t. UC-NRLF $B 3DS ma ";p^';;-:n i E ttOG# 'Is •Tr'r-^nr::^^^. I^EADEF( ^^^^, ^IME sij^^sse:::^ (f John 3wett Coini>ii«^^^*^ s of. '^^ AGE.NT FOr? — lYlSON, BLAKEMAN & CO. Office S29 Sa/isome Street, SAN S^BAWCISCO. - C^l-- THE Geographical Reader and Primer A SERIES OF JOURNEYS ROUND THE WORLD (based upon guyot's introduction) WITH PRIMARY LESSONS IVISON, BLAKEMAN AND COMPANY PUBLISHERS NEW YORK AND CHICAGO LBI5S3 Copyright, by CHA.RLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, 3882. gOUCATlONDEPT-- at PREFACE. Guyot's Introduction has been pronounced by competent authorities to be the best of school reading-books. This judgment has led the publishers to present this work in a form more attractive and available for class-room uses. The occasion has been improved to thoroughly revise it, and by changes, additions, and omissions, to give it a completeness such as is indicated by its new name. The value of such a Reader is obvious. The material presented is interesting and useful as matter of knowledge ; its familiar and colloquial style awakens interest in the subject, creates easy and natural tones of expression, and leaves a lasting impress upon the mind. In order to complete its usefulness as a class-book, the leading geographical facts are gathered up and presented in Part II. as a Primer of Lessons. This part is a brief out- line of geography for beginners ; noticing the location and commercial and political character of the countries, the nature of which has been given, with much of their Zi/e, in Part I. The form of these lessons, and their intimate connection with the readings, are such as to make mere repetition of words without thoughts altogether impossible. The Geographical Reader and Primer is believed to embody, both in the choice of material for its grade and in the mode of treatment, the best results of thought and expe- rience on the part of the most earnest and practical edu- cators. 54 5;) 06 "' CONTENTS. PART I. PAGE mTRODUCTIOX 1. NORTH AMERICA. United States. The Atlantic Plain 4 The Appalachian Mountains 14 The Central Plain 20 The Mississippi 23 The Hudson 37 The Great Lakes and St. Lawrence 46 Lake Chainplain and Adirondacks .... 56 New England 59 Rocky Mountain Country 63 The Table-land 66 California 70 Northern Lands 75 Southern Lands 82 SOUTH AMERICA. Amazon and Selvas 89 Andes 97 Plains of the Orinoco 102 Plains of the La Plata 105 ATLANTIC OCEAN 108 EUROPE. British Isles 113 Atlantic Coast Countries 122 South-western Peninsulas 135 Central and South-eastern Europe .... 145 Russia 158 AFRICA 160 ASIA 167 AUSTRALIA 180 PACIFIC OCEAN 182 CONCLUSION (Poem) 184 iv CONTENTS, PART II. PAGE INTRODUCTORY LESSONS 187 NORTH AMERICA. United States. General Lessons 207 New England 215 Middle Atlantic States 220 Cotton States (South Atlantic and Gulf) ... 224 Central States 230 Western Highlands (Pacific States) 235 British America 240 Mexico, Central America, and West Indies . . 241 SOUTH AMERICA. Countries of the Plains 244 Countries of the Andes 246 EXAMINATION ON WESTERN HEMISPHERE . . 248 EUROPE. The Continent 250 British Isles 251 France, Belgium, and Holland 254 The North Countries 255 Mediterranean Countries (Sunny Lands) . . . 257 Switzerland and Germany 259 Austrian Empire 261 Russia and Roumania 262 AFRICA. Northern Africa 268 Middle and Southern Africa 269 ASIA. Northern and Western Asia 272 The Indies 273 Chinese and Japanese Empires 275 AUSTRALIA 278 EXAMINATION ON EASTERN HEMISPHERE . . .280 TABLES FOR REFERENCE 281 LIST OF MAPS. PAGES 1. HEMISPHERES (douLIe pa-e) 194,195 2. UNITED STATES (double page) ..... 212, 213 3. NEW ENGLAND STATES 219 4. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 225 5. SOUTH ATLANTIC AND GULF STATES .... 229 6. CENTRAL STATES 235 7. PACIFIC STATES 239 8. NORTH AMERICA 243 9. SOUTH AMERICA 249 10. BRITISH ISLES 253 11. CENTRAL EUROPE 2C3 12. EUROPE 267 13. AFRICA 271 14. ASIA 277 vi Geographical Reader. WHAT ^W^B LEARN IN GEOGRAPHY. Ge-og'-ra-phy. | de-scrip'-tion. | in'-ter-est-ing. 1. When we want to learn all about a thing, so as to be sure of making no mistake, we like to see and examine it for ourselves. We are not content to know only what others can tell us, for we feel that our eyes are our surest teachers. 2. That is the best way to learn many things about the Earth ; for we live upon it, and it is all around us, and before our eyes at all times. But the earth is so great, and most people travel so little, that they can see for themselves only a very small part of it, even if they use their eyes busily wherever they go. 3. There are a thousand things that every one wants to know about his country, and about other parts of the world, which he must learn by reading books. But these books tell us only what is on the outside, or sur- face^ of the earth; for that is all that interests most people. A book which tells about the surface of the earth, and the people and countries upon it, is called a Geography ; for geography means a description of the earth, 4. When we look around us, we see that the earth 1 GEOGBAPHICAL READER. has two kinds of surface. One is firm and solid; and we call it ground, or land. We walk or ride over it ; we build our houses upon it ; we see trees and grass growing out of it ; we sow seeds in it, and soon it is covered with young, growing plants. 5. There is another part, which is not solid, but is always moving and flowing, and being stirred by the Land and Sea. wind. This is water. People do not often build houses to live in, upon the water ; but there is a sort of build- ing made on purpose to move about on it, and to carry persons from place to place where they may wish to go. These moving houses are boats and ships. People found out how to build them, and to make the water useful in this way, almost as soon as they learned to build houses on the land. WHAT WE LEAEN IN GEOGRAPHY. 6. We see more land than water, and it would not be at all strange if we should think there was more of it on the earth. But geography teaches us that there is much more water than land. Nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface is water, and only about one-fourth is land. This is one of the things which we could not see for ourselves if we should travel over all parts of the earth, and use our eyes carefully everywhere. 7. There are other things about the earth, which wise men found out only through many years of hard study. These, too, we must learn from books. One of these is the shape of the earth. People used, ages ago, to have queer ideas about this. They thought that the earth was flat, like a great plate ; that it was held up in some wonderful way, and that the sun and the stars all trav- elled around it. 8. Now, the books teach us that the earth is a great ball; that it keeps all the time whirling round and round; and that, at the same time, it rolls on in a great journey around the sun, year after year, never stopping even for a single moment. 9. The geographies teach us, too, about interesting countries in far-off parts of the world; about strange people, who look very unlike us ; and about strong and fierce animals and curious plants, which we have never seen, and which could not live at all in a country like ours. 10. Thus children who would become wise must learn how to study books, as well as how to use their own eyes at all times, and to think about what they see. But, if we learn about the earth only what the eyes of travellers can teach them, we shall know a great deal of geography, — more than most people know. NORTH AMERICA. I. -IN THE LEVEL COUNTRY", jour'-ney [jer'-juj], \ car'-riage [care'-rij]. | veg'-e-ta-bles [vef-]. 1. Now for the geography which our eyes can teach us. To get this, we will begin by making a long jour- ney in a carriage, using our eyes busily all the time as we go along. 2. At first, for many hours, we drive through a fine country, with pretty white farmhouses, orchards, and fields of grain; with broad green meadows where the haymakers are busy, and pastures where are flocks of sheep, and herds of cows and horses, feeding on the fresh sweet grass. 3. Little brooks ripple over the pebbles by the road- side, or wind, like silver threads, through the green grass of the pastures and meadows. Here and there are immense gardens, in which are raised great quanti- ties of strawberries, melons, peaches, and other deli- cious fruits, and all sorts of vegetables for the table. 4. Now we drive through the pleasant, shady woods, where merry birds are singing, and many pretty flow- ers are blooming beneath the trees. We see squirrels hopping from branch to branch, or running as fast as their nimble feet can carry them, upon the fence by the 4 m THE LEVEL COUNTRY. roadside, and soon dodging out of sight into some heap of stones or brush. 5. By and by we come to a little village with its church and schoolhouse^ and its stores^ where the farmers come to sell their eggs and butter, and buy their sugar and tea, and the other things which they need. In a Vi 6. There is not much to be seen, only the mill-pond, which has been made by building a dam across one of the brooks we have passed, and the mill beside it, to which the farmers bring their grain. A little way oflF, are the blacksmith's shop and the post-office^ where three or four farmers are standing, talking over the news while waiting for their grain to be ground, or for their horses to be shod by the blacksmith. G GEOGRAPHICAL EEABEU. 7. Toward night we see the land before us rising higher and higher, so that if one above should loosen a stone, it would roll all the way down to us. Our horses begin to go slowly, for it is hard drawing the carriage up this road. Do you know what it is to which we have come ? Of course you do. It is a hill^ and we call it so because it is higher than the rest of the land. We first come to the foot of the hill ; then we go up the slope^ and finally we are at the top^ and we shall soon begin to go down the other side. II. -UPON THE HILL-TOP. ho-ri'-zon. I At-lan'-tic. I o'-cean [-shiui], pal-met'-to. | A-mer'-i-ca. | Pa-cif'-ic. 1. Let us try what we can see from this hill-top. First look behind. There is the country through which we have been driving all the morning. There are many farms and farmhouses; many little villages scattered here and there, roads leading from one place to another in all directions, and railroads crossing the country in long, straight lines. There are also scattering groves that look very fresh and pleasant among the gardens and yellow grain-fields^ and brooks that shine in the sunlight like silver. 2. We can now see much more of the country than was in sight along the way as we were riding ; because it is below us, and we can look down upon the whole of it at once. Compared with these hills, it seems quite flat and level; but there are many swells and hollows UPON THE HILL-TOP. all over it. Do you know what to call a broad, low land like this ? It is a plain. 3. You notice that the earth, at a distance from us as far as we can see, seems to be just against the sky. Do you suppose the sky comes down there and touches the earth? No, it only seems to do so. Look all around. The Plain and Hills. and you will see that on every side it is the same. We seem to be in the middle of a circle, with the sky touching the ground on all sides of us ; just like a fly on a plate with a bowl turned over it. 4. You must remember that this only seems so. If you should go where the sky now appears to touch the earth, you would find it to be just as high, and just as far off, as ever. Some time, when you are older, you 8 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. will understand why this is so : now you can only re- member it. Try to remember, also, that the line where the earth and sky seem to meet, is called the horizon. 5. That part of the horizon where you see the sun rise, is called east. Where it sets, is west. The sun at noon is in the souths and high in the sky. Now, if you stand with your right hand toward the east and your left toward the west, you will face the norths and the south will be behind jou. If you re- member these points, you will always be able to know in what direction you are travelling, and can describe your journey so that other persons who may wish to do so, can follow your route. 6. We came from the east. We are going toward the west. That plain which you see, stretches far away to the east, much beyond the place at which we started. We are now near the western border of it. Away on the eastern border, is an immense body of water. It is called the Atlantic Ocean, and this plain is called the Atlantic Plain because it borders upon the Atlantic Ocean. The part of the plain over which we have travelled is named New Jersey. It is only a very small part of the Atlantic Plain. 7. This great plain extends hundreds of miles to the north and the south, and is everywhere somewhat level ; but it has not, in all parts, the same kinds of trees and animals, nor the same pretty farmhouses, villages, and smooth roads. 8. In some places, away to the south, you will find, for miles and miles, nothing but tall, dark pine-trees. There are no farms, no villages, but only the little cabins in which the people live who gather the turpen- tine from the pine-trees. IN THE LOW PLAIN, 9 9. In other places, still farther south, there are, for many miles, only great swamps, where the black earth is so wet and soft that, should you step on it, your feet would sink, and you might never be able to get out. In these swamps are tall trees, with long moss trailing from the branches ; and many kinds of flowers, growing in the water like the beautiful white water- lily. There are, also, curious birds, with legs so long A Rice-Field. that they seem to be walking on stilts. These are given them so that they can wade in the water to find their food. 10. In the parts which are not swampy, oranges and lemons grow ; and the palmetto^ which is very different from any of the trees in the North. It is a kind of palm-tree, and can grow only in warm countries. There are, also, places where you will find large fields of rice. This grows only in the low lands near the sea, which are often overflowed. When seen growing, it looks much like a field of wheat or tall grass. 10 GEOGRAPHICAL READEJR. 11. Far to the south, there is no winter. Instead of skating and sleigh-rides on Christmas and New- Year's, people are working in their fields and gardens ; and a few days later the ground is green with growing plants, and the roses and other flowers are in bloom. How would you like to live in such a place? 12. This great, rich, and beautiful plain is only one small portion of our country. Do you know what the name of our whole great country is ? It is the United States of America. It reaches north and south as many as fifteen hundred miles, through the very best part of a great land, called North America ; and it stretches east and west twenty-five hundred miles, from the borders of the Alantic Ocean to another great ocean, called the Pacific, III. -AMONG THE HILLS AND VALLEYS. Tren'-ton. I Del'-a-ware [-wur'\. I Phil-a-der-phi-a. Fair'-moimt. | In-de-pend'-ence. | Schuyl'-kill [skooV], 1. We have spent a long time on the hill-top, looking back toward the east, and studying the plain. Now we must go on with our journey. But the country through which we now pass, is quite unlike that which we left behind us. It is not so pleasant to be going up and down, up and down, for hours together. But that is what we must do here ; for there are many ridges to be crossed, and, almost as soon as we are over one, we find another to be climbed. 2. As we go down the long slope of this first ridge, do you notice the green belt of land at the bottom, AMONG THE HILLS AND VALLEYS. 11 before the slope begins to rise to the next ridge ? How pretty it is ! And there, in the lowest part, is a lovely stream of water. These belts of lower land, between the higher grounds, are called valleys. If we were going along the valley, we could follow it for a long distance, by the side of its beautiful stream. Sometimes the hills on each side would be nearer, sometimes farther apart ; and everywhere we should The City of Trenton. see farms and villages, just as we saw them in the plain farther east, for the valley is just like the plain, except that it is narrower. 3. We cross ridge after ridge, and valley after valley. Finally we descend a long, gentle slope ; and there, spread out under our eyes, is a valley, wider and more lovely, and a stream greater, than any of those we have passed. This stream is named the Delaware River ; for large streams are called rivers, and not brooks. 4. Here is a fine village on the river-bank ; and at this place we will take the railroad, and follow the valley 12 GEOGRAPHICAL HEADER. toward the sea. We see, on the banks of the stream, several hirge and busy villages, and some still larger and busier phxces, called cities, 5. As the river goes on, it grows larger and larger ; for brooks and smaller rivers, one after another, flow into it. Thus larger and larger vessels can sail on it, and more and more kinds of business can be done in the places on its banks. So we do not wonder at all when we come to cities that are bigger and more full of business than any which we have before seen. G. Here is a city named Trenton, It is built just where the Delaware has become deep and wide enough for ships and steamboats to move about in its waters. We now change to another railroad. This carries us across the river, and on, south-westward, to a much greater city, built beside the Delaware, nearer the sea. This is Philadelphia, the largest city in our country excepting one ; and that is New Yoek. 7. Here we see mile after mile of streets paved with pieces of stone to keep them firm and smooth. On each side of the streets, are walks which are thronged with people hurrying to and fro. In some of the streets, are lines of railroad. On the rails, are long cars drawn by horses, and filled with people who have too far to go, or are too much in haste, to walk. 8. Beside the streets, are long rows of tall houses, standing so close together that they touch each other, and look like only one great building. There is no room for flower-gardens around the houses, such as we have seen in the villages and small cities. The houses, too, are so much alike, that, if it were not for their numbers, a person might easily mistake some other house for his own. AMONG THE UILLS AND VALLEYS. 13 9. On other streets there are rows of great stores, where thousands of people are busy all day, buying and selling all sorts of goods ; and mills and factories, where other thousands are making nearly every kind of thing you could name. Railroads come into the city from almost every direction ; and there are different stations, Chestnut-street Bridge, Philadelphia. where the trains stop. At all these, are crowds of men moving cars, or handling goods which are to be carried away by the railroads, or storing those which the cars have brought. At the wharves along the river, are other men working about the vessels which have come in, or are going out, laden with goods. Here, too, are hundreds of churches and school-houses, hotels and 14 GEOGRAPniCAL BEABEB. markets, and other buildings for the use of the people. What a wonderful place a great city is I 10. But, where many people live in one place, there are always some bad and troublesome persons, Avho must be kept from doing harm. So the city has police- men to look after them. Besides these, there are the mayor and aldermen, and many other officers, whose duty it is to attend to the public business. All these officers together make up what is called the government of the city. 11. There are many other things in Philadelphia which you would like to see and learn about, if there were time. There is the beautiful Fairmount Park, and there is an old building called " Independence Hall," in each of which something very interesting and important was done. Then there was a famous printer who lived here a hundred years ago. See what you can learn about these places, and about the famous old printer. 12. The Schuylkill^ a small river which joins the Dela- ware, flows through Philadelphia. A number of fine bridges cross it, uniting the parts of the city which it separates. The Chesnut-street bridge is one of them. IV. -AMONG THE MOUNTAINS AND MINES. gor'-ges [-jez]. I Sus-que-han'-na[-na7i]. I Har'-ris-burg. Penn-syl-va'-ni-a. | Ap-pa-la'-chi-an. | ma-chine' [sheen''], 1. Now that we are ready to leave Philadelphia, we can take a train in the western part of the city, which will carry us westward as fast as we wish to go. AMONG THE MOUNTAINS AND MINES. 15 2. At first the road leads through a most beautiful country ; and the pretty houses, and bright flowers, and smooth green fields, and lovely groves, seem like some pleasant park, rather than like the borders of a great city. By and by we find our way lying through rough hills. The road winds among them, finding break after break in the ridges, through which we cross from one valley to another. 3. At length we enter a broad valley, on each side of which is a great wall of very high land. Along the tops of these walls are notches^ so that some parts are much lower than others ; but even the lowest parts are much higher than any hill which we have yet seen. What can be the name of such land as this? You have heard of mountains perhaps. Each of these ^reat solid walls of high land is a mountain-range. The high parts are called mountains^ or peaks ; the low notches, passes^ that is, crossing-places. 4. The mountains are much steeper, as well as higher, than the hills. They are also covered with great for- ests. Wherever we look, we see only trees from the bottom to the top. What can be the reason the moun- tains are covered with forests, while on the plain and hills, and in the valleys, there is only here and there a little grove? There were once forests all over those regions, as well as upon the mountains; but they have been cut down to make room for the farms that now cover the land. We will try, by and by, to learn why the forests have been left upon the mountains. 5. After a time we find a fine river, named the Sus- quehanna., flowing directly across the valley. It makes its way to the sea through -breaks in the mountain- 16 GEOGBAPHICAL HEADER. ranges, such as we saw in the hills from the cars. These are often just Avicle enough for the river to pass, and some are very grand. Such breaks are usually called gorges^ but in these mountains they are also called water-gaps, 6. On the Susquehanna, is the city of Harrishurg. If we go about, to learn what the people are doing, we On the Susquehanna River, above Harrisburg. shall find, in all parts of it, great furnaces, where hun- dreds of men are at work, melting something that looks like black stone. Should you lift it, you would find it much heavier than stone. It is called iron ore^ and is very abundant in the mountains and hills which we saw on our way here. 7. Iron is obtained from the ore by melting it in a AMONG THE MOUNTAINS AND ^flNES. 17 furnace heated by coal. The coal used in the furnaces is also found in the mountains of Penns^dvania. It is a great benefit to Harrisburg to be near the coal and iron mines, and on that account many people come here to live. The cit}^ contains large iron-works, in which hundreds of men are constantly employed. 8. We now leave Harrisburg, and continue our way Avestward, across the valley. We soon reach the moun- tains, and can see of what they are made. They are not of soft earth, like the plain and the valley ; nor of earth and rock mingled, like the liills: but they are made up of masses of rock, some lying one way and some another, with only a little soil upon and between them. 0. We called the mountain-range a wall when we saw it at a distance. You see it is a solid stone wall. The rocks do not all look alike. Some are one great shape- less mass of solid stone ; and some are made up of layers, like very thick slates joined together. In some of these masses the layers are mostly level, like a floor ; in others they are inclined, as if leaning one on another ; and in still others they stand nearly erect, like the walls of a house. 10. What coidd have lifted them, and tossed them about in this way? You would not now understand if one should tell you. But you must try to remember how these rocks appear, and wlien you are older you will learn how they came to look as they now do. We wondered why the forests were left growing upon the mountains. It is because the mountains are so very rough and rocky that we could not well have farms and gardens upon them. 18 GEOGRAPHICAL HEADER. 11. Now we have crossed the mountain-range, and have entered another narrow valley, beyond which is another range, Avith its rounded peaks covered with forests. This, too, we cross; and, as we go on westward, we find other valleys and other ranges of the same kind, side by side, like great folds or wrinkles in the surface of the earth. 12. Now we reach the highest range of all. This we cannot cross through any gorge or valley ; but we must climb the slope, and go over it. The road winds about, back and forth, up and up ; and, when we are near the top, our train dashes into a tunnel cut through the solid rock, and comes out at the other end, ready to descend the long westward slope. 13. These ranges extend far to the south, and far to the north, -almost to the borders of our country. If we should travel throughout their entire length we should find them everywhere very much alike, with their rounded summits and their covering of forests, and with long, narrow, and rich valleys between them. All of these ranges together are called a moiint?im-S2/stem, This is the Ajjpalachian mountain-system. We shall find other mountains, very different from these. Try to remember how these appear. 14. The mountains and hills of Pennsylvania contain immense beds of coal. They lie in separate, and some- times very thick, sheets, with layers of rock above and between them. In some places they are deep in the earth ; but in others they reach the surface, and their black ^dges can be seen between the beds of rock, in the mountain-side or river-banks. Places in which coal is taken out from under the ground are called coal-mines. AMONG THE MOUNTAINS AND MINES. 19 15. When coal is found near the surface, it may very easily be taken out from between the layers of rock ; but, when it lies deep, a hole, like a well, is dug down to it. This entrance is called a shaft. Now a machine for drawing up the coal is placed at the top of the shaft, and then the mine is ready for the workmen. They break the coal from the beds in large masses, which are drawn up the shaft, and afterwards crushed by machinery. 16. Beyond the last range of mountains, is the large city of Pittsburg, It is built where two small rivers unite, and form a greater one, named the Ohio. Pitts- burg contains many great mills and forges, for working iron. The sound of the heavy machinery is never stilled, and black clouds of smoke from the tall chim- neys constantly fill the air. 17. Before we reach Pittsburg, we notice that the mountains gradually become lower and lower. Beyond it the country is made up of low ridges of hills, and wide, green valleys. It is very beautiful, with its pleas- ant groves and bright streams, among which are grain- fields and meadows, and pastures covered with horses, cattle, and sheep. In the country north of Pittsburg, are singular wells, from which mineral oil is pumped instead of water. Kerosene is made from it. 20 GEOGRAPHICAL BEABEB. v.— TN THE ROLLING PLAINS. de-li'-cious {-lish' -us]. I un'-du-la-ting. I Cin-cin-na'-ti. trans-por-ta'-tion. | to-bac'-co. | [Sin-sin-nah'-ii]. 1. The State which lies next west of Pennsylvania, is Ohio. It is a part of a great plain which lies on the west side of the Appalachian Mountains, but is very different from the Atlantic Plain. It is made up of low, round hills, not much higher than the rest of the land, with long, gentle slopes, and wide valleys between them. A surface of this kind, is called a rolling^ or undulating plain. 2. This plain reaches westward for hundreds of miles, all through the middle part of the United States, stretch- ing as far as the Rocky Mountains. For this reason, it has been named the Great Central Plain, But the differ- ent parts of it are very unlike. Most of the country is a rolling surface, like Ohio ; but many parts are as level as the flattest portions of the Atlantic Plain. 