne ; 
 whereby the mighty boast obscured been, 
 the vaunt of lib'eral Alexander's line : 
 Beneath his sceptre blooms the land serene 
 (already compast golden Peace divine) 
 With constitution, customs, laws and rights, 
 a tranquil country's best and brightest lights. 
 
 The first was he who made Coimbra own 
 Pallas- Minerva's gen'rous exercise ; 
 he called the Muses' choir from Helicon 
 to tread the lea that by Mondego lies : 
 Whate'er of good whilere hath Athens done, 
 here proud Apollo keepeth ev'ery prize : 
 Here gives he garlands wove with golden ray, 
 with perfumed Nard and ever-verdant Bay." " 
 
 ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica," 9th edition, Article " Portugal." 
 
 ' Camoens, "Lusiads," canto iii. stanzas 96, 97, Burton's translation.
 
 DEATH OF DiNIZ. Ql 
 
 Personally dissolute, as the nature of much of his 
 poetry and his encouragement of the troubadours and 
 their Courts of Love show, the stories told of the Court 
 of Dom Diniz are far from edifying. Yet some of them 
 are full of romantic interest, and exhibit the more 
 constant love of the south instead of the airy fancies of 
 Provence. Of these stories, the most romantic of all 
 is perhaps that of Donna Branca or Blanche, the 
 sister of Diniz and the abbess of Lorvao and Huelgas, 
 who loved a humble carpenter Pedro Esteves, and 
 was the mother of a son, Joao Nunes do Prado, who 
 became Master of the Order of Calatrava, and was 
 beheaded by Pedro the Cruel of Castile. It is this 
 story which has furnished the plot of one of the most 
 striking of modern Portuguese dramas, Almeida-Gar- 
 rett's " Donna Branca." The king's favours to his 
 bastards, Joao Affonso and Affonso Sanches, whom 
 he successively made Mordomo Mor, and Pedro 
 Affonso, whom he made Alferes Mor and Count of 
 Barcellos, involved him towards the end of his reign 
 in bitter disputes with his only legitimate son, Affonso. 
 Open war at last broke out between Dom Diniz and 
 his heir-apparent, and a pitched battle was only 
 prevented by S. Isabel riding between the armies in 
 1323, and making a peace between her husband and 
 her son, which lasted until the death of the great 
 peace monarch, the " Re Lavrador " in 1325. 
 
 Immediately on his accession to the throne, Affonso 
 IV., the successor of Dom Diniz, gave full vent to his 
 rage against his half brothers, and with the consent 
 and assistance of the nobility of Portugal, he beheaded 
 Joao Affonso and confiscated all his lands, as well as
 
 92 THE CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 those of Affonso Sanches, who had escaped to 
 Castile. This act of revenge, or of justice, as he 
 called it, consummated, he settled down as a worthy 
 successor of his father, and fostered all the schemes 
 of Diniz for the development of Portugal. He also 
 continued his father's policy of peace with Castile, and 
 made a formal alliance with that country in 1327 
 when he married his daughter Donna Maria to 
 Alfonso XI. of Castile. This marriage did not 
 prove a happy one ; the king neglected his young 
 wife for Leonora de Guzman, and treated her so badly 
 that in 1336 Affonso IV. invaded Castile. A terrible 
 war was impending, when S. Isabel once more played 
 the part of peacemaker. Leaving the convent of 
 Poor Clares at Coimbra, whither she had retired after 
 her husband's death, she hurried to Estremoz, where 
 the two armies were facing each other, and made 
 peace between the opposing monarchs. Alfonso XI. 
 promised to treat his wife better, and the Infant Dom 
 Pedro, the only surviving son of the King of Portugal, 
 was granted the hand of Constance Manuel, daughter 
 of the Duke of Penafiel. The strength of the new 
 alliance was soon tried; for in 1340 Abu-l-Hasan, 
 king of Morocco, crossed the straits to come to 
 the help of the king of Granada, with a great 
 army. Alfonso XI. sent his wife to beg for the 
 assistance of the Portuguese chivalry, and Affonso 
 willingly complied. In the great battle of the Salado 
 on 29th of October the Moors were utterly defeated, 
 and the two generals who were most conspicuous on 
 the Christian side, were Affonso IV. of Portugal, who 
 won the sobriquet of Affonso " the Brave," and
 
 FRIE.\D6HIP OF ENGL AX D AXD PORTUGAL. 93 
 
 Don Pedro Fernandez de Castro, Mordomo Mor of 
 Castile. This victory also marks an advance in 
 Portuguese poetry, for on it was written the first Por- 
 tuguese epic by Affonso Giraldes, the forerunner of 
 Camoens. 
 
 It is interesting during this reign to notice the close 
 intimacy growing up between Portugal and England, 
 which was to have many important results. Directly 
 on his accession, Affonso IV. determined to main- 
 tain the friendly relations which Diniz had com- 
 menced, and in 1325 he sent an ambassador to propose 
 a matrimonial alliance with the English rosal family, 
 probably with a view of contracting a marriage 
 between his elder daughter. Donna Maria, and the 
 young Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward III. The 
 English Court, then under the influence of Queen 
 Isabella, replied that the ambassador was not of 
 sufficiently high rank for his application to be 
 received. Accordingly, in the following year, 
 Affonso sent his Lord High Admiral, Dom 
 Manoel Pessanha, and Dom Rodrigo Domingues 
 on the same mission, but their embassy led to no 
 result, probably owing to the disturbed state of 
 affairs in England, and Donna Maria married, as 
 has been .said, the King of Castile. Friendly 
 communications continued, nevertheless, between 
 Portugal and England, and in 1344 Edward III. 
 sent two ambassadors, Henry, Earl of Lancaster, 
 and Richard, Earl of Arundel, to draw up a treaty 
 of alliance with Affonso IV. This was followed 
 by the mission of Andrew of Oxford, Richard of 
 Saham, and Philip Borton to ask for the hand of
 
 94 THE CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 Donna Leonora, the King of Portugal's younger 
 daughter, for Edward, Prince of Wales, better known 
 as the Black Prince, The marriage was agreed upon, 
 and in 1347 Robert Stratton and Richard of Saham 
 arrived to fix the day for the passage of the infanta 
 to England. But at this moment matrimonial 
 alliances of more political importance occurred to each 
 of the high contracting parties, and in this very year 
 Donna Leonora was married to King Pedro IV. of 
 Aragon, and the Black Prince to the Fair Maid of 
 Kent. The rupture of this marriage scheme did not 
 break the friendship of the two kings, both of whom 
 perceived the wealth to be obtained for their 
 countries and themselves by encouraging commerce. 
 The business relations between the two nations soon 
 became very close, and the wine of Portugal was 
 freely exchanged for the long-cloth of England. On 
 July 25, 1352, Edward III. issued a royal proclama- 
 , tion, ordering his subjects never to do any harm to 
 \ the Portuguese, and on October 20, 1353, a curious 
 1 sequel to the commercial treaty of 1294 was signed 
 lin London by Affonso Martins Alho. This young 
 Iwine merchant had been sent to England as repre- 
 Isentative of the merchants of the maritime cities of 
 Portugal, and the treaty he negotiated with the 
 citizens of London was one guaranteeing mutual 
 good faith in all matters of trade and commerce, 
 with many other technical clauses referring to special 
 lines of business. The very fact of this treaty or 
 agreement being signed is a proof, not only of the 
 close connection between Portugal and England, 
 but of the high degree of wealth, intelligence, and
 
 THE STORY OF INES DE CASTRO. 95 
 
 business capacity possessed by the merchants of both 
 countries. 
 
 The later years of the reign of Affonso IV. were 
 marked by a fearful pestilence and a sad tragedy. 
 In 1348 the plague, or, as it was more commonly 
 called, the Black Death, reached Portugal, after tra- 
 versing Europe, and more than decimated the inhabi- 
 tants of Lisbon. On January 7, 1355, Donna Ines de 
 Castro was murdered in the streets of Coimbra. The 
 history of the various dynasties of Portugal is full 
 of romantic stories, some with ludicrous, and others 
 with tragical, endings, which illustrate, not only the 
 characters of the respective monarchs, but the 
 tendencies of their different epochs. The story of 
 Donna Branca, the princess who loved a carpenter, 
 has been told, with the comment that her son became 
 Grand Master of the wealthy Order of Calatrava ; the 
 romance of Dom Pedro's life ended more tragically. 
 Dom Pedro was the only son of Affonso IV. and 
 Beatrice of Castile who had survived his first year. 
 He was born in 1320, and had married in 1336, in 
 order to cement his father's alliance with Castile, the 
 Donna Constance Manuel, daughter of the Duke of 
 Penafiel. In her suite as lady-in-waiting came the 
 Donna Ines de Castro, daughter of Pedro Fernandez 
 de Castro, Mordomo Mor of Castile, and hero of the 
 battle of the Salado, and sister of Alvaro Peres de 
 Castro, first Constable of Portugal. Dom Pedro fell 
 in love with the beautiful Castilian lady, and though, 
 during his wife's lifetime, he always treated his wife with 
 the utmost consideration, and was the father by her of 
 Dom Ferdinand, afterwards King of Portugal, and of
 
 INES DE CASTRO.
 
 THE MURDER OF INES DE CASTRO. 97 
 
 Donna Maria, afterwards Queen of Aragon, it was well 
 known at the Portuguese Court that the love of Dom 
 Pedro's heart was centred on Donna Ines. In that dis- 
 solute Court little attention was paid to the conduct 
 of the prince ; princes were in those days privileged 
 persons, and he was known besides to have another 
 lady-love, the Donna Theresa Lourengo, who was the 
 mother of Joao, afterwards King of Portugal. It was 
 not until after the death of his wife that it was per- 
 ceived that Dom Pedro's love for the Donna Ines was 
 more than the ordinary fancy of a prince, and was an 
 absorbing passion. For love of her, he refused to marry 
 any of the foreign princesses proposed to him by his 
 father, and it is probable that he went through a 
 form of marriage with her after his first wife's death. 
 However that may be, King Affonso determined to 
 put an end to his son's infatuation by murdering the 
 object of it, and by his directions Donna Ines was 
 murdered in the streets of Coimbra by three courtiers, 
 Alvaro Gonial ves, the " Meirinho Mor " or Lord Cham- 
 berlain, Pedro Coelho, and Diogo Lopes Pacheco. 
 This is the tragedy which Camoens has celebrated in 
 an immortal passage,^ and which has since become a 
 common theme for the playwrights of the world, good, 
 bad, and indifferent ; and it may be said, that it is not 
 so much in the murder itself, as in the events which 
 followed it, that the most romantic part of the story 
 is to be found. Dom Pedro was absent on his estates 
 in the south when he heard of the murder of Ines. 
 He at once collected his vassals, and prepared to 
 attack his father, but, as had happened in the days 
 * "Lusiads," canto iii. stanzas 1 18-135.
 
 g8 THE CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 of S. Isabel, the Queen, Beatrice of Castile, inter- 
 posed, and a compromise was made, by which father 
 and son agreed to see each other no more, and to 
 abandon active hostilities, and this compact lasted 
 until the death of Affonso "the Brave" in 1357. 
 
 The first act of Dom Pedro on ascending the 
 throne was to punish the murderers of Ines de 
 Castro, and he induced the King of Castile to 
 surrender Alvaro Gon9alves and Pedro Coelho to 
 him. Pacheco had escaped to England, and could 
 not be found, and thus escaped the fate of his 
 accomplices, wlio were slowly tortured to death in 
 front of the royal palace at Coimbra before the eyes 
 of Dom Pedro. The king four years later had the 
 strange ceremony performed, which is far better 
 known than the circumstances of his love affair with 
 Donna Ines. On April 24, 1361, either to show his 
 undying affection for her, or to confirm the story of 
 his marriage and legitimate his children by her, he 
 had her body disinterred at Coimbra, and conveyed 
 to the Convent of Algobaga, where it was solemnly 
 crowned, and then buried. It is usual to speak 
 of the Convent of Algobaga as if it had been the 
 burial-place of all the kings and queens of Portugal 
 up to this time. Such was not the case ; only 
 Affonso II. and Affonso III. and their queens were 
 buried there. Count Henry and Donna Theresa had 
 their last resting-place in the Cathedral of Braga, 
 Affonso Henriques and Sancho I. and their queens 
 in the Convent of Santa Cruz at Coimbra, Diniz in 
 the Convent of Odivelas, near Lisbon, S. Isabel in 
 that of the Poor Clares at Coimbra, Affonso IV. and
 
 THE REIGN OF PEDRO I. 99 
 
 his queen in Lisbon Cathedral, and Dom Pedro's wife, 
 Constance Manuel, in the Convent of S. Francis at 
 Santarem. 
 
 The spirit of stern, revengeful justice which had 
 marked the commencement of the short reign of 
 Dom Pedro continued to show itself in all matters 
 of administration ; the king loved to dispense justice 
 in person, and the rigour with which he treated all 
 culprits, noble and priest as well as merchant and 
 vagabond, won for him the title of " Pedro the 
 Severe." This severity was not unpleasing to the 
 people, and many tales are extant of the king's 
 visits incognito to the law courts, and of his rigorous 
 punishment of unjust judges. Many of the famous 
 stories told in the "Arabian Nights" of the Caliph 
 Harun-ar-Rashid are also told of Dom Pedro, and 
 in them his Chancellor, Vasco Martins de Sousa, 
 played the part of the Vizir, as companion and butt. 
 In matters of policy Dom Pedro followed in his 
 father's and grandfather's steps, avoiding interference 
 with the other kingdoms of the peninsula, and main- 
 taining a close political and commercial connection 
 with England. His reign was too short to leave 
 much trace on the history of Portugal, for he died in 
 1367 at Estremoz, and was buried at Al9oba9a by 
 the side of Ines de Castro. 
 
 The accession of Ferdinand, called "the Hand- 
 some," the only son of Dom Pedro by Constance 
 Manuel, marks a crisis in the history of the Portu- 
 guese monarchy. As a natural result of the long 
 era of peace and prosperity which had succeeded the 
 final conquest of the Algarves, the people of Portugal
 
 100 THE CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 had become more wealthy, more cultivated, and more 
 conscious of their nationality than almost any people 
 in Europe while the Court had become more and 
 more dissolute, and more out of consonance with the 
 feelings of the people. If the Portuguese monarchy 
 was to continue to exist, it was obvious that it must 
 again become a truly national monarchy, as it had 
 been in the days of Affonso Henriques and of Diniz, 
 which should lead the way in findi-ng new outlets for 
 the growing energies of the people, and that the 
 kings must remember their duties, and not think 
 only of their pleasures. The affection the people 
 showed for Dom Pedro, who was by no means a 
 good king, but rather a despot of the Oriental type, 
 was a proof that they were ready to recognize with 
 gratitude the efforts of a just monarch, and their 
 energies, now that, owing to long peace, they were the 
 richest nation in the peninsula, only needed to be 
 directed. Neither the priesthood nor the nobility 
 showed any disposition to check the dissoluteness of 
 the Court. The bishops lost their old commanding 
 influence, as the Papacy, on which they depended, 
 became degenerate, and the nobles, now that they 
 had no longer wars to occupy them, either became 
 courtiers and abettors of the vices of the kings and 
 princes, or else lived on their feudal estates and 
 imitated them. The people had now no share in the 
 government. The power which the Cortes had 
 obtained during the reign of Affonso III. was in abey- 
 ance, because the king did not need its help against 
 his bishops and nobles, but it was only in abeyance, 
 and ready to spring forth again into new life.
 
 THE REIGN OF FERDINAND. lOI 
 
 The life and reign of Ferdinand " the Handsome " 
 are marked, like those of his father, by a romantic 
 amour, which, if not so tragic as the story of Ines 
 de Castro, had far greater poHtical importance. 
 Ferdinand was a weak and frivolous, but ambitious, 
 king, who, after binding himself to marry Leonora, 
 daughter of the King of Aragon, suddenly surprised 
 every one by claiming the thrones of Castile and 
 Leon in 1 369, on the death of Pedro " the Cruel." This 
 claim was derived through his grandmother, Beatrice 
 of Castile, and was good in law, and Dom Ferdinand 
 was favourably received at Ciudad Rodrigo and 
 Zamora. But the majority of the Castilians, both 
 noble and plebeian, had no desire to see a Portuguese 
 monarch on their throne, and therefore espoused the 
 cause of the illegitimate Henry of Trastamare as 
 Henry H. of Castile and Leon. The war which 
 followed turned to the advantage of the Castilian 
 pretender, and the contest ended in 1371 by the 
 intervention of Pope Gregory XL, when Ferdinand 
 agreed to surrender his claim to the throne of 
 Castile, and to marry Leonora, daughter of Henry 
 IL However, in spite of the Pope, this treaty was 
 never carried out, for at the marriage of his half- 
 sister, Beatrice, the daughter of Dom Pedro and Ines 
 de Castro, to Sancho Count of Alboquerque, King 
 Ferdinand saw and fell passionately in love with 
 Donna Leonor Telles de Mcnezes, daughter of a 
 nobleman in the Tras-os-Montes, and wife of Joao 
 Louren9o da Cunha, Lord of Pombeiro. This 
 passion was the king's ruin, for the object of it was 
 a sort of Portuguese Lucrczia Borgia, of whom
 
 i02 THE CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 horrible stories are told, which historical research 
 has unfortunately shown to be only too well founded. 
 At this very period, when she first met the king, she 
 made no attempt to repulse his advances, though she 
 was a married woman, and she bore an undying feeling 
 of revenge against her sister, Donna Maria Telles, for 
 her attempts to repulse the amorous monarch. In 
 spite of her sister's efforts, Donna Leonor managed 
 to captivate the king, who, in his infatuation for her, 
 and in compliance with the dictates of her ambition, 
 refused to marry the daughter of Henry II. of Castile. 
 This refusal exasperated the people of Lisbon, who 
 knew that the Castilians would not tamely suffer 
 such an insult, and a great popular tumult and riot 
 burst forth in the city. The story of this riot has 
 been admirably told by the chief modern historian of 
 Portugal, Alexandra Herculano, in one of his his- 
 torical novels, and it affords a striking example of the 
 political foresight of the people, and of their conviction 
 of a coming revolution . The popular leader was a tailor 
 named Fernan Vasques, under whose command the 
 mob burst into the palace at Lisbon, hunted in vain 
 for Donna Leonor, and made King Ferdinand swear 
 to marry the Castilian infanta or the very next day. 
 But Ferdinand escaped the same night to Santarem, 
 and once there with his beloved, he forgot his oath, 
 and sent all the troops he could collect to punish the 
 rioters of Lisbon. They made but little resistance, 
 being unprepared for their sovereign's want of faith 
 to his plighted word, and Fernan Vasques, the tailor, 
 and his principal followers were beheaded. This cruel 
 p%iishment inflicted, the king betook himself to
 
 THE SIEGE OF LISBON. I03 
 
 Oporto, and there married the Donna Leonor at the 
 Church of S. Joao do Hospital, although her first 
 husband was still alive. It shows to what a depth 
 of degradation the Portuguese nobles had sunk that 
 all the nobility, with the exception of Dom Diniz, 
 one of the king's half-brothers, acquiesced in this 
 bigamous marriage, and recognized Donna Leonor 
 as queen. At the head of those who submitted were 
 Dom Joao or John, the elder son of the late king 
 by Ines de Castro, and Dom John, known as " the 
 Bastard," the Master of the Knights of Aviz, and 
 the son of Pedro by Theresa Lourengo. 
 
 The people of Lisbon were right in believing that 
 the Castilians would regard the marriage of Ferdinand 
 to Donna Leonor as a deadly insult to their infanta. 
 Henry II. at once invaded Portugal, and laid siege to 
 Lisbon; Ferdinand lived meanwhile quietly at San- 
 tarem with his queen, and made no effort to intervene ; 
 and the war would have ended badly for Portugal, had 
 not Cardinal Guy of Boulogne, who happened to be 
 in Spain as legate, interfered, and by using all the 
 authority of the Church, forced Henry H. to retire, 
 and to make a treaty of peace with Ferdinand at 
 Santarem. Even after this proof of the power of 
 Castile, and after the sufferings incurred by the 
 people of Lisbon during the siege, Ferdinand refused 
 to keep the peace. He would not believe that Henry 
 H. was firmly established on the throne, and in 1373 
 he treacherously renewed the negotiations which he 
 had entered into the year before with John of Gaunt, 
 Duke of Lancaster. This son of Edward HI. 
 claimed the throne of Castile for hjs wife Constance,
 
 104 ^^^ CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 the daughter of Pedro "the Cruel," and Ferdinand 
 signed a treaty of alHance with Edward III., through 
 his ambassadors, Joao Fernandes Andeiro and Vasco 
 Domingues, by which he agreed to support the 
 claims of the English prince. But Donna Leonor did 
 not approve of the English alliance, and in 1374, 
 Ferdinand as usual broke his plighted word, and again 
 made peace with Castile. 
 
 The queen was now supreme ; her weak and 
 vacillating husband was her slave, and the tyranny 
 which she exercised was odious in the extreme. Her 
 wealth was great, for the king had in his infatuation 
 granted her for her own use the lordship of many 
 of the most important cities belonging to the Crown, 
 including Villa Vigosa, Abrantes, Almada, Cintra, Sac- 
 cavem, Alemquer, Obidos, Torres Vedras, and Pinhel, 
 and she had obtained great estates for her brothers, 
 of whom the elder, Joao Affonso Telles- de Menezes, 
 became Count of Barcellos, and the younger, Gongalo, 
 Count of Nciva. Her former husband, Joao Louren90 
 da Cunha, tried to revenge himself for the loss of his 
 wife by attempting to poison the king ; she at once 
 had his lands confiscated, and ordered his execution, 
 which he only escaped by a timely flight into Gallicia. 
 Her revenge upon her sister, Maria Telles de Menezes, 
 whom she had never forgiven for opposing her 
 marriage with the king, was horrible in its wicked- 
 ness, and affords an indisputable proof of her cruelty 
 of disposition, Maria, who was as beautiful as her 
 sister, and far more virtuous, had inspired a real 
 passion in the bosom of Dom John, the king's half- 
 brother and the elder son of Ines de Castro. The
 
 WICKEDNESS OF DONNA LEONOR. I05 
 
 young couple were married in 1376, and were as 
 happy as they deserved to be. Enraged at their 
 happiness, and the more so, because they had a Httle 
 son, whereas her own sons both died in childiiood, the 
 queen set to work, hke lago, to instil the passion of 
 jealousy into the young husband. She was soon suc- 
 cessful, and Dom John murdered his wife with his own 
 hand, in his palace at Coimbra, while she was vainly 
 protesting her innocence. When the deed was done, 
 the queen came into her dead sister's presence, and 
 laughingly informed the unhappy wife-murderer that 
 the accusations were untrue. At this mockery, Dom 
 John would have slain her, and on being prevented 
 by her guards, he fled to Castile. Donna Leonor 
 had not even the merit of being constant to her 
 uxorious spouse, but carried on an open intrigue with 
 Joao Fernandes Andeiro, the former ambassador to 
 England, whom she persuaded the king to make 
 Count of Ourem. Ines Affonso, the wife of Gon^alo 
 Vaz de Azevedo, first Grand Marshal of Portugal, 
 happened to hear a declaration of love made by the 
 queen to her lover, and she informed Dom John 
 " the Bastard," Master of the Knights of Aviz. Some 
 spy told the queen, and she determined at once to rid 
 herself of the pair. She had a letter forged, pur- 
 porting to be written by them to the king of Castile, 
 full of treasonable passages, and on the strength of it, 
 she obtained the king's order for their arrest. When 
 they were safely in prison, she tried to persuade her 
 husband to sign an order for their execution without 
 trial. King Ferdinand, who had a real affection for 
 his half-brother, refused, and Donna Leonor thereupon
 
 I06 THE CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 forged his signature to an order for them to be 
 beheaded at once. Fortunately for Portugal, the 
 governor of the Castle of Evora, where they were 
 imprisoned, Vasco Martins de Mello, refused to obey, 
 and the future saviour of Portugal escaped. 
 
 The wonder is that the Portuguese people submitted 
 so long as they did to this tyranny, and it shows how 
 deeply they felt the debt due to their great monarchs, 
 such as Affonso Henriques and Dom Diniz, that they 
 made no attempt to overthrow their unworthy des- 
 cendant. So strong was their attachment to the 
 hereditary principle, that at a great Cortes held at 
 Leiria in 1376, the queen's only surviving child, the 
 Donna Beatrice, was recognized as heiress to the 
 throne. This declaration was of the greatest impor- 
 tance, for it governed the future rule of succession 
 in the kingdom ; and by declaring females able to 
 succeed rejected the well-known Salic law, which 
 prevailed in France and other countries. The queen 
 steadily encouraged the king's ambition to sit upon 
 the throne of Castile, and when his hopes revived, 
 on the death of Henry II., she persuaded him 
 once more to send her lover, the Count of Ourem, 
 as ambassador to England. Richard 11. received 
 him cordially, and Edmund, Earl of Cambridge, 
 next brother to John of Gaunt, and better known by 
 his subsequent title of Duke of York, agreed to bring 
 military assistance to the aid of Ferdinand. In 1381, 
 the Earl of Cambridge arrived accordingly with two 
 thousand English men-at-arms, and, as had been 
 suggested by the Count of Ourem, his eldest son. 
 Edward, afterwards second Duke of York, was
 
 DEATH OF KING FERDINAND. loy 
 
 solemnly betrothed to the Donna Beatrice, the heiress 
 to the throne of Portugal. The feeble Ferdinand, as 
 usual, refused to keep faith, and terrified by the 
 approach of a Castilian army, he deserted the English, 
 who immediately began to ravage the country round 
 their camp near Oporto, while he made peace with 
 John I. of Castile at Salvaterra. By this treaty, 
 which was signed on April 2, 1383, and in which the 
 hand of Donna Leonor is clearly to be perceived, it 
 was arranged that John I. should marry Donna 
 Beatrice, who was but eleven years old, and that 
 Leonor should be Regent of Portugal if Ferdinand 
 died, until Beatrice's eldest son came of age. At the 
 wedding, which took place at once, Ferdinand was too 
 ill to be present : but the queen and her lover were 
 there in his stead, and behaved with such unseemly 
 hilarity that many of the Portuguese nobility, headed 
 by Nuno Alvares Pereira, who was to be known in 
 Portuguese history as " The Holy Constable," could 
 not refrain from openly expressing their disgust. Six 
 months afterwards, on October 22, 1383, King Fer- 
 dinand died, and Donna Leonor assumed the regency 
 in the name of her little daughter, the Queen of 
 Castile. 
 
 But she did not hold it long. The whole Portu- 
 guese people detested her, and their spirit of 
 nationality was outraged by the contemplated union 
 of their crown with that of Castile. Dom John 
 " the Bastard," the Master of the Order of Aviz 
 shared both their personal hatred for the queen, who 
 had tried to take his life, and their political desire for 
 independence ; and on December 6th, he headed an
 
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 DOM yOHN, DEFENDER OF THE REALM. IO9 
 
 insurrection in Lisbon and slew the queen's lover, 
 Andeiro, Count of Ourem, with his own hands in 
 the palace itself. The people everywhere applauded 
 his action, and attacked the friends of the queen ; 
 in Lisbon the Archbishop Martinho and the Abbot 
 of Guimaraens were killed upon the same day, and 
 the example was followed in the provinces, where 
 among other notable murders, the abbess of th-e 
 Benedictine nuns was killed at Evora, and the Lond 
 High Admiral, Lan^arote Pessanha, at Beja. Leonor 
 among whose faults want of courage could not be 
 reckoned, fled to Santarem, and not only summoned 
 her son-in-law, John of Castile to her help, but began 
 to raise an army from among the vassals of her own 
 adherents. At this news, Dom John felt a momentary 
 movement of weakness, and spoke of retiring to Eng- 
 land, but the people of Lisbon, through the mouth 
 of the popular leader, the cooper, Affonso Annes, so 
 eloquently begged him not to desert them in their 
 peril, but to stay and be their ruler, that he consented 
 on December i6th, to remain, and named two of his 
 wisest adherents, Joao das Regras and Nuno Alvares 
 Pereira, to the offices of chancellor and constable. 
 
 Dom John then took upon himself the title of 
 Defender of the Realm ; but he knew how little 
 chance Portugal could have against Castile without 
 some powerful ally, and he therefore sent first Thomas 
 Daniel and Louren^o Martins, and then his Chancellor 
 and the Master of the Knights of Santiago to beg for 
 help from England. The longed-for aid seemed 
 tardy, and Dom John proceeded to put Lisbon in a 
 state of defence, and despatched the "Holy Constable"
 
 110 THE CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 to raise an army in the northern provinces. In 1384, 
 John of Castile slowly entered Portugal with a great 
 army and joined Donna Leonor at Santarem. But the 
 allies soon quarrelled as to the government in future 
 of the country they both believed to be already 
 conquered, and Donna Leonor recommended her 
 adherents to join Dom John. Not satisfied with this, 
 she planned to poison her son-in-law ; but her inten- 
 tion was discovered in time, and the wicked queen 
 was sent by John of Castile to the convent of 
 Tordesillas, in his dominions, where she ended her 
 days in 1386. This act of justice done, the king of 
 Castile laid siege to Lisbon. The resistance was 
 worthy of the cause, which was indeed that of the 
 continued existence of Portugal as an independent 
 country. The priests fought at the head of their 
 parishioners ; the archbishop of Braga behaved as a 
 gallant knight ; and Dom John showed his fitness to 
 be the monarch of a warlike people. A terrible 
 pestilence, which broke out in the besiegers' camp, did 
 more mischief than the bravery of the besieged, and 
 John of Castile had to retire discomfited. But it 
 availed little to have repulsed one Spanish army ; 
 the relative sizes of Portugal and Castile, made it 
 obvious that the struggle would be a severe one ; 
 the independence of Portugal was at stake, and the 
 Portuguese fought as men fight for their existence as 
 a nation. The heroic Constable enforced the lesson 
 of the successful defence of Lisbon by his defeat of 
 the Castilians at Atoleiros, but it was felt to be 
 necessary to take yet stronger measures, if the war 
 was to end in a triumph.
 
 yOHN "the bastard'' elected king. Ill 
 
 The first of these measures was to legalize the 
 position of Dom John, the gallant leader of the 
 people. A great Cortes was summoned to meet at 
 Coimbra, and in it Joao das Regras declared the 
 throne of Portugal to be elective on April 6, 1385. 
 This proposition was agreed to by acclamation, and 
 after the Chancellor had produced a Papal bull, declar- 
 ing the children of Dom Pedro by Ines de Castro to 
 be illegitimate, the Cortes unanimously elected Dom 
 John " the Bastard," to be king of Portugal. This 
 measure legalized the position of Master of the Knights 
 of Aviz, who took the title of John I., and is known in 
 Portuguese history as John " the Great " ; and the people 
 believed the measure to have the sanction of heaven 
 when the news arrived that the Holy Constable had 
 won a great victory over the Spaniards at Trancoso, 
 in which four hundred Castilian knights were killed. 
 The spirits of the Portuguese were further raised by the 
 landing of five hundred of the famous English archers, 
 under the command of three squires in the service of 
 John of Gaunt named Northberry, Mowbray, and 
 Hentzel ; but this assistance was counterbalanced by the 
 arrival of two thousand French knights, who had joined 
 the king of Castile. The two armies met at Aljubarrota 
 on August 14, 1385. and it was there that the inde- 
 pendence of Portugal was secured, and the House of 
 Aviz made good its title to the throne. The Holy 
 Constable commanded the vanguard ; Mem Rodrigues 
 de Vasconcellos the right, and Antao Vasques de Al- 
 mada the left ; while Dom John rode from place to 
 place and never failed to be in the post of danger. 
 Ten pieces of ordnance were used, this being their
 
 THE VICTORY OF ALJUBARROTA. 113 
 
 first appearance in the military history of the penin- 
 sula ; the English archers did yeoman service, and 
 repeated the glories of Crecy and Poitiers, and after 
 a hard-fought struggle the Spaniards fled in con- 
 fusion. Then did John I. feel himself king indeed ; 
 and he erected on the spot where his victory had 
 been won, the magnificent convent of Batalha, which 
 recalls in its name the famous Battle Abbey erected 
 on the field of Hastings. This victory was followed 
 up by another at Valverde, and then by the news that 
 John of Gaunt was on his way with a powerful Eng- 
 lish arm\'. The Portuguese felt that they had anew 
 achieved their independence. 
 
 On Ma\' 9, 1386, the Treaty of Windsor was \ 
 signed by which the kingdoms of Portugal and Eng- \ 
 land were declared to be united henceforth in the 
 closest bonds of friendship and alliance ; and it 
 proved to be the corner-stone of the policy of the 
 House of Aviz. On July 20, 1386, Johu cf Gaunt 
 reached Corunna with tw( thousand English lances 
 and three thousand archers, accompanied by his wife 
 Constance of Castile, and two of his daughters, 
 Philippa and Catherine. He marched triumphantly 
 through Gallicia ; and at Oporto on February 2, 1387, 
 the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance was sealed by the 
 marriage of King John to Philippa, the daughter of 
 John of Gaunt by his first wife, Blanche of Lancaster. 
 This marriage was followed by another, that of 
 Catherine, only child of John of Gaunt by Constance 
 of Castile to Henry, Prince of the Asturias, and heir 
 to the throne of Castile. These marriages settled the 
 peace of the peninsula, for in concluding them, John of
 
 114 ^^^ CONSOLIDATION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 Gaunt abandoned his claims to Castile, and insisted 
 as one of the conditions, on a truce between his two 
 sons-in-law. This truce continued till 141 1, when at 
 last the title of John as King of Portugal was 
 recognized, and peace between Castile and Portugal 
 was solemnly declared. 
 
 King John " the Great " was now firmly seated on 
 his throne ; an effort of his half-brother Diniz, the 
 younger son of Ines de Castro, to overthrow him 
 in 1398, failed entirely, and foreign monarchs has- 
 tened to recognize his power. Through this hero, 
 and the race of heroes who fought under him, the 
 independence of Portugal was secured, and a new 
 career opened before its people. The era of con- 
 solidation was over ; the era of foreign discovery and 
 of Asiatic conquests was to begin.
 
 VI. 
 
 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 The reigns of John I., surnamed "the Great," and 
 of his two successors, occupy nearly a century, during 
 which Portugal was learning to become the- greatest 
 nation in Europe. It was the age of exploration and 
 discovery, during which the acutest intellects and the 
 most daring natures in Portugal were dreaming of a 
 new route to India, and were endeavouring to dis- 
 cover it. It was an age of growth, abounding in 
 statesmen, mariners, and chroniclers, who were to have 
 their successors in the all too short but immortal 
 period of Portuguese greatness, in such men as 
 Alboquerque, Vasco da Gama, and Camoens. The 
 history of these maritime explorations and discoveries, 
 of the painful and slow progress down the western 
 coast of Africa, and of the great schemes and efforts 
 of Prince Henry " the Navigator," will form the subject 
 of a separate chapter ; but it is first expedient to study 
 the history of the Portuguese people and monarchy 
 at home during this period, and to sec how, from the 
 reign of John I., a new spirit appeared alike among
 
 Il5 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 the kings, and the merchants, and the soldiers, which 
 was to culminate in the glories of the heroic age. 
 
 King John, after the victory of Aljubarrota had 
 firmly seated him on the throne, felt it necessary to 
 give Portugal such an interval of peace after the great 
 efforts of the Castilian wars, as King Diniz had given 
 it after the cessation of the wars against the Moors. 
 This peace was secured by a wise foreign policy, of 
 
 KING JOHN THE GREAT. 
 {From his recumbent statue over his tomb at Batalha.) 
 
 which the key-notes were, a close alliance with 
 England, and systematic non-interference with the 
 affairs of Spain. He had seen the value of the assist- 
 ance of England in the final throes of his struggle 
 with Castile, and the English monarchs on their side 
 felt the advantage of having such an ally as Portugal 
 to act as a thorn in the side of Castile, should the 
 Spaniards come to the help of the French. The
 
 THE ALLIANCE WITH ENGLAND. II7 
 
 statesmanlike idea of Henry II. of England when 
 he supported the proposal of the Count of Flanders 
 for the hand of the daughter of Affonso Henriques, 
 that this marriage should cement an unwritten 
 alliance of England, Flanders, and Portugal, against 
 France, Scotland, and Castile, seems to have been 
 in the minds of the English statesmen of the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth centuries. Just as Scotland 
 afforded a convenient base of operations, whether 
 military or political, for France against England, so 
 did Portugal give a similar position for the English 
 to act from against Castile, and the subsequent 
 history of Portugal shows how generously and wisely 
 England treated her southern ally. The people of 
 the two nations gladly supported the political ideas 
 of their monarchs and rulers. Each country could 
 supply what the other wanted. From Portugal, the 
 English merchants could obtain fruits and wines, 
 which found a ready market, and the Londoners, 
 not satisfied with supplying the home demand only, 
 distributed these products of the south among the 
 countries of the north, and notably in those lying 
 round the Baltic Sea, Sweden, Denmark, Pomerania, 
 and Lithuania. On the other hand, the Portuguese 
 had no manufactures, and gladly took in exchange 
 for the productions of their fertile soil, the cloth not 
 only of the English looms, but of those of Flanders, 
 in which the London merchants dealt. 
 
 This alliance was maintained in spite of dynastic 
 changes and political revolutions in the two countries. 
 In 1389 the name of the King of Portugal was intro- 
 duced into the Treaty of Paris as an ally of the King
 
 Il8 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 of England ; in 1398 Richard II. sent a body of 
 English archers, under Edmund Arnold of Dart- 
 mouth, to assist in repelling the incursion made into 
 Portugal by the son of Ines de Castro and some 
 Spanish knights ; and in 1400 John I. recognized his 
 brother-in-law, Henry of Lancaster, as Henry IV. of 
 England, and was created by him a Knight of the 
 Garter, being the first foreign sovereign to receive 
 that honour. In 1403 Henry IV. solemnly ratified 
 the Treaty of Windsor, and in the following year the 
 illegitimate daughter of John I., by Ines Pires, was 
 promised in marriage to Thomas, Earl of Arundel, 
 one of the leaders of the English nobility. This 
 marriage was regarded as a further bond of alliance, 
 and was celebrated in 1405 in England with the 
 greatest splendour. Equally friendly relations were 
 maintained with Henry V. and with the rulers of 
 England during the minority of Henry VI. ; Henry 
 V. sent provisions and troops for the expedition to 
 Ceuta in 141 5, and in 1428 a strong force of 144 
 lances was sent to join the King of Portugal. This 
 English alliance was the key-note of the policy of 
 John I., and it was maintained without a breach 
 from the arrival of John of Gaunt in 1386 until 
 the death of the great Portuguese monarch in 1433. 
 The internal government of King John I. was 
 hampered in one respect to such an extent as to 
 vitiate the effect of his great administrative reforms. 
 It will be remembered that he was elected to the 
 crown by the Cortes, and followed to the field of 
 Aljubarrota by all classes of the Portuguese people. 
 Yet for some reason he would not trust in the people
 
 THE REIGN OF JOHN I. II9 
 
 who loved him, but believing he owed his success 
 to the nobles who had supported him, he began his 
 reign by making extensive grants of lands and 
 privileges to his principal supporters of noble birth. 
 It would perhaps be too much to expect the political 
 knowledge of a statesman in the nineteenth century 
 from a king in the fourteenth, but it seems to posterity 
 that King John greatly over-estimated the assistance 
 of his nobles, and that he over-rewarded them by 
 granting them nearly the whole of the old royal 
 estates of the kings of Portugal. It may be believed 
 that he feared the secession of his nobles to the 
 Castilian party, and that he thought they could 
 take their vass£.ls with them, but whatever may have 
 been the reason, he gave them such enormous grants 
 as to seriously weaken the royal power. These grants 
 however did not impoverish the treasury, which was 
 filled more by the proceeds of the customs duties, a 
 source of income, which his wise commercial policy 
 increased, than by rents from landed estates. So 
 wealthy did he become that he left his mark on 
 the country in his great buildings ; besides the mag- 
 nificent convent of Batalha on the field of Alju- 
 barrota, he constructed no less than four palaces at 
 Cintra, Almeirim, Cezimbra, and Lisbon. The last- 
 mentioned city was his favourite place of residence ; 
 under his fostering care it became the official capital 
 of Portugal instead of Coimbra, and soon surpassed 
 the wealth of Oporto as a commercial city. The 
 citizens of Lisbon regarded him much as the citizens 
 of London did Edward IV. a century later ; they 
 never forgot his gallant conduct in the great siege,
 
 120 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 and were at all times ready to obey him and to pay 
 him a fair tithe of their wealth. In one respect 
 especially did King John gratify the aspirations of the 
 religious section of the people of Lisbon, by obtaining 
 the sanction of the Pope to erect the bishopric of 
 Lisbon into an archbishopric. 
 
 It is not to be wondered at that King John loved 
 to live in Lisbon, and watch the daily passage up 
 and down the Tagus of the ships, which were making 
 his capital a great commercial centre, when it is 
 remembered how slight was his actual power over the 
 greater part of his kingdom. The other cities were 
 indeed fairly well governed owing to their possession 
 of ancient charters from kings, bishops, or lords, 
 granting them a system of municipal self-government, 
 but the country districts were ruled by the strictest 
 feudal law and custom, and the king was powerless to 
 interfere. Now was to be seen the harm done by the 
 monarchs who had conquered the Alemtejo and the 
 Algarves from the Mohammedans by the distribution 
 of their conquests in estates among the military orders 
 and private individuals. The result was the division 
 of these provinces into enormous feudal counties and 
 lordships, dangerously large to be the properties of 
 subjects in such a small kingdom as Portugal. The 
 condition of the Beira was a little better, and the two 
 northern provinces of the Entre Minho e Douro and 
 the Tras-os-Montes, were, as they are still, the homes 
 of the sturdy Portuguese peasantry, who gave to 
 the Portuguese armies and fleets their bravest and 
 stoutest soldiers and sailors. Bitterly did John the 
 Great repent the mistake he had made by his large
 
 THE REFORMS OF JOHN I. 121 
 
 grants to the Portuguese nobility, and his conse- 
 quent inability to correct the most crying evils of 
 the feudal system. He had, however, at the begin- 
 ning of his reign, some wise and able counsellors, in 
 the Holy Constable, in Lourenco, the brave Arch- 
 bishop of Braga, and in his great chancellor, Joao das 
 Regras. With the help of the latter he managed to 
 get some valuable laws passed in the Cortes affecting 
 criminal procedure and jurisdiction, by means of which 
 he somewhat controlled the feudal methods of hold- 
 ing courts of justice without much offending the great 
 nobility, but he dared go no further in this direction, 
 and had to allow many abuses, inherent in the feudal 
 system, to continue to exist. In every other respect 
 his administration was extremely good ; his cities grew 
 in wealth ; his navy increased in number of ships ; 
 his sailors became famous for their daring ; and in 
 minor points many reforms were made, such, for 
 instance, as introducing the use of the Portuguese 
 language into the law courts, and changing the era 
 from that of Augustus to that of Christ, which made 
 the date of the year consonant with that of the rest 
 of Christendom. 
 
 In such labours passed the first thirty years after 
 the battle of Aljubarrota, and Portugal and its great 
 king became renowned throughout Europe. During 
 this period, a new generation grew up, the sons of the 
 men of Aljubarrota and Trancoso, and the young 
 nobility burned to prove themselves worthy sons of 
 their brave fathers. In their aspirations they were 
 headed by the princes of Portugal. The union of the 
 old royal family of Portugal as represented by King
 
 122 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 John, with the blood of the English Plantagenets in 
 the person of his queen, Philippa of Lancaster, pro- 
 duced the five famous princes, whose names stand 
 out conspicuously in the history of the fifteenth 
 century. The three elder sons of John and Philippa, 
 Dom Duarte or Edward, Dom Pedro, and Dom 
 Henry, were in 1414 respectively 23, 22, and 20 years 
 of age ; they longed to win their knightly spurs, and 
 to show themselves worthy cousins of Henry V. of 
 England. The King of Portugal did not wish to 
 check their ardour ; he felt the need of occupying 
 the energies of his youthful nobility ; and as there 
 were no enemies at home, he acquiesced in the desire 
 of his sons to attack the old enemies of Portugal, the 
 Moors, in Morocco. By such an expedition against 
 the Mohammedans the young princes would show 
 themselves crusaders, and would find adversaries 
 worthy of their swords, without arousing the jealous 
 watchfulness of the King of Castile. Ceuta was the 
 city of Africa selected for attack, not only because it 
 was the chief port of the Moors in the north-western 
 corner of Africa and threatened the south of Spain, 
 but also because it was the headquarters of the 
 numerous corsairs and pirates, who preyed upon the 
 already growing traffic of Portugal with the west 
 coast of Africa, and at times made descents upon the 
 Portuguese province of the Algarves. The expedition 
 sailed from Lisbon in 141 5 ; the three princes were 
 followed by the flower of the Portuguese chivalry, and 
 accompanied by their two boy brothers, Dom John, 
 who was but fifteen, and Dom Ferdinand not yet 
 thirteen; from her deathbed the Queen sent her
 
 THE CAPTURE OF CEUTA. 
 
 123 
 
 blessing, and in the month of June the expedition 
 safely disembarked on the African coast. The Moors 
 fought bravely on their native soil, and it was not 
 until 24th of August that the city of Ccuta was 
 stormed, after a siege, in which the sons of John the 
 Great showed themselves to be gallant soldiers and 
 prudent leaders. This conquest was of importance 
 in two ways ; it was the first conquest made by the 
 
 QUERN PHILIPPA. 
 
 {From her recumbent statue over the tomb at Batalha.) 
 
 Portuguese outside the limits of their own country, 
 and was therefore a proof of their energy and the 
 expansion of their power ; but, on the other hand, it 
 pointed in a false direction, and was the first of a 
 scries of African expeditions, which were not profitable 
 to the country, even when successful, and which 
 terminated in the great disaster associated with the 
 name of Dom Sebastian.
 
 124 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 The conquest of Ceuta completed, the elder princes 
 devoted their extraordinary powers of mind and body 
 to pursuits worthy of the cousins of Henry V. of 
 England. Dom Edward, so named after his great- 
 grandfather, Edward III. of England, the eldest son, 
 married Donna Leonora of Aragon, and helped his 
 father in the duties of government. He proved an 
 apt pupil of Joao das Regras, the chancellor, and, 
 after devoting much time to legal studies, he drew up 
 the first code of Portuguese law. Dom Pedro, the 
 next brother, who was created by his father Duke of 
 Coimbra after the storming of Ceuta, travelled all 
 over Europe, enjoying in turn the hospitality of 
 Henry V. of England, of the Emperor, and of the 
 Pope, and astonishing those monarchs by his abilities. 
 He proved his valour by fighting beside the Teutonic 
 knights against the Lithuanians, in the extreme east 
 of civilised Europe, and his literary taste by his en- 
 lightened patronage of men of letters in all parts of 
 the continent. In 1428 he ended his travels, and 
 settling at Lisbon, he married Donna Isabel, the 
 daughter of the Count of Urgel, and assisted his 
 father and elder brother in the duties of government, 
 taking special interest in the progress of literature, 
 and co-operating in all the various schemes for the 
 development of Portugal. The third brother, Dom 
 Henry, created by his father, Duke of Viseu, and 
 appointed Master of the Order of Christ, and governor 
 of the kingdom of the Algarves, has left his mark 
 on the history of the world as Prince Henry "the 
 Navigator, " This prince refused all the offers of the 
 Pope, the Emperor, and of Henry V., to visit their
 
 THE CHILDREN OF JOHN THE GREAT. 1 25 
 
 courts, and established himself in 1418 at Sagre in 
 order to devote himself and his wealth to the cause 
 of discovering a continuous route by sea to India, 
 which should bring the trade of Asia and its profits 
 to the Portuguese. His efforts and the discoveries 
 he superintended form the subject of a separate 
 chapter, but it must be remembered that in all his 
 efforts he was seconded by his father and elder 
 brothers. The fourth brother, Dom John, Master of 
 the Order of Santiago, married his niece Isabel, 
 daughter of the Count of Barcellos, and became 
 eventually third Constable of Portugal. The fifth 
 brother, Dom Ferdinand, who earned the title of the 
 " Constant Prince " in after years, was Master of the 
 Order of S, Benedict of Aviz, as his father had been 
 before his elevation to the throne ; his piety was so 
 well known, that he was requested to enter the Church, 
 and promised a cardinal's hat by the Pope, but he 
 refused the honour, longing rather for the glory of a 
 crusader than the influence of an ecclesiastic, and 
 winning in the end a martyr's crown. Their sister, 
 Isabel, was as famous for her beauty, as her brothers 
 for their valour, wisdom, and piety, and was married 
 to Philip " the Good " of Burgundy, the founder of the 
 Order of the Golden Fleece. To mar the unity of 
 this illustrious and gifted family, there existed a half 
 brother Afifonso, the son of King John by Ines Pires, 
 born before the marriage with Philippa of Lancaster, 
 who was jealous of his legitimate brothers, and ulti- 
 mately proved the evil genius of their destiny. This 
 son was regarded with special favour by his father, 
 who brought about his marriage with Donna Beatrice
 
 126 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 Pereira, daughter and heiress of the Holy Constable, 
 and created him Count of Barcellos. 
 
 The latter years of King John " the Great's" fortunate 
 reign of nearly half a century were marked not only 
 by the discoveries of Prince Henry " the Navigator," 
 but by the development of Portuguese into a literary 
 language by many talented authors. Mention has been 
 made of the poetry of the Portuguese troubadours, who 
 sang in the reign of Diniz, and of the first Portuguese 
 epic on the battle of the Salado, which foreshadowed 
 the " Lusiads " of Camoens. But a literary language 
 is formed not so much by its poetry as by its prose ; 
 the early poetry of Portugal differed but little from that 
 of Gallicia, while its prose developed in an indepen- 
 dent direction. The first Portuguese prose work of any 
 length or importance was the famous romance of 
 " Amadis de Gaul," written by Vasco de Lobeira, who 
 died in 1403. This romance gave rise to a host of 
 imitations, and the taste for romances was further 
 developed by the popularity of the " Prophecies of 
 Merlin," and the Arthurian tales, the knowledge of 
 which came into Portugal with the English alliance. 
 The king himself encouraged this literary revival ; 
 the " Book of the Chase," one of the best specimens 
 of early Portuguese prose was written for him under 
 his superintendence, and among his sons, Dom Pedro 
 wrote poems, and Dom Edward two excellent prose 
 works, "Instructions in Horsemanship" and "The 
 Faithful Councillor." More important to notice are 
 the works of the first great Portuguese chroniclers. 
 Chronicles of nearly events in Portuguese history had 
 been written in monasteries, and have a value of their
 
 EARLY PORTUGUESE CHRONICLERS. 1 27 
 
 own, but these works arc little better than annals 
 noted down year by year with no pretence to literary 
 form. Next in order stands the anonymous 
 " Chronica da Conquista do Algarves," which re- 
 presents the transition from the annalist to the 
 chronicler, and in the reign of John I., under the 
 special patronage of the monarch and his sons, the 
 first great Portuguese chronicler, Fernan Lopes, who 
 has been called the Froissart of Portugal, wrote his 
 chronicles of the reigns of Pedro "the Severe" and 
 Ferdinand " the Handsome," and Matthew de Pisano, 
 wrote his " Guerra de Ceuta," a history of the famous 
 expedition of 141 5. These men were the fore- 
 runners of the great chroniclers of the fifteenth 
 century, Azurara, Ruy de Pina, and Duarte Galvao. 
 
 After a reign, which ranks among the most glorious 
 in Portuguese history, made famous by maritime 
 discoveries and literary advancement, leaving behind 
 him sons worthy and able to guide the people along 
 the road of civilization to wealth and prosperity, 
 John I., rightly surnamed " the Great," died at his 
 palace at Lisbon on August 14, 1433, having sur- 
 vived his wife Philippa of Lancaster nearly twenty 
 years. 
 
 Contrary to the expectation of his subjects, the 
 reign of King Edward was but short, and it is marked 
 only by a signal disaster. His own great qualities, 
 and the promise he had given of being both a good 
 and a great king when assisting his father, combined 
 to raise the highest hopes, which were destined to 
 be cruelly shattered. On ascending the throne he 
 believed himself strong enough to take a step, in-
 
 128 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 tended to check the perpetuation of power in the 
 hands of the feudal nobility, which had often been 
 discussed between his father, his brother Dom Pedro, 
 Joao das Regras, and himself, and in 1434 he 
 sunnmoned a full Cortes at Evora. He there pro- 
 pounded the " Lei Mental " or the provision, which 
 was assumed to have been in the mind of King John 
 when he made his extensive grants of land to the 
 nobility, namely, that they could only descend in the 
 direct male line of the original grantee, and should 
 revert to the Crown on failure of such heirs. The 
 law was carried by the influence of the king's 
 brothers, in spite of the natural opposition of the 
 nobility, who never forgave the supporters of the 
 measure. In other matters Edward simply followed 
 the example of his father. He continued the English 
 alliance, ratified the treaty of Windsor, and was made 
 a Knight of the Garter in his father's room ; he 
 maintained an attitude of prudent neutrality towards 
 Castile ; he encouraged the literary movement, 
 represented by Fernan Lopes, and took an intelligent 
 interest in the schemes and plans of his brother, 
 Dom Henry. 
 
 But, unfortunately, the king's life was shortened 
 and Dom Henry's explorations checked for a time 
 by the fatal expedition to Tangier in 1437. This 
 expedition was the natural sequel of the expedition 
 to Ceuta, and was undertaken in opposition to the 
 advice of the Pope, and of Dom Pedro. It was 
 entirely the result of the earnest solicitations of the 
 king's favourite brother, Dom Ferdinand. This 
 pious young prince burned with crusading ardour ;
 
 THE EXPEDITION AGAINST TANGIER. I29 
 
 his one longing in life was to fight the infidels, and 
 he could not appreciate the fact that Dom Henry was 
 doing far greater work for the world in exploring the 
 coast of Africa, than in killing Mohammedans. The 
 ardour of Dom Ferdinand won the day, and King 
 Edward collected a fleet and army in the Tagus, 
 and sailed for the coast of Africa. The object of 
 the attack was Tangier and it was most foolishly 
 chosen. Ceuta was on the sea coast, and the 
 Portuguese soldiers could use their fleet as a base of 
 operations, and could retreat to it in case of need ; 
 whereas Tangier was three miles from the coast. As 
 might have been foretold, when King Edward with 
 his eight thousand Portuguese soldiers formed the 
 siege of Tangier, the Moors at once cut off his 
 communications with the fleet, and in three days the 
 Portuguese army was reduced to extremities. It was 
 only by Dom Ferdinand's willing sacrifice of himself 
 as a hostage, that the troops were allowed to return 
 to their ships and find their way back to Lisbon. 
 This disaster and the captivity of his favourite 
 brother so preyed upon King Edward's mind that 
 he died in 1438. His death was happier than that 
 of Dom Ferdinand, who, after a long and cruel im- 
 prisonment, borne with such heroic patience and 
 exemplary piety, as to win for him the title of 
 " the Constant Prince," died at Fez in 1443. 
 
 The noble conduct of Dom Ferdinand, who 
 preferred death in captivity to safety purchased by the 
 surrender of Ceuta, the only alternative which the 
 Moors would accept, has its place also in the great 
 epic, in which all noble deeds of Portuguese heroes
 
 130 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 are commemorated. Speaking of King Edward, 
 Camoens says : 
 
 •' Captive he saw his brother, hight Fernand, 
 the Saint, aspiring high with purpose brave, 
 who as a hostage in the Sara'cen's hand, 
 betrayed himself his 'leaguer'd host to save. 
 He lived for purest faith to Fatherland 
 the life of noble Ladye sold a slave, 
 
 lest bought with price of Ceita's potent town 
 
 to publick welfare be preferred his own. 
 
 Codrus, lest foemen conquer, freely chose 
 
 to yield his life and, conqu'ering self, to die ; 
 
 Regulus, lest his hand in ought should lose, 
 
 lost for all time all hopes of liberty ; 
 
 this, that Hispania might in peace repose, 
 
 chose lifelong thrall, eterne captivity ; 
 Codrus nor Curtius with man's awe for meed, 
 nor loyal Decii ever dared such deed." ' 
 
 The successor of King Edward, his eldest son 
 Affonso v., afterwards called " the African," was onl> 
 six years old when he ascended the throne, and hi 
 reign commenced with a dispute as to the regency. 
 By his will, Edward had left the regency to his wifr, 
 Leonora of Aragon, but this arrangement was not 
 at all satisfactory to the people, and a great 
 Cortes at Torres Novas set aside the will, and 
 appointed Dom Pedro, Duke of Coimbra, to be 
 " defender " of the realm with all the duties oi 
 government, the Count of Arrayolos, minister oi 
 justice, and Queen Leonora, guardian of her son, the 
 young king, with a large allowance. This arrange- 
 ment shows how great the powers of the Cortes had 
 
 ' Camoens, " Lusiads," canto iv. stanzas 52, 53 — Burton's transla- 
 tion.
 
 REGENCY OF THE DUKE OF COIMBRA. 131 
 
 become, and a still more important testimony to their 
 recognized influence appears in the motion by Dom 
 Henry, that three members of the Cortes should be 
 annually elected to reside at the seat of government 
 during the months in which the Cortes was not in 
 session. This arrangement was highly unsatisfactory 
 to the queen, who had expected to be sole regent 
 under the terms of King Edward's will, and, assisted 
 by the discontented nobility, headed by the Count 
 of Barcellos and the Archbishop of Lisbon, she 
 attacked Dom Pedro, and endeavoured by force to 
 overthrow the arrangements made by the Cortes of 
 Torres Novas. The struggle was but a short one ; 
 the people of Lisbon rose en masse to support the 
 son of their favourite monarch, John L, in whom 
 they perceived his father's administrative ability and 
 love for commerce, and the queen and archbishop were 
 forced to go into exile. The result of this move- 
 ment was to seat Dom Pedro firmly in power with 
 the title of regent and the guardianship of the boy- 
 king. 
 
 The regency of Dom Pedro, better known by his 
 title of Duke of Coimbra, is marked by the same 
 features as the reign of his brother Edward ; in it 
 appears the same consistent attempt to check the 
 power of the feudal nobility and the same wise 
 encouragement of commerce. His foreign policy 
 followed the same lines, and he maintained the 
 same neutrality with regard to Spain and the same 
 close alliance with England. In 1439 the regent 
 solemnly confirmed the Treaty of Windsor in the 
 young king's name, and was made a Knight of the
 
 132 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 Garter, and the same honour was conferred upon 
 Dom Henry, Duke of Viseu, in 1444, and on Dom 
 Alvaro Vaz de Almada, Lord High Admiral of 
 Portugal and Count of Arronches, in 1445. Dom 
 Pedro also encouraged the maritime explorations of 
 Dom Henry and the literary revival, which were 
 making the name of Portugal renowned throughout 
 Europe, and his power seemed to be at its height, 
 when, in 1447, his daughter Isabel was married to her 
 cousin, the king, AfTonso V. 
 
 But the great regent counted without the enmity 
 of the feudal nobility, headed by his own half-brother, 
 the Count of Barcellos, who was created by the 
 young king Duke of Braganza. This nobleman had 
 always been jealous of the legitimate sons of John I., 
 and in spite of the kind treatment of Dom Pedro, he 
 hated the regent. This hatred he instilled into the 
 mind of Affonso V., who was rather restive under his 
 uncle's control, and he eventually persuaded the 
 young king that his uncle and father-in-law had 
 poisoned both his father, King Edward, and his 
 mother, Donna Leonora. Affonso V. believed these 
 libels, and ordered the great regent to leave the 
 Court: Dom Pedro obeyed ; but the vengeance of 
 the Duke of Braganza was not yet satisfied, and he 
 gladly led an army to arrest the Duke of Coimbra 
 on his estates. Dom Pedro, deserted by all his old 
 friends and sycophants, except the Lord High 
 Admiral, yet determined to fight, and he defeated 
 the Duke of Braganza at Penella. Affonso V. then 
 declared his former guardian a traitor, and sum- 
 moned the feudal nobility to his side. The nobles
 
 THE REIGN OF AFFONSO I. I33 
 
 were only too happy to aid him, and in the hotly- 
 contested battle of Alfarrobeira the friends of the 
 regent were defeated, and Dom Pedro, Dom Jaym6, 
 his only son, and the Lord High Admiral, were slain, 
 on May 21, 1449. 
 
 Affonso v., at the beginning of his personal 
 government, yielded to the influence of the Duke of 
 Braganza and his sons, who humoured his desire for 
 knightly fame and his dream of sitting on the throne 
 of Castile, and who obtained vast grants of royal 
 property for themselves. Among them they secured 
 the lordships of the old royal city of Guimaraens, the 
 birthplace of Affonso Henriques, and even of Oporto, 
 the second city of the kingdom ; but they never got 
 possession of the latter, owing to the fierce resist- 
 ance of the citizens. The young king's main idea 
 at this time was to win fame as a knight and a 
 crusader, and unfortunately this whim led him towards 
 the country which was to be the tomb of his dynasty. 
 It was to raise funds for the expeditions which won 
 him the title of " the African " that Affonso first 
 issued the beautiful coins known as crusados, and 
 with money raised by this means he paid the ex- 
 penses of his three expeditions. In the first of 
 these adventures, in 1458, he took Alcazar es Seghir, 
 or Alcacer Scguier ; in the second, in 1464, he failed ; 
 and in the third, in 147 1, he took Anafe, Tangier, 
 and Arzila. It was in these expeditions that he use- 
 lessly exhausted the strength of his people, but 
 nevertheless the works of maritime exploration went 
 on apace, though with less energy after the death of 
 Dom Henry "the Navigator" in T460.
 
 134 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 From wasting the power of his kingdom in African 
 wars Affonso V. turned to a still more fatal pursuit, the 
 encouragement of his dream of sitting on the throne 
 of Castile. The lessons of his grandfather's reign were 
 lost on him ; he failed to understand that the two 
 countries had developed on separate lines and could 
 not coalesce, and did not see that in a contest 
 Portugal, owing to her smaller population, must needs 
 have the worst of it, unless the war were national 
 and calculated to rouse the spirit of enthusiasm and 
 not merely dynastic. His family was now at the 
 height of its fame — his aunt Isabel was Duchess of 
 Burgundy ; his eldest sister had married the Emperor 
 Frederick III. ; his youngest sister had married Henry 
 IV. of Castile ; and his remaining sister, Catherine, 
 had been sought in marriage by the son of the King 
 of Aragon and by Edward IV. of England. His 
 first wife, Isabel, the daughter of the great regent, 
 Dom Pedro, had died in 1455, after giving birth to 
 the prince who was to be John II., and it was not 
 until after his third expedition to Africa that he 
 contemplated a fresh marriage, which should give 
 him a claim to the succession to the throne of Castile. 
 
 With this idea Affonso V. married his own niece, 
 Joanna, elder daughter of Henry IV. of Castile 
 (though but a girl of thirteen), in 1475, and he claimed 
 the kingdom of Castile in her name. But the 
 Castilians preferred the Infanta Isabella, who had 
 married Ferdinand, King of Aragon, and they were 
 as determined to prevent a Portuguese king from 
 sitting upon their throne, as the century before the 
 Portuguese had been against the union of their
 
 DEATH OF AFFONSO V. 135 
 
 country with Castile, The Castilians, fighting for 
 their independence, as utterly defeated the Portu- 
 guese at Toro in 1476 as the Portuguese had de- 
 feated them at Aljubarrota in 1385. Afifonso hurried 
 to France, to beg help from Louis XL ; but his 
 supplication was unheeded, and in 1478 he found 
 himself constrained to sign the Treaty of Alcantara, 
 by which he agreed to send his newly-married bride 
 to a convent. He remained inconsolable at this failure 
 of his schemes, and alternately abdicated and returned 
 to the throne, until his death in 148 1. 
 
 The "Re Cavelleiro," or knightly king, had thus 
 done his best to upset the results of the wise policy 
 of his grandfather, John " the Great." Fortunately he 
 had not done much harm, and his son and successor, 
 John IL, proved himself able to do more than 
 compensate for his father's mistakes. But it must 
 not be considered that Affonso V. was a worthless 
 king of the type of Ferdinand "the Handsome" ; he 
 was rather a restless knight after the fashion of Count 
 Henry of Burgundy. He had literary tastes as well ; 
 he wrote much and ably on various subjects, and 
 showed a great knowledge of what a king ought to be 
 —perhaps learnt from the " Cyropaedia " of Xenophon, 
 which had been specially translated for his instruction 
 by the orders of the Duke of Coimbra. He was a 
 liberal patron of men of letters, and made Duarte 
 Galvao " Chronista Mor do Reino," or Chronicler- 
 General of the kingdom ; and he appointed Azurara, 
 another chronicler, librarian and keeper of the ar- 
 chives at the Torre del Tombo. He collected a 
 great library at Evora, and founded the Order of
 
 n 
 
 S Crown piece of John V. 
 Crusado (400 reis) value = 2s. 
 
 (3) Crusado novo. 
 
 (4) Eight tostoens piece (80 reis). 
 
 PORTUGU; 
 
 (5) Quartinho d'oui 
 
 (6) Sixteen tostoens 
 
 (7) Half moidore p; 
 
 (8) Half moidore ol 
 
 (9) Moidore of Joh;
 
 ^-t COINS. 
 
 reis). 
 Ss. lod. 
 
 1777. 
 24. 
 
 10) Gold piece of 77 tostoens, value = ;i^i 15s. 6d. 
 
 11) Two-and-a-half moidore piece, value = ;^3 ^s. 
 
 12) Dobrao of Joiin V., value = /'3 lis. 
 (13) Five moidore piece, value = ;^6 5s.
 
 138 PORTUGAL DURING THE AGE OF EXPLORATION. 
 
 the Tower and Sword ; but perhaps the truest sign 
 of the greatness which existed somewhere in his 
 character is to be found in his answer to the chronicler 
 Acenheiro, who asked how he should write the 
 chronicle of his reign, when he said simply, " Tell 
 the truth." 
 
 These, then, were the kings who reigned in Portugal 
 during the age of discovery. It is now time to see 
 the nature, extent, and value of these discoveries, 
 which were paving the way for the heroic age of 
 Portuguese history.
 
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 VII. 
 
 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. 
 
 The internal history of Portugal under the rule of 
 John "the Great," his son Edward, and his grandson 
 Affonso v., has an interest of its own, yet it is not 
 at home that the most important development of 
 Portuguese energy is to be perceived. Great as were 
 the services rendered to Portugal by King John, 
 they mark no stages in the progress of Europe as 
 the achievements of Dom Henry, his son, have done. 
 Around the name of this prince, the discoveries of 
 the Portuguese navigators may best be grouped, for 
 he was the guiding spirit of these adventurers, and 
 alike inspired and rewarded them. 
 