3. These flat lands lie along the borders of rivers and great lakes, and were formed in some way by them, as the flat lands of the Atlantic Plain were made by the rivers and the ocean Avorking together. When you are older, you can learn just how this was done ; but now you could not understand it if you were told. Perhaps you can find out where some other flat plains lie, on the border of a distant ocean, where people find in the ground some very interesting things. Learn all you can about them. 4. As the country is unlike in different parts of the IN THE ROLLING PLAINS, 21 Central Plain, so the kinds of work done, and the things which you will see growing, are very unlike. In some parts of it, are immense fields of wheat and corn, stretch- ing, on every side, as far as the eye can reach. In other places, are pastures, where thousands of horses, sheep, cattle, and hogs, are feeding; and in still another part, the hillsides and valleys are planted with grape- A Country View In Ohio. vines, from which the most delicious, juicy grapes are gathered. Some of these are put up carefully in little boxes, and sent to parts of the country where grapes do not grow so well; but most of them are used to make wine. 5. In some places, there are immense fields of flax^ hemp^ and tobacco. The flax is very beautiful. Were you to see a broad field of it, with the slender stalks, 22 GEOGBAPHICAL UEABEB. tipped with blue flowers, waving in the wind, you would almost think you were looking at a blue lake. 6. On the southern border of Ohio, in the midst of the grape region, is the great city of Cincinnati. It is built beside the beautiful Ohio River ^ and h one of the busiest cities of the United States. All summer long, boats are constantly com- ing and going, bear- ing goods to and from the city. 7. Can you think what the people of Cincinnati have jto send away in such quantities ? They have the wines from the grape-country about them ; but, what is more im- portant, they have, from the fine pas- tures all over the State, hundreds and thousands of barrels of beef and pork, and great sacks of wool, and quantities of fine butter and cheese. 8. Besides these things, they have also the wheat and corn from the grain-fields. Thus they easily find loads for all the boats they wish to employ. But the river On the Ohio River. ABOUT THE SPBINGS AND BROOKS. 23 is not the only means of transportation, for railroads enter the city from all directions. 9. All over the greater part of this plain, as well as on the Atlantic Plain, are many pretty villages and great cities, with multitudes of busy people. Some are work- ing in mines, some are making all sorts of useful or beautiful articles, and some are buying and selling goods. All are very active at one thing or another. t5 VI. -ABOUT THE SPRINGS AND BROOKS. * Mis-sis-sip'-pi. | I-tas'-ca [-cah], \ is'-land [V-land]. 1. The surface of the Great Central Plain is every- where cut by green valleys, with clear, bright streams flowing through them, just as in the valleys among the mountains. Let us talk a little about these streams. We would like to learn whence they come, and whither they are going. 2. Do you remember ever seeing, on the sides of hills or mountains, places where the water comes from among the rocks, in little streams cool and clear ? We call such places springs^ you know. There are very many of them in all the hills and mountains that we have passed ; and from every one, flows a little brook of clear, cool water. These brooks that flow through the little valleys, by and by flow together into one greater valley ; and thus they form the rivers. 3. The Ohio River, on which Cincinnati is built, is formed by many smaller rivers, which are made by many little brooks flowing from the springs in the Appalachian 24 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. Mountains. But the hills and mountains are earth and rock, not water. Where, then, can the water of the springs come from? Perhaps we shall learn that by and by. See if you can find it out. 4. Away in a forest of pine-woods, almost on the northern border of our country, is a great number of springs. The hills from which these springs issue, are not high, steep, and rocky, like those near the Appala- chian Mountains ; but they are low and rounded, and made of sand and clay. Little streams flow from the springs in these hills, into a hollow, where they make a very small pond, 5. This pond is the place where the great Missis- sippi River begins its journe}^ to the ocean. From it flows a little brook, so small, one could easily leap across it. You would hardly believe that this tiny stream would become, on its way to the ocean, a great river, large enough to carry heavy steamboats for thousands of miles. 6. Now, it cannot bear even a little boat, as it dances along over its gravelly bed, under the shadow of the pine-woods. The banks on each side of the stream are covered with a soft carpet of bright green moss ; and pretty wild flowers bend over the water. Many fallen trees lie across the brook ; and low shrubs and bushes hang over it, so that, in some places, it is almost hidden by them. 7. After this brook has gone a distance of six miles, it finds another small, basin-shaped hollow, into which it flows. Four other little streams flow into the same basin ; and their waters spread out and fill it, forming a beautiful lake. This is Itasca Lake. It is usually ABOUT THE SPRINGS AND BROOKS. 25 called the source^ or beginning, of the Mississippi ; but the real source is the tiny pond that is formed by the springs among the pines. 8. Some parts of the shore are low, almost even with the water ; but in other places hills rise from the edge of the lake. The low shore is covered with bushes, grass, and flowers, and the hills, with tall pine-trees. In the middle of the lake, is a small piece of land, also covered with tall trees. That is an island. You have perhaps seen is- lands in little streams in the woods and mead- ows. 9. If we were to come here in win- ter, we should find this place looking very different. The pretty lake, and all the streams flowing into it, would be covered with thick ice. The grass and low bushes would be buried out of sight, the flowers dead, and the pine-trees wrapped in hoods and mantles of snow. Thus they sleep all through the long winter of four or five months, until the return of spring awakens them to new life. Itasca Lake. 26 GEOGBAPUICAL READER. VII.-ON THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI. ca-noe' [-noo']. i trib'-u-ta-ries. i St. An'-tho-ny. prec'-i-pice [pres'-]. I Min-ne-ap'-o-lis. I [Saint An'-to-ni.] 1. In order to learn something more about brooks and rivers, let lis take a journey down the Upper Mis- sissippi, starting from Itasca Lake. But what shall we travel in ? The river at first is not big enough to carry even the smallest kind of a steamboat or sailing-vessel : so we must get a little boat called a canoe^ which is moved by paddles. We shall easily find somebody to paddle us down the river. 2. Mile after mile we glide along, through the wild forest and the bright, sunny openings. We pass the mouth of many a smaller brook which pours its clear waters intQ the Mississippi, and so it grows larger and larger as we go on. These streams, which bring their waters to it, are called tributaries of the river. 3. We have now come to a place where great rocks lie in the middle of the stream, and the water foams and dashes through the narrow passages between them, so that we expect every moment to be driven against them, and have our boat broken in pieces. The cur- rent is so swift, that, in some places, the men cannot keep the boat off from the rocks with the paddles, but must wade in the stream to guide it through the narrow channels. 4. The bottom, or bed, of the river is very sloping ; and that is the reason the water moves over it so rapidly, just as your sled goes more swiftly down a steep hill ON THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI. 27 than on a more gentle slope. The boatmen call this place the Rapids. Can 3^ou think why it is called so ? 5. By and by we have passed the Rapids, and the river is broad and gentle ; and, here and there, it spreads out into beautiful lakes, with green islands in them. Their shores of white sand glisten like snow in the sunshine ; and trees of elm and maple, with bright green leaves and slender branches waving in the wind, make pretty groves upon their borders. 6. After we have gone on for many, many miles, we reach a place where the river is quite narrow, and the banks are somewhat steep. The boatmen tell us we must walk for a short distance ; and, after we have left the canoe, they draw it up to the bank, and take it on their heads to carry it. I wonder what that is for. Perhaps, on our walk, we shall' learn the reason of it. 7. We climb up the bank, and find a nice path through the forest. Do you hear that great roaring noise coming from the river? Let us go closer, and see if we can find what makes it. The banks here are very steep ; and we must cling to the branches of the trees, or we shall fall over. 8. Now look back, up the river. There is a place where the river's bed drops down suddenly, becoming much lower than before ; and you see the waters come leaping and dashing down this long step, making a great foam and noise, just as you have seen them sometimes leap over a mill-dam. 9. This is called a waterfall., or cataract; and the steep descent in the bed of the river is a precipice. You may have seen little falls in the brooks, among the meadows and woods: they are called cascades. Now 28 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. can you tell me why we have been obliged to walk? and why the boatmen took their boat out of the water, and carried it, instead of letting it carry them and us ? The boat could not have come down the falls without being dashed in pieces, and we should all have been drowned. 10. As we go on from this place, we find many rapids and falls hindering our way ; and we pass among lovely islands in the bed of the stream, which has now deep- ened, and spread out into a large river. The country through which it flows, is no longer covered with for- ests; but farms, villages, and small cities take their place, just as on the rivers in the Atlantic Plain. 11. By and by, after many and many a day, we find a FROM ST. PAUL TO ST LOUIS. 29 busy, bustling city on both sides of the river, across which a number of bridges have been built. One of these is a suspension-bridge., supported by great ropes of tAvisted wire, hung on tall piers. It makes a way for street-cars, as well as for people and carriages, to cross the stream. 12. This is the city of Minneapolis ; and here are St. Anthony's Falls, the last which the river makes in its course toward the sea. The people who first came here, saw what a fine place this would be to build mills ; for the water could be made to turn a vast number of mill-wheels. And now the banks are crowded with mills, and the water filled up with logs, and the falls hidden by timbers, so that one can hardly see any of the original view. Here our canoe-trip must end, — hundreds of miles from its beginning. 13. Only ten miles farther down the river, is another fine city named St. Paul, to which we will go in a car- riage. From St. Paul, the whole voyage to the sea can be made by steamboat. VIII. -FROM ST. PAUL TO ST. LOUIS. prai'-rie \_pray'-re\. \ dan'-ger-ous [-jer-ns\. \ Mis-sou'-ri [-ri\. 1. From the little lake which makes the cradle of the Mississippi, all the way to Minneapolis, groves of trees are everywhere in sight ; and, once, nearly that whole country was covered with forests. Southward from this place, even before the white men came to cut down the trees, there were great treeless spaces, covered with rich grass and bright flowers. 30 GEOGBAPHICAL HEADER. 2. When tlie first white roan saw these grassy plains along the Mississippi, he called them prairies; which in his language, was the name for meadows. They were everywhere so smooth and green, and the low, round hills here and there, with their clusters of trees, looked so much like orchards, that it seemed almost as if people had lived here a great while ago, and planted these trees, and levelled these beautiful prairies. A Prairie Farm. 3. One might have travelled many miles, east and west and south, and found them everywhere the same. Many beautiful birds hid in the grass, or went hopping about after the seeds and the insects on which they fed. There were also great droves of buffaloes, that fed upon the prairie-grass; and curious little animals, called prairie-dogs^ made their burrows together, like the houses of a village. 4. Sometimes in the summer, when the grass was very FROM ST, PAUL TO ST. LOUIS. 81 dry, a little spark from a hunter's gun or pipe would set it on fire. Then the flame rushed over miles and miles of land, burning every blade of grass, and every tree and shrub ; and even the animals could not always get out of the way of the fire, which went as fast as the wind. The burning prairie looks very grand ; but when the flame is gone, and only the bare black earth is left, it is very dreary. 5. The prairie country, in winter, was sometimes one vast sheet of snow, with only here and there a house dotting it, and not a tree nor a fence to mark one place from another. It was very dangerous then for people to try to cross the prairies ; for as the roads were cov* ered with snow, and there was nothing to mark their place, travellers sometimes got lost, and were frozen to death. 6. Now all this is changed ; and along the Mississippi and far westward, where once the wild prairies bloomed, there are busy cities, and pretty villages, and great farms with immense fields of wheat and corn, stretch- ing as far as the eye can reach. Throughout the prairie country, the gently-sloping banks of the Mississippi are interrupted by steep walls, that rise on each side far above the water, as though a pathway had been cut foi it, deep below the surface of the plain. These high steep slopes are called bluffs, 7. The bluffs do not rise close along both banks of the river. They are separated by a broad band of land, so low and flat as to be always overflowed when the water is a little higher than usual. This is called bottom-land. Some parts of it are great marshes, covered with tall grass, or with thickets of cane that look something like 32 GEOGBAPHICAL HEADER. fields of corn, though the cane is much higher than the tallest corn. Other parts are covered with dense forests. 8. The river has now become very large ; and, though there are no waterfalls nor any rapids, it still flows quite swiftly. Its course, too, is very winding. In some places, it glides in curves through the middle of the bottom-lands : in others, its path is directly under the foot of the bluffs, which it is all the time washing and wearing away, carrying down to the sea the earth and rocks that fall from them. 9. Great trees, too, have the earth thus washed away from them, and are carried downward by the waters. Sometimes their roots become fastened to the bottom of the river, while their sharp tops, pointed down stream, reach nearly or quite to the surface. These are called snags., and are very dangerous ; for steamers going up stream may easily run against them and be wrecked. 10. When we have gone about half the length of the Mississippi, and have passed many rivers flowing into it from both east and west, we reach the mouth of the Missouri., its largest tributary. This stream is much wider than that part of the Mississippi above it, and twice as long. Missouri means mud river; and as the broad mass of muddy water comes pouring into the bright, clear Mississippi, we do not at all wonder at the name. ON THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI. 83 IX. -ON THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI. St.Lovi'-is[SaintLoo'-is]. I plan-ta'-tions. I al'-li-ga-tors. rep'-tiles [-tilz]. I New Or'-le-ans. I lev'-ee [lev'-2j]. 1. Below the mouth of the Missouri, is St Louis^ the largest city upon the banks of the Mississippi. It is also one of the largest and best located places in the United States. Its position on the Mississippi enables it to send boats from its wharves, not only to every city and village along this river, but also to those on the Missouri. 2. But this is not all. Not far below St. Louis, is the mouth of the Ohio^ which is also a tributary of the Mississippi. By this stream, boats can be sent to Cin- cinnati and Pittsburg, and other places on its banks. Thus, by these three great rivers, and the smaller ones flowing into them, St. Louis can easily trade with every part of the rich plain through which they flow. Be- sides, like Cincinnati, railroads lead from this city in all directions. A long and handsome bridge,with a railroad- track as well as a carriage-way, crosses the Mississippi here. 3. Below the mouth of the Ohio, the rich country through which the Mississippi flows, begins to be cov- ered with fields of cotton, instead of wheat and corn. In the spring, the young plant may be seen starting up from the seeds, in long lines across the fields. It grows rapidly, and puts forth branches like a little tree ; and in summer it is covered with pretty pale-yellow flow- ers. Toward autumn, instead of flowers, you see a 34 GEOGBAPHICAL BEADEB. round fruit, looking something like a walnut covered with its outside coat. When this fruit is ripe, it opens ; and the long fibres of cotton, in which the seeds are wrapped, cover the plants like balls of snow. Cotton-Picking. 4. Now you may see hundreds of negro men and women, working in the fields, picking the cotton care- fully from the pod with their fingers. This is very slow work ; and, as the cotton-balls are not all ripe at the same time, it lasts a long while. After the cotton is picked, it must be dried, and the seeds all taken out. Finally it is packed in great bundles, or hales^ and is ready to be sent to the cotton-mills, to be made into cloth. ON THE LOWEJR MISSISSIPPI. 35 5. The country on each side of the Lower Mississippi, for hundreds of miles from its mouth, is very low and flat. It is one great plain of black earth and sand, in which not even a single stone can be seen. The parts near the river are a little higher than the rest; and they are covered with great plantations of sugar- cane, looking like fields of corn. Beyond these, are immense marshes covered with canebrakes and tall trees. 6. Every year, in the spring and summer, tlie streams overflow their banks ; and these marshes become lakes, in which only the tops of the trees can be seen. Often villages would be washed away, plantations covered, and every thing destroyed, were it not for walls, called levees^ which are built on the banks of the river to make them higher, and prevent overflowing. Some- times these levees are broken, and the lands behind them are covered with water, and many people are drowned. 7. This is a warm country, like the southern part of the Atlantic Plain. The marshes and streams are thronged with alligators, snakes, turtles, and other reptiles ; and the air swarms with troublesome insects, 8. In this low country, near the mouth of the Missis- sippi, with the sugar- plantations all about it, is the great city of N'ew Orleans, Here the planters bring their hogsheads of sugar and molasses, which are put upon steamboats or sailing-vessels, and sent to parts of the country where sugar-cane cannot grow. Boats come here, too, loaded with cotton from the plantations far- ther up the river. This is put in strong ships, and sent to other parts of our own country, or across the ocean 36 GEOGBAPHICAL READER. to distant countries, wliere it is made into all kinds of cotton cloth. Thus you see that this, too, is a very active city. It is also a curious old town. You will like to learn more about it when older. 9. We have now travelled all the way from the source of the Mississippi to its mouth, about one hun- dred miles below New Orleans. This river is so very On the Levee at New Orleans. long, that should we start from its source in the spring, just after the snow is gone, and travel twenty miles every day, it would be nearly fall before we should arrive at its mouth. There are but very few rivers in the whole world longer than the Mississippi. The part of the sea into which it flows, borders upon the south side of the United States, and is called the Grulf of Mexico, AT THE MOUTU OF THE HUDSON. 37 10. Ships from other countries cross the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and go up the Missis- sippi to New Orleans. There they unload their cargoes. Some of the goods are used in the city ; and some are put on steamboats, and sent up the river to other places. These steamboats return to New Orleans, loaded with lumber, wheat, corn, tobacco, cotton, and other things, which are to be carried by ships to countries across the ocean. 11. Thus, you see, the rivers help to make a pathway, not only beween different parts of our country, but also to other countries away beyond the ocean. This it is which makes large rivers so important. X.-AT THE MOUTH OF THE HUDSON. Hud'-son. I In'-dian [ind'-ijcui]. \ anch'-or [ank'-Qr'\. 1. There is, in the northern part of the United States, another river, which, though it is only about half as long as the part of the Mississippi above St. Anthony's Falls, yet is nearly as important as the Mississippi itself. It is the Hudson, It flows through the eastern part of the btate of New York, from north to south. At its ' mouth, on a large island, is New York, the largest city in America. 2. Boats come down the Hudson to New York, bring- ing loads of wheat and corn from the great grain-fields on the prairies ; loads of lumber from the forests near the sources of the Mississippi ; and many other things which come from the west by the great lakes on the 38 GEOGUAPHICAL HEADER. northern border of the United States. By the same pathway, the silks, coffee and tea, and other things that are brought to New York in ships, from countries across the ocean, are sent to the cities in the northern and middle part of our country. The Hudson is there- fore much more important than most other rivers, ex- cepting the Mississippi. New- York Harbor. 8. New York, though it is the largest city in Ameri- ca, is not nearly so large, nor so old, as several cities in other countries. The first houses were built there not quite three hundred years ago, by some Dutch people who came from a country on the other side of the At- lantic Ocean. AT THE MOUTH OF THE HUDSON. 39 4. Then the great plain east of the Appalachian Moun- tains, which is now covered with farms, pretty villages, and fine cities, was everywhere one unbroken forest. In the shade of these forests, lived many beautiful birds and some large and strong ones, like the eagle. There were many fierce wild animals, — bears, wolves, and panthers ; and there were many harmless ones, like the deer. 6. The Indians, also, lived in these forests. Their huts were the only houses the Dutch strangers found ; and their bark canoes, the only boats on the Hudson. The Indians did not like to have the white people come to live in their country ; because they cut down the forests, built houses, and ploughed and planted the fields, and thus frightened away the wild animals. They, therefore, burned the houses of the Dutch, and killed many people. In this way they tried to drive them away, or to prevent their making themselves com- fortable, and increasing in numbers. c. But they did not succeed. More Dutch people came every year ; and, by and by, English people came also. The little village grew into a great town ; the town increased in size as the years passed, and at length became a city. Fine, large buildings were put up ; new streets, broad and straight, were opened; and pretty parks were laid out : and thus, after many years. New York, which began with a dozen or two little log houses, has become the great city it now is. 7. In the broad mouth of the river, beside the city, are hundreds and hundreds of ships from all parts of the world. Some are moved by the wind blowing against sails ; others are great steamers, much larger and stronger 40 GBOGRAPHICAL HEADER. than those on the Mississippi. Some are used to carry goods and travellers from one place to another ; others are war-ships, carrying soldiers, and great, heavy, ter- rible cannons. 8. Here, also, are large steamboats which rmi only upon the Hudson. Some of these Hudson steamers are very elegant, and move over the water with great speed. We shall presently get into one of them, and make a journey up the river. 0. Many vessels lie quietly on the water, held in place by a strong, heavy anchor., Avhicli is fastened to the ship by a great rope, called a cable. When the master of the ship wishes to remain in the same place for some time, ho has the anchor thrown into the water ; and it sinks to the bottom, fastens itself to the earth by its strong hooks, and holds the ship securely. This place in which the ships are lying at anchor, is called the harbor, 10. There are islands, near the mouth of the river, that keep the great waves of the sea from rolling into the harbor ; and the high lands, on each side of it, pre- vent the winds from blowing very hard upon the ships. Thus, they ?ire in no danger of being dashed about and broken in pieces, as they might be in the ocean. New- York Harbor is one of the largest and safest in the world. UP THE HUDSON. 41 XL -UP THE HUDSON. per-pen-dic'-u-lar. I aq'-ue-duct [aA:'-ioe-]. I Al' -hSi-JiY [Aiol'-]. Pal-i-sades'. | car'goes. 1 Ad-i-ron'-dacks. 1. At nine o'clock on a beautiful spring morning, we make our way to the place where the Hudson-river steamers are to be found, and go on board one of them. The sunlight falls on the sails that skim the harbor, and makes them white as snow ; and the tall domes and spires of the city glitter like silver. 2. We pass miles of wharves lined with vessels which are receiving or discharging their cargoes, and of streets, some bordered with low, dirty-looking shops, some with tall, handsome buildings. Here and there, are large factories with dull brick walls and smoking chimneys. Noav we begin to know what a great city New York is. At length the ^hops and wharves and straight, paved streets, are all passed, and we are steam- ing along through the country. 3. On the east bank of the river, are beautiful country- houses, surrounded by trees, with pretty walks winding down the green slope to the water's edge. There are dark evergreens with their tall, stiff figures, and grace- ful elms and maples, with their delicate green leaves dancing in the morning wind. There are other trees, covered with snow-white flowers, with scarcely a leaf to be seen. The ground is smooth, and the grass thick and green, showing that somebody has taken care of these lands, and spent much time and money to make them beautiful. 42 GEOGEAPHICAL HEADER. 4. The west side looks very different. There rises, near the river's edge, a great perpendicular wall of naked rock, reaching very much higher than the tallest tree. It begins opposite the upper part of New York, and extends several miles up the river. 5. This wall is called the Palisades, That sloping bank seen at its ^ ^ foot, is made of pieces of rock that are constantly fall- ing from above. Here and there, at the foot of the slope, is a little cottage or other small build- ing ; but there are none of those fine houses and parks that make the other bank so beautiful. 6. Just above the Palisades, the river spreads out into a broad sheet, like a lake. This is called Tappan Bay, The banks are high, and covered with handsome houses and parks, like those already seen ; and here and there, are pretty little villages almost hidden by trees. Beyond the villages, are fine farms, with orchards covered with their fragrant pink and white blossoms. Ploughmen and sowers are working in the fields; and flocks of sheep Palisades of the Hudson. UP THE HUDSON. 48 and lambs, and herds of cows, are feeding upon the hill- sides. 7. At the upper end of Tappan Bay, the Croton^ a little river of bright, pure water, flows into the Hud- son. It comes from small lakes away among the hills east of the Hudson. From the Croton, water is car- ried, in a great tube called an aqueduct^ all the way to the city of New York, and is sent through pipes into the houses and other buildings; for, in a great city where so many people live, they cannot have springs and wells of pure water, as in the countr}\ 8. After a time, the Hudson becomes very narrow, and changes its course, so that we can see it only for a short dis- tance ahead. On both sides, great mountains come down to the water's Highlands of the Hudson. edge, with their steep, rocky slopes covered with forests of evergreens. The river seems to be coming to an end at the foot of these mountains. 9. As we go on, a narrow passage opens between them, — so narrow, one could almost toss a stone from the boat to either bank. Through this passage, the river rushes so swiftly that the people here call this place the Horse Race, For a long distance, the river keeps this narrow path, with the mountains on each side of it. All this great cluster of mountains together, is called the Sigh- lands of the Hudson, 44 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. 