 Henry, Duke of Viseu, Grand Master of the Order 
 of Christ, and governor of the Algarves, was the third 
 son of John "the Great" and Philippa of Lancaster, and 
 after winning great credit in the capture of Ceuta, he 
 took up his residence at Sagre, near Cape St. Vincent, 
 in 141 8, and devoted himself to the task of maritime 
 exploration. His father and his brothers assisted 
 him, but they recognized his special fitness for the 
 work, and therefore, though encouraging him as much
 
 PRINCE HENRY "THE NAVIGATOR." I4I 
 
 as possible, they did not interfere with his projects, 
 and made no attempts to contest his well-earned title 
 of Prince Henry " the Navigator." ^ The prince was 
 too wise to neglect scientific knowledge, and he 
 therefore summoned learned mathematicians and 
 astronomers from all parts of Europe to his aid. 
 Enjoying immense wealth, he established an observa- 
 tory and a school of navigation at Sagre, where he 
 employed the men of science in making charts and, 
 above all, in improving the working of the compass. 
 This was the theoretical side of his work ; the practical 
 was not less important. He collected together all the 
 most daring captains and mariners he could find, and 
 sent them forth year by year on voyages of discovery 
 along the western coast of Africa. He never went on 
 any of these expeditions in person, but he was ac- 
 knowledged by all the men of science and sailors in 
 his pay to be their master and presiding genius. 
 
 The idea in Prince Henry's mind was that it was 
 possible to sail round Africa to India, and thus trade 
 directly with the East, and he died after more than 
 forty years of endeavour without having fulfilled his 
 dreams. There were legends of old time, which he 
 knew well, that the southern continent could be sailed 
 round, legends probably founded on the tales of 
 Carthaginian sailors, but no geographer of that period 
 could assert that these legends were founded upon 
 fact. If it were true, and ships could sail direct from 
 
 ' The leading authority for the discoveries of the Portuguese in this 
 century is "The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navi- 
 gator, and its results," by R. II. Major, London, 1868, of which a 
 Portuguese translation, by J. A. Ferreira Brandao, was published at 
 Lisbon in 1876,
 
 
 ^ •» S. I ■< -« i J S |. 
 
 il 
 
 » ;i 4 3 <■• 
 
 
 ^ irl 111 
 I Iff If 
 
 
 1 1 llj J 
 
 <o
 
 PRINCE HENRY*S IDEAS. I43 
 
 Lisbon to India, it was easy to see what enormous 
 profits must accrue to the people who found and 
 followed this route. At that time the products of the 
 East came by a long and dangerous journey to Venice, 
 whence they were distributed over Europe. They 
 had either to be conveyed by land all the way to the 
 Levant, or else to be borne up the Red Sea and 
 carried across Egypt. By either way the expenses 
 and risk were enormous, and the prices of the com- 
 modities of the East were proportionately great. 
 Could a direct sea route be discovered, it was obvious 
 that these risks and expenses would be avoided, and 
 that Lisbon would take the place of Venice as the 
 distributor of the treasures of the East to Europe. 
 Dom Henry understood this, and, urged by patriotism, 
 as well as b)' an ardent zeal for the cause of 
 exploration, he devoted his wealth and time to dis- 
 covering this direct sea route. As has been said, he 
 did not himself succeed in attaining this great end, 
 but he did much towards it, and the navigators 
 who were successful, Vasco da Gama and Pedro 
 Alvares Cabral, were men imbued with his ideas and 
 in a way his disciples. In speaking of the explorers 
 of Prince Henry's time, the word " ship " must not be 
 taken to mean the comparatively well-built and well- 
 appointed vessels of the end of the sixteenth century. 
 Modern sailors would think but little of Drake's 
 famous ship the Pelican, yet it was far superior in 
 size and equipments to the wretched sailing boats of 
 the first explorers of the fifteenth century. The 
 enterprise of Dom Henry did much to improve the 
 ship-building of the Portuguese, and towards the end
 
 144 ^^^ PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. 
 
 of his life their vessels could carry as many as sixty 
 men, but at the beginning of his career his ships were 
 little better than half-decked sailing boats, with a crew 
 of at most thirty-six sailors. 
 
 A mere record of discoveries, a list of names of 
 places along the inhospitable west coast of Africa, 
 may be monotonous in itself; but when the scanty 
 means of these early Portuguese mariners is con- 
 sidered, and the greatness of the goal at which they 
 were aiming, a fresh interest arises in the study of the 
 map of Africa. The first-fruits of Prince Henry's 
 exploring ardour were the discovery of the island of 
 Porto Santo by Bartholomeu Perestrello, in 1419, and 
 of the more important island of Madeira by Joao 
 Gon^alves Zarco and Tristao Vaz, in 1420. These 
 successes delighted Prince Henry and his father, and 
 John "the Great" immediately granted the two islands 
 to the Order of Christ, of which his son was Grand 
 Master. Prince Henry at once rewarded his captains, 
 and leased Porto Santo to Perestrello, and Madeira 
 in equal parts to its two discoverers. The provinces 
 of the larger island were named Funchal, from 
 '•funcho," the Portuguese word for fennel which 
 abounds there, and Machico, said to be derived from 
 the Englishman, Robert Machin. Prince Henry's first 
 effort, before proceeding further with his explorations, 
 was to colonize these two islands. With Porto Santo 
 he was not successful, for the rabbits introduced by 
 Perestrello ate up the whole produce of the island ; 
 and a similar fate seemed to await Madeira, where the 
 indigenous vegetation was almost entirely destroyed 
 by a great fire, which lasted seven years. However,
 
 THE STORY OF MACHIh'. I45 
 
 he did not despair, and it was Dom Henry who had 
 the sugar-cane and the vine, which are to this day the 
 chief sources of its wealth, introduced into Madeira. 
 
 It is but fair to mention that many authors have 
 held these great discoveries to be merely re- discoveries. 
 Some people affirm that Madeira was really discovered 
 by Emmanuel Pessanha, the first Lord High Admiral 
 of Portugal, in 135 1, during the reign of Affonso "the 
 Brave,'' and there seems to be more foundation for the 
 story of Robert Machin, which is at all events of great 
 antiquity. The story runs that Robert Machin, son 
 of a merchant in Bristol, loved and was beloved by a 
 lady of noble birth, whose relations refused to counte- 
 nance him, and threw him into prison. About the 
 year 1370, on his release, he found that his lady love 
 had married a wealthy baron, but he continued his 
 suit and she consented to elope with him. He took 
 her on board a ship intending to go to France, but a 
 gale came on and the ship, after being driven south 
 for thirteen days, struck upon an island. They found 
 the island uninhabited and very beautiful, and Machin 
 and some of his companions took up their residence 
 upon it, and built huts under the branches of a 
 spreading tree. Here they lived very happily until a 
 storm one day drove the ship from its moorings, which 
 so grieved the lady that she died in despair at the 
 thought of never seeing her native land again. She 
 was buried beneath the tree, and Machin soon followed 
 her to the grave, having first erected a cross with a 
 brief inscription, narrating his adventures, and begging 
 any Christians who might come to the island to erect 
 a church over the place where her remains rested.
 
 146 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. 
 
 After his death, those of his companions, who re- 
 mained, determined to try to escape in the ship's boat, 
 but they were taken by a Moorish cruiser and sold for 
 slaves. While in captivity in Morocco, one of the 
 Englishmen told a Spanish fellow-captive, named 
 Juan Morales, the whole history, and this Morales, 
 being afterwards taken prisoner by Joao Gongalves 
 Zarco, related the narrative to his captor and to 
 Prince Henry. Morales, according to this tale, was 
 the pilot of Zarco and Tristao Vaz on their voyage 
 of discovery, and the story goes on to say that the 
 grave of the two English lovers was discovered, and 
 that Machin's dying desire was fulfilled, and a church 
 erected over their remains. Whatever may be the 
 truth of this legend, and whether Machin ever landed 
 on Madeira or not, the fact remains that the first 
 occupation of the island, and its being marked upon 
 the chart, were due to the enterprise of Prince 
 Henry. 
 
 The discovery of these islands formed no part of 
 Prince Henry's plan. His desire was to circum- 
 navigate Africa ; the expeditions of Perestrello, Zarco, 
 and Tristao Vaz were all intended to sail south 
 and double Cape Bojador, and it was certainly in 
 an attempt to achieve this purpose that Perestrello 
 was driven out to sea to the island of Porto Santo. 
 Many years passed, during which Cape Bojador 
 remained the great obstacle to the Portuguese 
 mariners. Year after year Prince Henry despatched 
 fleets of two or three ships at a time, which 
 sometimes made important discoveries among the 
 islands off the north-west coast of Africa, but they
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE AZORES. 147 
 
 never doubled the great cape. Among these dis- 
 coveries the most important were the Canary 
 Islands and the Azores. With regard to the former 
 group, the Portuguese were met by a prior claim 
 on the part of Castile ; and after a dispute, into the 
 details of which it is not necessary to enter, John 
 the Great, in pursuance of his consistent policy of 
 maintaining peace with Spain, and at the request of 
 Dom Henry, who did not wish to waste his strength 
 in occupying islands, surrendered the Canary Islands 
 to Castile. The Portuguese, however, successfully 
 maintained their claim to the Azores, which still 
 belong to them. This group was first touched at by 
 Bartholomeu Perestrello, the discoverer of Porto 
 Santo, in 143 1 ; and in the following year Gon^alo 
 Velho Cabral discovered the island of Santa Maria. 
 To this captain was allotted the task of further 
 exploring and occupying this cluster of islands ; and 
 in 1444 he discovered the island of St. Miguel or St. 
 Michael, where he founded the beautiful little town 
 which gives its name to the St. Michael oranges. 
 
 Prince Henry's endeavours were crowned with 
 partial success, though not in the reign of his father, 
 for in 1434 Gil Eannes doubled Cape Bojador, and in 
 1436 Affonso Gon(^alves Baldaya reached the Rio d' 
 Ouro. The attention of "the Navigator" was, how- 
 ever, soon absorbed by the progress of political affairs 
 at home, and he had for a time to abandon his 
 schemes of exploration. He served with distinction 
 in the unfortunate expedition to Tangier, and then 
 played an important part in the events, which ended 
 in confirming the power of his brother Dom Pedro,
 
 148 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. 
 
 the Duke of Coimbra, as Regent of Portugal. This 
 enlightened prince took the greatest interest in the 
 African explorations, and he assisted Prince Henry 
 with even greater ardour than King John or King 
 Edward. These were the most successful years of 
 Prince Henry's career. In 1441 Antao Gongalves 
 went a hundred leagues further than the Rio d'Ouro, 
 and in the same year Nuno Tristao, the greatest and 
 most daring of all Prince Henry's captains, reached 
 the cape which closes on the south the sort of 
 shoulder formed by North-west Africa, and named it 
 the Cabo Branco or White Cape. He did more than 
 this ; he brought home several captives, including a 
 native prince. The capture was hailed with enthusiasm, 
 and from this time the slave trade on the coast of 
 Africa really began. 
 
 It is strange that Prince Henry " the Navigator " 
 should have been the founder of the African slave 
 trade, but so it was, and the reasons are not hard to 
 find. The provinces of the Alemtejo and the Algarves 
 had never been thoroughly populated since their 
 conquest, and the great lords and religious military 
 orders, the owners of those districts, had never been 
 able to bring them properly under cultivation. Slavery 
 was not regarded with the modern sentiment of ab- 
 horrence ; it was the natural fate of prisoners of war, 
 and flourished greatly in the neighbouring country of 
 Morocco. Prince Henry and the Duke of Coimbra felt 
 the need of procuring labour to cultivate the southern 
 provinces, and it seemed quite natural to them to 
 carry off the unfortunate savages of the African coast. 
 This idea greatly impressed the Portuguese nobles
 
 THE SLAVE TRADE. I49 
 
 with Prince Henry's sagacity ; they did not under- 
 stand his schemes about discovering a direct route 
 to India, but they highly appreciated the intro- 
 duction of cheap forced labour. The commence- 
 ment of the slave trade greatly favoured the 
 progress of the Portuguese navigators ; they no longer 
 came home empty-handed, and exploring became a 
 profitable as well as an adventurous business. In 
 1444 Lancarote, with a fleet of eight ships, went upon 
 a slave-taking expedition, and brought home two 
 hundred captives, who were set to work on the domains 
 of the Order of Christ in the Algarves, and in 1445 
 the same captain sailed with a fleet of fourteen ships 
 from Lagos and brought home a still larger body of 
 unfortunate slaves. From this time forth the tracks 
 made by the explorers were followed closely by the 
 slave-dealers. Large profits were made in the trade, 
 which had its centre at Lagos, and by the labour 
 of the captives the great estates of southern Portugal 
 were speedily brought under cultivation. The 
 employment of slave labour was to have serious 
 consequences in the near future ; but at this period, 
 during the life of Dom Henry, it had not yet begun 
 to drive the poorer class of the Portuguese people out 
 of work in the fields, and into more precarious 
 modes of earning a livelihood. 
 
 It is not necessary to do more than notice the com- 
 mencement of the slave trade here ; it is far more 
 important to trace the progress of the explorers.^ In 
 
 ' There is a good deal of contentious literature on the chronology of 
 the African voyages of the Portuguese explorers, and in this account 
 Mr. Major's " Prince Henry the Navigator" has been followed.
 
 150 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. 
 
 1445 Nuno Tristao sailed as far as the Senegal 
 river, and in the same year, Diniz Dias, his most 
 daring rival, discovered Guinea, and first saw the 
 really black negroes. This advance, as a glance at 
 the map will show, meant much; the Portuguese 
 explorers had now thoroughly learnt how to find 
 their way round the inhospitable shoulder of North- 
 west Africa ; Cape Bojador and Cabo Branco had no 
 terrors for them, and their hopes of reaching India 
 were excited by finding that the coast trended 
 abruptly to the east. The country, too, was very 
 different to that which they had toiled around so 
 slowly ; the fertile land of Guinea with its powerful 
 negroes, its spices and ivory, and its prospect of gold, 
 gave them encouragement, and on their return, the 
 acute merchants of Lisbon were not long in opening 
 up a trade with the newly- discovered country. Un- 
 fortunately the slave trade accompanied the ventures 
 of the Lisbon merchants, and the white men, instead 
 of making friends with the blacks, did not hesitate to 
 seize them and to sell them into slavery. The 
 Church made no effort to restrain this traffic ; the 
 blacks were heathen, and so it was to their advantage 
 to be brought to a Christian land to work, and 
 perhaps to be converted. 
 
 The next two years were marked by the greatest 
 activity. In 1446 Diniz Diaz reached Cape Verde, 
 which he called by that name from its green appear- 
 ance; and in the same year, Nuno Tristam was killed 
 in a chase after slaves, and Alvaro Fernandes, the 
 nephew of Joao Gon^alves Zarco, who had discovered 
 Madeira, starting from that island, went one hundred
 
 DISCOVERIES ON THE AFRICAN COAST. 15I 
 
 leagues further than Cape Verde, and left Joao 
 Fernandes at his own request among the negroes. It 
 is a strange commentary upon the death of Nuno 
 Tristao, that Joao Fernandes was able to remain 
 among the negroes for seven months in safety, 
 learning their language and studying their customs. 
 It shows that there was no deep-rooted antipathy 
 between the whites and the blacks, and that the 
 latter only attacked the Christians, when they 
 showed themselves enemies, and tried to rob them 
 of their liberty. Joao Fernandes was taken off in 
 safety by Antam Gon^alves, in the year 1447, and 
 testified to Prince Henry that the blacks, if heathen, 
 were not monsters, but people of peaceful and affec- 
 tionate dispositions. 
 
 This activity was followed by another pause. Dom 
 Henry was deeply affected by the overthrow of his 
 brother Dom Pedro ; and his nephew, Affonso V., 
 failed to give him the moral and material support he 
 had formerly received. It is indeed a blot upon the 
 reputation of " the Navigator " that he made no greater 
 effort to assist the great regent, and that he was not 
 by his side at Alfarrobeira. The next decade is 
 marked only in the history of maritime exploration 
 by the discoveries of Luigi Cadamosto, a Venetian, 
 who had entered the service of Dom Henry, and who 
 had become his right hand both as a cartographer 
 and an explorer. On the voyages of Cadamosto 
 there has been much controversy. Some writers, 
 resting upon certain notes of his, assert that he dis- 
 covered the Gambia as early as 1445, and the Cape 
 Verde Islands in 1446; but modern inquirers believe
 
 STATUE OF I'RINCE HENRY. 
 
 IFrom Major's ' ' Prince Henry the Navigator. ")
 
 DEATH OF PRTNCE HENRY. 153 
 
 that he greatly antedated his discoveries in order to 
 enhance his own glcry. It is now generally believed 
 that in his famous voyage in 1455 and 1456 he 
 managed to get past the Senegal, and discovered the 
 Gambia, and that the Cape Verde Islands were dis- 
 covered in 1460 by Diogo Gomes. The tale that 
 Cadamosto went as far as the Rio Grande is quite 
 discredited, and seems in itself, apart from the 
 evidence, to be most improbable. 
 
 The period of the discoveries made under the 
 direction and inspiration of Prince Henry " the 
 Navigator " was then at an end, for he died at Sagre 
 on November 13, 1460. What he had done appears 
 better from a study of the map then in any number 
 of words. He had not discovered a direct sea route 
 to India, but he had paved the way for it, and it was 
 quite certain that, if it existed, the gallant captains 
 trained by him would find the route in time. His 
 services are beyond dispute, and though he left no 
 successor to carry on the work, he had given it such an 
 impulse, that it remained only for the sailors them- 
 selves to complete it. He was never married, but 
 was succeeded as Duke of Viseu, Lord of Beja and 
 Madeira, and Grand Master of the Order of Christ, by 
 his nephew, Dom Ferdinand, the second son of King 
 Edward, and brother of Affonso V., whom he had 
 adopted. This prince had also become Grand Master 
 of the Order of Santiago by his marriage with his first 
 cousin. Donna Leonor, daughter of Dom John, the 
 fourth son of John " the Great," by whom he was 
 father of Dom Manoel, or Emmanuel, who reigned 
 under the title of Einmanucl "the Fortunate," and
 
 154 ^^^ PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. 
 
 was to reap the fruits of the discoveries of Vasco da 
 Gama and Pedro Alvares Cabral. 
 
 The death of Prince Henry did much to check 
 maritime exploration for exploration's sake, and for 
 the purpose of discovering the direct route to India ; 
 but the slave trade and the general trade with the 
 Guinea Coast were growing into importance, and the 
 results of the labours of the early Portuguese 
 navigators were not forgotten. Affonso V. was more 
 bent on his Moorish expeditions and his schemes 
 upon the crown of Castile, than upon maritime dis- 
 coveries ; but, nevertheless, something of importance 
 was done during his reign in strengthening the hold 
 of the Portuguese upon the part of the African coast 
 already known, and in making their topographical 
 information more exact. What Affonso did was 
 done rather to improve trade or protect it for the 
 benefit of his own exchequer than for love of explora- 
 tion. It was for these reasons that he built a fort 
 on the island of Arguin, near Cabo Branco, which 
 became the depot for the trade with Guinea, and 
 eventually he granted the monopoly of the trade 
 with the African coast to Fernan Gomes for five 
 hundred cnisados a year. This enterprising merchant 
 employed able captains, of whom the chief were Joao 
 de Santarem, Pedro Escobar, and Lopo Gongalves, 
 who worked their way further along the coast ; and 
 in 147 1, in which year Fernando Po discovered 
 the islands of St. Thomas, Fernando Bom and Anno 
 Bom, they crossed the equator, and explored as far 
 as Cape St. Catherine. 
 
 John II., the successor of Affonso V., set the seal
 
 TOMIi OF I'RINCE HENRY. 
 
 'From Major's " Prince Henry the Navigator")
 
 156 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. 
 
 upon Prince Henry's labours. He it was who built 
 the fort of Elmina, and took the title of Lord 01 
 Guinea ; and it was in his reign that Diogo Cao or 
 Cam discovered the Congo in 1484, and Bartholomeu 
 Diaz reached Algoa Bay in i486, and doubled the 
 cape, which he called Cabo Tormentoso, or Stormy 
 Cape, from the winds he met there, but which his 
 sovereign, presaging from this fortunate voyage the 
 future glory of his country, called the Cape of Good 
 Hope. John H., like Prince Henry, was fated not to 
 see the fulfilment of his dearest hopes, and it was not 
 until the fifteenth century was within three years of 
 its close that Vasco da Gama made his way from 
 Lisbon to Calicut. 
 
 While, in political life and commercial prosperity, 
 the people of Portugal had been at home becoming 
 more civilized, more self-controlled, and more wealthy 
 during the fifteenth century, its sailors had been grow- 
 ing more daring and enterprising. In the sixteenth 
 century the Portuguese were to have their reward. 
 Lisbon was to take the place of Venice as the 
 depot for all the products of the East ; the trade 
 of Persia, India, China, Japan, and the Spice Islands, 
 was to fall into their hands ; they were to produce 
 great captains and writers, and were to become the 
 wealthiest nation in Europe. But that same sixteenth 
 century was to see the Portuguese power sink, and 
 the independence, won by Affonso Henriques and 
 maintained by John " the Great," vanish away ; it 
 was to see Portugal, which had been the greatest 
 nation of its time, decline in its fame, and become 
 a mere province of Spain. Hand in hand with in-
 
 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. 1 57 
 
 creased wealth came corruption and depopulation, and 
 within a single century after the epoch-making voyage 
 of Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese people, tamed by 
 the Inquisition, were to show no sign of their former 
 hardihood. This is the lesson that the Story of 
 Portugal in the sixteenth century teaches, that the 
 greatness of a nation depends not upon its wealth 
 and commercial prosperity, but upon the thews and 
 sinews and the stout hearts of its people.
 
 VIII. 
 
 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 John II., surnamed "the Perfect," the only son of 
 Affonso v., succeeded his father as King of Portugal in 
 148 1, and his short reign was marked by events of 
 the utmost importance at home, as well as by the 
 great discoveries of Diogo Cam and Bartholomeu 
 Diaz. He had shown himself a gallant soldier in 
 his father's last African expedition, when he was 
 knighted, and at the battle of Toro, and also a 
 capable ruler, as regent, during the absence of 
 Affonso V. in France, and during that king's frequent 
 periods of abdication. He saw the folly of his father 
 in wasting his strength in African expeditions, and in 
 fruitless wars with Castile, and he therefore recurred 
 to the wise policy of his great-grandfather, John " the 
 Great," in avoiding all interference with Spanish affairs, 
 and maintaining a close alliance with England. He 
 also, as has already been said, adopted enthusi- 
 astically all the schemes of Prince Henry " the 
 Navigator," and laboured for the discovery of a route 
 to India by sea. He possessed all the hereditary 
 aptitude of the princes of the house of Aviz for
 
 KING yOHN " THE PERFECT." 159 
 
 literature, and fostered the spirit of the Renaissance 
 in Portugal in the study of the classical languages, 
 the advancement of science, and the encouragement 
 of art. He was a broad-minded, tolerant man, with 
 ideas far in advance of his age in many respects, and 
 possessing at once an inflexible will and remarkable 
 sweetness of disposition. 
 
 But John II. was more than all this ; he was 
 a politician and a statesman of the first rank, 
 and openly professed himself a disciple of Machia- 
 velli and a believer in the theory of absolute 
 government. He imitated Louis XL of France, 
 just as one of his predecessors, Sancho II., had 
 imitated Louis IX., and in his policy and in his 
 manner of carrying it out, he showed himself an apt 
 pupil of his wily master. The first great task he set 
 himself, in imitation of that monarch, was to break 
 the power of the feudal nobility of Portugal. In 
 doing this he relied, and with justice, upon the assist- 
 ance of the mass of the people, who had learned Vw. 
 during the last reign to detest and fear the almost 
 unlimited power of the nobles. 
 
 The origin of the enormous estates held by the 
 Portuguese nobility has already been pointed out, 
 and the attempt made by King Edward to check 
 accumulations by the " Lei Mental " has also been 
 mentioned ; but this regulation had had but little 
 effect, owing to the profuse prodigality of Affonso V. 
 This monarch had granted away nearly the whole 
 patrimony of the crown ; and John II. said with justice 
 that his father had left him " only the royal high 
 roads of Portugal." This liberality had kept Afifonso
 
 l6o THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 poor in spite of the increasing wealth of his people 
 and his extravagance had been such, that he had 
 been formally rebuked by a Cortes, held at Guarda 
 in 1465, and had been obliged to promise amendment. 
 Under the influence of this headstrong monarch and 
 his favourites the evils, inherent in the feudal system, 
 had increased alarmingly ; crimes in country districts 
 were only punished by fines, and every means v/hich 
 rapacity could suggest to wring money out of an 
 impoverished tenantry were resorted to, while the 
 wealth of the great landlords had been increased by 
 the improvement in the cultivation of their lands 
 due to the large importation of slaves. John II. 
 determined to crush the powerful and turbulent 
 feudal nobility, and to draw back some of its wealth 
 into the royal treasury, and for this purpose he 
 summoned a great Cortes to meet at Evora in 1481. 
 the year of his accession. In this Cortes he proposed 
 that a "inquiracao geral" should be held into all titles 
 to landed property, and that the royal corregidors 
 should alone be empowered to dispense and execute 
 criminal justice throughout the country. Both 
 measures were agreed to, but the nobles determined 
 to resist the examination into their titles, and the loss 
 of the lucrative privilege of dispensing criminal 
 justice, and they combined to oppose the king, under 
 the leadership of the Duke of Braganza. 
 
 Ferdinand, Duke of Braganza, was the wealthiest 
 and most powerful nobleman, not only in Portugal, 
 but in the whole peninsula. He was the grandson 
 of Affonso, Count of Barcellos, the illegitimate son 
 of John " the Great," who had been created Duke of
 
 THE DUKE OF BRAGANZA. l6l 
 
 Braganza by Affonso V., and he had inherited the vast 
 possessions of his grandfather and of his grandmother, 
 the daughter of the Holy Constable. These pos- 
 sessions had been increased by the lavishness of 
 Affonso v., who had showered favours on the first 
 and second Dukes of Braganza. Ferdinand possessed 
 fifty cities, towns, and castles, and nearly one-third of 
 the land of the kingdom ; he was patron of one 
 hundred and sixty canonries and religious benefices ; 
 he maintained a royal household, and bore the titles 
 of Duke of Braganza and Guimaraens, Marquis of 
 Villa Vi§osa, Count of Barcellos, Ourem, Arrayolos 
 and Neiva. and Lord of Montalegre, Monporto, and 
 Penafiel. His brothers were nearly as powerful as 
 himself The eldest, Joao, was Marquis of Monte 
 Mor, and Constable of the kingdom ; the second, 
 Affonso, was Count of Faro; and the youngest, 
 Alvaro, held the important office of Chancellor. In 
 the reign of Affonso V. this great nobleman had 
 quarrelled fiercely with John II., then heir apparent, 
 but he believed he had secured his safety by marrying 
 a sister of the future queen, for both Prince John and 
 himself married daughters of Ferdinand, Duke of 
 Viseu and Beja, the brother of Affonso V., and in- 
 heritor of the wealth of Prince Henry " the Navi- 
 gator." The Duke of Braganza took the lead in 
 opposing the king's decrees passed in the Cortes of 
 Evora, and John H. was glad of it, not only because 
 he coveted the wealth and lands of the Braganza 
 family, which dimmed the splendour of the Crown, 
 and on account of their former quarrels in the late 
 king's lifetime, but also because he remembered that
 
 l62 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 he was, through his mother, the grandson of the 
 great regent, Pedro, Duke of Coimbra, who had 
 been defeated and slain at Alfarrobeira by this very 
 Duke of Braganza and his father. For all these 
 reasons John II. decided to strike a sudden and 
 decisive blow, which should at once re-establish the 
 power of the Crown and paralyze the feudal nobility 
 with terror, and he therefore had the Duke of Bra- 
 ganza arrested, and executed, after a very short trial, 
 at Evora, on June 22, 1483. 
 
 The nobles, however, were not yet defeated, and 
 they continued to intrigue against the king's authority 
 under the leadership of a yet nearer relation of his 
 own, Diogo, Duke of Viseu and Beja, the eldest son 
 of Dom Ferdinand, and grandson of King Edward, 
 and the brother-in-law alike of the king and of the 
 executed Duke of Braganza. But John II. was not 
 dismayed : imitating Louis XL of France, he de- 
 termined not to spare his own relations, and on 
 August 23, 1484, he stabbed the Duke of Viseu with 
 his own hand in his palace at Setubal. This murder 
 he followed up with decision : he had the Bishop of 
 Evora, one of his father's favourites, thrown down a 
 well ; and he executed, with or without trial, about 
 eighty of the leading noblemen of the country. By 
 these means John 11. broke the power of the feudal 
 nobility for ever, and as happened in France under 
 Louis XL, and in England under Henry VII., the 
 fall of the nobility was followed by the absolutism of 
 the monarch. Now that the nobles had lost their 
 power, and the Crown had become wealthy by the 
 confiscation of their property, John II. needed the
 
 THE TREATY OF TORDESILLAS. 163 
 
 support of the people, as represented in the Cortes, 
 no longer, and he became a despot, though a 
 benevolent one. But the weight of this despotism 
 was not yet felt, for John II. possessed all the politi- 
 cal ability of his grandfathers. He tried to find 
 means for encouraging his nobility, now that they 
 were frightened out of treason, to enter into the 
 career of maritime exploration, which had been 
 opened by Prince Henry, while at home he won the 
 love of his people by reorganizing the government of 
 the kingdom, and proved so good an administrator 
 that the Portuguese gave him the title of " the Perfect 
 King." 
 
 It has been said that in his foreign policy John U. 
 followed in the course set before him by John the 
 Great. With the great monarchs then ruling in 
 Spain, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, 
 he consistently remained on friendly terms, and in 
 1490 his only legitimate son, Affonso, was married to 
 Isabella, eldest daughter of these sovereigns. The 
 death of this son in the following year, without 
 leaving children, was a terrible blow to him, but he 
 nevertheless maintained his friendship with Ferdinand 
 and Isabella, and in 1494 concluded the Treaty of 
 Tordesillas with them. By this treaty, which was 
 confirmed by a Bull, issued by Pope Alexander VI., 
 the limit of the future possessions of the Spaniards 
 and Portuguese in the regions explored and dis- 
 covered by their mariners was 370 leagues west of 
 Cape Vcrdc, and it was agreed that the Spaniards 
 were to have full right to all lands discovered to the 
 west of this line, and the Portuguese to all to the
 
 164 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 south and east. What a curious commentary this 
 treaty forms on that of Cella Nova, concluded three 
 hundred years before between Affonso Henriques of 
 Portugal and Ferdinand of Leon, by which these two 
 monarchs agreed to take the course of the Guadiana 
 as the line to separate their future conquests from 
 the Moors. Both nations had now developed ; the 
 energies of both, heightened by the long struggle with 
 the Mohammedans, sought for fresh fields, and ex- 
 panding far beyond the boundaries of Europe, were to 
 prove themselves, in the one case in Mexico and Peru, 
 and in the other in India and the countries of the East. 
 In the other cardinal point of the policy of John 
 "the Great," the maintenance of a close alliance with 
 England, John II. carefully followed the example of 
 the founder of the house of Aviz. Affonso V. had 
 not neglected this important tradition, and had even 
 promised his sister. Donna Catherine, to Edward IV., 
 in 146 1, a marriage only frustrated by the death of 
 the princess in 1463 ; and the English monarch had 
 solemnly ratified the Treaty of Windsor in 147 1, and 
 again after the battle of Barnet in 1472, and he had 
 also included the name of the King of Portugal, as 
 an ally of England, in his treaty with Louis XL of 
 France, in 1475. John II. drew the bonds of friend- 
 ship still closer, and sent important embassies to the 
 three kings of England, who ruled in quick succes- 
 sion in this country. In 1482 Edward IV. ratified the 
 Treaty of Windsor in the presence of the ambassadors 
 of John II., and recognized his new title of " Lord of 
 Guinea," and in 1484 Richard III. did the same. In 
 1485 the King of Portugal proposed in a Corte^
 
 THE REIGN OF JOHN II. I05 
 
 held at Alcobaca, that his only sister Joanna should 
 be given in marriage to Richard III., but the princess, 
 who was famed for her piety and wished to become a 
 nun, fortunately for herself, refused the alliance, as she 
 afterwards did the hand cf Charles VIll. of France. 
 Henry VII. bore no enmity towards John II. on ac- 
 count of his friendship with Richard III., but, on the 
 contrary, showed every disposition to assist him in 
 his struggle with his nobility, and in 1488 went so 
 far as to arrest the Count of Pennamacor, one of the 
 insurgent Portuguese noblemen who had escaped to 
 England, and to imprison him in the Tower. It 
 was in this year also that the last treaty of com- 
 merce between England and Portugal, before the 
 famous Methuen treaty in 1703, was concluded at 
 Lisbon by Richard Nanfran and Thomas Savage, 
 who had been sent for that purpose, and to invest 
 John II. as a Knight of the Garter, 
 
 But it was not only on account of his suppression 
 of the power of the feudal nobility, and of his wise 
 peace policy, that John " the Perfect " was beloved by 
 his people, it was also because he showed himself a 
 worthy successor of Prince Henry " the Navigator," 
 in promoting exploration, and devoted his best 
 energies to discovering a direct route to India. 
 The two famous voyages of Diogo Cam and Bar- 
 tholomcu Diaz, which had resulted in the discovery 
 of the Congo and of the Cape of Good Hope, have 
 been mentioned, but it was rather in other directions 
 that the originality of mind which distinguished John 
 II. showed it.self He was the first lun'opean monarch 
 who thought that if it might be possible to reach
 
 EXPLORERS SENT BY JOHN II. 1 67 
 
 India by sea by sailing round the continent of Africa, 
 it might also be possible to find a road to " Cathay " 
 b}' sailing round the continent of Europe to the 
 north-east. On this mission he despatched Martim 
 Lopes, who sailed past the North Cape into regions 
 hitherto unexplored, and discovered the great island 
 to the north of Russia, which still bears the name he 
 gave it of Nova Zembla. John II. also had ideas of 
 striking out new routes to India by land, or at least 
 of exploring the land routes in order to correct 
 prevalent geographical mistakes. With these ideas 
 he sent forth the two first European explorers of the 
 interior of Africa, • Pedro de Evora and Gon^alo 
 Annes, who managed to get as far as Timbuctoo. 
 Still more important were the missions which he 
 sent overland to India, and in search of that mythical 
 Christian potentate, Prester John. The two travellers 
 he despatched were Joao Peres de Covilhao and 
 Affonso de Payva. The former of these enterprising 
 men made his way safely to India by following the 
 regular trade route and accompanying the caravans. 
 He visited both Goa and Calicut, and though he was 
 refused a passage to the Cape, he managed to find his 
 way back to Arabia, and eventually to Abyssinia, 
 where he became the chief adviser and almost prime 
 minister of the king, at whose capital he died. The 
 other traveller,' Affonso de Payva, went direct to 
 Abyssinia, where the mythical Prester John was 
 supposed to reign, and also died there. 
 
 The energies of John II. were so wholly absorbed 
 in these expeditions to the East, and he felt so 
 certain that he was in the right direction in try-
 
 VASCO DA GAMA. {From the Sloane MS. igy, folio i8.)
 
 THE COURT OF JOHN II. 169 
 
 ing to reach India by eastern routes, that he made 
 the great mistake in 1493 of dismissing Christopher 
 Columbus from his court as a visionary. He lis- 
 tened to all the arguments of the great discoverer 
 with patience, but he did not agree with his con- 
 clusions that it was possible to reach India by sailing 
 westwards across the Atlantic, and he therefore lost 
 the opportunity of immortalizing his name and reign 
 by a greater discovery than that of Vasco da Gama, 
 the discovery of the vast continent of America. In 
 other departments his energies found full scope. 
 He greatly improved the art of ship-building, and 
 encouraged the immigration of skilled shipwrights 
 from England and Denmark ; he did much to pro- 
 mote the improvement of fire-arms, and established 
 a cannon foundry and a corps of artillery, of which 
 he made Diogo de Azambuja the first Inspector- 
 General ; and, above all, he patronized literature, and 
 encouraged Ruy de Pina, the greatest of all the 
 Portuguese chroniclers. His court abounded in great 
 men, the founders of great families and the fathers of 
 the coming generation of heroes, among whom may 
 be noted, besides his navigators, Diogo Cam, Bar- 
 tholomeu Diaz, and Lopo Infante, and his famous 
 travellers just mentioned, his Lord High Admirals, 
 Pedro de Alboquerque and Lopo Vaz de Azevcdo ; 
 his Lord Stewards, Diogo Soares de Albergaria, 
 Pedro de Noronha, and Joao de Menezes ; his Master 
 of the Horse, Affonso de Alboquerque; his Secretary- 
 General Ruy Galvao ; and his Chancellor, the acute 
 lawyer and most strenuous supporter of the despotic 
 power of the king, Ruy de Graa.
 
 170 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 Yet the reign of John " the Perfect," full as it was 
 of great events, and great as is its importance in 
 the history of Portugal, was but comparatively short. 
 His happiness was clouded by the sad death of his 
 only son, Dom Afifonso, in 1491, the year after he had 
 married the Infanta Isabella, eldest daughter of Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella, who then ruled in Spain, and he felt 
 with repugnance that his successor on the throne must 
 be Manoel, or Emmanuel, Duke of Beja, the brother of 
 the murdered Duke of Viseu, a man in whom he 
 could see no fit qualities for carrying on his own great 
 schemes and projects. To oust him John II. thought 
 of legitimatizing his illegitimate son by Anna de 
 Mendon^a, Dom Jorge, or George, whom he had 
 made Grand Master of the Orders of Santiago and 
 Aviz, but the reflection that on his death the country 
 he loved so well would then be torn by civil war 
 restrained him, and he did not interfere with the 
 law of succession. During the last days of his life the 
 " Perfect King " was busily engaged in fitting out the 
 fleet which, under Vasco da Gama, was to realize his 
 most cherished dream, and he was still in the ripe 
 strength of manhood when he died at Alvor, in the 
 jprovince of the Algarves, on October 25, 1495. 
 ■ The quarter of a century during which the suc- 
 cessor of John II., Emmanuel "the Fortunate," reigned, 
 is the great heroic period of Portuguese history, and 
 during it the great deeds, which make the Story of 
 Portugal an important part of the history of Europe 
 and of the world, were done. Discoveries and daring 
 feats of arms distinguished nearly every year of this 
 truly fortunate reign, and the fame of the great
 
 KING EMMANUEL ''THE FORTUNATE. I71 
 
 Portuguese generals, captains, and travellers is rivalled 
 only by that of its poets and men of letters. As the 
 progress of the Portuguese in the East and West, and 
 their great literary development, will be examined in 
 three different chapters, it will here be possible only 
 to narrate the events of Emmanuel's reign in Portugal, 
 and to show how, at the period of the greatest glory of 
 the country, the age of its rapid decline was at hand. 
 The causes of that decline were manifold, and are 
 generally placed in the reign of Emmanuel's successor, 
 but the seed of each appeared in the reign of the 
 "fortunate" monarch himself. 
 
 Emmanuel himself contributed but little to the 
 blaze of glory which illustrates his reign. He de- 
 spatched great fleets and armies to distant parts of 
 the world, and received the wealth their discoveries 
 and exertions brought into his treasury with equa- 
 nimity ; but he had only one fixed idea, the old wild 
 dream which had brought disaster upon Ferdinand 
 "the Handsome" and Affonso V., the longing to sit 
 upon the throne of Spain and to unite the kingdoms 
 of the peninsula under his sovereignty. To gain this 
 end he proposed to marry the Infanta Isabella, the 
 eldest daughter of King P^erdinand of Aragon and 
 Queen Isabella of Castile, and widow of the un- 
 fortunate Affonso, the only son of John II., and in 
 order to be recognized as heir to the kingdoms of 
 Spain, he promised to expel the Jews and unbaptized 
 Moors from Portugal. 
 
 No class had done more to promote the height of 
 commercial prosperity to which Portugal had attained 
 than the Portuguese Jews. In another volume of this
 
 172 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 Series ^ Mr. Lane- Poole says : " Wherever the arms of 
 the Saracens penetrated, there we shall always find 
 the Jews in close pursuit," and in no part of the 
 peninsula had they collected in greater numbers than 
 in the great cities of Portugal, especially in Lisbon, 
 Santarem, and Evora. These Jews belonged for the 
 most part to the Sephardim, and were in every 
 intellectual quality superior to the Ashkenazim, or 
 German and Polish Jews ; protected by the Moors, 
 they had grown in wealth and power, and when they 
 came under the rule of Affonso Henriques, that great 
 monarch extended the same tolerance towards them. 
 His successors followed his example, and under 
 monarchs with commercial aspirations such as Diniz 
 and John " the Great," the Jews had been more than 
 protected, they had been favoured. While persecuted 
 in other countries, they had met with consistent pro- 
 tection in Portugal, and they acknowledged the 
 generous treatment which they received by extending 
 the commerce of their adopted country. The Portu- 
 guese Jews possessed a high reputation all over 
 I Europe for wealth, integrity, and commercial acute- 
 L ness, and had business agencies and banks in every 
 j land, which contributed to the wealth of the country, 
 which had been for centuries their home. Such 
 was the wealthy and industrious class of citizens, 
 which Emmanuel consented to banish from his 
 dominions, partly to please the bigotry of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella, whom he hoped to succeed, and partly in 
 'order to absorb, as the Portuguese crown eventually 
 did, the whole of the coming trade with the East. 
 
 * " The Story of the Moors in Spain," chapter ii. p. 24.
 
 EXPULSION OF THE JEWS. 1 73 
 
 These unfortunate families were obliged to leave the 
 country, which had been their fatherland, and the 
 cities, which had been their homes, from generation to 
 generation, with but six months in which to prepare 
 for banishment ; they were obliged to dispose of their 
 flourishing businesses at a loss, and to start anew in 
 the world to find new occupations and new homes. 
 It is hardly a matter for wonder, that many Jews 
 preferred to be baptized and to become half-hearted 
 Christians rather than expatriate themselves, but these / 
 " Novaes Christiaos " had, as will be seen, no reason ' 
 to rejoice a few years later at their apostasy. With 
 the Jews were banished also many unbaptized 
 Mohammedans, the especial enemies of Ferdinand 
 " the Catholic." This class had become numerous 
 since the taking of Granada in 1492, when many of 
 them fled from Spain into Portugal, and had been 
 kindly received by John II. It is worthy of notice 
 that the Most Catholic monarchs, who persuaded 
 Emmanuel to take such severe steps against Jews and 
 Mohammedans, who were ready to earn an honest 
 livelihood as free men, made no protest against the 
 thousands of negro slaves, who were being yearly im- 
 ported into Portugal, and left to their belief in super- 
 stitions far more degrading than the religions either 
 of Jews or Moslems. 
 
 For this decree of banishment passed against law- 
 abiding Portuguese citizens, Emmanuel had his 
 reward, for he was married to the Infanta Isabella in 
 1497. But the curse of the Jews followed him, and 
 he never sat upon the throne of Spain. Whilst the 
 royal bride and bridegroom were passing through the
 
 174 ^^^ HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 cities of Castile in a state progress as heirs to the 
 thrones of Spain, Queen Isabella fell ill, and died at 
 Toledo on August 24, 1498. She left an infant son, 
 Dom Miguel, at whose birth she had died, but he did 
 not survive to realize the hopes of his father, and died 
 in 1500. Even these two deaths did not put an 
 end to Emmanuel's schemes, and in the same year 
 1500, he married the Donna Maria of Castile, the 
 sister of his deceased wife. This marriage was not so 
 likely to promote his success as the first ; for whereas 
 the Infanta Isabella was the eldest daughter of 
 Ferdinand and his queen, the Infanta Maria was but 
 the thir'^ daughter, and the daughter between them, 
 the Infanta Joanna, had a son who, as the legitimate 
 heir of his grandparents, was to succeed to thrones of 
 Spain and eventually become the Emperor Charles V. 
 By his second wife, Emmanuel had no less than six 
 sons, but what has been called the " curse of the Jews " 
 pursued them, and his descendants soon failed in the 
 direct line. Even to the last, the same wild fancy 
 possessed him, and in 15 18, the year after his second 
 wife's death, he married again, and this time also with 
 a view of succeeding Charles V., for he married his 
 own niece, the sister of the Emperor. She survived 
 him, and afterwards married Francis I. of France. 
 
 From these restless longings after the neighbouring 
 thrones, and the ignoble schemes of the Portuguese 
 monarch, it is a relief to turn to the actions of the 
 Portuguese heroes. Their deeds will be related 
 separately, but after the barren intrigues of Emma- 
 nuel, it will be as well to mention chronologically 
 the chief discoveries of his captains. In 1497,
 
 THE DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE. 1 75 
 
 Vasco da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope and 
 reached India by sea ; in 1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral 
 discovered Brazil, and Caspar Corte-Real, Labrador ; 
 in 1 501 Joao da Nova Castella discovered the islands 
 of St. Helena and Ascension ; and in that year and in 
 1503 Amerigo Vespucci first visited the Rio Plata and 
 Paraguay ; in 1506 Tristao da Cunha discovered the 
 island which bears his name ; and Ruy Pereira 
 Coutinho explored Madagascar and the Mauritius ; in 
 1507 Louren^o de Almeida touched at the Maldive 
 Islands ; in 1 509 Diogo Lopes de Sequeira occupied 
 Malacca and explored the island of Sumatra ; in 15 12 
 Francisco Serrao discovered the Moluccas; in 15 13 
 Pedro de Mascarenhas first touched at the lie de 
 Bourbon or Reunion ; in 15 16 Duarte Coelho worked 
 his way up the coast of Cochin China and explored 
 Siam ; in 15 17 Fernao Peres de Andrade established 
 himself at Canton, and the same explorer made his 
 way to Pekin in 1521 ; and in 1520 Magalhaes 
 (Magellan), a Portuguese sailor, though in the Spanish 
 service, passed through the Straits which bear his 
 name and led the way into the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 These exploits make up a list of achievements of 
 which any country might be proud ; the bare cata- 
 logue of them, without any epithets, justifies the 
 description given of the reign of Emmanuel " the 
 Fortunate " as the heroic age of Portuguese 
 history. It has been shown that the king contributed 
 little to this greatness, and the mistaken direction 
 of his foreign policy has been noticed. It now 
 remains to be seen how the seeds of rapid decline 
 were sown. Emmanuel was far from being a bad
 
 176 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 man, though he does not show to advantage, when 
 compared with such monarchs as John " the Great " 
 and John "the Perfect ;" he was a moral and pious 
 man, — too pious as his expulsion of the Jews clearly 
 demonstrates ; he can hardly be blamed for his 
 extravagance and taste for luxury, when the enormous 
 wealth of the Portuguese Crown is considered ; and he 
 spent much of this wealth on art and architecture, as 
 the construction of the magnificent palace of Belem, 
 near Lisbon, testifies to this day. This superb 
 building may have many faults to the eye of the 
 architectural expert, but to the ordinary mind it 
 seems almost the most superb structure in the world. 
 With regard to internal administration, Emmanuel 
 did not do much harm ; the wheels of government had 
 been put into such perfect order by John II. that the 
 machine of administration worked well without inter- 
 ference. But John II. had made one great mistake, 
 the fruits of which appeared in the reign of 
 Emmanuel and his successor ; he had changed the 
 monarchy of Portugal from being patriotic and de- 
 pendent on the good will of the people into an 
 absolute monarchy, in which the king's will was 
 everything. The overthrow of the nobility and the 
 wealth of the Crown had made the king independent 
 of the support of his people, as represented in the 
 Cortes. The nobility, deprived of their power at 
 home, had thrown themselves with ardour into the 
 career of Eastern discovery and conquest, and nearly 
 all the great heroes of the period belonged to noble 
 families. Emmanuel recognized the greatness of 
 these men, and showered honours upon them ; but in
 
 THE SEEDS OF DECLINE. 177 
 
 the next generation, the fatal result of despotism 
 became evident, and the nobility, instead of thinking 
 of their country, and looking to their fellow citizens' 
 approbation for their reward, looked rather to the 
 king, and made loyalty to a man and not to their 
 country their guiding principle. This attachment to 
 the king was encouraged by the wealth of the Crown, 
 which enabled the sovereign to bestow large pensions 
 and pay enormous salaries, and the Portuguese 
 nobility began to become a nobility of courtiers 
 instead of a nobility of patriots. This extraordinary 
 wealth of the Crown was due to its absorption of the 
 trade with India, for the wealth of the East was 
 conveyed to Lisbon on royal ships, and fetched thence 
 by enterprising traders of other nations. It was then 
 that the mistake of Emmanuel in banishing the Jews 
 became more and more obvious, for Portugal only 
 brought the products of Asia to Europe, but did not 
 distribute them throughout Europe. It was in these 
 respects that the seeds of decline were sown, in the 
 loss of public spirit, and the absorption by the Crown 
 of the whole wealth won by the valour of the people. 
 Yet these steps towards decline were not at first 
 visible to the eyes either of foreign nations or of the 
 people themselves. The glory of Portugal was spread 
 abroad, and the wealth of its monarch and his 
 splendour became proverbial. The great literary 
 movement, which in this reign is represented by Gil 
 Vicente, Ayres Barbosa, Garcia de Resende, and Ber- 
 nardim Ribeiro, will be discussed in another chapter, 
 but it must be noted here in regard to Emmanuel, 
 that, though he did banish the Jews, he was broad-
 
 178 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 minded enough to be a patron of literature and that 
 he was in this respect the superior of the fanatical 
 bigot who succeeded him. 
 
 Emmanuel, as he increased in wealth, bestowed 
 great appanages on his sons, while his daughters were 
 sought in marriage by the greatest princes in Chris- 
 tendom. His eldest son Dom John married Catherine 
 of Austria, sister of Charles V. Of his other sons, 
 three — Dom Luis, Dom Ferdinand, and Dom Edward 
 — were created respectively dukes of Beja, Guarda, and 
 Guimaraens, while the other two took holy orders 
 and became cardinals. Of his two surviving daughters, 
 the elder, Donna Isabel, married the Emperor Charles 
 v., and the younger, Donna Beatrice, the divinity to 
 whom the poet Bernardim Ribeiro addressed his 
 songs, married Charles III., Duke of Savoy. With 
 such a family of sons it did not seem likely that in a 
 few short years the male line of the house of Aviz 
 would become extinct, and it was with a feeling of 
 pride in his wealth ^nd with assured confidence in 
 the perpetuation of his line that Emmanuel "the 
 Fortunate" died in his beautiful palace at Belem, on 
 December 12, 1521. 
 
 The reign of John III. is that in which the rapid 
 decline of Portugal is most perceptible. All the 
 germs of decay which had appeared in the reign of 
 Emmanuel, developed during the reign of his son, by 
 the end of which, though the sovereign of Portugal 
 was the richest in Europe, not excepting the Emperor 
 himself, the greatness of the country was obviously 
 disappearing. The natural growth of this decline was 
 assisted by the fanaticism of John III., who was a
 
 THE REIGN OF JOHN III. 1 79 
 
 bigot of the most pronounced type, and who power- 
 fully aided the extinction of the greatness of the 
 country by his introduction of the Inquisition. 
 Though personally a pious and estimable man, he 
 was absolutely unable to take any steps to check the 
 downfall of his country's greatness, and considered the 
 greatest fame of his reign would be due to the estab- 
 lishment of the Inquisition and the introduction of 
 the Jesuits. The greatest credit that can be given to 
 him is that he kept his country out of all European 
 complications, a task made comparatively easy by his 
 close alliance with the greatest monarch in Europe, 
 the Emperor Charles V. This alliance was sealed by 
 three marriages ; for King John was married to the 
 Infanta Catherine, the sister of Charles V., his only 
 son Dom John was married to the Infanta Joanna, 
 daughter of Charles V., and his only daughter, Donn^i 
 Maria, was the first wife of Philip, prince of the 
 Asturias, the eldest son of Charles V., and afterwards 
 King Philip II. These marriages knitted the bonds of 
 alliance closely between the reigning houses of Spain 
 and Portugal, and a powerful Portuguese fleet under 
 the king's brother, Dom Luis, Duke of Beja, assisted 
 in the Spanish expedition against Tunis in 1535. 
 Yet fighting with the Moors seemed to have lost its 
 charm for the Portuguese people, for during the next 
 ten years, all the chief towns held by Portugal in 
 northern Africa, Azamor, Cafim, Cabo do Sul, and 
 even Arzila and Alcacer Seguier, the captures of 
 Affonso "the African," were abandoned, in order that 
 the whole strength of the country might be concen- 
 trated on its Indian and Brazilian possessions.
 
 l8o THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 This quiet abandonment of all the north African 
 possessions, except Ceuta and Mazagon, affords a yet 
 further proof of the change in the character of the 
 Portuguese nobility and their sovereign. They no 
 longer desired to fight against the old hereditary 
 enemy of the Christian religion, as crusaders ; John 
 III. was no "Re Cavalleiro " like Affonso V., but 
 preferred stamping out heresy at home to fighting 
 infidels abroad ; and king and nobles alike agreed 
 that it was better to expend their power in the 
 wealthy Indies than in barren Africa. The nobles 
 became more and more dependent on the Crown, and 
 spent all their energies in intriguing for " moradias " 
 or pensions from the Court, and for rich governments 
 abroad. The absolutism of the king and the employ- 
 ment of crowds of sycophant courtiers spread corrup- 
 tion into every department of government, and the 
 officials of all sorts, both in Portugal and India, 
 hurried to make fortunes by every means, honest or 
 otherwise, in their power. " Personal worship of the 
 king," in the words of an able Portuguese writer, 
 " had eaten out patriotism," ^ and though such a man 
 as Dom Joao de Castro may be cited as a specimen 
 of the great-hearted Portuguese nobleman of the 
 finest type, most of the nobility sank into Court 
 lackeys or greedy fortune hunters, and even the 
 famous navigator, Fernao de Magalhaes, deserted his 
 country and entered the service of Spain, because 
 the pension he coveted was not conferred upon him 
 
 ' " Apontamentos para a Historia da Conquista de Portugal por 
 Filippe II," by A. P. Lopes de Mendonja, in vol. ii. of the " Aonaes 
 das Sciencias Moraes e Politicas."
 
 DEPOPULATION OF PORTUGAL. l8l 
 
 The Asiatic trade, it must be insisted upon, was the 
 monopoly of the Crown, and only indirectly profited 
 the ordinary trading classes, and in the hot pursuit 
 of wealth, agriculture was neglected. 
 
 There was, however, a more serious cause for the 
 decline of the power of Portugal than the absolu- 
 tism of the Crown, the want of patriotism of the 
 nobility, or even than the corruption of the officials, 
 and that was the rapid depopulation of the country. 
 The Alemtejo and Algarves had never been 
 thoroughly peopled, for the devastations caused by 
 the Moorish wars could not be easily repaired ; and, 
 though the exertions of Diniz "the Labourer " had made 
 the Beira the garden of the whole Iberian peninsula, 
 the part of the kingdom to the south of the Tagus 
 had remained either in the hands of the military 
 religious orders or split up into large feudal estates. 
 The great discoveries at the end of the fifteenth 
 and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries largely 
 checked the natural increase of population. Not 
 only did the bulk of the young men gladly volunteer 
 to man the fleets and serve in the armies in India and 
 the East, but whole families emigrated to Madeira, 
 and after 1530 to Brazil. The Portuguese are 
 essentially an adventurous nation, fond of travelling 
 and full of enterprise, and no difficulty was found in 
 manning the great Indian fleets and recruiting the 
 armies of Alboquerque and his successors. Of the 
 thousands who flocked to Asia, but few ever returned. 
 The incidents of perpetual warfare, and the noxious 
 climate, killed off most, and of those who survived, 
 many married native women and settled down in
 
 l82 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 India. Even of the people who did remain in 
 Portugal, few remained in their native homesteads 
 engaged in agriculture ; most crowded into Lisbon, 
 where the necessities of the Eastern trade afforded 
 work for all. The capital trebled its population in 
 eighty years, in spite of its most unsanitary condition 
 and the periodical pestilences which ravaged it. The 
 king, the nobles, and the military orders were, how- 
 ever, quite undisturbed by this extensive emigration 
 and rapid depopulation, for their large estates were 
 much more cheaply cultivated by African slaves, who 
 had been imported in such numbers that the Algarves 
 was almost entirely populated by them, and in Lisbon 
 itself they out-numbered the free men by the middle 
 of the sixteenth century. In this respect the 
 condition of Portugal resembled that of Italy at the 
 time of the decline of the Roman Empire, as the 
 wealth of Lisbon resembled that of Imperial Rome, 
 while the utter corruption and oppression of the 
 officials in the Indian settlements resembled only too 
 closely the peculation and corruption of the Roman 
 proconsuls and procuratcws. 
 
 While the Portuguese nation was exhibiting these 
 signs of rapid decadence, another factor of decline was 
 added by the religious zeal of John III., who, from 
 the moment of his accession, had striven to introduce 
 the Inquisition into Portugal. The Church of Rome 
 was not likely to hinder his pious desire, but for 
 several years the " novaes Christiaos " or neo- 
 Christians, as the half-hearted converts made from 
 the Jews, on condition that they might remain in 
 Portugal, were called, managed to ward off the blow.
 
 • THE INQUISITION IN PORTUGAL. 1S3 
 
 But the king's earnest wish was gratified at last, and 
 in 1536 the tribunal of the Holy Office was estab- 
 lished in Portugal, with Diogo da Silva, Bishop of 
 Ceuta, as first Grand Inquisitor, who was soon 
 succeeded by the king's brother, the Cardinal Dom 
 Henry. The Inquisition quickly destroyed all that 
 was left of the old Portuguese spirit, and so effectually 
 stamped out the revival of Portuguese literature that, 
 while, towards the close of the sixteenth century, the 
 rest of Europe was advancing in civilization under 
 the influence of the Renaissance, Portugal fell back, 
 and her literature became dumb. The establishment 
 of the Inquisition was followed in 1540 by the in- 
 troduction of the Jesuits, who speedily obtained 
 control of the national education, and carefully 
 checked intellectual development. The king re- 
 ceived his reward from the Pope for these services to 
 Catholicism ; he was permitted to unite the Grand 
 Mastership of the wealthy orders of Christ, Santiago, 
 and Aviz, with the Crown, and to found the new 
 bishoprics of Leiria, Miranda, and Porto Alegre, in 
 Portugal, and the archbishopric of Goa, in India. 
 It must not be thought that the reign of John 
 III. seemed to his contemporaries the era of decline 
 it certainly was ; no king was richer, no people more 
 loyal, and no man more honoured. His reign, like 
 that of Emmanuel, is studded with great names and 
 great events, and a casual observer could not observe 
 the seeds of decay. Besides Joaode Castro, there lived 
 then many great Indian heroes and warriors, such as 
 Nuno da Cunha, Antonio de Silveira, Joao de Mas- 
 carenhas, and Luis de Athaide ; it was during this
 
 184 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 reign that Francisco Coutinho, Count of Redondo, 
 conquered Ceylon, and Fernao Mendes Pinto paid his 
 famous visits to Japan, and the present Portuguese 
 settlement of Macao was founded. Still greater are 
 the literary glories of the reign of the supporter of 
 the Inquisition, for in it Camoens wrote the " Lusiads," 
 Ferreira wrote his dramas, Joao de Barros his history, 
 and Sa de Miranda his poems, all works which do 
 not seem to mark a declining country. In art, and 
 especially in architecture, the king showed no mean 
 taste, and his palace at Thomar and the great 
 convent at Belem show that he was in this respect a 
 worthy successor of King Emmanuel, and that the 
 Portuguese workmen had attained to no small degree 
 of skill in decorative work. 
 
 Yet in spite of these glories, the heroic age of 
 Portugal was over, and in little more than twenty 
 years after John III.'s death, the country, which 
 had so long maintained its independence, was 
 absorbed by Spain, This was to be expected 
 from the decline the causes of which have been 
 analysed, but the final catastrophe was hastened by the 
 death of the heir to the throne, Dom Joao, in 1554, 
 which brought about on the death of John III., in 
 1557, the accession to the throne of a child of three 
 years old, the ill-fated Dom Sebastian. Enough has 
 been said of Portugal during the heroic age of the 
 Portuguese nation ; it is now time to study the deeds 
 of the men, who made the age heroic by their valour 
 and daring.
 
 IX. 
 
 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA AND THE 
 
 SEAS. 
 
 EASTERN 
 
 There is no subject that calls more loudly for an 
 historian than the history of the Portuguese in India 
 during the sixteenth century. There are Portuguese 
 authorities in plenty, for, with a vivid perception of 
 the picturesque, many of the greatest writers of the 
 golden age of Portuguese literature devoted them- 
 selves to this fascinating subject. Joao de Barros, 
 the Portuguese Livy, and a contemporary of the 
 great Indian viceroys, wrote a history of the first 
 half century of Portuguese conquest in India in 
 several volumes, full of interest and charm ; Fernao 
 Lopes de Castanheda, Diogo do Couto, and Manoel 
 de Faria e Sousa, all worked in the same field, and 
 the lives of the two greatest of the Portuguese 
 viceroys have full light thrown upon them in the 
 Commentaries of Affonso de Alboquerque,' published 
 by his son, and the beautiful IJfe of Dom Joao de 
 Castro by Jacinto Freire de Andrade, which is a 
 model of a perfect biography. Nor have the leaders 
 
 ' These Commentaries have been translated for the Hakluyt Society 
 by W. de Grey Birch.
 
 l86 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 of the revival of the study of history neglected to 
 treat this subject in a scientific manner ; many 
 valuable monographs and reprints of precious docu- 
 ments have seen the light within the last fifty years, 
 and much material still remains undigested and 
 unarranged in the archives at the Torre del Tombo. 
 Yet this period, in spite of all the work which has 
 been done upon it, still remains without an historian, 
 fitted by a thorough knowledge, both of Indian 
 history and of the state of civilization in India at the 
 period in question, to draw out the salient and 
 interesting points of the first direct contact between 
 modern Europe and modern Asia, between the East 
 and the West. 
 
 Yet it is work which well deserves to be done. 
 Prescott, the great American historian, has shown 
 the interest attaching to the first conflict between 
 Spanish chivalry and the Aztecs of Mexico and the 
 Incas of Peru ; but when will an historian arise to 
 tell worthily the story of the contact between the 
 heroes of Portugal and the more civilized inhabitants 
 of Hindustan? Apart from the fascination of this 
 side of the subject, there remains the fact that for 
 a century the intercourse between Asia and Europe 
 remained in the hands of the Portuguese. The 
 history of the Dutch and the English in the Eastern 
 seas has its own peculiar interest, but they did not 
 find their way in that direction until the nations 
 of the East had been for a whole century in 
 contact with Europeans, and until their attitude 
 had been greatly modified by this contact. Besides, 
 the Dutch and English both went to the East
 
 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 187 
 
 as traders, and not as conquerors, colonizers, and 
 preachers as well. Far different was the intention of 
 the Portuguese. Regardless of the small size and 
 slender population of their fatherland, they dreamed of 
 nothing less than conquering the mighty empires of 
 the East, and imposing Christianity upon them, if 
 need be, by the edge of their swords. Grandiose 
 as this intention was, and full of inconsequence as 
 the idea seems to modern eyes, which have seen with 
 what difficulty England with its teeming population 
 has managed to maintain its hold upon India, even 
 while it has discouraged proselytism and protected 
 native religions, there is something noble in the con- 
 fidence of the Portuguese warriors in their God, and in 
 their belief that through their means He would spread 
 Christianity throughout the East. For the ambitions 
 of the Portuguese were not confined to India ; Portu- 
 guese adventurers actually established themselves in 
 power in parts of Arabia, in Burma, and in the dis- 
 trict of Chittagong at the head of the Bay of Bengal ; 
 Portuguese emissaries found their way to Pekin and 
 Japan, closely followed by the missionaries of the 
 Roman Church ; and it was while on his way to convert 
 the millions of China to Christianity that St. Francis 
 Xavier, the Apostle of the Indies, gave up his life. 
 And, lastly, it must be remembered at what odds the 
 Portuguese fought and tried to proselytize in Asia : 
 at many months' voyage from their homes and base 
 of operations ; only able to reach their destinations 
 after sailing in feeble craft round the hardly known, 
 unexplored, and dangerous coast of Africa ; deprived 
 of the modern knowledge alike of tides and winds,
 
 l88 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 and of the means to promote existence in tropical 
 climates ; they arrived amidst the hostile millions 
 armed only with clumsy arquebuses and their swords; 
 and yet with all these drawbacks they were victorious 
 in many hard-fought fights against more powerful 
 armies than their European successors in the East 
 ever met. Of course there are many blots upon this 
 noble history, tales of corruption and oppression, and 
 of the preference of commercial transactions which 
 made fortunes to the harder regime of honesty and 
 uprightness ; but for all that the history is one marked 
 by achievements of valour and adventurous daring, 
 unmatched elsewhere in the history of the world. No 
 wonder that Portugal was exhausted by her efforts ; 
 the only wonder is that her sons ever did one tithe of 
 these glorious deeds, or exerted themselves one-tenth 
 as much as they did. This story of the Portuguese 
 in India cannot be treated adequately in a single 
 chapter. Only a resume of the very briefest descrip- 
 tion can be given, but if it inspires any reader to go, 
 for instance, to the history of De Barros, he will there 
 find the record of many a deed which will justify 
 these remarks and excite both his interest and his 
 admiration. 
 
 It was in the July of 1497 that the fleet of four 
 ships, destined to double the Cape of Good Hope 
 and find its way direct to India, set sail from Lisbon. 
 King Emmanuel, who in carrying out this project and 
 despatching this squadron was only fulfilling the 
 plan formed by John II., selected for the command 
 Vasco da Gama, a gentleman of his household, and 
 son of an experienced mariner, named Estevao da
 
 THE VOYAGE OF VASCO DA GAM A. 1S9 
 
 Gama, who had been the nominee of John II. for 
 this post ; and two able captains, Paul da Gama, the 
 brother of Vasco, and Nicolas Coelho, volunteered to 
 accompany him. The perils and dangers of this 
 famous voyage have been told in immortal stanzas 
 by Camoens ; it is enough here to say that the 
 Portuguese fleet safely rounded the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and began to work its way up the south-eastern 
 coast of Africa. The rulers of Mozambique and 
 Mombassa showed no disposition to assist the Portu- 
 guese admiral in his endeavour to find a pilot to guide 
 him across the Indian Ocean ; on the contrary, they 
 proved actively hostile, and the false pilot, whom the 
 the chief of Mozambique had given him, under the 
 hostile influence, according to Camoens, of Bacchus, 
 who was fearful lest his fame as Victor' Iiidicus 
 should be surpassed, deserted the fleet at Mombassa. 
 However, Vasco da Gama pressed northwards, and 
 at the little town of Melinda, to the north of Zanzi- 
 bar, he found a friendly monarch, who gave him a 
 skilful pilot. But the perils of the expedition were not 
 yet over ; it was the wrong time of the year for 
 crossing the Indian Ocean, and it was only after 
 encountering fearful storms that the Portuguese 
 heroes cast anchor ofl" the city of Calicut on May 
 20, 1498, after a voyage of nearly eleven months. 
 