10. In the Highlands, on a part of the mountain-side which is less steep, is West Point, of which you will hear and read many interesting things as you become older. Opposite West Point, is the narrowest part of the Hudson. Many years ago our country was at war with England, and the English had possession of New York. Our people then built strong forts here, with heavy guns pointing over the river, to fire on the English ships if they should attempt to go farther up the stream with their soldiers, to destroy the cities and villages along its banks. 11. Beyond the Highlands, for many miles, the high, sloping banks of the river are again covered with fine farms and elegant buildings, with villages and cities here and there. Soon the distant Catskill Mountains can be seen in the west, like a bank of purple clouds. They do not approach very near to the river, but in some places can be seen quite plainly. 12. Above the Catskills, the river contains many islands. Some are rocky and covered with trees, and look like little hills in the middle of the stream. Others are very flat, and covered with low plants. 13. After some hours, we reach Albany^ the largest city on the Hudson, except New York. It is built on a number of hills that rise up from the river, one beyond another ; so that, in passing, a great part of the city can be seen. On the top of one of these hills, surrounded by fine old elms, is a large building in which, every winter, chosen men, from all parts of the State meet to make the laws that govern its people. Because they meet here, Albany is called the capital of New York. The building in which they meet is named the Capitol. UP THE HUDSON. 45 14. Six miles above Albany, there is a smaller city, named Tro^, Here, as in Harrisburg and Pittsburg, are great furnaces and iron-works. We have now been from early morning until evening upon the river, and have gone from New York to Troy, one hundred and fifty miles. 15. We can go no farther than Troy on the steamer , for here the stream becomes too small, and, like the Upper Mississippi, its course is filled with rapids and waterfalls. The finest of these is Glen's Falls, There, and at the other rapids and falls, are mills of different kinds, the wheels of which are moved by the water of the river. Thus the Upper Hudson, as well as the lower and larger part, is very important. Its source is far away in the northern part of the State, among some high, rugged mountains called the Adirondacks, iG. Every part of the Hudson thus lies among moun- tains. Above the Palisades, mountains — sometimes near at hand, sometimes far off — are in sight of the river through the whole distance to its source. Along the entire length of the Mississippi, nearly ten times that of the Hudson, there is not a single mountain- range: the bluffs are the only high land to be seen. The Mississippi is the river of the Great Plain, but the Hudson is a mountain-river, 17. The Hudson has only one large tributary, the Mohawk. It flows from the west, and enters the Hudson near Troy. The Mohawk valley is full of fine farms, and covered with pretty villages ; and along the river are busy cities. The Dutch, who founded New York, made settlements about the mouth of the Mohawk ; and some of their fine old mansions are still to be seen. 46 GEOGBAPHICAL BEADER. XII. -THE ERIE CANAL AND THE GREAT LAKES. MackM-naw. | Mich'-i-gan [MIsh'-']. \ Chi-ca'-go [-cato'-]. 1. FnOM Albany, a canal has been made through the Mohawk valley, connecting the Hudson Avith Lake Erie. It is a broad, deep channel filled with water, on which boats run between the river and the lake. Lake Erie is one of the five great lakes which extend along the northern border of the United States. By the Hudson, the Erie Canal, and the Great Lakes, we have a water-route all the way from New York to the great grain-fields on the prairies. 2. Canal-boats, loaded at New York, are towed by steamboats up the river, and are drawn on the canal by horses walking on a tow-path beside it. At length they reach Buffalo^ a fine city at the east end of Lake Erie. The goods are now taken from them, and put upon larger boats which sail upon the lakes ; and the canal- boats are loaded with grain, lumber, and other freight, and sent back to New York. 3. Lake Erie is very different from the little lakes found among the hills on the Upper Mississippi. It is much longer than the whole distance from New York to Troy ; and is so wide, that, if we were in the middle of it, we could scarcely see land on either side. 4. Sometimes, when the wind blows hard, the water is lifted up in great ridges, with deep hollows between them, like little hills and valleys in the lake. These ridges of water are called waves, and they heave the THE ERIE CANAL AND TUE GREAT LAKES, 47 large vessels about as easily as you could toss an egg- shell in your hand. Sometimes vessels, driven ashore, are dashed in pieces by them; and all the people on board are drowned, and all the goods lost. The south- ern side of Lake Erie belongs to the United States ; The Monawk Valley and the Erie Canal. and all along its shores, are cities and villages, where the steamers stop to receive or land passengers and goods. 5. At the west end of Lake Erie, a short river enters it from the north. It comes from Lake Huron,, and widens in the middle, forming Lake St. Clair. Lake 48 GEOGRAPHICAL BEADER. Huron is nearly three times as large as Lake Erie. In it are many large, beautiful islands covered with trees; and, in almost its whole extent, it is bordered with forests like those about the source of the Mississippi. There are no large cities, and but few villages, on its shores. After we have gone the entire length of Lake Huron, we enter a short and rapid stream, named the Strait of Mackinaw, This brings us into Lake Michigan. 6. Lake Michigan is the smaller one of two great lakes which we can enter from the head of Lake Huron. It extends far toward the south, and much of its shore is covered with forests. All around the southern part, are villages and cities, which are every day sending out vessels loaded with lumber from the forests, or with grain from the farms. At its head, is the great city of Chicago^ which only a few years ago was but a small village. 7. The grain, flour, beef, and pork produced in the region of the prairies around and far west of the Mis- sissippi are brought here in immense quantities, and forwarded to New York. From this place, they can easily be sent, in ocean ships, to all parts of the world. Since there are railroads running in every direction, Chicago trades with other cities, as well as with New York, to Avhich it has this easy water-way by the lakes, the canal, and the Hudson. 8. Lake Superior is the other great lake which is con- nected, by a short and narrow stream, with Lake Huron. Its shores, also, are covered with pine-forests. In some places on the south shore, there rise from the water's edge high walls of rocks of strange forms and differ- ent colors. These are called the Pictured Hocks. THE ERIE CANAL AND TUE QBE AT LAKES. 49 9. Parts of the shore are yery high and steep ; and in one place a river, in entering the lake, falls over the steep precipice, making a beautiful waterfall. When there are storms, the waves dash against these rocks with great fury ; and, if there should be vessels in that part of the lake, they would be almost sure to be wrecked, for there is no sheltered harbor in which they could find safety. 10. This is the largest lake of fresh water known in the whole world. It spreads out on all sides, like a great sea. A steamer is two or three days in going from one end of it to the other, and, in the middle parts, is out of sight of land, as though in the middle of the ocean. There are not so many vessels to be seen on this lake as on the other three ; and there are ^°pp^' '^'"'"^• no great cities, and but few villages, along its border. 11. On the south shore, there are large mines of copper, in which hundreds of men are at work all the time. Sometimes great lumps of copper are found, with no stone mixed with it, and all ready to be made into kettles, and other things for which copper is used. This is called native copper. Rich iron ore, also, is found on the south shore ; and all summer one may meet, on the lakes, vessels loaded with it. Ore is sent from these mines to cities on the shores of the other lakes, and 50 GEOGRAPHICAL READER, even to more distant places, where there are furna,ces for separating the metal. 12. Toward the foot of the lake, near Lake Huron^ many people are engaged in catching white-fish, which are abundant here. In the forests along the shores, are many wild animals which are hunted for their furs. Among these is the beaver. Do you know how he builds his home upon the streams? 13. At the western end of Lake Superior, the St. Louis River enters it. This stream has its source very near that of the Mis- sissippi, in the same forest-covered hills , and, like that river, its waters find their way, through a long, long course, to the Atlantic Ocean. LAKE ONTARIO AND THE ST. LAWRENCE. 51 XIII. -LAKE ONTARIO AND THE ST. LAWRENCE. St. Law'-rence. La-chine' {-sheen']. Mon-tre-al' {-awl']. Que-bec'. Mont-mo-ren'-ci [-se]. Ot'-ta-wa. 1. From the east end of Lake Erie, a passage leads northward to another great basin. This passage is called Niagara River., and the basin beyond is Lake Ontario. About half way between these lakes, are the great Niagara Falls. Standing on the bank by the water's edge, below the fall, you see before you a high wall of water, nearly a mile in length, pouring down from above, filling the air with clouds of mist, and almost deafen- ing you with its roaring. 2. This broad mass of water is of a pale green color ; the boiling, rolling stream below is snowy white ; while the clouds of mist show, in the sunshine, all the colors of the rainbow. In the middle of the fall, is an island, crowned with evergreen trees ; and its black rocks divide the beautiful green waters into two broad sheets. 3. The broad green wall of waters, the white foamy mass below, the black rocks, and the dark-green foliage, with the terrible roaring, thundering noise of the rush- ing waters, present a scene more grand and wonderful than any thing you can imagine. ''agara Fa\\5- 52 GEOGRAPHICAL HEADER. 4. Lake Ontario is the last and the smallest of the five Great Lakes, and the only one that has both shores bor- dered everywhere with farms, villages, and cities. The southern shore belongs to the United States, and the northern to Canada, From the eastern end of this lake, the water flows north-eastward to the Atlantic, in a great stream called the St, Lawrence, At the point where it leaves the lake, is a city on the Canada shore named Kingston, From this place, steamers are every day going down the river, and around the lake, stop- ping at all the important places. 5. The part of the river near the lake is filled with a great number of islands, — some quite large, and others very small. They are all covered with tall forest-trees, and are reflected in the quiet waters as in a mirror, making a very beautiful picture. This part is called the Lake of the Thousand Lsles. 6. Below the Thousand Isles, the river is broad and gentle for a long distance, with fine forests on both sides of it, and only here and there a village on the banks. Farther on, the banks become higher and steeper, and the river more swift, and we enter the great rapids. In the middle of the stream, are many islands ; and the river foams and dashes through the narrow channels, carrying our boat with it. It needs several strong men to guide it so that it shall not strike the rocks in its passage. These are the Lachine Rapids. 7. We could not go up the rapids as we have come down ; for the water would force the boat back as fast as the steam could drive it forward. For this reason, a canal has been cut around the rapids, for vessels which are going up stream. LAKE ONTARIO AND THE ST. LAWRENCE. 53 8. A little below the Thousand Isles, the river leaves the border of the United States, and goes across a part of Canada to the ocean. There are not upon its banks such numbers of villages and cities as along the Mis- sissippi and the Hudson; for this part of Canada The Citadel of Quebec. is rather cold, and does not contain many people. The country is, in many parts, still covered with forests where only hunters, Indians, and wild animals live. 9. The largest city on the St. Lawrence is Montreal., a little way below Lachine Rapids. It is situated at the foot of a mountain, on a fine island in the river. Opposite the upper end of the island, a large stream, called the Ottawa., flows into the St. Lawrence from the north. 10. Quebec, another city on the St. Lawrence, is built at the mouth of the aS'^. Charles., about one day's jour- 54 GEOGRAPHICAL BEABEB. ney for a steamboat, below Montreal. It stands on the point of land made by the meeting of the two rivers. In front, the ground is nearly as low as the river ; but farther back, it rises in a steep bluff. 11. Quebec is built partly on the low, and partly on the high land. The Upper Town — that is, the part on the hill — contains a strong fort called the Citadel^ and is surrounded by a great wall with five gates. In the citadel, are soldiers whose duty it is to defend the town if an enemy should attack it. 12. Looking about you from the Citadel, you see, in front, the river spread out like a broad lake, its surface dotted with vessels, with now and then a steamer hur- rying to and fro, or a raft of lumber floating slowly down the stream. 13. Below you is the Lower Town, having on one side the broad St. Lawrence, and on the other the small, beautiful St. Charles. Behind, away in the distance, are green hills and forest-covered mountains, and, stretch- ing away to the east as far as you can see, the great river, becoming always broader and broader, until it seems to be itself another lake going to the sea; for it soon becomes half as wide as Lake Erie.^ 14. The French people began to build this town, long before the Dutch commenced New York ; and though the English took it from them in time of war, there are still many French people living here, and French is more spoken than English. 15. The summers in Quebec are quite warm ; but the . winters are long, and very, very cold. The snow is 1 The St. Lawrence just below Quebec is twelve miles in width; but, long before it reaches the Gulf, it has a width of near thirty miles. LAKE ONTARIO AND THE ST. LAWRENCE. 55 deep; and the small lakes and rivers, and even the great St. Lawrence, from Montreal all the way to the sea, are frozen over for several months. Then people drive about npon them in sleighs, instead of sailing in boats as in summer. 16. When the spring comes, and the ice in the St. Lawrence begins to break up, the sight is very grand. Great blocks of ice are carried down stream by the water; for the upper part, nearest the lake, feels the warm weather first: and they are sometimes heaped one upon another, until mountains of ice are made. The strongest bridges are often broken away by the drifting ice. 17. A few miles below Quebec, a small river, called the Montmorenci, flows into the St. Lawrence. The banks of the great river are here very high ; and the water of the Montmorenci makes a long leap to get from its own bed down to the St. Lawrence. As you sail along, you do not see the small river, which is far above, and hidden by the bank : you see only the water pouring over a great precipice, higher than that of Niagara, as if coming from the clouds. This is the JFalls of Montmorenci, 18. In winter the falls are very grand, and many people go from Quebec to see them. The ground is buried in snow; and the branches of the evergreen pines and firs are bending under its weight. The leaf- less trees, even to every little twig, are covered with ice ; and when the sun rises in the morning, and shines upon them, they glisten like a forest of diamonds. 19. The precipice, too, is covered with ice; and the mist which rises from the bottom, as at Niagara, freezes, 66 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. and forms steep hillocks of ice. People drive to Mont- morenci from Quebec, and sometimes stay all day, skat- ing, or climbing the ice-hills and sliding down their steep slopes. 20. From this place to the ocean, the river flows on broad and majestic, with forests covering the whole country around, and on both sides mountains rising in the distance. In these forests, are many wild animals, some of them covered with the finest fur. Many In- dians and Canadians hunt them for their furs, which are made into warm wraps, for use in the long, cold winters. XIV.— LAKE CHAMPLAIN AND THE ADIRON- DACKS. Cham-plain'. I Kich'-e-lieu. I New Eng'-land. [sham-]. I [reesh'-e-loo], \ [-ing'-], 1. In following the St. Lawrence to the sea, we were obliged to leave our own country and go into Canada. There is a very pleasant part of the United States, lying to the south of the St. Lawrence, which we could not see on this journey. 2. Between Montreal and Quebec, there is a river, named Richelieu., flowing northward into the St. Law- Vence, from Lake Champlain., which lies between Ne\V York and New England. At the upper end of this lake, is a smaller, but more beautiful one, the water of which flows into Lake Champlain. This is Lake George. 3. These lakes have clear blue water, with many little islands rising from the surface, covered with evergreen trees. On their shores, are forest-covered mountains and LAKE CHAMPLAIN AND THE ABIBONBACKS. 57 hills, which, with the islands, are all pictured in the quiet waters below, as in a mirror ; and away in the dis- tance, on both sides, are other and higher mountains, that make a framework of green for the clear, bright lakes. You can hardly imagine how beautiful they are. Many people go every summer from New York and Lake George. other cities, and live in little villages on the shores of these lakes, to enjoy the views, sail on the clear waters, and climb the green hills that border them. 4. The high mountains west of Lake Champlain are the Adirondacks, They belong to the Appalachian sys- tem, but are much higher and rougher than the moun- tains of Pennsylvania. If you were on the top of one, and looking over the country, you would find, as far as your eye could reach, mountain beyond mountain, stretching away on every side, like the waves of a great rolling sea. 5. The whole country is covered with grand old for- ests, just as it was before the white people came. Here and there, on the steep sides of the mountains, you see large spaces of bare rock. These were once, like the rest, covered with trees. At some time, after a long rain, the earth upon these rocks became loosened 58 GEOGBAPHICAL BEABEB. from its place, and went sliding down the mountains, carrying all the great trees with it to the foot, leaving the mountain-side bare and drear, as you now see it. 6. In the hollows among the mountains, are hundreds of small lakes, whose black waters reflect the mountains, the forests, and the sky as perfectly as the finest mirror. If you Avere upon one of these lakes in the night-time, you could see the sky and the moon and stars below you just as distinctly as above ; and you would almost be- lieve that you had been taken away from the earth, and placed in the middle of the great heavens. 7. Nowhere, in all this great mountain country over which you look, can you see a single village, or even a farm. These forest-cov- ered mountains still belong to the wild beasts ; and bears, wolves, and deer, with hundreds of smaller ani- mals, everywhere roam at will. 8. There are rich ores of iron in all parts of the Adirondacks; but some of the richest beds are away The Adirondacks, Mt. Marcy. ^^ ^^^ midst of the mountaius, whcrc the country is so rough that they cannot easily be reached for working. In the region around the moun- tains, are villages and cities, where the people are melting ore, or making articles from iron, as in Pennsylvania. NEW ENGLAND. 59 XV.-NB"W ENGLAND. Bos'-ton. I Brook'-lyn. I Ches'-a-peake [-peek], Con-nect'-i-cut [-yiet'-]. \ Bal^-ti-mOTe [bawl'-]. I Po-to'-mac. 1. The part of our country east of Lake Chaniplain is called New England. There is first a range of forest- covered mountains, extending away to the south much farther than Ave can see. This is the beautiful Green Mountain range. Beyond this, is a long valley extend- ing southward by its side. 2. This is not a level valley ; but it is covered with low, green hills. In every part of it we see fine farms, and pretty, busy villages and cities. In the middle of the valley, winding along its whole length, is the Con- necticut River. Its pleasant banks are dotted with farm- houses, surrounded by green meadows, orchards, and fields of grain. 3. Beyond the valley, is another ridge of land, on the northern part of which is a knot of mountains some- what like the Adirondacks, but much higher than they. These are the White Mountains. Mount Washington is the highest of them. The high peaks near it are named for other presidents; and it is common to call this whole group the Presidents' Range. 4. All over New England, are green hills and fruit- ful valleys, or forest-covered mountains with beautiful glassy lakes, as in the Adirondacks. From these, flow silvery streams, which go dancing along, adown the hills and mountains, to the sea. On their banks, are villages, crowded with mills whose wheels are turned 60 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. by the swift waters ; and great cities, filled with busy people who are sawing, hammering, spinning, weaving, grinding, and making all sorts of things, — working away as though they had twice as many things to do as they could possibly find time for. 6. On the seashore, too, are large cities. Here they White Mountains. are building great ships to sail on the ocean, or loading them with lumber from the forests, ice from the moun- tain lakes (for it is very cold here in winter), and boots and shoes, and cloth, and all sorts of goods. Thus they send these things to market, and bring back cotton for their mills, sugar and tea and coffee for their tables, and many other things which they need. Other vessels NEW ENGLAND. 61 go toward the mouth of the St. Lawrence, to the fishing- grounds, or take brave men away to the distant parts of the ocean to catch whales. 6. The rivers are full of rapids and falls, and very few are large enough for vessels to sail upon ; but there are The City of Boston. railroads all over the country, to carry the goods from place to place. Everywhere are fine schools, in which children and young people can learn whatever they need to make them wise and useful. 7. The largest of the cities in New England is Bos- ton, You will, as you become older, hear of many beautiful and interesting things which are in Boston, and of many learned and good men who have lived there. 62 GEOGBAPHICAL BEADEB. 8. At this city we will take one of the New-England steamers, and sail southward along our whole Atlantic coast. On the way we shall pass several great cities. Brooklyn is one of them. It is on Long Island^ and is separated from New York by the East River. Boats go, every few minutes, from city to city, carrying thousands of people back and forth every day. Many gentlemen who live in Brooklyn have offices in New York, and go over every morning to their business, and back every evening to their homes. 9. Farther south, are Philadelphia and Baltimore^ nei- ther of which is upon the sea-shore, but ships can easily reach both. They are near parts of the ocean called hays; which extend, like arms, away from its great body, far into the land. Philadelphia is near Delaware Bay^ into which the Delaware River flows. Baltimore is near Chesapeake Bay^ on one of the rivers which flow into it. 10. South of Baltimore the Potomac flows into this bay. Upon the Potomac is Washington, a city of great interest to us. There the President lives, and every year men chosen by all the difl:erent States meet there to make laws for the country ; for Washington is the capital of the United States. 11. Still farther south, upon the sea-shore, are several fine cities, though no very large ones. Here we pass the turpentine forests, the palmetto groves, the cotton- fields, the swampy rice lands, and the immense marshes of the southern part of the Atlantic Plain, with their trailing moss and their water plants, their alligators and their swamp birds. 12. Here, also, are forests of the live-oak^ the wood IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN COUNTBY. 63 of which is very durable, and is excellent for building ships. Now we sail along the coast of Florida^ the most southern State of our country. Finally we turn westward, pass into the Gulf of Mexico, and at length arrive at New Orleans. 13. We have now seen the eastern half of the United States, the part in which are all but one of the great cities, and in which most of the people live. Every- where we have found rich farms, fine forests, or fruitful prairies ; and in every part, are rivers and lakes, some small, others so very large that we can sail upon them hundreds and even thousands of miles. 14. This half of the United States, with its rich lands, its great lakes, and long rivers, extends beyond the Mississippi, almost half way to the foot of the Rocky Mountains. You will find the western half very differ- ent ; but I hope it will interest you to learn something about it. XVI. -IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN COUNTRY. buf'-fa-loes [-loze]. | past'-ure [-yiir]. | Den'-ver. 1. The prairie land, beginning along the Mississippi, extends westward to the Rocky Mountains, the limit of the Great Central Plain. The far western prairies, however, are not rich and beautiful like those along the Mississippi, but are high, dry, and somewhat bar- ren. On these prairies herds of buffaloes still feed, and the wild Indians still roam. They live in little huts, and spend their time in hunting and fighting. They hunt the buffaloes for the flesh, Avhich they use 64 GEOGBAPHICAL llEAJbEll, for food; and for the skins, which they sell to white people to make overcoats and wraps for the cold winter. 2. When the buffaloes have eaten all the grass from one portion of the prairies, they go to another where they j5nd it fresh and green. The Indians, knowing where the best pastures •are, and when the herds will An Indian Lodge. go to each, follow them, — some to one place, and some to another. They go in companies, with their wives and children, and stay until the buffaloes have done feeding in that place, sometimes several weeks. 3. When they go to the hunt, they ride on their fleet- est horses ; for the buffaloes run very swiftly. Many hunters usually go out together, and, when they have found a herd, surround the place, drive them together, IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN COUNTRY. G5 and kill them in great numbers. Sometimes, too, they drive them swiftly to the edge of a precipice, over which they fall, and liundreds at a time are killed. The In- dians are very fond of this way of hunting. 4. The Rocky Mountains are quite different from any mountains in the eastern half of the United States. If you could look down upon them from above, you would see two great ranges, side by side, with a wide valley between them. They are so lofty that their lowest passes are higher than the high- est peaks of the Appa- lachians. Many short ranges, crossing between them, cut up the great inner valley into broad basins, some of them dark with forests, and others bright with rich prairie- grass. All the lower and middle slopes of these ^°^^y Mountains. mountains are thickly covered with forests. 5. Higher up, the trees become smaller and smaller, until there are only bare gray rocks, with here and there patches of grass or of bright mountain flowers. Beyond these, are the high, wild peaks, covered with snow even in summer, and glistening above the dark forests and rocks like crowns of silver. These peaks have all sorts of rugged, broken forms ; and the whole 66 GEOGBAPHICAL READER. mountain-system looks as though the earth's crust had been all torn and broken in pieces, instead of gently folded, as it appeared in the Appalachians. 6. You would hardly suppose people could wish to live among the Rocky Mountains ; but large numbers of men are there, and more are going every year. Great herds of cattle are pastured in the valleys between the ranges ; and in the mountains, are rich mines of silver and gold, with towns growing up around them. Denver^ at the eastern side of the mountains, is already quite a large city. 7. The Rocky Mountains make a great dividing wall, extending across the entire country. Even the water from the springs on the eastern side goes away to the Mississippi, and finally to the Atlantic Ocean; while that on the western side goes to the Pacific. As you become older, you will be able to understand, much better than you now can, how very important this mountain-system is. XVII. - ON THE TABLE-LAND. Si-er'-ra Ne-va'-da. l can'-on. I Co-lo-ra'-do [-rah'-]. [Se-er'-ra Na-vah'-dd\. \ [can' -y on]. \ pla-teau' [plah-to']. 1. Beyond the Rocky Mountains, is another vast plain, many hundred miles broad ; and on the western border of that, is another great system of mountains, called the Sierra Nevada. This whole plain between the two mountain-systems is lifted up, so that it is higher than the ranges of the Appalachian Moun- ON THE TABLE-LAND, 67 tains. Such a high plain is called a table-land^ or some- times a plateau, 2. On this great table-land, it rains but very few times in the year. For this rea- son, the soil is so dry that only a few kinds of plants can grow, and there are no trees at all. The low plants do not look fresh and green, but gray and dusty, so that, a little Avay from them, you would think you were looking only on the bare gray earth. You may travel for days, and find still the same dry, dreary country. How very different is this from the great forests of the Atlantic Plain, and the rich green prairies near the Mississippi ! 3. Have you ever seen those plants called the cactus and the prichly- pear? We have them set in boxes in our gardens; and in winter they must be kept in a warm room, for the frost would kill them. In a part of the table-land south of the middle, these are almost the only plants ; and they grow much taller and larger than any we have, for that is their native country. '68 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. 4. They are not covered with leaves, but are only- great, branching, juicy stalks, with little bunches of hairs dotting them all over. These gather every bit of moisture there is in the air, and store it away in the great soft stalks: thus the cactus can grow where grasses and other plants would soon dry up, and die. Many of them have large scarlet or crimson flowers, which are very beautiful. They grow directly from the great stalks, without any slender stem, such as most flowers have. 5. In the hollows in different parts of the table-land, are lakes of salt water, some so salt that fish cannot live in them. Into some, little streams of water flow, from the springs among the mountains and hills ; and along the borders of these, you will find a line of fresh green grass, and sometimes trees. These green belts with the bright streams, in the midst of this broad, gray, dreary land, are very beautiful. They are almost the only places on the great table-land which are naturally productive. The largest of the lakes is Great Salt Lake, It is in Utah, where a people called Mormons live. 6. In the whole table-land, where there is so little rain, there are but few rivers. These do not, like others which we have seen, flow through beautiful green valleys, with gentle slopes on each side, covered with farms and gardens. You may be riding across the country, and before you, as far as the eje can reach, there is no valley, no stream, to be seen. 7. Presently you look down, and right there under your feet, is a great crack in the earth, with a solid wall of rock, like the Palisades, on each side of it. Down ON THE TABLE-LAND. 69 as far as you can see, there is not a spot on which you could set your foot, or where a single little tree or plant could find room to grow. At the bottom is a river, not bright and sparkling, but looking black and terrible in the dark shadow of the rocky walls. Such a place is called a cafwn. 8. There are canons on some part of the course of nearly all the larger streams. Some are much deeper than others; and in some, there is a little strip of bottom- land, or a sloping bank, at the side of the stream. In others, there is, for miles, not a single spot where, if you were in a boat on the river, you could leave it; for you would not find room even to stand between the water and the rocky walls of the caiion, and you could no more climb up these walls than you could climb the side of a house. The Colo- rado^ the largest river in all this part of the country. The Canon of the Colorado River. flows in deep canons through almost its whole course. 9. You see that the country west of the Rocky Moun- TO GEOGUAPIIICAL BEADER, tains, is not a good land for farmers, for in most of it nothing useful can grow ; and as the larger rivers flow through deep canons, instead of fertile valleys, there are not many good places for cities. You would sup- pose people here could find nothing to do, and would have nothing to live on. But this is not so. In the mountains on the table-land, as well as in the Rocky Mountains, there are veins of gold and silver. Thus even this part of our country is good for something. 9. Men go to tlie mines to dig the gold and silver from the earth ; others go to sell food and clothing to the miners: and so, after a time, a large number of people gather, and villages or cities spring up where we would not have supposed anybody could possibly live. These places are not very pleasant to live in. Many are far from any railroad ; and most of the food for the people must be brought, with great difficulty, over this wild, dreary country, in wagons, or on the backs of mules travelling in long trains. XVIII.-IN CALIFORNIA. Cal-i-for'-ni-a. | San Fran-cis'-co. i Los An'-gel-es. r an-che'-ro [-c7ia'-]. I vine'-yard [-v//i'-]. I [Loce An'-jel-ez]. 1. When we have passed over the great table-land, we reach California^ a part of our country of which, I have no doubt, you have often heard. It has, on the eastern border, the high wall of the Sierra Nevada, with peaks reaching up into the clouds and covered with snow and ice. IN CALIFORNIA. 71 2. These snowy peaks shut in many narrow valleys, the sides of which are not gentle slopes, but steep precipices. Into some of them, rivers leap, forming waterfalls of immense height. West of this mountain- border, is a wide and beautiful valley, with clear lakes and bright rivers that have never had their waters locked with ice ; for it is always warm there. Beyond this valley, is a range of low mountains like the Appa- lachians, and then comes the broad Pacific Ocean. 3. In the valley in the middle of California, are farms with great fields of grain, and orchards in which grow the most excellent fruits. There are also gardens of grape-vines, called vineyards^ much finer than those on the banks of the Ohio. Every thing that is raised on the farms or in the gardens of the east, grows in Cali- fornia much better and larger ; besides, in the south, are figs and oranges, and many other things that grow only in warm countries. 4. In the southern part of the State, there are large prairies, covered with tall, rich grass and wild oats, where thousands of cattle and horses are raised. Sometimes one man owns as much as a whole county. His land is not called a farm, but a ranch. Nobody, not even he himself, knows how many horses and cattle he has; for they run wild on the ranch. There are herdsmen, called rancheros^ who have charge of them, but who really give them little attention. 5. Once a year the cattle are driven together and counted, and the young ones are marked so that they can be known ; and that is about all the care they re- ceive. As snow hardly ever lies on the ground, they feed all winter in the fields, upon the ripened oats and 7:i GEOGBAPIIICAL HEADER. the grass which has turned into hay while standing in the field. G. In the valleys among the mountains of California, are forests of wonderful old trees, so large that you can hardly imagine how big they are. In several places, there are groves in which some trees are so large round that they would fill your whole school- room, and are twice as tall as the very tallest church -steeple you ever saw. Nobody knows how long they have been grow- ing ; but they The Bottom of One or the Big Trees. mUSt haVC bcCU there many hundred years before any white people came to this country. 7. But it is not the farms, nor ranches, nor forests, which interest people most in California. It is the great quantity of gold found in the mountains on its eastern border, which has brought people here from every part of the world. 8. One day in the year 1848, when our people were only just beginning to go there, and we knew hardly any thing about it, a man who was at work near one of the streams flowing from these mountains found IN CALIFORNIA, 78 some grains of gold in the sand which the water had washed down. This showed that there must be gold in the mountains from which the river came ; and, as soon as it was heard of, thousands of people rushed to California to get rich. 9. At first everybody went to the gold-fields. There were no farms bought and worked by the new-comers, no mills built, nor any thing done but to dig for gold. For this reason, though this State has some of the best farming-land in the world, and some of the finest forests, and can produce almost every thing that people need, it then furnished them no supplies. The food for all those thousands of people, the cloth for their clothing, their boots and shoes, the spades and wheel-barrows they used in the mines, and even the timbers for their houses, all ready to be put together, — all were sent there from the great cities of the Atlantic Plain, — New York, Philadelphia, and Boston. 10. But people soon found that they could become rich just as rapidly by buying farms and raising food for the miners, and building mills and making the things that were needed, as by working at the mines. Now there is much more grain, fruit, lumber, wine, butter, and cheese produced in California, than the people need for their own use ; and they are able to send these things to other countries. 11. On one part of the sea-shore, the Pacific sends a long arm, like a great river or lake, far into the land. This is San Francisco Bay. The entrance from the ocean is between high, rocky walls, where the mountain- range that borders the sea-shore, has been broken down to its foot. This entrance is the Golden Gate, 74 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. 12. Beside this broad, blue, quiet bay, just within the Golden Gate, there stood, when the first gold-seekers went to California, a small, ill-looking village. Most of the houses were made of a kind of clay or mud ; the streets were narrow and dirty ; and the people looked no more attractive than the town. On all this beauti- ful bay, only a few small vessels and a dozen or two fishing-boats, could be seen. 13. Now, instead of this mean village, we find a great and rich city. Large, fine buildings adorn it; its streets are full of people hurrying to and fro ; and the bay is covered with ships from every part of the world. This is one thing that has been done for California by the discovery of gold. The city which has grown up so quickly is San Francisco, 14. There arc otlier fine cities now in all parts of tlie wide valley. On the southern coast, is a place where the country was so beautiful, and the air so delightful, that the people who discovered the site chose it at once for their dwelling-place, and called the town they founded Los Angeles^ which means " city of the angels." 15. The hillsides and valleys about the city are cov- ered with vineyards, orange-groves, and orchards, from which are sent out great quantities of delicious peaches, pears, figs, oranges, and grapes. They go not only to San Francisco and other parts of California, but even to New York, Philadelphia, and Boston. 16. For a time the Golden Gate was the only way of entrance to California, except the long weary journey by teams, across the great table-land. But now railroads lead from San Francisco, through all the principal cities, to every part of the country east of the Mississippi. THE COLD COUNTRIES OF THE NORTH, 75 XIX. -THE COLD COUNTRIES OP THE NORTH. Do-min'-ion [-?/?< ?i]. | Au-ro'-ra [-?*a/i]. I rein'-deer \i^ain'-'\. 1. North of the United States, there is a country which is colder than ours. It, also, extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean : and it stretches north- ward to the shores of still another ocean, called the Arctic, This country is British America^ and the southern part is named the Dominion of Canada, 2. The larger part of British America is one great forest reaching nearly to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, In it are wild animals of many different kinds, — the wolf, bear, reindeer, moose, musk- ox, and many others. 3. Almost the only people in all this great forest are Indians, who spend their time in hunt- ing, fishing, and fighting. Here and there, by the side of some of the large lakes and rivers, are a few white men, who live there in order to hunt the wild animals for their furs, or to buy furs and skins from the Indian hunters. Some of the furs are sold to the people of Canada, but many are sent away to other cold countries. In all this forest country, during half the year or more, the ground is covered with snow and ice, and the rivers and lakes frozen over. A Reindeer. 76 GEOGBAPHICAL BEAJDER. 4. Far to the north, the forest becomes thin and the trees very small. By and by there are no longer any trees. They cannot grow here, not because it is too dry, as was the case in the table-land west of the Rocky Mountains, but because it is too cold. There are only a few low shrubs ; and near the shore of the Arctic Ocean, even these all disappear, and nothing grows but mosses, and other low plants. 5. Here the snow is on the ground all the year except a month or two; and even then, if you should dig into the earth a little way, you would find it frozen. When the snow is gone, the sun warms the surface ; and the plants quickly spring up, blossom, and bear A Musk-ox. their fruits. The rein- deer and musk-ox come from the forest to feed on the fresh mosses ; and for a short time, this cold, dreary re- gion seems quite bright and pleasant. 6. On the Arctic shores, as you see, the summer lasts only about a month. All the rest of the year is winter; and, what will seem strange to you, the winter days are very, ver^ short. Just before Christmas, there is one day in which the sun does not rise at all, and there are two or three weeks in which you hardly see it. It is night nearly all the time, but not very dark, for the stars are bright; and the white snow and the large moon shining brightly, make the night nearly as light as the day. These, with the brilliant northern lights, or THE COLD COUNTRIES OF THE NORTH. 77 Aurora^ in the sky, make the long Avinter nights much more pleasant than we would suppose they could be. 7. I presume you have often seen the northern lights ; but, although we think the sight is very grand, it is nothing compared to that which can be seen in this frozen country. We see, generally, only a soft, steady light away in the north ; and it is not bright enough to make the night much less dark. 8. But in the Arctic sky, a great bow or arch of light, brighter than the brightest stars, extends across the northern heavens. Below it the sky looks as black as ink ; but above, great bands or streamers of light flash up to the middle of the heavens, and chase each other, 78 GEOGRAPHICAL READER, as quick as lightning, from one end of the bow to the other. Sometimes they are of the most brilliant colors, red below, green in the middle, and the brightest yellow above. You can hardly imagine how grand this great arch of light appears, flashing and dancing all across the northern sky. 9. After a winter night, which lasts as long as from noon to-day until noon to-morrow, there is, about twelve o'clock, a brightness in the southern horizon, like that which we see in the east just before the sun rises. This continues only a short time ; but these few minutes of dim light are the whole of the shortest winter day. 10. The next day, about twelve o'clock, the sun peeps above the southern horizon for a half-hour, and then goes away again. The next day he stays a little longer, rising earlier, and setting later; and so on, each day, until, in June, there is one day in which he does not set, and several days in which he shines nearly all the time, hardly disappearing at all. Thus you see, throughout the year, there is no more night than day, just as it is everywhere. The trouble is, that, when the sun is up, it does not give much warmth to this poor, frozen country. 11. You know that the sun rises in the east, goes through the southern sky, and sets in the west. We see it on only three sides of us. But in the Arctic regions, in that longest day in summer, the sun goes quite round the heavens, and may be seen on the hori- zon directly in the north. Is not that very singular? The people who live here, I suppose, do not think any thing about it, because they do not know but that it is just the same all over the earth. THE ESQUIMAUX. 79 XX. - THE ESQUIMAUX. Es'-quj-maux [-ke-mo] \ es-pe'-cial-ly [-pesh'-al-]. \ ice'-berg. 1. A VERY singular people, called Esquimaux^ live about the Arctic Ocean. Though the country is so cold that we should hardly suppose any one could live there, they seem to make themselves very comfortable. 2. Their clothing is made from the skins of wild ani- mals, especially from that of the reindeer. They pre- pare it with the hair on, and make a sort of dress all in one piece, — cap, shirt, trousers, and shoes, — so that, when they have it on, you might almost think it their own natural covering. Their chief food is fish and the flesh of the reindeer, and of the seal, walrus, and whale, which inhabit the icy seas. 3. The reindeer stays here only during the short summer, while it can obtain food : so the people must kill enough then to last them all the year. The women cut up the meat, and dry it, and in this way keep it for the long winter. They also catch and dry the fish. The seal is hunted in the spring, when the ice begins to break ; and the whale, during the summer. 4. Through the winter, the Esquimaux live in log huts, which they build from the trunks of trees that have floated down the long rivers from the forests. They pile up snow around and over the hut, and make a hole in one side, at the bottom, through which they creep in and out. This is shut with a snow-door. They have no windows at all, and, indeed, windows would not be of much use, as there is so little daylight. 80 GEOGRAPHICAL BEADER. 5. Here all live together. Thej cook their food by a lamp of bone, in which they burn the oil of the whales caught in summer ; and this lamp furnishes all the fire and light in the house. Here they stay from the time when the leaves of our trees begin to fall, until they are green again in spring. Then all quit their winter quarters, and go to the islands along the coast to watch for the seal. 6. Now they cannot find logs with which to make houses, and it is too cold to live in tents. What do you suppose they do? They make houses of .mo?^. They first trace a circle as large as they wish their house to be, then cut the snow from the inside in nice smooth blocks like large bricks. These, laid one upon another, are soon frozen together. The Esquimajx. 7. Whllc buildiug, one man works on the inside of the house, and an- other on the outside. When done, it looks like an immense wash-bowl turned Itottom upward. The man who is inside cuts an opening at the bottom, and creeps out ; and a snow door is made to close it, as in the other houses. They sometimes cut places for windows, and put in them thin pieces of clear ice for THE ESQUIMAUX. 81 glass. A snow-liouse with a snow door and ice windows ! — do you think it would be a very warm place? But they find it warm enough, and seem to be entirely con- tented and happy. An Iceberg. 8. The Esquimau children must look very odd, with their deer-skin dress; but they are good-natured, and seem as happy in their snow huts, eating dried fish, and drinking whale oil, as our children do in their pleasant parlors, with the nice food and clothing which their kind mothers prepare for them. 9. The Arctic Ocean is full of ice in summer as well as in winter. The wind drives it from one place to another in great masses ; and sometimes ships, in which brave men were trying to find a path through this 82 GEOGBAPHICAL BEADEB, frozen ocean from the Atlantic to the Pacific, have been shut up by the ice, and kept there until the men were all starved, or frozen to death. SomQ of these ships have afterward been found, with the frozen men lying in their beds, or sitting at their tables, just a'^ they did years before, when they were waiting for the ice to break and go away. 10. Sometimes great masses of ice, called icebergs^ strike the ships, and break them in pieces. Then the sailors who escape, and are not picked up by other ships, must go and live with the Esquimaux until they can find some means of getting away. XXI. -IN THE "WARM COUNTRIES OP THE SOUTH. Westln'-dies [-(^i2;]. | Mon-te-zu'-ma [-2:00'-]. | dah'-lia. [dahV-ya]. 1. We have seen that the southern part of the United States is much warmer than the northern. The coun- tries yet farther south are still more heated. Such are Mexico and Central America^ and some great islands, called the West Indies^ which lie in the adjacent ocean. There the whole year is one constant summer ; and the trees are covered, at all times, with green leaves, fruits, and flowers. 2. In crossing Mexico from east to west, there is first a broad plain by the sea-side, covered with immense forests. Here grows the tall, beautiful cocoa-palm^ straight as an arrow, and covered with a crown of long green, feathery leaves, under which are the large clus- IN THE WARM COUNTRIES OF THE SOUTH 83 ters of fruit. The mahogany^ from the wood of which furniture is made, and the banana and other plants yielding delicious fruits, are also found here. 3. By and by we begin to ascend a slope, many parts of which are so steep and rugged that the roads are very narrow, crooked, and often dangerous. Here, too, are fine forests, also plantations of cotton, coffee, and tobacco. Lovely roses^ dahlias, and many other plants which we cultivate in our gardens or greenhouses, grow here in the fields and forests. 4. At length we find ourselves on the top of a moun- tain-range, which we cross and descend into a basin, or plain, surrounded by mountains. This enclosed plain is the table-land of Mexico. In the midst of it, is a beauti- ful lake, beside which is the famous old city of Mexico. 5. When the white people first came to America, nearly four hundred years ago, they found the lake much larger than it now is, and the city on a cluster of islands in the midst of the lake. A powerful king, named Montezuma, lived here with his people, who were called Aztecs. The city was full of their palaces and temples, many of which were ornamented with figures and vessels of silver and gold, and with wonder- ful carvings and paintings. 6. They had lived for three hundred years in this basin, with its high mountains on all sides, shutting them in away from the warlike Indians beyond, who never thought of doing any thing but to hunt and fight. They were thus able to go on in peace, building their palaces, temples, bridges, and other great works, some of which were very remarkable. But what seemed most wonderful to the white stran 84 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. gers, was the great number of articles of silver and gold in the temples and palaces. These they wanted ; and they wished also to know where the silver and gold were obtained, so that they might get them for them- selves. As the king would not tell them this, they took him prisoner, and afterward made war on the city, and treated his people very cruelly. 7. In the war, the city was nearly destroyed; but it was soon rebuilt by the conquerors. They finally found the mines which had been worked by the natives ; and soon great numbers of white people came there to live. But they cared more for the gold and silver than for any thing else in Mexico. 8. Central America^ which is farther south, resembles Mexico very much, except that it is even warmer. It has more rain too ; and the choice trees, fruits, and flowers of that country grow still more luxuriantly here. 9. In both Mexico and Central America, there are mountains like chimneys, through which melted rock, cinders, and vapor come out from the interior of the earth. These mountains are called volcanoes. Some- times there come out from volcanoes such great quan- tities of cinders, that cities and villages near them are buried. Sometimes, also, red-hot streams of melted rock, called lava^ flow down the mountain-side, burning up every thing in their way. 10. At times, noises like thunder are heard within the earth ; and the solid land trembles, so that the houses are shaken like a boat on the sea, and come tumbling down over the heads of the frightened people. This trembling of the earth is called an earthquake. Earth- 72V THE WARM COUNTRIES OF THE SOUTH. 85 quakes not only happen in Mexico and Central Amer- ica, but also in other countries. Sometimes they shake down whole cities, and open great chasms in the earth, swallowing up both animals and people. 11. We find that the United States is in the middle of a very great body of land, the northern part of which is frozen through- out the year; while the southern part has, all the year long, one constant summer. This vast body of land is called a continent^ and the name of it is North America, Our country, though so very large, is much less than one- half of it. 12. There are five other continents upon the earth, two of which are much ^ volcano. larger than North America. Yet we know that there is about three times as much water as land on the earth's surface. What a great earth it is on which we live, and how many beautiful things we have already seen in it ! We shall find many more when we go to the other continents, as we shall do by and by. GEOGBAPHICAL BEADEB, XXIL-THB WEST INDIES. Ha-van'-a. | ve-ran'-da. | ba-na'-na [rah'-nali]. 1. These islands lie in the ocean, east of the Gulf of Mexico. Four of them are much larger than the others. They are covered with rugged mountains, among which are broad green valleys where not a flake of snow ever falls, nor a particle of ice is formed. 2. The forests are filled with large trees, that bear fresh green leaves, flowers, and fruits throughout the year, as in the lowlands of Mexico and Central America. The earth beneath the trees is covered with beautiful feathery ferns, lovely flowers, and many singular plants. 3. Suppose you are travelling in the forests, and be- come thirsty. You look about for a spring or brook of cool, pure water, from which to drink. You may not find any, because sometimes no rain falls for several months, and the springs and brooks become quite dry. 4. Here beside you, climbing from tree to tree, is a vine, that looks as much like a dead grape-vine as any thing can. As high up as you can reach, you cut a notch in a branch of it, and lower down you cut the branch entirely oif. Putting the end to your mouth, you suck upon it, and find that it gives you a small stream of delicious cool water, which it has drawn up from the earth, and stored away to feed the plant in this dry time. There are many other plants that thus pro- vide water for themselves. What a happy thing to find such plants in this warm, and sometimes very dry, country ! THE WEST INDIES, 87 6. In all the large islands, especially in Cuha^ are great plantations of sugar-cane^ coffee^ and tobacco. The city of Havana^ on the northern coast of this island, is the greatest sugar-market in the world. ^-.A 'i':'^ m^ ^^3 A Sugar- Plantation. 6. The sugar-plantations are everywhere much alike. In some pleasant part the owner lives in a large, low house, with broad verandas on every side, and palm- trees shading it. Around it grow clusters of orange- trees, bananas, and other fruit-bearing plants. 88 GEOGRAPHICAL BEADER, 7. Not far away is the great sugar-mill, in which the cane is crushed, and its juice pressed out and made into sugar and molasses. Near by it stands a large clus- ter of little cabins. Each has a banana-plant and a small garden beside it ; and groups of naked negro chil- dren are seen rolling about in the dust, or lying asleep in the sunshine. These are the houses of the negroes, who do all the work of raising the cane, and making the sugar. 8. On every side of this little village the vast cane- field extends, so that you might ride for miles and still find it everywhere the same. You would pass none of the small, neat farm-houses you are accustomed to see ; but after a time would find another plantation just like the last, with its great house, its mill, and its little cabins clustered together in the midst of the cane-fields. 9. The white people on all these islands do but little work. They usually stay in their houses through the warmest part of the day ; and when the sun goes down they go out to ride, make visits, and amuse themselves as they choose. SOUTH AMERICA. I. -UP THE AMAZON. Pa-na-ma' [-mah'], | Ma-ra'-jo [-zho'], \ Pa-ra' [Pah-rah'], 1. Southward from North America is South Amer- ica. Like North America, it lies between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific. These two continents are con- nected by a narrow neck of land, named the Isthmus of Panama. 