 The India, which Vasco da Gama reached, was in 
 a very different condition to the India of the Great 
 Moghuls, which came into relations with the first 
 Dutch and English adventurers. It contained no 
 emperor, exercising almost universal sway, but many 
 independent kingdoms. "An Afghan of the Lod/
 
 igO THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 dynasty was then on the throne of Delhi, and 
 another Afghan king was ruling over Bengal. Ah- 
 madabdd formed the seat of a Muhammadan dynasty 
 in Gujarat. The five independent Muhammadan 
 kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Ellichpur, Gol- 
 conda, and Bi'dar had partitioned out the Deccan. 
 But the Hindu Raja of Vijayanagar still ruled as 
 paramount in the south, and was, perhaps, the most 
 powerful monarch to be found at that time in India, 
 not excepting the Lodi dynasty at Delhi." ^ The 
 ruler of the city at which Vasco da Gama first 
 arrived was a Hindu Raja, who bore the title of 
 Zamorin", a word derived, according to some writers, 
 from the tradition that the first limits of the settle- 
 ment were decided by the distance the crowing of 
 a cock could be heard from the summit of the Tali 
 Temple. But though himself a Hindu, the most 
 important subjects of the Zamorin were the fanatical 
 Moplas, the descendants of some Arab and Moham- 
 medan settlers on the Malabar coast. These men 
 had greatly extended the dominions of the Zamorins 
 of Calicut and were the wealthiest inhabitants of the 
 seaboard, for they held the trade of the Malabar 
 coast with Aden, and therefore with the Red Sea, 
 Egypt, and Europe in their hands. It is not to be 
 wondered at therefore, that, though the Hindu 
 Zamorin received the Portuguese navigator with 
 courtesy, the Moplas showed the bitterest opposition 
 
 ' For this quotation, as well as the most precise and exact informa- 
 tion on the state of India during the Portuguese dominion, I must ex- 
 press my indebtedness to Sir W. W. Hunter's " Imperial Gazetteer of 
 India," new edition, and refer to vol. vi., article India, chapter xiv., 
 and the articles on Calicut, Cochin, Daman, Diu, and Goa.
 
 THE RETURN OF VASCO DA GAMA. igl 
 
 to him, and discouraged the idea of a direct trade 
 t\'ith Europe, which would bring about their own 
 ruin. This opposition prevented Vasco da Gama 
 from carrying out his intention of leaving some 
 settlers to form a trade establishment at Calicut, and 
 after cruising about along the Malabar coast he 
 commenced his voyage back to Europe. 
 
 The voyage home was no less perilous than the 
 voyage out, and it was not until the 29th of August, 
 1499, that Vasco da Gama cast anchor in the port of 
 Lisbon, bringing back with him but fifty-five out of 
 the 148 companions who had started with him on 
 his adventurous journey. The pious navigator at 
 once went up to the church of Our Lady at Belem, 
 where he had offered up prayers for help before his 
 departure. His devotions completed, Vasco da Gama 
 made his solemn entrance into Lisbon, where he was 
 received with a burst of popular enthusiasm, equal to 
 that which greeted Christopher Columbus on his 
 return from discovering America. King Emmanuel 
 took the title of " Lord of the Conquest, Navigation 
 and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and 
 India," which was confirmed to him by a Bull of 
 Pope Alexander VI. in 1502, and he erected the 
 superb church of Belem, as a testimonial of gratitude 
 to heaven. On Vasco da Gama the king conferred 
 well-deserved honours ; he was permitted to quarter 
 the royal arms with his own, and was granted the 
 office of Admiral of the Indian seas, with a large 
 revenue to be levied on the Indian trade ; he and 
 his brothers were granted the right to use the prefix 
 Do^n or Lord, and a little later, when the importance
 
 192 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 of his voyage became more manifest, he was created 
 Count da Vidigueira. 
 
 When the rejoicings were over, King Emmanuel 
 determined to see what advantages could be gained 
 from Dom Vasco da Gama's discovery, and des- 
 patched Pedro Alvares Cabral with a fleet of thirteen 
 ships carrying twelve hundred picked soldiers to 
 establish " factories " on the Malabar coast, for the 
 collection of the most valuable products of the East, 
 which should be conveyed to Portugal in royal ships 
 every year. And here it is necessary to again insist 
 upon the fact, that the Portuguese trade with India 
 was a royal monopoly. The Portuguese establishments 
 in India were not, as was the case with regard to Hol- 
 land, England, and France in later years, formed by 
 companies of private merchants, who looked upon the 
 Indian trade as a speculation, but were royal factories, 
 managed by royal officers, and served by royal fleets. 
 Private trade was impossible, and not even dreamed 
 of, because it was considered necessary that these 
 factories should be defended by bodies of troops and 
 served by powerful fleets, which cost an amount of 
 money no private firm could furnish. But these 
 royal factories were intended not only to establish and 
 guard trade, but also to spread Christianity, and for 
 that purpose they included from the first not only 
 soldiers, but missionary priests. Pedro Alvares 
 Cabral was driven by stress of weather to the coast 
 of Brazil, of which country he took possession in the 
 name of his sovereign, and then proceeded to follow 
 the course laid down by Vasco da Gama, and reached 
 Calicut in safety. He immediately established a
 
 THE FIRST ESTABLISHMENTS IN INDIA. I93 
 
 factory at that place, but the Moplas showed the 
 same unfriendly disposition which they had before ex- 
 hibited towards Vasco da Gama, and at once murdered 
 all the colonists. Cabral then cannonaded Calicut, 
 and proceeded to Cannanore and Cochin, at both 
 of which places he was favourably received, for 
 their Hindu Rajas were unwilling tributaries to 
 the Zamorin of Calicut and his Moplas ; and after 
 purchasing great stores of pepper and other In- 
 dian commodities, the Portuguese admiral left estab- 
 lishments at these two places to open up trade, 
 and returned home. In 1502, Vasco da Gama 
 arrived for the second time on the Malabar coast 
 with twenty ships, and after again cannonading 
 Calicut, and destroying all the shipping in the port, 
 he strengthened the factories at Cochin and Can- 
 nanore and returned. On his departure, Vincente 
 Sodre, one of the officers he had left, deserted the 
 factory and set up as a pirate in the Arabian seas, 
 being the first of those Portuguese adventurers in 
 the Eastern seas whose stories read like romances. 
 In 1503, three separate Portuguese squadrons under 
 the command respectively of Francisco dc Alboquer- 
 que, Affonso de Alboquerque, and Antonio de Sal- 
 danha, reached India, and the first of these captains 
 gave effective assistance to the Raja of Cochin, who 
 had been attacked by the Zamorin for his welcome 
 of the Portuguese, and was being besieged in the 
 island of Vypin. Francisco de Alboquerque was 
 only just in time, and to guard against such extremi- 
 ties in the future, he built a strong fort, guarded with 
 artillery, at Cochin, and when the three captains dc-
 
 
 itf^ 
 
 ALBOQUERQUE. {Fro/n the Sloaiie AJS. i^-j, folio ii.)
 
 PACHECO'S VICTORY AT COCHIN. 1 95 
 
 parted they left there a c^arrison of nine hundred men, 
 under the command of Duarte Pacheco. This officer 
 performed the first great feat of arms which illustrated 
 the history of the Portuguese in India; with his small 
 garrison, enfeebled by sickness, he not only drove 
 back the great army which the Zamorin sent against 
 Cochin, but utterly defeated five thousand of his best 
 troops in open battle. This victory established the 
 reputation of the Portuguese in India as soldiers ; the 
 factories now found no difficulty in purchasing all the 
 goods they needed at a reasonable price ; and what 
 was more important, the fame of Pacheco spread 
 abroad, and he was able to send envoys into the 
 interior of India, who were everywhere favourably 
 received, and generally returned laden with presents. 
 Pacheco's success inspired the Portuguese monarch 
 with the idea that he could not only absorb the 
 Indian trade, but could conquer India, and Emmanuel 
 decided that a powerful imperial government should 
 be established on the Malabar coast, instead of 
 isolated factories. 
 
 The first viceroy he selected was Dom Francisco de 
 Almeida, a Portuguese nobleman of high rank, who 
 had learned the art of war under Gonsalvo da Cordova, 
 better known in Spanish history as the " Great 
 Captain," and had been a favourite of King John II. 
 The fleet with which he set sail from Belem on March 
 25, 1505, consisted of sixteen ships and sixteen cara- 
 vels, and carried fifteen hundred soldiers besides many 
 officials for the new establishment. On his way to 
 India, Dom Francisco de Almeida occupied Quiloa 
 and Mombassa on the south-eastern coast of Africa,
 
 196 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 and erected forts, which should make them safe 
 resting-places for the Portuguese fleets ; and on his 
 arrival at Cannanore on October 22nd he took the 
 title of Viceroy of Cochin, Cannanore, and Quilon. 
 The great Portuguese nobleman looked upon the 
 state of affairs in India from a very different point of 
 view to Cabral, Vasco da Gama, and Pacheco ; he 
 did not regard commerce as the sole purpose of the 
 establishments of the Portuguese in the East, and in- 
 stead of trying to open up trade as Pacheco had done, 
 and only defending himself when attacked, the first 
 viceroy adopted a vigorous policy of active interfer- 
 ence with native states, proselytism, and offensive 
 war. He established his seat of government at 
 Cochin, and sent forth expeditions along the 
 Malabar coast, which generally came to blows with 
 the Mohammedan merchants, who saw with dismay 
 that their commerce with Egypt by way of the Red 
 Sea would soon disappear. His chief commander 
 v^^as his son, Dom Louren^o de Almeida, a boy in 
 years, but a hero in the fight. On October 19, 1505, 
 young Lourengo cannonaded and nearly destroyed 
 Conlao, the modern Quilon ; on March 18, 1506, he 
 almost annihilated the fleet of the Zamorin of Calicut, 
 consisting of eighty-four ships and one hundred and 
 twenty prahs, with only eleven vessels, and received a 
 check at Dabul, the modern Dabhol ; in 1507, he dis- 
 covered the Maldive Islands, and with Tristao da 
 Cunha sacked the port of Ponani, and in 1 508 the young 
 hero was killed at Chaul in a combat against an Egyp- 
 tian fleet, which had been sent by the Mamluk Sultan 
 to expel the Portuguese from India under the com-
 
 ALMEIDA'S VICTORY OFF DIU. I97 
 
 mand of an admiral named Emir Hosc3'n. But a 
 more serious danger was impending ; the wrath of the 
 Mohammedan sovereigns, whose domains extended 
 to the north-western coasts, and especially of the 
 kings of Bijapur and Gujarat, was aroused by these 
 aggressions, and they collected powerful fleets and 
 joined Emir Hoseyn. The Viceroy of India, nothing 
 daunted, sailed northward to avenge his son's death, 
 with only nineteen ships, and after sacking Dabhol 
 he entirely defeated the Mohammedan fleet of more 
 than one hundred ships, on February 2, 1509, off the 
 island of Diu. While the first Portuguese Viceroy 
 was undertaking these operations, his appointed suc- 
 cessor, Affonso de Alboquerque, with whom he had 
 quarrelled, and the admiral Tristao da Cunha were 
 exploring the Indian Ocean, and after stopping some 
 time at the island of Socotra, they stormed the 
 wealthy city of Ormuz at the mouth of the Persian 
 Gulf. These explorations had the most important re- 
 sults, and Affonso de Alboquerque was glad, when the 
 appointed time arrived for him at the close of 1509, to 
 take over the government of India as second viceroy. 
 Affonso de Alboquerque was the greatest of all the 
 Portuguese heroes who served in India, and he owes 
 his fame not only to his feats of arms, numerous and 
 glorious as they were, but to the wisdom and justice 
 of his civil government, and to the fact that he was a 
 great and a far-seeing statesman, as well as a brave 
 warrior. Like Francisco de Almeida, he had been 
 a favourite and an intimate friend of King John II., 
 in whose reign ho filled the Court office of Master 
 of the Horse. He commenced his viceroyalty by
 
 igS THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 making a fresh attack on Calicut, the headquarters 
 of the Moplas. He succeeded in burning the palace 
 of the Zamorin and wrecking the city, but the popu- 
 lace then arose in force and drove the Portuguese 
 back to their ships, killing many of their leaders, 
 including the Marshal of Portugal, Dom Fernando 
 Coutinho. Alboquerque then proceeded to take a 
 more important step ; he soon perceived that Cochin 
 was too far south to serve as the headquarters of 
 either the trade or the political dominion of the 
 Portuguese, and that it was necessary to occupy 
 some more central spot on the Malabar coast for a 
 capital. The place he selected was Goa, a port in 
 the possession of the Mohammedan king of Bijapur. 
 Thither he sailed with twenty ships and twelve hun- 
 dred men ; and one feat of arms, performed by Antonio 
 de Noronha, at Panjim, at the mouth of the river Goa, 
 where the present capital of the Portuguese posses- 
 sions in India is situated, laid the city open to him. 
 The citizens, who had been discouraged by the pro- 
 phecies of a holy mendicant that they were about to 
 be conquered by a foreign people from a distant land, 
 surrendered at once ; eight leading men gave Albo- 
 querque the keys of the gates, and the Portuguese 
 viceroy entered the city in triumph on February 17, 
 1 5 10. But he did not hold it long, for on August 1 5th, 
 Yusuf Adil Shah, King of Bijapur, recaptured the 
 city after fierce fighting. Alboquerque did not 
 despair ; he received reinforcements from Portugal, 
 and on November 25th, he carried the city by storm, 
 slaying over two thousand Mohammedans, and firmly 
 established himself there.
 
 THE VICEROY ALTV OF ALBOQUERQUE. I99 
 
 But Alboquerque was not satisfied with conquering 
 an appropriate capital for Portuguese India, he de- 
 termined to make his country supreme throughout 
 the Eastern seas. With this idea he undertook two 
 famous expeditions to the east and to the west. The 
 first Portuguese settlers upon the Malabar coast had 
 been told by the native traders that spices and other 
 produce of Asia could be obtained more cheaply further 
 to the east, and these stories had been repeated to 
 King Emmanuel, who determined to send an expe- 
 dition to these " Spice Islands," under the command 
 of Diogo Lopes de Sequcira. This captain reached 
 the Malabar coast in safety, and was favourably re- 
 ceived by the Viceroy, Francisco de Almeida, who 
 found an experienced pilot for him, and gave him 
 sixty well-seasoned soldiers, under the command of 
 Francisco Serrao, and Fernao de Magalhaes, who, 
 under the name of Magellan, was to leave his mark 
 upon the map of the world. The pilot led the fleet 
 skilfully, and on September 11, 1509, Diogo Lopes 
 de Sequeira anchored off the city of Malacca, where 
 the Malay chief permitted him to found a factory. On 
 his return to India, he reported to Alboquerque on the 
 wealth of Malacca and of the island of Sumatra, and 
 that spices were both better and cheaper there than 
 in India. The great viceroy at once determined to 
 see these rich countries for himself, and, after some 
 sharp fighting with the Malays, he established the 
 Portuguese power in that quarter upon a firm basis, 
 and returned to Goa. His expedition westwards was 
 not so successful. During his former campaign, in 
 which he had taken Ormuz, he had observed that
 
 200 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 the greater portion of the Asiatic trade, which still 
 followed the old routes, went not by way of the 
 Persian Gulf, but by way of the Red Sea, and that 
 the great entrepot was the city of Aden. In order to 
 secure the entire monopoly of the Eastern trade for 
 the new Portuguese route round the Cape of Good 
 Hope, it was therefore necessary to occupy Aden. 
 With this intention Alboquerque sailed westwards in 
 15 13, and on Easter Eve he arrived before the city. 
 On Easter Day he attacked it fiercely with a force of 
 over two thousand soldiers ; but he failed, and had to 
 content himself with destroying the shipping in the 
 port. He then explored the Red Sea, and returned 
 to Goa for the last time. 
 
 It has been said that Alboquerque was a great 
 statesman as well as a great warrior, and no better 
 proof of this can be adduced than his treatment of 
 the Hindu princes. He alone of Portuguese viceroys 
 recognized the fact the Hindus did not take kindly 
 to the rule of the Mohammedans, and that they 
 would much sooner be ruled by Europeans, if they 
 were only just and fair-minded. It was from Moham- 
 medan powers that the Portuguese had met with such 
 bitter opposition, from the Moplas of Calicut and the 
 King of Bijapur, and if the successors of Alboquerque 
 had but grasped this fact they would have found little 
 difficulty in leading the Hindus against the votaries 
 of Islam. They would then have waged against 
 Mohammedans in India the same relentless war 
 that their ancestors had waged in their own father- 
 land, and might have established a protectorate over 
 the Hindus without much difficulty. The wide-
 
 DEATH OF ALBOQUERQUE. 201 
 
 minded tolerance which Alboquerque showed in 
 his communications with the Hindu princes, he 
 also showed in the details of administration. He 
 maintained the village system, which he found 
 existing in Goa at the time of his conquest, and 
 avoided all appearance of fresh taxation with as 
 much care as a modern English collector. The ex- 
 pedition to Aden was the last he ever undertook, and 
 on December i6, 15 15, this truly great man died at 
 Goa, and was buried there by his own directions in 
 the costume of a commander of the Order of Santi- 
 ago. " In such veneration was his memory held, that 
 the Hindus, and even the Mohammedans, were wont 
 to repair to his tomb, and there utter their complaints, 
 aj if in the presence of his shade, and call upon God 
 to deliver them from the tyranny of his successors." ^ 
 What better proof of the qualities which have won 
 for him the title of Alboquerque " the Great " could 
 be given than this ! 
 
 The tyranny of the successors of Alboquerque has 
 been much exaggerated, and in recording the accu- 
 sations against them it must be remembered that 
 the Portuguese viceroys and governors were re- 
 garded at home as being placed in power for two 
 reasons, the one to send home yearly large fleets 
 laden with the commodities of Asia, purchased at 
 such a low price as to afford the king a handsome 
 profit for his treasury, and the other to propagate the 
 Christian faith. Neither of these causes for the 
 Portuguese dominion were likely to be regarded as 
 satisfactory by the natives of India. The orders of 
 ' Hunter's "Imperial Gazetteer of India," vol. vi., article India, p. 360.
 
 kZ C. di/va j-cu^. O/i^yi. in ^a, J^f^- An./7Y4, 
 
 ALBOQUERQUE. {After the Engraving by Silva, )
 
 THE PORTUGUESE RULE I.\ I.XDIA. 203 
 
 the Directors of the English East India Company to 
 Warren Hastings, to take care that they should have 
 good dividends to declare in England, were not more 
 imperative than the orders of King Emmanuel and 
 King John III. to the Portuguese governors, that fleets 
 heavily laden with Asiatic goods should be despatched 
 to Lisbon without their demanding any money from 
 home for their purchases. This of itself was enough 
 to make the demands of the Portuguese viceroys upon 
 the natives oppressive, and it must also be remembered 
 that men do not leave their fatherland to live in an 
 unhealthy climate for their own pleasure, and that 
 the Portuguese oflicial was as much tempted in the 
 sixteenth century to " shake the pagoda tree " for his 
 own benefit, and to exert his authority to that effect, 
 as an English civil servant in the eighteenth century. 
 Yet this search after gain was not wholly sordid, and 
 many gallant deeds mark the period between the 
 death of Affonso de Alboquerque, and the arrival of 
 the greatest of his successors, Dom Joao de Castro. 
 
 The rule of Lopo Soares de Albergaria, from 15 15 
 to 1 5 18, was chiefly notable for his buildings at Goa, 
 and for his success in opening up a trade with Ceylon 
 by establishing a factory and building a fort at 
 Colombo; and his successor, Diogo Lopes de Sequcira, 
 the discoverer of Malacca, and fourth governor, did 
 much to increase the development of this trade. The 
 fifth governor, Duarte or Edward de Menezes, had to 
 meet so many difficulties, and to put down so many 
 insurrections at Ormuz, Malacca, and Ceylon, that he 
 begged earnestly to be relieved; and in 1524 John III. 
 determined to send out Vasco da Gama again, with
 
 204 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 the title and powers of Viceroy, which had not been 
 conferred since the death of Alboquerque. But the 
 great navigator was now an old man, and never 
 reached Goa to take up his office. He did, however, 
 reach the Indian coast, which he had first seen a 
 quarter of a century before, and died at Cochin, on 
 Christmas Day, 1524. His body was buried in the 
 principal chapel of the Franciscan convent at Cochin, 
 but it did not long remain there ; for in 1538 it was 
 removed to Portugal, and finally interred at Belem. 
 Henrique de Menezes, who succeeded Vasco da 
 Gama as governor, managed to put down most of 
 the insurrections, and after a short interval of the rule 
 of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio, Nuno da Cunha, the son 
 of the great navigator, Tristao da Cunha, succeeded 
 to the governorship in 1526. His government was 
 marked by more important events than any since 
 that of Alboquerque, for he extended the influence of 
 Portugal along both the Malabar and Coromandel 
 coasts, and established settlements at Diu, off the coast 
 of Kathiawar on ^the western, and at Hugh, at the 
 mouth of the Ganges, on the eastern coast of India. 
 The Portuguese had, ever since the days of Dom 
 Francisco de Almeida, desired to obtain possession of 
 the island of Diu, which could be easily fortified, and 
 would form a good headquarters for their trade and 
 political influence on the north-western coast of India. 
 But all their efforts had been in vain until the year 
 1535, when Bahadar Shah, the Mohammedan king of 
 Gujarat, permitted them to build a fortress on the 
 island, and garrison it with their own troops. This 
 he did because he was being closely pressed by
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF NUNO DA CUNHA. 205 
 
 Humayun, the Moghul emperor, and father of Babar. 
 But the jMohammedan monarch soon regretted that 
 he had given the Portuguese such an important foot- 
 hold in his dominions, and it was after a visit he had 
 paid to Nuno da Cunha there that he was killed in a 
 scuffle while disembarking from a Portuguese ship. 
 His successor, Mohammed III. of Gujarat, regarded 
 the murder of his uncle as a proof of treachery on 
 the part of the Portuguese, and at once besieged Diu 
 by sea and land. But the fortress was nobly de- 
 fended ; the Portuguese women vied with the men in 
 gallantry, and after being reduced to the greatest 
 extremities, the commandant, Antonio de Silveira, 
 beat off the assailants. The other important event 
 of Nuno da Cunha's rule was the establishment of a 
 Portuguese factory at Hugh, at the mouth of the 
 Ganges, in the dominions of the King of Bengal, 
 which for the first time tapped the trade of that most 
 wealthy province. These great services during his 
 long rule of twelve years did not protect Nuno da 
 Cunha from malicious accusations being brought 
 against him at Lisbon ; exaggerated accounts of his 
 cruelty and of the corruption of his government were 
 reported against him, and in 1538 he was superseded 
 by a viceroy, Dom Garcia de Noronha. Nuno da 
 Cunha died on his way back to Portugal, and the 
 absence of his strong hand was soon felt in India. 
 Garcia de Noronha, a former ofificer of Alboquerque, 
 died almost immediately after his arrival, and his 
 successors, as governors, Estevao da Gama and 
 Martim Affbnso de Sousa distinguished their govern- 
 ments by an expedition to the Red Sea, during which
 
 / 
 
 206 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 Da^Gamai wa^_defea±e^Ji3.Uhejrurks^a^ and^y 
 the deffiat^oTDe SousaL-aJ^Tebelicavi. These checks 
 greatly affecte^the profits of the Indian trade, and 
 John III. determined to make a fresh departure by 
 despatching to India Dom Joao de Castro, a hero of 
 the old Portuguese type, and the intimate friend of 
 his uncle, Dom Luis, Duke of Beja. 
 
 In summing up thus briefly the history of the 
 Portuguese in India, weight has been laid only upon 
 its political and commercial aspect. It was for purely 
 commercial reasons that Prince Henry "the Naviga- 
 tor" had striven to find a direct sea route to India, 
 and Vasco da Gama's success had at first been looked 
 upon merely as opening up the Indian trade ; the 
 idea of dominion had not then occurred to the minds 
 of the Portuguese, and it was not until it became 
 obvious that the commercial stations or factories 
 would have to be guarded and defended, that troops 
 were despatched as well as factors. The successful 
 defence of Duarte Pacheco against the army of the 
 Zamorin of Calicut, showed how easy it would be for 
 the Portuguese to do more than just defend their 
 factories, if attacked, and Francisco de Almeida com- 
 menced a war of offence by attacking native poten- 
 tates, who refused to allow factories to be established in 
 their dominions. Affonso de Alboquerque originated 
 the idea of playing off the Hindu princes against the 
 aggressive Mohammedans, but none of his successors 
 followed out his policy in this respect. It must not, 
 however, be thought that the Portuguese had any 
 idea of establishing such an empire in India as the 
 English have built up during the last century. Their
 
 THE POLICY OF THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 207 
 
 great system was to occupy, by force if necessary, all 
 important centres of trade along the coasts, and there 
 to erect powerful cities and fortresses, whither the 
 native merchants could bring down their commodities 
 to be purchased and placed on board Portuguese 
 ships for passage to Lisbon. They made no attempt 
 to force their way into the interior, and only sent 
 envoys to native princes to secure protection for the 
 native traders coming to their ports. They occupied, 
 indeed, small rural districts around their most impor- 
 tant stations, such as Goa and Diu, which they ruled, 
 according to the fashion adopted by Alboquerque in 
 Goa, by regarding the village communities as units, 
 and regulating taxation accordingly. If these facts are 
 grasped, the tales of Portuguese tyranny and oppres- 
 sion fall to the ground, for the only natives they 
 could oppress were the merchants, who brought goods 
 down to the ports, and the inhabitants who chose to 
 dwell within the Portuguese borders. The merchants 
 and traders did indeed suffer, because they had to sell 
 their merchandise by a scale which cut their profits 
 down much more than they relished, and the inhabi- 
 tants of the cities were ruled as inferiors, who were 
 bound to be subject to the Europeans in every re- 
 spect. The Portuguese judges naturally favoured 
 their own people, and thus in many instances treated 
 the natives unjustly, but it may be pointed out that 
 no merchant could be forced to come down to the 
 ports, and that no native could be compelled to dwell 
 in the Portuguese cities against his will. These con- 
 siderations, joined to a recollection of the inevitable 
 accusations always brought by a subject population
 
 208 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 against a race of foreign rulers, tend to prove that the 
 accusations of tyranny and oppression brought against 
 the Portuguese have been greatly exaggerated, and it 
 is quite certain that the Hindus were quite as badly, 
 if not worse, treated by their Mohammedan con- 
 querors. 
 
 In one respect alone they had a right to complain, 
 and that was, that the Portuguese, not satisfied with 
 extending their commercial transactions, attempted 
 also to overthrow the native religions, just as the 
 Mohammedans did. For the Portuguese conquerors 
 were not only traders, but ardent Christians, firmly 
 convinced of the truth of their religion, and deter- 
 mined to spread it. The squadron commanded by 
 Pedro Alvares Cabral, which had been despatched to 
 India directly after the return of Vasco da Gama, 
 had carried some Franciscan friars, who were left at 
 Cochin, in 1500, to preach their religion. They were 
 .speedily followed by other missionaries, chiefly Domi- 
 nican and Franciscan friars, who increased in number, 
 after the capital of the Portuguese sovereignty was 
 removed to Goa. Great convents arose there, and the 
 missionaries began their labours by preaching in the 
 neighbouring districts, which were divided into parishes 
 after the European fashion, and regarded as ecclesias- 
 tical units. The fame of the Goa missionaries was 
 greatly increased by , the discovery or pretended 
 discovery of the bones of St. Thomas the Apostle at 
 the spot, which had long attracted the common worship 
 of Mohammedans, Hindus, and native Christians, 
 near Madras, where he was reported to have been 
 martyred. These bones were brought to Goa in 1522,
 
 CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN INDIA. 209 
 
 during^ the government of Duarte de Menezes, and 
 buried with great pomp in the sacred shrine in the 
 Church of St. Thomas at Goa, where they remain to 
 this day. These first Portuguese missionaries were 
 deh'ghted to find native Christians in India when they 
 arrived, and to find them a powerful military caste. 
 They did not at first inquire too minutely into the doc- 
 trines and ceremonies of these Christians, who belonged 
 to the Nestorian Church, and far from persecuting 
 them with especial fervour, as was the case later, they 
 regarded the very existence of these Christians as a 
 proof of the vitality of their own faith. After the 
 discovery of the bones of St. Thomas missionaries 
 flocked in increased numbers to India, not only from 
 Portugal, but from Rome itself ; and in 1539 Goa was 
 made the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, and Joao 
 de Alboquerque was consecrated its first bishop. But 
 the greatest impulse given to the cause of the propa- 
 gation of the Christian faith was the arrival in India 
 of St. Francis Xavier in 1542, during the government 
 of Martim Affonso de Sousa. This great preacher 
 and great man was not long in making a deep impres- 
 sion upon the natives of India, and the news of the 
 converts he had made without the limits of the 
 Portuguese settlements, attracted a crowd of followers. 
 The Society of the Jesuits, of which he was one of 
 the founders, paid especial attention to this field of 
 mission work, and the progress of Christianity became 
 more and more rapid. This was the golden age of 
 proselytising effort ; the Hindus listened with patience 
 to the Christian missionaries, and did not yet begin 
 to persecute them, and the Inquisition which was to
 
 DOM JOAO DE CASTRO. 
 
 After the copy given by the MS. of Pedro Barnito de Rezende of the 
 original portrait in the Palace of the Viceroys at Goa.)
 
 THE VICEROY ALTY OF JOAO DE CASTRO. 211 
 
 bear so heavily upon the native Church of Nestorian 
 Christians, did not inaugurate its forcible methods 
 of conversion until the year 1 560. 
 
 The name of St. Francis Xavier suggests that of 
 his illustrious friend, Dom Joao de Castro, who rivalled 
 upon the battlefield the glories of Francisco de 
 Almeida, Afifonso de Alboquerque, and Nuno da 
 Cunha, but who was distinguished above them all for \_ 
 the noble purity of his life. De Castro was the 
 intimate friend of the king's uncle, Dom Luis, Duke 
 of Beja, with whom he had been educated, and had 
 won his spurs and the admiration of the Emperor 
 Charles V., by his conduct in the expedition to Tunis. 
 He had served with distinction under Garcia de 
 Xoronha and Estevao da Gama in the Indian seas, 
 and on his return home had been employed in the 
 difficult task of evacuating the various Portuguese 
 stations in Morocco, which it had been decided to 
 abandon. He was renowned for the purity and even 
 austerity of his character, and it was for this reason 
 that he was appointed, in 1545, viceroy of India. 
 The situation there was a difficult one, for the Sultan 
 of Turkey had, it is said, at the request of the 
 Venetians, who were disgusted at losing their profitable 
 trade with the East, sent a powerful fleet down the 
 Red Sea to exterminate the Portuguese in India. 
 When Joao de Castro arrived at Goa, he heard that 
 Diu was being again besieged by Mohammed III. of 
 Gujarat. The news was true, and in spite of the 
 gallant defence of Dom Joao de Mascarenhas, the 
 besieged were driven to extremities. The viceroy at 
 once proceeded thither, and not only relieved the
 
 213 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 fortress, but defeated the King of Gujarat in a pitched 
 battle beneath the walls. This victory, the greatest 
 won by the Portuguese in India, exalted the fame of 
 the general, which was further enhanced by his 
 annihilation of the great Turkish fleet. After these 
 victories Joao de Castro turned to matters of internal 
 reform, and, by a policy which recalls that of Lord 
 Cornwallis in Bengal in later history, he fixed the 
 salaries of the various civil officials and tried to put 
 an end to the system of corruption and peculation by 
 which they had robbed the royal treasury and the 
 natives alike. He looked with especial disfavour 
 upon the loose and immoral life led by the Portuguese 
 at Goa, and sternly discouraged their luxury, which, 
 as he declared, could only be paid for by robbing the 
 king of his dues. Unfortunately Joao de Castro, 
 though he was to inaugurate reforms, did not live 
 long enough to see them carried out, for he died in 
 1548, in the third year of his viceroyalty, in the 
 arms of his friend, St. Francis Xavier, and it is recorded 
 to the glory of this knight of the olden type, that, in 
 spite of his opportunities, he died poor, and bequeathed 
 to his son only his sword, "ornamented," in the words 
 of his biographer, " with a few stones of no great value, 
 but with a glory beyond price." 
 
 The immediate successors of Dom Joao de Castro, 
 Garcia de Sd, Jorge Cabral, Affonso de Noronha, and 
 Pedro de Mascarenhas, found no great perils to meet, 
 since the victory of Diu had terrified the Mohammed- 
 ans for a time, and none of them left any important 
 traces upon the history of the Portuguese in India. 
 The government of Dom Constantino de Braganza,
 
 PORTUGUESE SETTLEMENTS IN AFRICA. 213 
 
 a scion of the most noble house in Portugal next to 
 royalty, marked a return to the system of Dom Joao 
 de Castro, whom he imitated not only in his internal 
 reforms, but in his gallantry in the field. He it was 
 who took and occupied Daman, which, with Goa and 
 Diu, remains to this day a possession of Portugal. 
 He was still in office when the death of John HI. 
 left the crown of Portugal to a minor, and the great- 
 ness of his country, and even its independence, was 
 on the point of disappearing. 
 
 But the Portuguese power in Asia must not be 
 regarded as being confined to India, though Goa 
 remained its headquarters, and the centre from which 
 the homeward-bound fleets sailed. It will be remem- 
 bered that Affonso de Alboquerque made expeditions 
 both to the east and west ; and his successors, during 
 the century of the Portuguese monopoly of the 
 Asiatic trade, maintained and extended their com- 
 mercial operations in both direction. But before 
 touching on these extensions attention must be called 
 to the care with which the greatest Portuguese 
 governors kept up the establishments on the south- 
 eastern coast of Africa. Mozambique, which still 
 belongs to Portugal, Mombassa, and Melinda, were 
 all fortified with the utmost science of the time, 
 for the homeward- and outward-bound fleets always 
 paused at one or other or at all of these places 
 before facing or after meeting the perils of the Indian 
 Ocean, in order to refit and take in provisions. The 
 dangers of the passage round the Cape of Good 
 Hope were also sufficiently serious to need rest or 
 preparation, for to mention but two disasters, Francisco
 
 214 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 de Almeida, the first Viceroy of India was wrecked 
 in Saldanha Bay, and died there on his way back from 
 his command ; and a few years after occurred the 
 wreck, imprisonment among the savages, and death 
 of Dom Manoel de Sousa and his wife, which Camoens 
 has immortah'zed in touching words.^ More impor- 
 tant than these African settlements was the city of 
 Ormuz, at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, which 
 became the headquarters of the Persian trade with 
 Europe by means of the Portuguese fleets. It has 
 been seen that Aden was too strong for Alboquerque 
 to capture ; one of his successors, Affonso de Noronha, 
 was more successful in 1 551, but he only held the key 
 of the Red Sea for a single year, after which it was 
 recaptured by the Turks. 
 
 Far more valuable was the settlement of Malacca, 
 which was placed upon a secure footing by Alboquer- 
 que. It became the centre of a great trade with Java, 
 Sumatra, and the Spice Islands, and from it Fernao 
 de Magalhaes and Francisco Serrao prosecuted their 
 discoveries among the Moluccas and the Celebes. 
 The history of this settlement is full of interest ; it 
 was repeatedly attacked by the Achinese and ojher 
 natives, and some of its sieges are as famous as those 
 of Diu, though not conducted against such civilized 
 opponents. But Malacca was not only the head- 
 quarters of the Spice Islands trade, but the port from 
 which explorations were directed northwards. It was 
 from Malacca that Duarte Coelho started to explore 
 the coasts of Cochin China, and made his adventurous 
 journey into Siam, and from Malacca also Fernao 
 
 ' Camoens, " Lusiads," canto v. stanzas 46-48.
 
 THE PORTUGUESE IN CHINA. 215 
 
 Peres de Andrade started to open up trade with the 
 mighty and populous empire of China. There can 
 be little doubt, according to a most distinguished 
 Portuguese historian/ that the embassy, which King 
 Emmanuel despatched in 15 17 to the emperor of 
 China, was caused by a knowledge of Marco Polo's 
 travels, and by the interest inspired by his account of 
 the far empire of Cathay. At any rate it was as an 
 ambassador from one monarch to another, and not as 
 a conqueror that Fernao Peres de Andrade was sent 
 to China with letters and presents. And the very 
 fact of this embassy suggests a doubt whether the 
 Portuguese would have ever acted as they did in India 
 had there been a monarch there of such power as the 
 emperor of China was reported to possess, or would 
 have been contented to be traders only. De Andrade 
 safely reached Canton by way of Malacca in 15 18, 
 but in spite of his letters and presents he was long 
 detained there and not allow^ed to proceed to Pekin 
 until 1 521. When the Chinese thoroughly understood 
 that the Portuguese came only to trade and not to 
 conquer, they permitted the new-comers to establish 
 a factor}', first at Lium-po ; and in 1549 at Chin 
 Chee ; and, finally, in 1 557, in the year of the death of 
 John III., at the request of the Chinese Government, 
 the Portuguese withdrew their other factories and 
 established themselves in the island of Macao, at the 
 mouth of the Canton river. Here they carried on a 
 prosperous trade, and in 1583 they received leave to 
 
 ' The Viscount de Santarem in his " Memoria sobre o estabelicemento 
 de Macau."
 
 2l6 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 dispense justice within their island, and in 1587 were 
 recognized as independent there. 
 
 The first communication of the Portuguese with 
 Japan is still more curious, and is connected with the 
 history of one of those adventurous travellers who 
 boldly traversed the most distant lands of Asia, 
 long before Englishmen or Dutchmen had ventured 
 to assail the Portuguese monopoly. Fernao Mendes 
 Pinto has for generations been regarded as a typical 
 "iar, an accusation generally believed in England from 
 the famous line of Congreve in " Love for Love : " 
 (act ii. scene v.) " Mendes Pinto was but a type of 
 thee, thou liar of the first magnitude." 
 
 But modern inquiry has shown that though he doubt- 
 less exaggerated, and drew strange inferences, his 
 curious " Peregrinacao " or Travels, which was first 
 published in 1614, and was translated during the 
 seventeenth century into English, French, and Spanish, 
 contains essentially a true account of his adventures. 
 His career is typical of that of many another Portu- 
 guese adventurer in the East. He first went to Asia 
 in 1537, and during his wanderings was five times 
 shipwrecked, thirteen times taken captive, and seven- 
 teen times sold as a slave. On his way out he was 
 taken prisoner between Socotra and the Persian 
 Gulf, and sold as a slave at Mocha, where he re- 
 mained until ransomed by the Portuguese governor 
 of Ormuz. After many daring adventures, which 
 savour of piracy, he was engaged in 1542 in a 
 strange expedition to Calempin, near Pekin, which 
 he had organized to plunder the tombs of seven- 
 teen Chinese emperors there. On his way back
 
 THE PORTUGUESE IN JAPAN. 217 
 
 from this sacrilegious attempt he was wrecked off 
 the Chinese coast, and set to work in repairing the 
 Great Wall of China. While there he was made a 
 prisoner by the Tartars during one of their invasions, 
 and after being present at a Tartar siege of Pekin was 
 carried away into Tartary. After various adventures 
 he managed to get back to China, and he then paid his 
 first visit to Japan. His account of the wealth of the 
 Japanese islands excited the minds of the Portuguese 
 officials on the Chinese coast, and a fleet of nine ships 
 was placed under his command at Ning-po, with 
 orders to open up a trade with Japan. Ill luck again 
 pursued him ; eight of his ships foundered, and the 
 one upon which he himself sailed, was wrecked on the 
 Loo-Choo Islands. Undiscouraged by all his reverses, 
 he continued to represent the wealth of Japan to 
 his superiors in China and at Malacca, and in 1548 
 he established a factory in the neighbourhood of 
 Yokohama. Here he did good service, and besides 
 opening up a trade in Japanese goods, he made a 
 large fortune for himself With this fortune he 
 was on his way back to Portugal in 1553, when 
 the ecclesiastics at Goa worked upon his religious 
 sentiments, which, as in other Portuguese adven- 
 turers, must have been very deep, though they do not 
 seem to have influenced him in his dealings with 
 Asiatics, and persuaded him to devote nearly all his 
 wealth to the establishment of a seminary at Goa for 
 the education of missionaries to Japan. 
 
 The career of Mendes Pinto illustrates the extra- 
 ordinary energy and indomitable courage of the Portu- 
 guese in Asia, and it is a subject for wonder how
 
 2l8 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 
 
 one little country, one of the very smallest of the 
 European states, could produce not only great 
 governors and conquerors, like Francisco de Almeida, 
 Affonso de Alboquerque, Nuno da Cunha, and Joao 
 de Castro, and their lieutenants ; and military heroes 
 like Duarte Pacheco, Antonio de Silveira, and Joao 
 de Mascarenhas, and their soldiers ; biat also daring 
 adventurers like Duarte Coelho, who boldly penetrated 
 into the interior of Siam, and Mendes Pinto. These 
 men, from the highest to the lowest, seem to have had 
 unbounded confidence in themselves, and, as will be 
 seen later, two Portuguese adventurers, with hardly 
 any support, Sebastiao Gonzales and Philip de Brito, 
 established themselves as practically independent 
 princes in Arakan. It has been shown that this extra- 
 ordinary energy and enterprise exhausted the kingdom 
 of Portugal. Of the thousands who left their homes 
 in Europe, but an infinitesimal portion ever returned. 
 Not one of the early governors of Portuguese India 
 died in Portugal until the time of Dom Constantino 
 de Braganza ; they either died in India, like Albo- 
 querque, Vasco da Gama, and Noronha, or on their 
 way home, like Almeida and Nuno da Cunha. The 
 drain upon the energies of the people was immense, 
 and the wonder is not that Portugal was soon ex- 
 hausted, but that it ever put forth such vitality at all. 
 The greatness of the Portuguese in India was due to 
 the courage and heroism of the Portuguese people, 
 and these qualities they owed to a succession of 
 great kings, who had trained the people to freedom, 
 self-reliance, and constancy ; were it not for great 
 kings like John "the Great" and John "the Perfect,"
 
 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 2ig 
 
 and great princes like Pedro, Duke of Coimbra, and 
 Prince Henry " the Navigator," the Portuguese nation 
 would never have done what it did, and the Story of 
 Portugal teaches the useful lesson that a people, 
 trained to lofty thoughts and a high conception of 
 dut}', will be sure to find scope for its energies, and 
 exhibit the result of its training in noble deeds.
 
 <^tl' 
 
 X. 
 
 THE PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. 
 
 The history of the Portuguese in South America 
 differs greatly from the story of the growth of their 
 power in Asia ; in America they found no wealthy 
 cities and civilized peoples, only poor natives, and it 
 was no wonder that their chief efforts in the sixteenth 
 century were devoted to the development of the lucra- 
 tive Eastern trade and to Asiatic exploration. Had 
 any one told King Emmanuel that the country which 
 Pedro Alvares Cabral discovered by a mere chance on 
 his way to Asia, would prove of more enduring value 
 to Portugal than the settle ments in India, that 
 monarch would not have believed him. Yet such 
 has been the case. Whereas at the present time the 
 Portuguese possessions in Asia have dwindled down 
 to the settlements of Goa, Daman, and Diu in India, 
 and the island of Macao, which are of very little 
 value to the mother country, the great republic of 
 Brazil has expanded into an independent state con- 
 taining fourteen millions of inhabitants, or more than 
 three times the population of Portugal.^ It is true that 
 
 ' According to the estimate formed at the close of 1888, Brazil had 
 a population of 14,002,335 inhabitants, while according to the census
 
 THE DISCOVERY OF BRAZIL. 221 
 
 the governments of Portugal and her flourishing 
 daughter across the Atlantic are separated, and that 
 they are politically independent of each other, yet 
 Brazil still continues in close alliance with Portugal, 
 and receives from the mother country the crowds of 
 sturdy immigrants, who are steadily expanding the 
 resources of the greatest country in South America. 
 Brazilians are as proud of the great deeds of their 
 European ancestors as the Portuguese themselves, 
 and even surpass the inhabitants of the mother 
 country in their admiration for Camoens, and the 
 assiduous study of his works. The story of the 
 settlement and gradual colonization of Brazil cannot 
 rival in romantic interest that of the Portuguese 
 exploits in Asia, but it is nevertheless instructive to 
 study the slow growth of the colony which has now 
 become a mighty empire. 
 
 It was upon April 24, 1500, that Pedro Alvares 
 Cabral, the admiral commanding the fleet which 
 King Emmanuel had ordered to India, on receiving 
 the news of the successful voyage of Vasco da Gama, 
 caught sight of an unknown country towards the 
 west. He had stood out to sea after passing the Cape 
 Verde Islands, or, according to some authorities, had 
 been driven out to sea by a storm and had not 
 expected to sec land at all, so that the discover)-, 
 which proved of the greatest value to Portugal, was 
 the result of chance, and not of deliberate exploration. 
 He was unable to land at first on account of the surf, 
 
 of 1878 Portugal had a population of 4,160,315. in the Azores and 
 Madeira 390,384, the possessions in Asia 847,503, and the possessions 
 in Africa, 2,741,448.
 
 222 THE PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. 
 
 and it was not until he reached 15° north latitude, 
 that he was able to find a harbour, to which he gave 
 the name of Porto Seguro or Safe Port. He landed 
 and took possession of the new country in the name 
 of the King of Portugal, and after erecting a cross 
 gave it the name of Santa Cruz, which remained its 
 official name for many years, before the popular name 
 of Brazil, which was given to it from the quantity of 
 brazil-trees it contained, was adopted. Cabral found 
 the country to be fertile and well watered, and 
 inhabited by a mild and inoffensive people, who 
 allowed him to explore a little, and to take on board 
 fruit and water. He at once perceived the value of 
 his discovery, and sent off one of his ships to Lisbon 
 with information of it, and with one of the inhabitants 
 on board to be taught the Portuguese language. He 
 also left two of his own men in the country to learn 
 the language of the natives and to explore, and then 
 proceeded on his way to India. 
 
 King Emmanuel sent various expeditions to ex- 
 plore this new country, notably two under Amerigo 
 Vespucci in 1501 and 1503, and the greater part of 
 the coast line down to the River Plate was visited 
 and mapped out by this industrious explorer. But 
 neither Vespucci, nor the first colonists despatched 
 from Portugal, reported the existence of more than 
 a fertile country, and the Portuguese people being at 
 that time in the full excitement of their first conquests 
 in Asia, and the rich trade to be opened up there, 
 paid but little attention to the new possession across 
 the Atlantic. It was soon discovered that there were 
 no wealthy cities or powerful dynasties among the
 
 ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS. 223 
 
 inhabitants of Brazil, such as Cortez met with in 
 Mexico, and Pizarro in Peru, and there seemed to be 
 little prospect of a lucrative trade. So little was 
 known, indeed, of the natural wealth of Brazil, that 
 Spain, though by the Bull of Alexander VI. it had a 
 right to all discoveries in that quarter of the globe, 
 consented to give up to Portugal undisputed posses- 
 sion of the whole coast line of Brazil from the River 
 Maranham to the River Plate, 
 
 Of the aboriginal inhabitants of this vast country, 
 curious accounts were written by the first Portuguese 
 explorers. They were reported to be partly nomadic, 
 and to live chiefly on fish and fruit, and on the game 
 which they killed in their forests with bows and 
 arrows. They wore little or no clothes, and generally 
 painted their bodies, and some tribes used to smear 
 themselves with gum, and stick beautiful feathers 
 all over them, which made them look at a distance 
 more like great birds than human beings. They 
 grew no corn, but made cakes of cassava root, 
 and used to drink either the pressed juice of 
 fruit or an intoxicating liquor made from honey. 
 They understood how to spin and weave, and 
 build huts ; they were great smokers of tobacco, 
 and had some knowledge of the usefulness of the 
 medicinal herbs and drugs which abound in Brazil. 
 Their country, though fertile, seemed destitute of 
 everything of value to Europeans, and it was at first 
 thought that the discovery of Cabral would in no 
 way contribute to the wealth or prosperity of the 
 Portuguese people. 
 
 So firmly was this believed, and so absorbed were
 
 224 ^^^ PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. 
 
 the king, nobles, and people of Portugal in their 
 Asiatic explorations and conquests, that for many 
 years no attempt was made to form settlements in 
 South America, and no effort to explore the interior 
 of the continent. Two royal ships only for a long 
 time were despatched to Brazil every year to take 
 out and land there condemned convicts and women 
 of bad character, and to bring back parrots and 
 different varieties of wood, notably the brazil wood 
 which gave the new country its popular name. A 
 few families of settlers, partly from Madeira and 
 partly from northern Portugal, also went out on their 
 own account, and established themselves in various 
 chosen spots, where they introduced agriculture and 
 tried in vain to make the natives work for them as 
 slaves. No attempt was made by the Portuguese 
 monarch to superintend these infant settlements, or 
 to decree any form of government for the stray 
 colonists and convicts, who did what seemed good in 
 their own eyes, and in many instances treated the 
 natives with the utmost severity. While soldiers, 
 governors, and officials were despatched in numbers 
 to Asia, there was no thought taken of America ; and 
 as one instance of the manner in which Brazil was 
 treated, it may be mentioned that the importation of 
 ginger from that country was prohibited in order not 
 to infringe the Indian monopoly. 
 
 This neglect suddenly ceased about the year 1530, 
 when the rumour spread throughout Portugal that 
 Brazil abounded in gold, silver, and precious stones. 
 The natives had made no attempt to work mines, for 
 they attached no value to these commodities, but the
 
 THE SETTLEMENT OF BRAZIL. 
 
 22=5 
 
 knowledge that the precious metals abounded in Peru 
 caused people to believe that they also existed in 
 other parts of the South American continent. The 
 discovery of gold in small quantities, and the rumours 
 of an El Dorado in the interior, soon attracted crowds 
 of adventurers from all parts of Europe ; many 
 families from Portugal were then encouraged to 
 emigrate in order to counterbalance these adventurers, 
 and the settlement of the new country was thus 
 commenced in earnest. King John III. was as much 
 excited by the news of the discovery of gold as his 
 courtiers and people, and he sent over to Brazil in 
 1 53 1 the first royal governor, Martim Affonso de 
 Sousa, with instructions to assert the royal power 
 over the rapidly increasing population of colonists 
 and adventurers, and to arrange for the future govern- 
 ment of the country. Martim Afifonso de Sousa, 
 who was afterwards Governor- General of Portuguese 
 India, was a wise and prudent statesman ; though 
 unsupported by any soldiers he made a sort of royal 
 progress through Brazil, and he strongly advised the 
 king to let the country develop by itself without 
 interference from home. For government, he advised 
 that the form of administration which had sprung up 
 in the various settled districts should be confirmed 
 and not interfered with. This form of government 
 was simply the combination of all the inhabitants of 
 each settlement into a sort of little state, which 
 elected an officer called captain, who exercised a sort 
 of patriarchal authority, and superintended measures 
 of defence against either natives or other colonies of 
 settlers. These captains held no royal commission,
 
 326 THE PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. 
 
 and imposed no taxes ; every man was able to dc 
 pretty much what he liked in his own house, and 
 each settlement was ruled not by law, but by the 
 general sentiment of the community. These captains 
 had no authority but what they derived from the 
 willing obedience of the settlers, and every captain 
 exercised more or less authority according to his 
 personal character. Martim Affonso de Sousa saw 
 the advantages of such a system for a new colony, 
 and he advised the king not to send out royal officials 
 from home whose authority would probably be 
 ignored, but to confirm these captains in their 
 authority, and that the settlements already made 
 should be recognized as " captainships." This was 
 accordingly done ; the king was only too glad not to 
 have to despatch soldiers to America as he wanted 
 all he could raise for Asia, and he sanctioned the 
 measures taken by his representative. But he further 
 subdivided the country into three vast "chief captain- 
 ships," which he granted to Joao de Barros, the 
 Portuguese Livy and historian of the Portuguese in 
 Asia, Ayres da Cunha, and Fernao Alvares de 
 Andrade, with instructions to search for gold mines 
 and to exercise a general supervision over the 
 government of the country. 
 
 The colonists, who flocked to Brazil from Portugal 
 at this time, were of a very different type to the 
 Portuguese who were sent to Asia. The latter were 
 chiefly soldiers, sailors, and officials, despatched to 
 India and the settlements in the East in royal fleets 
 as servants of the Crown, who, while acknowledging 
 themselves servants of the king, yet went to the East
 
 THE COLONIZATION OF BRAZIL. 227 
 
 with the idea of makinij their own fortunes, and even- 
 tually returning home to Portugal, while the Brazilian 
 colonists went out at their own expense with their 
 wives and families, and made their homes in their 
 adopted country. These men were invaluable to a 
 new country ; they went out with no intention of ever 
 returning home, and with the power and will to 
 labour with their hands. Throughout the sixteenth 
 century a steady succession of Portuguese emigrants 
 made their way to Brazil, either on account of the 
 favourable report of its climate and resources, which 
 they received from their friends or relations already 
 settled there, or in order to escape the misfortunes 
 impending on their own country, and more especially 
 the heavy hand of the Inquisition. Mention has 
 been made of the vast importation of slaves into 
 Portugal ; this employment of negro labour threw a 
 number of agricultural labourers out of work, who 
 did not care to enlist as soldiers for the East, and 
 could not make a livelihood in cities, and from this 
 class many of the first colonists to Brazil came. Some 
 weight, too, must be attached to the adventurous 
 nature of the Portuguese people ; and this side of 
 their character, which showed itself in individuals in 
 the East, made men who loved a family life better 
 than fighting find their way to the western continent. 
 The colonization of Brazil was essentially popular ; it 
 was not initiated by king, priests, or nobles ; and 
 illustrates the extreme self-reliance and daring which 
 made Portugal so great at this period. The one 
 blot upon the careers of these early settlers was their 
 treatment of the natives. Accustomed to the exis-
 
 \ 
 
 228 THE PORTUGUESE TN BRAZIL. 
 
 tence of slavery at home, they tried to make the 
 natives work for them, and this attempt brought about 
 a bitter hatred between the aboriginal races and the 
 immigrants, which showed itself in murder and 
 massacre. The steady tide of emigration to Brazil 
 did not at this time contribute to the wealth of the 
 mother country ; on the contrary, it must be noted 
 as one of the chief causes of that depopulation of 
 Portugal, which has been spoken of as the germ of the 
 decadence of the Portuguese power. 
 
 It has been said that some of the emigrants from 
 Portugal to Brazil were moved by a fear of the Inqui- 
 sition, and hoped to escape from it by going to the 
 New World. Especially was this the case with num- 
 bers of the "novaes Christiaos," or half- converted 
 Jews. This class comprised many families of wealth 
 and influence, who, when they saw the rapid approach 
 of persecution, removed en masse to Brazil, In the 
 new country they thought themselves free, and were 
 joined by many of their unconverted brethren, who had 
 been expelled by King Emmanuel. As usual, even it 
 not wealthy, these people were able to raise money, and 
 they brought into the new colony, what it most needed, 
 capital. Many of the greatest families in Brazil trace 
 their descent from these laborious and hard-working 
 colonists, who, as in every other place, gave an impulse 
 to trade and industrial development unfelt before. It 
 was owing to their perspicacity that the sugar-cane, 
 the greatest source of Brazilian wealth, was intro- 
 duced into the colony from Madeira in the year 1 548, 
 and they started the direct slave trade with the 
 Guinea Coast, recognizing both the impossibility of
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF THOMAS DE SOUSA. 229 
 
 reducing the aboriginal races into a state of servitude, 
 and the advantages of negro labour. From all these 
 causes, Brazil was growing a wealthy colony by the 
 middle of the sixteenth century, possessing many 
 well-populated and well-cultivated districts upon the 
 sea coast, surrounding the various ports and harbours, 
 where prosperous towns had sprung up, of which may 
 be noted at this time Pernambuco, Tamacara, Ilheos, 
 Porto Seguro, and St. Vincent. 
 
 The prosperity of Brazil attracted the attention of 
 John III., and he at last decided to establish a vice- 
 royalty there, instead of leaving the colonists to 
 govern themselves, and for the first governor-general 
 he selected a nobleman of talent and experience, Dom 
 Thomas de Sousa. At the same time the king re- 
 voked his decree forming the three "chief captain- 
 ships," and granted his representative full powers to 
 arrange for a new system of administration. In 1549 
 Dom Thomas de Sousa arrived in Brazil with a fleet 
 of six ships of war, many officials for the new govern- 
 ment, a strong force of soldiers, and the first contingent 
 of Jesuits, who were despatched with the especial 
 purpose of converting the natives. Fortunately for 
 Brazil, Thomas de Sousa was a great statesman ; he 
 made no attempt to enforce his powers unduly ; he 
 carefully avoided interfering with the subordinate 
 captainships, and left the s\stem of local government 
 established in each without modification ; he made no 
 attempt to levy taxes or to interfere with the liberties 
 of the people, and even avoided quartering his soldiers 
 in any of the existing towns. He perceived that the 
 weak point of the existing administration was that
 
 230 THE PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. 
 
 the captainships were too independent of each other, 
 scattered as they were down the coast like little states, 
 and he therefore determined to found a capital, and to 
 establish a central government, which, without inter- 
 fering with local liberties, should become a court of 
 appeal, and regulating power over them. The place 
 he selected for his capital was at the head of All 
 Saints Bay, better known as the Bay of Bahia, where 
 he erected the city of San Salvador. This town he 
 made the headquarters of his troops, and the seat of 
 the central government, and the Jesuit fathers also 
 made it their point of departure. The most impor- 
 tant question that Thomas de Sousa had to face was 
 the treatment of the aboriginal tribes. The attempts 
 of the Portuguese settlers to reduce them to slavery 
 had been met with stubborn resistance, and a chronic 
 war raged along all the landward boundaries of the 
 captainships. The natives did not often attack the 
 settlements of the Europeans, but they resisted any 
 advance towards the interior, and small parties of 
 Portuguese attempting to settle in the interior 
 were often massacred. Dom Thomas de Sousa 
 determined to check this continuous guerilla war- 
 fare by both warlike and peaceful measures. He 
 sent his troops, and led them himself, against tribes 
 which had committed any particular act of atrocity, 
 and punished them severely, and at the same time he 
 gave all the help in his power to the measures of the 
 Jesuits for civilizing them. 
 
 The history of the Jesuits in Brazil is far more 
 glorious if less interesting than that of the Jesuits 
 in India. In America they had not to contend with
 
 THE yE SUITS IN BRAZIL. 23 1 
 
 the trained and subtle intellects of the Hindus, who 
 were able and ready to meet them in the most 
 abstruse philosophical arguments, but with simple- 
 minded savages willing to be taught. The success of 
 the famous Society was unbounded ; the teachings of 
 Christianity did far more to quiet the aboriginal 
 inhabitants than the swords of De Sousa's soldiers, and 
 in a comparatively short space of time, either Jesuits, 
 or native emissaries trained and taught by them, had 
 penetrated many miles into the interior of the conti- 
 nent. The rapid conversion and civilization of the 
 native tribes produced many fortunate results : the 
 great domain of Portugal in South America was saved 
 much of the terrible warfare with savages, which 
 marks the history of the English settlers in North 
 America ; but, on the other hand, peace between the 
 two races brought ^bout intermarriage, and produced 
 a class of mestizos, or half-breeds, which now includes 
 about a quarter of the population. This conversion 
 to the Christian religion was not hastened or in any 
 way assisted by the terrible power of the Inquisition. 
 That institution, which did so much to weaken the 
 influence of Christianity in India, by its aiito-da-Jes 
 and its persecution of the Nestorian Christians was 
 never allowed to take root in Brazil, and the atrocities 
 of Goa were not imitated at San Salvador or Rio de 
 Janeiro. Many reasons have been given for the non- 
 establishment of the Inquisition, but the chief credit 
 is undoubtedly due to Dom Thomas de Sousa, who 
 was well aware of the services rendered to Brazil 
 by the " novaes Christiaos " and other persons, whose 
 orthodoxy could be impeached, and who urged at the
 
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 THE GOVERNMENT OF DUARTE DA COSTA. 233 
 
 Court of Lisbon, that it would be impossible to estab- 
 lish such a hated institution as the Inquisition against 
 the will of the people of the captainships without the 
 assistance of a powerful army, and as the king wanted 
 all his soldiers for India, he gave up the idea of setting 
 up an offshoot of the Holy Office in America. 
 
 The establishment of the Jesuits in Brazil, the 
 foundation of a central authority to superintend but 
 not harass the captainships, and the pursuance of a 
 steady and uniform policy towards the natives, are the 
 points which mark the government of Dom Thomas 
 de Sousa. That of his successor, Duarte da Costa, 
 was less important than his predecessor's. He 
 followed De Sousa's example, and the prosperity of 
 Brazil became so obvious that emigration from un- 
 happy and declining Portugal continued to such an 
 extent that the Europeans in the colony doubled in 
 number during his administration. One point of his 
 administration deserves notice, namely, that he super- 
 seded the old earthen fortifications round the principal 
 towns by walls, and erected forts to guard the most 
 important harbours, mounted with artillery. These 
 precautions show that there was fear of foreign aggres- 
 sion ; other European nations heard of the wealth and 
 fertility of Brazil, and coveted its possession, and a 
 systematic attempt to oust or conquer the Portuguese 
 was made in the next century by the Dutch. During 
 the sixteenth century, however, only one nation, the 
 French, attempted to make a settlement in Brazil, 
 and their effort deserves a brief r.oticc. 
 
 France, it is well known, was torn by religious wars 
 during the sixteenth century, and it was one of the
 
 234 "^^^ PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. 
 
 Huguenot leaders, Nicolas Durant, Sieur de Villegagnon 
 and Vice- Admiral of Brittany, who first conceived the 
 idea of expatriating himself and founding a colony 
 with his co-religionists in the fertile country of Brazil. 
 The Admiral de Coligny warmly supported this scheme, 
 and obtained leave from Henry H. to put it into 
 execution. Three large vessels were accordingly 
 chartered, and a number of intending colonists set sail 
 from Havre for Brazil in May, 1555, under the com- 
 mand of Villegagnon. They reached South America 
 in November, and, without even attempting to obtain 
 the consent of either of the King of Portugal or of 
 the authorities of the captainship in which they landed, 
 deliberately settled in an eligible spot, and for pro- 
 tection alike against the natives and the Portuguese, 
 they built Fort Coligny. Villegagnon immediately 
 reported his success to the admiral, who sent on 
 his letter to Calvin at Geneva, Calvin expressed his 
 satisfaction at the notion of a Protestant colony in 
 that quarter of the New World, and with his appro- 
 bation a Genevese named Dupont, and two ministers, 
 Richer and Chartier, collected together three hundred 
 more French Huguenots and joined the original 
 settlers in 1557 at Fort Coligny. Violent religious 
 quarrels soon broke out between Villegagnon and 
 Richer, and the newly-arrived colonists first removed 
 to the banks of the Rio de Janeiro, and then returned 
 to France, where they vehemently reviled Ville- 
 gagnon. He returned to France to meet their accu- 
 sations, and the Portuguese, under their governor, 
 Emmanuel de Sa, took advantage of his withdrawal 
 to demolish Fort Coligny and expel the French
 
 HOW BRAZIL WAS SETTLED. 235 
 
 settlers. Thus ended the first attempt of the French 
 to settle in Brazil. 
 
 The Portuguese possession of Brazil was to be far 
 more dangerously disputed by the Dutch in the follow- 
 ing century, and the only reason why they did not lose 
 their American, as they did their Asiatic dominion 
 is to be found in the method by which the colony had 
 been settled. What was best in old Portugal, not 
 necessarily what was bravest, but what was best and 
 most industrious had gone to Brazil ; the colonists there 
 had been most wisely and prudently governed ; they 
 had been allowed to develop free from all restrictions 
 by the wise policy of prudent governors ; and the 
 result of this free development was that the 
 Brazilians remained Portuguese at heart. They re- 
 pulsed the attempts of the Dutch, and even, when 
 able to stand alone, they preferred to cling to the 
 mother country. Therefore it was that when in the 
 eighteenth century the Portuguese possessions in Asia 
 were only a drain on the exchequer of the kingdom, 
 Brazil became the main source of the wealth of the 
 Portuguese Crown. Little did Cabral, or King 
 Emmanuel, think that Brazil would be a far more 
 valuable possession to Portugal than Cochin, or Goa, 
 or Malacca, and that it was so was due to the manner 
 in which it was settled ; for colonies, whose prosperity 
 rests on stout hearts and industrious hands, are of a 
 lasting value to their mother country, while possessions, 
 won and held by force of arms, are only of fictitious 
 advantage and of transient value to the conquer- 
 ing race.
 
 XL 
 
 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ — DOM 
 SEBASTIAN AND THE CARDINAL HENRY. 
 
 The germs of the rapid decline of Portugal have 
 been already noticed in discussing the reigns of 
 Emmanuel and John III. ; the country, exhausted 
 by its efforts to conquer Asia and colonize Brazil, and 
 deprived of liberty of thought by the deadly influence 
 of the Inquisition, was fast losing its old vitality ; and 
 what Portuguese were left in Portugal were either 
 enervated by luxury in the upper classes and slaves to 
 the Court, or in the lower beggars upon the charity of 
 the King and the Church. The Portuguese of the 
 upper classes, who preserved the old Portuguese 
 spirit of daring were in Asia ; the sturdiest peasantry 
 of the lower classes had found their way to Madeira or 
 Brazil. Cultivated mainly by slaves, subject to an 
 absolutist and bigoted court, and chiefly inhabited by 
 slaves, priests, and beggars, it was no wonder that 
 keen observers, like the Dutchman Cleynaerts, 
 perceived that beneath its appearance of seeming 
 prosperity, the Portuguese kingdom was rotten to the 
 core. Lisbon was indeed the centre of the trade of
 
 THE WEALTH OF PORTUGAL. 237 
 
 the East ; it was from the Tagus that the ships from 
 the rest of Europe came to fetch the musHns of 
 Bengal, the brocades of Gujarat, the " calicos " of 
 Calicut, the spices of the " Spice Islands," the pepper 
 of the Malabar coast, and the teas and silks of China. 
 Lisbon was the commercial capital of the world ; the 
 King of Portugal was the richest sovereign in Europe. 
 But in spite of wealth and luxury and universal 
 consideration Portugal was a decaying power, and a 
 single shock was sufficient to strike the country from 
 its place, as the leading nation of Europe, the nation 
 of heroes, and leave it defenceless against foreign foes. 
 This shock was supplied by the African expedition 
 of Dom Sebastian and its disastrous result, and 
 Portugal was then an easy prey to the ambition of 
 Philip II. of Spain. The reign of Dom Sebastian has 
 therefore a pathetic interest to posterity : the romantic 
 character of the young king ; his gallantry, and his 
 death on the field of battle ; and the sudden end of 
 the house of Aviz, which had seemed so powerful, 
 have contributed to make this reign one of the best 
 known to students of general history in the whole 
 annals of Portugal. To contemporaries this sudden 
 collapse of the kingdom, which a few years before had 
 seemed so great, appeared nothing short of marvellous, 
 and political philosophers were never weary of dwell- 
 ing on this extinction and finding reasons for it. 
 Rabid Protestants argued that it was all due to the 
 Inquisition ; humanitarians agreed that it was a 
 punishment for the high-handed conduct of the 
 Portuguese " conquistadores " in the East ; short- 
 sighted historians attributed it entirely to the defeat
 
 238 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. 
 
 of Dom Sebastian in Africa. But more careful inquiry 
 has shown that the seeds of decHne had long been 
 planted, and that the fall of Portugal from her high 
 estate was due to the exhaustion of her vital energies 
 and to the rapid depopulation of her territory in 
 Europe. No country can continue to exist and be 
 a power, which sends forth all its best energies to 
 foreign lands and foreign continents, and becomes 
 exhausted at home ; it might as well be expected 
 that a man should be vigorous when his heart is 
 hopelessly diseased. 
 