2. In the northern part of South America is an im- mense river, the largest in the world. Its source is in the far western part of the continent, near the Pacific Ocean. It flows eastward more than three thousand miles, through a vast, low plain, into the Atlantic. This is the Am'a-zon River. a The mouth of the Amazon is so broad as to seem like a large lake ; and its great mass of muddy, yellow water can be seen for scores of miles at sea, making its way through the clear blue ocean. Just at the mouth of the river is the large island of Marajo^ dividing the stream into two branches, — one more than twenty miles wide, the other more than fifty. This island is covered with pastures and plantations, from which are sent cattle, rice, sugar, and fruits. On the banks of the Amazon, south of Marajo, is the city of Para. 90 GEOGRAPHICAL REABEB. 4. Like New Orleans, it is built on the marshy plains that border the river, and is surrounded by rice-fields and sugar-plantations. It is now only a small place, but some day it will undoubtedly become a large and busy city ; for steamers can go from Para up the Amazon and its great tributaries to all parts of the interior of South America, just as they go from New Orleans up the Mississippi to the interior of our own country. 5. After having travelled by steamer up the Amazon, from Para, for a day or two, all the plan- tations disappear, and we see along the river only im- mense marshes. They are covered with a thick growth of reeds, often much higher than a common house. Here and there are open spaces, where the water is covered with large, round green leaves, that, with their brown edges turning upward, On the Amazon. UP THE AMAZON, 91 look like flat-boats. Some of them are as many as six feet across ; and, if you were placed in the middle of one, you would find it quite strong enough to support you on the water. 6. These are the leaves of the beautiful Victoria Regia^ a very large kind of water-lily. Floating on the water, among these great leaves, are flowers larger than a com- mon dinner-plate. The inner petals are of a pretty rose-color, and in the centre is a circle of bright gold ; while the rest of the flower is snowy white. You can Victoria Regia. hardly imagine one more beautiful. These, and the many other plants growing there, make the marshes of the Amazon very wonderful to see. 7. But among all these pleasant things, there are others which you will not like so well. Great scaly alligators lie asleep in the sunshine, with their ugly red mouths wide open, or float like logs on the surface of the water. Thousands of immense water-snakes glide about among the reeds. Frogs and turtles larger than any you ever saw, and lizards a yard in length, are to be seen at every moment ; and the air is filled with the hum of brilliant insects whose sting is poisonous. 8. Here and there long-legged swamp-birds wade about, darting their long beaks into the water after the frogs and snakes, which they devour ; while whole 92 GEOGRAPHICAL REABEB. flocks, which have finished their fishing, stand asleep on the shore. The noonday sun, directly over our heads, pours down his burning rays, and almost blinds us by the dazzling light that is reflected from the water all around. 9. All the morning the whole sky has been perfectly clear, and of the brightest blue. Now banks of white clouds are piled up here and there. They grow thick and dark, and rapidly become larger; and soon the An Alligator. whole sky is black. The lightning darts in blinding flashes from one side of the heavens to the other. Ter- rible peals of thunder shake the earth, and the rain begins to fall. It is not a light, pattering rain, like that of our summer showers ; but it falls in torrents, as though the wiiole sky were one overturned sea pouring down upon us. This continues until near night ; then the thunder, lightning, and rain cease, the clouds dis- appear, and all night the heavens are bright with stars. 10. Every day for several weeks is just the same; only that each day the rain commences a little earlier, and ceases later, than the day before, until at length it rains all day. Then it begins later and later each day, and ceases earlier ; and at last there comes a time during IN TUB SELVAS. which, for a number of months, no rain falls. The part of the year in which it rains thus each day is called the wet season; the other part, the dvT/ season. They are nearly alike in heat, for the larger part of South Amer- ica has no winter. 11. -IN THE SELVAS. seV-Y2L [-vah]. I jag-u-ar'. I Ri'-o Ja-nei'-ro [-?iee-]. bo'-a-con-strict'-or. | Bra-zil'. I va-nil'-la [-lah], 1. Beyond the marshes which border the stream on each side, are immense forests, stretching away hun- dreds of miles. The trees are not only of great size, but they stand so close together that their branches are interlocked and form a dense roof of green, through which the sunbeams can hardly reach the earth. 2. The whole space between the trees, and beneath their branches, is one mass of reeds and other tall plants. Thousands of vines climb about them, stretching from tree to tree and hanging down from the branches, thus binding all so firmly together that, in some places, not even a footpath can be made through the forests with- out an axe to cut the way. 3. The low plants, the vines, and even many of the great trees, are covered with the most beautiful flowers, not only white, but crimson, purple, scarlet, and golden yellow. As there is no winter, the trees are at all times growing, blooming, and bearing fruit. On some kinds buds, flowers, green fruit, and ripened fruit may be found all at the same time. 4. Living among the branches of the trees, are multi- 94 GEOGBAPIIICAL BEABEB, tudes of birds, of such brilliant colors that they seem like winged flowers. Numberless monkeys of ever^ description, some of which are not larger than a kitten, chase each other from tree to tree, swinging by their long tails from one branch to an- other. Great snakes, called boa-constrict- ors^ some of them eight or ten yards in length, hang from the trees, watching for some animal to come within their reach, when they quickly wind themselves round him, and crush him. 5. Still another terrible crea- ture, called the Jaguar^ makes his home in the forests. The young ones look like kittens, and, playing about the trees, are very pretty and harmless; but when grown large they are fierce and dangerous. Thousands of animals of many other kinds fill this great forest, through which the rivers are almost the only paths, and where few people but Indians and adventurous travellers have ever been. Spider Monkeys. IN THE SELVAS. 95 6. Although there are such vast numbers of birds and animals here, the forests, all through the long, warm days, are perfectly- silent. There is not a sound of bird or beast ; but as soon as the night comes on their voices are everywhere heard. The roaring of the a jaguar. fierce and angry jaguar, the screaming of the frightened monkeys trying to escape, the chattering of the parrots and other birds which have been wakened by the noise, make a sort of music that is not very charming, and which, I think, would hardly lull one to sleep. 7. Travellers who may be obliged to spend the night in the forests must build fires all about them to keep away the jaguars and other dangerous animals. They are afraid of the flame, and will not approach it. But for this, it would not be safe for any one to go to sleep in the forests. These broad plains, through which the Amazon and its tributaries flow, are called selvas, which means forest-plains. 8. We eteam up the Amazon, day after day, for more than a month, and still we find the same level plain covered with the same forests. Were we to leave the main stream and go up any one of its many large tribu- taries, we should find no change ; for the selvas cover more than half the continent of South America. 9. Far away to the west the country through which the Amazon flows becomes hilly; and at length the river, now much smaller, descends, in many rapids and m GEOGBAPEICAL HEADER, waterfalls, from a mountainous region. The forests begin to be broken, and plantations and villages again appear. Here we must leave the river, as steamers can go no farther. 10. The selvas form a large part of a great country named Brazil^ which is nearly as large as all the other countries of South America. But the south-eastern part is a table-land, with low mountains crossing it in every direction. In these mountains, and among the pebbles of the streams that flow from them, gold and diamonds are found. 11. The whole eastern part of Brazil is covered with coffee -plantations, orange- groves, and gardens of ba- nanas and pine -apples. These, with cotton, tobacco, lice, and other things which grow in the warm parts of our own country, may be raised in all the rich val- Picking Coffee. ]gyg^ Thcrc is also growing here a vine that bears a fruit like a bean, from which a delicious perfume is obtained. This is tlie vanilla. Many of you have seen either the vanilla-bean, or an extract made from it, which is used in flavoring custards and creams. 12. But there are not yet half enough white people in Brazil to cultivate all its rich land. Almost the only ACBOSS THE ANDES. 97 inhabitants of the interior are Indians, who live upon the fruits of the forest, and the missionaries who are trying to teach them. 13. On the coast is the large city of JRio Janeiro. Its streets are shaded by palms and other beautiful trees. In some places the handsome buildings, of which there are many, are almost hidden by the green leaves. The air, too, is always delightful, much like that of Los Angeles, in California. 14. The city is built by the side of a broad blue bay, dotted with lovely islands; and behind it rise green hills, and high, forest-covered mountains. These hills are topped with pleasant country-houses half hidden by trees ; and the rich valleys between them are covered with fields of coffee, cotton, sugar, and delicious pine- apples. You can hardly imagine a place more pleasant than Rio Janeiro, with the fine country round it. III. — ACROSS THE ANDES. An'-des [-deez]. | Ua'-ma [lah'-ma], | ca-ca'-o [ka-ka*-], 1. The mountains from which the Amazon flows, and at the foot of which the steamers stop, are the Andes. They are very high, and form a continuous elevation along the western coast, from the northern point of South America to the southern. Nowhere can we go from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific without crossing the Andes. 2. We left the Amazon just at the foot of the moun- tains. We must continue our journey on the back of GEOGEAPUICAL BEABER. a mule, for there are no good roads over the Andes. Their slopes are so rough and broken, that it is very difficult and dangerous to travel across them. Some- times the way lies along the edge of a precipice, where the path is only wide enough for the mule to walk. A "s^s^^^gr- Among the Andes. single wrong step would tlirow us down hundreds of feet, and we should be dashed in pieces. 3. In other places, we pass through deep gorges, with perpendicular rocks on each side, rising far above ; and we are continually in danger of being crushed by fall- ing pieces. Foaming mountain streams at the bottom ACROSS THE ANDES. 99 of deep ravines must be crossed, not on solid stone bridges, but on slender, swinging cords, covered only with branches of trees, ready to break at any moment, and plunge us into the terrible chasm below. 4. On the lower parts of the slope, are dense forests, like those of the selvas, with the same kinds of trees and animals. Farther up the mountain we find no more tall palm-trees, nor trees covered with brilliant flowers ; but instead, maples, oaks, and beautiful elms, such as we see in our own country. 5. At the foot of the Andes the whole year is one long, warm summer. Higher up, it is like perpetual spring. The sunny blue sky is always smiling ; and the pleasant valleys among the mountains are filled with grain fields, green pastures, and pretty villages. 6. Still higher we reach a cold country, with but a few stunted trees, somewhat like those growing near the Arctic shores of North America. Now we are at the top of the great wall of the Andes ; and here, spread out before us, is a bare, rocky plain, cold, gray, and very dreary. Only a few dwarfed shrubs, grasses, and other poor, starved-looking plants, cover the earth. Away in the distance, against the dark-blue sky, rising far above us, are cone-shaped peaks, covered nearly from top to bottom with mantles of snow, and shining in the sunlight like silver mountains. Many of these are vol- canoes, and they are all very high. 7. Here and there, all over this dreary plain, are little villages, with herds of llamas feeding on the scanty pas- tures. The llamas are natives of these cold heights, and were once found wild in great numbers. They have been tamed, and are now used by the people of 100 GEOGBAPHICAL BEABEB, the Andes to carry goods up and down the dangerous slopes. They are very useful; because, though quite small and slow, they are gentle. They are also per- fectly sure-footed, never stumbling nor slipping on the most difficult mountain paths, where hardly any other animal can travel. 8. After we have crossed the summit cf this great range, we descend into a beautiful valley, beyond which is another range, as high and as rugged as the first one. In this valley, with the high mountain-walls and the snowy volcanoes shutting it in on every side, we find again constant spring. The earth is adorned with for- ests, grain-fields, orchards, and gardens, in the midst of which are bright rivers, blue lakes, villages, and great cities. 9. Here, long ago, lived a people resembling those who built cities on the table-land of Mexico. All the inner valleys cf the Andes were full of their cities and temples, rich in gold and silver ; while broad, fine roads led from one valley to another. These cities, like those of Mexico, were finally found by the white men. The people Avere conquered, and their noble works destroyed by the conquerors, who cared only for their gold and silver. Finally the mines were discovered, and the cities were rebuilt by the new inhabitants. 10. Among the trees of these valleys, is a beautiful one called the cacao. It is somewhat like the cherry-tree in size and form, and bears a fruit containing a number of oily kernels. From these kernels is prepared the deli- cious chocolate, so much used upon our tables. 11. Another tree, very precious to the people, grows in some of the warmest of the valleys. It is the cow- ACBOSS THE AND£S. 101 tree. When the bark is cut, there- fiows oUt fidm it an abundant juice, white and a little gummy, with a very pleasant taste and smell. It flows most freely about sunrise. Then you may see Indians and negroes coming from all directions to the trees, with large vases or jugs which they fill with this sort of milk. They are very fond of it, and it makes a nutritious food. 12. The highest of the inner valleys are cold and dreary, like the plains on the summit of the range; but even some of these have mining cities, and the food for the thousands of people who live and work there is nearly all brought by the llamas from the warm, fruitful valleys below. 13. Here and there, perched on the high- est rocks, is the condor^ the largest bird that flies. It is often very troublesome to the people of the high valleys, carrying away their lambs and kids, and some- times even their little children. 14. The second range is just as difficult to cross as the first one. Descending it to the foot of the moun- tains, we find again the rich forests, growing, blooming, and bearing fruit in the long summer, which lasts all the year. And now we come at once to the shore of the great Pacific; for the Andes lie close along the western border of the continent. A Condor. 102 GEOGIiArPniCAL HEADER. IV. -ON THE LLANOS, lla'-nos [Pya'-noz]. | las'-so. I O-ri-no'-co. 1. North of the Amazon is another great river, also flowing from a mountain country through a vast plain, north-eastward, into the Atlantic. This is the Orinoco. The plains of the Orinoco, like those of the Amazon, are quite level. Nowhere can a hill of any size be seen, but here and there a sort of table of naked rock rises up above the level surface of the ground. 2. Along the banks of the river, and on the rocky islands in the midst of it, are dense forests, like those which border the Amazon ; but elsewhere, all over the great plain, not a tree can be seen. These treeless plains are called llanos^ meaning open plains. 3. Through the llanos, at the end of the dry season, the river winds between low, flat banks, everywhere fringed with narrow bands of green forests or grasses. All the vast plain beside is dead and desolate. The earth is black and dry ; and the hot sun pours down upon it, without even a cloud between to shield it from the burning rays. 4. Now the rains begin. Torrents of water fall; and in a few days the river fills up, and overflows its banks. Grass and flowers spring up all over the plains ; and in a short time the wide llanos are carpeted with green, dotted with gold, crimson, purple, and every brilliant color. 5. Herds of wild horses and cattle pasture upon the rich grass, which is soon tall enough to hide them from ON THE LLANOS. 103 view ; or dash over the plains, pursued by swift riders, who catch them with a long rope fastened firmly to the saddle. This rope is called a lasso. It is wound into a ring, or coil, and held in the right hand ; and, Avhen the rider is near enough to the animal he wishes to catch, he throws it with all his might. He is so skilful, that. Lassoing Cattle. as the coil unwinds, a noose at its end is sure to fall around the horns or head of the animal, so that it can- not possibly escape him. Now the strong, brave horse holds himself firmly braced, and lets the poor beast pull at the lasso until it is tired out, when it is drawn up and secured. 6. The air is filled with insects; and the moist earth swarms with snakes, lizards, frogs, and turtles. Great 104 GEOGRAPHICAL BEADER. alligators watch by the river-side for the animals thai come down to drink ; and the jaguar, from the forest, comes here to prey upon the herds which feed on these rich pastures. 7. By and by the rainy season is over, and the sun pours down again its burning heat. After a few weeks, the river shrinks away to its former size, all the little pools and streams that were formed over the plain are gone. At length the earth is dry and liard, and cracked in every direction ; and the beautiful green grass has become yellow and dried everywhere, except close along the borders of the river. The dry, hot wind raises thick clouds of dust, and makes the air seem warmer instead of cooler. The red, dazzling sunlight nearly blinds you, and the heat makes you weak and sick. 8. Now you do not see any frogs nor snakes ; for they know when the dry season is coming, and bury them- selves in the earth, to sleep until it is past, just as they do in our country during the winter. They do not like the very dry, hot weather any better than they do the cold. The swarms of insects are all dead; and the horses and the cattle are driven away to pastures near the mountains, for they would die without water. The whole plain is deserted and silent. 9. The herdsmen set fire to the dried grass in order to clear the ground for a new growth. Now the whole great plain, for hundreds of miles, is swept by the flames, every thing is destroyed, and the earth is left black and bare, as we first saw it. This is one reason why no trees grow here. Every little one which may start during the wet season from seed scattered over the ground is killed by the drought and the fires each year. UP THE LA PLATA, 105 v.— UP THE LA PLATA. La Fla'-ta [lah-2)lah'-tah]. pam'-pas. Pa-ra-na' [pali-rah-ncih']. Gran Cha'-co [chah'-]. Gau'-cho [(/oio'-c/io]. gar-lop-ing [-htp-]. 1. South of the Amazon is still another large river. Like the Mississippi, it gathers its waters from the mountain-lands east and west of it, and flows southward through a great plain. Near the mouth it is called the La Plata; but the long stream above is named the Parana. 2. The plains of the La Plata, called pampas^ are not like those of the Mississippi, nor yet like the selvas nor the llanos. There are no great forests, nor rich prairies ; but, instead, the ground is covered during the wet sea- son with coarse grass growing two or three yards high, mixed with clover and thistles even higher. They are so large that they seem like young trees, more than like the plants of the same kind which we are accustomed to see. 3. In some places, are great forests of these tall, strong thistles, so dense that it is impossible to pass through them, except by the paths made by the herds of wild horses and cattle that feed upon the pampas. It is very dangerous to travel through these thickets ; for robbers hide themselves beside the paths, and kill and rob those who come Avithin their reach. For this reason there is little travelling across the pampas, ex- cept during the dry season, when the thistles are dead and burned, like the grasses of the llanos. 106 GEOGBAPHICAL BEABEB, 4. The inhabitants of the pampas are either Indians or a race of half-breeds, called Gauchos, The Gauchos are a half-wild people, spending almost their whole time on horseback, and riding the swiftest and wildest horses easily and safely. They sleep npon the gronnd, with only their mantles to cover them, and are very proud of their wild, free life. They fear nothing but the jaguar and the Indians, and even of these they are not much afraid. The little boys, when not more than four years old, ride per- fectly well. They are able to help their fathers drive herds fro m to place for pastures, and begin them- the place fresh A Gaucho and an Indian. soon selves to catch and tame the fleet wild horses. 5. There were not always wild horses and cattle on the llanos and pampas. Before the white people came, these plains were covered with native animals, as thickly as the selvas now are. The white people brought the first horses and cattle with them from Europe ; and they have increased in numbers so fast as to drive away from these rich pastures nearly all the native animals that once fed upon them. 0. Farther up the river, the pampas disappear ; and UP THE LA PLATA. 107 the plains through which the Parana flows are rich prairies, with timber along the streams. Here and there over the prairies, are low round hills covered with trees, looking like islands in the great sea of grass. 7. Toward the sources of the river, the w^oodlands in- crease, and there is only here and there a little, bright prairie smiling among their darker green. This is the Gran Chaco^ or great hunting-ground of the Indians; and they can be seen on their fleet horses, gal- loping over the prai- ries, gathering them- selves together on the banks of the river, ready for the chase. They and the wild beasts of the forest alone have possession of these rich plains. 8. One day we shall see these streams bordered with cities, and covered with swift steamers bearing away the cotton, the coff'ee, and the sugar, which will then be growing where now are only forests and wild prairies. You know that it is not a great while since the cotton-plantations and grain- farms along the Mississippi were wild forests and prai- ries, with the Indians for their only inhabitants. The Gran Chaco. THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. LIFE ON AND IN THE OCEAN. New'-found-land [-fund-]. \ con'-ti-nent. | har-poon'. 1. East of North and South America, you remember, is the Atlantic Ocean. Beyond the ocean, are two other continents, — Europe, which is opposite us; and Africa, opposite Mexico and South America. The northern end of the Atlantic joins the frozen ocean of the north, on the shores of which the Esquimaux live; and the southern end joins another frozen ocean beyond South America. You see that those parts of it must be very cold ; but the middle is warm, like the lands beside it. 2. In every part of this ocean, are ships going to and fro between the continents that border it, carrying goods and people from one country to another. Great steamers, also, built on purpose to carry travellers, are constantly plying between our large sea-ports, like New York and Boston, and the ports of Europe. They go as fast as possible all the time, — day and night; but the ocean is so very broad, that they are eight or ten days in crossing it. 3. Before people began to build steamers, it took much longer to cross the Atlantic. The ships go only about half as fast as the steamers ; and if there is bad 108 LIFE ON AND IN THE OCEAN, 109 weather, they may be hindered so as to take a month or more for the voyage. In a calm, the great ships drift lazily, with their broad, drooping sails bathed in sun- light ; but the steamers dash along at their usual rate, pouring into the air clouds of black smoke, and raising a great foam and flurry along their path. An Ocean Steamer leaving Port. 4. Sometimes both ships and steamers set out with every thing fair, and are never heard of afterward. Some take fire and are burned in mid-ocean; others spring a leak and sink. Others still are driven by storms far out of their course, and injured so that they cannot get back. Then they may drift about for days, and finally sink, without ever being seen. 110 GEOGRAPHICAL BEADEB. 6. In crossing the Atlantic, we are for many days far from the sight of any land. All around us, is the great world of water, stretching away to the horizon, with perhaps not even a ship in view. The sun seems to come up out of the sea in the morning, and to sink into it at night. You would almost believe the ocean to be the whole world, and the people in the ship the only ones on its surface. 6. But the sea is full of life. In some places, are miles and miles of sea-weed growing on the top of the water ; in others, are immense schools of dolphins swimming for days beside the ship, sometimes darting almost out of the water, and making graceful curving lines at every motion. Timid little flying-fish leap out into the air when they want to escape an enemy. Great flocks of sea-birds sail about on the wing, or dive into the sea after fish, or float on the surface to rest. 7. But the most wonderful thing to see is the ocean itself, on a quiet night. Sometimes the ship leaves a path of light behind it, on the broad dark waters ; and every little creature that plays on the surface is sur- rounded by a circle of light, making the ocean very beautiful. You see there are many things that even children can learn about the great ocean ; but there are very many other things for you to learn by and by. 8. Besides the ships that transport passengers and goods, there are others which take men away to the cold parts of the ocean, to catch the whale. When a whale is seen, some of the sailors get into a small, strong boat, and row toward it. Fastened to the boat, are long, stout ropes, with sharp spears, called harpoons^ attached to the ends. When the boat has come near LIFE ON AND IN TUE OCEAN. Ill enough, the master stands up, and throws a harpoon with all his force, and fixes it in the body of the whale. 9. He plunges down deep into the water, and the boatmen let the rope out longer and longer, so that the boat will not be drawn down too. They know he can- Whale-Fishing. not stay under long, for he must come to the top to breathe. The master has another harpoon ready to strike him again when he comes up, and soon he is killed. But sometimes the angry whale strikes the boat, and breaks it in pieces ; and then, if another boat were not by to help them, all the sailors would be drowned. 112 GEOGBAPUICAL READER. 10. The body of the whale is now brought alongside the vessel, and fastened to it, so that it cannot float away. The men stand on the back, and cut off the fat, which is boiled in great kettles in order to get the oil. This is put into barrels to be carried home. The ship stays in the whale-fields until it obtains a full cargo of oil, so the sailors are sometimes gone for three years. 11. There are vessels engaged in other kinds of fishery, in parts of the Atlantic. Opposite the mouth of the St. Lawrence, is a large island, called Newfoundland, Around this island, the sea is thronged with fine fish ; and hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of vessels, are occupied there during the season for fishing. The waters all along the coasts abound in excellent fish, and great numbers of little fishing-vessels are flitting here and there in pursuit of them. EUROPE. L- ENGLAND. -THE COUNTRY. Eng'-land [//iiy'-Zajid]. | Ire'-land. | Scot'-land. 1. Near the coast of Europe, in the Atlantic Ocean, are two great islands, named Great Britain and Ireland, Great Britain was once divided into three separate countries, — England, Scotland, and Wales. They are now all united in one, though people still use these names for the different parts of the island. 