 Portugal was thus already rapidly decaying, when 
 an infant of three years old became its monarch. 
 Three times before in its history minors had 
 succeeded to the throne, but in each case wise regents 
 had governed the country, and the minorities had 
 been marked by advance not retrogression. The first 
 King of Portugal, Afifonso Henriques, was but three 
 years old, when he succeeded to his county ; but the 
 wisdom of his mother, Donna Theresa, during his 
 minority paved the way for his subsequent success. 
 Sancho II. was but a boy when he became king ; but 
 the great Bishop of Lisbon, by his self-abnegation, 
 made his minority a triumph. Affonso V. had also 
 been a child sovereign ; but his uncle, the great Duke 
 of Coimbra, ruled so wisely, that the king's coming of 
 age proved to be a disaster, not an advantage, to 
 the country. But there were no such regents for the 
 minority of Dom Sebastian : his grandmother was 
 Spanish to the core, and loved Spain more than Por- 
 tugal ; his heir-presumptive was his great-uncle Dom 
 Henry, Cardinal and Grand Inquisitor of the kingdom.
 
 340 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. 
 
 The youthful king had none to help him. His 
 father Dom Joao, the only son of John III., had died 
 fifteen days before the birth of his only child, and his 
 mother. Donna Joanna, the daughter of the Emperor 
 Charles V , had immediately retired to Spain, leaving 
 the child to the care of his grandparents. On the 
 death of John III. in 1557, his queen, Donna 
 Catherine, the sister of Charles V., assumed the 
 regency in the name of her grandson. From the 
 very first, the Portuguese people, from the highest to 
 the lowest, disapproved of her rule ; she was so ag- 
 gressively Spanish in speech, bearing, and appearance, 
 and had so persistently refused to identify herself 
 with her adopted country, in spite of her long residence 
 there, that every one believed her to be plotting to 
 secure the eventual succession of her favourite nephew, 
 Philip II. of Spain, to the crown of Portugal. Her 
 bigotry and encouragement of the Inquisition did not 
 tend to make her popular, and national prejudice 
 declared itself strongly against her. Yet she was not 
 a bad ruler ; she maintained the old servants of John 
 HI., and the machinery of administration though in 
 many places clogged by corruption, went on smoothly, 
 and she even managed to despatch a sufficiently 
 powerful army to relieve Mazagon, when it was 
 besieged by the Moors. Yet throughout her five 
 years' tenure of power the queen-regent found herself 
 hampered by the intrigues of the Cardinal Henry, 
 who, as heir to the throne, thought he ought to be in 
 her place, and at last she decided to give up the 
 struggle, and in 1562 she retired to Spain. 
 
 The Cardinal Henry then satisfied his ambition
 
 THE MINORITY OF SEBASTIAN. 24I 
 
 and became regent of the kingdom, of which he was 
 to be for a short time the unfortunate monarch, and 
 during his rule the government of the country fell 
 entirel}- into the hands of two brothers, who had 
 made themselves very conspicuous in the intriguesj 
 which had led to the retirement of Queen Catherine. 
 Of these brothers, the elder, Luis Goncalves da Camara,! 
 was an able Jesuit, who had been appointed confessor] 
 and tutor to the young king, while the younger, 
 Martim, was prime minister, and carried on the work 
 of administration during the regency of the Cardinal 
 Henry. The two brothers were both men of con- 
 siderable ability, and, though they made no attempt 
 to initiate reforms or to check the decay of Portugal, 
 they managed to conceal her rottenness as much as 
 possible from the eyes of Europe. In 1568 Dom 
 Sebastian was declared of age by the Camaras, 
 though only in his fifteenth year, and from that time 
 they excluded their former master, the Cardinal, from 
 even a semblance of power. This behaviour did not 
 ensure their continuance in -oftice, for as soon as the 
 young king began to take an active interest in affairs, 
 he dismissed the brothers, and placed the chief power 
 in the hands of an upright nobleman, Dom Pedro de 
 Al9a90va Carneiro. 
 
 The character of Dom Sebastian was one of the 
 most important factors in bringing about the final 
 overthrow of Portugal, and therefore deserves some 
 examination, the more especially as the nature of the 
 Portuguese monarchy was now entirely absolutist, 
 owing to the wealth brought into the private treasury 
 of the king by the Asiatic trade, and his consequent
 
 242 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. 
 
 independence of the Cortes. The young king was 
 rather German than Portuguese in appearance, with 
 his blue eyes and fair hair and his face disfigured by 
 the Hapsburg Hp, and in his nature there was much 
 of the Teuton dreaminess and love of the marvellous, 
 which impelled him to take part in rash undertakings.^ 
 He was fond of solitude, and of building up castles in 
 the air, in which he always appeared as a Christian 
 hero exterminating the Mohammedans. For with 
 his German dreaminess he united a truly Spanish 
 fanaticism. His tutor, Luis Goncalves da Camara, 
 made him a bigot, and his governor, Dom Aleixo or 
 Alexis de Menezes, taught him to look upon warlike 
 enterprise as the chief aim of a monarch's career, and 
 the double teaching had inspired him with crusading 
 ardour. He was not likely to be satisfied like his 
 grandfather, John HI., with showing his zeal for 
 Christianity by rigorous orthodoxy and systematic 
 persecution at home, but longed rather to unite war 
 with religion, and to spread Christianity, like St. Louis 
 of France, by his sword. To fanaticism and warlike 
 ambition he added an obstinacy and imperiousness of 
 character, which made him a tyrant. While training 
 himself from boyhood for war, he determined to train 
 his people also by issuing a sumptuary edict that none 
 of his subjects might have more than two dishes, and 
 those of the simplest character, for their meals, forget- 
 ting that no decree could alter the daily life of his 
 people. Lastly, with these characteristics he united 
 
 ' On the character of Dom Sebastian, Sir Richard Burton has 
 written some thoughtful pages ; see his Commentary on Camoens, vol. i. 
 'ip. 341-344-
 
 THE REIGN OF SEBASTIAN. 243 
 
 a spirit of profoundest melancholy, which is evident 
 in his portraits and in all his actions, a melancholy 
 which seemed to presage his early and tragic death, 
 and is indicated by the motto he selected for himself: 
 
 " Un bel morir tutta la vita honora." 
 
 Such a monarch was not the man to check the 
 decadence of Portugal ; only a practical man, who 
 should try to husband the resources of the nation, 
 could have attempted such a task, and even he would 
 have had difficulties to face which might well seem 
 insurmountable. But practical measures of reform, 
 such as a systematic attempt to regulate the ex- 
 penditure of the kingdom, and an effort to check the 
 corruption which had grown up in all departments of 
 the state, demanded an amount of serious and pro- 
 longed labour which the dreamy king was little 
 inclined to bestow ; he thought he had done enough 
 in issuing his sumptuary edict, and paid no further 
 attention to the evils which were sapping the strength 
 of his kingdom. For one measure, however, he 
 deserves much credit. Though paying no attention to 
 the slaves in Portugal, and regarding negroes as a 
 race made for slavery, he yet under the influence of 
 the Jesuits issued a decree of the greatest importance 
 for the colony of Brazil, by which it was ordered that 
 for the future none of the aboriginal Brazilians should 
 be publicly sold or sent as slaves to work in the 
 plantations, except prisoners taken in a just war. 
 Even in the higher domain of foreign politics as 
 opposed to internal administration, he made no 
 attempt to watch over the interests of Portugal.
 
 244 ^^^ LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. 
 
 His early marriage was a matter of supreme import- 
 ance to the kingdom, for the only male heir of the 
 house of Aviz was his great-uncle, the Cardinal, and 
 the deaths of Dom Sebastian and Dom Henry with- 
 out direct heirs would inevitably be followed by a 
 civil war arising from the disputed succession. This 
 consideration weighed but little with the romantic 
 monarch, who after making a half-hearted attempt 
 in 1570 to secure the hand of the beautiful Princess 
 Margaret, sister of Charles IX. of France, the famous 
 " Reine Margot," by the mediation of Dom Luis de 
 Torres, abandoned the idea of marriage, and devoted 
 himself to his schemes of fighting the Mohammedans. 
 The times were singularly unfit for a war against 
 the infidels. Crusading ardour had long been extinct, 
 and though Pope Pius II. (JEneas Sylvius Piccolomini) 
 had in the preceding century tried to form a coalition 
 against the Turks, and in 1571 Don John of Austria 
 had broken their naval power at Lepanto, the ardour 
 of the Pope and the navy of the prince were directed 
 against the Turks, not because they were unbelievers, 
 but because they were a conquering race and threa- 
 tened Western Europe. The expeditions of the 
 Emperor Charles V. against Tunis in 1535, and 
 Algiers in 1541, were dictated rather by naval and 
 commercial than by religious considerations, and John 
 HI. had acted with the thorough sanction of the 
 Church, whose most humble devotee he was, in aban- 
 doning the smaller towns held by Portugal in Morocco. 
 Yet Dom Sebastian persisted ; he would be crusader 
 rather than politician, and he was determined to fight 
 the Mohammedans. His first idea was to go in person
 
 SEBASTIAN'S AMBITION. 245 
 
 to India and place himself at the head of the 
 Portuguese forces there ; but the minister, Pedro de 
 Al^acova Carneiro, pointed out the difficulty of finding 
 a regent to govern during his absence, and his former 
 tutor, Aleixo de Menezes, turned his thoughts to 
 Africa. He was fired by the fame of his ancestor, 
 Afifonso V. " the African," and determined to waste 
 what strength still remained to the exhausted Por- 
 tuguese nation in useless expeditions to the barren 
 regions of north-west Africa, where no possible advan- 
 tage could be obtained of the slightest value to Portu- 
 gal. Filled with the notion of recapturing the useless 
 places w^hich his grandfather had evacuated, such 
 as Alcacer Seguier, Azamor, Arzila, and Cafim, King 
 Sebastian in his twentieth }'ear, in 1574, suddenly 
 made up his mind to sail across to Africa. The 
 expedition partook rather of the nature of a recon- 
 naissance than of a serious campaign. The king 
 spoke only of a visit to Tangier, and started off 
 suddenly with his guards and courtiers from a hunting 
 excursion, ordering the Duke of Aveiro to follow with 
 a force of four hundred cavalry and one thousand 
 two hundred infantry. With these troops Dom 
 Sebastian made a few raids, and exhibited his 
 personal courage by uselessly exposing his person, 
 and he returned more bent than ever on a great war 
 in Africa, which was to end in the Portuguese con- 
 quest of Morocco, and the acquisition of everlasting 
 fame for its leader as a brave "soldier of the Cross." 
 
 Before entering on the history of this expedition, 
 which was to end so disastrously, and strike a last 
 and final blow at the declining power of Portugal, it
 
 246 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. 
 
 would be as well to see how the Portuguese dominion 
 in Asia had been faring during the regencies of Queen 
 Catherine and the Cardinal Henry, and during the 
 earlier part of Sebastian's own tenure of power. Dom 
 Constantino de Braganza, the friend of the poet 
 Camoens, had succeeded Francisco Barreto, the 
 enemy of the poet, in 1558, the year after the death 
 of John III., and had distinguished his viceroyalty 
 by the capture of Daman. He was a truly great 
 governor, although he permitted the Inquisition to be 
 established at Goa, and his high rank gave him an 
 ascendency not possessed by previous viceroys. His 
 conduct was so blameless and his power so wisely 
 exercised that the queen-regent begged him to accept 
 the viceroyalty for life. He refused, and at the end 
 of his three years of office resigned and was succeeded 
 by Dom Francisco Coutinho, Count of Redondo, a 
 nobleman of high character, who died in office, and 
 was succeeded first by Joao de Mendon^a, and then 
 by Dom Antonio de Noronha, who took the important 
 city of Mangalore by assault. During his viceroyalty 
 in 1565 occurred the battle of Talikot, in which the 
 powerful Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, which em- 
 braced the greater part of Southern India was over- 
 thrown by the Mohammedan kings of Ahmadabad, 
 Bidar, and Bijapur, and the way prepared for the 
 extension of the Mohammedan power over Southern 
 India. The next viceroy, Dom Luis de Athaide, was 
 specially selected by King Sebastian himself in 
 1568, and he certainly justified the choice of the boy- 
 king and his advisers. The Mohammedan kings 
 of the Deccan were full of delight at their great vie-
 
 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 247 
 
 tory of Talikot, and All Adil Shah, king of Bijapur, 
 believed he could expel the Portuguese from his 
 dominions. With this intention he collected a vast 
 army of one hundred thousand men, recruited 
 from various adventurers of the Mohammedan 
 religion, and laid siege to Goa in 1570. The city 
 was being ravaged by a pestilence, but neverthe- 
 less the defence was a gallant one — the last great 
 feat of arms of the Portuguese in India. The siege 
 lasted ten months, and ended in the discomfiture 
 of the besiegers and their final defeat in a pitched 
 battle beneath the walls of Goa, when a victory was 
 won, second only to that of Dom Joao de Castro at 
 Diu, twenty-five years before. On his return to 
 Portugal, Dom Luis de Athaide was received with the 
 greatest favour by King Sebastian, who created him 
 Count of Atouguia, and also by the people of Lisbon, 
 who gave him the greatest reception vouchsafed to 
 any Indian governor on his return for many genera- 
 tions. King Sebastian then made an important 
 alteration in the government of his Asiatic posses- 
 sions. Hitherto all the petty governors from the 
 Cape of Good Hope to Japan had been subject to the 
 Governor-General or the Viceroy at Goa, an extent of 
 command which caused many serious inconveniences. 
 In 1 57 1 this vast extent of land and sea was divided 
 into three separate governorships. The new viceroy, 
 Dom Antonio de Noronha, was to be supreme from 
 Cape Guardafui to Ceylon with his capital at Goa, 
 while Francisco Barreto was to govern the south-east 
 coast of Africa with his headquarters at Mozambique, 
 and Antonio Moniz Barreto was to rule from Pegu to
 
 248 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. 
 
 China with his capital at Malacca. Antonio Moniz 
 Barreto succeeded as viceroy in 1573, and Dom 
 Diogo de Menezes in 1576; and in 1578, the very 
 year in which King Sebastian met his fate, his faith- 
 ful servant, Dom Luis de Athaide, became viceroy for 
 the second time, and it is said that the defeat of his 
 sovereign broke the heart of the defender of Goa and 
 caused his untimely death. 
 
 The expedition which was to meet with such a 
 disastrous termination had long been contemplated 
 by Sebastian, but its despatch was hastened by the 
 state of affairs in Morocco itself, which seemed to the 
 king most propitious for the success of his enterprise. 
 The empire of Morocco had been divided between two 
 brother Sherlfs, as the rulers of that country were 
 termed, in the early part of the sixteenth century. 
 The younger of the brothers, Maula ^ Mohammed, 
 beheaded his senior, Maula Ahmed, and was in his 
 turn assassinated in 1556. The successor to the 
 throne, Maula Abdallah, murdered two of his brothers 
 and was succeeded by his illegitimate son, Maula Ah- 
 med ibn Abdallah, the " Muly Hamet " of old English 
 writers. At this, the brother of the late Maula 
 Abdallah, Abd-el-Melik, commonly known as Muley 
 Moloch, fled to Constantinople and, with the help of 
 the Turks, ousted his nephew, Maula Ahmed. The 
 defeated usurper then decided to make an application 
 for Christian help, and when refused asylum by 
 Philip II., of Spain, he appealed to Dom Sebastian. 
 
 ' The word Maula, generally corrupted into Muley, is said by Sir 
 Richard Burton (Camoens, Commentary, vol. i. p. 350) to mean lord, 
 master, and leader.
 
 SEBASTIAN'S APPEALS FOR HELP. 249 
 
 This was the opportunity the young king had longed 
 for, and when Maula Ahmed promised to hold the 
 crown of Morocco as a vassal of the King of Portugal, 
 Sebastian enthusiastically welcomed him and promised 
 him assistance. The wiser statesmen of Portugal 
 pointed out that the strength of Portugal in men and 
 arms was in Asia, and that it was impossible to at- 
 tempt such an enterprise as the invasion of IMorocco 
 without foreign help. Sebastian therefore sent em- 
 bassies asking for help from the Pope, and from his 
 uncle, Philip II. of Spain. Pope Gregory XIII. sent 
 him an arrow of S. Sebastian and nothing else, but 
 the arrangements with Philip II. were more important. 
 The minister Pedro de Al^agova Carneiro was sent 
 in person to the King of Spain to ask for troops and 
 ships, in recognition of which Dom Sebastian would 
 marry a Spanish infanta. Philip opposed the project 
 strongly, but eventually promised five thousand men 
 and fifty galleys to assist in an attack on Larache 
 (El Araish), an offer which he afterwards withdrew, 
 when the Duke of Alva assured him that at least 
 fifteen thousand veteran soldiers would be necessary. 
 In December, 1576, Sebastian had an interview in 
 person with his uncle, when Philip II. again opposed 
 his nephew's mad idea, and he is reported to have 
 said when his efforts proved in vain, " If he win, wc shall 
 have a good son-in-law ; if he lose, a good kingdom." 
 Dom Sebastian then decided to have all the glory 
 of conquering Morocco for himself, and his hopes 
 reached their height when Maula Ahmed managed to 
 buy over the Kaid of Arzila and handed over that 
 place, one of those surrendered by John III., to the
 
 SEBASTIAN'S PREPARATIONS. 2$! 
 
 Portuguese monarch. Maula Abd-el-Melik, who was 
 in bad health, tried to dissuade his rash opponent 
 from attacking him, and in a letter pointed out that 
 he was the rightful Sherif of Morocco. He even went 
 further, and offered to the young king a district 
 of ten miles round each of the Portuguese towns — 
 Tangier, Ceuta, IMazagon and Arzila — if he would 
 give up supporting the usurper. Never might the 
 hackneyed line of Horace be quoted with more justice 
 than in regard to the rash young Christian monarch : 
 
 "Quern Deus vult perdere, prius dementat." 
 
 No amount of opposition could check the king's 
 ardour ; he believed himself already surpassing in 
 glory both John "the Great" and Affonso "the African," 
 and proceeded to raise money in every possible way. 
 The treasury was nearly empty owing to peculation 
 and bad management, and it was filled by imposing 
 new taxes, by further harrying the converted Jews, 
 an<;i by partial bankruptcy. As the country was 
 nearly drained of men the king had to hire mer- 
 cenaries belonging to different nations, who were not 
 properly equipped, and he never seemed to realize the 
 difference between an expedition to take a sea-side 
 town and the invasion of a powerful empire. If 
 Affonso V. had met with difficulty in taking Tangier, 
 how could Sebastian hope to penetrate to Fez, seventy 
 miles up the country ? Dom Sebastian trusted too 
 much to the promised help of Maula Ahmed ; he 
 believed other cities would yield as quickly as Arzila; 
 and he had been thoroughly convinced by the ex- 
 pelled usurper that his uncle Maula Abd-el-Melik
 
 252 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF A VIZ, 
 
 was not only hated in Morocco, but enfeebled by ill- 
 ness; and that his offers of peace were dictated by fear. 
 
 The preparations made for the campaign were 
 ridiculous in the extreme ; all the most experienced 
 generals and most tried Portuguese soldiers were in 
 India, and the Portuguese troops who were enlisted 
 consisted of a few old veterans whose time had 
 expired in Asia, and of youthful raw recruits. These 
 latter were not in the least disciplined, and were 
 officered by young courtiers, who may have been 
 brave, and were certainly inexperienced. The king 
 himself intended to take the command in person, and 
 instead of making plans for the conduct of the cam- 
 paign and looking after his troops, he spent his time in 
 borrowing the sword of King Affonso Henriques from 
 the convent of Santa Cruz at Coimbra, and in having 
 a banner worked in which the arms of Portugal were 
 for the first time surmounted by an imperial crown. 
 This banner was solemnly blessed by the archbishop 
 in the cathedral of Lisbon on the 14th of June, and the 
 king then considered that all was ready. 
 
 On the 24th of June, 1578, King Sebastian set sail 
 with a fleet of fifty ships of war and about nine hun- 
 dred transports under the command of the Admiral of 
 Portugal, Dom Diogo de Sousa, carrying fifteen thou- 
 sand infantry, two thousand four hundred cavalry, and 
 thirty-six guns. Of this army only about ten thousand 
 were Portuguese, the rest consisting of Spanish and 
 German volunteers and mercenaries, and of nine 
 hundred Italians, under the command of a gallant 
 Englishman, Sir Thomas Stukeley. This well-known 
 English Catholic, who had been created Marquis of
 
 SEBASTIAN IN MOROCCO. 253 
 
 Leinster by the Pope,had been stopped with his soldiers 
 by Sebastian while on his way to raise an insurrection 
 in Ireland against Elizabeth. In spite of the 
 desperate hurry in which he had been to start, 
 Sebastian made no attempt to hasten his passage and 
 try the effects of a surprise. He first stopped at 
 Lagos in the Algarves, then at Cadiz, where he was 
 sumptuously entertained by the Duke of Medina 
 Sidonia, and did not reach Tangier until July 6th. 
 He was there met by his Mohammedan ally, Maula 
 Ahmed, who handed over his son as a hostage, but who 
 only brought eight hundred Moors instead of the army 
 which he had promised. Sebastian at first amused 
 himself with hunting, while his opponent was concen- 
 trating his forces, and then repulsed a few Moors in a 
 skirmish, which he magnified into a victory. From 
 Tangier he suddenly carried his army to Arzila, where 
 he encamped beneath th>e walls and wasted time. 
 At last he determined to hold a council of war to 
 decide in what way the army should attack Lar- 
 ache ; Maula Ahmed wisely suggested by sea, so 
 as to have the advantage of a convenient means of 
 retreat to the ships, but Sebastian answered the 
 Moorish prince so rudely that he left the council, and 
 the king decided to march by land. Even at this 
 last moment Maula Abd-el-Melik offwed to cede 
 Earache to Sebastian if he would cease his military 
 operations, but the rash young king returned no 
 answer whatever, and the Sherif of Morocco, finding 
 all his efforts for peace repulsed, determined to crush 
 the invader. 
 
 On the 29th of July the march inland, away from
 
 254 '^^^ LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. 
 
 the cool breezes off the sea, was commenced under the 
 burning sky of an African summer ; the soldiers were 
 soon maddened by hunger, thirst, and heat, and by 
 the incessant attacks of the Moorish skirmishers ; and 
 the army was dispirited before a battle took place. 
 These miseries continued for five days, until August 
 3rd, when the Portuguese had some success in a 
 skirmish, and Dom Sebastian took up what he con- 
 sidered a strong position near the little town of 
 Alcacer Quibir, or more correctly -El- Kasr el-Keblr. 
 The position was from a military point of view 
 utterly indefensible, for both flanks were exposed, 
 and Maula Abd-el-Melik, who was now face to 
 face with the Christians with an army of forty 
 thousand cavalry and fifteen thousand infantry 
 saw that the Portuguese king was lost. At day- 
 break on the 4th of August, 1578, the battle com- 
 menced with some brilliant charges on the part of the 
 Portuguese, but in a short time the wings of the 
 Moorish army, which were entirely composed of 
 cavalry, overlapped the small Christian army, and for 
 four hours the army of Dom Sebastian was compelled 
 to defend itself. The result of the continued charges 
 of the Moorish cavalry could not be doubtful, and at 
 the end of the four hours' fighting nearly the whole of 
 the Christian army was cut to pieces. The Moorish 
 monarch, Maula Abd-el-Melik, had been in the 
 agonies of death when the battle commenced, and 
 died in his litter from the exertion of trying to mount 
 his horse at the first charge of the Christians, placing 
 his finger on his lip as a sign that his death should be 
 kept secret for a time. His rival, Maula Ahmed, was
 
 THE DEATH OF SEBASTIAN. 255 
 
 drowned in crossing the Wed or Wady M'Hassan, 
 
 and his brother, Ahmed ibn Mohammed, was declared 
 
 king by the soldiers at the conclusion of the battle. 
 
 The slaughter was terrible ; more than nine thousand \» 
 
 Christians were killed, and all the rest, except about 
 
 fifty, were taken prisoners. Sir Thomas Stukeley, after 
 
 gallantly defending himself, was killed, with many of 
 
 the chief Portuguese nobles and prelates, including 
 
 Dom Jayme, brother of the sixth Duke of Braganz.i, 
 
 the Duke of Aveiro, who had commanded the cavalry, 
 
 and the bishops of Coimbra and Oporto, while among 
 
 the prisoners were the Duke of Barcellos and Dom 
 
 Duarte de Menezes, Quarter-AIaster-General of the 
 
 army. 
 
 Dom Sebastian throughout the battle behaved 
 himself as a gallant knight, though he had not been a 
 prudent general, and when the fortunes of the day 
 went against him he determined to lose his life also. 
 Many accounts are given of his death. One tradition 
 says that he was taken prisoner by some Moors, who 
 stripped him of his arms, and began to quarrel about 
 him, and that a Mohammedan general rode in amongst 
 them, and shouting out, " What, you dogs, when 
 God has given you so glorious a victory, would you 
 cut each other's throats about a prisoner," immediately 
 struck the King of Portugal down in ignorance of his 
 rank. Another story is that the king met Dom Luis 
 de Brito with the consecrated banner wrapped around 
 him, and said, " Mold it fast, let us die upon it ;" and 
 that when, after fierce fighting, Brito was taken 
 prisoner with the banner, he saw the king riding 
 away unpursued. Dom Luis de Lima also asserted
 
 256 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. 
 
 that he saw the king making his way towards the 
 river unhurt. According to the most trustworthy- 
 account, Christovao de Tavora, the king's equerry, 
 showed a flag of truce, and offered to surrender with 
 the fifty horsemen, who still remained about the king, 
 when Sebastian suddenly dashed on the Moorish 
 cavalry, who, irritated at this breach of faith, instantly 
 slew him, as well as the brave equerry, who followed 
 his master. Anyhow, it is certain that the new Sherif 
 Ahmed ibn Mohammed sent out Sebastiao de Re- 
 sende, a gentleman of the bedchamber, to discover 
 the corpse of the king, and that a naked body was 
 brought in covered with wounds, which the Portuguese 
 prisoners at once recognized as that of the ill-fated 
 Dom Sebastian. The body was temporarily buried 
 in the palace at Alcaccr Quibir, and removed in 
 the following September to Ceuta, at the request 
 of Cardinal Henry. It was eventually taken to 
 Portugal in 1582, by the orders of Philip II., and 
 buried with great pomp in the church of St. Jerome at 
 Belem. 
 
 It is important to lay stress on this subject, 
 because for many years the lower classes of the Por- 
 tuguese people refused to believe that their sovereign 
 was dead, a belief encouraged by the stratagem of 
 a wounded noble on the evening of the fatal battle to 
 gain admission into the city of Tangier by asserting 
 that he was the king. It was this belief which led to 
 the acceptance of the successive false Dom Sebastians, 
 who played a part in the ensuing half century, and it 
 had a still further influence upon the whole future of the 
 Portuguese people. That the " Principe Encuberto " or
 
 ACCESSION AXD DEATH OF CARDINAL HENRY. 257 
 
 Hidden Prince would appear again became a religion, 
 and the sect of the Sebastianistas became a powerful 
 body of fanatics. Theirbelief was fostered by the princes 
 of the House of Braganza as patriotic, and when- 
 ever Portugal has been subject to a great strain, the 
 Sebastianistas have always come to the front. Even 
 at the present day they are not extinct, and Sir Richard 
 Burton asserts that he has met with them in the 
 interior of Brazil. It was this firm belief that gave 
 point to the remark of Lord Tyrawley, in the English 
 House of Lords in 1763: "What can one possibly 
 do with a nation, one half of which expect the Mes- 
 siah, and the other half their king, Dom Sebastian, 
 who has been dead two hundred years ? " 
 
 The news of the terrible disaster of Alcacer Ouibir 
 was brought to Lisbon by the Admiral Dom Diogo de 
 Sousa, and occasioned the most passionate lamenta- 
 tion. There was not a noble family which had not 
 lost more than one of its representatives, not a patriot 
 who failed to see that ruin was staring his country in 
 the face. Deprived of soldiers, resources, and repu- 
 tation at one fell blow, the Portuguese nation seemed 
 stunned at the extent of its calamity. Even in India 
 the same alarm was felt, and it is said that the brave 
 Viceroy, Dom Luis de Athaide, died of a broken heart 
 at the news. The Cardinal Henry was solemnly 
 crowned king, but he was a feeble old man of sixty- 
 six, who had to be fed like a baby, and he was quite 
 incapable of facing the situation. He utterly refused to 
 acknowledge any successor, or to express any opinion 
 on the subject, and when he died on January 31, 
 1580, the Cortes which had been summoned to decide
 
 258 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. 
 
 this important question was still sitting at Lisbon. 
 With him ended for a time the separate existence of 
 the Portuguese nation, and it is significant and 
 interesting to observe that Camoens, the great 
 national poet of Portugal, the poet who had im- 
 mortalized its heroic epoch, died in a hospital of 
 semi-starvation a few months before or after the 
 Cardinal-king. It was well he did not live longer, for 
 Portugal was to enter on the period of its " Sixty 
 Years' Captivity," and her proud sons, who had the 
 patriotism of a Camoens in their hearts, would not 
 have been able to bear the burden of subjection to a 
 foreign king.
 
 XII. 
 
 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE— CAMOENS. 
 
 It has always been the case in the history of a 
 nation which can boast of a golden age, that the 
 epoch of its greatest glory is that in which its literature 
 chiefly flourished. The energies of a nation at its zenith 
 cannot be bounded by the vastest schemes of conquest, 
 but develop in other directions as well. It was so 
 with Portugal. The age which witnessed the careers 
 of its famous captains and conquerors was also the 
 age of its greatest poets and prose writers. The 
 establishment of the Inquisition soon checked the 
 progress of Portuguese literature, but before its fatal 
 power had time to thoroughly stifle free thought, and 
 before the disaster of Alcacer Quibir, and the annexa- 
 tion of the country by Philip II. of Spain, Portugal 
 had been able to produce many great writers, and one 
 of the most supremely-gifted poets the world has ever 
 seen, Luis de Camoens. 
 
 The affection which the first princes of the house 
 of Aviz had felt for literature, and especially for 
 purely national literature, has been alluded to, and 
 the natural result is to be seen in the works of the
 
 26o PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. 
 
 early poets, and of the eloquent chroniclers of the 
 fifteenth century. The honour given by these princes 
 to literary endeavour heightened its importance in 
 the eyes of the people, and raised the whole standard 
 of education. The Portuguese were therefore pre- 
 pared to take advantage of the stores of knowledge 
 revealed by the revival of classical learning, and to 
 profit greatly by it. Ayres Barbosa, a native of 
 Aveiro, was the first to introduce the study of ancient 
 Greek into the peninsula ; he had listened to the 
 lectures of Politian and his contemporaries at Florence, 
 and after teaching " the humanities " at the University 
 of Salamanca for about twenty years from 1495, he 
 returned to Portugal as tutor to the younger sons of 
 King Emmanuel. His most distinguished Portuguese 
 pupil was, however, Andrea de Resende, the antiquary, 
 who was one of the professors at the University of 
 Coimbra, during the epoch of its greatest reputation, 
 and is well known as the friend and correspondent of 
 Erasmus. 
 
 This university, I at which the most famous authors 
 and statesmen of Portugal received their education, 
 deserves some slight notice here. A university was 
 founded by King Diniz at Lisbon in 1300, but the 
 turbulence of the students, and their perpetual 
 quarrels with the citizens, caused him to remove it to 
 Coimbra, about the year 1308. During the fourteenth 
 century the habitat of the Portuguese university was 
 moved from Coimbra to Lisbon in 1338, from Lisbon 
 to Coimbra in 1354, and from Coimbra back to Lis- 
 
 ' For the early history of the university, see Denifle"Die Univer- 
 sitaten des Mittelalters," vol. i, pp. 519-534.
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF COIMBRA. 261 
 
 bon in 1377. John "the Great" paid great attention 
 to the university, as he did to every valuable institu- 
 tion in the kingdom ; and in 1400 he entirely re- 
 modelled it, establishing a staff of fourteen rcgius 
 professors, four of whom were to teach grammar, three 
 Roman law, three canon law, two logic, one medicine, 
 and one theology. On this footing the Portuguese 
 university remained until 1537, when John III., per- 
 ceiving that the busy pursuits of a noi.sy capital were 
 hardly suited to quiet study and the acquisition of 
 learning, removed it finally to the beautiful city of 
 Coimbra, and once more changed its constitution. 
 In 1547 the king summoned Andrea Govea back to 
 his native land, and requested him to bring with him 
 other men of learning. Andrea Govea and his 
 brothers were famous as scholars throughout Europe, 
 even in the days which could boast of Scaliger ; they 
 were all natives of Beja, and had been educated at 
 Paris ; Martial Govea, the eldest, wrote one of the 
 earliest Latin grammars, published at Paris in 1534; 
 Antonio Govea argued the cause of Aristotle against 
 Ramus, edited Virgil and Terence, and was held to 
 be the most formidable rival of Cujas as an exponent 
 of Roman law ; while Andrea had been principal of 
 the College of St. Barbe, rector of the University of 
 Paris, and afterwards principal of the College of 
 Guienne at Bordeaux, and was termed by Montaigne, 
 " le plus grand principal de France." ' Andrea Govea 
 brought with him to Coimbra, as requested, many of 
 his friends and colleagues, including George Bucha- 
 nan, the greatest scholar Scotland has ever produced, 
 ' Montaigne's " Essais," i. 25.
 
 262 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE— CAMOENS. 
 
 Patrick Buchanan, his elder brother, Arnoldus Fabri- 
 cius and Elias Vinetus, learned Frenchmen, and his 
 own countrymen, Diogo de Tieve, Joao da Costa, and 
 Antonio Mendes. This brilliant band did not, how- 
 ever, long remain united, for Andrea Govea died in 
 1548, and his death was followed by the persecution 
 of George Buchanan by the Inquisition. The illus- 
 trious scholar was accused of eating flesh in Lent, and 
 of writing a poem against the Franciscans, and after 
 being imprisoned in a convent he was only too glad 
 to escape from the inhospitable country. Though the 
 death of Govea, and the persecution of Buchanan, 
 deprived the remodelled university of its most famous 
 teachers, there yet remained a sufficient number with 
 such coadjutors as Jeronymo Osorio, Bishop of 
 Silves, Andrea de Resende, and Pedro Nunes, the 
 mathematician, to make this the golden age of the 
 University of Coimbra ; and the instruction they im- 
 parted profoundly impressed the minds of their most 
 promising young Portuguese pupils, such as Ferreira 
 and Camoens. 
 
 The result of the introduction of a knowledge of 
 the masterpieces of classical literature was bound to 
 have a great effect upon the development of Portu- 
 guese poetry and prose, but before noticing the result 
 of that influence in the works of the "classicists," 
 headed by Sa de Miranda and Ferreira, and in the 
 epic of Camoens, it is necessary to devote a little space 
 to the life and works of the greatest Portuguese 
 dramatist, Gil Vicente. The versatility of the Portu- 
 guese people during the heroic period is in no way 
 better illustrated than by the fact that in their country
 
 GIL VICENTE, THE DRAMATIST. 263 
 
 appeared the first modern dramatist, nearly a century 
 before Shakespeare or Calderon. The date of Gil 
 Vicente's birth is unknown, but it is said that he came 
 of a good family, and he is first found attached to the 
 Court of Emmanuel as a dramatic author. He began 
 by writing "autos" or religious pieces, resembling 
 in their nature the miracle plays common all over 
 Europe at the time, and the first, which attracted 
 King Emmanuel's attention, was written to celebrate 
 the birth of his eldest son, afterwards John III. 
 Most of them are Christmas pieces, and the dramatist 
 took advantage of the story of the shepherds watch- 
 ing their flocks by night, to introduce the elements of 
 what may be called pastoral comedy. Far more im- 
 portant are his comedies and farces, which latter won 
 for him the title of the Portuguese Plautus. Neither 
 the plots nor the language of these productions are 
 very refined, but they are full of dramatic vigour, and 
 represent the life of the lower classes in Lisbon, with 
 a vividness which strikingly recalls the works of his 
 Roman prototype. Gil Vicente died at Evora in 
 1557, the same year as his patron, John III., who, in 
 his younger days, did not disdain to act in his 
 favourite's dramas, and he has had no successor as a 
 comic writer worthy to be named beside him, which 
 proves once again, how thoroughly with the extinc- 
 tion of the national greatness, the originality of the 
 Portuguese people in every direction disappeared. 
 
 Side by side with Gil Vicente must be mentioned 
 Bernardim Ribeiro, the founder of the most national 
 school of Portuguese poetry, that of the romantic- 
 pastoral type. Though he showed the influence of
 
 264 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. 
 
 the revival of classical learning in his style, he did not 
 show it in his ideas, and the- shepherds who converse 
 in his eclogues, are as thoroughly Portuguese as those 
 who appear in Gil Vicente's Christmas " autos." 
 Ribeiro, like Gil Vicente, was a favourite at the Court 
 of King Emmanuel, where he held the office of 
 " Gentleman of the Chamber," and it is said that the 
 lady for whom he cherished a hopeless affection was 
 the Donna Beatrice, daughter of the king. A 
 modern writer on Portuguese literature, speaking of 
 Ribeiro and his works, says: "The rivers and 
 mountains of his native land are the natural frame- 
 work of a poet's fancy, and the revival of classical 
 learning showed him in the Eclogues of Virgil a 
 model, which he was not slow to imitate. His 
 Eclogues, written in ' redondilhas ' (octosyllabic nine 
 or ten-lined stanzas), are the earliest in modern 
 Europe, and while replete with the charms and 
 conceits of versification of the troubadours, show a 
 truly poetic love of nature." ^ Ribeiro was the first 
 true Portuguese poet, as Gil Vicente was the first 
 Portuguese dramatist. While coming under the 
 influence of the classical writers of Greece and Rome, 
 he was not a slavish imitator of their master-pieces, 
 and as the founder of the school of pastoral poetry, 
 he holds an honourable place in the Portuguese 
 literature of the heroic age. 
 
 Ribeiro exhibits in his poetry the influence of the 
 revival of classical learning to a slight degree ; after 
 his time that influence increased, and his successors, 
 who bridged over the chasm between Ribeiro and 
 
 ' " Encyclopcedia Britannica," Art. Portugal.
 
 SA DE MIRANDA. 265 
 
 Camoens, were thorough classicists, who imitated the 
 Greek and Roman poets, not only in form, but in 
 spirit. The chief poets of this classicist group were 
 Sa de Miranda and Ferreira. Francisco Sa de 
 Miranda was born at Coimbra, the Portuguese 
 Oxford, in 1495, of a noble family, and he became 
 professor of jurisprudence in his native town. On 
 the death of his parents, he resigned his professorship, 
 and travelled in Italy, where lie studied the works not 
 only of the great classical authors, but of the new 
 school of Italian poets. He returned to his native 
 country with a great reputation, and received an 
 appointment at the Court of John III. He proved an 
 accomplished courtier, but a quarrel with a Portuguese 
 nobleman forced him to abandon his office, and he 
 retired to his country seat at Tapada, near Ponte de 
 Lima, where he died in 1558, while Camoens was 
 still fighting in India. It was in Italy and not in 
 Coimbra, that he learnt to study the great classical 
 poets, and reverencing their works with the almost 
 superstitious admiration of the Italians of the 
 Renaissance, he dared not treat tiicir ideas with the 
 freedom of either Ribciro or Camoens. SA de 
 Miranda devoted himself to the task of polishing the 
 Portuguese language, and in doing this, he did more 
 harm than good, for he introduced many Latin and 
 Spanish forms of expression, which were not needed, 
 and which helped to hinder the natural development 
 of the national literature. He openly expressed his 
 opinion that Spanish was a more dignified language 
 than Portuguese, and many of his best poems are 
 written in the former tongue, and are considered by
 
 266 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. 
 
 authorities on Spanish Hterature to be excellent 
 specimens of sixteenth - century work. Sa de 
 Miranda's poems comprise imitations of many poets. 
 He wrote eclogues in the style of Theocritus, epistles 
 on the lines of those of Horace, plays based on 
 Terence, and sonnets of which the form was borrowed 
 from the Italian writers of the Renaissance. All are 
 good and interesting in their way, but all are 
 imitations, and the very best imitations of foreign 
 styles can hardly rank a poet among the glories of 
 his country's literature. Sa de Miranda's right to be 
 included in any work on Portuguese literature is not 
 due to the poems he wrote, or to his questionable 
 improvements in his native language, but to the fact 
 that he familiarized the people with the classic forms 
 of poetry, of which a greater than he was to take 
 advantage. Yet Sa de Miranda held a very high 
 place in the estimation of his contemporaries, and the 
 writers of the next century did not hesitate to rank 
 him above Camoens, as being more " correct," a 
 criticism, which irresistibly recalls Voltaire's avowed 
 preference of Pope over Shakespeare. 
 
 Antonio Ferreira, the second leader of the 
 Portuguese classicist school, was like Sa de Miranda, 
 a slavish adherent to classical forms, but he was at 
 the same time a genuine patriot and a lover of his 
 country, and a student of its past history. He, like 
 Sa de Miranda, was of a noble family, and he was 
 born at Lisbon in 1528. He was sent to the 
 University of Coimbra, and studied there in the days 
 of its greatness. His favourite teacher was Diogo de 
 Tieve, the friend of George Buchanan, and professor
 
 ANTONIO FERREIRA. 267 
 
 of classical literature, from whom he obtained a 
 knowledge of the classics, not inferior to that 
 possessed by Sa de Miranda. Even in his youth, 
 Ferreira determined to devote his poetical talent to 
 works in his own language, and he refused to write 
 Latin or Spanish verses. He formed round him at 
 Coimbra, a school of young poets, of whom the chief 
 were Andrade Caminha, Jeronymo Corte-Real, and 
 Diogo Bernardes; and in 1557 he published his first 
 volume of poems. This book established his fame, 
 and on coming to Lisbon, he was appointed a judge 
 of the Court of Appeal, and a gentleman of the Royal 
 Household. He continued to write and publish until 
 his death from the plague in 1569, the year before 
 Camoens returned from India. Ferreira, like Sd de 
 Miranda, was an imitator of the great classical poets, 
 but he differed from bis predecessor, in that he 
 combined with this predilection, an appreciation of 
 the national greatness. He wrote sonnets after the 
 manner of Petrarch, elegies after Ariosto, eclogues 
 after Virgil, and odes and epistles after Horace ; but 
 his greatest work was a drama founded on the model 
 of the ancient Greek tragedies. He selected for his 
 subject the touching story of Ines de Castro, and the 
 characters in his play are Ines and her nurse, Dom 
 Pedro and his secretary. King Affonso and his three 
 counsellors, a messenger, and a chorus of women of 
 Coimbra. Ferreira's tragedy, though more fit for the 
 study than the stage, remains to this day the finest drama 
 in the Portuguese language, and stands almost as far as 
 above other dramatic attempts of subsequent ages, as 
 Camoens's great epic towers above all imitations.
 
 268 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. 
 
 The history of the development of the revival of 
 learning, as illustrated by the classicist school of Sa 
 de Miranda and Ferreira, is of great importance to 
 the right understanding of the course of Portuguese 
 literature, but to the world at large its chief interest 
 lies in its share in forming the taste of the one man, 
 whom Portugal has contributed to the small roll of 
 supreme poets, Camoens. His name is more famous 
 than that of any other Portuguese, whether king or 
 captain ; his great epic has been translated into every 
 civilized European language, and is a greater subject 
 of pride to his countrymen than their conquests in 
 the East ; and no " Story of Portugal " could be 
 complete which did not give some account of the 
 poet who has given immortal fame to the heroic 
 deeds of the great age of Portugal. 
 
 Luis de Camoes, commonly called in English 
 Camoens, was the son of a captain in the Portuguese 
 navy, who had more than once experienced the perils 
 of the voyage to India, and he was born at Lisbon in 
 either 1524 or 1525. His family was noble, but by 
 no means among the first rank of the Portuguese 
 nobility in wealth or importance. He was educated 
 at the University of Coimbra, before it had been 
 revivified by the energy and learning of Govea and 
 his friends, and there acquired a profound knowledge 
 of the Latin poets, and of the symbolism and the 
 legends of the Greek and Latin mythology. He 
 seems to have left the university, which he ever 
 dearly loved, before the arrival of Diogo de Tieve, 
 and the foundation of what may be called the 
 national-classicist school of poetry by Ferreira, and
 
 LUIS DE CAMOENS. 
 (From the Portrait in ^'Portugal Illustrate J," 1829.)
 
 270 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. 
 
 went to Lisbon to obtain employment. His poetical 
 powers soon became manifest, and he had become 
 somewhat of a favourite, when he fell in love with a 
 great lady of the Court, said to be the Donna 
 Catherine de Athaide, lady of honour to the queen. 
 The lady's friends were indignant at the poet's suit, 
 and at their request he was exiled to the little town 
 of Ceuta, on the coast of Morocco, where he lost his 
 right eye in a skirmish with the Moors. Wearied of 
 this life he volunteered for India, the goal of every 
 gallant Portuguese gentleman, and after serving a 
 term in prison for a street brawl in Lisbon, he set sail 
 for the East in 1553. In Asia, Camoens remained 
 for more than sixteen years, and it was there that he 
 gathered the local knowledge which gives truth and 
 charm to many passages of his immortal poem. In 
 1554 he served in the Red Sea and at the capture of 
 Muscat under Dom Fernando de Menezes, and soon 
 after his return to Goa he was ordered to take up a 
 lucrative appointment at Macao, in 1556. Here he 
 remained for two years, and the chief glory of the 
 little island off Canton is the cave where he is 
 supposed to have worked on his epic, and which is 
 still known as the " Grotto of Camoens." From 
 Macao he was recalled in 1558, when in spite of his 
 poverty he was thrown into gaol at Goa for pecula- 
 tion, and he was not released until the arrival of 
 an old court acquaintance, Dom Constantino de 
 Braganza, as Viceroy of India. With this prince, he 
 served at the capture of Daman, and he distinguished 
 himself in various engagements under the next 
 governor-general, the Count of Redondo. In 1568
 
 CAMOENS. 271 
 
 Camoens determined to return to Portugal with his 
 great poem for his only fortune, but on his wa)', 
 disaster again overtook him, and in 1569 he was 
 thrown into an African prison for debt, by Pedro 
 Barreto, Governor of Mozambique. From this cruel 
 confinement, he was released by some old friends on 
 their way from India, who paid the debt, and in 1570 
 he once more found himself in Lisbon. His reception 
 in his native land was not encouraging ; he was not 
 received at Court ; he had made no money in India, 
 and had only shown a peculiar faculty for getting 
 into debt and making enemies ; and he now devoted 
 himself to the final recension of his " Lusiads." The 
 first edition of the great poem was published in 1572, 
 but the fame it at once acquired did little good to the 
 author, who was only granted a pension of £^ 8s. od. 
 a year, equivalent perhaps to iJ^20 in modern money. 
 The later years of Camoens were utterly miserable ; 
 poor and neglected, the arch-poet of Portugal had to 
 subsist upon what his Javan slave could beg for him 
 at night in the streets of Lisbon. He lived long 
 enough to hear of the disaster of Alcacer Quibir, and 
 of the death of Dom Sebastian, but he was spared 
 the pain of seeing the Spaniards ruling over the 
 fatherland whose glories he had sung, for he died in 
 a common hospital at Lisbon in June, 1579, or June, 
 1580. 
 
 These are the chief incidents In the life of one of 
 the world's greatest poets, and they tell their own 
 tragic story without need of a commentary. It serves 
 no good purpose to speculate why Camoens was ever 
 in debt and making enemies, or why he was neglected
 
 272 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. 
 
 and left to die in poverty ; other poets and men of 
 letters have shared the same lot. It remains rather 
 to examine the causes which make his epic take rank 
 among the works which the unanimous opinion of 
 posterity has decreed to be immortal. Of his sonnets, 
 eclogues, and smaller poems, beautiful as many of 
 them are, there is no need to speak, for it is on his 
 " Lusiads " that the fame of Camoens must ever rest. 
 The subject of the epic is Vasco da Gama's first 
 voyage to India and his return, an achievement of 
 such surpassing difficulty, and of such importance 
 alike to Portugal and to Europe, that Camoens per- 
 ceived its fitness for poetical treatment. But the 
 poem is not confined to the narration of the perils of 
 the voyage only ; it abounds in long episodes, in one 
 of which Vasco da Gama relates the history of the 
 Portuguese people to the king of Melinda, while in 
 another a nymph gives a prophetic history to the great 
 admiral of the achievements of his country-men in 
 the land he had just visited. Sir Robert Walpole is 
 said to have declared that he derived his knowledge 
 of English history from Shakespeare's historical plays, 
 and it might be affirmed in the same sense that 
 many, if not most, educated people have learned what 
 they know of Portuguese history from the " Lusiads." 
 Such a knowledge is not to be despised. For, if the 
 poet makes the mistakes of his era, and, for instance, 
 identifies the modern Portuguese with the ancient 
 Lusitanians, he manages in a few stanzas apiece to 
 sum up with dramatic genius all the famous tales of 
 Portuguese history, such as the voluntary surrender of 
 Egas Moniz, the pathetic story of Ines de Castro, and
 
 *'THE LUSIADS." 273 
 
 the glories of the victory of Aljubarrota. This power 
 of historical description is of itself enough to make 
 Camoens the national poet of Portugal ; every old 
 Portuguese family finds its name enshrined in some 
 of its glowing passages, and the whole Portuguese 
 people feel identified with the actors in the great 
 deeds it describes. But Camoens is not only a 
 national poet ; he is a hero telling of an heroic deed 
 done by an heroic people, and this secures for him the 
 interest of readers of all nations, who can appreciate 
 true heroism. Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese 
 sailor, but the results of his enterprise and success 
 w^ere to the advantage of all Europe, and the poet 
 who sings of him deserved to be heard by Europe. 
 If, then, the subject was fitted for epic poetry, the 
 style of Camoens was equal to it. He rises far 
 above the purely classicist school in Portuguese litera- 
 ture ; he uses the names of the Roman gods, and 
 narrates their councils and their intervention in mun- 
 dane affairs with the verisimilitude of Virgil, yet he 
 never falls into a base or servile imitation of the great 
 Latin poet, but preserves throughout the cast of 
 thought of a Portuguese " conquistador." To criticize 
 the " Lusiads " further is without the purpose of this 
 book, but in conclusion it must be pointed out that 
 the great poem remains the strongest bond of union 
 between the modern Portuguese people, whether in 
 Portugal itself, or in Brazil, Goa, Macao, and Mozam- 
 bique. It is impossible to meet an educated Portu- 
 guese, who does not know his Camoens ; he is more 
 to them than Dante to the Italians, Goethe to the 
 Germans, or Shakespeare to the English ; he sings of
 
 274 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. 
 
 their nation's glory, and in maintaining his fame, each 
 one of them is interested. Never was this more 
 manifest than in the Camoens Celebration of 1880, 
 when Portuguese-speaking people of all climes, and 
 of all varieties of political and religious opinion, 
 gathered together in Lisbon to do honour to the 
 memory of their great poet, whose glory they felt to 
 be a connecting link between them all. 
 
 It was not only in the domain of poetry that the 
 boundless energies of the Portuguese of the heroic age 
 distinguished themselves ; in prose composition, also, 
 they stood high above their contemporaries of other 
 nations. History, as might be expected, was their 
 chief study, and Joao de Barros, the Portuguese Livy, 
 was the writer who bridged over the gap between 
 the old chroniclers, of whom Damiao de Goes was 
 the last, and the regular historians. This young 
 nobleman, who was born in 1496, was distinguished 
 at the Portuguese Court by his ardent study of the 
 Latin historical writers, and especially of Livy, and 
 was commissioned by King Emmanuel to draw up an 
 account of the discoveries and conquests of the Portu- 
 guese in the East. John III. continued the royal 
 patronage to Joao de Barros, who received many 
 lucrative appointments, such as Captain-general of 
 Brazil and treasurer of the Indian department at 
 Lisbon. The latter post gave him the opportunity to 
 collect valuable information on his subject, and he 
 made good use of it. His "Asia " is written in exact 
 imitation of the style of Livy ; it is divided into 
 decads and abounds in speeches which might have 
 been, but certainly never were, delivered, and in
 
 r^cnmmcBarroi rcrurajneikarum cforia- Jcripior 
 
 JOAO I)E liARKOS. 
 
 (From a Print in the British Museum.)
 
 276 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. 
 
 curious theories, entirely without foundation. Never- 
 theless, Joao de Barros possesses the greatest quality 
 of an historian, for he took pains in trying to ascertain 
 the truth, and when he believed he had found it, he 
 told his story simply and directly. He combines the 
 naive simplicity of the early chroniclers with the art of 
 making a story interesting, and he deserves a niche 
 in the history of Portuguese literature as the first 
 writer of modern Portuguese prose. In fiction the 
 " Amadis de Gaul " type of romance was followed by 
 imitations of the " Palmeirim de Inghilterra ; ' both 
 are alike tedious and absurd, and thoroughly deserve 
 the hearty mockery of Cervantes, who laughed them 
 and their school out of existence. Far more interest- 
 ing, if also somewhat tedious, are the pastoral novels, 
 which were originated by the poet Bernardim Ribeiro, 
 and written with most success by Rodrigues Lobo, 
 for they are truly national, and exhibit the love of 
 nature, which is inherent in the Portuguese character. 
 Nor was more serious literary work neglected by 
 the universally cultured Portuguese of the heroic age. 
 Mention has been made of the great scholars, who 
 made the University of Coimbra renowned, and who 
 encouraged the study of the classics. Theological 
 inquiry was also much favoured, and Francisco 
 Ferrario, one of the divines at the Council of Trent, 
 and Jeronymo de Azambuja, a learned Hebrew 
 scholar, who wrote a commentary on the Bible, botli 
 held a high place in the estimation of their contem- 
 poraries. Among grammarians, the name of Manuel 
 Alvares, a Jesuit, is honourably remembered, while 
 scientific research was represented by the mathemati-
 
 LITERARY ACTIVITY OF THE HEROIC AGE. lyy 
 
 cian, Pedro Nunes, who was reckoned one of the 
 wonders of his age. Lastly, Andrea de Resende, the 
 greatest Portuguese antiquary, must be again noticed, 
 for his " De Antiquitatibus Lusitaniae " is a work of 
 exceptional value, and contains a transcription of 
 many Roman inscriptions, since destroyed. 
 
 Enough has been said to indicate how great and 
 varied was the literary activity of the Portuguese 
 during their golden age, and it is worthy of notice, 
 that their literature was most abundant in great works 
 at the very time in which their energies were most 
 strained by their Asiatic conquests. It is matter for 
 wonder, that one small nation could do so much, and 
 in the " Lusiads " the key-note of their success is to 
 be found. The Portuguese race, trained under great 
 kings and great captains, believed itself to be invin- 
 cible, and from that very belief it remained invincible 
 for a time. When the illusion was shattered, the 
 superabundant energy which it had fostered vanished 
 completely. When once a nation has been conquered, 
 and its belief in its invincibility is gone, its power 
 withers away. The greatness of a nation depends 
 upon the opinion its people have of themselves as 
 individuals and members of the body politic ; as long 
 as they believe in themselves they can do anything ; 
 when their faith in their invincibility disappears, their 
 position among nations .speedily declines.
 
 XIII. 
 
 THE SIXTY years' CAPTIVITY. 
 
 The death of the Cardinal-King Henry brought 
 the people of Portugal face to face with the problem 
 which all had been discussing ever since the melan- 
 choly fate of Dom Sebastian. There were seven 
 candidates for the throne, but only five of them 
 need be seriously considered, for the claims of Pope 
 Gregory XIII., as heir-general to a cardinal, and of 
 Catherine de' Medici, through the first marriage of 
 Affonso III. to the Countess of Boulogne in the 
 thirteenth century, need no further notice. The rela- 
 tionship of the other five claimants to Emmanuel 
 "the Fortunate" can be best perceived from the table 
 on the opposite page. From this table it clearly 
 appears that the true heiress to the throne was 
 Catherine, Duchess of Braganza, and failing her 
 heirs, the Duke of Parma ; and that the claims of 
 Philip II. of Spain and of the Duke of Savoy were 
 only legally valid in case of the extinction of the 
 descendants of Dom Duarte or Edward, Duke of 
 Guimaraens. The University of Coimbra, after due 
 consideration, declared in favour of the Duchess of
 
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 28o THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. 
 
 Braganza, but Philip II. of Spain cared little for 
 this opinion ; he had long hoped to sit upon the 
 throne of Portugal, and to rule over the whole Iberian 
 peninsula, and he wished still more to add the 
 profits of the Portuguese trade with Asia to his 
 own American revenues, and thus fill his exchequer 
 with the sinews of war for his struggle against the 
 Protestants of the north of Europe. Philip II. there- 
 fore set to work to win over the majority of the 
 Cortes which had been convened at Lisbon, to 
 settle the succession to the throne. Money and 
 lavish promises assisted the eloquence of the two 
 chief supporters af the King of Spain, Christovao 
 de Moura and Antonio Pinheiro, Bishop of Leiria ; 
 and when the death of the cardinal-king was an- 
 nounced in January, 1580, the Cortes was quite 
 ready to recognize Philip as king, although the 
 people, or rather that small section of the people 
 who were Portuguese patriots, felt and expressed all 
 the traditional hatred against the union of the thrones 
 of Spain and Portugal. 
 
 The death of King Henry hurried on matters, and 
 Philip, in order to establish himself peacefully on the 
 throne, entered into negotiations with the Duke of 
 Braganza. The King of Spain solemnly promised the 
 duke that he should have Brazil in full sovereignty 
 with the title of king, and that a marriage should be 
 arranged between his daughter and the Prince of the 
 Asturias, heir to the conjoined thrones ; and the 
 duke, who hated war and loved peace, accepted 
 these terms, in spite of his wife's opposition. But, 
 to the surprise of Philip, another competitor for the
 
 THE CLAIMS OF THE PRIOR OF CRATO. 28 1 
 
 crown, to whom he had paid no attention — Dom 
 Antonio, the Prior of Crato — declared himself king 
 at Santarem, and, entering Lisbon without opposi- 
 tion, struck money and began to raise soldiers. This 
 Dom Antonio was the son of Dom Luis, Duke of 
 Beja, the second son of Emmanuel " the Fortunate," 
 by Violante de Gomes, surnamed " the Pelican," one 
 of the most beautiful women of her time. Dom 
 Antonio alleged that his father was secretly married 
 to his mother, and reminded the people, in a pro- 
 clamation, that, even if the marriage were not legal, 
 one of the greatest of all the kings of Portugal, the 
 victor of Aljubarrota, was a bastard also. But the 
 Portugal of the close of the sixteenth century, ener- 
 vated by wealth and luxury, oppressed by the 
 Inquisition, and with its free population reduced in 
 numbers, possessed none of the energy of the Por- 
 tugal of the fourteenth century, and felt no inclina- 
 tion to fight against the King of Spain, the son of 
 the great Emperor Charles V., and the uncle and 
 friend of their lamented monarch, Dom Sebastian. 
 The brave, but hot-headed and noisy Prior of Crato 
 could not be compared in warlike prowess or states- 
 manlike qualities to John of Aviz, and he had no 
 "Holy Constable" to supi)ort him; and the Cortes 
 of 1580, unlike that which in 1385 had listened to the 
 manly words of Joao das Regras, and declared John 
 " the Great " king of Portugal, listened to the promises 
 of Christovao de Moura, and rejected the Prior of 
 Crato. Dom Antonio raised a few soldiers, but the 
 Duke of Alva who entered Portugal at the head of 
 twenty thousand men, defeated them without diffi-
 
 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN, AViVG OF PORTUGAL. 2b ^ 
 
 culty at Alcantara on August 26th, when the pre- 
 tender fled to France, and Philip II. was proclaimed 
 king. 
 
 In 1 581 Philip II. of Spain and I. of Portugal, as 
 he now styled himself, solemnly entered Lisbon, and 
 in the presence of a great Cortes held at Thomar he 
 swore on April 15, 1 581, that he and his successors 
 would observe the following conditions, which had 
 been settled by his agents. He swore that he would 
 maintain the privileges and liberties of the Portu- 
 guese people ; that the Cortes should be frequently 
 summoned to meet in Portugal ; that the viceroy or 
 chief governor should always be a native, unless the 
 king should give that charge to one of the royal 
 family ; that the royal household should be kept up 
 on the same scale as hitherto ; that all offices, civil, 
 military, and judicial, and all dignities in the Church, 
 and in the orders of knighthood, within the kingdom, 
 should be conferred upon Portuguese subjects alone ; 
 that the commerce of Africa, Persia, and India should 
 be reserved to them, and carried on only in their 
 vessels ; that he would make no royal grant of any 
 city, town, or royal jurisdiction to any but Portu- 
 guese ; that forfeited or lapsed estates should never 
 be absorbed in the royal domain, but be regranted 
 to some relative of the last possessor or to some 
 other Portuguese subject ; that the king should 
 reside as much as possible in Portugal, and that, 
 when he did come, he should not take the houses 
 of private individuals for his officers, but observe 
 the custom of Portugal ; that there should be always 
 resident at the royal court an ecclesiastic, a chan-
 
 284 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY, 
 
 cellor, a treasurer, and two masters of requests, of 
 Portuguese birth and nationality, to manage all busi- 
 ness relating to their country ; that the revenue of 
 Portugal should be kept distinct from that of Spain, 
 and spent in the kingdom ; that all matters of justice 
 should be finally settled there ; that Portuguese 
 noblemen should be admitted to offices in the house- 
 holds of the King and Queen of Spain ; that all 
 customs duties at the land frontiers should be 
 abolished ; and that King Philip should at once 
 grant three hundred thousand crowns out of his 
 royal treasury to redeem prisoners, repair cities, and 
 relieve the miseries which the plague had brought 
 upon the Portuguese people. All these conditions 
 Philip II. solemnly swore to observe, and he was in 
 consequence recognized as King of Portugal, not 
 only in Portugal itself, but in Brazil and the Indian 
 settlements, where Fernao Telles had succeeded the 
 viceroy, Dom Luis de Athaide, as governor-general. 
 
 The other candidates for the crown of Portugal 
 were obliged to acquiesce in Philip's success ; the 
 Duke of Braganza, though greatly disappointed at 
 only receiving the office of Constable of Portugal 
 and the Order of the Golden Fleece instead of the 
 sovereignty of Brazil, was too apathetic to resist, 
 and, in face of his apathy, the Dukes of Parma and 
 Savoy were forced to surrender their claims, which 
 were obviously inferior to those of the Duchess of 
 Braganza. Only the Prior of Crato persisted in his 
 attempts to win the throne from Philip by relying on 
 the old dislike of the Portuguese people for the 
 Spaniards. He was cordially received in France by
 
 THE DEATH OF THE PRIOR OF CRATO. 285 
 
 Catherine de' Medici, who, though Italian by birth, 
 was true to the French policy of trying to weaken 
 Spain ; and through her influence a strong French 
 fleet of sixty ships of war, with many troops on 
 board, was sent, under the command of Philip Strozzi, 
 to the Azores, which had recognized Dom Antonio 
 in 1580 as king of Portugal, and had refused to 
 acknowledge Philip. But the ill-luck of the Prior 
 of Crato followed him ; the French fleet was de- 
 feated at Terceira by the Spanish admiral, Don 
 Alvaro de Bacam on July 26, 1582 ; Strozzi was 
 killed, and Dom Antonio escaped with difficulty to 
 England. There Elizabeth received him cordially, 
 and in 1589, the year after the defeat of the Great 
 Armada, she sent a strong fleet, under Sir Francis 
 Drake and Sir John Norris, to help him win back 
 his " kingdom." This attempt also proved a failure ; 
 Maula Ahmed ibn Mohammed of Morocco was 
 prevented from advancing to the prior the loan of 
 two hundred thousand crowns, which he had pro- 
 mised on receiving Dom Antonio's son, Dom Chris- 
 tovao, as a hostage, by Philip's timely surrender of 
 Arzila ; Drake and Norris quarrelled, and the Eng- 
 lish retired without effecting anything of importance. 
 The unfortunate prior, finding that Elizabeth would 
 do nothing more for him, once more went to France, 
 where he died in great poverty and distress on August 
 26, 1595. He was buried in the Church of St. 
 Germain I'Auxerrois at Paris, where the inscription 
 on his tomb styles him " King of Portugal " ; and 
 he left several children behind him, who were not 
 recognized as legitimate, owing to the fact that their
 
 286 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. 
 
 father had taken a vow of chastity on becoming a 
 Knight of Malta. 
 
 The attempts of the Prior of Crato did not affect 
 the equanimity of PhiHp II. ; he satisfied himself, 
 when he entered his new kingdom, by making fifty- 
 two exceptions to the general amnesty, which he had 
 declared, including Dom Antonio himself and his 
 chief adviser, the Bishop of Guarda. He returned 
 to Spain shortly afterwards, leaving his nephew, the 
 Cardinal-Archduke Albert as viceroy at Lisbon, with 
 a strong guard of Spanish soldiers. The most in- 
 teresting occurrences of the cardinal's administration 
 were the risings of the two first " false Dom Sebas- 
 tians." It has been said that the lower classes of the 
 Portuguese people refused to believe that the young 
 king was dead, and it was not long before impostors 
 arose, who tried to make profit out of this credulity. 
 The history of these impostors ^ is as curious in its 
 way as those of the " False Smerdis," the " False 
 Demetrius," and the pseudo-Louis XVI I.s, and proves 
 how strong a hold the memory of Dom Sebastian, 
 in spite of his being a rash and foolhardy tyrant, had 
 taken upon the minds of the Portuguese people. The 
 first two of these impostors, who were mockingly 
 called the " King of Pennamacor " and the " King of 
 Ericeira " from the headquarters of their operations, 
 were Portuguese of low birth, whose risings were 
 easily put down. The original inventor of the idea 
 was the son of a tiler of Al^obaga, named Sebastiao 
 
 ' On the history of these pretenders, see " LesFaux Don Sebastien," 
 by Miguel Martins d'Antas, the late Portuguese minister in London, 
 published at Paris, 1866.
 
 THE FIRST "FALSE DOM SEBASTIAyS." 2S7 
 
 Gonzales, who, after leading a profligate life, had 
 retired to a hermitage near Pennamacor. From this 
 retirement he emerged in July, 1584, and declared 
 that he was King Sebastian ; that he had escaped 
 after the battle of Alcacer Quibir, and had since been 
 praying in the hermitage, but that the miseries of his 
 people had reached his ears, and he had determined 
 to come forth to remedy them. He was accompanied 
 by two men, who styled themselves Dom Christovao 
 de Tavora and the Bishop of Guarda, and began to 
 collect money in Pennamacor and the neighbour- 
 hood. The trio were speedily arrested and marched 
 through the streets of Lisbon to show that they were 
 impostors ; and the false Sebastian \\ as then sent to 
 the galleys for life, and the pretended Bishop of 
 Guarda was hanged. In the following year, one 
 Mattheus Alvares, son of a mason at Ericeira, de- 
 clared himself to be the lamented Dom Sebastian, to 
 whom he bore a considerable personal resemblance, 
 and solemnly promised to marry the daughter of 
 Pedro Affonso, a rich farmer, whom he created Count 
 of Torres Novas. His future father-in-law advanced 
 the impostor a large sum of money, and he had raised 
 a small corps of eight hundred fanatical followers, 
 when the cardinal-archduke thought it necessary to 
 send royal troops against him. The poor enthusiasts 
 were defeated with much loss, and both the pretender 
 and Pedro Affonso were hanged and quartered in 
 Lisbon. 
 
 This severe punishment effectually checked the 
 appearance of any fresh impostors in Portugal itself, 
 and the populace, though firmly convinced that Dom
 
 288 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. 
 
 Sebastian would one day appear again, were not to 
 be deceived by any more pretenders. 
 
 But these stories had spread far beyond the limits 
 of Portugal, and two more attempts to personate the 
 deceased monarch were made in Spain and Italy. 
 The first of these impostors was a handsome young 
 man named Gabriel Espinosa, who bore a striking re- 
 semblance to the King of Portugal, and who was given 
 out as Dom Sebastian by a Portuguese Jesuit, named 
 Madujal, who introduced him to Donna Anna, a 
 natural daughter of Don John of Austria, and induced 
 her to believed in him. The whole scheme partook 
 rather of the nature of a personal intrigue than of a 
 political plot. Donna Anna, who was very wealthy, 
 showered favours on the young man and his sponsor, 
 and even advocated his claims to Philip II. The 
 deception was, however, too obviously absurd to 
 gain many supporters, and Espinosa and his clerical 
 adviser were both executed in 1594. Far more 
 curious is the story of Marco Tullio, a poor Calabrian 
 peasant, who could not speak a word of Portuguese, 
 but who nevertheless asserted that he was Dom Sebas- 
 tian in 1603, twenty-five years after the disaster of 
 Alcacer Quibir. His story was most carefully worked 
 out, and his imposture ranks among the most extra- 
 ordinary on record. He asserted that he was tne 
 king, and had saved his life and liberty by remaining 
 on the battle-field among the dead bodies ; that he 
 had made his way into Portugal, and had given notice 
 of his existence to the Cardinal-King Henry, who 
 had sought his life ; that he then returned to Africa, 
 because he was unwilling to disturb the peace of the
 
 THE IMPOSTURE OF MARCO TULLIO. 2S9 
 
 kingdom by a civil war, and travelled about in the 
 garb of a penitent ; that he next became a hermit in 
 Sicily, and was on his way to Rome to declare him- 
 self to the Pope, when he was robbed by his servants, 
 and obliged to find his way to Venice. When he told 
 this elaborate tale at Venice, he got a few Portuguese 
 residents there to believe in him, and was soon 
 arrested in that city at the demand of the Spanish 
 ambassador as an impostor and a criminal. He was 
 several times examined, but stuck to his story so 
 cleverly, and with such obstinacy, that the authorities, 
 who were not sorry to embarrass the Spanish Govern- 
 ment, refused to punish him as an impostor. The 
 story of his claim spread so widely abroad, that the 
 enemies of Spain became anxious to prove it true, 
 and to set him up as a thorn in the side of Philip III. 
 The Prince of Orange went so far as to send Dom 
 Christovao, son of the Prior of Crato, to request the 
 Venetian authorities to make further inquiries ; but 
 those prudent governors only held a solemn public 
 examination, when the Calabrian told his tale again, 
 and then expelled him from their dominions without 
 expressing any opinion as to its truth. From Venice 
 he went to Padua in the disguise of a monk, and 
 thence to Florence, where the Grand Duke of Tuscany 
 had him arrested and given up to the Spanish Viceroy 
 at Naples. He was imprisoned in the Castle del Ovo, 
 publicly exposed, and sent to the galleys ; and as he 
 made adherents even there, he was transferred to San 
 Lucar, and eventually executed. The singular bold- 
 ness of this imposture, and the tenacity with which 
 the ignorant Calabrian stuck to his story, in spite of
 
 290 THE SIXTY YEARS* CAPTIVITY. 
 
 its evident falsity, make it memorable in the history 
 of pretenders. 
 
 The " Sixty Years' Captivity," as the domination of 
 Spain over Portugal from 1580 to 1640 is called, was 
 a time of unexampled disaster for the country in 
 every quarter, and the Portuguese, with their in- 
 dependence, seemed to have lost all their old courage 
 and heroism. Under the administration of the 
 Cardinal-Archduke Albert great efforts were made 
 to send a powerful contingent to the fleet known as 
 " The Great Armada," and the destruction of this 
 fleet by the English in 1588 ruined the naval power 
 of Portugal. So low did the country fall, that it 
 could not even defend its own ports, and in 1595 the 
 English, under Sir Francis Drake, sacked the im- 
 portant city of Faro in the Algarves. As a portion of 
 the Spanish dominions, Portugal had to suffer defeat 
 from all the enemies of Spain. The foremost of 
 these enemies were England and Holland, and the 
 Dutch were the first nation to break down the 
 Portuguese monopoly of the lucrative trade with 
 Asia. This they did with the more ease, since, with 
 the true commercial spirit, they not only imported 
 merchandise from the East to Holland, but also 
 distributed it through Dutch merchants to every 
 country in Europe ; whereas the Portuguese in the 
 days of their commercial prosperity were satisfied 
 with bringing over the commodities to Lisbon, and 
 letting foreign nations come and fetch them. The 
 incursion of the Dutch merchants into Asia was 
 caused by the action of Philip H. in closing the port 
 of Lisbon to them in 1594; and in 1595 Cornelius
 
 THE DUTCH FIRST GO TO ASIA. 291 
 
 Houtman, a Dutchman, who had been employed by 
 the Portii^^uese as a pilot in the Indian seas, and had 
 afterwards been imprisoned by the Inquisition, led a 
 Dutch fleet round the Cape of Good Hope for the 
 first time. 
 
 Rut before studying the rapid manner in which, 
 first, the Dutch, and then the English and other 
 foreign nations, contended for a share in the Asiatic 
 trade, and eventually destroyed the Portuguese 
 power in the East, it is necessary to draw attention 
 to the fact that this destruction did not commence 
 until the beginning of the seventeenth century, and 
 the reign of Philip III, The ruin of Portugal was 
 indeed due to the policy of Philip II., whose enemies 
 Holland and England consummated it; but it was 
 hardly commenced in his reign, which ended in 1598. 
 Indeed, during that period, when the power of 
 Portugal was on the very point of extinction, its 
 Asiatic trade, and more especially its Indian trade, 
 was at its height.^ Philip II. faithfully observed the 
 promises he had made to the Cortes of Thomar in 
 this respect. All the viceroys he appointed were 
 Portuguese, and he made no attempt to intrude 
 Spaniards into either official appointments or into 
 the conduct of the Asiatic commerce. The Portuguese 
 viceroys of his reign, Dom PVancisco Mascarenhas, 
 Dom Duarte de Menezes, Dom Manoel de Sousa 
 Coutinho, Dom Mathias de Alboquerque, and Dom 
 Francisco da Gama, were all able and cnterprizing 
 rulers, who increased the prestige of the Portuguese 
 power throughout the East by many deeds of daring, 
 
 ' Hunter's " Imperial Gazetteer of India," article, India, vol. vi. p. 360.
 
 ;292 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. 
 
 and especially by the conquest of the King of Kandy 
 in Ceylon. The yearly fleets increased in :.::mber ; 
 the peoples of the East had got accustomed to regard 
 the Portuguese as invincible ; and the wheels of 
 administration, from long practice, ran smoothly. 
 Especially active were the missionaries, principally 
 Jesuits, in Asia, and their progress was forwarded 
 rather than checked by the accession of Philip II. to 
 the throne of Portugal. The bishopric of Goa was 
 raised to an archbishopric in 1577, and suffragan 
 bishops were appointed wherever the influence of the 
 Portuguese spread, and it is curious to note that an 
 important mission headed by Dom Luis de Sequeira, 
 consecrated Bishop of Japan, and Father Alexandra de 
 Valignano, was despatched to Japan to 1598 and had 
 much success.! j^xit though the authorities of the 
 Roman Catholic Church in Asia paid much attention 
 to preaching the gospel among the distant peoples 
 of the East, in India they were chiefly occupied in 
 persecuting the Nestorian Christians on the Malabar 
 coast with the help of the Inquisition. These 
 Nestorian Christians were especially obnoxious to 
 the orthodox Catholics, who got the Portuguese to 
 prevent the arrival of any consecrated Nestorian 
 bishop in India by blockading the coast, and who 
 solemnly condemned the doctrines of the Nestorians 
 in the famous synod of Diamper (Udayampura) held 
 by Archbishop Alexis de Menezes in 1599. The 
 history of the work of the Jesuits in India at this time 
 is peculiarly interesting ; the keynote to their policy 
 is contained in the following words : " The Christian 
 
 ' The " Da Asia " of Diogo de Couto, decade xii. book i. chap. xix.
 
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 o 
 
 ^ i :i :h 
 
 g < 5> 
 = o g 
 
 = 6d 3 
 
 E U, ^i
 
 294 '"^HE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. 
 
 religion cannot be regarded as naturalized in a 
 country, until it is in a position to propagate its own 
 priesthood ; " ^ and it must be remembered that the 
 credit of their activity must not be attributed to 
 Portuguese priests alone, for Jesuits of all nations co- 
 operated in the work of evangelization, and among 
 them should be noted Thomas Stephens, an English- 
 man and rector of the Jesuit college at Salsette. 
 In preaching, teaching, and writing these early 
 Jesuit missionaries were equally able, and it is 
 recorded that the first book printed in India was 
 printed by the Jesuits at Cochin in 1570. In opposi- 
 tion to this activity must be noted the terrible severity 
 of the Inquisition at Goa, which stained the labours 
 of these early missionaries with blood. 
 
 The last twenty years of the sixteenth century, 
 comprised in the reign of Philip II., from 1580 to 
 1598, mark the height of the wealth and power of 
 the Portuguese in the East, but their fall into nothing- 
 ness there during the reigns of Philip III. and Philip 
 IV. was as rapid as their success had been astound- 
 ing. The first great blows were struck by the Dutch 
 merchants, whose ships were sent out at their own 
 expense, and in no way protected by the State. In 
 1597 two years after Houtman had led a Dutch fleet 
 round the Cape, the Dutch established a factory in 
 Java. In 1601 they defeated the Portuguese governor 
 of Malacca, and took that city ; in 1607 they 
 conquered the Portuguese settlements in the Moluccas 
 and Sumatra; and in 1618 they founded Batavia, 
 which became the capital of the trade of the Spice 
 
 ' Hunter's '* Imperial Gazetteer of India," vol. vi. p. 251.
 
 THE ENGLISH FIRST GO TO ASIA. 295 
 
 Islands, and soon not only took the place of Malacca, 
 but rivalled Goa. Not satisfied with the trade of the 
 further East, they attacked that of China also, and in 
 1635 occupied the island of Formosa. At a later 
 date they even ousted the Portuguese from their chief 
 settlements in India and Ceylon, always excepting 
 Goa, which, according to Catholic belief, has ever 
 been preserved to the Portuguese by the holy bones 
 of St. Francis Xavier. Meanwhile, just as the Dutch 
 broke the power of the Portuguese in the Spice 
 Islands and China, a new power had arisen to attack 
 their Indian monopoly. The ancient allies of the Portu- 
 guese the English, now made no distinction between 
 them and their bitter enemies, the Spaniards, and 
 during the last forty years of the " Sixty Years' Cap- 
 tivity," they laid the foundation of their empire in 
 India. During the reign of Elizabeth, the English had 
 sacked Pernambuco in 1594, destroyed Fort Arguin 
 on the African coast in 1595, and ravaged the Azores 
 in 1597 ; during that of James I. they attacked the 
 Indian trade of Portugal. As was the case with the 
 Dutch, the assault upon the Portuguese monopoly 
 was the work of private traders, not of the State. 
 This is not the place to trace the slow growth of the 
 English power in India, but it is enough to say that 
 the English ships went to Asia with no idea of 
 conquest, and solely with the desire to trade. This 
 the Portuguese desired to hinder, and in trying to 
 prevent the English from taking on board cargoes at 
 Surat in 161 5, the Portuguese were defeated by 
 Captain Best, and thus lost their reputation for in- 
 vincibility on the north-west coast of India. The
 
 296 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. 
 
 English, instead of showing a bold front, made 
 efforts to live in harmony with the Indian kings, 
 and especially with the Great Mogul, and were 
 rewarded by being looked upon with favour instead 
 of with suspicion, and being allowed to set up many 
 commercial agencies. As traders, the English mer- 
 chants had no wish to go to war and maintained no 
 armies to defend their agencies, and the only offensive 
 operation they undertook against the Portuguese was 
 in 1622, when they assisted the Persians to capture 
 Ormuz. These rapid onslaughts completely over- 
 threw the Portuguese power in Asia. The Dutch 
 quickly absorbed all the trade of the further East, and 
 of the Spice Islands in particular ; the English gained 
 a good hold upon that with Persia and North-western 
 India; and in 1629 the Portuguese commerce with 
 Bengal was almost destroyed by the capture of their 
 headquarters, Hugll, by Shah Jehan who killed one 
 thousand Portuguese, and carried over four thousand, 
 including women and children, into captivity. Even 
 smaller European nations attacked their monopoly, 
 and in 1616 the Danes established themselves at 
 Serampore and Tranquebar. Against all these blows, 
 Portugal made little resistance ; Golden Goa was shorn 
 of its pre-eminence ; and the Portuguese fleets when 
 homeward bound were preyed upon by the Dutch and 
 English cruisers. 
 
 It was not only in the East that disasters fell in 
 quick succession upon the Portuguese, but efforts were 
 made also by the Dutch to dispossess them of their 
 great empire in South America. The history of the 
 Dutch in Brazil is as remarkable as their history in
 
 THE DUTCH IX BRAZIL. 297 
 
 Asia, and considering the small size of Holland, the 
 same feeling of astonishment, which strikes the 
 student, when he reads of the exploits of the Portu- 
 guese in the sixteenth century, affects him, when he 
 examines the enterprises of the Dutch in the seven- 
 teenth. It was in 1624, when success was assured in 
 Asia, that a Dutch West India Company was founded 
 to drive the Portuguese out of South America. The 
 new company at once sent a fleet under Admiral Willi- 
 kens to attack Brazil, and this admiral met with little 
 opposition in the capture of San Salvador, the capital 
 of Portuguese South America. The Portuguese 
 governor-general, Dom Diogo de Mendon^a, aban- 
 doned the city, but the Archbishop, Dom Miguel de 
 Teixeira, took his place, and callin'g on his clergy to 
 take up arms, he defended the city for a few days, 
 and then retired to a neighbouring port. Admiral 
 Willikens plundered the city, and returned with a 
 vast booty, to the delight of his employers, and left 
 only a small garrison behind, which was soon driven 
 back in all its forays, and eventually closely blockaded 
 by the gallant old archbishop, who took the title of 
 Captain-general of Brazil. In April, 1626, strong 
 reinforcements arrived under Dom Emmanuel de 
 Menezes, and the city of San Salvador once more 
 fell into the hands of the Portuguese. It is not 
 necessary to trace the exact history of every Dutch 
 expedition to Brazil ; it is enough to say that from 
 1626 to 1637, plunder was brought home every year 
 and distributed to the shareholders of the company, 
 while no real attempt at establishing trade or at colo- 
 nization was made. This policy naturally caused the
 
 298 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. 
 
 Dutch to be loathed by the Portuguese settlers as 
 robbers and pirates, and kept them in a state of 
 perpetual disquietude. In 1637, a great ruler, Count 
 Maurice of Nassau, was sent out by the Dutch West 
 India Company as Governor-general of their posses- 
 sions in South America, which extended roughly 
 over the four Captainships of Pernambuco, Tamaraca, 
 Paraiba, and Rio Grande. This great general and 
 statesman attempted to entirely destroy the Portu- 
 guese power in South America, and to establish 
 a Dutch dominion there. His warlike expeditions 
 were successful, excepting an attack on San Salvador, 
 and he also managed to establish a general system of 
 administration over the seven northern captainships 
 with his capital at Mauriceburgh opposite the strongly 
 fortified island of the Recife. It was Maurice of 
 Nassau, who gave up the system of plundering the 
 Portuguese, and substituted that of taxing them, and 
 his power was at its height, when the news of the 
 revolution of 1640, and of the overthrow of the 
 Spanish domination, arrived in Brazil and revived 
 the spirits of the Portuguese colonists. 
 
 To compensate for all these losses, the destruction 
 of the monopoly of the Asiatic trade, the loss of 
 Ormuz and Malacca, and the reduction of the greater 
 part of Brazil, what advantages had Portugal received ? 
 The promises made by Philip II. to the Cortes of 
 Thomar were mostly broken by his successors. The 
 Duke of Lerma and the Count-Duke of Olivares, the 
 all-powerful ministers of Philip III. and Philip IV. 
 tried to see how far and how entirely they could 
 prove to the Portuguese people that they were subject
 
 THE RULE OF THE SPANIARDS. 299 
 
 to Spain, and not a free nation. The Cortes, instead 
 of being summoned frequently, was only summoned 
 once during the reign of Philip III., in 1619, in order 
 to recognize his son as heir to the throne; and was 
 never summoned at all during the reign of Philip IV. 
 Spaniards filled every office in the kingdom, and 
 more especially in the garrison towns ; Spanish eccle- 
 siastics were consecrated to Portuguese bishoprics ; and 
 the Portuguese council at the Court of Madrid was 
 reduced to a single secretary. Taxation was heavy, 
 and the revenue from it was not spent in the country, 
 and the promise that no Portuguese land should be 
 granted to other than Portuguese subjects was often 
 broken, conspicuously in the case of the Duke of 
 Lerma, who secured a grant of the royal domains 
 of Beja and Serpa. But Lerma and Olivares forgot 
 that the Portuguese were a separate race, with a great 
 and noble history ; they would not be trampled on 
 for ever, and to the surprise of Spain, the little 
 country rose in rebellion in 1640 and put an end to 
 the " Sixty Years' Captivity."
 
 XIV. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION OF 164O. 
 
 The Portuguese people groaned under the power- 
 lessness and poverty which fell to their lot during 
 the Sixty Years' Captivity. None of the advantages 
 which had been so eloquently prophesied by Chris- 
 tovao de Moura as the inevitable result of a union 
 with Spain had been experienced. Instead of being 
 protected by great Spanish armies, the colonies and 
 trade of Portugal had been left an open prey to the 
 enemies of Spain ; it was on account of her union 
 with Spain that the Dutch and English attacked the 
 Portuguese possessions in both East and West ; and 
 in return for all she lost, Portugal did not even have 
 the satisfaction of retaining the independence of its 
 local government, but was administered for the benefit 
 of Spaniards alone. The proverbial Castilian haughti- 
 ness was especially aggravating to the nobles and 
 people of Portugal ; there was no attempt made to 
 unite the two peoples ; they kept apart like oil and 
 water, and the traditional hatred of the Spaniard 
 grew to be more intense than ever. The loss of 
 material prosperity and the insolent demeanour of
 
 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. 3OI 
 
 the Spanish officials affected all classes, high and low, 
 and incited them to rebel, and to these causes must 
 be added the influence of the Portuguese writers. 
 The great Camoens had not lived to see the Spaniards 
 supreme in his beloved countr\-, but he had successors 
 during the Suity Years' Captivity, who sang in the 
 same lofty strain of the great deeds of the Portuguese 
 warriors during the heroic period. Such poems as the 
 " Primeiro Cerco de Dio " (" The First Siege of Diu "), 
 by Francisco de Andrade ; the " Segundo Cerco de 
 Dio," by Jeronymo Corte-Real ; the " Affonso Afri- 
 cano," by Vasco Mousinho de Ouebedo ; and the 
 "Malacca Conquistada," by Francisco de Sa de 
 Menezes, were all calculated to stir the hearts of the 
 Portuguese of the seventeenth century, and to make 
 them desire to be worthy of their great forefathers. 
 Nor were the prose writers less eloquent than the 
 poets in telling of the great deeds of the past ; the 
 "Decadas" of Diogo do Couto, and the "Asia," 
 "Europa," "Africa," and "America Portugueza," of 
 Manoel de Faria e Sousa, continued the work of 
 Joao de Barros in making the Portuguese proud of 
 their past exploits, while the historians, Bernardo de 
 Brito and Antonio Brandao, in their " Monarchia 
 Lusitana," told the story of the centuries of indepen- 
 dence before Portugal became a province of Spain. 
 
 A universal feeling of discontent had arisen during 
 the reigns of Philip III. and Philip IV., but the final 
 impulse from passive discontent to active rebellion 
 was supplied by the energy of certain Portuguese 
 noblemen, who relied for success on the weakness of 
 Spain and on help from France. The Spain of Philip
 
 302 THE REVOLUTION OF 1640. 
 
 IV. was indeed very different to the Spain of Charles 
 
 V. and Philip II.; its days of greatness were over; 
 Holland was practically independent ; and Catalonia 
 was in revolt. On the other hand, France had passed 
 through the terrible civil wars of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, and was being moulded into a mighty kingdom 
 by the hand of Richelieu. One of the keynotes of 
 Richelieu's policy was to harass Spain ; and for this 
 reason the great cardinal encouraged the revolt of the 
 Catalans in 1639, and had long fomented the feeling 
 of discontent in Portugal. As early as 1636, one of 
 Richelieu's secret agents is found writing to his 
 master, " All Portugal cries aloud, ' When will the 
 King of France deliver us from the Pharaoh of 
 Spain'?" I and in 1638 the cardinal sent one of his 
 most trusted agents, the Chevalier de Saint-Pe, to re- 
 port upon the disposition of the Portuguese people. 
 Richelieu soon grasped the situation of affairs, and 
 resolved to encourage an open rebellion in Portugal, 
 in order to secure an independent ally in the Iberian 
 Peninsula, which should be such a thorn in the side of 
 Spain as Scotland had in former days been in the side 
 of England. The discontent of the people was shown 
 in many overt acts ; in 1634 the people of Lisbon 
 refused to pay their taxes; in 1637 a serious riot 
 broke out at Evora, which remained in a state of 
 insurrection for many months ; and attacks upon 
 Spanish soldiers and officials constantly took place 
 all over the country. 
 
 But the discontented people of Portugal wanted 
 
 ' Richelieu's "Letters," euited by the Vicomte d'Avenel, vol. vii. 
 p. 858.
 
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 304 THE REVOLUTION OF 164O. 
 
 some one to rally round ; the nobility wanted a 
 leader. This leader and representative was found in 
 John, eighth Duke of Braganza, the legitimate heir 
 to the throne. This great nobleman was the head of 
 the most noble family in Portugal, and the direct 
 lineal descendant of the bastard son of John "the 
 Great," who had married the daughter of the Holy 
 Constable, and he was further the grandson of Donna 
 Catherine, the rightful heiress to the Cardinal-King, 
 Dom Henry. Philip H. had purchased the acqui- 
 escence of the husband of Donna Catherine in his 
 usurpation by securing to him the vast possessions of 
 the Braganza family in Portugal, but he had not 
 fulfilled his promise of the grant of Brazil in full 
 sovereignty, to the great disgust of the heiress to the 
 throne of Portugal. She had inspired her hatred for 
 Spain and her love for Portugal into her son, Dom 
 Theodosio, seventh duke, but her grandson, Dom 
 John, was an indolent and timid nobleman, who 
 preferred an easy life to a crown. Dom John had 
 succeeded to the duchy and estates in 1630, at the 
 age of twenty-six, and he had married Donna Luisa de 
 Guzman, daughter of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, in 
 1633. This marriage had been hailed with delight by 
 Olivares, as it seemed to bind the Braganza family 
 closer to Spain, and he persuaded Philip IV. to grant 
 Dom John as a wedding-gift the duchy and lordship 
 of Guimaraens, which had been the property of Dom 
 Edward, youngest son of Emmanuel " the Fortunate," 
 the prince through whom the Duke of Braganza 
 traced his claim to the throne. But this marriage did 
 not cement the friendship of the House of Braganza
 
 THE DUCHESS OF BRAGANZA. 305 
 
 with Spain. On the contrary, the duchess seemed to 
 surrender her Spanish nationaUty ; she made a point 
 of speaking Portuguese, and became more patriotic 
 than the Portuguese themselves ; she never forgot 
 that her husband was by rights a king, and was 
 encouraged to use all her great abilities to scheme 
 for the throne of Portugal by the recollection of a 
 prophecy made to her in her childhood that she 
 should be a queen. Dom John himself did not share 
 her opinions ; he was no warrior, but loved hunting, 
 music, and the arts, and his lovely hunting-seat at 
 Villa Vigosa, far more than he did politics or even his 
 country. But his easy nature made him subservient 
 to the will of his duchess, and she, through the duke's 
 agent, Joao Pinto Ribeiro, Professor of Civil Law at 
 Coimbra, let the nobility of Portugal know that the 
 Duke of Braganza would put himself at their head, if 
 they would but strike a blow for the freedom of their 
 country. 
 
 Portugal was at the period, when the Duchess 
 of Braganza involved her husband in her ambitious 
 schemes, under the nominal rule of Margaret of 
 Savoy, Duchess of Mantua ; and the Court of this 
 princess was, contrary to the promises made by 
 Philip II. to the Cortes of Thomar, entirely filled with 
 foreigners. Her Lord High Steward or Mordomo- 
 Mor was the Marquis de la Puebla, a Spaniard, and 
 her Estribeiro-Mor, or Master of the Horse, was the 
 Marquis de Bainetti, an Italian, while among more 
 important posts, two Spaniards, Don Didace de 
 Cardenas and Don Fernando de Castro, were respec- 
 tively general commanding the Portuguese cavalry,
 
 306 THE REVOLUTION OF 164O. 
 
 and controller of the Portuguese navy. The most 
 important native of the country admitted to her 
 council was Dom Sebastiao de Mattos de Noronha, 
 Archbishop of Braga, Primate of the kingdom, and 
 a wealthy nobleman, but the chief administrative 
 power was confided to Miguel de Vasconcellos de 
 Brito, Secretary of State. This man was hated by his 
 fellow-countrymen with the intensity of hatred only 
 felt for a renegade. He had won the favour of 
 Olivares, the Spanish Minister, by his skill in 
 squeezing money out of Portugal, and his energy 
 and activity made him indispensable to the Duchess 
 of Mantua. But if he was hated by all classes of the 
 Portuguese people, he was more especially obnoxious 
 to the Portuguese nobility owing to his policy of 
 excluding them from all posts of honour and emolu- 
 ment, and his personal insolence towards them. 
 
 This was the state of the government and the 
 general position of affairs in Portugal when Joao Pinto 
 Ribeiro, acting with the full sanction of the Duchess, 
 and the half-hearted assent of the Duke, of Braganza, 
 began to form a conspiracy among the leading noble- 
 men to bring about a revolution and expel the 
 Spaniards. If he could only combine the nobles to 
 take the lead and strike the first blow, he knew well 
 that the people would warmly support them. The 
 first step was to make the future king acquainted 
 with his friends, and for this purpose great hunting 
 parties were organized at Villa Vi^osa, to which the 
 most patriotic Portuguese noblemen were invited in 
 turn. This behaviour, and the attitude of the young 
 duchess, began to inspire Olivares with a vague
 
 THE DUKE OF BR AG A XZ A. 307 
 
 alarm, and he began to regret the poh'cy which had 
 allowed the rightful heir to the throne of Portugal to 
 retain his vast estates in the quarter where his in- 
 fluence was most to be feared. He first offered the 
 government of the Milanese, an office generally held 
 by a prince of the blood, to the Duke of Braganza, 
 and, when the appointment was declined on the score 
 of ignorance of Italian politics, the astute Spanish 
 statesman began to feel still more uneasy. But it 
 was necessary to disguise his apprehensions, for he 
 knew that it was impossible to arrest the Duke of 
 Braganza on his estates without causing serious dis- 
 turbances, and he therefore directed the duke to make 
 a tour of Portugal in his capacity of Constable to 
 inspect the condition of the defences. This tour gave 
 the duke an opportunity to make the acquaintance 
 of the greater part of the people, while he avoided 
 falling into the various traps set for him. Then 
 Olivares delivered his last stroke of policy ; he 
 ordered out the whole dan and arrihe-ban of Portugal 
 to serve under the king in person in putting down 
 the Catalan rebellion, and directed the Duke of 
 Braganza to proceed immediately to Madrid. The 
 duke delayed his departure for a time, and Joao 
 Pinto Ribeiro informed the noblemen who had been 
 forming a conspiracy in Lisbon that they must 
 strike at once or it would be too late. 
 
 The names of these noblemen are worthy of record, 
 not only because of the daring and successful revolution 
 they initiated, but because they show how patrio- 
 tic the Portuguese nobility were as a body, since 
 most of the famous families of the early history of
 
 308 THE REVOLUTION OF 164O. 
 
 Portugal and of the heroic period are represented 
 among them. The leaders of the famous forty who 
 planned the revolution were Miguel de Almeida, a 
 venerable nobleman, at whose house the first meeting 
 of the conspirators was held ; Pedro de Mendonc^a 
 Furtado, Hereditary Grand Chamberlain or Camereiro- 
 Mor ; Antonio and Luis de Almada ; Jorge de Mello, 
 Hereditary Grand Huntsman ; Antonio de Mello de 
 Menezes, his brother ; Estevao, and Luis da Cunha ; 
 Rodrigo and Emmanuel de Sa ; Pedro Mascarenhas, 
 Carlos de Noronha, Gaston de Coutinho and Antonio 
 de Saldanha. The Archbishop of Lisbon, Rodrigo da 
 Cunha, the most popular ecclesiastical dignitary of 
 the realm, if not actually a conspirator, certainly had 
 some knowledge of what was going on through his 
 relatives, the Almadas and Da Cunhas. The con- 
 spirators met regularly and skilfully planned their 
 rising, and in all their deliberations Joao Pinto 
 Ribeiro, though not a nobleman himself, and rather 
 looked down on by the forty, showed himself the 
 boldest and most sagacious leader of them all. There 
 was no idea of establishing a republic, in imitation 
 of the Netherlands, as Vertot absurdly states, for the 
 keystone of their plan was to make a show of legality, 
 and to assert that they were merely placing the right- 
 ful king upon the throne. Their preparations were 
 fully made, when Joao Pinto Ribeiro brought the 
 news that the blow must be struck at once, or else 
 that the Duke of Braganza must proceed to Madrid. 
 
 The 1st of December, 1640, was the day appointed 
 for the revolution and on the morning of that day 
 the conspirators assembled by different streets in
 
 THE REVOLUTION OF DECEMBER 1ST. 309 
 
 front of the palace. There had been no treachery, 
 and consequently the viceregal court was quite un- 
 prepared for resistance. The signal was given by a 
 pistol shot from Ribeiro, and each conspirator went 
 to his appointed place to accomplish his appointed 
 task. Dom Miguel de Almeida overpowered the 
 German guards of the palace without any difficult)-, 
 and Dom Jorge de Mello and Dom Estevao da Cunha 
 were equally successful with the Spanish guards. 
 The third party, under the leadership of Ribeiro, 
 forced their way into the palace, and moved towards 
 the apartments of the hated Secretary of State, Miguel 
 de Vasconcellos. On their way they met Francisco 
 de Soares de Albergaria, the " Corregidor Civil," or 
 civil judge, who, in answer to their cries of " Long live 
 the Duke of Braganza!" shouted "Long live the King 
 of Spain and Portugal!" and was then immediately 
 shot. They next came across Antonio Correa, the 
 secretary's chief clerk, whose insolence had almost 
 rivalled his master's, and Antonio de Menczcs struck 
 him down with his poniard and severely wounded 
 him. At last they reached the apartments of the 
 secretary, whom they discovered hidden in a cupboard 
 under a mass of papers. The trembling wretch was 
 dragged from his concealment, and shot by Dom 
 Rodrigo de S^. All parties now rushed to the part 
 of the palace inhabited by the Duchess of Mantua, 
 whom they found with the Archbishop of Braga. 
 The princess was no coward, and boldly faced the 
 conspirators, but she was informed by Dom Carlos de 
 Noronha that she was a prisoner, and the life of the 
 Archbishop of Braga, who attempted to cut his way
 
 
 = = z 
 
 I ^h 
 
 i i c^ S
 
 THE SUCCESS OF THE CONSPIRATORS. 3II 
 
 through his opponents, was with difficulty saved by 
 Dom Miguel de Almeida. 
 
 These successes in the palace were followed by 
 equal successes in the city of Lisbon. The populace 
 of all classes detested the Spanish domination ; they 
 rose in a body, armed themselves as best they could, 
 and arrested every Spaniard they could find from the 
 Marquis de la Puebla to the naval officers on shore 
 from the Spanish vessels lying in the Tagus. Dom 
 Antonio de Saldanha, as previously arranged, entered 
 the Relacdo, or High Court of Justice, and informed 
 the judges of the revolution, and the president, Gon- 
 galo de Sousa, immediately began to pronounce his 
 decrees in the name of King John IV., instead of 
 King Philip III. Dom Gaston de Coutinho set free 
 all the political prisoners, and some young men rowed 
 off to the three Spanish galleons in the port, and 
 easily obtained possession of them, since most of their 
 officers had already been arrested on shore. There 
 remained only the citadel, or castle, of St. George, 
 garrisoned by a strong Spanish force under Don 
 Luiz de Campo. This important post was obtained 
 by a stratagem of Dom Antonio de Almada, who forced 
 the Duchess of Mantua to sign an order for its sur- 
 render by a threat to assassinate all the Spanish 
 prisoners already taken, and the order was willingly 
 obeyed by the timorous governor. The conspirators 
 then as.sembled in the palace, and amidst the shouts 
 of the populace, the Archbishop of Lisbon was pro- 
 claimed Licutcnant-General of the kingdom, with 
 Dom Miguel de Almeida, Dom Pedro de Mendonqa 
 Furtado, and Dom Antonio de Almada as councillors
 
 312 THE REVOLUTION OF 164O. 
 
 of state. The new government sent off expresses in 
 all directions to announce the news of the successful 
 revolution, and obtained peaceable possession of all 
 the chief fortresses and strong places round Lisbon, 
 of Belem, Bugio, S. Antonio, Almada, and Cascaes, 
 with the exception only of S. Julian, at the mouth of 
 the Tagus. 
 
 The Duke and Duchess of Braganza were all this 
 time waiting with feverish impatience at Villa Vi^osa 
 for news of the great undertaking, and on the follow- 
 ing day, Sunday, December 2nd, Dom Jorge de Mello 
 arrived, after travelling all night, and hailed the Duke 
 and Duchess as King and Queen of Portugal. The 
 neighbouring country was devoted to the duke and 
 his family and joyfully received the news of his acces- 
 sion, and Affonso de Mello took possession of Elvas, 
 the strongest city in Portugal, in the name of John 
 IV., without any bloodshed. On December 3rd the 
 new sovereign entered Lisbon amidst general rejoic- 
 ings, and on December 15th he was solemnly crowned 
 in the Cathedral of Lisbon. Never was a sudden 
 revolution more successful. From Oporto to Faro 
 the people everywhere rose in rebellion ; the Spanish 
 arms were torn down ; the Spanish garrisons were 
 expelled, and John IV. was hailed with acclamation. 
 A Cortes was summoned to meet at Lisbon for the 
 first time since 1619, and on January 19, 1641, 
 John IV. was declared King of Portugal, as the right- 
 ful heir of Emmanuel " the Fortunate," and the whole 
 Cortes swore to obey him, and recognized his eldest 
 son, Dom Theodosio, as heir to the throne. The new 
 sovereign determined to meet his loyal people half
 
 CORONATION OF JOHN IV. 313 
 
 way, so he declared that his patrimonial estates were 
 sufficient to meet the expenses of his royal house- 
 hold, and that the revenues of the Crown lands should 
 for the future be spent on national needs. He be- 
 stowed important posts and orders on the leading 
 conspirators, and bribed Don Fernando do la Cueva 
 to surrender the fortress of S. Julian, the only place 
 which resisted his authority. The last person to be 
 informed of this sudden and successful revolution was 
 the former king, Philip IV. of Spain and III. of 
 Portugal. His courtiers all feared to tell him the 
 news, and when it became necessary to break it to 
 him, the Count-Duke Olivares accomplished the feat 
 with his usual adroitness. " Sire," he said to the king 
 with a pleased countenance, " I have to congratulate 
 you on a most fortunate event. Your Majesty has 
 just obtained a powerful duchy, and some magnificent 
 estates." " By what means," answered the astonished 
 monarch. "The Duke of Braganza," said Olivares, 
 " has madly allowed himself to be seduced by the 
 populace, who have proclaimed him King of Portugal. 
 His vast estates are therefore forfeited, and become 
 the property of your Majesty, who, by the annihila- 
 tion of this family, will in future reign securely and 
 peaceably over that kingdom." 
 
 Olivares had every reason to speak with confidence, 
 for there could be no doubt that Portugal, weakened 
 by her long subjection, could do little or nothing to 
 resist the power of Spain, if it could be fully employed. 
 But, fortunately for the independence of Portugal, 
 Spain was distracted by the Catalan rebellion and 
 foreign war, and was unable to exert her strength for the
 
 314 THE REVOLUTION OF 1640. 
 
 time being. Both the new king and his advisers felt, 
 however, that it would not be wise to count too much 
 or too long upon this fortunate circumstance, and 
 he sent ambassadors all over Europe to inform the 
 foreign sovereigns of the revolution, and to beg for their 
 help and alliance. The old Chancellor Oxenstiern, 
 who governed Sweden after the death of her warrior 
 monarch, Gustavus Adolphus, during the minority 
 of Queen Christina, promptly recognized the acces- 
 sion of the new dynasty, and welcomed it as another 
 breach in the power of Spain. Charles I. of England, 
 after some delay, also recognized John IV., but he 
 was too much occupied by his quarrels with the 
 Parliament to pay much attention to foreign politics. 
 The Dutch received the news of the revolution with 
 joy, and compared it to their own successful rebellion 
 against Spain, and they at once concluded a treaty 
 with Portugal, and promised to send assistance. But 
 it was to France that John IV. looked with most con- 
 fidence for help ; he remembered the secret emissaries 
 of Richelieu and their lavish promises ; and on 
 January 22, 1641, three days after his coronation, he 
 sent two of his most accomplished courtiers, Francisco 
 de Mello and Antonio Coelho de Carvalho, on a 
 special mission to Paris. They were received with 
 much cordiality by the great cardinal, who understood 
 how thoroughly Spain must be crippled by the 
 Catalan and Portuguese rebellions, and, to their sur- 
 prise, also by the Queen of France, Anne of Austria, 
 the sister of Philip IV. De Mello ventured to hint 
 his surprise at this hearty reception, when the queen 
 made a famous reply : " True it is, that I am the
 
 THE CAM IX HA CONSPIRACY. 315 
 
 sister of his Catholic Majesty, but am I not also the 
 mother of the Dauphin ? " Their negotiations ended 
 in the conclusion of an offensive and defensive treaty 
 between France and Portugal, signed on June i, 1641, 
 by which the King of France promised to make no 
 peace with Spain until the independence of Portugal 
 was fully recognized. These embassies and treaties 
 ended in the arrival of a strong French fleet, under 
 the command of the Chevalier de Breze, in the Tagus, 
 on August 7, 164.1, followed by a Dutch fleet, under 
 Admiral Gylfels, on September loth. 
 
 At this very time, before the first king of the House 
 of Braganza had been a year upon the throne, a 
 serious conspiracy was in progress, which had for its 
 aim the re-establishment of the power of Spain. This 
 conspiracy was almost entirely the work of one man, 
 Dom Sebastiao de Mattos de Xoronha, Archbishop ot 
 Braga, and Primate of Portugal. This prelate had 
 not been in any way interfered with by the new 
 government, but he felt that he had lost the power 
 which he had enjoyed during the viceroyalty of the 
 Duchess of Mantua, and he had never forgiven the 
 danger in which his life had been placed on the day 
 of the outbreak of the revolution in Lisbon. He first 
 engaged the Marquis of Villa Real, and his son, the 
 Duke of Caminha, to join him. Their family boasted 
 of royal blood, and ranked next to that of the Duke 
 of Aveiro in the kingdom of Portugal, and they felt 
 indignant that no important posts had been conferred 
 upon them for their acquiescence in the revolution. 
 The marquis was won over by a promise that he 
 should be the Viceroy of Portugal, if the conspiracy
 
 3l6 THE REVOLUTION OF 1640. 
 
 succeeded, and his son threw himself so heartily into 
 the project that the whole plot is generally known as 
 the " Caminha conspiracy." The other chief laymen 
 engaged were the Count of Armamar, the nephew of 
 the primate, the Count of Ballerais, Lourengo Peres 
 de Carvalho, keeper of the treasury, who feared to 
 lose the lucrative post which he had held so long 
 under the Spanish domination, and Antonio Correa, 
 the confidential clerk of the murdered Vasconcellos, 
 who had been severely wounded in the outbreak of 
 December ist. A far more important ally than any of 
 these noblemen and officials, was the Grand Inquisi- 
 tor of Portugal, Dom Sebastiao de Tello, Bishop of 
 Leiria, who was persuaded to promise the "novaes 
 Christiaos," or half-converted Jews, a cessation of 
 all persecution if they would join in overthrowing 
 John IV. They, on their part, were ready to assist 
 because the new monarch had absolutely refused to 
 make any concessions to them for fear of offending 
 the Pope. The arrangements were soon made ; it 
 was settled that the " novaes Christiaos " were to 
 set fire to the palace on August 5th ; that the king 
 was to be stabbed in the confusion which would 
 ensue ; and that the Duchess of Mantua should 
 be released from her convent, and again placed 
 in power. The Count-Duke Olivares gladly ac- 
 quiesced in all the schemes of the treacherous 
 archbishop, and despatches giving all the details of 
 the plot were entrusted to a converted Jew named 
 Baese, to send to Madrid. These despatches fell 
 into the hands of Marquis of Ayamonte, a Spanish 
 nobleman, and a relation of the new Queen of Portu-
 
 THE VICTORY OF MONTiyO. ^ly 
 
 gal, who was acting as intermediary between John 
 IV. and his brother-in-law, the Duke of Medina 
 Sidonia, and the marquis promptly sent them to 
 Lisbon. Forewarned was forearmed, and on August 
 5th, the day fixed for the rising, all the leaders of the 
 conspiracy were arrested. Baese confessed, when put 
 to the torture, and on August 29th all the noblemen 
 concerned, including the Marquis of Villa Real and 
 the Duke of Caminha, were publicly executed at 
 Lisbon, while the Primate and the Grand Inquisitor 
 were condemned to imprisonment for life. 
 
 This severe punishment did not check the ardour 
 of the friends of Spain, who were chiefly officials and 
 discontented nobles, and numbered few adherents 
 among the people, and in 1643 a new plot was dis- 
 covered, headed by Francisco de Lucena, Secretary 
 of State, who was promptly executed. In spite of 
 these difficulties, the government managed to get 
 together an army ; it was neither well-disciplined nor 
 well-equipped, but popular enthusiasm took the place 
 of experience, and on May 26, 1642, the Portuguese 
 under the command of Mathias de Alboquerque, 
 defeated a Spanish army under the Baron de 
 Molingen at Montiio . This victory, which was loudly 
 compared to that of Aljubarrota, was, in truth, of no 
 great importance from a military point of view, but it 
 invigorated the spirit of the Portuguese people, and 
 encouraged them to persist in fighting for their 
 independence. From every quarter of the globe 
 news arrived that the old Portuguese possessions had 
 declared for John IV. Mozambique, Goa and the 
 possessions in India, Malacca, and Macao, all threw
 
 3t8 the revolution of 1640. 
 
 off the domination of Spain, and prepared to send 
 money and men to Lisbon ; while Brazil, the most 
 valuable possession of the Portuguese crown, since the 
 Dutch had taken possession of the Asiatic trade, 
 began a gallant struggle for the House of Braganza, 
 a struggle which brought about a war with the Dutch 
 in Europe, and lost the Portuguese the assistance 
 which had been promised them in 1641 by the arrival 
 of the fleet under Gylfels, 
 
 The story of the great dominion acquired for the 
 Dutch in South America by Count Maurice of 
 Nassau has been told ; and the wealth received by 
 the Dutch West India Company from his efforts was 
 only inferior to that of the Dutch East India 
 Company. The Count had managed matters on 
 a large scale ; he had built or strengthened forty- 
 five fortresses ; he commanded a regular army of 
 three thousand men and a fleet of ninety ships ; and 
 he sent over to Holland no less than twenty-five 
 thousand chests of sugar a year. But in spite of his 
 success he recognized that this dominion depended 
 on the sword ; the Dutch were not good colonists, 
 for they never thought of making their homes in 
 Brazil, but always of returning some day to Holland ; 
 and all the European settlers and planters in the five 
 captainships held by the Dutch were of Portuguese 
 descent. Further, the native Brazilians were on more 
 friendly terms with the Portuguese than the Dutch 
 owing to the labours of the Jesuits among them. 
 Count Maurice of Nassau saw therefore that it was 
 impossible to oust the Portuguese and replace them 
 by Dutch settlers, so he established a dominion,
 
 MAURICE OF NASSAU IN BRAZIL. 3I9 
 
 resembling that of the English in India, which rested 
 for its keystone upon the military possession of the 
 country and the maintenance of strong garrisons in 
 the various fortresses. It need hardly be said that 
 the Portuguese of all the various captainships freely 
 communicated with each other, and so wise and 
 prudent was the administration of Count Maurice 
 that the Portuguese settlers in his captainships were 
 envied by those who remained under the power of 
 Spain. 
 
 But this attitude of mind changed, when the news 
 arrived of the successful revolution of December, 
 1640. Dom Antonio Telles da Silva, the Portuguese 
 Governor-General at once proclaimed King John IV. 
 at San Salvador, and the Portuguese in the Dutch 
 captainships felt an immediate desire to join their 
 brethren. Matters of European policy however 
 prevented them from striking a blow at once ; John 
 IV. could not afford to make enemies of the Dutch, 
 and one of the terms of his alliance with them was 
 that matters should remain exactly as they were 
 in Brazil for ten years. However the Portuguese 
 colonists had not to wait ten years owing to the 
 ungrateful behaviour of the Dutch themselves. The 
 Dutch West India Company could not appreciate the 
 political ideas of Maurice of Nassau ; these traders 
 wanted large profits and not a great empire ; they 
 were disgusted at the amounts spent on the fortresses 
 and the army, and in 1644 they recalled the great 
 man whose ideas were too grand for them to fathom. 
 Immediately on his departure, matters went from 
 bad to worse in the Dutch captainships. His
 
 320 THE REVOLUTION OF 164O. 
 
 successors, a committee of merchants, neglected the 
 fortresses, and aroused the hatred of the Portuguese 
 sugar planters by their exactions, and though they 
 sent home an unparalleled amount of sugar and 
 money for one year, it was the only year they 
 remained in office ; for in 1645 the whole of the 
 Portuguese colonists in the Dutch captainships burst 
 into insurrection. It was in vain for the Dutch 
 authorities to complain to Dom Antonio Telles da 
 Silva ; he answered that it was not his fault if the 
 Portuguese revolted ; they did not do so under his 
 orders or directions ; and the Portuguese ambassador 
 at the Hague made the same assertion in the name 
 of the king. Seldom has an insurrection been so 
 rapidly successful ; Antonio Moniz Barreto and 
 Antonio Teixeira de Mello speedily reduced the 
 province of Maranham, and Joao Fernandes Vieira, 
 a self-made man and originally a butcher's boy, 
 occupied the whole of the province of Pernambuco, 
 and drove the Dutch into their capital. The neg- 
 lected fortresses were easily taken, and soon the 
 Dutch held no place, but the Recife. It was in 
 vain for Holland to declare war against Portugal, 
 and to send great armaments to Brazil ; the national 
 movement was too strong to be resisted ; the 
 Dutch won some naval victories but could gain no 
 fresh foothold in the country, and in 1655 the island 
 of the Recife was abandoned after a ten years' siege, 
 and a King of Portugal once more reigned over the 
 whole of Brazil. 
 
 Great as was the triumph of the revolt in Brazil, it 
 at first filled the heart of the King of Portugal with
 
 JOHN IV. OFFERS TO ABDICATE. 32 1 
 
 alarm, for it deprived him of an ally in Europe on 
 whose valuable assistance he had firmly relied. 
 Everywhere he looked in vain for help. Sweden 
 could do nothing ; England was torn by civil war ; 
 and in France his ally, Cardinal Richelieu, had been 
 succeeded as supreme minister by Cardinal Mazarin. 
 John IV. instinctively felt that he could not depend 
 upon Mazarin, who would certainly throw him over, 
 if a peace should be made between France and 
 Spain, and in his despair he made an offer to resign 
 his throne to a French prince, who should bring ample 
 assistance from France. The nature of this offer is 
 best told in a letter from Mazarin to the Duke of 
 Longueville, dated October 4, 1647. "The King of 
 Portugal," wrote the Cardinal, " after having maturely 
 considered the state of affairs, is disposed to resign his 
 crown and retire to the Azores, and to offer his 
 kingdom to any one whom the Queen of France 
 shall select, believing himself strong enough to have 
 such a person recognized as king and obeyed by all 
 the people of Portugal. He only desires that the 
 person selected should be a prince who may expect 
 powerful help from France, and that he shall have the 
 means to make such an alliance with his eldest 
 son, as may eventually secure the succession of the 
 kingdom to the latter. He proposes M. the Duke 
 of Orleans and Mademoiselle, or M. the Prince, or 
 you and your daughter." ^ This strange offer of 
 abdication came to nothing, and it may well be 
 doubted if Jf)hn IV. would have had the power to 
 introduce a foreign prince in this way ; and if he had 
 
 ' Mazarin's " Letters," edited liy M. Cheruel, vol. ii. p. 501.
 
 I 
 
 JOHN IV. 
 
 (From a Print of the Perioa.)
 
 ALLIANCE BETWEEN FRANCE AND PORTUGAL. 323 
 
 succeeded, Mazarin would have abandoned Portugal 
 with equal certainty even if a French prince had 
 been on its throne. Though this scheme failed, John 
 IV. still hankered after help from France ; he offered 
 his daughter, Donna Catherine de Braganza with a 
 large dowry both to the Duke of Beaufort and to the 
 young Louis XIV., and he also promised large sums 
 of money to the avaricious cardinal for his own use. 
 Years passed on, occupied with these various 
 schemes and entreaties for assistance, and it was 
 not until John IV. threatened to make peace at any 
 price with Philip IV. that Mazarin's trusted agent, 
 the Chevalier de Jant, signed an offensive and defen- 
 sive alliance with Portugal on September 7, 1655. ^ 
 
 This behaviour of France did not seriously concern 
 Portugal so long as the war between France and 
 Spain continued to occupy the chief strength of the 
 Spanish armies ; but on all sides, John IV. saw that he 
 was regarded abroad as a temporary monarch, ruling 
 only until Spain had an opportunity to crush him. 
 From England he could get no help ; CromweH 
 showed his contempt for him and for the received 
 principles of international law, by ordering the trial 
 and execution of Dom Pantaleone de Sa, a lad of nine- 
 teen, and the brother of the Portuguese ambassa- 
 dor Rodrigo de Sa, for murder and riot in London ; 2 
 and his refusal to surrender Prince Rupert and Prince 
 Maurice in 1650 to Admiral Blake, caused that 
 
 ' See the interesting little book by Jules Tessin, published at Paris in 
 1877 under the title of " Le Chevalier de Jant. Relations de la F"rance 
 avec le Portugal au temps de Mazarin." 
 
 ' See Carlyle's " Speeches and Letters of Cromwell," vol. iv. p. 21 ; 
 Whitelocke's " Memorials," ed. 1732, pp. 592, 595.
 
 324 THE REVOLUTION OF 164O. 
 
 gallant admiral to capture his ships and pillage his 
 colonies. On the other hand, the people of Portugal 
 stood staunchly by their legitimate monarch. Brazil 
 recognized his authority and sent him what help she 
 could ; the Indian and Chinese possessions contributed 
 what they could in money, and his great admiral 
 Dom Salvador Correa de Sa e Benevides defeated 
 several Spanish fleets, and conquered Angola and the 
 former Portuguese possessions on the African coast. 
 
 In the midst of these perplexities, expecting daily 
 to hear of the conclusion of a peace between France 
 and Spain, which should leave the latter power free 
 to crush him, King John IV., the first king of the 
 House of Braganza, died on November 6, 1656. His 
 eldest son Dom Theodosio, whom he had created 
 Prince of Brazil, had predeceased him in 1653, and 
 his heir was a boy of thirteen, weakly both in body 
 and in intellect. John IV. was not a great man ; he is 
 no more to be compared with John " the Great " than 
 the victory of Montijo is to that of Aljubarrota ; but 
 his name and accession mark a great event. Hesitat- 
 ing and undecided by nature, all his strength came 
 from his queen ; but for her, he would never have 
 been king of Portugal. But the revolution which 
 placed this mediocre man upon the throne is both 
 interesting and important ; it shows how impossible it 
 is for a nation which has once been great to acquiesce 
 in the loss of its independence. The heroic age of 
 Portugal was indeed past, but the victory of Montijo 
 and the insurrection in Brazil show that the people 
 had recovered from the inertness and sloth which had 
 permitted Philip II. to establish the power of Spain
 
 THE REVIVAL OF PORTUGAL. 325 
 
 over them. The struggle with Spain was not con- 
 cluded ; the hardest part of the contest was to come, 
 yet the people, if not their chosen monarch, never 
 dreamed of failure. New and national institutions 
 arose under the direction of Joao Pinto Ribeiro to take 
 the place of the effete institutions of the Sixty Years' 
 Captivity ; councils of war and the colonies were 
 organized at Lisbon ; ships were built and armies 
 raised ; new tribunals such as the " Junta do 
 Commercio " were erected. Nor were men of letters 
 backward in encouraging the revival of independence ; 
 Francisco de Sa de Menezes the poet, Antonio 
 Vieira the preacher, and Jacinto Freire de Andrade, 
 the biographer of Dom Joao de Castro, all showed 
 the spirit of patriotism, and it is not unworthy of 
 notice that the first Portuguese newspaper, the Gazeta 
 de Lisboa was established in 1641. The whole course 
 of the Revolution of 1640 shows that the people of 
 Portugal in the seventeenth century were not unworthy 
 of their ancestors, and that they had learnt much, 
 because they had suffered much, during the " Sixty 
 Years' Captivity."
 
 XV. 
 
 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. 
 
 The death of John IV., and the accession of the 
 boy Affonso VI., proved to be anything but a disaster 
 to the House of Braganza. The queen became 
 sole regent, and this energetic and able woman, 
 who had always been the courageous supporter of 
 her weak husband, determined to prosecute the war 
 against Spain with redoubled vigour. She, too, 
 hankered after a close alliance with France, and dis- 
 trusted the promises of Mazarin ; but she felt that it 
 was no good to wait for allies until Spain was at 
 liberty to attack her, and now ordered the Portuguese 
 army to take the field. Hitherto, since the battle of 
 Montijo, the war had languished, and had been con- 
 fined to skirmishes on the frontier, but the queen- 
 regent determined to renounce this policy and to 
 invade Spain. Her enterprize vv^as not crowned with 
 success, and the siege of Badajoz wh ich she attempted 
 resulted in failure and defeat. It was obvious that 
 the Portuguese army, though full of gallant and loyal 
 soldiers, was quite undisciplined and unfit for any 
 serious operation of war. This being the case, the
 
 THE ENGAGEMENT OF SCHOMBERG. 327 
 
 queen got her ambassador at Paris, the Count of 
 Soure, to <-nrrarrp Ft^i^ji iji'l; t^'rmrrl—^T^b^yytfSg-. the 
 most famous milifary adventurer of his time, to enter 
 her service, and to bring with him eighty officers and 
 four hundred non-commissioned officers, to organize 
 and discipHne the Portuguese army, Schomberg, 
 whose strange fate it was to serve under nearly every 
 leading monarch in Europe, and to die an English 
 duke at the battle of the Boyne, gladly accepted the 
 queen's offer. Like the Count of Lippe-Buckeburg 
 and Marshal Beresford in later days, he found that 
 the Portuguese made excellent soldiers, brave and 
 amenable to discipline, and the result of his labours 
 appeared in the great victory won by Dom Antonio 
 Luis de Menezes, Count of Cantanhede, over the 
 Spaniards under Don Luiz de Haro, at Elvas^ on 
 January 14, 1659. 
 
 This victory, though it revived the courage of the 
 Portuguese, who had been much depressed by their 
 repulse at Badajoz, in one way injured the cause 
 of Portugal, for it so incensed Don Luiz de Haro 
 that, during the famous conferences on the Island 
 of Pheasants with Mazarin, which led to the signa- 
 ture of the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, he 
 would not listen to any intercession on behalf of 
 the Portuguese, and insisted on the insertion of 
 a secret article in the treaty, that France would 
 promise to abandon them entirely. Neither Mazarin 
 nor Louis XIV. intended to observe this secret 
 article and to give up the advantage of having 
 such a useful ally in the peninsula to use against 
 Spain, and they accordingly looked about for some
 
 CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA. 
 {From an Engraving by Faitkortte.)
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA. 329 
 
 means to evade it. Mazarin again sent the trusty 
 Chevalier de Jant to explain to the queen-regent 
 that the seeming desertion of Portugal was rather 
 nominal than real, and that the httle kingdom would 
 not be left to bear the whole brunt of the war with 
 Spain. The means was found in 1660 by proposing 
 that Charles II., the newly restored King of England, 
 should marry the Donna Catherine de Braganza. 
 This notion was acceptable to all parties. Mazarin 
 and Louis XIV. would thus assist Portugal without 
 breaking their promise to Spain ; Charles II. would 
 get some ready money, and would repay the debt of 
 gratitude he owed for the shelter afforded to Prince 
 Rupert and Prince Maurice. The Earl of Clarendon 
 saw the advantage of the alliance in establishing the 
 influence of England in the peninsula and in India; 
 and the queen-regent was promised the help of a 
 powerful army of English veterans, trained in the 
 Great Civil War, whom Clarendon was anxious to get 
 out of the country, and also the aid of England in 
 making peace with the Dutch. Thus all parties were 
 satisfied, except the King of Spain, who protested 
 vehemently, and his Catholic Majesty offered to give 
 a dowry to any Protestant princess whom Charles 
 II. might select, if only he would give up this Portu- 
 guese alliance. These protests were in vain. The 
 strong wills of Louis XIV., Lord Clarendon, and the 
 queen-regent of Portugal were all set upon the 
 marriage, and Francisco de Mello, Count da Ponte, 
 was sent to London, and Sir Richard Fanshaw, the 
 translator of the " Lusiads," was sent to Lisbon to 
 arrange the preliminaries. These were soon settled,
 
 330 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE, 
 
 and on May i8, 1661, the marriage was announced 
 to the English Parh'ament. Catherine de Braganza 
 was to bring as her dowry the town of Tangier in 
 Morocco, the island of Bombay, and the town of 
 Galle in Ceylon, as well as iJ"8oo,ooo in money ; 
 while on his side Charles II, promised to force the 
 Dutch to make peace with Portugal, and in con- 
 sideration of a further sum of ^30,000 a year to send 
 an army of not less than three thousand veterans to 
 aid in the war with Spain. These liberal terms were 
 approved in Parliament in spite of the religion of the 
 Portuguese princess ; and in April, 1662, the Earl of 
 Sandwich arrived in the Tagus with twenty English 
 ships to take the bride to England. The marriage 
 took place on May 31, 1662, and it was thus, upon 
 the suggestion of the King of France, that the first 
 step was made towards the revival of the old alliance 
 between England and Portugal, which had existed 
 under the kings of the House of Aviz, an alliance 
 which was, in the indignant language of later French 
 writers, to make Portugal a province of England. 
 
 Before the English soldiers arrived and the final 
 struggle with Spain commenced, a Court revolution 
 took place in Lisbon. The king, Affonso VI., was 
 now nearly nineteen, and he had grown up a de- 
 bauched and vicious youth. A stroke of paralysis 
 had disordered his intellect, and his mother, absorbed 
 in the cares of government, had left him too much to 
 servants. He was entirely under the influence of his 
 valet, a young man named Conti, and his chief delight 
 was to range the streets of Lisbon at the head of 
 a troop of mulattoes and negro slaves, and to play
 
 VICTORIES OF THE PORTUGUESE. 33I 
 
 pranks of which the English " Mohocks " of the 
 eighteenth century would ha\e been ashamed. The 
 queen-regent, in disgust, banished Conti to Brazil, 
 and two accomplished courtiers, Sebastiao Cesar de 
 Menezes, Count of Atouguia, and Luis de Sousa e 
 Vasconcellos, Count of Castel Mclhor, persuaded the 
 angry young king to declare himself of age on June 
 21, 1662, and to take the government into his own 
 hands. The queen retired into a convent, and all 
 power fell into the hands of the two conspirators. 
 
 Fortunately for Portugal the two counts were 
 energetic and able statesmen, and they pursued in 
 every point the policy of the queen. Castel Melhor 
 formed the English veterans, who had arrived under 
 the command of Murrough O'Rrien, first Earl of 
 Inchiquin, some French and German volunteers and 
 mercenaries, and the newly organized Portuguese 
 levies, into a powerful army, of which Schomberg was 
 the real, though not the ostensible, commander-in- 
 chief With this army a series of victories were won, 
 which caused Affonso VI. to be surnamed Affonso 
 " the Victorious," though his own successes, such as 
 they were, were confined to the streets of Lisbon. 
 On June 8, 1663, the Count of Villa Flor, with 
 Schomberg by his side, utterly defeated Don John of 
 Austria, an illegitimate son of Philip IV., at Ameixial, 
 and afterwards retook Evora ; on July 7, 1664, Pedro 
 Jacques de Magalhaes defeated the Duke of Ossuna at 
 Ciudad Rodrigo ; on June 17, 1665, the Marquis of 
 Marialva and Schomberg destroyed a Spanish army 
 under the Marquis of Carracena, at the battle of 
 Montes Claros ; and Christovao de Brito Percira
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 332 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. 
 
 followed up this victory with another at Villa 
 Vi^osa. 
 
 These repeated successes utterly broke the power 
 of Spain in the peninsula, and peace was only a 
 matter of time, when Castel Melhor decided to 
 increase both his own power and that of Portugal by 
 marrying the king, who was a mere tool in his hands, 
 to a French princess. Such an alliance was highly 
 approved by Louis XIV., who believed it would bring 
 Portugal under his influence, and the bride selected 
 was Marie Fran^oise Louise Elisabeth, Mademoiselle 
 d'Aumale, daughter of Charles Amadeus, Duke of 
 Nemours, and Elisabeth de Vendome, and grand- 
 daughter of Henry IV. of France. She was brought 
 to Portugal by her relative, the Cardinal d'Estrees, 
 and the marriage was celebrated at Lisbon with the 
 greatest pomp in 1666. But instead of increasing his 
 power, the great minister, Castel Melhor, found that 
 this union brought about his ruin. The handsome 
 and accomplished young queen could not but loathe 
 her worthless and degraded husband, and she speedily 
 fell in love with his younger brother, Dom Pedro, the 
 Duke of Beja. Her passion was returned, and after 
 fourteen months of an unhappy married life, the 
 queen suddenly left the palace for a convent, and 
 applied for a divorce on the ground of non-consum- 
 mation to the chapter of the cathedral church of 
 Lisbon. Her action was followed by a Court revolu- 
 tion, and Dom Pedro shut King Affonso up in a 
 portion of the palace, and assumed the regency on 
 November 23, 1667. Every one rejoiced at the over- 
 throw of the vicious king. The measures of Dom
 
 PEACE WITH SPAIN. 333 
 
 Pedro were universally approved by the people of 
 Lisbon, and on January i, 1668, he was recognized 
 as regent by the Cortes. The great minister, Caste! 
 Melhor, was not prosecuted, and was allowed to 
 retire to Paris, and the young prince, who was not 
 yet twenty, took the government of Portugal into his 
 own hands. 
 
 The regent immediately hurried on the negotiations 
 for a peace with Spain, which had been commenced 
 under the directions of Castel Melhor, by the Earl of 
 Sandwich and Sir Richard Southwell, the English 
 ambassadors at Madrid and Lisbon, and on February 
 13, 1668, the long war, which had lasted for twenty- 
 seven years — ever since the small band of conspira- 
 tors in Lisbon had proclaimed King John IV. — was 
 formally concluded. By the Treaty of Lisbon, Spain 
 solemnly recognized the independence of Portugal, 
 and gave its sovereign the title of "Your Majesty," 
 which had never been acknowledged even to Em- 
 manuel and John IIL, and in return Portugal ceded 
 Ceuta, in Morocco, to the King of Spain. This 
 diplomatic success was followed on March 24th by 
 the grant of a divorce to the queen, who, on April 
 2nd, with the dispensation and blessing of the Pope, 
 married the regent Dom Pedro. The wretched Affbnso 
 was sent to the Azores, and a new era of peace 
 and prosperity commenced for Portugal. The regent 
 was fully convinced of the necessity of peace and 
 economy, in order to restore the prosperity of the 
 kingdom after its long struggle with Spain. He 
 reduced the army, and dismissed all the foreign 
 soldiers, and he set to work to make improvements in 
 
 /
 
 334 T^H^ ENGLISH ALLIANCE. 
 
 every department of administration. The treasury 
 was empty, and the country was miserably poor. 
 Agriculture had been neglected during the long war ; 
 the Dutch and English had seized upon the Asiatic 
 trade ; the Indian possessions were worth little or 
 nothing ; and the only source of revenue, except 
 taxation, was the wealth of Brazil. Yet Dom Pedro 
 had the wisdom and self-restraint not to increase the 
 taxes, or press too heavily upon the sugar and tobacco 
 planters of his great dominion in South America, and 
 he preferred to reduce the expenses of his household 
 to the lowest possible amount. In all his endeavours 
 he was assisted by his wife, and it was no wonder 
 that the Portuguese people loved and reverenced 
 their prudent rulers. 
 