2. England is a lovely country. Wherever you go, you will find the pretty, neat farms separated by hedges instead of fences. There are hedges, too, skirt- ing the roadsides and lanes; and the fields are fresh and green, as though the whole country were a carefully tended garden. Here and there, is a great house or castle, very large, old, and strong, though not always very attractive. In it live the rich people who own all the land for several miles around it. Their fathers and grandfathers have lived there before them, not quite ever since the world began, but for a very, very long time \ and, therefore, they are fond and proud of their great old castles. 3. Around the castle, are beautiful parks, with fine large trees shading them, — elms and oaks and beeches, 113 114 GEOGHAPIIWAL BEABER. SO old that nobody can tell when they were planted ; and the grass is so thick and soft that your feet are almost buried in it while Avalking. In the parks, are pretty gray deer, with timid little fawns keeping close beside their mothers, and almost afraid to be looked at. There are, also, rabbits, hares, partridges, and many Windsor Castle. other kinds of animals and birds, which make the parks pleasant. 4. Near the castle, is often a village of neat white cottages, with its church, its school-house, and its shops. Around the village, are fields of golden wheat waving in the summer sunshine, and green pastures full of sheep and cows, quietly cropping the grass or dozing in ENGLAND. — THE COUNTRY. lU the shade. There are meadows, too, where the farmers are piling the fragrant new-mown hay on the great carts ; while boys and girls follow the load with their rakes to gather up every bit that falls. 5. Haymaking and harvest are merry times in Eng- land for both young and old : but I think you would like the spring best, when the hedges are white with flowers ; when the orchards are rosy, and there are so many little singing birds that you almost believe every blossom has a voice. 6. There are such green fields, neat hedges, old cas- tles, and pretty villages, all over England ; but there are many people in England who never see any of them, — many children who never see the lambs skip in the pastures, never hear the birds sing, never rake hay in the meadows, nor gather flowers from the hedges and the pastures in spring-time. 7. There are mountains in England, not very high ones, it is true, not even so high as the Appalachians ; but they are very important, because they are full of iron, coal, copper, tin, and other valuable minerals. To get these things from the earth, somebod}^ must go away out of the sunshine, out of sight of the green fields, out of hearing of the pretty singing-birds, and live and work down deep within the earth, where the sun never shines, and no sound is ever heard but the voices and hammers of the miners, and the creaking of their machinery. There they stay all the time, working under the ground, sometimes not seeing the sunlight even for a whole year. 8. Do you suppose you, or any child, would like to live in such a place? Yet there are many children 116 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. who live there year after year, working in the mines with their fathers and brothers. There are not many things which they are strong enough to do ; but they open and shut the gates between different parts of the mine, Avhen the loads of ore are passing, and do other things of that kind, for wliich they do not need to be very strong. When they go up out of the mine, they must all, men and children, get into a kind of basket, and be drawn up, very much as you draw water out of a well in a bucket. II. -THE CITIES IN ENGLAND. Thames [Temz], | Lon'-don [Lun'-dun]. \ Man'-ches-ter. 1. There are large cities in England, where very many people live, and buy and sell goods, or work in factories and mills of different kinds. One of these, named Lofidon^ is the largest city in the world. You might start from one side of it early in the morning, and walk all day, passing nothing but houses and shops and churches and other buildings, and yet you would hardly reach the other end of it before night. 2. This great city is built on both sides of the River Thames^ not very far from the sea-shore. There is often much fog in the air, from the river and the sea. It is not a light, thin fog, such as you may see on a sum . mer morning above the little brooks and ponds in the country ; but the smoke from the ten thousand chim- neys of this great city mingles with it, and makes it almost black. Sometimes it is so dark that the people are obliged to light lamps in their houses and in the TUE CITIES IN ENGLAND. 117 streets in the middle of the day. Even then they may lose their way in going from their shops to their homes, because they cannot see enough to know through what streets they are passing. 3. Many fine bridges cross the Thames, binding the London and the Thanries River. parts of the city together ; and, besides these, there is a passage, or tunnel., under the river, from one side of it to the other. There are thousands of ships all the time upon the stream. Some are coming into the city from all parts of the world, with food, clothing, and many other things for the multitudes of people who live there. Others are going out, loaded with articles to be sold in distant countries. 118 GEOGBAPIIICAL READER. 4. Besides the great ships and steamers, little steam- boats are constantly moving up and down the river, like stages, to take passengers from one part of the long city to another; while others carry people back and forth, across the stream. Along its banks, are great warehouses for storing goods, and miles of wharves and docks, to furnish room for loading and unloading the vessels. 5. In other parts of the city, are large, beautiful parks. One, which is very fine, has the Queen's palace looking down upon it. There are many splendid palaces, many grand old churches, and famous public buildings, that you would like to see. 6. Manchester is another great city of England, though it is not nearly so large as London. You will see here thousands of cotton-factories, with great smoking chim- neys. The whole city is filled with them ; and almost all the people work in them or have something to do with them. Even children, no larger than many of you are, go early in the morning and work all day in the hot, close rooms, where they are half deafened by the rattling machinery. Don't you think they must get very tired ? These mills make the beautiful calicoes and muslins which are used all over England, and are also packed in boxes, and sent by ship-loads to all parts of the world. 7. Liverpool^ also, is an important city. It is near Manchester, on the sea-shore, and is the place to which the ships bring the cotton for the mills, and the food for the people who work in them ; for Manchester is not on the sea-shore. Most of the cotton, and a large part of the grain, are sent from our country. There is SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. 119 a railroad from Liverpool to Manchester, by which these things are sent back and forth between them. There are very many other cities in England about which you will like to learn at another time ; and there are so many railroads, that the whole country seems covered with a network of iron bands. III. — SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. High'-land-ers. | Ed'-in-burgh [-bur-ruh]. | Em'-er-ald. 1. Scotland is not much like England, but is full of hills and rugged mountains. Some of them have high, steep slopes, with bare, black rocks, and, in many places, terrible precipices, which make travelling dangerous. Some of these mountains are covered with thick forests of pines and fir-trees. In the winter they are loaded with snow, and look very beautiful. 2. On the lower mountains and hills, are many green pastures; and all summer you will see them covered with flocks of sheep, for most of the people in these mountain lands are shepherds. Boys and girls, and sometimes men, stay with their flocks all day, to watch them, and keep them from getting lost in the forest. 3. To help them guard the sheep, the shepherds have fine dogs, that seem to know almost as much as some people. When a sheep is lost, the shepherd's dog will be sure to find where it has gone ; and, if he sees one going too far away from the flock, he will run after it, and drive it back. At night the flocks are driven into a fold^ and the dogs alone guard them. 120 GEOGRAPUICAL llEAUKll. 4. Among these mountains, there are many streams with fine waterfalls, and many beautiful, clear mountain lakes, like those in New England. In the forests, deer abound; and the Highlanders^ as the people of the mountain country are called, are very fond of hunting them. 5. Scotland is quite a cold country, and has a great deal of rainy weather. One rainy day a trav- eller asked a Scotch- man if it rained so all the time. "No, sir," said he : "sometimes it snows." What do you think of a coun- try in which it rains or snows most of the time? G. Scotland contains many cities, but none are so large as the great cities in England. Ed- inburgh is the finest, though not the largest. '-°'=^ t"-^"^^! Lomond. It is built on hills with narrow valleys between them. Some valleys, though they have no rivers, have bridges across them, to save the trouble of going up and down. In crossing these bridges, you see houses and shops un- derneath, instead of water. 7. There is one hill with a fine old castle on the top ; and another that has pleasant walks winding around it to the summit, and many beautiful statues and build- SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. 121 ings scattered among trees and flowers. From these hills, you can see, not only the country all about, but also the ocean. The air is clear and fresh, and not filled with fog and smoke as in London. Many of the streets are broad and pleasant ; but others are so nar- row, that people standing in their doorways can shako An OW Castle. hands with their neighbors on the other side of the street. 8. Ireland has an abundance of rain, and is a warmer country than either England or Scotland. Its plains and hills are always fresh and green, and it is often called the Emerald Isle. It is the first land of Europe reached by the steamers which cross the broad ocean; and you can imagine how charming it must look to travellers who have seen nothing, during eight or ten days, but the blue sky above and the blue sea below. 122 GEOGRAPHICAL UEABEB. The southern part is full of hills and low mountains, and among them are the most beautiful lakes and streams. 9. In many parts of the country, there are places in which the moist earth seems to be one mass of little roots and dead and decaying plants. These are peat hogs. The turf, or peat, when gathered and dried, is burned instead of wood. It makes a hot fire, and is almost the only fuel of the country people ; for wood is very scarce. IV. — FRANCE. -THE COUNTRY, chest'-nut [c/ies-]. | peas'-ant [pez-]. \ mu-si'-cian [-zish'-an]. 1. France, on the continent of Europe, is but a short distance from Great Britain. The two countries are separated by the English Channel^ the narrowest part of which is the Strait of Dover, 2. This is a pleasant land, full of broad plains, green hills, and fresh valleys ; and in some parts are rugged mountains. It is much warmer than England. In the north, there is very often foggy and cloudy or rainy weather; but in the south the air is clearer, and the sky more sunny. 3. Still I think that people who travel in France do not admire this country so much as England ; for the owners of the land do not take the same pains to make it beautiful. But you will see in some places what you do not see in England. In the warmer parts, there are large orchards of fig-trees full of their soft, sweet fruit ; FRANCE. — THE COUNTRY. 123 groves cf olive and mulberry trees ; and an abundance of peaches, pomegranates, and other excellent fruits, which do not grow in England, because it is not warm enough. 4. You will find, in other places, apple, pear, and plum trees, sometimes growing by the roadside ; fields of wheat and other grain, and of beets raised for sugar; and flax, with its slender pale-green stalk, and its pretty blue flowers, like bright eyes looking up to the sunlight. In the forests which grow on the hills and mountains, are tall elms, and oaks full of glossy brown acorns, and beeches that bear the little three-cornered nuts which all children like. 6. But the best of all the trees for the country people, OY peasants., who live on these rough lands, is the chest- nut. You have all eaten chestnuts, and like them, I presume; but what would you think of having only roasted chestnuts, and a piece of oatmeal bread, and a cup of water, for breakfast, or dinner, or supper? The peasants use chestnuts as a part of their food. These grow much larger than the American chestnut; and sometimes, w^ere it not for them, many persons would starve. 6. What I think would please you most, is the vine- yards^ which can be seen in all the warmer parts of France. You would not think them very beautiful ; for the vines are planted by the side of wooden stakes, hardly higher than your head, above which the main stalk is never allowed to grow. The branches extend from one stake to another, and form long lines of vines, with spaces between them only wide enough to walk in. 7. But, if you go to the vineyard when the fruit is 124 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. ripe, you will see, as you walk through the narrow paths, large clusters of delicious grapes on each side, from the top to the bottom of the vines. They fill the air with their delightful fragrance, and if you put them in your mouth, you Avill find their taste even finer than their odor ; and you may forget to notice that the vine- yard looks not a little like a field of potato-vines. 8. Now, early in the morning, the boys and girls, and Vintage in France. men and women, come out from the neighboring villages, each with basket in hand, and then what a merry time they have ! They laugh and sing, tell funny stories, and do all sorts of amusing things while filling their baskets, and their mouths too, with the delicious fruit. 9. Every little while, you will see a strong man carry- FRANCE. — THE COUNTRY. 125 iiig on his back a great, deep basket, fastened to his shoulders, and reaching above the top of his head. Into this the people who are gathering the grapes, empty their smaller baskets. When it is filled, lie carries it away to the road which runs through the middle, or by the side, of the vineyard, and empties his juicy load into casks ready to receive it. 10. By the side of each, is a man having in his hands a crusher, like a mallet with a long handle. As fast as the grapes are put into the casks, they are pressed, in order to break the skins, so that the juice may escape. When the casks are all full of the crushed grapes, they are driven away to the press. There the juice is pressed out, and then stored away, and left to ferment and become wine. 11. All this the merry French people greatly enjoy. Sometimes in the evening, after they have been all day gathering grapes, the owner of the vineyard employs musicians to play for them. They dance until they are tired, and then go to their homes and sleep until the morning comes to give them another such merry day. The vineyards all belong to the rich people, but the peasants are very glad to help gather the grapes. 12. There are very many people in France. For this reason there is not much land for each one of the peas- ants, and some of them are very poor. They do not eat white bread every day, with plenty of meat and butter, as our farmers do ; but they have a kind of black bread, that is quite heavy and bitter. The most fortunate have a chicken, or a piece of pork, on Sunday ; but many have meat only once a year, and that on Christmas. 13. This seems strange to you, and I suppose you 126 GEOGHAPIIICAL HEADER, think they cannot be very happy. But they are the merriest people in the world ; and the little black-eyed, black-haired, rosy-cheeked peasant boys and girls, with their bare feet, coarse dresses, and brown bread and chestnuts, are just as happy as children who have much more than they. V.~SOMB FRENCH CITIES. bou'-le-vard [boo'-le-var]. Tui'-le-ries [twe'-le-ree]. Notre Dame [notr' dam]. mu-se'-um. e-lys'-i-an [-Uz'-]. Seine [smie]. Mar-seiUe' [sale'']. Khone [rone]. Med'-i-ter-ra'-ne-an. 1. France, like England, is full of fine, large cities. The largest is Paris^ the capital, and one of the most magnificent cities in the world. Extending all round the inner part of the town, are handsome streets, called Boulevards, They have a broad carriage-way in the middle, then rows of fine trees, beneath which are side- walks as wide as a common street, and as smooth as a floor. 2. Handsome vehicles, drawn by splendid horses, are constantly rolling along the carriage-way; w^iile the sidewalks are thronged with elegantly dressed people. But the Boulevards are gayest in the evening, when the shops that border them are all brilliantly lighted, and the display of carriages and merry people is even greater than during the day. 3. In these shops, and others all over Paris, you will find all sorts of most beautiful goods. There are silks, laces, muslins, bonnets, and shawls, and handsome cloths of all kinds for ladies' and gentlemen's clothing. There SOME FRENCH CITIES. 127 are shops full of elegant jewelry, and others where all sorts of ornaments for parlors are kept. The toy-shops are a wonder, containing almost every thing that any boy or girl could desire. It would take a long time to name even a small part of the toys ; but think of those you admire and wish for most, and you may be sure that they can be found in the shops of Paris. 4. Here, also, are spacious gardens, in which are groves of trees, and clusters of bright flowers, with numerous monuments scattered among them, and fountains cool- ing the air. Pleasant walks and broad carriage-ways wind among the trees and flowers; and neat benches are placed in the most beautiful spots, where people may sit with their friends, and enjoy the charming scenes. These gardens are always filled with merry people, riding, walking, or resting; and, when lighted in the evening, they are very gay places. 5. In the JElysian Fields^ and in the Gardens of the Tuileries^ you may always find a throng of children with their nurses. Here are kept pretty little carriages, drawn by goats, in which the children may ride about if they like ; and, as you may suppose, they find it de- lightful to do so. There are also halls, or galleries, filled with rare and beautiful paintings and statues; and museums of curious things that have been collected from all parts of the world. There is one place, called the Garden of Plants^ in which is a collection of living plants and animals, from all countries. 6. Paris is built on both sides of the River Seine^ and, like London, has many bridges, some of which are very handsome. It is adorned with arches and columns, erected by the different kings and emperors who have 128 GEOGRAPHICAL BE A DEB. ruled over France, in honor of their brave and wise men, or of the victories which their armies have gained. There are, also, many famous churches and palaces. You will often hear of the Notre Dame^ one of the finest churches, and of the Tuileries^ which was once the em- peror's palace. 7. Another of the cities of France is celebrated far The Elysian Fields. and wide, on account of the elegant silk goods which are made there. This is Ly'on, Almost half the peo- ple of the city are workers in silk. These silk-makers do not work constantly in great factories full of ma- chinery, as do the people who make cotton goods in Manchester. They have little machines in their own houses ; and, hiring two or three other people to help SOME FRENCH CITIES, 129 them, they weave the beautiful pieces of silk, ribbon, or velvet, when ordered by the silk-merchants. 8. Sometimes they have nothing to do for a long while, and suffer much, because this is their only way of getting money. They all live in one part of the city, on a hill between the two livers on the banks of which Lyon is built. The largest of these is the Rhone^ of which you will learn more another time. 9. The hills that slope up from the river-banks are covered with tall, beautiful buildings shaded with fine trees, and are ornamented with many noble monuments. This makes the city look very pleasant ; but, if you go about, you will not like it so well. The streets are narrow and disagreeable ; and by the side of magnifi- cent structures, you will often find ruinous old houses, and dust and dirt so thick that you can hardly bear to walk about. 10. The streets that lead up the hill-sides are very crooked, and sometimes so steep that it has been neces- sary to make stairways in some places. But, after you are upon the top of the highest hill, you will feel well repaid for the hard walk you have had. From this hill-top you can see the whole city, with the two rivers gliding like silver bands among its beautiful buildings ; the green valley of the Rhone, with the great plain at the west of it ; and even, far away to the east, the high Alps^ looking like masses of purple clouds. 11. Marseille is another fine city. It is on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, — an arm of the Atlantic which separates Europe from Africa. This is a much warmer place than Paris or Lyon, and has much less rain. It is in that part of France which has the bright, sunny sky, 130 GEOGBAPniCAL BEABEB. where the grapes grow so rich and sweet. The city is built aroiiiicl a little bay, and has a fine harbor, where you may see ships from all parts of the world, and hear many different languages spoken. 12. One part is called the Old City, In this the streets are narrow, and the houses are high and old and dark. The other part, called the New City^ has straight, broad streets, with fine houses and numerous shops, like those of Paris. One street has many beautiful fountains, supplied with water, brought in a canal from the hills many miles away. i'5. The country around Marseille, is not all beautiful like that around Lyon. In some places it is very dry, and you can hardly see a green leaf or a blade of grass. The houses have nothing to make it pleasant about them but the sea-view. This is so charming, with the blue and quiet waters dotted with green islands, and the clear, sunny sky overhead, that it makes one almost forget how dreary it is on the land. But other parts have no need of a view of the sea to make them pleas- ing; for there are green valleys filled with vineyards, and groves of olive, orange, and mulberry trees. 14. These are not all of the fine cities in France. There are others in the interior as remarkable for cotton-mills, linen-factories, and iron-works as Lyon for its silk-looms ; and still others on the coast, which are famous as markets for wine, brandy, and fruits, or for the elegant manufactures of the country. But, after all, France is not nearly so crowded as Great Britain ; for, though more than twice as large, it has not so many great cities ; and Paris itself is but little more than half the size of London. HOLLAND, BELGIUM, THE NOBTU COUNTBIES. 131 VI. -HOLLAND, BELGroM, AND THE NORTH COUNTRIES. Hol'-land. Bel'-gium [-ji-um]. Am'-ster-dam. Swe'-den. Den'-mark. Nor-we'-gi-an [-J?-]. 1. Holland, a small but very interesting country, lies in the low plains about the mouth of the Rhine. The ground is so low and flat, that it is hard work to keep the sea from overflowing, and covering it entirely. There are many lakes and marshes along the shore. Winter in Holland. The people build, around these, banks of earth, called dikes^ to keep out the sea, then pump the water from them until they are dry, and so change them into rich meadows. 132 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. 2. Canals run all through the country, to drain away the water ; and in summer you will see the people moving about in little boats, instead of going in car- riages, by roads, as in other countries. In winter the canals all freeze over, and then are covered with skaters. The farmers' wives skate to market, with their baskets of butter or other things on their heads. The men in the villages and cities skate to their places of business, and the children skate to school. 3. The Hollanders are called Dutch, and it was from this country that the peo- ple came who first settled New York. They are very industrious, and nowhere in the world will you find better farmers than they. The rich meadows are full of fine sleek cows, from the milk of which excellent butter and cheese are made. The Dutch are great fisher- men too. They catch her- ring in the sea between England and Holland, but go to distant parts of the ocean for the cod and the whale. 4. Amsterdam is a city of Holland. It is full of canals instead of streets ; and the ships which bring goods to the merchants can sail to the doors of the shops to be unloaded. 6. Belgium lies between Holland and France, on the sea-shore opposite England. It is much like Holland, but not so flat nor so damp. It is more densely peopled Dutch Windmill. HOLLAND, BELGIUM, THE NORTH COUNTRIES. 133 than any other country in Europe. The land is divided into little farms not larger than a common field in one of the farms of our country. But the soil is so fertile, and the farmer is so very industrious, that, small as his lot seems to us, he is able to get a living from it. 6. He sows wheat in one corner, and rye in another, some clover for the cows in one part, and some flax, to make linen for clothing, in still another. The cows are kept in a stable, and the children must gather weeds and grass to feed them. Besides, there is a pig, and some hens, and sometimes a goat, to be taken care of; and the house to be kept clean, and the flax to be spun. Thus, you see, there is enough for all to do. 7. Denmark, Sweden, and Norway are still far- ther north. Denmark and Southern Sweden are low lands, but much colder than Holland. Norway is a high, rugged, mountainous country, and is very cold. The tops of the mountains are covered with snow, from which great masses of ice creep down to the val- leys, sometimes reaching even to the sea-shore. Here they are often broken ; and the end, falling into the sea, forms an iceberg, which goes floating away toward the warmer parts of the ocean until it melts and dis- aj)pears. 8. On the lower slopes of the mountains, are tall, dense forests of pines and fir-trees. Rich ores of iron, also, abound. The coasts are thronged with wild ducks and geese and other water-fowl, and the sea is filled with excellent fish. The hardy farm products also thrive in all the warmer portions. 9. Many of the Norwegians work in the forests, cut- ting down the tall, straight trees, which they send away 134 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. to Denmark, Germany, and even to England and France, to be used for masts of vessels. Great numbers work in the mines, or catch fish along the coast ; and many, also, are sliepherds. 10. In summer the cattle and sheep are driven away to the mountain pastures, where they are taken care of fl • Coast of Norway. by children and by the old people, while the strong men are busy in the forests, the mines, or the fisheries. The Lapps^ in the northern part of Sweden and Norway, having tamed the reindeer, obtain almost their whole living from it. They feed upon its milk and flesh, make their clothing and tents of its skin, and train it to draw their sledges from place to place in winter. SPAIN. 135 VIL- SPAIN. Mad-rid'. I Pyr'-e-nees. I Pa'-los. Me-ri'-no [-ree-]. \ Port'-u-gal [-oo-], \ Span'-iard [-yard]. 1. Spaijst is a large country lying en the coast south- west of France. Between them is a high mountain- range. Its steep slopes are covered with forests, and are broken by narrow valleys, full of bright, rapid streams, with hundreds of foaming waterfalls. High up above the forests, whose glossy green leaves are never black- ened by frosts, are handsome flowering shrubs and mosses. Still higher are the bare mountain-peaks, cov- ered nearly all the year with snow and ice. 2. This mountain-range is the Pyrenees, The passes that lead over it are difficult and dangerous every- Avhere, except at the ends of the range. The forests are the home of many mountain-goats, and other fleet, surefooted animals, which leap from rock to rock with the greatest agility. 3. Crossing the Pyrenees, and going southward, we find ourselves at length on a high table-land, — the roof of Spain as it might be called. It is dry, sterile, and so dusty, that even the few cultivated fields seem hardly less dreary than they would be without a green leaf upon them. The small, poor villages are so covered with the dust blown upon them by the terrible winds, that they become as gray as the ground, and at a short distance can hardly be distinguished from it. 4. Here and tliere the high, dreary table-land is cut by a deep valley, through which flows a river; and 136 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. there, sheltered from the sweeping wmds, are beauti- ful orchards and gardens. But elsewhere little grows except poor, coarse grasses. In spring and autumn these furnish pasture for thousands of fine-wooUed merino sheep ; but in the long dry summer the whole surface is parched and dead. Now the merinos arc driven northward to fresh pastures near the moun- tains. In winter they go down into the sheltered valleys to escape the storms and the cold, which are very severe. 5. From this high table-land in the centre of Spain, long mountain-ranges, having broad, beautiful valleys between them, extend away to the sea at the east, south, and west. These mountains are rugged and broken. Many are covered with forests, which are the homes of multitudes of wolves; while the glens and caves are fre- quently the shelter of robbers. Thus travelling in the mountainous regions is not only unpleasant, but often dangerous. 6. In the forests, are many valuable trees. Among them is a kind of oak, the bark of which is the cork^ so useful in many ways. Another oak bears a small, sweet acorn, which is much relished by the people. It is eaten either uncooked, or boiled or roasted, as the French peasants eat chestnuts. Were we visiting in the parts of the country where it grows, it would be offered to us as a great delicac}'. 7. The highest of the mountain-ranges in Spain, like the highest in California, is called the Sierra Nevada^ because its summit is covered with snow, even in mid- summer. In the warm, rich valleys at its foot are orange, olive, and mulbeiTy groves, and gardens of SPAIN. 187 pine-apples, bananas, and beautiful flowers. No frost ever withers them ; and no winter's cold robs them of their leaves, their flowers, or their fruits. 8. The olive^ though a very useful tree, is not at all a handsome one. Its long narrow leaves are thick and stiff, and are of a dull grayish color, as though covered with dust. The branches are rough and crooked ; and the trunk looks as though a strong hand had seized it by the top, and twisted it, as we twist a cord. In spring it is covered with clus- ters of pretty wliite flow- ers, and in autumn with the small, dark-green, plum-shaped fruit from which the olive-oil, often called sweet oil, is pressed. The fruit is also preserved, and sent to other countries to be used as a relish at meals. 9. Do you wish to know the use of the mulberry- trees? Their leaves furnish the food of the silkworm. Very many of these worms are raised in Spain. When they have lived a certain length of time, and are grown to their full size, they spin a fine thread, which they wind round their bodies until they are completely wrapped up in it. Thus they form a ball somewhat like that made by the caterpillar from wliich a butterfly comes in the spring. This ball of thread which the Olive Tree and Fruit, 138 GEOGBAPHICAL BEABER. silkworm spins is called a cocoon. Large quantities of cocoons are sent to Lyon, to be unwound and woven Into elegant silks. 10. There are not such great and busy cities in Spain as in England and France. The largest is Madrid^ the capital of the country. It is on the high table-land, in the interior, far from the sea. No ships can come near it ; and it is without any large river upon which boats can go to the sea, or to other parts of the country. Mulberry and Silkworm. 11. Madrid is VCrV cold in winter, and very hot in summer, and so is not an agreeable place in which to live. Still the fountains playing in all parts of the city in the summer make it look very pleasant, and cool the air nicely. The water, like that of the fountains in JNIarseille and New York, comes from the country many miles away, and is pure and cool. 12. The people of Madrid do little work. Li the morning the men walk idly to and fro, with a long cloak over their shoulders, and a broad crimson sash, in which a large knife is always hidden, tied about the waist. The women wear long, rich dresses, with a shawl around them, and an elegant lace scarf thrown over their heads instead of a bonnet. SPAIN. 139 13. After dinner every one, even the workman, sleeps for several hours. In the evening people go to walk on the Prado^ a beautiful, broad walk two miles in length, which runs through the city. Rows of elm-trees, with seats arranged beneath them, shade it; and here and there are fountains playing, around which are persons with little cups, waiting to sell water to those who are thirsty. 14. Along the sea-shore are many cities, from which are shipped choice fruits, both fresh and dried, wines, and olive - oil. On the south- ern coast is a little old town, called Palos^ now all going to ruin. From this town, near- ly four hundred years ago, three small ships, fur- nished by the king and queen Fleet of coiumbus. of Spain, sailed away under the command of Christo- pher Columbus. They went in search of lands which Columbus believed might be found beyond the Atlantic Ocean. He was sure that the earth was round, and that he could go to the Indies by sailing westward. 15. When they came back, after many months, they 140 GEOGRAPHICAL BEADEB. brought tidings of a new land and a new people on the other side of the ocean ; for they had reached some islands of the West Indies. Columbus made other voyages, and found South America; and soon after North America was reached by another Spanish ex- pedition. Thus the Spaniards discovered the New World. It was they who made the first settlements there, and who conquered and destroyed the rich old cities in Mexico and the valleys of the Andes. 16. On the west side of Spain, between a part of its territory and the Atlantic, is a narrow strip of country so much like Spain, that the traveller would hardly see any difference between them. This is Portugal. Like its greater neighbor, Portugal is famed for its warm, fruitful valleys and the fine wines from its vineyards. VIII. -ITALY. Ven'-ice [-iss]. I Ve-su'-vi-us. I Her-cu-la'-ne-um. gon'-do-la. | Na'-ples [-pZz]. | Pom-pe'-ii [-pa' -ye]. 1. Italy is in the South of Europe. It is nearly surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea, and is one of the hottest countries in the continent. The sky is almost always blue and clear ; and the country, with its moun- tains and green valleys, its vineyards and meadows, is always pleasant. People from all parts of the world go to Italy to enjoy the sunny sky and the charming country, and to see the fine pictures and statues, and the remains of magnificent buildings, made by the old Romans who lived there hundreds of years ago. ITALY. 141 2. The sun is so very bright, that most things grow better by being somewhat shaded. For this reason you will see the fields planted with rows of trees, — mulberries and olives, elms, poplars, and a kind of pine Lake Maggiore, in Italy. which thrives only in warm countries. Around the foot of these the grape-vines are planted. They climb the tree, and cover its branches ; and shoots of the vine go from one tree to another, hanging between them in graceful festoons. Between the rows of trees, wheat and corn are planted, and fine crops are produced. You see, therefore, that a vineyard in Italy is a very different 142 GEOGRAPHICAL llEABEB. thing from one in France. The tall grain, the branches of the trees, and the slender twigs of the grape-vine, waving in the wind under the blue sunny sky, make, as you may suppose, a very pretty picture. 3. Sometimes, near a city, the road for miles is bor- dered on each side by rows of grape-vines. These, climbing upon trees or upon a sort of framework, meet over the road, making a pleasant shaded way for the traveller. The rich ripe grapes delight him with their fragrance, and he is allowed to gather all he wants to eat as he goes along ; but he must not gather them to take away, for that would be robbing other travellers who may come after him. How would you like to travel in this country ? 4. Italy contains very many old cities. They were once full of wealthy people, with splendid palaces, churches, and buildings of all kinds ; but the noble palaces have gone to ruin, and only the precious marble of which they were built remains to tell us how grand they once were. 5. Rome is the most remarkable of these cities. It was built more than two thousand years ago by a brave and skilful people, who did every thing to make it grand and beautiful. When our Saviour came on the earth, the emperor of Rome ruled over nearly all of the world then known to the Romans. 6. There is in Rome one of the finest churches in the world, named St, Peter'' s; also a very fine old palace, in which lives the Pope^ the head of the Roman Catho- lic Church. In both of these buildings you find valua- ble paintings and sculptures made by men who have been dead hundreds of years. Although these have ITALY. 143 been studied by the great artists from all countries, yet none have ever produced works of higher merit. 7. There are many grand palaces in Rome which are famous for their fine galleries of paintings and sculp- tures, or for their beautiful gardens. Some are sur- rounded by orange-trees, covered with snowy fragrant An Italian Church. flowers or delicious golden fruit gleaming among the glossy leaves. 8. If you stand on the shore in the north-eastern part of Italy, and look away over the water, you will see, a long way off, palaces and towers which seem to rise from the midst of the waves, for you see no land around them. This is Venice^ another famous old Italian city. It was built on a great number of small flat islands ; and 144 GEOGRAPHICAL REABER. its churches and palaces were adorned with marbles of the finest colors, or with white marble handsomely sculptured. These, with the sunny sky above them, and the calm blue Avaters below, made it one of the most beautiful cities in the world. 9. Venice is still very handsome, though many of its finest buildings are almost in ruins. Graceful little boats, called gondolas^ glide about from place to place in the quiet waters between the islands. The merry songs of the gondoliers sound much more pleasant than the rattling of carriages and heavy carts over the rough pavements, which in other cities almost deafens us. 10. There are in Italy many cities besides these inter- esting old ones, though there are none so large or so important as those of England and France. Naples is in the south of Italy, Avhere there is hardly a touch of winter. It is built on the sea-shore, with a broad blue bay in front, and rough hills and fresh green valleys all around it. The valleys and hills are covered with orange-groves and vineyards. 11. At a little distance, is the famous volcano of Vesuvius^ from which black clouds of vapor are always rising. Its lower slopes are cultivated like the surround- ing country ; though the people know that at any time the volcano may send out a stream of lava to burn, or a shower of cinders to bury, them all. 12. At times, when the orange-groves and vineyards are bathed in the beautiful sunUght, the cattle quietly feeding in the pastures, and the people peacefully work- ing or resting in their pleasant homes, a sudden noise like thunder is heard in the earth, and the mountain begins to tremble. The animals run about in terror, .S WITZERLANl). 145 and tlie people know that they must hasten to escape the danger that is coming. They go away into Naples or to some other place, far enough from the mountain to be safe. On coming back, they sometimes find their vineyards and villages all destroyed ; but they are not afraid to settle themselves again upon the slopes, for they know that the volcano is not likely to do any more harm for years. 13. Two great cities, with a large number of the in- habitants, were once buried under substances thrown out from Vesuvius. Their names were Herculaneum and Pompeii, For nearly eighteen hundred years no one knew the place where they had been ; but now they have been found, and parts of them are uncovered. People can enter the houses, and see how they were arranged, and how people lived in those old times. Many curious and beautiful things, made before our Saviour came into the world, are found in these buried cities. IX. - SWITZERLAND. Swit'-zer-land. I av'-a-lanche. I cham'-ois [sham' -my]. Ge-ne'-va. I gla'-cier [//Za-seer]. | al'-pine {pin\ 1. Switzerland is a small but famous country east of France. The first thing oue thinks of in hearing this name is the Alps., a high, rugged mountain-range. Its lower slopes are covered with vineyards, orchards, wheat-fields, and meadows, with pleasant villages in every valley. Higher up are green forests of oak and walnut, then tall, dark pines and firs. 146 GEOGBAPniCAL UEABEB, 2. Above these, are clusters of low shrubs covered with bright flowers, and green pastures, with hundreds of fat, sleek cows feeding upon them. Little cottages are scattered all about, for the men who take care of the cows. Still higher are the tall sharp peaks, cov- View in the Alps. ered with ice and snow, and glistening like silver in the sunshine. These are the highest mountains in Europe, and among the grandest in the world. They fill all the southern half of Switzerland, and separate it from Italy. 3. Thousands of bright streams flow through the *S WITZEnL A NT). 147 pleasant green valleys, leaping over precipices, and making fine waterfalls. Some of these are so liigh, that the water, in falling, changes into fine spray ; and the fall looks like a shower of white dust coming from the sky. Sometimes the streams go leaping and dancing into little basin-like hollows, or deep gorges among the mountains. Tliese make beautiful lakes, that smile in the sunshine, reflecting the snowy peaks above them or the green forests around. 4. High up in the mountains, beyond the forests and green pastures, the valleys are no longer gay with streams that dance and sparkle and sing ; but in their stead are rivers of ice^ creeping along so slowl}^, so very slowly, that they seem not to move at all. It is only after watching them a long time, and trying them in many ways, that people have found out that they do move. They are called glaciers. 5. In the cold winter, the heights where the glacier is formed look very dreary, all buried in deep snow ; but, when the spring comes, tlie snow melts away, and there is left only the great ice-river in the valley. The mountain-slopes on both sides of it are covered with fresh green grass and pretty mountain flowers. How strange that must seem ! Sometimes flowers grow and blossom, even on the top of the ice, in the little heaps of earth that have gathered there by falling from the rocks above. 6. These ice-rivers go over precipices too, and make cataracts of ice all broken and split into every possible shape. Some of them are very grand. In the lower valleys, where the summer is quite warm, the end of the glacier melts away as fast as it descends. Thus it 148 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. advances no farther, but the meltmg ice forms a fine stream of water. Tlie Rhone, which flows through Lyon, in France, springs, in this way, from one of the glaciers of the Alps. 7. Up among the snowy peaks, from which the gla- ciers descend, terrible avalanches are sometimes formed. During or after a winter storm, a m.ass of snow becomes loosened from the rock on which it fell, and begins to roll down the mountain. As it moves onward, the snow on which it rolls clings to it, making it larger and heav- ier every moment, until it becomes an immense body. Now it rushes along as swiftly as the wind, dashing down the forest-trees in its path, and never stopping until it has reached the valley at the foot of the slope, where it sometimes buries whole villages. 8. The wild mountain-peaks, where few except the bravest hunters can go, are the home of the small, graceful chamois. It is a very fleet and sure-footed ani- mal, and leaps nimbly from rock to rock, seeking its food even on the brink of precipices, where you would not think it pos- sible for any creature to stand. Here, too, dwells the great mountain-eagle^ a strong, brave bird, that is very troublesome to the Alpine shepherds, robbing them of their lambs and kids, and sometimes even of their little children. 9. The whole of Switzerland is only a knot of moun- Chamois. S WirZEBLAND. 149 tains and green valleys, sparkling with briglit streams and clear mountain-lakes. Every little valley has its villages, and all the larger ones have pleasant cities, many of which are beside the beautiful lakes. You see, therefore, that, though a small country, it contains many inhabitants. They are a strong, brave people, who love their mountains and valleys so much, that they can never bear to leave them, and are ready to fight and die for their homes. 10. The peasants, who have their small farms on the mountains, keep cows and goats; and many of them spend the whole summer making cheese. As soon as the snow is gone, the men go with their herds away up to the high mountain-pastures. There they stay until the snow comes again in the autumn, living in little cottages in the pastures, taking care of their cows, and having scarcely any thing but milk and cheese to eat. In autumn they come down again, bringing with them their cheeses, which they sell in the cities. 11. It is a very merry time when the cows go to the pastures in tlie spring. The whole village to which the herdsmen belong has a holiday ; and their friends go with them part of the way, shouting, singing, and making themselves merry in every way. 12. In many villages, all the winter, the people are carving from wood curious vases, knives, boxes, spoons, figures of cheese-makers, of hunters with their chamois, and many other things. These are sold as curiosities to travellers who visit the mountains. 13. Some of the valleys, though quite high and cold, are yet full of pleasant villages and cities, where almost everybody is making watches. Geneva is the great mar- 150 GEOGBAPIIICAL BEABEB. ket of the watch-makers. It is a very beautiful town beside Lake Ge7ieva^ one of the largest lakes of the 30untry. X.- GERMANY. Ban'-ulDe. I Rhine [Bine]. I Mu'-nich [-nik]. Ger'-ma-ny. | Ber-lin'. | Prus'-sia [Frysh'-ia] 1. There is a broad mountain-land extending nortli- ward from the Alps, the mountains becoming constantly lower and lower. Two great rivers flow through it, — the Danube, going east; and the JRhine, going north. They are the longest rivers in all the western part of Europe. 2. This mountain country is divided into many little states, — almost as many as there are separate ranges and different valleys and basins. In all these the Ger- man language is spoken ; and they are united into one great empire called Germany. Thus Germany is not the name of a single state, like France or England, but of many united. 3. The southern part is much like Switzerland, with its mountains covered with dark forests and green pas- tures ; its wood-cutters, chamois-hunters, and milkmen ; and its mountain villages, wood-carvers, and toy-makers. It is full of deep gorges, bordered by high and some- times very steep walls of rock, and is the most inter- esting part of Germany. 4. Here and there, on the top of the highest rocks, is a gray old castle, where, years ago, bold men lived. They were always having quarrel;^, with each other, and GERMANY. 151 put their strong castles in these places to keep out of reach of their enemies. Sometimes, while the lords of these strongholds, and their retainers, were all gone to fight one enemy, another would come to beat down the castle. Then the ladies who were left at home were obliged, with their servants, to defend it alone. There were brave ladies in those days ; and sometimes A Castle on the Rhine. they would drive the enemy away as well as the lords of the castle themselves could do it. 5. Those things are all past now. Many of the castles are without inhabitants ; and bats and owls, rats and mice, live where brave knights and fair ladies once had their home. Everybody likes to see those old cas- tles, and think of the old times, so different from the present, and of the daring people of those days. 152 GEOGRAPHICAL BEADEB. 6. Through this rough country the Rhine flows in a broad, beautiful valley, which, like all the warm valleys of Germany, is covered with orchards and vineyards. At length the valley narrows to mountain-gorges, through which the river finds its way, among crags and peaks crowned with ancient castles. Then it moves slowly onward, across low, flat plains, to the sea. 7. The part of Germany beyond the mountains is very level, and is covered with grain-fields and pastures. You may see also large fields of flax, which the German women know how to spin into the finest threads, for making the rich laces that all ladies so much admire. The plains extend northward to the shores of the Baltic Sea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean. 8. In the Baltic plains, is the larger part of the king- dom of Prussia^ the most powerful of the German coun- tries. In the sands along the coast, is found a beautiful substance called amber^ which you may have seen, for it is used for beads and many other ornaments. After a storm in which the waves have rolled high, and have washed and beaten the sands of the beach, it may often be found in large quantities. 9. In the western part of Prussia, in the midst of the plains, is the great city of Berlin^ the capital of the German Empire. This city has one of the finest streets in Europe. At one end cf it is the King's palace ; at the other is a splendid gate, leading through the walls into the country. 10. Berlin contains a celebrated University^ in which young men are taught any branch of learning they desire to study. Many of the greatest scholars of Ger- many have studied or taught here for many years. GERMANY, 153 The University, and the learned men it lias brought to Berlin, have made the city renowned all over the world. There are many other noted universities in Germany. 11. Germany lias many large cities besides Berlin, some of them very old, and full of strange buildings and fine churches that were built hundreds of years ago. They have very strong, dark walls, tall towers, and multitudes of slender pinnacles ; and are adorned with figures of men and animals, leaves and flowers, and many other or- naments, carved from the solid stone. 12. Some of the churches, though begun so long ago, have never been entirely fin- ished, and probably never will be. Strashurg Cathedral is one of the old German structures. Strasburg is at the west of the Rhine, in country conquered by the French two hundred years ago. It was not "German Spire of strasburg cathedral. again " until taken from the French in the war of 1870. 13. Munich is one of the finest of German cities. It is famous for its elegant embellishments, and valuable collections of paintings and sculptures. Among these, are works of the greatest artists of all Europe. 154 GEOGRAPHICAL liEABEli. XI. -AUSTRIAN EMPIRE, TURKEY, AND GREECE. Aus'-tri-a. I Vi-en'-na. I Hun'-ga-ry [Ilumi'-']. Tur'-key. | mosque [moslc]. \ Con-stan-ti-no'-ple. 1. There is in the central part of Europe, east of Germany, a large country called the Austrian Empire. The western portion includes a part of the Alps, and is much like Switzerland and Southern Germany. Through this the Danube flows, winding along beauti- ful valleys, or rushing down deep and narrow gorges in waterfalls and rapids. 2. East of the mountains, is a fine country of low hills and rich plains, in which are forests, grain-fields, and vineyards. Everywhere are villages and cities, some of which have stood for hundreds of years; and here and there, on rugged hills, are strong old castles, like those in Germany. The largest of the cities is Vienna; which is situated beside the Danube, near the point where it leaves the mountains. It is the capital of the empire, and contains the palaces in which the emperor and his family live, and many other splendid buildings. 3. Beyond this varied country, a broad plain stretches eastward, without hills, without trees, without roads, without houses. Along the streams are immense marshes, which it is almost impossible to cross. Else- where the plain is sandy, covered only by grass or other low plants. In some places, even these do not grow ; but the bare, loose sand is driven by the winds into ridges like snow-drifts. AUSTRIAN EMPIRE, TURKEY, AND GREECE. 155 4. East and north of these great plains, is another mountainous region. It is covered with forests, and is full of rich deposits of gold and silver, copper and lead, rock-salt, and many other valuable minerals. These mountain-lands and the plains of the Danube are both in Hungary^ the largest division of the Austrian Empire. It contains some of the finest and richest portions of Central Europe. 5. South of the Austrian Empire is a wide region of small plains, mountain-ranges, and valleys. The Black Sea is at the east of it, the Mediterranean at the south, and the Adriatic at the West. For several hundred years this was all one country, called Turkey in Europe ; for the Turks, who came from Asia, conquered the native peoples. 6. Now the southern portion, and Roumania at the north, form independent kingdoms. The parts next south of the Danube have princes of their own, and are nearly independent ; so that only a small strip through the middle of their former possessions is at present con- trolled by the Turks. 7. If you were to travel in Turkey, you would find many things to surprise you, — not in the country itself, for it is much like the other warm countries in Europe, but in the appearance and manners of its people. The men wear long, loose robes falling down to the feet. Around the waist is a broad belt, or sash, in which a sword is usually carried ; and on the head is a large turban, instead of a hat. 8. The Turks have no chairs nor sofas in their houses, but sit on large, soft cushions, or on rugs spread upon the floor. The Turkish ladies are not taught even to read, 156 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. and are never allowed to go into the street, unless veiled so that only their eyes can be seen. Then even their own husbands or fathers could not recognize them. A Street Scene in Constantinople. There, it would be thought as strange for a lady to go into the street without a veil, as, in this country, with- out shoes. 9. On the borders of Turkey the waters of the Black Sea go south-westward to the Mediterranean, making a short but most famous passage between Europe and Asia. The old Greeks had many strange legends con- AUSTRIAN EMPIRE, TURKEY, AND GREECE, 157 nected with this stream : besides, the hostile armies that in old times used to pass from one continent to the other, were accustomed to cross here. It was over this stream that the ancient Persian king made the bridge of boats for his soldiers to cross on when he attempted to conquer Greece. 10. Near the Black Sea, on a beautiful expansion of this outlet called the Golden ITorn, is the great city of Constantinople. The sunny blue sky above, the ships with their snowy sails floating quietly on the peaceful waters, and the great city on the shore with its gilded domes and slender minarets,, present a very delightful view. n. The city itself looks fine as you see it from a dis- tance ; but, on entering it, you find the streets narrow, dirty, and disagreeable, and the buildings generally poor and low, though some of the churches, or mosques^ are very elegant. 12. Greece was the first part of Turkey in Europe to become free. It is nearly surrounded by the great Mediterranean Sea, and the Greeks are very fond of sea- life. They build many ships, and are excellent sailors. 13. When the rest of Europe was peopled only by shepherds, or by tribes of half-wild men, Greece was the home of scholars and artists, — men who studied to become wise, and who produced works of art exhibiting such taste and skill, that they have ever since called forth the wonder and admiration of the most cultivated people of all nations. The country is full of the ruins of cities, which in ancient times were among the most beautiful in the world. Athens was one of the most famous cities of the olden time. 158 GEOGRAPHICAL HEADER. XII. -RUSSIA. Eus'-si-a {Rush-I. | Gas'-pi-an. I Pe'-ters-turg:. 1. We have noticed very many countries in Europe ; but all these together form only about one half of the continent. The other half is one great country named Russia. On the southern border is the Blach Sea^ and on the south-east another immense body of water named the Caspian Sea, 2. If we were to travel across Russia from north ta south, we should find first a frozen country, with plants^ animals, and people much like those in the coldest part of North America. South of this cold, dreary region is an immense forest, inhabited by bears, wolves, deer, and innumerable other animals, from many of which fine furs are obtained. In all this vast region not a single city, not a village, and hardly a farm, can be seen. Farther south, in the middle part of Russia, are smallei forests here and there, with cultivated lands, villages, and rich cities, as in other countries. 