 The only event of importance during the regency 
 was the plot of Dom Pedro Francisco de Mendonga 
 and Dom Antonio de Cavida to restore Affonso VI. 
 to the throne, in 1674. It was fortunately discovered 
 in time ; the ringleaders were executed, and Affonso 
 VI. was removed from the Azores, where he had been 
 trying to make a party, and established at Cintra, 
 where he died in 1683. The regent then ascended 
 the throne as Pgyj;^jJJL.and added the title of " king " 
 to the power he had enjoyed for fifteen years ; but in 
 the same year he lost his wife, for whose sake he had 
 overthrown his brother. His reign was marked by 
 the same characteristics as his ' regency ; and his 
 strict economy and maintenance of peace gave an 
 opportunity for the exhausted country to recover. He 
 was an excellent administrator, not only from inclina- 
 tion, but from a desire to be independent of the Cortes,
 
 PEDRO II. 
 [From a Print in tite British Museum.)
 
 \ 
 
 336 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. 
 
 which he summoned as seldom as possible, and never 
 after the arrival of the first consignment of gold from 
 Brazil, In his foreign policy he made a point of 
 remaining on good terms with both France and 
 England, and he refused to interfere in the internal 
 affairs of Spain. His friendship with England was 
 kept up through his sister, Catherine, who, by his 
 instructions, kept herself aloof from ministerial 
 quarrels, and remained quietly in her adopted 
 country after her husband's death, all through the 
 stormy reign of James II. and the Revolution of 1688, 
 and who did not return to Portugal until 1692. With 
 France he was more wary, for he feared the ambition 
 of Louis XIV., and was apprehensive of the danger 
 to Portugal which the accession of a Bourbon prince 
 to the throne of Spain might cause. 
 
 The vacancy, which would be caused by the death 
 of Charles 11. of Spain, and the general scramble 
 which seemed likely to take place for his dominions, 
 were of more importance to King Pedro II. of Portu- 
 gal, than to William III. of England, or Louis XIV. 
 of France. He felt that he was utterly unable to 
 cope with any of the great powers, and he commenced 
 saving money for the general war which was certain 
 soon to break out. In 1687, at the request of his 
 minister and most intimate friend, the Duke of 
 Cadaval, he consented to marry again, in order to 
 have an heir to the throne. He selected for his 
 second wife Maria Sophia of Neuburg, daughter of 
 the Elector Palatine, greatly to the chagrin of Louis 
 XIV, who hoped he would have chosen a French 
 princess ; and by her he had four sons. When the
 
 THE METHUEN TREATY. 337 
 
 death of Charles II. became an event daily to be 
 expected, he proclaimed his intention of remaining 
 neutral, and refused, in consonance with the traditions 
 of the House of Aviz, to be himself a candidate for 
 the Spanish throne. Nevertheless, he increased his 
 navy, placed his army on a war footing and repaired 
 his fortresses, and in 1699, he had the pleasure of 
 receiving the first important consignment of gold from 
 Brazil, amounting to a ton and a half, which proved 
 to him that he had a new source of revenue more pro- 
 ductive than any taxes he could impose at home. 
 
 At last, on November i, 1700, Charles II. of Spain 
 died, and Louis XIV. in accepting the throne for 
 his grandson, made his famous declaration, " There 
 are now no longer any Pyrenees." King Pedro 
 carried his complaisance so far as to acknowledge 
 Philip v., as king of Spain, and he even sheltered a 
 French fleet under the Count de Chastenau in the 
 Tagus, against the assaults of the English admiral, 
 Sir George Rooke. But he soon saw that, as he 
 feared, it was impossible for him to remain neutral, 
 and the insolence of Cardinal Porto Carrero, who 
 spoke of him to King Philip as " the rebel duke of 
 Braganza," and the information that there was a secret 
 treaty, which promised French help for the subjugation 
 of Portugal, made Pedro II. decide to enter into a yet 
 closer alliance with England. This was exactly what 
 the great Whig ministry wanted, and, in 1703, the Right 
 Honourable John Methuen was sent to Lisbon with 
 full powers to negotiate a political and commercial 
 treaty with Portugal. 
 
 On December 27, 1703, the famous Met
 
 ;j3i5 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. 
 
 was signed, by which Portuguese wines might be im- 
 ported into England at a lower duty than those from 
 France and Germany, in return for a similar conces- 
 sion to English manufactured goods. The immediate 
 result of this treaty was that King Pedro acknow- 
 ledged the Archduke Charles, the English candidate, 
 as King of Spain, and that he gave the English a base 
 of operations in the peninsula. The ulterior result 
 was that Englishmen in the eighteenth century drank 
 port wine instead of claret and hock, while the Portu- 
 guese imported everything they wanted beyond the 
 bare necessaries of life from England. This was an 
 advantage to both nations, for Portugal is eminently 
 an agricultural country with neither the teeming 
 population nor the materials necessary for manufac- 
 tures, while England obtained a friendly province 
 from which to import the wine and produce of a 
 southern soil, and a market for the sale of the pro- 
 ducts of her manufactories. The close connection thus 
 formed went deeper than mere commerce ; it estab- 
 lished a friendly relationship between the two 
 peoples, which was of infinite advantage to the smaller 
 nation. At Lisbon a regular English " factory " was 
 established, and at Oporto a large colony of English 
 wine merchants and shippers carried on business 
 operations, which doubled the prosperity of the 
 beautiful city on the Douro. The steady influx 
 of English capital increased the wealth of Portu- 
 gal, and the vineyards of the Entre-Minho-e-Douro 
 became proverbial for their prosperous and industrious 
 peasantry ; while, on the other hand, the importation 
 of English goods gave means of comfort and luxury
 
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 I 
 
 340 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. 
 
 to the Portuguese people which distinguished them 
 in the eyes of all travellers of the last century fron:i 
 the Spaniards and Italians. To this day the beautiful 
 porcelain from the famous English works at Worcester 
 and Derby, Chelsea and Bow, is to be found in Portu- 
 guese cottages ; and the English people have not lost 
 their taste for port and St. Michael's oranges. 
 
 From a political point of view, the Methuen treaty 
 assured the very existence of Portugal ; in all times 
 of danger it could now count upon the support of the 
 great power whose interest it was to have an ally from 
 whose country it could act against Spain. On March 
 7, 1704, the Archduke Charles arrived at Lisbon 
 with a powerful English fleet under Sir George Rooke, 
 conveying ten thousand English troops under the 
 command of Henri de Ruvigny, Lord Galway. On 
 April 30, Philip V. declared war against Portugal, and 
 the English advanced with a subsidiary Portuguese 
 army under the Count das Galveras and Diniz de 
 Mello e Castro. The campaign was successful ; the 
 allies took Salvaterra and Valenga, and Sir George 
 Rooke surprised the important fortress of Gibraltar. 
 In the following year but little was done on the Portu- 
 guese frontier, because the Archduke Charles had 
 sailed round to Barcelona, and King Pedro, who felt 
 himself to be dying, gave up all active interest in 
 affairs, and made over the regency to his sister 
 Catherine, Queen-dowager of England. Had he been 
 conscious he might have heard of the great successes 
 and reverses of the campaign of 1706. Lord Galway 
 and Dom Joao de Sousa, Marquis das Minas, 
 advanced into Spain, and after taking Alcantara,
 
 THE DEATH OF PEDRO II. 34I 
 
 Coria, Truxillo, Placencia, Ciudad Rodrigo, and Avila 11 
 in rapid succession, occupied Madrid on July 2, 1706 I 
 But they did not remain there long ; the Spaniards 
 rose in arms for Philip V., and in August, 1706, the 
 allied army fell back as quickly as it had advanced. 
 Dom Pedro, however, remained unconscious of these 
 stirringevents ; he gradually sank, and died at Alcantara 
 on December 9, 1706, leaving a reputation of having 
 been one of the bes t of the kings of Portugal. The 
 ereat interest of his reign is to be found in the gradual 
 formation of the English alliance, which is the clue 
 to the Portuguese history of the next century. It was . 
 commenced by the marriage of Catherine de Braganza 
 to Charles II., strengthened by the action of Lord 
 Sandwich and Sir Richard Southwell in making 
 peace with Spain, and finally cemented by the 
 Methuen treaty, and it is curious to note that the first 
 link in this chain was forged by Louis XIV. and 
 Mazarin in recommending the marriage of Charles II. 
 It is important to observe the position of Portugal 
 in Asia and South America during the half-century 
 which succeeded the " Sixty Years' Captivity," and to 
 see how the despised discovery of Pedro Alvares 
 Cabral was to more than take the place of the vaunted 
 Asiatic connection commenced by the voyage of 
 Vasco da Gama. The heavy blows struck by the 
 Dutch and English against the Portuguese monopoly 
 of the Eastern trade before the successful revolution in 
 1640, have already been noticed, and the ruin of the 
 Portuguese in Asia was consummated by the Dutch 
 during the long naval war which succeeded the attack 
 upon their settlements in Brazil. The China trade
 
 342 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. 
 
 had not attained very important dimensions, so the 
 Dutch left the Portuguese undisturbed at Macao, but 
 they destroyed their settlements in the island of 
 Formosa, and the English absorbed what trade there 
 was by their factory at Canton. It was the spice 
 trade and the command of the Spice Islands, which 
 the Dutch chiefly coveted, and of which they obtained 
 a monopoly, which they practically retain to this day. 
 After the foundation of Batavia, all the efforts of the 
 Dutch were directed against Malacca, which, though 
 in a decayed state, was yet mistress of no inconsider- 
 able trade ; twice they stirred up the Achinese to 
 attempt the conquest of Alboquerque's famous settle- 
 ment, but the Portuguese beat off the natives, and it 
 was not until 1640 that the Dutch destroyed the 
 rival of Batavia. The Portuguese made no further 
 effort to share the spice trade, and after the massacre 
 of the English at Amboyna in 1624, the more danger- 
 ous rivalry of the merchants of that nation was also 
 withdrawn. In India, the Dutch made a point of 
 securing the pepper trade only, and left the English 
 to absorb that of the products of Northern India, of 
 the muslins of Dacca and the brocades ^sfAhmadabad 
 and Surat. The Portuguese repulsed the Dutch from 
 Goa in 1639, ^^^ these determined traders were not to 
 be beaten ; in 1662, in spite of the peace which had 
 been concluded by the intervention of England, they 
 took Cochin, the principal Portuguese station in 
 Southern India, and by 1664 were masters of all the 
 chief pepper ports on the Malabar coast. They were 
 equally successful in Ceylon, where they captured Jaf- 
 napatam, the last important Portuguese port, in 1658 ;
 
 THE DECLINE OF THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 343 
 
 and in 1669, they expelled the Portuguese from the 
 Coromandel coast likewise, and took S. Thome and 
 Macassar, In Northern India the English were the 
 most formidable rivals of the Portuguese. After the 
 capture of Hugll by the orders of Shah Jehan, the 
 Portuguese dropped all communication with Bengal, 
 and the trade of that important province fell into the 
 hands of the English. On the other side of India, the 
 English were equally successful. Their victory off 
 Surat had broken the prestige of Portugal, and the 
 trade with Gujarat, KaHiiawar, and Sind was chiefly in 
 their possession. So weak indeed had the Portuguese 
 become, that Diu, the city immortalized by the brave 
 deeds of Antonio de Silveira and Joao de Castro, was 
 plundered by a band of Arabs in 1670 ; and Goa itself, 
 " Golden Goa," was only saved from the Marathas of 
 Sambaji, the son of Sivaji, by the timely aid of a 
 Mogul army. On the other hand, the Portuguese 
 Jesuits won a reputation almost as great as that of 
 the Portuguese heroes ; though the Inquisition still 
 continued its horrid work at Goa, there were nobler 
 missionaries than the inquisitors, and the name of 
 Toao de Brito. w ho preached with unexampled success 
 until his crucfmartyrdom in Madura in 1693, deserves 
 to be ranked with that of St. Francis Xavier himself In 
 Africa, the chief Portuguese ports were re-conquered 
 by Salvador Correa de Sa e Benevides in 1648, but 
 they were only of little value, since they had been 
 maintained chiefly as stations on the road to India, 
 and not for purposes of African trade. The Dutch 
 made their resting-place at the Cape of Good Hope, 
 which is the reason why Mozambique was left to the
 
 SILVER COINS. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF PORTUGUE 
 
 ^l^ A vintem, 20 reis = about a penny. 
 
 (2) Half a tostao, 50 reis = nearly threepence. 
 
 (3) Three vintens = about threepence halfpenny. 
 
 (4) Tostao, 100 reis = rather more than sixpence. 
 
 (5) Six vintens = about sevenpence. 
 
 (6) Twelve vintens, 240 reis = about one shilling and twopence. 
 
 (7) Crusado novo, 24 vintens = about two shillings and fourpence.
 
 EK AM) COr'I'ER COINS. 
 
 COPPER COINS. 
 
 (i) One-and-a-half-reis piece (Peter II., 1700) ^ less than half a farthing. 
 
 (2) Three-reis piece (Maria and Peter III., 1797) = less than a farthing. 
 
 (3) Five-reis piece (Maria Regina, 1799) = about a farthing. 
 
 (4) Ten-reis piece (Maria I., 1799) = a little more than a halfpenny.
 
 346 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. 
 
 Portuguese ; and they also took possession of the rich 
 island which had been first sighted by Louren90 de 
 Almeida, to which they gave the name of Mauritius, 
 after Prince Maurice of Nassau. On the -Astern 
 coast the Portuguese retained Angola, the Cape Verde 
 Islands, and their other possessions ; but they lost St. 
 Helena to the Dutch, who held it until it was captured 
 by the English captain, Anthony Munden, in 1673, 
 when it was made into a station of the English East 
 India Company. With their possessions in Morocco, 
 the Portuguese parted with the more willingness, 
 since they were only a source of expense ; and the 
 cession of Ceuta to the Spaniards and of Tangier to 
 the English was generally approved. Of Bombay the 
 other territorial cession made to England on the 
 marriage of Catherine de Braganza, little need be 
 said, for though destined to become the capital of 
 western India, it proved at first of so little value, 
 that in 1668 Charles II. granted it to the East India 
 Company for ten pounds a year. 
 
 Very different from this tale of decay is the history 
 of the Portuguese in Brazil during the same period, 
 and the comparison shows clearly of how much 
 greater value is a colony than a dominion conquered 
 and held by the sword. The loyalty of the Portu- 
 guese colonists was shown by their expulsion of 
 the Dutch with hardly any assistance from the home 
 government, and the bonds of kinship enabled the 
 Portuguese to maintain their power in South America 
 without the establishment and maintenance of power- 
 ful armies. Indeed, one of the most valuable lessons 
 taughTl5y the history of the daughte^POThtry, is that
 
 DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN BRAZIL. 347 
 
 the less interference the mother country makes in the 
 affairs of its colony, the better it will be for both 
 countries. The material prosperity of Brazil in the 
 seventeenth century was due to the fact that during 
 that period the colony was essentially agricultural, and 
 that there was therefore time for a large and indus- 
 trious population to collect, before gold was discovered 
 in large quantities. The production of tobacco and 
 sugar was the staple employment of the inhabitants, 
 and the rapid development of these resources caused 
 the growth of a large fleet, not only to carry these 
 commodities to Europe, but to import the thousands 
 of negro slaves, who worked in the plantations. And 
 it is here well to remark that at this time the Portu- 
 guese settlers made no attempt to enslave the native 
 Brazilians, who were protected by the Jesuits and by 
 edicts of the king, but considered it perfectly just and 
 right to make use of negro slaves. This wise 
 behaviour and the conduct of the Jesuits, who 
 laboured assiduously among the natives, placed them on 
 friendly terms with their conquerors, who soon began 
 to intermarry with them. Owing to this friendly 
 relationship the interior of the continent was gradually 
 opened up, and at last gold was discovered in large 
 quantities. It was fortunate for the Portuguese that 
 it had not been discovered before, for otherwise they 
 would certainly have lost their colony during the 
 " Sixty Years' Captivity," but at this time they were 
 too strongly planted to be expelled, and had besides 
 the potent protection of the English navy. The first 
 discovery o fgold_D n a large scale took place in j699, a nd 
 the arrival or the first cargo at an opportune juncture 
 
 /
 
 348 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. 
 
 gave King Pedro the means he required for setting 
 his army on foot. It must be remembered that at 
 this time there were no CaHfornian or AustraHan gold 
 fields, and that the discovery of gold in Brazil was of 
 more importance than it would be now. King Pedro 
 prepared to work this source of wealth in a prudent 
 manner ; he did not attempt to make the gold fields 
 a royal monopoly, which the independent inhabitants 
 of the captainships would not have allowed, but 
 demanded one-fifth of the total registered yearly 
 export. This left enough profit for the gold searchers, 
 and as the yearly revenue of the crown of Portugal 
 from this source was at least ;^300,ooo, it may be 
 imagined that the kings of Portugal were well able to 
 maintain a splendid court at Lisbon in spite of the 
 loss of the Asiatic trade. No story is more interest- 
 ing than this growth of Brazil into the most valuable 
 possession of Portugal ; the land, which was at first 
 inhabited by convicts, surpassed in wealth the domi- 
 nion won by the noblest sons of the country.
 
 XVI. 
 
 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 MARQUIS OF POMBAL. 
 
 THE 
 
 The eighteenth century exhibits fewer features 
 of interest than any other throughout the whole 
 history of Portugal. The country remained in a 
 political sense a mere province of England, and was 
 bound by the Methuen treaty to take a part in all the 
 wars in which England was engaged, and the impor- 
 tance of this arrangement became more and more 
 evident, when France and Spain were united by the 
 close connection brought about by the " Facte de 
 Famille." The commercial relation was the cause of 
 more intimacy between the people of the two nation- 
 alities than the political alliance, for it brought, as 
 has been said, English merchants and English capital 
 into Portugal. But notwithstanding this double bond 
 of union the two allies remained entirely separate. 
 The Portuguese remained a race of bigoted Catholics, 
 and the English made no efforts to convert them. 
 This difference of religion prevented any close alliance 
 between the reigning houses of the two countries, 
 such as had been brought about by the marriage of
 
 350 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Charles II. to Catherine of Braganza, for any marriage 
 with a Catholic princess would have been rejected by 
 the statesmen and the people of England. While 
 therefore existing as an independent nation under the 
 protection of England, Portugal maintained its own 
 national characteristics, and remained in other respects 
 more like Spain than any other country. The little 
 state was no longer in the vanguard of the march of 
 European civilization ; it felt that its great days were 
 past, and was content to remain in stagnant quiet. 
 For this reason, if for no other, the story of Portugal 
 loses its interest in the eighteenth century, for it was 
 illustrated by no great feat of arms, no national revo- 
 lution or advance of national progress, and it was at 
 this time that in every point of view, literary as well 
 as political, it fell behind the other European nations. 
 It was inevitable that it should be so ; a nation which 
 depended on another for its political independence, 
 was not likely to produce heroes. It is strange that 
 the influence of English example did not give rise to 
 a movement for political freedom and representative 
 institutions, but it was not so ; the monarchy remained 
 absolutist and was prevented from needing the support 
 of the people by the wealth it derived from the gold 
 and the diamond mines of Brazil, and the Cortes was 
 not once summoned throughout the century. Yet 
 this absolutism was not an unmixed evil, for it pro- 
 duced a great minister, the Portuguese Richelieu, in 
 the Marquis of Pombal. 
 
 The reign of John V., the eldest son of Pedro II., 
 who at once assumed the royal power from the regent 
 Catherine, was, though it commenced in war, remark-
 
 WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 35 1 
 
 able for the long continuance of peace. The War of 
 the Spanish Succession was still raging in the penin- 
 sula, and the first campaign after the accession of the 
 new monarch was marked by the great defeat inflicted 
 on the English and Portuguese by the French and 
 Spaniards at Almanza, on April 15, 1707, a battle in 
 which it chanced that the English were commanded 
 by a Frenchman, Henri de Ruvigny, Lord Galway, 
 and the French by an Englishman James Fitz-James, 
 Duke of Berwick. Nevertheless John V., who was a 
 young man of seventeen, in spite of this disaster, kept 
 true to the English alliance and the Methuen treaty, 
 and left the management of affairs in the hands of his 
 father's minister and friend Joao de Mascarenhas, 
 Duke of Cadaval. This able statesman bound the 
 king more surely to the Anglo-Austrian alliance by 
 marrying him to the Archduchess Marianna, daughter 
 of the late Emperor Leopold L, who was escorted to 
 Lisbon by a powerful English fleet under Admiral 
 Sir George Byng, in 1708. The war continued, how- 
 ever, to go steadily against the allies, for the Spaniards 
 had rallied enthusiastically around their Bourbon 
 king, Philip V. ; and on May 7, 1709, a Portuguese 
 army under the Marquis of Fronteira was defeated on 
 the banks of the Caia, by the Spaniards under the 
 Marquis de Bay. Far more serious was the capture 
 of Rio de Janeiro, by the French admiral, Duguay- 
 Trouin, on September 23, 171 1, which cut off all 
 supplies from Brazil for more than a year. The war 
 languished all over Europe after the accession of the 
 Archduke Charles as Emperor, and on February 6, 
 171 5, nearly two years after the treaty of Utrecht,
 
 352 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 peace was signed between Spain and Portugal, at 
 Madrid, by the Secretary of State, Diogo de Men- 
 don^a. Count of Corte-Real. 
 
 As soon as John V. began to mark out a poh'cy for 
 himself, after the death of the Duke of Cadaval, he 
 showed his distaste for war. He refused to join in 
 the war against Cardinal Alberoni, the famous minis- 
 ter of Spain, and avoided as far as possible any com- 
 bination which might lead to the rupture of peace. 
 The only expedition he sent out was a fleet, which he 
 equipped at the Pope's bidding to join the Venetians 
 in their struggle against the Turks, and which, under 
 the command of Lopo Furtado de Mendon^a, Count 
 of Rio Grande, defeated the Mohammedans off Cape 
 Matapan in 1717. The main effort of King John's 
 foreign policy was to combine a firm adherence to the 
 Methuen treaty with friendly relations with Spain, by 
 which he hoped to avoid war. For this purpose he 
 always kept on the best of terms with the English 
 ambassadors at Lisbon, notably with Lord Tyrawley ; 
 and in 1729 he closely allied himself with the new 
 dynasty in Spain. His daughter. Donna Maria 
 Josepha de Braganza, was married to Don Ferdinand, 
 eldest son of Philip V., who succeeded to the throne of 
 Spain as Ferdinand VL ; while the Spanish infanta, 
 Donna Marianna Victoria de Bourbon, was married 
 to the heir-apparent of Portugal, Dom Joseph. With 
 the papacy John V. remained on the best of terms ; he 
 lent enormous sums of money to successive popes 
 out of the wealth of Brazil, and in return received 
 rewards, which were of no real value, but which were 
 such as he highly esteemed. Lisbon was divided into
 
 THE REIGN OF JOHN V. 353 
 
 two dioceses ; the Archbishopric of Lisbon was 
 erected ii)to a patriarchate; the patriarch was allowed 
 to officiate in vestments resembling those of the Pope, 
 and his canons in imitation of those of the cardinals ; 
 and, finally, in the last year of his reign, the title of 
 " Fidelissimus," or " Most Faithful," was conferred 
 upon the kings of Portugal, to correspond with those 
 of " Most Christian " and " Most Catholic," attributed 
 to the kings of France and Spain respectively. 
 
 These are the only points of interest, which mark 
 John V.'s long reign of forty-four years, and as the 
 last thirty- five of these years were years of peace, it 
 may well be said, happy is the reign which has but 
 little history. But it must not be thought that he 
 therefore left no impression upon his country. On 
 the contrary, he did much to imprint his name on its 
 history. He showed a tendency, like so many other 
 princes of the eighteenth century, to imitate Louis 
 XIV. He spent much money in building, and among 
 his most famous efforts in this direction are the patri- 
 archal church at Lisbon, the superb convent at 
 Mafra, and the great aqueduct which still supplies 
 Lisbon with water. He was a munificent patron of 
 literature and the arts, and founded the Academy of 
 History at Lisbon in 1720. He loved music and the 
 theatre, and spent great sums in importing singers 
 and dancers from Italy and actors from France. He 
 took an intelligent interest in the administration of 
 his kingdom, and for the better despatch of business 
 formed three secretaryships of state for the home, 
 foreign and war, and colonial and naval, departments 
 instead of one, and he took a particular pride in his
 
 354 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 navy, and founded the naval arsenal of Lisbon. One 
 other fact also may be recorded to his credit, that in 
 1725 he obtained a Bull from Pope Benedict XIII., 
 allowing all prisoners of the Inquisition to employ 
 counsel to defend them, and ordering that all sentences 
 of the Holy Office should be communicated to and 
 confirmed by the king in council. This excellent 
 monarch had a paralytic stroke in 1742, and for 
 the last eight years of his reign, until his death in 
 1750, the kingdom was governed by the queen, and 
 the Cardinal da Cunha, Patriarch of Lisbon. 
 
 The reign of King Joseph, which lasted from 1750 
 to 1777. is made famous by the administration of the 
 Marquis of Pombal, the greatest minister who ever 
 ruled Portugal, and one of the greatest of eighteenth- 
 century statesmen. The king, though a man of real 
 ability himself, interfered but little in politics, and 
 left the management of affairs entirely in the hands 
 of the minister, whose greatness he was the first to 
 perceive. The relationship between the monarch and 
 his subject resembles that between Louis XIII. and 
 Richelieu, and does honour to both parties. In every- 
 thing — in his great internal administrative reforms, in 
 his financial schemes, in the reorganization of the 
 army, in the abolition of slavery, and in the struggle 
 with the Jesuits, which ended in the suppression of 
 that famous order — King Joseph supported his 
 minister. Pombal broke the power of the nobility, 
 and made the king more absolute than ever, and he 
 exalted the royal prerogative, while using it for his 
 measures of reform ; while, in return, the king main- 
 tained the minister in power, in spite of the vehement
 
 THE MARQUIS OF POMBAL. 355 
 
 protests and wily intrigues of the Roman Catholic 
 clergy, and the opposition of his wife. 
 
 Sebastiao Jose de Carvalho e Mello, better known 
 by his later title of the Marquis of Pombal, was a 
 man of more than fifty years of age when his patron 
 succeeded to the throne, and he himself entered office. 
 His father, Emmanuel de Carvalho, was a country 
 gentleman of moderate wealth, but by his mother, 
 Theresa de Mendon^a, he was related to some of the 
 noblest families of Portugal, to the Almeidas, the 
 Mellos and the Mendongas. He w^as born at Soure, 
 on May 13, 1699, and after receiving his education at 
 the University of Coimbra, he entered the army as a 
 private. He found neither pleasure nor profit in a mili- 
 tary career in time of peace, and after leaving the ser- 
 vice, he led the life of a man about town in Lisbon. His 
 handsome face, great bodily strength, and proficiency 
 in athletic exercises, made him popular in all circles 
 of society in the capital, in spite of his comparative 
 poverty, and he especially distinguished himself, if 
 distinction it maybe called, among the "Mohocks," 
 who infested the streets of Lisbon. There seemed 
 no prospect of his ever making any mark in life, when 
 in 1733 he made himself the talk of the town by his 
 elopement with, or rather his abduction of, a lady of 
 the highest rank. Donna Theresa de Noronha, niece 
 of the Count of Arcos. His wife's family were at 
 first most indignant, but at last they relented, and in 
 1739 the bravo of the streets of Lisbon was, by their 
 influence, appointed ambassador to the Court of Eng- 
 land. It is some consolation for men of advanced 
 years to remember that the greatest of Portuguese
 
 THE MARQUIS OF POMBAL. 
 {From a Print in the British Museum.)
 
 THE EARTHQUAKE OF LISBON. 357 
 
 ministers was forty years of age before he ever re- 
 ceived official employment. In London Sebastiao de 
 Carvalho turned over a new leaf, and devoted himself 
 to the serious study of politics, and he carefully in- 
 vestigated the English system of government and the 
 causes of England's commercial prosperity. From 
 London he was removed to the Court of Vienna in 
 1745, and he there married, on the death of his first 
 wife, a daughter of Count Daun, the famous Austrian 
 general. On this occasion King John V. was pleased 
 out of compliment to the victor of Kolin, to grant 
 Sebastiao de Carvalho letters of nobility, which 
 entitled him to the prefix Dom ; and in 1750 the 
 ambassador was recalled to Portugal and appointed 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. While he 
 was on his way home John V. died, and when 
 Carvalho reached Lisbon King Joseph had already 
 ascended the throne. 
 
 At first the new Secretary of State held no higher 
 rank than his colleagues, but his abilities soon became 
 evident to the king, and his conduct at the time of 
 the great earthquake of Lisbon gave him unbounded 
 ascendency over the mind of the monarch. This 
 terrible catastrophe took place on November i, 1755. 
 The population of the city was collected in the 
 churches listening to the solemn services of All Saints 
 Day, when the first shock of earthquake was felt ; it 
 was followed at intervals by three others, which 
 laid half the city in ruins. Most of the unfor- 
 tunate people, who managed to escape from the fall- 
 ing houses and churches, rushed to the quays. But 
 the disturbance affected the sea also ; an immense
 
 358 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 tidal wave swept the quays, and washed off thou- 
 sands of the fugitives, while the ships in the river 
 were driven on shore. No element of horror was 
 missing, for fires broke out in all parts of the wrecked 
 city, and the scum of the populace rushed hither and 
 thither, murdering and robbing those whom the cala- 
 mities of nature had spared. At this fearful juncture 
 the king and Carvalho showed the greatest courage 
 and a most unshaken firmness of demeanour. To the 
 demands of the monarch as to what was to be done, 
 the minister answered laconically, " Bury the dead 
 and feed the living," and for eight days and nights he 
 lived in his carriage, driving from place to place, 
 whithersoever his presence was needed, and repress- 
 ing disorder. The news of the disaster spread all 
 over Europe ; at least thirty thousand people, accord- 
 ing to some accounts one hundred thousand people, 
 lost their lives, and foreign nations were not back- 
 ward in assisting the remnant of the people of 
 Lisbon. In England the pity felt was keener than 
 anywhere else, owing to the close relationship be- 
 tween the two nations, and large sums of money and 
 great quantities of provisions were promptly des- 
 patched from London to Portugal. The catastrophe 
 made an extraordinary impression on the minds of all 
 contemporaries ; in London over twenty accounts 
 were published within the year, apart from notices in 
 magazines, and Voltaire in his " Candide " gave a full 
 and, on the whole, very accurate description of it. 
 
 Carvalho's energy at this time established his 
 reputation with the king, and he felt able to com- 
 mence his campaigns against the nobility and the
 
 THE JESUITS. 359 
 
 Jesuits. In order that he might have his time 
 free for matters of such importance he was made 
 Prime Minister in 1756, with power over all depart- 
 ments of administration, and his friend, Luis da 
 Cunha, was appointed Secretary of State for Foreign 
 Affairs in his place. Of his long series of administrative 
 reforms, and his efforts to improve the condition of 
 the country, which were spread over his government 
 of twenty-seven years, it will be better to speak as a 
 whole ; but a special description must here be given 
 of his campaign against the Jesuits, which brought 
 about the suppression of that famous order. It is 
 not necessary to speculate on the various motives, 
 which induced Carvalho to attack the Jesuits, but 
 the principal cause lay in the fact that they were 
 wealthy and powerful, and therefore a dangerous 
 force in an absolutist monarchy. It must be remem- 
 bered that the Jesuits of the eighteenth century 
 formed a very different class of men to their prede- 
 cessors. They were no longer intrepid missionary 
 pioneers, but a corporation of wealthy traders, who 
 made use of their spiritual position to further the 
 cause of their commerce. They had done a great 
 work in America by opening up the interior of Brazil 
 and converting the natives, and their administration 
 of Paraguay, one of the most interesting achievements 
 in the whole history of Christianity, was without 
 doubt a blessing to the people. But by the middle 
 of the eighteenth century they had gone too far. It 
 was one thing to convert the natives of Brazil, and 
 another to absorb much of the wealth of that country, 
 in doing which they prejudiced not only the Crown,
 
 360 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, 
 
 but the Portuguese people, whom they kept from 
 settling in the territory under their rule. Whether it 
 was a sufficient reason for Carvalho to attack the 
 order because it was wealthy and powerful, and had 
 departed from its primitive simplicity, is a question 
 for every one to decide for themselves, but that this 
 was the reason, and that the various excuses alleged 
 by the admirers of the great minister are without 
 foundation, is an undoubted fact. On September 19, 
 1757, the first important blow was struck, when the 
 king's Jesuit confessor was dismissed, and all Jesuits 
 were forbidden to come to Court. Carvalho, in the 
 name of the King of Portugal, also formally de- 
 nounced the order at Rome, and Benedict XIV., the 
 then Pope, appointed the Cardinal de Saldanha, a 
 friend of the minister. Visitor and Reformer of the 
 Society of Jesus. The cardinal did not take long in 
 making up his mind, and May 15, 1758, he forbade 
 the Jesuits to engage in trade. 
 
 An attempt upon the king's life, which shortly 
 followed this m.easure, gave the minister the oppor- 
 tunity he wanted for urging the suppression of the 
 famous society. The history of the Tavora plot, which 
 culminated in this attempt is one of the most myste- 
 rious affairs in the whole history of Portugal, and from 
 the many contradictory accounts which have been 
 published, it is almost impossible to arrive at the exact 
 truth. But it is certain that the Jesuits and the 
 nobles had no reason to love the king and his minis- 
 ter, and it is hardly to be wondered at that their 
 opposition resulted in violent measures. The great 
 nobles had been systematically deprived of all politi-
 
 THE TAVORA PLOT. 361 
 
 cal power since the accession of King Joseph, for 
 Carvalho, Hke RicheHeu, distrusted them, and pre- 
 ferred to employ men of his own rank in life or of 
 bourgeois descent in public business in preference to 
 noblemen and their relations. The three leaders of 
 the plot were the Duke of Aveiro, a descendant of 
 John II., and one of the greatest noblemen in Portu- 
 gal, the Marquis of Tavora, who had filled with credit 
 the post of Governor-general of India, and the Count 
 of Atouguia, a descendant of the gallant Dom Luis de 
 Athaide, the defender of Goa ; but the heart and soul 
 of the conspiracy was the Marchioness of Tavora, a 
 beautiful and ambitious woman, who was bitterly 
 offended because her husband had not been made a 
 duke. The confessor of this lady was a Jesuit named 
 Gabriel Malagrida, who is by some authors treated as 
 a half-insane fanatic, and by others as a dangerous in- 
 triguer, incensed by the attacks of Carvalho upon his 
 order. Whether Malagrida was innocent or guilty, 
 whether he was mad or sane, whether the Tavoras 
 were incited by religious or political motives, or 
 merely by a desire for private revenge, whether all 
 these noblemen, and especially the Duke of Aveiro, 
 were not merely accused in order to allow Carvalho 
 to strike a blow at the nobility, whether, finally, all 
 those who were punished were victims of the minister 
 or really guilty, arc questions which cannot be deter- 
 mined here. The evidence on all sides is most con- 
 tradictory, and all that is certain is that the king was 
 fired at and wounded on the night of September 3, 
 1758; and that in the following January, the three 
 noblemen who have been mentioned, the Marchioness
 
 362 PORTUGAL TN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 of Tavora, Malagrida with seven other Jesuits, and 
 many other individuals of all ranks of Hfe, were 
 arrested as implicated in the attempt to murder. 
 The laymen had but a short trial, and, together with 
 the marchioness, were publicly executed ten days 
 after their arrest 
 
 King Joseph certainly believed that the real cul- 
 prits had been seized, and in his gratitude he created 
 Carvalho, Count of Oeyras, and encouraged him to 
 pursue his campaign against the Jesuits. On January 
 19, 1759, the estates belonging to the society were 
 sequestrated ; and on September 3rd, all its members 
 were expelled from Portugal, and directions were sent to 
 the viceroys of India and Brazil to expel them likewise. 
 The news of this bold stroke was received with admi- 
 ration everywhere, except at Rome, and it became 
 noised abroad that a great minister was ruling in 
 Portugal. The elder Pitt, who was anxious that 
 Portugal should join in the Seven Years' War, pub- 
 licly acknowledged the ability of the Count of Oeyras, 
 and at his demand apologized for the infraction of 
 the law of nations, which had been committed by the 
 English Admiral Boscawen's attack upon the French 
 squadron under La Clue, in the Portuguese harbour 
 af Lagos. 
 
 The Count of Oeyras had no desire to take part in 
 the general war raging in Europe, and refused to 
 accede to Pitt's wishes, until the King of Spain, ac- 
 cording to the arrangement of the "Pacte de Famille," 
 attacked Portugal, as being a declared enemy of the 
 Franco-Spanish alliance owing to the Methuen treaty 
 with England. The Spaniards under the Marquis of
 
 WAR BETWEEN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 363 
 
 Sarria invaded the northern provinces of Portugal in 
 1762, and captured in rapid succession the towns of 
 Miranda, Braganza, and Almeida. Then the Count 
 of Oeyras appealed to the English statesman, and not 
 in vain. English soldiers and munitions of war were 
 at once despatched to Lisbon, and, at the special 
 request of the minister, a general in English pay, 
 the Count of Lippe-Buckeburg, with some English 
 officers and sergeants, were sent to reorganize the 
 Portuguese army as Schomberg had done in the century 
 before. The Count of Lippe, assisted by the energy of 
 the Portuguese minister, quickly formed the Portuguese 
 troops into a disciplined army, and on the arrival of 
 Brigadier-General John Burgoyne, a gallant cavalry 
 officer, who had distinguished himself at Belle-isle, 
 but who is better known in English history from 
 his surrender at Saratoga, to take command of the 
 English troops, the allied army advanced. They were 
 uniformly successful ; the Spaniards lost all their 
 former advantages ; they were defeated at Valencia 
 de Alcantara, where the English took three standards 
 and a Spanish general ; and on October 5th Burgoyne 
 gtormed the entrenched camp of Villa Velha, and 
 ended the campaign. The Spaniards were now quite 
 ready to give in, and on February 10, 1763, peace was 
 signed between Portugal and Spain. The Count of 
 Oeyras had learnt a lesson from the contrast between 
 the two campaigns, and when Burgoyne and his 
 English .soldiers returned to England, the Count of 
 Lippc-Buckcburg was requested to remain, and he not 
 only reorganized the Portuguese army, but put all the 
 Portuguese fortresses on the Spanish frontier, and
 
 364 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 especially Elvas, in thorough repair, according to the 
 received ideas of fortification. 
 
 On the conclusion of this short war, the Count of 
 Oeyras once more turned his attention to the Jesuits, 
 and in 1764 the Jesuit priest Malagrida was burnt 
 alive, not as a traitor, but as a heretic and impostor, 
 on account of some crazy tractates he had written. 
 The man was regarded as a martyr, and all com- 
 munication between Portugal and the Holy See 
 was broken off for two years, while the Portuguese 
 minister exerted all his influence with the Courts of 
 France and Spain to procure the entire suppression of 
 the society, which he hated. The king supported him 
 consistently, and after another attempt upon his life 
 in 1769, which the minister as usual attributed to the 
 Jesuits, King Joseph created his faithful servant 
 Marquis of Pombal, by which title he is best known 
 to fame. The prime ministers of France and Spain 
 cordially acquiesced in the hatred of the Jesuits, for 
 both the Due de Choiseul and the Count d'Aranda 
 had something of Pombal's spirit in them, and 
 imitated his policy ; in both countries the society, 
 which on its foundation had done so much for 
 Catholicism and Christianity, was proscribed, and 
 the worthy members treated with as much rigour as 
 the unworthy ; and finally in 1773 Pope Clement 
 XIV. solemnly abolished the Society of Jesus. King 
 Joseph did not long survive this triumph of his 
 minister, for he died on February 24, 1777, and the 
 Marquis of Pombal, then an old man of seventy-seven, 
 was at once dismissed from office. 
 
 To analyse the internal reforms and general
 
 THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY. 365 
 
 measures of improvement introduced into Portugal 
 by Pombal is almost impossible in a single paragraph, 
 so far-reaching were his endeavours, so unlimited his 
 energy. He has often been compared with Richelieu, 
 chiefl}', it seems, because of his rigorous suppression 
 of the Tavora plot ; but the men whom he really 
 resembled were the benevolent despots and their 
 ministers who abounded in Europe before the out- 
 break of the French Revolution. He firmly believed 
 that the greatest happiness of a people depended 
 upon the maintenance of an absolutist monarchy, 
 which could do more good than representative 
 institutions, and his struggle with the Jesuits was 
 mainly due to the fact that they were so wealthy and 
 independent, especially in Brazil, as to hamper the 
 power of the Crown. The class of statesmen and 
 politicians to which he belonged included such 
 monarchs as Frederick the Great of Prussia, the 
 Emperor Joseph H., Leopold, Grand Duke of 
 Tuscany, and Charles HI. of Spain, and such great 
 reforming ministers as Aranda in Spain and 
 Tannucci in Naples ; and like them he believed 
 that real good could only be done by an absolute 
 monarch, who had the interests of his people at heart. 
 The greatest evidence Pombal gave of this royal 
 concern for the people was in the famous decree of 
 May 25, 1773, by which slavery was abolished in 
 Portugal, or rather by which grandsons of slaves, and 
 all children of slaves born after that date, were 
 declared free, and which at the same time abolished 
 all distinctions between " old " and " new " Christians, 
 by which latter term the descendants of the converted
 
 a Si 
 
 
 s «
 
 pombaCs reforms. 3C^7 
 
 Jews and Mohammedans were still called, and made 
 all Portuguese subjects alike eligible for civil, military, 
 and ecclesiastical offices. In Brazil, however, he made 
 no attempt to put down slavery, believing, like all his 
 contemporaries, that negroes were made on purpose 
 to be slaves ; but even there he repeated and enforced 
 the edicts against making slaves of the natives of the 
 country. In matters of internal administration he 
 advocated and maintained efficiency and economy, 
 and at one blow in 1761 he swept away more than 
 three-quarters of the petty offices which hampered 
 the administration of justice. The law courts were 
 made accessible, and lawsuits cheap ; and in 1769 he 
 robbed the Inquisition of its power by making it an 
 open and public court, subject to the rules which 
 regulated other courts. In matters of police he showed 
 the same vigour, and by stern repression prevented 
 the machinery of the law from being used to further 
 private revenge. He recognized the importance of 
 education, and reorganized the University of Coimbra 
 in 1772 by abolishing the teaching of the dark ages 
 which still continued there and introducing the 
 modern element ; and though he expelled the great 
 teaching order of the Church, he maintained the 
 educational establishments of the Jesuits, and turned 
 their college at Lisbon into a school for the training 
 of the young nobility. Of the reforms in the army, 
 which he carried out with the help of the Count of 
 Lippe-Buckeburg mention has already been made, 
 and he was equally energetic with regard to the 
 navy, over which department he placed the most 
 energetic of his subordinates, Martinho dc Mcllo e
 
 368 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, 
 
 Castro. Nor was the great minister careless of more 
 material affairs ; he showed a taste for architecture 
 and building ; under his superintendence the part of 
 Lisbon which had been ruined by the earthquake rose 
 from its ashes in redoubled beauty, adorned with fine 
 streets, squares, and buildings, generally designed by 
 the famous Portuguese architect Joaquim Machado de 
 Castro. He did not neglect to encourage agriculture 
 and viniculture, which must ever be the source of 
 livelihood of the greater number of the Portuguese 
 people, and he introduced the silkworm into the 
 northern provinces, and made special regulations for 
 the management and encouragement of the bold 
 fishermen of the Beira and the Algarves. In his 
 attempt to introduce manufactures the Marquis of 
 Pombal was not so successful ; the Portuguese are 
 not a manufacturing people, and the system of 
 protection which he enforced only roused the 
 opposition of English merchants, who protested 
 against it as a breach of the Methuen treaty, and 
 made manufactured articles dearer than they had 
 been during the first half of the century. Yet some 
 of the native industries which he established or 
 protected were not unworthy of his care, and the 
 glass-works of Leiria, the lace of Vianna, and the 
 potteries of Aveiro enjoyed a great and deserved 
 reputation. In commercial matters he showed the 
 result of the lessons he had learnt during his official 
 residence in London, for he founded the Royal Bank 
 of Portugal in 175 1, and established the Oporto 
 Wine Company, ' against which infraction of their 
 monopoly the English wine merchants loudly in-
 
 POMBAL AND LITERATURE. 369 
 
 v^eighed. He encouraged trade with Brazil b)- 
 granting concessions to the gold seekers and planters 
 of that great colony ; and the importation of gold, 
 sugar, and tobacco brought back to Lisbon some of 
 the prosperity of the sixteenth century. In Asia he 
 was clear-sighted enough to perceive that any 
 attempt to contend for a share of the Indian or the 
 spice trade was bound to be of no avail ; but he was 
 the first of Portuguese statesmen to perceive the 
 value of the little settlement of Macao in the Canton 
 river. IMost of the Chinese trade, which had been 
 yearly growing in value, was in the hands of the 
 factory of the English East India Company at Canton, 
 but the jealousy of the Chinese Government was 
 such that the Company had no assured position 
 there. But Macao was a free port ; most of the 
 factors and writers of the East India Company 
 resided there, and Pombal, seeing that the tea trade 
 passed through Portuguese territory, greatly en- 
 couraged it, and took care that it should pay due 
 toll to the Portuguese authorities and contribute to 
 the wealth of the Portuguese Crown. Nor was the 
 great minister insensible to literature and the fine 
 arts. He founded the "Arcadia de Lisboa " in 1757, 
 for the propagation of the teachings of the school of 
 the French encyclopaedists ; and it was under his 
 influence and protection that Diogo Barbosa Machado 
 compiled his " Bibliotheca Lusitana " and Damiao 
 Antonio de Lemos wrote his " Historia dc Portugal," 
 a work which stands midway between the naive 
 annals of Bernardo de Brito and Antonio Brandao, 
 and the modern scientific histories of Alexandra
 
 370 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Herculano and Rebello da Silva. Of music he was 
 particularly fond ; he persuaded the king to build the 
 opera house at Lisbon, and to invite the famous singer 
 Caffarelli, the confidant of the King of Spain, to sing 
 there, and to him was dedicated the best Portuguese 
 opera, the "Alessandre nell' Indie" of David Peres. 
 
 Such were some of the reforms, schemes, improve- 
 ments, and tastes of the great minister ; they made 
 him the friend of his sovereign and the adored of 
 the people ; but, on the other hand, his persecution of 
 the Jesuits and his rigorous treatment of the leading 
 noblemen, whom he had often imprisoned without 
 trial, made him many personal enemies, and when his 
 patron died he knew that his own fall was at hand. 
 King Joseph had died without male issue, and was 
 succeeded on the throne by his eldest daughter, 
 Donna Maria Francisca, who had married in 1760 
 her own uncle Dom Pedro, a younger brother of 
 King Joseph. By this arrangement it was hoped 
 that all disputes as to the accession would be avoided ; 
 the husband and wife were crowned together, and 
 coins were struck in the joint names of Maria I. and 
 Pedro III. Both the king and the queen were feeble 
 and weak-minded, and the reins of government 
 fell into the hands of the widow of King Joseph, 
 Donna Marianna Victoria, a fanatical Catholic who 
 had always resented the influence of Pombal and 
 opposed his policy. By her advice the great minister 
 was at once dismissed from office and ordered to send 
 in his accounts, while his enemies were released from 
 prison. Their names will show how powerful was 
 the enmity he had to expect, for among them were
 
 THE DEATH OF POMBAL. 37I 
 
 Dom Miguel de Annunciacao, Bishop of Coimbra ; 
 Dom Joao Amberto de Noronha, Count of San 
 Lourenco ; Dom Joao de Almeida Portugal, Marquis 
 of Alorna, a former Viceroy of India, and brother of 
 the Marquis of Tavora ; Dom Martinho de Masca- 
 renhas, son of the executed Duke of Aveiro ; Dom 
 Jose, illegitimate brother of the late king and Grand 
 Inquisitor of Portugal ; Antonio de Andrade Freire, 
 the Chancellor ; Dom Frederico de Sousa Holstein ; 
 and Dom Joao de Braganza, Duke of Lafoes. These 
 men at once surrounded the new sovereigns and gave 
 utterance to complaints against Pombal ; the pro- 
 ceedings in the case of the Tavora plot were reversed, 
 and the prosecution of the late minister pressed on with 
 bitter hostility. Yet his enemies hardly dared to con- 
 demn such a benefactor to his country to any severe 
 penalty, and after being driven about from pillar to 
 post for four years, the old man, now more than 
 eighty years of age, was condemned to be banished 
 twenty leagues from Court. Had his relentless 
 persecutor, the widow of King Joseph, been alive, his 
 punishment would doubtless have been more severe, 
 and, as it was, the queen dared not pass such a light 
 sentence until after her mother's death. The old 
 minister did not long survive his disgrace, and 
 died at Pombal on May 8, 1782, at the age of eighty- 
 three. To the credit of Pedro and Maria let it be 
 admitted at once that in consideration of his father's 
 long and eminent services the young Marquis of 
 Pombal was fully confirmed in all the honours and 
 estates which had been conferred upon the minister 
 by King Joseph.
 
 372 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 It need hardly be said that the fall of Pombal left 
 many aspirants to his high place. The three 
 Secretaries of State, Martinho de Mello e Castro, 
 Thomas Xavier de Lima Brito, Viscount of Villa 
 Nova de Cerveira, afterwards Marquis of Ponte de 
 Lima, and Ayresde Sa e Mello ; the Intendant of the 
 Treasury, Pedro Jose de Noronha, Marquis of 
 Angeja ; and the Intendant of Police, Diogo Ignacio 
 de Pina Manique, had all been trained in official work 
 by Pombal, and were all eager to succeed their 
 master in power. None of them, however, were 
 successful, for the great nobles who had been recalled 
 to Court were determined to have no such supreme 
 ruler again over them, while they were too jealous of 
 each other and too inexperienced in affairs to take 
 office themselves. Matters went on therefore at the 
 commencement of the new reign much as they had 
 done under the management of Pombal ; his spirit 
 remained amongst the ministers, and in such 
 measures as the commercial treaty with Russia, the 
 lighting of Lisbon by oil lamps, and the abolition of 
 imprisonment for debt, the impulse he had given to 
 all reforms is clearly to be seen. The " Arcadia de 
 Lisboa " was indeed allowed to disappear, but in its 
 place the Duke of Lafoes established the " Academia 
 Real das Sciencias " in 1779, which did even better 
 work for literature by its publication of the works 
 of the early Portuguese chroniclers. In carrying out 
 these measures the king and queen had little share ; 
 Pedro III. was a silly and vicious man, and Maria 
 'Vancisca was a woman of weak intellect, completely 
 
 ■bservient to her confessor, Ignacio de San Caetano
 
 THE PORTUGUESE /A» IKDIA. 373 
 
 who found her greatest happiness in raising vast 
 sums of money and sending them to the Latin 
 convent at Jerusalem. The only important event 
 in which they took a part was their conference with 
 the Court of Spain at Badajoz in 1785, when an 
 arrangement was come to about the disputed frontier 
 in South America ; and when Dom John, the second 
 son of Pedro and Maria, was betrothed to Donna 
 Carlotta Joaquina, grand-daughter of Charles III. of 
 Spain. In the following year Pedro III. died, and 
 his death, followed as it speedily was by those of her 
 confessor and of her elder son, Dom Jose, who had 
 married his aunt. Donna Maria Benedictina, completely 
 upset the small amount of intellect possessed by 
 Maria Francisca. It was observed in 1788 that she 
 was quite unfit to transact any business ; and in 1792, 
 when the progress of the French Revolution was 
 setting all Europe in a blaze, Dom John found it 
 necessary to take the management of affairs into his 
 hands, though he was not declared regent until 1799. 
 To turn from the history of Portugal in the 
 eighteenth century to the history of the Portuguese 
 possessions in India is a melancholy task ; for these 
 possessions instead of being a source of pride were 
 a source of expense and anxiety to the home 
 government, and they were maintained rather from a 
 recollection of ancient greatness and as a base for 
 mission work than for any actual advantage derived 
 from them. In 1739 Bassein, the "Capital of the 
 North " as it was called, a city which had been 
 second only to Goa in commercial and political 
 importance, was captured by Chimnaji Apa, a
 
 374 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Maratha general, after a three months' siege, and 
 with it fell Thana and all the possessions of the 
 Portuguese on the north-west coast except Daman 
 and Diu. In 1741 the Marathas and the Bhonslas of 
 Sawantvvarl over-ran the country round Goa and 
 threatened the city, but in the moment of difficulty, 
 the Marquis of Lourigal arrived with twelve 
 thousand men, and first defeated the Marathas at 
 Bardez, and then made Khem Savvant, the ruler of 
 Sawantwari, tributary. His successes were followed 
 by those of the Marquis of Castello Novo, who 
 captured Alorna, Tiracol, Neutim, Rarim, and Satari; 
 and the Marquis of Tavora, who took Sadashivgarh. 
 But the Portuguese Government had no desire to 
 make fresh conquests which it would need fresh 
 supplies of money from home to defend, and the 
 Count of Ega was ordered to surrender most of the 
 conquered towns to their former owners. Meanwhile 
 commerce had entirely deserted the Portuguese 
 possessions, which were given over to the Church ; 
 and Captain Hamilton in his travels, after speaking 
 of the poverty of the Portuguese inhabitants, says 
 that he counted no fewer than eighty churches and 
 convents in Goa, and that there were no less than 
 thirty thousand priests in the city and territory. 
 Revenue there was none, and the two thousand 
 European soldiers who defended the ancient capital 
 of Alboquerque had to be paid out of the Portuguese 
 treasury. The last blow was given to what little 
 commerce still remained by Pombal's suppression of 
 the Jesuits, and in 1759 "Golden Goa," which had 
 become unhealthy and ruinous, was left to priests and
 
 BRAZIL m THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 375 
 
 monks, and the seat of government was removed to 
 Panjim. Pombal, with his practical insight, saw that 
 nothing was to be made out of the Portuguese 
 possessions in India, and spent all his efforts in 
 Asia in promoting the prosperity of Macao ; and in 
 1794, when Portugal was in difficulties in Europe, 
 the Viceroy of Goa asked for the protection of 
 English troops, and Goa was garrisoned by the 
 English East India Company throughout the con- 
 tinuance of the great war with France. 
 
 Very different was the history of Brazil during this 
 century : while India was a source of expense, Brazil 
 was the great source of wealth to the Portuguese 
 treasury, and was to be the refuge of the royal 
 family when it became impossible for it to remain 
 longer in Lisbon. Throughout the century there was 
 a steady influx of immigrants to Brazil from Por- 
 tugal, and the population of the great colony rapidly 
 increased in numbers. Most of these immigrants 
 settled down as sugar or tobacco planters, and the 
 labour upon the plantations was completely in the 
 hands of the negro slaves, who were imported in vast 
 numbers. The trade in slaves was kept entirely in 
 the hands of Portuguese merchants, in spite of the 
 efforts of the I'Inglish slavers, and was not only looked 
 upon as a lucrative calling, but as the chief employ- 
 ment for the Portuguese sailors. It was this trade 
 alone which made it worth while for the Portuguese 
 Government to keep up its establishments on the 
 coast of Guinea, and Pombal encouraged it as the 
 only means of supplying Brazil with labourers. The 
 slaves in Brazil were not treated unkindly ; their
 
 376 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 masters were bound to feed them ; and were not only 
 allowed, but were obliged to sell them their liberty, 
 on the offer of a certain fixed sum of money. These 
 freed slaves and the mulattoes, who were very nume- 
 rous, often accumulated considerable wealth, and were 
 treated as citizens in every respect, except that they 
 could not hold any civil or municipal office. They 
 were even enrolled as soldiers, but the mulatto regi- 
 ments were kept distinct from the European, and 
 officered from among the wealthy members of their 
 own class. The native Brazilians were treated even 
 more favourably, and by the great decree of 1755 
 they were not only forbidden to sell themselves as 
 slaves, but were made citizens in every respect, and 
 allowed to receive their Education at the University 
 of Coimbra. The importance of the discovery of 
 gold in the interior has been mentioned, and the 
 revenue to the Portuguese Crown from the king's fifth, 
 in spite of much fraud, was estimated at ^^300,000 a 
 year. The opening up of the interior led, about the 
 year 1750, to the conquest of the Paulist Republic. 
 This curious little state had been formed round the 
 city of St. Paul about the commencement of the 
 eighteenth century by fugitives from Brazil and from 
 the more oppressive Spanish Governments of Chile 
 and Peru. The town was originally founded far up 
 in the heart of the virgin forests beyond the jurisdic- 
 tion of the Portuguese and Spanish officials, where 
 the inhabitants led a wild, romantic life, tempered 
 only by lynch law. But by degrees the march of 
 civilization brought them in contact with the Portu- 
 guese Government, and the discovery of diamonds in
 
 PROSPERITY OF BRAZIL. 377 
 
 the vicinity led to the suppression of the little republic. 
 This discovery of diamonds further increased the 
 wealth of the Portuguese Crown, and in addition to 
 the royal right to every diamond above twenty carats 
 weight, the king was estimated to make an income 
 of 2 1 00,000 a year by a contract entered into with 
 a syndicate of English diamond buyers. Nor were 
 other precious stones lacking, for rubies, emeralds, 
 and topazes were all discovered in such large quanti- 
 ties in the latter half of the eighteenth century as to 
 seriously lower their price. The great colony was 
 ruled most wisely ; only a few of the superior officers 
 were sent from Portugal, and most offices were filled 
 from among the settlers themselves. It was not even 
 found necessary to send troops from Portugal, for a 
 regular army of sixteen thousand men, and a militia 
 of over twenty thousand were easily raised and paid 
 in the country itself. The only troubles which beset 
 the colony were caused by the indefiniteness of its 
 boundaries, and Portugal found it necessary to yield 
 much territory, which has since developed into 
 wealthy and prosperous republics to the encroach- 
 ments of Spain. Its importance was recognized by 
 the title of Prince of Brazil granted to the eldest son 
 of the King of Portugal since the days of John IV., 
 and it became a safe refuge for the exiled royal family 
 when events in Europe made it necessary for it to fly 
 from Lisbon. 
 
 In literature the Portuguese writers of the eigh- 
 teenth century followed and imitated the I<"rcnch 
 authors of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. 
 instead of striving to develop the characteristics of
 
 Z7^ PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, 
 
 their own nation. The " Academia Real de Lisboa," 
 the "Academia Real de Portugal," the "Arcadia de 
 Lisboa," and the " Academia Real das Sciencias," 
 which succeeded each other at short intervals, were 
 all attempts to imitate the French Academy and its 
 offshoots, and though they did good work in encou- 
 raging research and rewarding literary endeavour, 
 they failed, as such institutions generally do fail, to 
 produce great writers and thinkers. At the beginning 
 of the eighteenth century, before the academies exer- 
 cised their influence, the only literary productions in 
 Portugal were lyric poems of no great merit, which 
 were much admired by the members of numerous 
 little literary clubs resembling the Italian arcadias, 
 and which were chiefly imitations of the forms of 
 verse most in vogue in France and Italy. But 
 during the rule of Pombal a more healthy spirit 
 appeared ; the works of the French encyclopaedists 
 and their contemporaries were studied instead of 
 tricks of versification, and a new departure was 
 made alike in poetry and prose. The new poets 
 did not confine themselves to lyrics ; they attempted 
 epics, dramas, and eclogues, all more or less based 
 upon an imitation of the French, but yet pos- 
 sessing a more "truly national ring than the lyrics 
 of their predecessors. All these poets were not 
 lovers of Pombal ; the great minister was too 
 heedless of hurting their susceptibilities and too 
 sparing of his pensions for that ; and the best known 
 among them, Antonio Diniz da Cruz e Silva, who 
 was termed the Portuguese Boileau, vehemently 
 attacked the great man after his fall. The influence
 
 LITERATURE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 379 
 
 exerted by this poet on the progress of Portuguese 
 literature was, however, slight compared to that of 
 his successors, Francisco Manoel de Nascimento and 
 Manoel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, whose followers 
 under the names of the " Filintists " and " Elma- 
 nists" preached freedom from the rigour of the 
 French canons of criticism, and adherence to 
 national forms. Epic poetry was not neglected, 
 though none of its writers can compare with the 
 great Camoens, whose " Lusiads " were several times 
 reprinted with notes during this century. The fame 
 of the great Portuguese epic was indeed spread 
 abroad throughout Europe ; it was translated into 
 French by Duperron de Castera and by the French 
 critic La Harpe; into Dutch by L, S. Pieterzoon ; and 
 into English by Mickle who, as a translator of their 
 master-poet, was cordially received at the Portuguese 
 Court in 1780. Nor was the drama forgotten ; the 
 Portuguese stage was held by tragedies after the French 
 classical model, the subjects of which were gene- 
 rally borrowed from the annals of the country, of which 
 the titles of the three tragedies of Du Bocage, 
 " Viriato," " Affonso Henriques," and " Vasco da 
 Gama," may be cited as a proof. In prose, the 
 most valuable work was done in history, and the 
 editions of the old Portuguese chroniclers, Ruy de 
 Pina, Azurara, P>rnao Lopes, and Acenheiro, 
 edited for the " Academia Real das Sciencias," 
 by Jose Correa de Serra still remain the standard 
 editions. Nor was science neglected in the country 
 of Pedro Nunes ; Bartholomcu de Gusmao is as- 
 serted to have discovered ballooning in 1709,
 
 380 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, 
 
 years before the Montgolfiers commenced their 
 experiments ; and the botanists Felix de Avellar 
 Brotero and Antonio Correa da Silva, to mention 
 but one department of scientific activity, were well 
 known throughout Europe, and were members of 
 most of the scientific societies of the time. In the 
 arts mention has already been made of David Peres, 
 the musical composer, and of Joaquim Machado de 
 Castro, the architect ; the latter was in addition the 
 best sculptor of his country, and Domingos Antonio 
 de Sequeira, as a painter, will compare favourably 
 with most of the contemporary artists in Europe. 
 
 But though the influence of France is to be per- 
 ceived in every department of literature until the 
 revival of national poetry by Nascimento and Du 
 Bocage, the Portuguese people remained, owing to 
 the Methuen treaty, on much more intimate terms 
 with the English. The royal family might hanker 
 after matrimonial alliances with Spain, a great 
 minister, like Pombal, might resent the absorption of 
 Portuguese trade by England ; but, for all that, the 
 people felt how close were their bonds with the 
 English nation. Mention has been made of the influx 
 of English capital, of the wine merchants of Oporto, 
 and the English factory at Lisbon, and also of the 
 power exercised by the English ambassadors. But 
 there was a closer bond than that ; Portugal became 
 the sanitarium for England ; it was to Portugal that 
 the seekers after a milder climate resorted as they 
 would now do to the Riviera, and it was to Lisbon 
 that the great English novelist, Henry Fielding, to 
 mention but one of many invalids, was sent ; it was
 
 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 3S1 
 
 in Lisbon that he died, and he is buried in the 
 cemeter}' of the English factory there. These were 
 the bonds that bound the two peoples together, and 
 the Portuguese people were justified in counting 
 upon the armed help of England in the terrible 
 struggle which they were now to pass through.
 
 XVII. 
 
 THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION— THE 
 PENINSULAR WAR. 
 
 When Dom John took the government of Portugal 
 into his hands in 1792, popular attention was con- 
 centrated throughout Europe on the progress of the 
 French Revolution. The interest excited in Portugal 
 was as great as it was everywhere else, for the ideas, 
 which were at the bottom of the most important 
 movement of modern times, had been eagerly 
 received in the literary circles of Lisbon. It is 
 absurd to suppose that there was any great 
 democratic party in the country, for as long as 
 the administration was well carried on, and taxes 
 were not oppressive, the mass of the people were 
 absolutely indifferent as to the nature of the govern- 
 ment. It was different with regard to the more 
 educated classes, who had been brought up in the 
 doctrines of the encyclopaedists, and who had read 
 Rousseau and Diderot, Voltaire and Montesquieu. 
 These men were sceptical about the advantages of a 
 benevolent despotism ; they had studied the history of 
 their own nation, and knew that in former days, before 
 the discovery of gold in Brazil, the Cortes had been
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 383 
 
 frequently summoned, and they desired that it should 
 meet regularly, and that the Portuguese people 
 should once more take a part in legislation by 
 means of its old representative assembly. Some of 
 them went further, and inspired by the example of 
 the great American Revolution, dreamed of a 
 republic, while others adopted all the fantastic 
 political and social ideas of Rousseau. But these 
 men were mere theorists ; they were to be found only 
 among a small circle of educated noblemen and 
 bourgeois in Lisbon and Oporto ; and their fancies 
 were quite unknown to the mass of the population. 
 These were the men who hailed with joy the capture 
 of the Bastille, and the proceedings of the Constituent 
 Assembly, and who openly expressed their sympathy 
 with the new order of things in France. 
 
 The government failed to understand that these 
 sympathizers would not be able to follow the example 
 of the French revolutionary leaders, so long as the 
 general population of Portugal was contented and 
 happy, and like all the absolutist monarchs of 
 Europe, Dom John heard with the utmost horror 
 of the events passing in Paris, and feared that they 
 would be imitated in Lisbon. In his terror of the 
 spread of " French principles," he began to persecute 
 their admirers although they had never dreamed of 
 acting or conspiring, and he thus made martyrs of 
 the holders of the new opinions, which were only 
 propagated the more rapidly by his tyrannical 
 behaviour. In his crusade against the sympathizers 
 with the French Revolution, Dom John found his 
 chief ally in Diogo Ignacio de Pina Maniquc, the
 
 OPPOSITION TO " FRENCH PRINCIPLES." 385 
 
 Intendant of Police, who believed that by his vigour 
 he should obtain the ascendency formerly held by 
 Pombal, and who proceeded therefore to work upon 
 his master's fears. His first measure was to issue an 
 edict against aliens, under which he expelled two 
 Frenchmen, Pierre Noel and Pierre Louis Fontaine, 
 and kept a strict and irritating surveillance over 
 Edward Church, the United States Consul, and 
 Jacome Ratton, a merchant of Lisbon, whom he 
 declared to be the fomenters of discontent and the 
 leaders of a conspiracy. Against Portuguese sub- 
 jects, Pina Manique acted with still more severity ; 
 Francisco Coelho da Silva, the father of Portuguese 
 liberalism, was thrown into prison ; other men of letters 
 were suspected and often prosecuted, including the 
 poets, Nascimento and Du Bocage, the botanist 
 Avellar Brotero, and the historian Correa da Serra ; 
 many noblemen of liberal principles were watched 
 by spies, and the Duke of Lafoes, the great patron 
 of literature, was expelled from Court, because he was 
 a friend of Broussonet, the French chemist. The men 
 whom the Intendant of Police most abhorred were 
 the Freemasons whom he hated, because their society 
 was secret, and by his attempt to suppress all their 
 lodges he made them actively democratic, and the 
 chief promoters of " French principles." It was no 
 wonder that this conduct excited attention in France, 
 and when in January, 1793, three months after the 
 proclamation of the French Republic, the Girondin 
 deputy, Kersaint, inveighed against England in the 
 Convention, he abused Portugal also, and spoke of 
 that country as a province of England.
 
 386 THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, 
 
 Dom John, not satisfied with thus combating 
 " French principles " at home, believed it to be a 
 holy duty to join in the general war against France, 
 and he therefore rejected the advice of the English 
 ministry to remain neutral, and sent his Secretary 
 of State for Foreign Affairs, Luis Pinto de Sousa 
 Coutinho, to Madrid to beg leave to send an army to 
 join in the invasion of France. It need hardly be 
 said that the Spanish minister, the Count of Florida 
 Blanca, was only too glad to accept assistance, and a 
 treaty of alliance between the two countries was signed 
 at Aranjuez on March 25, 1793. It was vain for the 
 French revolutionary leaders to protest that they had 
 not injured Portugal and to ask for neutrality ; the 
 French Ambassador, M. d'Arbaud, was ordered to 
 leave Lisbon ; a corps of five thousand men under 
 General Joao Forbes-Skelater was sent to join the 
 i Spanish army in the invasion of Roussillon ; and a 
 squadron of eight ships of war under the Marquis of 
 Niza joined the English fleet in the Mediterranean. 
 The Portuguese contingent served gallantly in 
 the Eastern Pyrenees from November, 1793, to 
 1795, and shared alike in the success of General 
 Ricardos, and the defeats of General La Union and 
 General Urrutia, but nevertheless the Spanish Court 
 under the influence of the handsome but worthless 
 guardsman, Godoy, did not hesitate to desert its ally, 
 and made a separate treaty with the French Republic 
 at Basle in July, 1795. Dom John began to believe that 
 the war against the French Republic could not be holy, 
 since the Most Catholic king had made a treaty 
 with France, and he promptly sent Dom Diogo de
 
 SIR CHARLES STUART SENT TO PORTUGAL. 387 
 
 Noronha to Paris to sue for peace. But the Com- 
 mittee of Public Safety had no idea of makinij terms 
 with him ; the treaties signed at Basle had been part 
 of a deliberate policy, which was to convert Prussia 
 and Spain into allies of the Republic, and to unite all 
 three against Austria, England, and Portugal, which 
 was regarded as a province of England, and the 
 Portuguese ambassador was dismissed immediately. 
 After the Convention ceased its long session and 
 the Directory was appointed, Dom John made 
 another effort for peace, and sent Antonio de 
 Araujo de Azevedo, the head of what may be called 
 the French party at the Court of Lisbon, to Paris. He 
 met with no better reception than his predecessor, 
 and when after the treaty of San Ildcfonso, by which 
 Spain declared war against England in 1796, came 
 the news of a secret convention between the French 
 ambassador at Madrid, General Perignon, and Godoy, 
 Prince of the Peace, by which Portugal was to be 
 divided between those two powers, and Spanish 
 troops were being massed upon the Portuguese 
 frontier, the English party in the Portuguese ministry 
 gained the upper hand, and urgent supplications were 
 sent to England for help. 
 
 Pitt and Grenville were only too glad to comply ; 
 for they regarded Portugal as affording an important 
 base of operations in the peninsula. The House of 
 Commons voted Portugal a subsidy of ;^200,000 ; a 
 force of six thousand men was despatched under 
 the command of Major-General the Honourable Sir 
 Charles Stuart, which deterred the Spaniards from 
 attempting an invasion, and the Prince of Waldcck,
 
 388 THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 like the Count of Lippe-Buckeburg in former days, 
 was sent to re-organize the Portuguese army. This 
 policy caused the French Directors to hesitate, and 
 they signed a treaty of peace with the Portuguese 
 ambassador Antonio de Araujo de Azevedo ; but to 
 their wrath and surprise, Dom John refused to ratify 
 the treaty, on which the Directors imprisoned the 
 Portuguese ambassador in the Temple. In the ardour 
 of his alliance with England, the prince for a year or 
 two threw himself into the hands of the English party 
 at his Court, and on the death of Martinho de Mello e 
 Castro, he appointed Rodrigo de Sousa Coutinho, 
 the leader of that party, to the Secretaryship of State 
 for the Marine and Colonies. Yet the English party 
 could not win the day entirely. The prince wavered ; 
 at his request Sir Charles Stuart and the English 
 army were withdrawn ; and he made another attempt 
 to make peace with France through the mediation of 
 •Spain. This was the situation of affairs when Dom 
 John formally declared himself Regent in 1799, as it 
 became obvious that the Queen Maria Francisca 
 would never recover the use of her faculties ; and in 
 the same year General Napoleon Bonaparte made his 
 coup d'etat of the i8th Brumaire, and became ruler of 
 \ France with the title of First Consul, 
 \ The accession of Napoleon to power was of no 
 • advantage to Portugal ; from the very first he showed 
 = his hatred of the little country ; no amount of sub- 
 mission could win his friendship ; he persisted in 
 regarding Portugal, as the Convention, the Committee 
 of Public Safety, and the Directory had done, as a 
 province of England ; and he thoroughly understood
 
 THE TREATY OF BADAJOZ. 389 
 
 what an important base of operations it afforded 
 to the Enghsh armies. Hardly was Napoleon firmly 
 seated in office, when he despatched his brother 
 Lucien Bonaparte to Madrid in the year 1800 with 
 directions to negotiate with Portugal. He was to 
 insist on the abandonment of the English alliance, on 
 the opening of Portuguese ports to France and the 
 closing of them to England, on the grant of special 
 commercial advantages to French merchants, on the 
 extension of French Guiana to the Amazon, on the 
 cession of a part of Portugal to Spain until the 
 recovery from the English of Trinidad and Minorca, 
 and on the payment of a large sum of money, and 
 he was authorized to offer Spain the assistance of 
 French troops if these hard terms were rejected. The 
 Prince Regent did reject them and declared war 
 against Spain on February 10, 1801, and twenty - 
 two thousand French veterans at once entered the 
 peninsula under the command of Bonaparte's 
 brother-in-law, General Leclerc. The campaign was 
 a very short one ; the French soldiers never came into 
 action, but in the month of May the Spaniards took 
 Olivenca, Juromenha, and Campo Mayor, laid siege 
 to Elvas, and defeated the Portuguese in two 
 eneaeements at Arronches and Flor da Rosa. The 
 Portuguese sued for peace, and on June 6, 180 
 a treaty was signed at Badajoz, by which Oliven^ 
 and the surrounding district was ceded to Spain, 
 followed by another at Paris, by which French 
 Guiana was extended to the Amazon. Napoleon was 
 very dissatisfied with the peace of Badajoz, for he 
 aimed at nothing short of the extinction of the 
 
 o 
 
 1 1 
 
 a '
 
 390 THE PENINSULAR WAR. 
 
 independence of Portugal, and it was many months 
 before he consented to ratify the treaties. Mean- 
 while an English force under Colonel Henry Clinton 
 had occupied Madeira, and a force of the English 
 East India Company's troops garrisoned Goa. The 
 pride of the people of Portugal was deeply wounded 
 by the loss of 01iven9a, which had been an integral 
 part, of Portugal ever since the days of Affonso 
 Henriques, and they lost no opportunity of showing 
 their contempt for the Prince Regent and his 
 advisers. Their wrath was kindled against the 
 French, and from this time forth, the mass of the 
 people who did not care for politics, but who did under- 
 stand the meaning of national disgrace, was ready to 
 dare anything against the nation which had brought 
 about the disintegration of the fatherland. 
 
 The Treaty of Amiens gave Europe a moment's 
 breathing space ; the English evacuated Madeira, and 
 the Prince Regent determined on a policy of absolute 
 neutrality. But Napoleon was not to be moved ; he 
 had determined on the destruction of Portugal, and it 
 was with the full expectation that he would irritate the 
 Portuguese into declaring war, that he sent General 
 Lannes^ one of the most courageous, but one of the 
 roughest and least educated of his generals, as ambas- 
 sador to Lisbon. Lannes acted in accordance with the 
 expectations of his chief ; he insulted the Portuguese 
 Court ; he failed to observe the most ordinary customs 
 of diplomatic courtesy ; and he finally demanded the 
 instant dismissal of all the ministers who belonged to 
 the English party, and especially of Pina Manique, the 
 Intendant of Police, because he had in former days
 
 THE FRENCH PARTY IN POWER. 39 1 
 
 prosecuted the admirers of the French Revolution. 
 The Prince Regent obeyed, both from fear of France 
 and dislike of the high-handed naval policy of 
 England ; and Antonio de Araujo de Azevedo, the 
 head of the French party, became Secretary of State 
 for Foreign Affairs, with the Count of Villa Verde, 
 and the Viscount of Anadia as his colleagues, and 
 Lucas de Scabra da Silva succeeded Pina Manique. 
 Even this humble and prompt submission did not 
 satisfy Napoleon, and in 1804 he replaced General 
 Lannes by General ]_unoi^ whom he ordered to insist 
 upon Portugal's declaring war against England. For 
 a time, however, he thought it wise to postpone his 
 designs against the country, which he regarded as the 
 most vulnerable province of England, while he was 
 engaged in his great campaigns in Germany, and he 
 even signed a treaty of neutrality with the Portuguese 
 Government. The English were not inclined to submit 
 to this, and in 1806, Admiral the Earl of St. Vincent, 
 General the Earl of Rosslyn, and General Simcoe were 
 sent to Lisbon to remind the Prince Regent of the 
 ancient alliance between the two countries, and to 
 promise ample assistance if Portugal would declare 
 war against France. Dom John declined, and on 
 the advice of his ministers, treated the English 
 ambassadors with something like contempt. 
 
 At length, in 1807, having defeated the armies of 
 Austria, Prussia, and Russia, Napoleon again turned 
 his thoughts to his projects for the annihilation of 
 Portugal, which had become more than ever a thorn 
 in his side, since it refused to co-operate in his Conti- 
 nental System for the commercial ruin of England.
 
 392 THE PENINSULAR WAR. 
 
 He resolved at first to act with Spain and Godoy, as 
 Perignon and Lucien Bonaparte had done, and on the 
 29th of October, 1807, he signed the Treaty of 
 Fontainebleau, by which it was agreed that Portugal 
 should be conquered by the combined armies of 
 France and Spain, and that the northern provinces of 
 the country should be given to the King of Etruria, 
 in exchange for his Italian kingdom, which Napoleon 
 desired to annex, while the southern districts were to 
 be formed into an independent kingdom for Godoy, 
 Prince of the Peace, and the central provinces were to 
 be held by France. The signature of this treaty was 
 followed by immediate action. Junot moved rapidly 
 across Spain with a French army, and in conjunction 
 with a Spanish force, under General Caraffa, invaded 
 Portugal along the line of the Tagus, while General 
 Taranco and General Solano, with two other Spanish 
 armies occupied the Entre Minho e Douro and the 
 Alemtejo. With amazing rapidity Junot accomplished 
 his march, and the Portuguese people hardly realized 
 that war was imminent, until on the 29th of November, 
 Colonel Le Cor rushed into Lisbon with the news that 
 French soldiers were in possession of Abrantes. This 
 alarming intelligence completely unnerved the Prince 
 Regent, who listened to the strongly-worded advice 
 of Sir Sidney Smith, the commander of an English 
 squadron in the Tagus, to abandon his capital for 
 Brazil, and to leave the English to defend Portugal. 
 Dom John believed this the best course to pursue, and 
 after naming a Council of Regency, he went on board 
 an English ship with his wife, Donna Carlotta Joaquina, 
 his two sons, Dom Pedro and Dom Miguel, his six
 
 yUNOT CONQUERS PORTUGAL. 393 
 
 daughters, and his unhappy mother, Queen Maria 
 Francisca, whose disordered brain seemed to under- 
 stand what was going on, and whose resistance to 
 the efforts to remove her was painful to observe. The 
 Enghsh ships had hardly left their moorings in the 
 Tagus, when Junot at the head of two thousand 
 wearied French soldiers, who had survived the fearful 
 fatigue of his rapid march, entered Lisbon on the 
 30th of November, 1807. 
 
 Nothing shows more certainly the great advance of 
 what were called " French principles " — that is to say, 
 of democratic ideas— in Portugal during the last few 
 years, than the cordial reception which Junot received. 
 At Santarem he was welcomed by a deputation of 
 the Freemasons of Portugal, who had been made by 
 persecution, as in other continental countries, a 
 secret society for the propagation of democratic 
 ideas ; the army made no attempt to resist ; neither 
 villages nor towns rose in insurrection ; and the 
 Council of Regency, which consisted of the Marquis 
 of Abrantes, the Marquis of Olhao, General 
 Francisco da Cunha e Menezes, General Francisco 
 Xavier de Noronha, Principal Castro, and Pedro de 
 Mello Breyner, President of the Treasury, instantly 
 submitted. The people of Lisbon had been disgusted 
 with the wavering and unpatriotic policy of the Prince 
 Regent ; they complained with reason that he had 
 wasted time in diplomacy instead of preparing for 
 defence ; they contrasted his yielding to Spain at the 
 Treaty of Badajoz with the gallant conduct of John L, 
 and the successful wars of John IV. ; and they looked 
 upon his departure for Brazil as a base desertion of
 
 MARSHAL JUNOT, DUKE OF ABRANTES. 
 i^From a Print of the period.)
 
 yUNOT'S CONDUCT IN PORTUGAL. 395 
 
 his country. For all these reasons they welcomed 
 the French, and the democratic leaders hoped that 
 the Emperor Napoleon would annex their country, 
 and grant it representative institutions. Junot at 
 first acted with the greatest prudence ; he certainly 
 raised two millions of francs in Lisbon by requisition, 
 and seized all the money in the royal treasury, but at 
 the same time he gratified the Portuguese people by 
 refusing to give the Spaniards any of the plunder, and 
 he encouraged them in the belief that the Emperor 
 would not destroy their independence. His next step 
 was to disband the whole Portuguese army, and to 
 quarter French troops in all the more important cities 
 and fortresses. Not satisfied with this, Junot then 
 raised a powerful Portuguese force, consisting of two 
 divisions of infantry, two regiments of ^a^adores or 
 light infantry, and three regiments of cavalry, which 
 he despatched to France under the command of 
 Lieutenant-General Dom Pedro de Almada. Marquis 
 of Alorna, and Major-General Gomes Freire de 
 Andrade. This force which was known as the 
 Portuguese Legion, contained all the most disciplined 
 officers and soldiers of the nation, and did gallant 
 service under Napoleon throughout the French cam- 
 paigns in Spain, Germany, and Russia, and the remnant 
 of it served under his standards at Waterloo. Thus 
 freed from the presence of the most dangerous element 
 of resistance, Junot began to show his own disposition. 
 He now made no effort to conciliate the Portuguese 
 democrats, and laughed at their idea of a Portuguese 
 constitution ; he hoisted the tricolour flag on the 
 Citadel of St. George ; he divided the country into
 
 396 THE PENINSULAR WAR. 
 
 military governments under his generals ; and finally 
 on the 1st of February, 1807, he issued a proclamation 
 " that the House of Braganza had ceased to reign." 
 
 After issuing this proclamation the French took 
 entire possession of Portugal ; the alcaides were dis- 
 missed, and the French generals ruled with absolute 
 authority as military governors. A new regency was 
 formed, which included several Frenchmen, notably 
 Junot himself as president. General Herman, M. 
 Lhuillier, and Viennot de Vaublanc as Secretary- 
 General ; and a new ministry was constituted of friends 
 to the French alliance, consisting of Pedro de Mello 
 Breyner at the Home Office, Azevedo at the Treasury, 
 the Count of Sampaio at the War Office, and 
 Principal Castro at the Ministry of Justice. J jjnp t 
 then began to intrig ue for the throne of Po rtugal ; he 
 knew well that JNapoleon had no intention of carrying 
 out the terms of the treaty of Fontainebleau ; and he did 
 not see why, after his successful campaign, he should 
 not receive this great reward. He posed as a patron of 
 letters, and was elected President of the " Academia 
 Real das Sciencias " in the place of the Duke of 
 Lafoes ; he changed his attitude towards and made 
 extravagant promises to the radical party ; and in the 
 hope of succeeding the Braganzas, he reduced 
 Napoleon's requisition of forty millions of francs to 
 twenty millions, on his own authority. The chief agent, 
 through whom he negotiated, was a lawyer, named 
 Jose de Scabra, who got up a deputation to visit 
 Napoleon, headed by the Grand Inquisitor, the Bishop 
 of Leiria, to ask for the nomination of Junot as King of 
 Portugal. These efforts of Junot's were, however, of no
 
 THE PORTUGUESE REBEL AGAINST THE FRENCH. 397 
 
 avail. The tyranny of his generals, and their treatment 
 of the Portuguese as a conquered people ; the atro- 
 cities which the French soldiers committed, and their 
 deliberate insults to the dearest sentiments of a proud 
 nation, far outweighed the effect of Junot's policy. 
 General Thomieres, for instance, plundered the great 
 abbey of Algobaga, and destroyed the corpses of the 
 early kings of Portugal ; and General Loison trampled 
 on the people, and put down a little riot at Mafra 
 with most frightful cruelty. There were exceptions 
 to this behaviour of course. General Travot and 
 General Chariot made themselves popular by their 
 just administration ; but, as a rule, the conduct of the 
 French generals was rapacious in the extreme. At 
 this moment, when the Portuguese people were quiver- 
 ing with indignation, came the news of the rebellion 
 in vSpain, and of the victory of Baylen. The Spanish 
 general, Bellesta, who commanded at Oporto in suc- 
 cession to General Taranco, seized the French gover- 
 nor, General Quesnel, and handed him over to a 
 Portuguese junta, and then marched away into 
 Gallicia. It was on the i8th of June, when the French 
 had held Portugal for about nine months, that this 
 great event occurred. Antonio Jos^ de Castro, Bishop 
 of Oporto, was declared president of the "junta" of 
 that city. The example was followed from Braga to 
 Faro ; everywhere the French officers were murdered 
 or expelled, and independent "juntas" were formed. 
 At this juncture the Portuguese people felt that they 
 could not resist France by their own strength ; and 
 the Bishop of Oporto appealed to the old ally of 
 Portugal, England, for assistance.
 
 SIR A. WELLESLEY LANDS L\' PORTUGAL. 399 
 
 The English Government willingly listened to this 
 appeal ; they had long wished for a base on the Con- 
 tinent from which to act against Napoleon by land, 
 and, in the words of Canning, " the arm of Great 
 Britain became the lever, and Portugal the fulcrum, to 
 wrench from its basis the power, that had subdued the 
 rest of Europe." In the previous year, a force under 
 Colonel Beresford had occupied Madeira, but up to 
 this time, no attempt had been made to dislodge the 
 French from Portugal itself. On the receipt of this 
 appeal from Oporto however, a small arm)', which 
 had been collected at Cork under the command of 
 Lieutenant - General the Honourable Sir Arthur 
 Welleslev. for an expedition to South America, was 
 ordered instead to proceed to Portugal ; reinforce- 
 ments were collected at Ramsgate and Harwich, and 
 a division under Major-General Brent Spencer was 
 ordered to sail from Gibraltar to join him. A Lusi- 
 tanian Legion was also formed out of the Portuguese 
 who happened to be in England, and despatched to 
 Portugal under the command of Colonel Sir Robert 
 Wilson and Colonel Mayne. It was indeed time that 
 help should arrive ; all the best troops and most skilled 
 officers had been sent out of Portugal in the Portu- 
 guese Legion to join the Grand Army of France, 
 and the undisciplined peasants and apprentices hastily 
 collected by the "juntas" were easily defeated in 
 many places by the French veterans. Sir Arthur 
 Wcllesley landed at the mouth of the Mondego River, 
 and advanced southwards upon Lisbon. He first de- 
 feated Laborde's division at Rolicja on the 17th of 
 August, 1808 ; and, after receiving reinforcements, he
 
 400 THE PENINSULAR WAR. 
 
 routed Junot himself at ^iiaafikfiton the 21st of August. 
 These victories were followed by the Convention of 
 (7ip<-n by which Junot agreed to evacuate Portugal 
 and surrender all the fortresses in his possession, on 
 condition that his troops and their plunder should be 
 transported safe to France. This convention, how- 
 ever disappointing from a military point of view to the 
 English authorities, was eminently satisfactory to the 
 Portuguese people, who saw themselves delivered 
 from the French, as speedily as they had been 
 conquered by them. 
 
 The former Council of Regency, nominated by the 
 Prince Regent before his departure, was re-established 
 at Lisbon, and at once began to quarrel with the "junta" 
 of Oporto, but both bodies perceived how dependent 
 they were on the English Government, and the 
 Regency sent Domingos Antonio de Sousa Coutinho 
 to London to ask that an luiglish ambassador with 
 full powers should be accredited to Lisbon, and that 
 Sir Arthur Wellesley might be appointed to re- 
 organize their army. In compliance with these 
 requests the Right Honourable J. C. Villiers was sent 
 as ambassador to Lisbon, and, as Sir Arthur Wellesley 
 could not be spared, Major-General Beresford, wlio 
 had learnt the Portuguese language, when governor of 
 Madeira, was sent to command and discipline the 
 Portuguese troops. Meanwhile, Portugal was again 
 exposed to the attacks of the French ; when 
 Sir John Moore advanced to Salamanca, he had 
 left very few English troops behind, and Napoleon 
 ordered three French armies to invade the country 
 by different routes. Of these armies only one
 
 THE FRENCH DRIVEN OUT OF PORTUGAL. 40I 
 
 actually entered Portugal, that from the north under 
 the command of Marshal Snnlf, Parties of the 
 Lusitanian Legion, under Sir Robert Wilson and 
 Baron Eben, made a spirited resistance, and even the 
 unorganized Portuguese levies, under General Antonio 
 de Silveira, showed courage, if not discipline ; but their 
 efforts were in vain, and Soult occupied ^ Oporto . 
 Fortunately for the Portuguese, Soult, like Junot, was 
 led away by the idea of becoming King of Portugal, 
 and did not advance on Lisbon, while Lapisse and 
 Victor did not support him by entering the Beira and 
 the Alemtejo, as they had been ordered to do, and 
 this delay gave time for Sir Arthur Wei lesley to reach 
 the Tagus with a powerful English army. On the 
 1 2th of May, 1809, he drove Soult out of Oporto, and 
 into Gallicia ; and after this success he invaded Spain, 
 and defeated Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Victor 
 at the battle of Talawpp 
 
 From these successes of the English general, it is 
 necessary to turn to the condition of the Portuguese 
 regency. After the departure of the Prince Regent, 
 all the able men of the English party and the trained 
 administrators had left Portugal for Brazil ; the 
 leaders of the radical party were either in disgrace, or 
 had fled to France, and none were left to compose the 
 regency save a set of intriguers, whose chief idea was 
 to get as much money from England as possible, and 
 convey it into their own pockets. The Portuguese 
 people acted very differently ; they were indignant at 
 the outrageous conduct of the French soldiery, and 
 were ready to sacrifice their lives for the national 
 cause. This enthusiasm was reported to the English
 
 402 THE PENINSULAR WAR. 
 
 Government, which determined to take ten thousand 
 Portuguese soldiers into English pay, and to send out 
 a number of EngHsh regimental officers to discipHne 
 and command them. No better man than Beresford 
 could have been selected as commander-in-chief of 
 the Portuguese army. He proved himself in after- 
 years, and especially at the battle of Albuera, to be 
 but a poor general ; but as an organizer his firmness, 
 which almost amounted to severity, made him at once 
 obeyed and feared. His chief assistants in this work 
 were the English officers who had been sent to him, 
 and a small body of Portuguese officers whom 
 patriotism had forced into exile in preference to 
 serving in the French Portuguese Legion, and at the 
 head of these two classes were his Quartermaster- 
 General, Major- General Benjamin D'Urban, an Eng- 
 lishman, and his Adjutant-General, Colonel Manoel 
 de Brito Mousinho, a Portuguese. So hard did 
 Beresford work during the winter of 1809, while Lord 
 Wellington, as Sir Arthur Wellesley had been created, 
 was in Spain, that in the spring of 18 10, certain 
 Portuguese regiments were brigaded with the English, 
 arid showed themselves worthy of the honour. They 
 fought side by side with the English soldiers at the 
 battle of Busaco, and the behaviour of the 8th Portu- 
 guese Infantry is one of the most disputed points in 
 the history of that battle, every historian of the war 
 stating that it behaved well, but all differing as to 
 the time it came into action, and the effect of its 
 bayonet charge. 
 
 While Beresford was doing this good work, and the 
 flower of the Portuguese youth was rushing to arms
 
 A IKMAl.K I'KASAN 1 I- ROM 1 1 1 K MJi . II In >1 K I |i " >l > oh 
 DA UAINHA- 
 
 {Frout Kiit<icy\ ^^ /'or/ti:^al //liisfratiul," 1829.)
 
 404 THE PENINSULAR WAR. 
 
 in the regular army, or in the militia reserve, the 
 regency at Lisbon was going from bad to worse. 
 The Prince Regent at Rio de Janeiro had no control 
 over it, and it was divided into parties, which quar- 
 relled over the disposition of the English subsidies as 
 if they were legitimate spoil. There is no need to 
 study the intrigues of these parties, but it is worth 
 notice, that Dom Pedro de Sousa Holstein, better 
 known in after-years as the Duke of Palmella, was 
 despatched to the Spanish junta to claim the Regency 
 of Spain for Donna Carlotta Joaquina the Queen of 
 Portugal, when Portugal could not even defend its 
 own territory. Neither Wellington nor Beresford 
 could work with this factious regency, and the English 
 cabinet had to insist that the English ambassador at 
 Lisbon, Sir Charles Stuart, the son of General the 
 Honourable Sir Charles Stuart, should receive a seat 
 upon the council. His great ability and tact soon 
 made him the master of his colleagues, and a certain 
 portion of the money, sent by England to pay the 
 Portuguese troops, did at last find its way to its proper 
 destination. The Regency, even when thus strength- 
 ened, failed to become popular ; it was hotly criticized 
 and abused ; and the murmuring radical party in 
 Lisbon, which hankered after peace with France, was 
 only suppressed by the deportation of eighteen leading 
 journalists to the Azores in September, iSio. 
 
 It is little wonder that some opposition to the war 
 existed I'n tRtq^ for in that year the most formidable 
 invasion oAFrench troops took place. This was the 
 famous Cmvasion of Massen a. The Portuguese nation 
 showed all the valour ot' a~people, fighting for its very
 
 THE PORTUGUESE ARMY. 405 
 
 existence as a nation, and when Lord Wellington, onl 
 being obliged to retire into the lines of Torres Vedras,| 
 commanded the peasants to abandon their homes and 
 leave nothing for the French to subsist upon, they 
 obeyed him with touching fidelity. While Wellington 
 was entrenched within his lines, Beresford established 
 his headquarters at Lisbon, and continued the work 
 of reorganization with the help of a fresh contingent 
 of English regimental officers, which reached him at 
 this time. He proceeded rapidly, but in regular order, 
 and having organized and disciplined the Portuguese 
 regiments in the winter of 1809, he made them 
 into independent Portuguese brigades in the winter 
 of 1 8 10. In all he formed a powerful Portuguese 
 army of twelve infantry brigades, partly commanded 
 by English brigadiers, such as Ashworth, Pack, Brad- 
 ford, and Archibald Campbell, partly by native officers, 
 such as Le Cor, Fonseca, Palmeirim, and Bernadim 
 Ribeiros, four cavalry brigades, under Povoa and 
 Barbacena, Madden and Hawker, and an artillery 
 park of forty-eight guns under Colonel Alexander 
 Dickson. While Beresford was engaged at Lisbon in 
 organizing the Portuguese army, the Portuguese 
 militia was doing good work in the northern provinces, 
 where the chief command was held by Major-General 
 Manoel Pinto Bacellar. Brigades of militia under 
 such dashing commanders as Antonio de Silveira, 
 John Miller, Nicholas Trant, and John Wilson, 
 harassed Mass^na's lines of communication with Spain ; 
 and while he was before the lines of Torres Vcdras 
 and at Santarem, he had to keep three divisions em- 
 ployed in keeping open his line of retreat and escort-
 
 406 THE PENINSULAR WAR. 
 
 ing his convoys. In the field, the Portuguese mihtia 
 was always defeated, but Massena could never feel 
 safe from their attacks, and to mention but one 
 brilliant exploit, Trant's capture of Coimbra seriously 
 inconvenienced him at a critical moment. 
 
 Finally in the March of 1811, Massena had to 
 retire, and the Portuguese then reaped their reward in 
 having their frontiers freed from the invader for the 
 rest of the Peninsular War. Englishmen of modern 
 times are too apt to look upon the victories of the 
 Peninsular War, as the results of English valour alone. 
 Wellington knew better ; he knew what he owed to 
 the Portuguese troops, and recognized their services 
 in his despatches ; and contemporaries always spoke 
 of the victorious soldiers, as the allied, or the Anglo- 
 Portuguese army. Throughout the great campaigns 
 of 18 1 2, 18 1 3, and 1 8 14, the Portuguese troops, 
 shared the labours and the glories of Wellington's 
 army ; and to mention but a single exploit, the attacks 
 of Pack's and Bradford's Portuguese brigades on the 
 Arapiles in the battle of Salamanca roused the warm 
 admiration of the English soldiers and officers though 
 they were not crowned with success. During the 
 winter of 1812, while the allied army was in winter 
 quarters after the retreat from Burgos, Beresford put 
 the finishing touch to his work by the formation of 
 independent Portuguese divisions. The ^a^adores or 
 light infantry were however too valuable to be sepa- 
 rated from the English light infantry regiments, and 
 continued to form part of the famous Light Division 
 until the close of the war. The Portuguese divisions 
 were like the brigades divided between English and
 
 THE EXD OF THE PEMNSULAR WAR. 407 
 
 Portuguese generals, among whom the most conspic- 
 uous were Sir John Hamilton, and Sir Archibald 
 Campbell, the future conqueror of Burma, Carlos 
 Frederic LeCor and Agostino Luis da Fonseca . Dur- 
 ing the movements which followed the victory of 
 Vittoria, the Portuguese showed their courage and 
 discipline, and not only Wellington, but all the 
 historians of the war, draw attention to their good 
 conduct alike in the field and in quarters, as com- 
 pared with the licentiousness and want of discipline of 
 the -Spanish armies. Meanwhile, matters went on 
 well at home ; the Regency, under the control of Sir 
 Charles Stuart, was unable to embezzle the English 
 subsidies ; he took care that the troops were well paid, 
 clothed, and fed ; the Portuguese people rejoiced at 
 the achievements of their soldiers against France, and 
 profited by the large influx of English money into 
 Portugal. When the war was over and the news of 
 the abdication of Napoleon, and of the battle of 
 Toulouse arrived, the returning troops were enthu- 
 siastically received, and all promised brightly for the 
 future. The English Government were not unmindful 
 of the services rendered by the Portuguese, and when 
 Wellington's generals were raised to the peerage. 
 Marshal Beresford, the organizer of the Portuguese 
 army, was created Lord Beresford, and Sir Charles 
 Stuart, the ambassador at Lisbon, Lord Stuart dc 
 Rothesay. 
 
 But these rejoicings were soon followed by bitter 
 lamentations, for the luiglish plenipotentiaries at the 
 Congress of Vienna headed by Lord Castlereagh, 
 basely deserted their gallant allies. The Portuguese
 
 40 8 THE PENINSULAR WAR. 
 
 envoys at this famous meeting for the re-settlement of 
 Europe were Pedro de Sousa Holstein, Count of 
 Palmella, afterwards Duke of Palmella, Antonio de 
 Saldanha da Gama, afterwards Count of Porto Santo, 
 and Jeronymo Lobo da Silveira, afterwards Count 
 of Oriolla. These diplomatists urged that Spain 
 should be forced to restore Qh'venc^a^ which Portugal 
 had been obliged to cede at the Treaty of Badajoz in 
 1801, a claim which was perfectly fair and just ; but 
 Talleyrand opposed this act of justice, and Castlereagh 
 unjustifiably abandoned the faithful ally of England, 
 an act at once ungrateful and impolitic. A feeling 
 that England was ungrateful was the prevailing idea 
 among the Portuguese, when the news arrived from 
 Rio de Janeiro that the mad Queen Maria Francisca 
 had died on March 20, 18 16, and that the Prince 
 Regent had been proclaimed king as John VI.
 
 w^&^^^^ 
 
 XVIII 
 
 MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 CIVIL WARS AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PAR. 
 
 LIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The history of Portugal, after the conclusion of the 
 Peninsular War, affords a melancholy example of the 
 evil effects of all prolonged wars. The people, without 
 great monarchs or great ministers, was divided into 
 many parties, which quarrelled and fought ; numerous 
 civil wars distressed the country ; commerce and agri- 
 culture were neglected ; local rivalry and class jealousy 
 were allowed to grow to serious proportions ; the 
 government of the country and the administration of 
 justice went from bad to worse ; and, as usual, misery 
 and poverty followed in the train of political discon- 
 tent. It is neither interesting nor instructive to study 
 the details of the civil wars of the first half of the 
 nineteenth century. Throughout the whole story of 
 Portugal, the most prominent feature is the singular 
 tenacity with which the little country maintained its 
 independence and its individuality, and it is painful to 
 observe that this patriotic feeling almost entirely dis- 
 appeared for a time. It was during this period that
 
 4IO MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 Portugal fell to the rank of a third-rate state, for it 
 now ceased to be an important factor in European 
 politics, either from its wealth and its colonies, or as 
 the trusted ally of England. This was largely due to 
 a change in the attitude of England, where the old 
 historical friendship for Portugal, which had been 
 maintained since the Middle Ages and had been of 
 advantage to both parties, was abandoned, to the 
 lasting regret of every one who values the existence of 
 sentiment and of historical continuity in politics. 
 Nevertheless, in spite of its loss of importance, some 
 account must be given of Portugal during this dis- 
 tressing epoch ; for, if it is interesting to study the 
 history of a nation in prosperity, it is also instruc- 
 tive to see how it fell to its lowest depths. 
 
 John VI. had greatly enjoyed the peace and com- 
 fort of his residence in Brazil as Prince Regent, and 
 he had become more attached to Brazil than to Portu- 
 gal, when he was proclaimed King of Portugal, Brazil, 
 and the Algarves in 1816. The people of the mother 
 country resented this heartily ; they looked upon him 
 as a deserter ; and feared that he would favour the 
 interests of the colony unduly. They were also 
 alarmed at the growing spirit of independence in 
 Brazil ; they knew that the chief wealth of Portugal 
 during the eighteenth century had been derived from 
 its great colony, and they were well aware that any 
 separation would be most prejudicial to their pros- 
 perity. The affection of the new king for Brazil 
 appeared in the very first year of his reign, for instead 
 of insisting on the restitution of 01iven9a, he preferred 
 to attack the former possessions of Spain in South
 
 JOHN VI. REFUSES TO LEAVE BRAZIL, 4II 
 
 America, and ordered to Brazil a corps of 4,500 
 veterans of the Peninsular War under the command 
 of Lieutenant-General Le Cor. A pretext for war 
 was found in the republican movement of Artigas ; 
 the local militia could make no stand against the 
 Portuguese soldiers ; on the 20th of January, j,Sii, 
 T.e Cor to ^j-r Mr>nfp yir^pr^ and he soon occupied all 
 the countr\- up to the left bank of the River Plate. 
 The victorious general was created Baron of Laguna, 
 and continued to occupy the Banda Oriental until 
 1825, when the inhabitants rose in rebellion, and after 
 much warfare they founded the Republic of Uruguay, 
 and became independent alike of Brazil and the. 
 Argentine Republic. 
 
 John VI. gave colour to the accusation of the 
 Portuguese that he intended to desert them for the 
 Brazilians, and invert the position of the two nations, 
 by his obstinate refusal to leave Rio de Janeiro. The 
 English Cabinet persistently urged him to return to 
 Europe, but he remained deaf to all remonstrances, 
 and paid little or no attention to the state of affairs 
 in Portugal. He met with no help, but only with 
 opposition from his queen, Donna Carlotta Joaquina, 
 who was always intriguing against him, and who had, 
 as early as 1805, promised a liberal constitution to 
 certain Portuguese radical leaders, in order to build up 
 a position distinct from her husband. Nor had she 
 intrigued only in Portugal, for in 18 12 it was dis- 
 covered that she had formed a scheme to become 
 independent Queen of Brazil. All these plots were 
 intended for the eventual advantage of her younger 
 son, Dom Miguel, an arrogant >outli, who was com-
 
 412 MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 monly believed to be illegitimate. Nor was John VI, 
 more happy in his relations with his elder son, Dom 
 Pedro, who was a fanatical admirer of the system of 
 parliamentary government. Dom Pedro was further 
 Grand Master of the Freemasons of Brazil, and an 
 open supporter of the Brazilian party, which hoped 
 for a liberal constitution and complete separation 
 from Portugal. This prince was a man of real 
 ability, high character, and enlightened opinions, and 
 his importance in the family was increased by his 
 marriage, through the negotiations of Dom Pedro de 
 Menezes Coutinho, Marquis of Marialva, and Prince 
 Metternich, with the Archduchess Maria Josepha, 
 daughter of the Emperor Francis I. of Austria. 
 
 In Portugal, the government of the Regency had 
 grown intensely unpopular, for Lord Stuart de 
 Rothesay and Marshal Beresford ruled most despoti- 
 cally. The people which had endured the authority of 
 the English during the terrible war for existence, and 
 the very soldiers who had served so gallantly under 
 English officers on the field of battle, soon grew 
 weary of foreign rule in time of peace, and raised the 
 cry of " Portugal for the Portuguese." The ministers, 
 who had reluctantly paid the large sums needed for 
 the expenses of the army, even when aided by sub- 
 sidies from England, now that those subsidies were 
 withdrawn, insisted on great reductions, and practically 
 paid nothing at all. Democratic ideas spread swiftly; 
 the people claimed a share in the government, and 
 expressed aloud their hatred for the king, the Regency, 
 and the English, and a spirit of discontent arose in 
 every part of the kingdom. The first outbreak took
 
 THE REVOLUTION OF iSzo. 413 
 
 place in 18 18, when General Gomes Freire de Andrade, 
 who had commanded the Portuf^uese Legion in the 
 Russian and other campaigns in Napoleon's army, 
 and who was an ardent lover of France, planned a 
 " pronunciamento," but the plot was discovered and 
 suppressed with stringent severity by the Regency, 
 which ordered the execution of the general and of 
 ten of his partisans. This rigorous punishment only 
 enraged the radical party, and when Beresford went 
 to Brazil in 1820 in order to get money from the 
 king to pay the arrears due to the army, advantage 
 was taken of his absence by the people of Oporto to 
 raise the standard of revolt under the leadership of 
 Colonel Antonio de Silveira, Brito da Fonseca, and 
 other officers belonging to the garrison. The Regency 
 in Lisbon, deprived of the presence of Beresford, gave 
 way before a similar rising in the capital, headed by 
 the Counts of Resende, Penafiel, and Sampaio, and 
 the revolutionary juntas formed in the two great 
 cities agreed to act in harmony. The English officers 
 were driven from the country ; Beresford was not 
 allowed to land when he returned from Rio de 
 Janeiro ; a fresh regency was proclaimed ; and a con- 
 stituent assembly was summoned to draw up a con- 
 stitution for Portugal. 
 
 This assembly, of which the majority consisted of 
 men of the most democratic opinions, at once abolished 
 all relics of feudalism, and, to the disgust of the ecclesi- 
 astics, suppressed the Inquisition in Portugal, in spite 
 of its studied moderation in recent years, on account 
 of its former misdeeds. The deputies then proceeded 
 to draw up a most imp»a;ticable constitution for the
 
 414 MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 future government of the country, which showed that 
 they had studied the glowing speeches of the orators 
 of the French Revolution, and had not profited by the 
 knowledge of their mistakes. By this constitution, 
 k which was known in later history as the" Constitution 
 ■ of 1822," protection of person and property was 
 guaranteed ; and liberty of the press, equality before 
 the law, the admissibility of all citizens to all offices, the 
 abolition of privileges and the sovereignty of the nation 
 were proclaimed. One freely elected chamber was to 
 be summoned yearly to make laws and superintend 
 the government of the country, and the king was 
 granted only a suspensive veto over its measures. On 
 hearing of this revolution, Prussia, Austria, and 
 Russia withdrew their ambassadors from Lisbon, and 
 . England insisted that John VI. should at once pro- 
 I ceed to Portugal. The king accordingly left Rio de 
 Janeiro and returned to Lisbon, where he solemnly 
 swore to observe the new constitution, and to rule for 
 the future as a constitutional monarch. The queen 
 and Dom Miguel were not so complaisant ; they re- 
 fused to recognize the constitution, and were at once 
 forced to leave Lisbon. On the departure of John 
 VL, Brazil declared itself independent, and Dom 
 Pedro, who was elected emperor, granted that country 
 a liberal parliamentary constitution. The Portuguese 
 troops and royal vessels made a slight attempt to pre- 
 serve the royal authority in South America, but the 
 latter were speedily defeated by Lord Co ch rane, who 
 entered the Brazilian service, and the separation of 
 the great colony from its mother-country became an 
 acknowledged fact
 
 THE REIGN OF JOHN VI. 415 
 
 The loss of Brazil and the conversion of the govern- 
 ment of Portugal into a limited monarchy, enraged 
 the nobility, and still more the clergy, who looked 
 with horror on the radical reforms of the constituent 
 assembly, and when the French invaded Spain in 
 1823 to suppress the rebellion in that countrj-. General 
 Francisco de Silveira, Count of Amarante, raised a 
 " pronunciamento" in the Tras-os-Montes against the 
 Constitution of 1822. John VI. had imbibed some 
 of his elder son's ideas, and was in favour of modi- 
 fying the absolute character of the Portuguese 
 monarchy, but he never concealed his opinion that 
 the radical party had gone too far in its extreme 
 reforms. He therefore took advantage of the " pro- 
 nunciamento " in the north to declare the Constitution 
 of 1822 abrogated, and appointed the Count of Pal- 
 mella prime minister, with instructions to form a 
 "junta," and'to draw up a moderate and well-balanced 
 parliamentary constitution on the English model. But 
 the absolutist party, headed by the queen and Dom 
 Miguel, who had been appointed commander-in chief 
 of the army, would not tolerate any form of constitu- 
 tional monarchy ; they raised an insurrection in Lisbon 
 against John VI. ; the king's greatest friend, the 
 liberal-minded Marquis of Louie, was assassinated ; 
 Palmella and his colleagues were imprisoned ; and the 
 king himself was shut up in his palace and eventually 
 fled for refuge on board an English man-of-war in the 
 Tagus. The united action of the foreign ambassadors 
 and ministers accredited to Portugal, led by Sir 
 William A'Court, afterwards Lord Hcytesbury, the 
 representative of England, secured the restoration of
 
 4l6 MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 the king's authority ; the insurrection was sup- 
 pressed ; Dom Miguel was banished ; Palmella was 
 re-appointed prime minister ; and at the close of 
 1824, the king returned to Brazil to spend his last 
 days in peace. On reaching Rio de Janeiro, he recog- 
 nized Dom Pedro as Emperor of Brazil, and on the 6th 
 of March, 1826, John VI. died in the country of his 
 choice. By his will, John VI . left the regency of 
 Portugal to his daughter Isabel Maria, to the dis- 
 gust of Dom Miguel, who had fully expected in 
 spite of his conduct that Portugal would be in some 
 manner bequeathed to him, and that Dom Pedro 
 would be satisfied with the government of Brazil. 
 
 The next twenty-five years are the saddest in the 
 whole history of Portugal. The establishment of the 
 system of parliamentary government, which now 
 exists, was a long and difficult task ; it is almost im- 
 possible to follow the rapid sequence of events, and 
 quite impossible to understand the varying motives of 
 different statesmen and generals. The keynote of the 
 whole series of disturbances is to be found in the 
 pernicious influence of the army. Beresford's creation 
 was a grand fighting machine, but apnies, and more 
 particularly generals, after a long period of active 
 service, are almost certain to become dangerous in 
 times of peace. In the case of Portugal, the army 
 was disproportionately large for the size and revenue 
 of the country ; there was no foreign or colonial war 
 to occupy its energies, and the soldiers would not 
 return to the plough nor the officers retire into private 
 life. 
 
 The English Cabinet at this juncture determined to
 
 DOM MIGUEL ELECTED KING. 417 
 
 maintain peace and order, and in 1826, a division of I 
 five thousand men was sent under the command of/ 
 Lieutenant-General Sir William Clinton to garrisonl 
 the chief towns. The accession of Pedro IV. to tha 
 throne was hailed with joy in Portugal, though looked 
 on with suspicion in Brazil. He justified his reputa- 
 tion by drawing up a charter, containing the bases for 
 a moderate parliamentary government of the English 
 type, which he sent over to Portugal, by the English 
 diplomatist, Lord Stuart dc Rothesay. Then to 
 please his Brazilian subjects, he abdicated the throne 
 of Portugal in favour of his daughter, Donna Maria da 
 Gloria, a child of seven years old, on condition that on 
 attainifig a suitable age she should marry her uncle, 
 Dom Miguel, who was to swear to observe the new 
 constitution. The Charter of 1826 was thankfully 
 received by the moderate parliamentary party ; Clin- 
 ton's division was withdrawn ; Palmella remained 
 prime minister ; and in the following year, 1827, Dom 
 Pedro destroyed the effect of his wise measures by 
 appointing Dom Miguel to be regent of Portugal in 
 the name of the little queen. 
 
 Pom Mjp-ue^ was an ambitious prince, who believed 
 that he ought to be king of Portugal ; he was 
 extremely popular with the old nobility, the clergy, 
 and the army,' with all who disliked liberal ideas, and 
 with the beggars and the poor who were under the 
 influence of the mendicant orders. He was declared 
 Regent in July, 1827, and in May, 1828, he summoned 
 a Cortes of the ancient type, such as had not met 
 since 1697, which under the presidency of the Bishop 
 of Viseu offered him the throne of Portugal. He
 
 4l8 MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 accepted, and immediately exiled all the leaders of 
 the parliamentary, or, as it is usually called, the 
 Chartist, party, headed by Palmella, Saldanha, Villa 
 Flor, and Sampaio. They naturally fled to England, 
 where the young queen was stopping on her way to 
 be educated at the court of Vienna, and found popular 
 opinion strongly in their favour. But the Duke of 
 Wellington and his Tory Cabinet refused to counten- 
 ance or assist them. The duke urged on the marriage 
 of the queen with her uncle, and persisted in con- 
 fusing the moderate and the radical parties, and in 
 believing that Palmella was a democrat. The little 
 queen was herself kindly received by George IV., 
 but the behaviour of the Duke of Wellington was 
 so obnoxious to her guardians, Amelia of Bavaria, 
 Empress of Brazil and second wife of Dom Pedro, 
 and Felisberto Caldeira Brant Pontes, Marquis of 
 Barbacena, that they took her to France in 1829. 
 She was there granted the Chateau of Meudon for a 
 residence, and was educated by her stepmother, and 
 two accomplished ladies, Eugenia Telles da Gama, 
 Countess of Palmella, and Leonor da Camara, Mar- 
 chioness of Ponte Delgada, while civil war was raging 
 in Portugal in her name. 
 
 Meanwhile the reign of Dom Miguel had become 
 a Reign of Terror ; arrests and executions were 
 frequent ; thousands were deported to Africa, and in 
 1830 it was estimated that forty thousand persons 
 were in prison for political offences. He ruled in 
 absolute contempt of all law, and at different times 
 English, French, and American fleets entered the 
 Tagus to demand reparation for damage done to
 
 INSURRECTION AGAINST DOM MIGUEL. 419 
 
 commerce, or for the illes^al arrest of foreigners. The 
 result of this conduct was that the country was hope- 
 lessl)- ruined, and the chartist and radical parties, who 
 respectively advocated the Charter of i S26 and the Con- 
 stitution of 1822, agreed to sink their differences, and 
 to oppose the bigoted tyrant. The island of Terceira 
 in the Azores had never recognized Dom Miguel, and 
 it was there in 1829 that Palmella, Villa Flor, Jose 
 Antonio Guerreiro and Quevedo Pizarro declared 
 themselves a council of regency for Queen Maria da 
 Gloria. On the nth of August, 1830, they defeated a 
 fleet sent against them by Dom Miguel in Praia Bay, 
 and at^ this news all the chartists who could escape 
 from Portugal, and the numerous Portuguese exiles in 
 England and France, hastened to the Azores. Dom 
 Pedro, who had devoted his life to the cause of 
 parliamentary government, resigned his crown in 1831 
 to his infant son, and left Brazil to head the movement 
 for his daughter's cause. He first went to London, 
 where he met with a good reception from the Liberal 
 Cabinet of Lord Grey, and he there negotiated a large 
 loan in his daughter's name. He then hastened to 
 the Azores with as many men as he could raise, 
 most of whom were English soldiers, tired of peace, 
 or adventurers of other nations, and on his arrival he 
 appointed the Count of Villa Flor, commander-in- 
 chief of the army, and Captain Sartorius, of the 
 English navy, admiral of the fleet, of Queen Maria 
 da Gloria. 
 
 In July, 1832, the cx-cmperor with an army of 
 7,500 men arrived at Oporto, where he was enthusi- 
 astically welcomed, and Dom Miguel then laid
 
 420 MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 siege to the city. European opinion was divided 
 between the two parties ; partisans of freedom and of 
 constitutional government called the Miguelites "slaves 
 of a tyrant," while lovers of absolutism, alluding to 
 the loans raised by the ex-emperor, used to speak of 
 the "stock-jobbing Pedroites." The siege was long 
 and protracted ; Dom Miguel finding himself invari- 
 ably repulsed in his assaults, turned it into a blockade, 
 and want within the walls and cholera among the 
 besiegers decimated the armies. On both sides the 
 commanders quarrelled among themselves, and the 
 only event worthy of mention is the defeat of the 
 Miguelite fleet by Sartorius on the nth of October, 
 1832. In 1833 more vigorous action marked the 
 career of the Pedroites. Major-General Joao Carlos 
 Saldanha de Oliveira e Daun, an old officer of Beres- 
 ford, and a friend and former colleague of Palmella, 
 took the command of the army in Oporto, and 
 defeated the Miguelites under the Count of San 
 Lourenco, on the 4th of March, and under General 
 das Antas, on the 24th of March, 1833. Captain 
 Charles Napier, of the English navy, succeeded 
 Sartorius as admiral of the Pedroite fleet, and con- 
 veyed a force of one thousand five hundred men from 
 Oporto to the Algarves, under the Count of Villa Flor, 
 now created Duke of Terceira, and then practically 
 destroyed the Miguelite fleet off Cape Saint Vincent on 
 the 5th of July, 1833. The Duke of Terceira was equally 
 successful on land ; he was warmly welcomed by the 
 people of the Algarves and the Alemtejo ; his army 
 was increased by volunteers as he advanced ; he 
 utterly defeated the Miguelites under General Telles
 
 SURRENDER OF DOM MIGUEL. 42I 
 
 Jordao at Covada Piedade, and triumphantly entered 
 Lisbon on the 24th of July. Dom Pedro immediately 
 sailed round to the capital, and summoned his 
 daughter from France, and on her arrival he again 
 proclaimed the Charter of 1826. The Miguelites, 
 under the French Marshal, Bourmont, then attacked 
 Lisbon, but were easily beaten off. The year 18' 
 was one of unbroken success for the Chartists. 
 England and France recognized ]\Iaria da Gloria as 
 Queen of Portugal, and the ministry of Queen 
 Isabella of Spain, knowing Dom Miguel to be al 
 Carlist, sent two Spanish armies under Generals Rodil' 
 and Serrano to the help of Dom Pedro. Saldanha 
 took Leiria and defeated the disheartened Miguelites 
 at Torres Novas and Almoster ; Captain Napier 
 having destroyed the usurper's fleet, took to the land, 
 and reduced the Beira, capturing Caminha, Vianna, 
 Ponte de Lima and Valen^a ; General Sa de Bandcira 
 conquered the Alemtejo ; and the Duke of Terceira 
 overran the Tras-os-Montes, and won a victory at 
 Asseiceira. Finally the combined Spanish and Portu- 
 guese armies surrounded the remnant of the Miguelites 
 at Evora Monte , and on the 26th of May, 1834, Dom 
 Miguel surrendered. By the Convention of Evora 
 Monte, Dom Miguel abandoned his claim to the 
 throne of Portugal, and in consideration of a pension 
 of ;^ 1 5,000 a year promised never again to set foot in 
 the kingdom. 
 
 Dom Pedro declared the young queen of ago, and 
 summoned a full Cortes to meet at Lisbon. He 
 appointed a strong ministry with the Duke of 
 Palmclla as president, and the Duke of Terceira at
 
 422 MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 the War Office, and an attempt was made to re- 
 arrange the finances and settle the kingdom. The 
 Cortes declared Dom Miguel and his heirs for ever 
 ineligible to succeed to the throne and forbade them 
 to return to Portugal under pain of death, and struck 
 a fatal blow at the influence of the Miguelites by 
 abolishing all the orders of the friars, who had hither- 
 to kept alive his party in the provinces. Dom Pedro, 
 who had throughout the struggle been the heart and 
 soul of his daughter's party, had thus the pleasure of 
 seeing the country at peace, and a regular parliamen- 
 tary system in operation, but he did not long survive, 
 for on the 24th of September, 1834, he died at Oueluz 
 near Lisbon, of an illness brought on by his great 
 labours and fatigues, leaving a name, which deserves 
 all honour from Portuguese and Brazilians alike. 
 
 Queen Maria da Gloria was only fifteen, when she 
 thus lost the advantage of her father's wise counsel 
 and steady help, yet it might have been expected 
 that her reign would be calm and prosperous. But 
 neither the queen, the nobility, nor the people, under- 
 stood the principles of parliamentary government, and 
 the army, accustomed to fight and unable to do any- 
 thing else, was a constant source of danger. Members 
 of different parties could not or would not believe 
 that all true Portuguese alike loved Portugal ; the 
 party in power proscribed and exiled its opponents, 
 while the party in opposition invariably appealed to 
 arms, instead of seeking to enforce its opinions by 
 legitimate parliamentary means. In addition, the un- 
 fortunate country was ravaged by numerous brigands, 
 generally disbanded soldiers, who called themselves
 
 THE REIGN OF MARIA 11. 423 
 
 Miguelites, and who invariably escaped into Spain, 
 when attacked in force. Each successive government 
 refused to recognize or to pay interest upon the loans 
 raised by its predecessor, and the financial credit of 
 Portugal soon fell to a very low ebb in the money 
 markets of Europe. It is unprofitable and almost 
 impossible to examine here the tendencies of the chief 
 statesmen of the time, for new governments quickly 
 succeeded each other, and it will be sufficient to 
 notice only the most important " pronunciamentos " 
 and appeals to arms. The whole reign was one of 
 violent party struggles, for they hardly deserve to be 
 called civil wars, so little did they involve, which 
 present a striking contrast to the peaceable constitu- 
 tional government that at present prevails. 
 
 In her earlier years, Queen Maria da Gloria was 
 chiefly under the influence of her stepmother, Amcliaj 
 of Bavaria, and in January, 1835, she married the 
 Queen Dowager's brother, Augustus Charles Eugene 
 Napoleon, Duke of Leuchtenberg, second son of 
 Eugene de Beauharnais by Princess Augusta of 
 Bavaria, to the great chagrin of Louis Philippe of 
 France, who had proposed his son, the Duke of 
 Nemours. This prince died after two months' resi- 
 dence in Portugal, but it was so necessary to have 
 an heir to the throne, that the queen was pressed to 
 marry again at once. She complied, and in January,] 
 1836, she married Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg- 
 Gotha, nephew of Leopold, King of the Belgians, and 
 it was his nomination to the high office of commander- 
 in-chief, which brought about the first appeal to arms. 
 In September, 1836, PY^rnando Soares da Caldeira
 
 424 MODERN PORTUGAL, 
 
 headed a " pronunciamento " in Lisbon for the re- 
 estabh'shment of the Constitution of 1822, which was 
 entirely successful, and resulted in the drawing up of a 
 new constitution. This "pronunciamento" was followed 
 by various other "pronunciamentos" and good deal of 
 fighting, but eventually the new Constitution of 1838, 
 which was really that of 1822 slightly modified, was 
 generally adopted. It worked until 1842, when one 
 of the radical ministers, Antonio Bermudo da Costa 
 Cabral, suddenly declared for the Charter of 1826 at 
 Oporto. The Duke of Terceira at once headed a 
 " pronunciamento " in Lisbon in favour of the Charter, 
 and came into office with Costa Cabral as home 
 secretary, and virtual prime minister. Costa Cabral, 
 who was in 1845 created Count of Thomar, made 
 himself very acceptable to the queen, and by inter- 
 preting the Charter in the most royalist sense, even 
 attempted to check the liberty of the press. It was 
 now the turn of the Septembrists to have recourse to 
 arms, and after an attempt to place Saldanha in office, 
 the opposition broke out into open insurrection under 
 the Viscount Sa de Bandeira, the Count of Bomfim 
 and the Count das Antas. This new insurrection was 
 followed by what is known as the war of Maria da 
 Fonte or " Patuleia," which is even more pitiable than 
 its predecessors. Foreign powers eventually inter- 
 vened, and on the 29th of June, 1847, the Convention 
 of Granada was signed, by which a general amnesty 
 was declared, and Saldanha was maintained in power. 
 In 1849 the Count of Thomar once more came into 
 office, and in 185 1 he was again expelled by Saldanha 
 at the head of his troops. This was the last " pro-
 
 PEACEFUL PARLIAMEXTARY GOVERNMENT. 425 
 
 nunciamento" worthy of notice ; in 1852 the Charter 
 was revised to suit all parties ; direct voting, one 
 of the chief claims of the radicals, was allowed, and 
 the era of civil war came to an end. Maria da Gloria 
 did not long survive this peaceful settlement, for she 
 died on the 15th of November, 1853, and her husband 
 the King-Consort, Ferdinand II., assumed the regency 
 until his eldest son Pedro V. should come of age. 
 
 The era of peaceful parliamentary government, 
 which succeeded the stormy reign of Maria II., has 
 been one of material prosperity for Portugal ; agricul- 
 ture and commerce revixed, and a great literary and 
 historical revival took place, marked by the names 
 of Joao Baptista de Almeida-Garrett, Antonio 
 Feliciano de Castilho, and Jose da Silva Mendes 
 Leal, the poets, and of Alexandra Herculano de 
 Carvalho e Araujo, the Viscount de Santarem, and 
 Luis Augusto Rebello da Silva, the historians. Men 
 were not wanting in the first half of the nineteenth 
 century to advocate the formation of an Iberian 
 republic or kingdom, comprising the whole of the 
 peninsula, but the revival of national pride in recall- 
 ing the glorious past of Portuguese history, which has 
 been the work of these great poets and historians, has 
 breathed afresh the spirit of patriotism into a people 
 which had been wearied out by perpetual " pronuncia- 
 mentos " and absurd civil wars. 
 
 The only political event of any importance during 
 the reign of Pedro V., who came of age and assumed 
 the government in 1855, and who in 1857 married the 
 Princess Stephanie of Hohenzollcrn, was the affair of 
 the C/iar/es ct Gcojx^ This French ship was engaged
 
 426 MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 in what was undoubtedly the slave trade, though 
 slightly disguised, off the coast of Africa in 1858, 
 when it was seized by the Portuguese authorities of 
 Mozambique, and, in accordance with the laws and 
 treaties against the slave trade, the captain, Roussel, 
 was condemned to two years' imprisonment. The 
 Emperor Napoleon III., glad to have a chance of 
 posing before the French people, and counting on his 
 close alliance with England to prevent the interven- 
 tion of the ancient ally of Portugal, instantly sent a 
 large fleet to the Tagus under Admiral Lavaud, and 
 demanded compensation, which, as England gave no 
 hint of assistance, Portugal was obliged to pay. The 
 whole country, and especially the city of Lisbon, was 
 during this reign, on account of the neglect of all 
 sanitary precautions, ravaged by cholera and yellow 
 fever, and it was in the midst of one of these out- 
 breaks, on the nth of November, 1861, that Pedro V., 
 who had refused to leave his pestilence-stricken 
 capital, died of cholera, and was followed to the 
 grave by two of his younger brothers, Dom Ferdinand 
 and Dom John. 
 
 At the time of Pedro's death, his next brother and 
 heir, Dom Luis, was travelling on the continent, and 
 his father, Ferdinand II., who long survived Queen 
 Maria da Gloria, and morganatically married Elise 
 Hensler, a dancer, assumed the regency until his 
 return, soon after which King Luis married Maria Pia, 
 younger daughter of Victor Emmanuel, king of 
 Italy. The new monarch followed his brother's policy, 
 and allowed his ministers to fight out their battles in 
 the chambers without any interference from himself
 
 THE REIGN OF LUIS I. 4^7 
 
 During his reign, the old combatants of the stormy 
 reign of Maria da Gloria, Palmclla, Terccira, Sa dc 
 Bandeira, Thomar, and Saldanha, all died off, and 
 with them their peculiar method of enforcing their 
 political views. Their successors in the leadership of 
 political parties, the Duke of Louie and the Marquis 
 of Avila, Antonio Manoel Pontes Pereira de Mello 
 and Antonio Jose Braamcamp, were men of greater 
 administrative ability, who did not go to war when 
 they were defeated in Parliament, and they therefore 
 do not contribute any striking pages to the national 
 history, though they have done much for the 
 prosperity of the country. The last "pronunciamento," 
 or rather attempt at a " pronunciamento,'' of the last 
 survivor of Maria da Gloria's turbulent statesmen, the 
 Duke of Saldanha, in 1870, only proved how entirely 
 the time for such movements had passed away. He 
 conceived the idea that the Duke of Louie was too 
 great a favourite at court, and so he one day came to 
 the palace and after recalling to the king's mind a 
 few historical examples, such as the fatal intimacy 
 of Charles X. of France with the Due de Polignac, he 
 threatened an appeal to arms unless the Duke of 
 Loul^ was at once dismissed. King Luis, perceiving 
 that the old man was in earnest and not wishing to 
 have the peace of the country disturbed, humoured 
 his fancy, and after keeping Saldanha himself in 
 office for four months, despatched him as ambassador 
 to London, where the old warrior died in 1876. With 
 this trifling exception, the reign of King Luis was 
 prosperous and peaceful, and the news of his death on 
 October 9, 1889, was received with general regret.
 
 428 MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 Luis I. was succeeded on the throne by his elder 
 son, Dom Carlos, or Charles I., a young man of 
 twenty-six, who married in 1886, the Princess Marie 
 Amelie de Bourbon, the eldest daughter of the 
 Comte de Paris. His accession was immediately 
 followed by the revolution of the 15th of November, 
 1889, in Brazil, by which his great uncle, Pedro IL, 
 Emperor of Brazil, was dethroned and a republican 
 government established in that country. This news 
 created a profound impression in Portugal ; the repub- 
 lican party, which has for some years been growing in 
 strength in the cities of Lisbon and Oporto hailed it 
 with delight, and the democratic journals urged that 
 the example of Brazil should be followed. The 
 young king's difficulties have been further increased by 
 the disputes which have arisen with regard to Africa, 
 and there is no concealing the fact that Charles I. 
 will have to show the greatest political wisdom, if 
 he is to weather the storms now besetting the position 
 of Portugal, and to save the Portuguese monarchy. 
 
 Many allusions have been made to the possessions 
 of Portugal in Africa. It has been seen that certain 
 places both on the east and west coasts of Africa, 
 such as Angola and Mozambique, were originally 
 occupied and fortified as resting-places for the Portu- 
 guese fleets on the way to and from India, and that 
 when they were re-taken after the Revolution of 1640, 
 they were occupied only because they had formerly 
 belonged to Portugal and not because of their 
 intrinsic value. Of recent years, however, the value 
 of these settlements has increased owing to the open- 
 ing up of Africa to commerce. This is thoroughly
 
 THE AFRICAN QUESTION. 429 
 
 understood by the more intelligent of modern Portu- 
 guese statesmen, and courageous Portuguese travellers, 
 such as Serpa Pinto, Roberto Ivens, and Brito Capello, 
 have taken their part in obtaining a more correct 
 knowledge of the geography of Africa. But the 
 opening up of Africa has attracted settlers and 
 explorers of other nations to the " Dark Continent," 
 who, if they have not denied the rights of Portugal, 
 have certainly infringed them. The original Portu- 
 guese settlements were merely ports at which ships 
 might rest and refit ; and the points at issue 
 now concern the amount of the territory adjoining 
 those settlements or of the " hinterland " behind them 
 towards the interior, which rightly belongs to Portugal. 
 This question of boundaries is in the nature of things 
 a difficult one to settle, and it is much to be regretted 
 that the disputes which have arisen have chiefly been 
 with England, the ancient ally of Portugal. The high 
 spirit of the Portuguese people has been wounded by 
 the tone of part of the English press, and their know- 
 ledge of their own present weakness and of their past 
 greatness has made them the more sensitive. Some 
 of their agents in Africa have possibly acted in an 
 arbitrary and high-handed manner, and Englishmen 
 have not been slow to resent such treatment. Yet it 
 is to be sincerely hoped that these differences between 
 the two ancient allies may be peacefully settled, and 
 it may be that some knowledge of how close the 
 friendship of the two nations was for many centuries 
 may make the English people feci more tolerantly 
 inclined towards the claims of the Portuguese to con- 
 sideration and respect.
 
 430 MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 Within recent years the internal prosperity of 
 Portugal has increased ; railways and telegraphs have 
 been constructed ; sanitary improvements have been 
 introduced ; and a good system of national primary 
 and secondary education has been established, owing 
 mainly to the efforts of the poet, Antonio Feliciano 
 de Castilho. Its financial condition, however, may 
 well give rise to the deepest apprehension ; the 
 amount of its national debt is nearly as heavy in pro- 
 portion to its population as that of England, and the 
 repudiation of loans during the reign of Maria II. has 
 made it difficult to raise money in the more wealthy 
 countries of Europe. Even more serious danger to the 
 prosperity of Portugal is threatened by the continued 
 emigration to Brazil, to which country a large number 
 of the sturdy peasants flock every year, chiefly from 
 the northern provinces of the Tras-os-Montes and the 
 Entre-Minho-e-Douro. This continuous stream of 
 emigration, though prejudicial to Portugal, has been of 
 the greatest service to Brazil, and Greater Portugal, as 
 the mother country and her colony in South America 
 may be termed, though politically divided, is more 
 prosperous than ever. 
 
 Even more striking than the advance of material 
 prosperity has been the great literary revival, which 
 has marked the era of peaceful parliamentary govern- 
 ment. King Luis was an enlightened patron of 
 letters, and translated some of the plays of Shake- 
 speare into Portuguese in a manner which showed 
 him to be well versed in the capabilities of his own 
 language. In the country of Camoens there has been 
 no lack of poets, though none of the modern writers
 
 MODERN LITERATURE. 
 
 431 
 
 would dare to class themselves with him. Foremost 
 among these poets are Almeida-Garrett and Castilho, 
 who alike sang the ancient glories of Portugal, but 
 among their followers are many whose inspiration is 
 hardly inferior to their own. Such men as Jos<§ da 
 Silva Mendes Leal, Luis Augusto Palmeirim, and Joao 
 Soares de Passos, have written poems worthy to rank 
 with the classics of Portuguese literature, and their 
 muse has generally been fostered by a knowledge of 
 ancient writers and of old national lyrical forms. Even 
 more important than the poets are the historians of 
 modern Portugal, for they are the men who have 
 made the Portuguese so proud of their nationality 
 that they still cling closely to their independence and 
 oppose the advocates of " Iberianism." The founder 
 of the new school of scientific historians was Alex- 
 andra Herculano de Carvalho e Araujo, who, after 
 imitating Sir Walter Scott in his historical novels, 
 showed that he had been influenced by Niebuhr 
 and Ranke in his famous history of Portugal, of which 
 the first volume was published in 1848. He it was 
 who first grasped the fact that history can only be 
 rightly studied and correctly written after a careful and 
 critical investigation of documents, and he manifested 
 both energy and discernment in clearing away the 
 cobweb of legend which had -been spun about the 
 early days of the nation. Herculano inspired his 
 spirit into the new generation, and he has had many 
 painstaking and able followers, among whom the 
 ablest are Luis Augusto Rebello da Silva, Simiao Jose- 
 da Luz Soriano, and Jose Maria Latino Coelho. In 
 general literature, the modern Portuguese are equally
 
 432 MODERN PORTUGAL. 
 
 distinguished, though their greatest strength lies in 
 poetry and history, and it is worthy of notice, that 
 Hterary fame is a sure passport to rapid advancement 
 in political life. The high opinion held of literary 
 endeavour is an evidence of the persistency of the 
 national spirit, and as such may be welcomed as the 
 brightest augury for the future development of the 
 Portuguese nation. 
 
 Few countries of Europe will repay attentive study 
 better than Portugal ; no nation, except Spain, passed 
 through such a trial as the reign of Maria da Gloria, 
 and in no country have the advantages of representa- 
 tive institutions been better realized ; socialism 
 possesses there a reforming, not a revolutionary, force ; 
 knowledge of the history of their nation, inspired 
 by great writers, has made the modern Portuguese 
 ambitious to revive the glories of the past, and has 
 united men of all shades of opinion in a common 
 patriotism. The Camoens celebration of 1 880 showed 
 that the Brazilians are still proud of their mother 
 country, and that the Portuguese race on both sides 
 of the Atlantic was ready to develop new energy and 
 perseverance, and to prove its descent from the men 
 who under Afifonso Henriques conquered the Moors ; 
 who under John I. and John IV. rejected the rule of 
 the Spaniards ; who under Affonso de Alboquerque 
 and Joao de Castro made their names famous from 
 Arabia to Japan ; and who, by the labours, of Prince 
 Henry " the Navigator " and the voyage of Vasco da 
 Gama, initiated a new era in the history of the world.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abd-el-Melik, 248, 250, 253, 254 
 
 Abrantes, 57, 104, 392 
 
 Abrantes, >Iar<jui.'- of, 393 
 
 Abu Abdallah, Governor of Alca- 
 
 cer do Sal, 72, 73 
 Abu-1- Hasan, defeated at the 
 
 Salado, 1340, 92 
 Abyssinia, visits of Portuguese 
 
 travellers to, 167 
 "Academia Real das Sciencias," 
 
 372, 396 
 Academy of History, 353 
 A'Court, Sir William ; see Heytes- 
 
 bury. Lord 
 Aden, 200, 214 
 Affonso Henriques, 24, 31, 34, 35, 
 
 37-58, 98 
 Affonso n., 70-74. 98 
 Affonso HI., 79, 80-83, 89, 98 
 Affonso IV., 86, 91-99 
 Affonso v., 130-35,138, 159, 160 
 Affonso VI., 324, 326-34 
 Affonso, son of Affonso HI., 85, 
 
 86 
 Affonso, only son of John II., 
 
 163, 170 
 Affonso, Joao, bastard son of 
 
 Diniz, 91 
 Affonso, Pedro, bastard son of 
 
 Count Henry, 31 
 Affonso, Pedro, bastard son of 
 
 Diniz, Count of Barcellos, 91 
 Africa, 144-56, 195, 213, 247, 
 
 343, 346, 428, 429 
 
 Agriculture, Sy, i8r, 368 
 Ahmed, Maula, 248, 249, 253-55 
 Alans, the, conquer Lusitania, 10 
 Alarcos, battle of, 63 
 Albergaria, Diogo Scares de, 
 
 169 
 Albergaria, Francisco Scares de, 
 
 309 
 Albergaria, Lopo Scares de, 203 
 Albert, Cardinal, 286, 290 
 Alboquerque, Affonso de, 169, 
 
 185, 193, 197-201 
 Alboquerque, Francisco de, 193 
 Alboquerque, Joao de, 209 
 Alboquerque, Mathias de, 291 
 Alboquerque, Mathias de, 317 
 Alboquerque, Pedro de, 169 
 Alboquerque, Sancho, Count of, 
 
 lOI 
 
 Alcacer do Sal, 54, 62, 66, 72 
 Alcacer-Quibir, battle of (1578), 
 
 254 
 Alcanede granted to Knights of 
 
 Calatrava, 66 
 Alcantara, battle of (1580), 283 
 Al9oba9a, monastery of, 54, 69, 
 
 98, 99. 397 
 Al9obai,a, Cortes of, 164, 165 
 Alemquer, 53, 104 
 Alemtejo, the, 55, 57, 66, 87, 
 
 181, 421 
 Alexander III., Pope, 57 
 Alexander VI., i'<)])e, 163, 191 
 .•Mfarrobcira, bat lie of (1449), 1 33 
 Alfonso \'I., 17, 18, 23
 
 434 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Alfonso VII. , 30, 35, 37-39, 54 
 
 Alfonso, VIII., 63, 71 
 
 Alfonso IX., 63, 64, 71 
 
 Alfonso X., 81 
 
 Alfonso XL, 92 
 
 Algarves, the, 43, 62, 76, 78, 80, 
 
 81, 181, 182 
 Alho, Affonso Martins, 94 
 AH, Almoravide Caliph, 28 
 Ali Adil Shah, King of Bijapur, 247 
 Aljubarrota, battle of, iii, 113 
 Aljustrel, taken by Knights of 
 
 Santiago, 76 
 Almada, 53, 62, 66, 104, 312 
 Almada, Alvaro Vaz de, see Ar- 
 
 ronches, Count of 
 Almada, Antonio de, 308, 311 
 Almanza, battle of (1707), 351 
 Almeida taken by the Spaniards 
 
 (1760), 363 
 Almeida, Francisco de, 195-97, 
 
 214 
 Almeida, Louren9o de, 175, 196 
 Almeida, Miguel de, 308, 309, 311 
 Almeida-Garrelt, Joao Baptista, 
 
 425, 431 
 Almohades, the, 44, 55, 57, 62 ; 
 
 see Ya'kub, Yusuf 
 Almoravides, the, 17, 41 
 Almoster, battle of (1834), 431 
 Aorna, Joao de Almeida Portugal, 
 
 Marquis of, 371, 374 
 Alorna, Pedro, Marquis of, 395 
 Alva, Duke of, 249, 281, 283 
 Alvares, Manoel, 276 
 Alvares, Mattheus, 287 
 Alvitiz, Pedro, 72 
 " Amadis of Gaul " romance, 126 
 Amarante, Francisco da Silveira, 
 
 Count of, 415 
 Ameixial, battle of (1663), 331 
 Amelia of Bavaria, 418, 423 
 Anadia, Viscount of, 391 
 Andeiro, Joao Fernandes, see 
 
 Ourem, Count of 
 Andrade, Gomes Freire de, 395, 
 
 413 
 Andrade, Jacinto Freire de, 325 
 Andrew of London, 52 
 Andrew of Oxford, 93 
 Angeja, Marquis of, 372 
 
 Angola, 324, 346 
 
 Anne of Austria, 314, 315 
 
 Annes, Affonso, 109 
 
 Annes, Estevao, 80 
 
 Annes, Gon9alo, 167 
 
 Annes, Martim, 75 
 
 Annes, Pedro, 73, 75 
 
 Annunciacao, Miguel de, 371 
 
 Antas, General das, 420, 424 
 
 Antonio, Prior of Crato, 281, 
 
 283-86 
 Aranjuez, Treaty of (1793), 386 
 Arcadia de Lisboa, 369, 372 
 Arguin, fort at, 154, 295 
 Armamar, Count of, 316 
 Arnold of Aerschot, 52 
 Arnold, Edmund, 118 
 Arrayolos, Count of, 130 
 Arronches, battle of (1801), 389 
 Arronches, Antonio Vaz de Al- 
 mada, Count of, 132, 133 
 Arundel, Richard, Earl of, 93 
 Arundel, Thomas, Earl of, 1 18 
 Arzila, 133, 179, 249, 253, 285 
 Ash worth, Sir C, 405 
 Asseiceira, battle of (1834), 421 
 Asturians, the, 5 
 Ataulphus, Visigothic king, il 
 Athaide, Catherina de, 270 
 Athaide, Luis de. Viceroy of 
 
 India, 246-48, 257 
 Atoleiros, battle of (1384), IIO 
 Augustus, Duke of Leuchtenberg, 
 
 423 
 Ayamonte, 78, 80 
 Ayamonte, Marquis of, 316, 317 
 Aymeric of Cahors, 89 
 Azambuja, Diogo de, 169 
 Azambuja, Jeronymo de, 276 
 Azamor in Morocco, 179 
 Azevedo, Antonio de Araujo de, 
 
 387, 388, 391. 396 
 Azores, the, 147, 285, 295, 419 
 Azurara, chronicler, 135, 379 
 
 B 
 
 Badajoz, 56, 326, 375, 389 
 Bahadar Shah, King of Gujarat, 
 
 204, 205 
 Bainetti, Marquis de, 305 
 Baldaya, AfTonso Gon9alves, 147
 
 INDEX. 
 
 435 
 
 Ballerais, Count of, 316 
 
 Bank of Portugal, 36S 
 
 Bar, Count of, 62 
 
 Barbacena, Felisberto Caldeira 
 
 Brant Pontes, Marquis of, 405, 
 
 418 
 Barbosa du Bocage, Manoel 
 
 Maria, 379, 385 
 Barbosa Machado, Diogo, see 
 
 Machado 
 Barcellos, Joao Afifonso Telles de 
 
 Menezes. Count of, 104 
 Barcellos, Duke of, 255 
 Bardez, Marathas defeated at, 374 
 Barreto, Antonio Moniz, 320 
 Barreto, Antonio Moniz, 247, 248 
 Barreto, Francisco, 246, 247, 271 
 Barros. Joao de, 185, 226, 274-76 
 Batalha, Convent, 113, 119 
 Batavia, 294, 342 
 Beatrice de Gusman, 81 
 Beatrice of Castile, 86, 98 
 Beatrice, daughter of Pedro I., 
 
 lOI 
 
 Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand 
 
 and Leonor, 106, 107 
 Beatrice, daughter of the " Holy 
 
 Constable," 125 
 Beatrice, daughter of Emmanuel, 
 
 178, 264 
 Beauvais, Bishop of, 62 
 Belatha, Emirate of, 43 
 Belem, palace at, 176 ; Convent 
 
 at, 184, 204 ; Sebastian buried 
 
 at, 256 
 Bellesta, Spanish general, 397 
 Benedict XIV., Pope, 360 
 Bengal, trade with, 205, 296, 343 
 Beresford, William Carr, Viscount, 
 
 400, 402, 405-7, 412, 413 
 Bermudo II., King of Gallicia, 13 
 Berwick, James, Duke of, 351 
 Bishoprics and bishops, 10, 26, 
 
 30, 67, 75, 79, 183 
 Black Death, the, 95 
 Blake, Admiral Robert, 323, 324 
 Bojador, Cape, 146, 147 
 Bombay ceded to England, 330, 
 
 346 
 Bomfim, Count of, 424 
 Bonaparte, Joseph, 401 
 
 Bonaparte, Lucien. 3S9 
 Braamcamp, Antonio Jose, 427 
 Bradford, Sir Edward, 405, 406 
 Braga, Archbishopric of, 26 
 Braga Cathedral, 32, 98 
 Braganza, the Dukes of, 303 
 Braganza, Aflbnso, Duke of, 125, 
 
 126, 131-33 
 Braganza, Alvaro de, l6l 
 Braganza, Catherine, Duchess of, 
 
 278 
 Braganza, Constantino de, 212, 
 
 213, 246, 270 
 Braganza, Ferdinand, Duke of, 
 
 161, 162 
 Braganza, Jayme de, 255 
 Braganza, Joao, Duke of, 280, 284 
 Braganza, Theodosio, Duke of, 304 
 Brandao, Antonio, 301 
 Brazil, 175, 221-35, 243, 296-98, 
 
 318-20,' 336, 337, 346-48, 369. 
 
 375-77. 392, 414, 419. 428, 
 
 430 
 Breyner, Pedro de Mello, 393, 396 
 Breze, Chevalier de, 315 
 Brito, Bernardo de, 7, 301 
 Brotero, Felix de Avellar, 380, 
 
 385 
 Bugio, castle of, 312 
 Burton, Sir Richard F., quoted, 
 
 90, 130, 242, 257 
 Busaco, battle of (iSio), 402 
 
 C 
 Cabo Branco, 148 
 Cabral, (ion^alo Velho, 147 
 Cabral, Pedro Alvares, 175, 192, 
 
 193, 221, 222 
 Cacello taken, 78, 80 
 Caceres taken by Affonso Henri- 
 
 ques, 55, 56 
 Cadamosto, Luigi, 151, 152 
 Cadaval, Duke of, 336, 35 1 
 Cafim, abandoned by John III., 
 
 179 
 Calatrava, Order of, 66 
 Caldeira, Francisco Soares da, 
 
 423. 424 
 Calicut, 1 89, 193, 198 
 Calpuriiius, C, 6 
 Cam, or Cao, Diogo, 156
 
 436 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Camara, Luis Gon9alves da, 
 
 Jesuit, 241, 242 
 Camara, Martim da, 241 
 Caminha, Andrade, 267 
 Caminha, Duke of, 315-17 
 Camoens, Luis de, his life, 268-71 ; 
 
 his " Lusiads," 271-74, 379 
 Camoens, " Lusiads" of, 7, 45, 
 
 90, 97, 130, 189, 214 
 Camoens Celebration, 274, 432 
 Campbell, Sir Archibald, 405, 407 
 Campo, Don Luiz de, 311 
 Cannanore, 193, 196 
 Cannon, in, 113, 169 
 Cantabrians, the, 5 
 Cantanhede, Antonio Luis de 
 
 Menezes, Count of, 327 
 Canton, Andrade at, 175, 215, 
 
 342 
 Cape Matapan, 352 
 Cape of Good Hope, 156, 343 
 Cape Saint Vincent, 420 
 Cape Verde, 150 
 Cape Verde Islands, 153, 346 
 Caraffa, Spanish general, 392 
 Cardenas, Don Didace de, 305 
 Carlotta Joaquina, 373, 404, 411, 
 
 414 
 Carneiro, Pedro de Al9a9ova, 241, 
 
 245, 249 
 Carracena, Marquis of, 331 
 Carthaginians, the, 5, 6 
 Carvalho, Antonio Coelho de, 314 
 Carvalho, Louren90 Peres de, 
 
 316 
 Carvalho e Mello, Sebastiao Jose 
 
 de, see Pombal, Marquis of 
 Castanheda, Fernao Lopes de, 
 
 185 
 Castel Melhor, Luis de Sousa e 
 
 Vasconcellos, Count of, 331-33 
 Castilho, Antonio Feliciano de, 
 
 425, 430, 431 
 Castlereagh, Lord, 407, 408 
 Castro Alvaro Peres de, 95 
 Castro, Antonio Jose de, 397 
 Castro, Fernando de, 305, 306 
 Castro, Ines de, 95-98 
 Castro, Joao de, 206, 210-12 
 Castro, Joaquim Machado de, 
 
 368, 380 
 
 Castro, Pedro Fernandes de, 93, 
 
 95 
 
 Catherine, daughter of King 
 
 Edward, 134, 164 
 Catherine of Austria, 178, 240 
 Catherine of Bragauza, 323, 329, 
 
 330, 336, 340 
 Catherine de' Medici, 278, 285 
 Cave-dwellers in Portugal, 4, 5 
 Cavida, Antonio de, 334 
 Celestine IIL, Pope, 63, 64 
 Celorico, built by Sancho L, 69 
 Cerneja, battle of (1137), 38 
 Ceuta, 123, 333 
 Ceylon, 184, 203, 292, 342 
 Cezimbra, palace at, 119 
 Chancellors of Portugal, 88 
 Charles L, King of Portugal, 428 
 Charles L, of England, 314 
 Charles IL, of England, 329, 
 
 330 
 Charles v., Emperor, 178, 179 
 Charles, Archduke, 338, 340, 351 
 Charles VIII., of France, 165 
 Charles III., Duke of Savoy, 178 
 " Charles-et-Georges," the, 425, 
 
 426 
 Chariot, General, 397 
 Charter of 1826,417, 421, 424,425 
 Chastenau, Comte de, 337 
 Chaul, battle of (1508), 196 
 Chimnaji Apa takes Bassein, 373 
 China, 175, 215, 216, 342 
 Chin Chee, factory at, 215 
 Christ, Order of, 86, 124, 183 
 Christianity introduced, 10, 12 
 Chronica do Conquista do Algar- 
 
 ves, 127 
 Chroniclers, the early, 126, 127, 
 
 379 
 Cintra, 53, 104, 1 19, 334, 400 
 Ciudad Rodrigo, 56, 331, 34I 
 Clement XIV., Pope, 364 
 Cleynaerts, quoted, 236 
 Clinton, Col. Henry, 390 
 Cochin, 193, 195, 196, 198, 204, 
 
 294. 342 
 Cochin China, 175, 214 
 Coelho, Duarte, 175, 214 
 Coelho da Silva, Francisco, 385 
 Coelho, Jose Maria Latino, 431
 
 INDEX. 
 
 437 
 
 Coimbra. 15, 18. 24, 28, 58, 74, 
 
 83, 87, 97, 105, in, 119, 406 
 Coimbra, bishops of. st-c Anniin- 
 
 ciacao, Aymeric, Til)uicio 
 Coimbra, University of, see Uni- 
 versity 
 Coligny, Admiral, 234 
 Colombo, factory, 203 
 Columlius, Christopher, 169 
 Commerce, Treaties of, 86, 94, 
 
 165, 337-40, 372 
 Congo, the, 151 
 
 Congreve, \\illiam, quoted, 216 
 Constance, daughter of Diniz, 86 
 Constance, wife of Pedro, 92, 95 
 Constituent Assembly of 1820, 
 
 413.414 
 Constitution of 1822, 414, 424 
 Conti, valet of Affonso VI., 330, 
 
 331 
 
 Conventions, 400, 421, 424 
 Correa, Antonio, 309, 316 
 Correa da Silva, Antonio, 380 
 Correa da Serra, Jose, 379, 385 
 Correia, Paio Peres, 76 
 Corte-Real, Diogo de Mendonya, 
 
 Count of, 352 
 Corte-Real, Caspar, 175 
 Corte-Real, Jeronymo, 267, 301 
 Cortes, 45, 71,^, 83, 106, III, 
 
 128, 130, 160, 164, 165, 257, 
 
 280, 283, 312, 417, 
 Costa Cabral, Antonio Bermudo 
 
 da, see Thomar, Count of 
 Costa, Duarte da, 233 
 Costa, Joao da, 262 
 Courts of Love, 89, 91 
 Coutinho, Francisco, see Redondo, 
 
 Count of 
 Coutinho, Gaston, 308, 311 
 Coutinho, Luis Pinto de Sousa, 
 
 386 
 Coutinho, Manoel de Sousa, 291 
 Coutinho, Ruy Pereira, 175 
 Couto, Diogo do, 185, 301 
 Covada Piedade, battle of, 42 1 
 Covilham, Joao Peres de, 167 
 Cromwell, Oliver, 323 
 Crusaders, 48, 52, 60, 62, 72 
 Ousadoes, struck by Affonso V., 
 
 ^33 
 
 Cruz e 
 
 378 
 Cueva, 
 Cunha, 
 Cunha, 
 Cunha, 
 Cunha 
 
 393 
 Cunha, 
 
 104 
 Cunha, 
 Cunha, 
 Cunha, 
 Cunha, 
 Cunha, 
 
 Silva, Antonio Diniz da, 
 
 Fernando de la, 313 
 Ayres da, 226 
 Cardinal da, 354 
 Estevao da, 308, 309 
 e Menezes, Francisco da, 
 
 Joao Louren^o da, loi, 
 
 Luis da, 308 
 Luis da. 359 
 Nuno da, 204, 205 
 Rodrigo da, 308, 311 
 Tristao da, 175, 196, 
 
 197 
 
 D 
 
 Da Cunha, Da Silva, Sec, see 
 
 Cunha, Silva, cS:c. 
 Dabhol, sacked by Almeida, 197 
 Daman, taken by Constantino de 
 
 Braganza, 213, 270 
 Das Antas, Das Regras, Sec, see 
 
 Antas, Regras, <S:c. 
 De Castro, De Noronha, &c. , see 
 
 Castro, Noronha, Sec. 
 Denifle, H, " Universitiiten des 
 
 Mittelalters," 260 
 Diamonds discovered in Brazil, 
 
 377 
 Diamper (Udayampura), Synod of, 
 
 292 
 Dias, Bartholomeu, 156 
 Dickson, Sir Alexander, 405 
 Diniz, King of Portugal, 81, 83, 
 
 85-91, 98, 260 
 Diniz, son of Pedro I. and Ines 
 
 de Castro, 103, 114, 118 
 Diogo, Duke of Viscu. 162 
 Diu, Island of, 197, 204, 205, 211, 
 
 212, 334 
 Domingues, Rodrigo, 93 
 Domingues, Vasco, 104 
 Drake, Sir Francis, 285, 290 
 Dulce of Aragon, tiueen of San- 
 
 cho I., 57, 98 
 Duperron de Castera, 379 
 D'Urban, Sir Benjamin, 402 
 Dutch, the, 290, 291, 294 98, 
 
 314. 315, 318, 320, 34«-43. 
 
 346
 
 438 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Eannes, Gil, doubles Cape Boja- 
 
 dor, 147 
 Earthquake of Lisbon, 357, 358 
 Eben, Baron, 401 
 Educ ition, National system of, 430 
 Edward, King of Portugal, 122, 
 
 124, 126-29 
 Edward I., of England, 86 
 Edward II., of England, 86 
 Edward III., of England, 93, 94, 
 
 104 
 Edward IV., of England,' 134, 
 
 164 
 Edward, the Black Prince, 94 
 Edward, Duke of Guimaraens, 
 
 178, 278 
 Egas, Joao, Archbishop of Braga, 
 
 79 
 Elizabeth, Queen of England, 
 
 285, 295 
 Elmina, fort built at, 156 
 Elvas, 75, 312, 327, 360, 389 
 Emeralds found in Brazil, 377 
 Emmanuel, King of Portugal, 
 
 170-78, 188, 191, 215 
 England, 52, 62, 72, 86, 93-95. 
 106, III, 113, I16-18, 164, 
 165, 290, 295, 296, 329, 330, 
 336, 337-40, 343, 352, 363, 
 380, 381, 387, 388, 399-405. 
 414, 417, 421, 429 
 Epic, first Portuguese, 93 
 Equator, the, crossed, 154 
 Era, changed from Augustan to 
 
 Christian, 121 
 Espinosa, Gabriel, 288 
 Euric, Visigothic king, il 
 Evora, Pedro de, 167 
 Evora, 10, 55, 57, 66, 128, 135, 
 
 160, 302, 331 
 Evora Monte, surrender of, 421 
 
 F 
 Fariae Sousa, Manoel, 185, 301 
 Farinha-, Affonso Peres, 76 
 Faro, Afifonso, Count of, 161 
 Ferdinand, King of Portugal, 99- 
 
 107 
 Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
 
 423, 425, 426 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, 
 
 134, 135, 163, 171 
 Ferdinand VI., of Spain, 352 
 Ferdinand I., of Leon, 14, 15 
 Ferdinand II., of Leon, 54-56 
 Ferdinand IV., of Castile, 86 
 Ferdinand, son of Sancho I., 70, 74 
 Ferdinand, son of Affonso II., 76, 
 
 78, 79 
 Ferdinand, son of John I., the 
 
 "Constant Prince," 122, 125, 
 
 129, 130 
 Ferdinand, son of Edward, 153, 
 
 161 
 Ferdinand, son of Emmanuel, 
 
 Duke of Guarda, 178 
 Ferdinand, son of Maria II., 426 
 Fernandes, Joao, 151 
 Fernandes, Martim, 73 
 Ferrario, Francisco, 276 
 Ferreira, Antonio, 266, 267 
 Feudalism in Portugal, 87, 88, 
 
 120, 121, 160, 413 
 " Fidelissimus," title conferred on 
 
 kings of Portugal, 353 
 Fielding, Henry, 381 
 " Filintists," the, 379 
 Flor da Rosa, battle of (1801), 389 
 Fonseca, Agostino Luis da, 405, 
 
 407 . ^ 
 
 Fontaine, Pierre Louis, 385 
 Fontainebleau, Treaty of (1807), 
 
 392 
 Forbes- Skelater, Joao, 386 
 Francis Xavier, St., 209, 212, 
 
 295 
 Frederick III., Emperor*, 134 
 Freemasons, 385, 393 
 Freire, Antonio de Andrade, 371 
 French, the, in Brazil, 233-35 
 French Revolution, 382, 383, 385, 
 
 414 
 Friars, Orders of, 74, 208, 417, 
 
 422 
 Funchal, in Madeira, 144 
 
 Galle in Ceylon, 330 
 Gallicia, 15, 25, 37-39, 5^ 
 Gallicians, mentioned by Strabo,
 
 INDliX. 
 
 439 
 
 Gan-eras, Count das, 340 
 Galway, Henri de Ruvigny, Lord, 
 
 340, 341, 351 
 Gama, Antonio de Saklanha da, 
 
 see Porto Santo, Count of 
 Gama, Estevao da, 205, 206 
 Gama, Vasco da, 175, 188, 189, 
 
 191-93, 203, 204 
 Gaunt, John of, s^e Lancaster, 
 
 Duke of 
 (.azeta de Lishoa, 325 
 Gelmires, Diogo, 28-30 
 George IV^. of England receives 
 
 -NLiria IL, 418 
 Goa, 183, 198, 201, 203, 208, 209, 
 
 246, 247, 292, 294, 317, 342, 
 
 343, 374, 375, 390 
 Godoy, Prince of the Peace, 386, 
 
 387, 392 
 Goes, Damiao de, 274 
 Gold, discovery of, in Brazil, 336, 
 
 337, 347, 348, 376 
 Gomes, Uiogo, 153 
 Gomes, Feinan, 154 
 Gomes, Sueiro, 72, 74, 78 
 Gomes, Violante, 281 
 Gon9alves, Alvaro, 97, 98 
 Gon^alves, Antonio, 148, 151 
 Gon9alves, Lopo, 154 
 Gonzales, Sebastiao, 218 
 Gonzales, Sebastiao, 286, 287 
 Goths, the, 10, il 
 Govea, Andrea, 261, 262 
 Govea, Antonio, 261 
 Govea, Martial, 261 
 Graa, Ruy de, 169 
 Granada, Convention of, 424 
 Greek colonies in I'ortugal, 5 
 Gregoiy IX., Pope, 76 
 Gregory XL, P(jpe, loi 
 Gregory XIIL, Pope, 249, 278 
 Guimaracns, 5, 24, 31, 133, 304 
 Guinea, discovered by Diniz Dia-;, 
 
 150 
 (Jusmao, Bartholomeu de, 379, 380 
 Guy of Boulogne, Cardinal, 103 
 Guy of Vico, Cardinal, 39 
 Gylfels, Dutch Admiral, 315 
 
 II 
 
 Hamilton, Captain, quoted, 374 
 
 Hamilton, Sir John, 407 
 Haro, Don Luiz de, 327 
 Hawker, Sir Richard, 405 
 Henry of Burgundy, 18, 20, 21, 
 
 20-24, 98 
 Henry, Cardinal, King of Portu- 
 gal, 183, 240. 241, 257 
 Henry IV., of England, 118 
 Henry V'., of England, 118 
 Henry ViL, of England, 165 
 Henry L, of Castile, 70 
 Henry II., of Castile, loi, 103, 
 
 106 
 Henry HI., of Castile, 113 
 Henry IV., of Castile, 134 
 Henry, Prince, " the Navigator," 
 
 122, 124, 125, 131, 132, 140-53 
 Hensler, Elise, 426 
 Hentzel, squire of John of Gaunt, 
 
 III 
 Herculano de Carvalho e Araujo, 
 
 Alexandre, I02, 425, 431 
 Herman, ^L, 396 
 Heytesbury.W. A'Court,Lord,4i5 
 Historians of Portugal, 126, 127, 
 
 274, 275, 301, 369, 372, 379, 
 
 425,431, 432 
 Holland, ?^arl of, 72 
 Ilonorius HI., Pope, 73, 75 
 Hoseyn, Emir, 197 
 Hospital, Knights of St. John, of 
 
 the, 32, 66, 76, 80 
 Iloutman, Cornelius, 291 
 Hugh of Cluny, 23, 28 
 Hunter, Sir W. W., quoted, 190, 
 
 201, 291, 294 
 
 I 
 
 Ilierianism, 2, 415, 421 
 Ilheos in Brazil, 229 
 India, 143, 167, 175, 189, 190, 
 192-213, 245 48, 291-96, 342, 
 
 343, 373 75 
 Innocent II., Po]ic, 39, 40 
 Innocent HI., Pope, 67, 69, 71 
 Innocent IV., Pope, 79 
 Inquiracaoes-geraes, 73, 160 
 Inquisition, 183, 231, 246, 291, 
 
 294, 343, 354. 3f>7. 413 
 Interdicts, 69, 73, 78, 81 
 Isabel, St., 86, 91, 92
 
 440 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Isabel, daughter of John I., 125, 
 
 134 
 Isabel, queen of Affonso V., 132, 
 
 134 
 
 Isabel, daughter of Emmanuel, 
 178 
 
 Isabel Maria, daughter of John 
 VI., 416 
 
 Isabella, Queen of Castile, see 
 Ferdinand and Isabella 
 
 Isabella, eldest daughter of Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella, 163, 171, 
 174 
 
 J 
 
 Jaffnapatam, taken by Dutch, 342 
 
 Jant, Chevalier de, 323, 329 
 
 Jayme, son of Duke of Coimbra, 
 
 133 
 Jesuits, 183, 209, 230, 231, 343, 
 
 347. 359-61, 364 
 Jews, Portuguese, 171, 172, 173 
 Joanna, Lady of Flanders, 70 
 Joanna, daughter of King Ed- 
 ward, 135 
 Joanna, queen of Affonso V., 134 
 Joanna, daughter of Affonso V., 
 
 165 
 Joanna, daughter of Charles V. , 
 
 179, 240 
 John I., King of Portugal, 97, 
 
 103, 105-7, 109-I1, 113-27, 
 
 133, 261 
 John II., King of Portugal, 156, 
 
 158-70 
 John III., King of Portugal, 174- 
 
 84, 261, 263 
 John IV^, King of Portugal, 304- 
 
 6, 312-17, 321, 323, 324 
 John v., King of Portugal, 350- 
 
 54 
 John VI., King of Portugal, 373- 
 
 89. 392, 393' 408, 410, 4". 
 
 414-16 
 John XXL, Pope, 83 
 John XXIL, Pope, 86 
 John I., of Castile, 106, 107, no, 
 
 III, 113 
 John, son of Pedro L, 103-5 
 John, Duke of Beja, 122, 125 
 John, son •f John III., 179, 
 
 184 
 
 John, son of Maria II., 426 
 John of Abbeville, Cardinal, 75, 
 
 76 
 Joseph, King of Portugal, 354-70 
 Joseph, bastard son of John V., 
 
 371 
 Joseph, son of Maria I. and 
 
 Pedro III., 373 
 Juliao, Chancellor, 67, 71 
 Junot, General, 391, 392, 393, 
 
 395-97, 400 
 Juromenha, 66, 389 
 Justice, administration of, 88, 12 1, 
 
 160, 367 
 
 K 
 
 Kandy, conquest of king of, 292 
 Kersaint, French deputy, 385 
 Knights, military religious Orders 
 of, 32, 48, 66, 76 
 
 Labrador discovered, 175 . 
 La Clue, French admiral, 358 
 Lafoes, Joao de Braganza, Duke 
 
 of, 371, 372, 385 
 Laharpe translates " Camoens,' 
 
 379 
 Lamego, 8, 15, 45 
 Lan9arote, his slaving voyages, 149 
 Lancaster, Henry, Earl of, 93 
 Lancaster, John of Gaunt, Duke 
 
 of, 103, 113 
 Lane-Poole, S., quoted, 11, 172 
 Language, the Portuguese, 2, 8, 
 
 89, 121, 265 
 Law, Portuguese, 10, 88, 121, 124 
 Le^a granted to Knights of Hos- 
 pital, 32 
 Le Cor, Carlos Frederico, 392, 
 
 405, 407, 411 
 Leiria, lo, 43, 46, 81, 87, 106, 
 
 183, 368, 421 
 Lemos, Damiao Antonio de, 369 
 Leonor Telles de Menezes, Queen, 
 
 loi, 103-5, io7» "o 
 Leonor, daughter of Affonso IV., 
 
 94 
 Leonor, daughter of Edward, 134 
 Leonora of Aragon, 124, 130, 1 31 
 Leonora of Castile, lOi, 102
 
 INDEX. 
 
 441 
 
 Lhuillier, member of Regency, 396 
 
 Lima, Luis de, 255 
 
 Limia, taken by Affonso Hen- 
 
 riques, 37, 56 
 Linhares, built by Sancho L, 69 
 Lippe-Buckeburg, Count of, 363, 
 
 364. 367 
 Lisbon, 5, 8, 12, 17, 18, 51, 52, 
 64, 87, 95, 102, 103, 109, 110, 
 119, 120, 182, 236, 237, 257, 
 260, 261, 286, 290, 302,308-12, 
 
 333, 338. 353. 355. 357. 358, 
 368, 372, 380, 381, 393, 413, 
 421, 426, 427 
 Literature, 89, 90, 126, 127, 135, 
 137, 169, 259-77, 301, 325, 369. 
 
 377-79,.425, 430-32 
 Lobeira, Vasco de, 126 
 Lodeiro, granted to Knights of 
 
 Sepulchre, 32 
 Loison, General, 397 
 London, crusaders from, 62, 94 
 Lopes, Fernan, chronicler, 127, 379 
 Lopes, Martim, 167 
 Louis XL, of France, 135, 159 
 Louis XIV., of France, 329, 332 
 Louie, Marquis of, 415 
 Louren9o, Archbishop of Braga, 
 
 no, 121 
 Louren90, Theresa, 97 
 Luis L, King of Portugal, 426, 
 
 427, 430 
 Luis, son of Emmanuel, Duke of 
 
 Beja, 178, 179, 211, 281 
 Luisa de Guzman, Queen of John 
 
 IV., 304, 305, 326-31 
 Lusitania, not Portugal, 6-8 
 Lusitanians, 5-7 
 
 Luz Soriano, Simiao Jose da, his- 
 torian, 431 
 
 M 
 Macao, 215, 270, 317, 342, 369, 
 
 375 
 Macassar, 343 
 
 Machado, Diogo Barbosa, 369 
 Machado de Castro, Joaquim, s^e 
 
 Castro 
 Machico, Province of Madeira, 
 
 144 
 Machin, Robert, 144-46 
 
 Madden, Sir Samuel, 405 
 Madeira, 144-46, 390, 399 
 Madrid, 341 ; treaty of, 351, 352 
 Mafra, 53. 353, 397 
 Magalhaes, Fernao de, 175, 180, 
 
 199, 214 
 Magalhaes, Pedro Jacques de, 331 
 Magellan, see Magalhaes 
 Magro, Gon^alo Peres, 80 
 Major, R. H., quoted, 141, 149 
 Malacca, 175, 199, 214, 247, 248, 
 
 294, 3^7, 342 
 Malagrida, Gabriel, 361, 364 
 Maldive Islands, 175, 196 
 Mangalore, 246 
 Manique, Diogo Ignacio de Pina, 
 
 172, 382, 385, 390 
 Manufactures, Pembal and, 368 
 Marathas, the, 343, 373, 374 
 Margaret of P" ranee, 244 
 Margaret of Savoy, 305, 306, 309 
 Maria I., Queen of Portugal, 370- 
 
 73' 393. 408 
 Maria II., Queen of Portugal, 417, 
 
 418, 421-25 
 Maria, daughter of Ferdinand and 
 
 Isabella, 174 
 Maria, daughter of Affonso IV., 92 
 Maria, daughter of John III., 179 
 Maria Amelia, queen of Carlos I., 
 
 428 
 Maria Barbara, daughter of John 
 
 V-. 352 
 
 Maria Benedicta, 373 
 Maria Francisca, marries Affonso 
 VI., 332; and Pedro II., i;^}, 
 
 334 
 Maria Josepha, marries Pedro I\^, 
 
 412 
 Maria Pia, queen of Luis I., 426 
 Maria Sophia, (jueenof Pedro II., 
 
 336 
 Marialva, Marquis of, 331 
 Marialva, Mari[uis of, 412 
 Marianna, queen of John V., 351 
 Marianna \'itt<iria, (|ueen of 
 
 Josi-ph, 352, 370 
 M art inho, commander of Palmclla, 
 
 72 
 Martinho, Archbishop of Lisbon, 
 
 loy
 
 442 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Martins, Lourengo, 109 
 Mascarenhas, Francisco de, 291 
 Mascarenhas, Joao de, 211 
 Mascarenhas, Joao de, see 
 
 Cadaval, Duke of 
 Mascarenhas, Martinho de, 371 
 Mascarenhas, Pedro de, 175 
 Mascarenhas, Pedro de, 212 
 Mascarenhas, Pedro de, 308 
 Massena, Marshal, 404-6 
 Matapan, Cape, battle off, 352 
 Matilda of Savoy, 41 
 Matilda, daughter of Affonso 
 
 Henriques, 54 
 Matilda, daughter of .Sancho I., 70 
 Maurice of Nassau, 298, 318, 319 
 Maurice, Bishopof Coimbra, 21, 28 
 Mauritius, 175, 346 
 Mayiie, Colonel, 399 
 Mazagon, 240 
 
 Mazarin, Cardinal, 321, 323, 329 
 Medina Sidonia, Duke of, 304 
 Melinda, 189, 213 
 Mello, Affonso de, 312 
 Mello de Menezes, Antonio, 308, 
 
 309 
 Mello e Castro, Diniz de, 34 q 
 Mello, Francisco de, 314, 329 
 MelUo, Jorge de, 308, 309, 312 
 Mello, e Castro, Martinho, 367, 
 
 368, 372, 388 
 Mello, Vasco Martins de, 105 
 Mencia, queen of Sancho II., 78,80 
 Mendes, Antonio, 262 
 Mendes, Gon9alo, 73, 74 
 Mendes, Nuno, 15 
 Mendes, Paio, 30, 31 
 Mendes, Sueiro, 17, 30, 31 
 Mendes Leal, Jose da Silva, 425, 
 
 431 
 Mendon9a, Antonio Lopes de, 180 
 Mendon9a, Diogo de, 297 
 Mendon9a, Diogo de, see Corte 
 
 Real, Count of 
 Mendon9a, Joao de, 246 
 Mendon9a, Lopo Furtado de ; see 
 
 Rio Grande, Count of 
 Mendon9a Furtado, Pedro de, 
 
 308, 311 
 Mendon9a, Pedro Francisco de, 334 
 Menezes, Alexis de, 242, 245 
 
 Menezes, Alexis de, 292 
 Menezes, Diogo de, 248 
 Menezes, Duarte de, 203, 209 
 Menezes, Duarte de, 255 
 Menezes, Duarte de, 291 
 Menezes, Emmanuel de, 297 
 Menezes, Fernando de, 270 
 Menezes, Garcia de, 6 
 Menezes, Henrique de, 204 
 Menezes, Joao de, 169 
 Mertola, taken (1239), 78 
 Methuen, Right Hon. John, 337 
 Methuen Treaty, 337-40, 368 
 Metternich, Prince, 412 
 Meudon, Chateau of, 418 
 Mickle, William James, 379 
 Miguel, King of Portugal, 41 1, 
 
 412, 414-21 
 Miguel, son of Emmanuel, 174 
 Miller, Colonel John, 405 
 Minas, Marquis das, 340, 341 
 Miranda, bishopric of, 183 
 Missionaries, their work in India, 
 
 208, 209, 292, 343 
 Mohammed III. of Gujarat, 205, 
 
 211, 212 
 Mohammed En-Nasir, 71 
 Mohammedans, 11-13, 40-58, 60- 
 
 63, 78, 80 
 Molingen, Baron of, 317 
 Moluccas, the, 175, 214, 294 
 Mombassa, 189, 195, 213 
 Moniz, Egas, tutor of Affonso 
 
 Henriques, 31, 35, 36 
 Moniz, Emigio, 31 
 Montaigne, Michel de, quoted, 261 
 Monte Mor, Joao de Braganza, 
 
 Marquis of, 161 
 Montevideo taken (1817), 411 
 Montes Claros, battle of (1665), 
 
 331 
 
 Montijo, battle of (1642), 317 
 
 Moplas, the, 190, 193 
 
 Moradias, 180 
 
 Morales, Juan, 146 
 
 Morocco, 122, 123, 129, 133, 179, 
 
 211, 248,252-55, 346 
 Mortmain, laws of, 71, 73, 88 
 Moura, 76 
 
 Moura, Christovao de, 280 
 Mousinho, Manoel de Brito, 402
 
 INDEX. 
 
 443 
 
 Mowbray, Thomas, ili 
 Mozambique, 189, 213, 247, 337, 
 
 343. 428 
 Munden, Captain Anthony, 346 
 Mmiicipal Institutions, 10, 12, 
 
 22, 65, 87, 120 
 Muscat taken (1554), 270 
 
 N. 
 
 Nanfran, Richard, 165 
 Napier, Sir Charles, 420, 421 
 Napoleon I., 388-92 
 Napoleon III., 426 
 Nascimento, Francisco Manoel de, 
 
 379. 385 
 Navas de Tolosa, battle of, 71 
 Navy, the Portuguese, 88, 121, 
 
 290, 353. 354. 367 
 Neiva, Gon5alo Telles, Count of, 
 
 104 
 Nestorian Christians in India, 209, 
 
 292, 294 
 Neutim, 374 
 Nicholas IV., Pope, 87 
 Niza, Marquis of, 386 
 Noel, Pierre, 385 
 Noronha, Affonso de, 212, 214 
 Noronha, Antonio de, 246, 247 
 Noronha, Carlos de, 308, 309 
 Noronha, Diogo de, 386, 387 
 Noronha, Francisco Xavier de, 393 
 Noronha, Garcia de, 205 
 Noronha, Pedro de, 169 
 Noronha Sebastiao de Mattos de, 
 
 306, 309, 311, 315-17 
 Noronha, Theresa de, 355 
 Norris, .Sir John, 285 
 Northberry, John, 1 1 1 
 Nova Castella, Joao de, 175 
 Nova Zembla discovered, 167 
 " Novaes Chrisliaos," 173, 182, 
 
 228, 316, 365 
 Nunes, Gomes, 38 
 Nunes do Prado, Joao, 91 
 Nunes, Pedro, 262, 277 
 Nunes Sancho, 3 1 
 
 O 
 
 Obidos, 104 
 
 Odivelas, Convent of, 98 | I 
 
 Oeyras, Count of, see Pombal, 
 
 Slarquis of 
 Olhao, Marquis of, 393 
 Olivares, Count-Duke of, 298, 
 
 299. 307. 313. 316 
 Oiiven9a, 3S9, 408 
 Omar, Emir, 44-46 
 Opera-house at Lisbon, 370 
 Oporto, 8, 12, 13, 64, 113, 133, 
 
 33^^ 397. 401, 4'3. 419. 420 
 Oporto, bishops of, see Castro, 
 
 Hugh, Rodrigues, Salvadores 
 Oix)rto Wine Company, 368 
 Orense, 28, 30 
 Oriolla, Jeronymo Lobo da Sil- 
 
 veira. Count of, 408 
 Ormuz, 197, 214, 296 
 Osorio, Jeronymo, Bishop of 
 
 Silves, 262 
 Ossuna, Duke of, 331 
 Ourem, Joao Fernando Andeiro, 
 
 Count of, 104-6, 109 
 Ourique, battle of, 44-46 
 Oxenstiern, Chancellor of Sweden, 
 
 314 
 
 Pacheco, Diogo Lopes de, 97, 98 
 Pacheco, Duarte, 195 
 Pack, Sir Denis, 405, 406 
 Pa9os de Penalva, granted to 
 
 knights of Sepulchre, 32 
 Paes, Gualdim, 62 
 Palmeirim, General, 405 
 Palmeirim, Luis Augusto, 431 
 Palmella, 53, 62 
 Palmella, Pedro de Sousa llol- 
 
 stein, Duke of, 404, 408, 415, 
 
 417-19,421 
 Paujim, 198, 374, 375 
 Paraguay, 175 
 
 Paraiba, Captainship of, 298 
 Passos, Jofio .Soarcs de, 431 
 Patuleia, war of, 424 
 
 aulist Rcpulilic, the, 376 
 aullus, L. /Kmilius, 6 
 ayva, AfTonso de, 167 
 Liiro I., 92, 95, 98, 99 
 
 dro II., 332-41 
 
 (Iro III., 370-73 
 cdro I \'., 4 1 1,4 14, 4 1 0,4 1 7, 419-22
 
 444 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pedro v., 425, 426 
 
 Pedro II., Emperor o*" Brazil, 
 
 419, 428 
 Pedro IV., King of Aragon, 94 
 Pedro, son of Sancho I., 70, 76, 
 
 78, 80 
 Pedro, Duke of Coimbra, 122, 
 
 124, 126, 130-33 
 
 Pedro Hispano elected Pupe, 83 
 Pekin, Andrade at, 175, 215 
 Penafiel, Count of, 413 
 Peninsular War, the, 399-407 
 Pennamacor, Count of, 165 
 Pepper trade, 193, 342 
 Pereira de Mello, Antonio Manoel 
 
 Fontes, 427 
 Pereira, Christovao de Brito, 331, 
 
 332 
 Pereira, Nuno Alvares, "the Holy 
 
 Constable," 107, 109, 1 10, III, 
 
 125, 1-26 
 Peres, Abril, 75 
 Peres, David, 370, 380 
 Peres, Rodrigo, 38 
 Peres de Trava, see Trava 
 Perestrello, Bartholomeu, 144, 147 
 Perignon, Marshal, 387 
 Pernambuco, in Brazil, 229, 295, 
 
 298, 320 
 Persian trade, 214, 296 
 Pessanha, Lanfarote, 109 
 Pessanha, Manoel, 88, 93, 145 
 Philip II., of Spain, 179, 248, 280, 
 
 283, 290, 298 
 Philip III., of Spain, 299 
 Philip IV., of Spain, 304, 313 
 Philip v., of Spain, 337, 340 
 Philip " the Good," 125 
 Philip of Flanders, 58 
 Philippa daughter of John of Gaunt, 
 
 queen of John I., 113-15, 123 
 Pieterzoon, L. S. , 379 
 Pina, Ruy de, 169, 379 
 Pina Manique, Diogo Ignacio de, 
 
 see Manique 
 Pinheiro, Antonio de, 280 
 Pinhel, 104 
 
 Pinto, Fernao Mendes, 216, 217 
 Pinto, Serpa, 429 
 Pires, Ines, 118, 125 
 Pisano, Matthew de, 6, 7, 127 
 
 Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 
 
 362 
 Pizarro, Quevedo, 419 
 Placencia, 341 
 Plate, River, 175 
 Po, Fernando, 154 
 Poetry and poets, 89, 90, 126, 
 
 263, 264-74, 301, 378, 379. 430, 
 
 431 
 Pombal, Sebastiao Jose de Car- 
 
 valho e Mello, Marquis of, 355, 
 
 357,. 358, 360-71 
 Ponani, 196 
 Ponte de Lima, 421 
 Ponte de Lima, Thomas Xavier 
 
 de Lima Brito, Marquis of, 372 
 Ponte Delgada, Leonor da Ca- 
 
 mara. Marchioness of, 418 
 Porches, 80 
 Porto, see Oporto 
 Porto Alegre, bishopric of, 183 
 Porto Carrero, Cardinal, 337 
 Porto de Moz, 53 
 Porto Santo, island of, 144 
 Porto Santo, Antonio de Saldanha 
 
 da Gama, Count of, 408 
 Porto Seguro, 222, 229 
 Portuguese Legion, the, 395 
 Povoa, General da, 405 
 Praia Bay, battle of {1830), 419 
 Prehistoric monuments, 4, 5 
 Prose, its commencement, 126, 
 
 127 
 Puebla, Marquis de la, 305, 311 
 
 Quebedo, Vasco Mousinho de, 
 
 301 
 Quesnel, French general, 397 
 Quiloa, South-east Africa, 195 
 Quilon, India, 196 
 
 R 
 
 Ramires, Mem, 49 
 Rarim, 374 
 Ratton, Jacome, 385 
 Raymond of Toulouse, 18, 21, 23 
 Raymond Berenger of Aragon, 54 
 Rebello da Silva, Luis Augusto, 
 425, 431
 
 INDEX. 
 
 445 
 
 Recife, island of. 298, 320 
 
 Red Sea, the, 200, 204, 205, 270 
 
 Redondo, Francisco Coutinho, 
 
 Count of, 184, 246, 270 
 Regency of 1807, the, 393, 400, 
 
 401, 404, 407, 412, 413 
 Regency of 1808, 396 
 Regras, Joao das, 109, iii, 121 
 Republican party, 428 
 Resende, Andrea de, 7, 262, 277 
 Resende, Count of, 413 
 Resende, Sebastiao de, 256 
 Reunion, island of, 175 
 Ribeiro, Bernardim, 263, 264, 
 
 276 
 Ribeiro, Joao Pinto, 305, 306, 
 
 308, 309, 325 
 Ribeiros, Bernardim, 405 
 Richard II., of England, 106, 113, 
 
 118 
 Richard III., of England, 165 
 Richard of Saham, 93, 94 
 Richelieu, Cardinal, 302, 314, 
 
 315 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, 351 
 
 Rio d'Ouro, 147 
 
 Rio Grande, 298 
 
 Rio Grande, Count of, 352 
 
 Rodil, General, 421 
 
 Rodrigues, Martinho, 69, 76 
 
 Roli^a, battle of (1808), 399 
 
 Romans, the, 6-8, 10 
 
 Romances, 126 
 
 Rooke, Admiral Sir George, 337, 
 
 340 
 Rosslyn, General Earl of, 391 
 Roussel, Captain, 426 
 Rubies in Brazil, 377 
 Rupert, Prince, 323 
 
 S 
 Sa e Mello, Ayres de, 372 
 Sa, Emmanuel de, 234 
 Sa, Emmanuel de, 308 
 Sa de Menezes, Francisco de, 301, 
 
 Sa de Miranda, Francisco de, 264- 
 
 66 
 Sa, Garcia de, 212 
 Sa, Pantaleone de, 323 
 Sa, Rodrigo de, 308, 309, 323 
 
 Sa e Benevides, Salvador Corrca 
 
 de, 324, 343. 346 
 Sa de Bandcira, Viscount, 421, 
 
 424 
 Saccavem, 104 
 Sadashivgarh, 374 
 Sagre, Prince Henry at, 125, 140, 
 
 141 
 St. Antonio, Castle of, 312 
 St. Benedict of Aviz, Order of, 
 
 66, 80, 103, 125, 170, 183 
 St. Caetano, Ignacio de, 372 
 St. George, Citadel of, 311, 395 
 St. Helena, 175, 346 
 St. Ildefonso, Treaty of (1796), 
 
 387 
 St. Julian, Castle of, 313 
 .St. Louren^o, Joao Amberto de 
 
 Noronha, Count of, 371 
 St. Louren90, Count of, 420 
 St. Mamede, battle of, 31 
 St. Michael in the Azores, 147 
 St. Paio de Gouvea, 32 
 St. Paul in Brazil, 376 
 St. Pe, Chevalier de, 302 
 St. Salvador, 230, 297, 298 
 St. Thome, 343 
 
 St. Vincent, Cape, battle off, 420 
 St. Vincent, Earl of, 391 
 Sal.ido, The, battle of, 93 
 -Saldanha, Antonio de, 193 
 .Saldanha, Antonio de, 308, 311 
 Saldanha, Cardinal de, 60 
 .Saldanha, Joao Carlos de .Sal- 
 danha de Oliveira e Daun, Duke 
 of, 418, 420, 421, 424, 427 
 Salic law, the, rejected, 106 
 Salvaterra, 87, 107 
 Sampaio, Lopo Vaz de, Governor- 
 General of India, 204 
 Sampaio, Count of, 396, 413, 418 
 San Caetano, San Louren9o, &c., 
 
 ste -St. Caetano, &c. 
 .Sancha, daughter of .Sancho I., 
 
 74 
 .Sanches, Afifonso, 91, 92 
 Sancho I., 56-58, 60-70 
 Sancho II., 74-80 
 Sandwich, Earl of, 330, ^iS 
 Santarcm, 17, 18, 49, 57, 58,60, 
 
 62, 87, 393
 
 446 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Santarem, Joao de, 1 54 
 Santarem, Viscount of, 215, 425 
 Santiago, Knights of, 76, 87, 125, 
 
 170, 183 
 Sarria, Marquis of, 363 
 Sartorius, Admiral Sir George 
 
 Robert, 419, 420 
 Savage, Thomas, 165 
 Scabra, Jose de, 396 
 Schomberg, Frederick, Count, 327, 
 
 331 
 Sebastian, King, 184, 238, 240-45, 
 
 249, 251-56 
 Sebastianistas, the, 256, 257 
 Sebastians, the false, 286-90 
 Seia, Castle of, 37 
 Senegal, River, 150 
 Sepulchre, Knights of the, 32, 
 
 66 
 Sequeira, Diogo Lopes de, 175, 
 
 199, 203 
 Sequeira, Domingos Antonio de, 
 
 380 
 Sequeira, Luis de, 292 
 Serpa, 76, 299 
 
 Serra, Jose Correa da, 379, 385 
 Serrao, Francisco, 175, 199, 214 
 Serrano, General, 421 
 Sesnando, Count of Coimbra, 15, 17 
 Seyr, 18, 24 
 
 Shah Jehan, takes HuglT, 296 
 Ship-building, 143, 144, 169 
 Siam, 175, 214 
 Sieges, 24, 28, 29, 37, 49, 52, 54, 
 
 56, 58, 60,62, 72, 75, 103, no, 
 
 123, 129, 205, 211, 247, 320, 
 .326, 373. 374.419. 420, 421 
 Silkworms, 368 
 Silva, Antonio Correa da, 380 
 Silva, Antonio Telles da, 319, 320 
 Silva, Diogo da, 183 
 Silva, Estevao Soares da, 73, 75 
 Silva, Francisco Coelho da, 385 
 Silva, Luca de Scabra da, 391 
 Silva, Luis Augusto Rebello da, 
 
 .425, 431 
 Silveira, Antonio de, 205 
 Silveira, Antonio de, 401, 405, 
 
 413 
 Silveira, Francisco de, see Ai.iar- 
 ^te, Count of 
 
 Silveira, Jeronymo Lobo de, see 
 Oriolla, Count of 
 
 Silves, 62 
 
 Simcoe, Gen. J. G., 391 
 
 Simon of Dover, 52 
 
 Skelater, Gen. Joao Forbes, 386 
 
 Slavery, 182, 243, 365 
 
 Slave-trade, the African, 148-50, 
 228, 347, 375 
 
 Smith, Sir Sidney, 392 
 
 Soares, Garcia, 31 
 
 Sodre, Vicente, 193 
 
 Solano, Spanish general, 392 
 
 Soriano, Simiao Jose da Luz, 431 
 
 Soult, Marshal, 401 
 
 Soure, 32, 351 
 
 Sousa, Diogo de, 252, 257 
 
 Sousa Coutinho, Domingos An- 
 tonio de, 400 
 
 Sousa Holstein, Frederico de, 37 1 
 
 Sousa, Gon9alo de, 311 
 
 Sousa Coutinho, Luis Pinto de, 
 386 
 
 Sousa, Manoel de, 214 
 
 Soiisa, Martim Affonso de, 205, 
 206, 209 
 
 Sousa Holstein, Pedro de, see 
 Palmella, Duke of 
 
 Sousa Coutinho, Rodrigo de, 388 
 
 Sousa, Thomas de, 229-33 
 
 Sousa, Vasco Martins de, 99 
 
 Southwell, Sir Richard, 333 
 
 Spanish Succession, war of the 340, 
 
 341,351 
 Spencer, Gen. Sir Brent, 399 
 Spice Islands, 199, 294, 295 
 Spice trade, 214, 294, 295, 342 
 Stephanie of Hohenzollern, 425 
 Stephens, Thomas, 294 
 Strabo, 5 
 
 Stratton, Robert, 94 
 Strozzi, Philip, 285 
 Stuart, Major-General Hon. Sir 
 
 Charles, 387, 388 
 Stuart de Rothesay, Lord, 404, 
 
 407, 412, 417 
 Stukeley, Sir Thomas, 252, 255 
 Suez, Estevao da Gama at, 206 
 Sugar, cultivation of, 145, 228, 
 
 318, 347, 375 
 Sumatra, 175, 199, 294
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 447 
 
 Surat, 295 
 
 Synod of Diamper, 292 
 
 Talavera, battle of (1809), 40I 
 
 Talikot, battle of (1565), 246 
 
 Tamaraca in Brazil, 229, 29S 
 
 Tangier, 129, 133, 245, 253, 330 
 
 Taranco, Spanish general, 392 
 
 Tavira, 76, 80 
 
 Tavora, Christovao de, 256 
 
 Tavora, Marquis of, 361, 362, 374 
 
 Taxation, right of, 83 
 
 Telles de Menezes, Gon9alo, 104 
 
 Telles de Menezes, Joao Affonso, 
 
 104 
 Telles de Menezes, Leonor, see 
 
 Leonor 
 Telles de Menezes. Maria, 104, 105 
 Telle, Sebastiao de, 316 
 Templars, Knights, 32, 43, 57, 
 
 62, 66, 72, 86 
 
 Terceira, battle of (1582), 285 
 Terceira, Count of Villa Flor, 
 
 Duke of, 418-22, 424 
 Teshfin, last Almoravide Caliph, 44 
 Texeira, Miguel de, 297 
 Theodosio, son of John IV., 312, 
 
 324 
 Theotonio, St., 49, 58 
 Theresa, daughter of Alfonso VI., 
 
 Countess of Portugal, 18, 22-32, 
 
 98 
 Theresa, daughter of Affonso Hen- 
 
 riques, 58 
 Theresa, daughter of Sancho I., 
 
 63, 64 
 
 Thierry of Alsace, 54 
 Thomar, 43, 44, 62, 184, 283 
 Thomar, Antonio Bernuulo da 
 
 Costa Cabral, Count of, 424 
 Thomas, St., bones of, 208, 209 
 Thomieres, General, 397 
 Tieve, Diogo de, 262, 266 
 Tobacco in Brazil, 347, 375 
 Topazes in Brazil, 377 
 Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494), 163 
 Toro, battle of (1476), 135 
 Torre del Tombo, 135, 186 
 Torres Novas, 53, 130, 421 
 Torres Vedras, 104, 405 
 
 Tower and Sword, Order of, 135, 
 
 137 
 
 Trancoso, battle of (1385), lii 
 Trant, Colonel Sir Nicholas, 405, 
 
 406 
 Trava, Bermudo Peres de, 29, 
 
 37 
 Trava, Fernando Peres de, 28, 29, 
 
 31, 37. 38 
 Travot, General, 397 
 Treaties, 29, 39, 40, 55, 107, 113, 
 
 163, 333. 337-40, 351, 352, 386, 
 
 387, 389. 392 
 Treaties of Commerce, 86, 94, 165 
 Tristao, Nuno, reached Cabo 
 
 Branco, 148 ; killed, 150 
 Troubadours, influence of the, on 
 
 Portuguese poetry, 89, 91 
 Truxillo, taken by Affonso Hen- 
 
 riques, 55 
 Tullio, Marco, 288-90 
 Tunis, expedition to, 179, 2H 
 Tuy, 28-30, 38, 56 
 Tyrawley, Lord, 257, 352 
 
 U 
 
 Udayampura (Diamper), 292 
 Universityat Lisbon, 89,atCoimbra, 
 
 260-62, 268, 278, 3S5, 367, 376 
 Urban IV., Pope, 81 
 Urraca, daughter of Alfonso VI., 
 
 18, 23, 29, 30 
 Urraca, daughter of AfTonso Hen- 
 
 riques, 54 
 Urraca, queen of Aflfonso II., 70, 
 
 74 
 Uruguay, Republic of, 4H 
 
 V 
 Valdevez, tourney and truce of, 39 
 Valencia, 421 
 Valencia de Alcantara, battle of 
 
 (1762), 363 
 Valignano, Alexandre de, 292 
 Valvcrde, battle of (1385), 1 13 
 Vasconcellos de Biilo, Miguel, 
 
 306, 309 
 Vasconcellos, Rodrigues de, iii 
 Vasconians, the, 5 
 Vasriues, Fernan, I02 
 Vaublanc, Viennol de, 396
 
 44S 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Vaz, Tristao, 144 
 
 Vela, Rodrigo, 38 
 
 Vertot, Abbe, 45, 308 
 
 Vespucci, Amerigo, 175, 222 
 
 Vianna, 368, 421 
 
 Vicente, Dean of Lisbon, 74-76 
 
 Vicente, Gil, 262, 263 
 
 Victor, Marshal, 401 
 
 Vidigueira, Count of, see Gama, 
 
 Vasco da 
 Vieira, Antonio, 325 
 Vieira, Joao Fernandas, 320 
 Vienna, Congress of, 407, 408 
 Villa Flor, Count of, 331 
 Villa Flor, Count of, see Terceira, 
 
 Duke of 
 Villa Real, Marquis of, 315- 
 
 17 
 Villa Velha battle of (1762), 363 
 Villa Verde, Count of, 391 
 Villa Vi9osa, 104, 305, 306, 312, 
 
 332 
 Villegagnon, Nicolas Durant, 
 
 Sieur de, 234 
 Villiers, Right Hon. J. C, 400 
 Vimeiro, battle of (1808), 400 
 Vinetus, Elias, 262 
 Viniculture, 87, 145, 368 
 Viriathus, Lusitanian hero, 6 
 Viseu, 8, 15 
 Visigothic rule, 10, 11 
 
 W 
 Waldeck, Prince of, 387, 388 
 Waldemar, King of Denmark, 70 
 Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 
 
 Duke of, 399-402, 405-407, 
 
 418 
 Willikens, Dutch admiral, 297 
 Wilson, Colonel John, 405 
 Wilson, Colonel Sir Robert T., 
 
 399. 401 
 Windsor, Treaty of (1386), 1x3, 
 
 118, 128, 131, 164 
 Witchcraft, 69 
 
 Y 
 Ya'kub, Almohade Caliph, 60, 62, 
 
 63 
 
 Yokohama, factory at, 217 
 York, Edmund, Duke of, 106 
 York, Edward, Duke of, 106, 107 
 Yusuf, Almohade Caliph, 57, 58 
 Yusuf Ad 11 Shah, King of Bija- 
 
 pur, 198 
 Yusiif Ibn Teshfin, 17 
 
 Z 
 
 Zalaca, battle of (1086), 17 
 Zamora, Affonso Henriques, 35, 
 
 39, 40 
 Zamorin of Cahcut, the, 190, 195, 
 
 196 
 Zarco, Joao Gon9alves, 144
 
 
 The Story of the Nations. 
 
 In the story form the current of each National life 
 is distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and note- 
 worthy periods and episodes are presented for the 
 reader in their philosophical relation to each other 
 as well as to universal history. 
 
 It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes 
 to enter into the real life of the peoples, and to bring 
 them before the reader as they actually lived, labored, 
 and struggled — as they studied and wrote, and as 
 they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, 
 the myths, with which the history of all lands begins, 
 will not be overlooked, though these will be carefully 
 distinguished from the actual history, so far as the 
 labors of the accepted historical authorities have 
 resulted in definite conclusions. 
 
 The subjects of the different volumes have been 
 planned to cover connecting and, as far as possible, 
 consecutive epochs or periods, so tliat the set when 
 completed will present in a comprehensive narrative 
 the chief events in the great Story of the Nations; 
 but it is, of course, not always practical)le to issue 
 the several volumes in their chronological order. 
 
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 THE STORY OF THE NATIONS. 
 
 GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison. 
 
 ROME. Arthur Oilman. 
 
 THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hos- 
 
 mer. 
 CHALDEA. Z. A. Ragozin. 
 OERMANY. S. Baring-Gould. 
 NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen. 
 SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan 
 
 Hale. 
 HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vdmbery. 
 CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. 
 
 Church. 
 THE SARACENS. Arthur Gil- 
 man. 
 THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley 
 
 Lane-Poole. 
 THE NORMANS. Sarah Ome 
 
 Jewett. 
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 Rawlinson. 
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 J. P. Mahaflfy. 
 ASSYRIA. Z. A. Ragozin. 
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 MEDIEVAL FRANCE. Prof . Gus- 
 
 tave Masson. 
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 Rogers. 
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 PHCENICIA. George Rawlinson. 
 THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen 
 
 Zimmem. 
 EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred 
 
 J. Church. 
 THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. 
 
 Stanley Lane-Poole. 
 RUSSIA. W. R. Morfill. 
 THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W. 
 
 D. Morrison. 
 SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh. 
 SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and 
 
 Mrs. A. Hug. 
 PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens. 
 
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 W. C. Oman. 
 SICILY. E. A. Freeman. 
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 Bella Duffy. 
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 OF SPAIN. H. E. Watts. 
 AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregar- 
 
 then. 
 SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M 
 
 Theal. 
 VENICE. Alethea Wiel. 
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 and C. L. Kingsford. 
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 BOHEMIA. C. E. Maurice. 
 CANADA. J. G. Bourinot. 
 THE BALKAN STATES. WilUam 
 
 Miller. 
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 W. Frazer. 
 MODERN FRANCE. Andr6 Le 
 
 Bon. 
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 Justin McCarthy, M.P. Two 
 
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 A. S. Htime. 
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 M. Edwards. Net $i.3S- 
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 Barry. 
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 Lane-Poole. 
 BUDDHIST INDIA. T. W. Rhys- 
 Davids.
 
 Heroes of the Nations. 
 
 A Series of biographical studies of the lives and 
 work of a number of representative historical char- 
 acters about whom have gathered the great traditions 
 of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have 
 been accepted, in many instances, as types of the 
 several National ideals. With the life of each 
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 National conditions surrounding him during his 
 career. 
 
 The narratives are the work of writers who are 
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 Fowler. 
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