3. Railroads are not common all over Russia, as in the United States and England and France. For this reason, travelling by land is not so easy everywhere. In winter the travellers wrap themselves in warm fui cloaks and robes, and, with fine horses and large sleighs, glide swiftly and pleasantly over the sparkling snow. But the forests are dangerous on account of the wolves, great troops of them sometimes following the sleigh for miles. 4. In the western part of Russia, near the sea, with the BUSSIA, 159 great forest-country at the east of it, is St. Petersburg^ the capital. Here it is hot in summer ; but the summers are short, and the winters are long and very cold. The ground is covered with deep snow ; the river beside the city is frozen; and the adjacent sea is filled with ice. The people, wrapped in furs so that you can hardly see The Winter Palace, St. Petersburg. their faces, amuse themselves in sleighing, and in sliding down hill. As the land about the city is flat, " ice-hills " are built on purpose for this sport. 5. There is hardly another city in Europe so full of palaces and other fine buildings as St. Petersburg. The emperor's residence, called the " Winter Palace," is one of the largest and grandest in the world. Near it is a fine statue of Peter the Great on horseback. AFRICA. I. — SAHARA AND THE BARBARY STATES. Sa-ha'-ra [-hah'-], 1 o'-a-sis. I Ar'-abs. car'-a-van [care'-]. | At'-las. | Ear'-ba-ry. 1. In the northern part of Africa, is an immense dry, barren plain, almost as large as our whole country. As far as the eye can reach, there is only a bare, sandy surface, with occasional hills and mountains of naked rock. Hardly ever a drop of rain falls, or a cloud is seen in the sky, and never a cool breeze fans your cheek ; but all the year round it is the same dry, desolate land. Such a dry, barren country is called a desert. 2. This is the Great Desert, or Sahara, Here and there, as you travel over it, you may find a little spring bubbling up from the earth, and sending a small stream of water for a short distance, until it is lost in the sand. In other places, Avells have been dug from which the ground can be watered. Around the springs and wells, the earth is no longer naked, and scorching to the feet, but is covered with a rich, cool carpet of fresh grass, and shaded by groves of date- trees. Such a fertile spot, like a green island in the sea of sand, is called an oasis. There are many oases in some parts of the desert. 160 SAHARA AND THE BARBABY STATES, 161 3. On the larger oases are wandering Arabs, with flocks of sheep and goats, and many camels and horses. When the flocks have eaten all the grass upon one oasis, the Arabs go with them to another, and then another ; and thus they wander from place to place all the year round. Because they must thus keep moving about all ;;^.^<^||W^^^| <^5S^ ^ A Caravan overtaken by a Sand-storm. the time, these Arabs do not build houses, but live in tents, which can be taken up, and carried with them wherever they go. They are called nomads, or wanderers. 4. Arab merchants, in great companies called cara- vans, constantly travel across the desert, conveying goods from the countries on one side to those on the other. 162 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. These are packed in large bundles, and fastened upon the backs of camels. The food and water for the whole company are also carried by camels. 5. The desert chiefs, who take care of and guide the caravan, are mounted on beautiful, swift horses. Their saddles and bridles are trimmed with crimson velvet, and gold and silver fringes, and buttons. They wear long silk robes of bright colors, and rich turbans ; and with swords by their sides, or spears in their hands, they present a very striking appearance. G. The caravans travel during the day, and at night encamp, if possible, on some oasis ; but they sometimes go on for days without finding any. Then it occasionally happens that the water brought with them gives out, and they suffer greatly. The camels can go several days without water: but the horses and men cannot; and, if they do not soon reach a spring or well, they die of thirst. 7. Besides, fierce winds often sweep over the desert, filling the air with thick clouds of sand. Some of these sand-storms are so dreadful as nearly to destroy the caravans. You would think no one would wish to go into such dangers ; but the Arabs love the wild life of the desert. 8. The Sahara, though so great, is not the whole of Africa, nor even half of it. There are fertile lands both north and south of it. Near the north coast of Africa, opposite Italy and Spain, is a mountain-land, with fine valleys, streams, and lakes. The mountains, called the Atlas^ are covered with forests. In the valleys are vil- lages and cities surrounded by wheat-fields and orange- groves, vineyards and mulberry-trees. EGYPT AND TUE NEGllO-LAND. 163 9. Along the coast also are cities, with ships in their harbors from many countries. This region seems quite like Europe; for not only are the plants similar, but besides the Arabs and Berbers^ to whom the country belongs, there are many English, French, and other European people here. This part of Africa is called Barbary^ or tlie country of the Berbers, 11. -EGYPT AND THE NEGRO-LAND. E'-gypt [-jipt]. I E-gyp'-tian [shun], \ Sou-dan' [SoO']. 1. East of the Barbary States, in the corner of Africa, is Egypt, of which no doubt you have all heard. It is the country to which Joseph was taken when his brothers A Scene on the River Nile. sold him. Through it flows a great river named the Nile, which is one of the longest in the world. It was in the grass and rushes beside this river that Moses 164 GEOGBAPIIICAL EEADEE, was hidden by his mother, in a little cradle made so that it could float on the water. 2. Egypt is a strange country, only a narrow strip of fertile land along the river, with a desert on each side of it. It hardly ever has rain ; yet it is a very fruitful country, and has always been famous for the wheat, rice, and other things, that grow there. You remember how we read in the Bible, that once, when there was a famine for seven years, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to buy corn. How do you suppose this can be, when there is no rain? I will tell you. 3. Every year, in June, the Nile rises, and overflows its banks ; and all the land around it is covered with water for several months. If you should visit Eg3^pt at this time, you would see only what appears to be a great lake, with a boundless desert on each side, and with islands here and there, each having a village or city upon it. 4. In October the flood goes down, and leaves the ground wet, and covered with a thin coat of rich soil that has settled from the water. Just as soon as they can see the earth again, the Egyptian farmers, who do not need to plough the fields, sow the seed upon this damp new soil; and, as the country is very warm, it sprouts, and grows quickly. Where the lake was, may now be seen a broad green plain, with the river slowly gliding through it, and the villages and cities scattered here and there on little hills or mounds. 5. Frequent canals, leading from the river across the plain, are filled by the overflow Avith water from the Nile ; and, when the fields begin to get dry, they are watered from these, until the plants are grown and EGYPT AND THE NEGBO-LAND. 165 ready to be gathered. Thus, you see, it is only the Nile that keeps Egypt from being a desert. 6. South of the Sahara is the part of Africa in which the negroes live. There are lakes, almost as large as those of our country, with great rivers flowing from them, through fertile regions to the sea. On the bor- ders of some are wide marshes, covered with reeds and cane, in which multitudes of animals hide to sleep, or to watch for their prey. 7. In other places, the whole broad country, for hun- dreds of miles, is one great forest. The trees are always 166 GEOGBAPHICAL BEABER. green, — growing, blooming, and bearing their fruits, at all times in the year. Here, too, are the great elephant, the terrible lion, the tall giraffe, besides hundreds of other animals; for in Africa are gathered, in greater numbers than in any other continent, the largest, strongest, and most beautiful animals in the world. 8. The part next south of the Sahara is called Soudan. It is a middle region, between the barren lands of the desert, and the vast forests of Central Africa ; and the country consists of rich, treeless plains alternating with woodlands. Here are found the finest looking and most intelligent of the negro tribes. 9. The negroes of Soudan raise grain, cotton, and other things. They know how to make cloth from the cotton, and to make, from iron and copper, such tools as they need. They live together in towns and villages, which are mere collections of huts, looking entirely un- like any thing we ever saw. 10. In the extreme south the coast lands belong to England. The interior is the native home of many of our finest flowering plants, like the geraniums and bril- liant lilies. A few years ago diamonds were discovered there, and one of the largest diamonds ever seen has just been found in South Africa. ASIA. I.—^W^ESTBRN ASIA. Per'-si-a [shi-]. I Is-pa-han'. I Pal'-es-tine. Ar'-a-rat. I Eu-phra'-tes [-fra'-teez]. \ pome'-gran-ate [piim'-j, 1. East of Europe and Africa, is Asia, the largest of all the continents. It contains several great and very interesting countries. In the portion nearest to Europe and Africa, which is quite different from the rest of the continent, are Turkey^ Arabia^ and Persia, 2. Turkey in Asia and Turkey in Europe form one country, called the Turkish Empire, This is one of the most interesting regions in the whole world. In the north-eastern corner is a little mountain-land called Armenia^ where, some people think, the Garden of Eden was. On the border of Armenia is Ararat^ believed by many to be the mountain on which the ark rested iafter the flood. 3. From Armenia flow two large rivers, — the Euphror tes and the Tigris^ on the banks of which stood the celebrated cities, Babylon and Nineveh, According to the old writers, they were more magnificent than any cities now in existence ; but, strong and great as they were, they have perished, and only heaps of ruins re- main to mark the places where they stood. 4. At the east end of the Mediterranean, is Palestine, 167 168 GEOGRAPHICAL READER, the country of the Jews. Here was Jerusalem^ in which Solomon built the magnificent temple ; and Bethlehem, where Jesus was born. Through a deep valley east of Jerusalem flows the River Jordan, in which he was bap- tized. In this country he lived, and did all the wonder- Entrance to Bethlehenn. ful works recorded of him. It is these things which make this land interesting to us. 5. The western part of Turkey is mountainous, but was once very fruitful. On its mountains were forests of cedars; and its valleys and hillsides were covered with vineyards and olive-groves, pomegranates and fig- trees, mingled with grain-fields and rich pastures. Now WESTEBN ASIA. 169 most of it is quite barren and dreary; and in some places are still found the ruins of splendid cities which once adorned it. 6. Arabia lies beside Northern Africa, and is in many respects very different from Turkey. Some parts of it are hot and dry, like the Sahara, — a dreary desert- An Arab Encampmeirt. land, dotted with green oases of date-palms. Elsewhere there are forests of trees yielding rich gums and odors ; and in the south, growing upon the hillsides, are groves of the coffee-tree, from which the best coffee in the woild is obtained. 7. This is the country from which the Arabs went to Africa ; and in the dry regions here they lead the same sort of bold, free life, with their herds, their camels, and their swift horses. The horses of Arabia are famous 170 GEOGEAPHICAL READER. all over the world for their beauty of form and their fleetness; and the Arab loves his horse as well as he does his wife and children. 8. Persia is also a dry country, and the southern part is very warm. In some places you may travel many miles without seeing a single tree, hardly a patch of grass ; then suddenly you come in sight of groves of trees, pleasant green fields, and gardens filled with fragrant flowers, in the midst of which is a city. Ispa- han is such a place. These trees have all been planted by the people in order that they may have wood for burning, and for use in building. 9. Some of these cities have rivers flowing through them ; but others are built beside canals, which bring water from some distant lake or river. In this case it sometimes happens that enemies destroy the canal; and then, as there is no water, the people are obliged to remove to some other place. The trees die, the gardens become a desert, and the forsaken city goes to ruin. There are many such ruined cities in Persia. 10. In the mountains which form the borders of Persia are streams and lakes, and fertile valleys which are the native home of many of our finest fruits. Here are great fields of roses, that fill the air with their fragrance, and whole gardens of tulips and many other lovely flowers, carpeting the hillsides with brilliant colors. 11. Groves of peach-trees are laden with delicious fruit ; and sweet, juicy melons and cucumbers cover the earth. Here, too, strong vines climb from tree to tree, bearing rich grapes, in clusters much larger and heavier than any you have ever seen; and luscious cherries, apricots, and many other fruits, grow without care. THE INDIES. IV 1 IL-THE INDIES. In'-di-a. Gan'-ges [-jeez]. I Gal-cut'-ta. 1. East of Arabia, in the southern part of Asia, are two great peninsulas ; and a little farther south, in the ocean, is a cluster of the largest islands in the world. These peninsulas and islands together are usually called THE Indies, though each of them has its own separate name. 2. These are all hot countries, with plenty of rain, and are remarkable for the abundance and variety of both vegetable and ani- mal productions, as well as for mineral wealth. The forests are as dense and varied as those of the Selvas, and the wild animals as large and as fierce as any in Africa. Rep- tiles and insects also throng the streams and the forests, and greatly trouble the people by their poisonous bites and stings. 3. But what makes the Indies most interesting to us is the great number of spices and other precious things they produce. This is the country of the pepper, the clove, the cinnamon, the nutmeg. Almost all the kinds of spices now raised in different parts of the world may be found in the forests of these peninsulas or islands. In some places the surrounding air is filled with their An Elephant. 172 GEOGRAPHICAL READER. pleasant odor. There are many rare kinds of wood, rich fruits, and valuable medicines ; and from the Island of Java large quantities of excellent coffee are obtained. 4. Brilliant diamonds, rubies of the finest color, em- eralds, and all those stones which are most valued, and used to ornament the crowns of kings and emperors, are found here. For thousands of years other countries all over Asia and Europe have known of the wealth of tho Indies, and have sought to obtain these precious things. Many voyages from countries in Western Europe, in the time of Columbus, were undertaken in the hope of finding a shorter way to this wonderful land. 5. The greater and more western of the two penin- sulas belongs to the government of Great Britain, and is therefore called British India. This is the most inter- esting of all these countries. In the northern part of this peninsula a large river, called the Ganges., flows through a rich plain eastward to the sea. 6. While many of the inhabitants of Europe were scarcely more learned or skilful than are the negroes of Soudan, there were on this plain great cities and splendid temples, books, and learned men. Before any of the great cities now in Europe had been built, the people here knew how to make the finest muslins, lovely shawls, and many beautiful things from wood, ivory, pearl, and gold. These were sought for by other nations as much as were the spices and precious stones of the Indies. 7. This plain is still covered with great cities, some of them very old. There are in many of them thousands of English soldiers and merchants, besides all the native people. Calcutta^ the capital of British India, is in the low, marshy lands, at the mouth of the Ganges. CHINA AND JAPAN 173 III. -CHINA AND JAPAN. Chi'-na. I Jap-an'. | To-ki-o'. Can-ton'. j Pe-king'. \ Yed'-do. 1. China is in the far eastern part of Asia, bordering upon the Pacific Ocean. The Japan Islands are in the ocean, opposite the northern part of China. In some things these countries are much like our own, having plenty of rain, and being neither very warm, nor too cold for most of th-e useful plants to grow. But in other things they are very different, as you will see ; and they are among the most interesting countries of Asia. 2. China has in the west high mountains, whose tops are covered with snow most of the year. In the east at the east. ^ ^'''"®'® ^""•'• Japan is a mountain-land, with wide and fertile valleys, and small plains near the sea. 174 GEOGRAPHICAL BEADEB. 3. The Chinese are a very singular people. They used always to stay in their own country, instead of travelling about all over the world to see and learn, as other people do; and they did not want people from other countries to come and live with them. 4. They did not, for this reason, learn from other nations, and make changes and improvements in their way of doing things, as others do ; but for thousands of years they continued to dress, and build their ships and houses, and work, and amuse themselves, just as did their ancestors ages and ages before. 5. They were the first people to find out how to print books, and how to make many useful things ; but, while all the other nations of the world have gone on learn- ing, they have not improved, and therefore are much behind them. Now they are finding out that they are not the wisest people in the world, and have begun to change their ways. 6. In no other country of the same size will you find so many people living as in China. Every foot of land is turned to account. Even hills and mountain-sides, which are so steep that the earth would all be washed away by the rain, have little walls of stone built across them to hold the soil, so that they look like a very broad flight of stairs. 7. These steps, or terraces, are carefully cultivated, and made to produce the useful crops of the country. They are watered by hand, and thus much work is needed to raise plants in some parts of China. Even on the rivers are floating gardens, made by putting earth on rafts, or floors of timber. On these are little houses, in which the people live, and float about from place to place, CHINA AND JAPAN, 175 taking, when they travel, their house and garden with them. 8. Nearly the same things grow in both China and Japan. The chief productions are rice, cotton, wheat, the mulberry, and, most important of all, the tea- plant. Nearly all the tea which is used in all parts of the world is raised in these two countries. 0. For ages the Chinese have fed Tea- plant. the silk-worm, and manufactured silk; and have also made porcelain cups and saucers, and other things for the table, as well as vases and ornaments of many kinds. These are called " China-ware ; " because, for a very long time, the people of China alone knew how to make them. Thus you see that they must be very industrious ; for they make all these beautiful things with their own hands, and not by machinery, as they are made in our country and in Europe. 10. Both the Chinese and Japanese are yellowish- brown people; but they are much more learned, and live in a far better manner, than any of the other nations of their color. The Japanese resemble the Chinese in their ways of thinking and living, as well as in looks. Like them, too, after standing still for ages, they have begun to learn of other nations, and to advance. 11. Both these countries have many great, old, and interesting cities. Peking^ in China, has a high, strong wall around it, with gates that are always guarded during the day, and kept shut and barred at night, so 176 GEOGBAPHICAL BEABEB. that no enemy can come in. It has also large beautiful gardens, with hills, lakes, and groves, besides palaces for the Emperor and his relations. 12. Canton was for many years the only city of China which the Emperor would allow ships from other coun- tries to visit. The Emperor of Japan and his ministers live in Tohio^ which used to be called Yeddo. IV. -MIDDLE ASIA AND SIBERIA. Him-a-la'-ya. | Cash'-mere. | Thib'-et [tih'-et\. 1. North of India, is a great wall of mountains, called the Himalaya^ '•'•the home of the snows,^' They are the highest mountains in the whole world, and the most steep and wild. It is almost impossible to cross them at any place, because they are so very steep; and, besides, there are terrible storms, which cover the way with snow, so that a traveller would not know where to find a safe path. 2. The rivers here flow very swiftly, and fill the air with mists and dampness ; and the valleys are only gorges, often so deep and narrow, that the sun never shines at the bottom of them. Away up in this great home of the snows, you will not see a single animal, nor hear any living thing ; and all is so wild and solemn, that even the sound of your own steps will make you tremble. 3. On the middle slopes of the mountains, are many plants and animals like those on the Alps. Above the forests the mountain-sides are covered with bright- colored Alpine flowers ; and many interesting plants MIDDLE ASIA AND SIBEUIA. 177 and animals are natives of these heights. This is the. liome of the beautiful horse-chestnut tree which we plant in our streets and gardens. In one of the valleys, called the Vale of Cashmere^ the cashmere goat lives, from whose wool the elegant shawls of India are made. 4. South of this range is British India, with its spice-forests, its great ani- mals, and continual sum- mer. Beyond it, to the north, is a vast mountain- land, so elevated that even the bottoms of the valleys are nearly as high as the top of the Alps; while the peaks rising far above them are almost as high as the Himalaya. 5. This mountain-land is Thibet. We might call it the Switzerland of Asia ; for it is the highest and most mountainous coun- try of this continent, and, indeed, of all the world. Some of the lower val- In the Himalaya Mountains. leys contain streams and lakes bordered with cities and villages, grain-fields, orchards, and vineyards. 6. In summer the mountain-pastures are full of flocks of sheep and goats, famous for their fine silky wool, from which handsome cloth and shawls are made. In 178 GEOGBAPHICAL JIEADEB. winter the whole country is very cold, — so cold that travellers are often frozen to death on their journeys. It is only in the most sheltered valleys that people can live in winter, and even these are very dreary. 7. Beyond the snowy mountains, on the northern bor- der of Thibet, is a broad, barren table-land. In the western part, where it is lowest, are some streams and lakes ; and here are villages and cities, green pastures, and cultivated fields. Elsewhere there is only the gray A Scene in Mongolia. sand, hardly covered with the low gray plants, which alone can grow on these barren lands. 8. This is Mongolia, At times one may see this almost desert country covered with great herds of horses, oxen, goats, sheep, and camels. Low tents are grouped in the midst of them ; and men on swift horses ride about, watching the herds, and at night gathering them all together close to the tents. But in a day or two all are gone ; and only the naked, dreary land is left, with not a plant, nor a living animal, to be seen. MIDDLE ASIA AND SIBERIA, 1T9 9. The Mongols wander over the table-land, wherever they can find food for the herds, frequently remaining only a few days in the same place. They are a very war- like people ; and often great companies of them come suddenly upon some of the villages in the better part of the table-land, rob and kill the people, burn the houses, and dash away again, before any one can punish them. 10. Farther north, a great country, called Siberia^ which belongs to Russia, extends entirely across Asia, from east to west. This, like the northern part of Russia, contains a forest country, at the north of which are great plains, without trees, and covered with snow and ice nearly all the year. In the south there are rich gold-mines, and valleys and plains, where there might be fine farms if there were people to cultivate them. But most of the Russians living in Siberia work the mines, and the natives of the country wander from place to place with herds of reindeer. 11. Journeys arc made across this country, from Peking in China to St. Petersburg in Russia ; and tea, silk, furs, and many other things, are carried this immense distance. A large part of the Russians in Siberia are exiles, who were sent there by the govern- ment for some offence committed in their own country. THE INDIAN OCEAN, AND AUSTRALIA. Aus-tra'-li-a. J Mur'-ray. | kan-ga-roo' [kang-], 1. The Indian Ocean is south of Asia, and must be crossed in going from Asia or from Africa to Australia. Terrible hurricanes often occur on this ocean. One may be sailing in the morning with a pleasant breeze and clear sky, when suddenly he sees a small black cloud on the horizon. Soon it spreads, until it covers the whole heaven, the thunder begins to roll, and the lightning flashes at every moment. 2. A terrific wind strikes the ship, the rain falls in torrents, and great waves rise like mountains of water. They dash themselves on the shore with a terrible roar- ing, covering it with the broken timbers of wrecked ships, and filling the air with white foam. 3. In parts of this ocean, there is a kind of oyster within whose shell are found the beautiful pearls worn by ladies in necklaces and other ornaments. These can be obtained only by diving, and seeking the oyster at the bottom of the sea, a very difficult and dangerous work. 4. Australia is the smallest of the continents, being only about the size of the United States. It is south of Asia, and a long way from it ; but the great islands of the Indies make a sort of bridge between them. Little 180 INDIAN OCEAN, AND AUSTRALIA. 181 is known of Australia, excepting the south-eastern parts. Here are low mountains in which large quantities of gold are found; and a broad, rich plain, with a fine river, called the Murray^ flowing through it. 6. There are some things very singular about Austra- lia. What would you think of seeing ani- mals like the kangaroo, which, instead of walk- ing squarely on four feet, as others do, goes hopping about on the tail and the two long hind-legs? And what would you think of seeing a forest of trees whose tough bark splits and falls off every year. Kangaroo and Lyre Bird. instead of the leaves? and of others, covered with leaves, yet making not much more shadow than if they had none, for the edge of the leaf is toward the light ? Yet all these things may be seen in Australia, and many others no less strange. 6. When white people first went to this continent, they found hardly any plants which they could use for food. But seeds have been taken there from other countries ; and now fields of wheat and corn and other grains, with orchards of peaches, pears, apples, and other fruits, grow in many parts. People are also beginning to plant cotton; but there are not enough farmers to plough and plant all the rich plain, and therefore much of it is used for the pasturage of sheep and cattle. THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 1. The Pacific, which separates Asia and Australia from North and South America, is the largest of all the oceans. It covers nearly half of the surface of the globe with one vast expanse of water. In diflPerent parts of it are multitudes of islands besides the great ones near the continents. Many contain high moun- tains ; and some were built up by volcanoes throwing out substances from within the earth. 2. But there are islands of still another sort in the Pacific Ocean. You may be sailing through the warm part of it, Avith nothing in sight but the broad blue waters and the sky, when presently you will discover, rising out of the sea before you, a grove of tall green palm-trees. It is very strange to see them there, for they appear to be growing directly from the waves. But when you are nearer, you find that they stand on a flat island just high enough to prevent being over- flowed. 3. Under the palms the ground is covered with plants of the richest green, and between them and the waves is a broad beach of sand as white as snow. Presently you see that what seemed to be only a long narrow island is a perfect ring, with palm trees on all parts of it, and within, a clear, still lake of the blue sea-water. 182 THE PACIFIC OCEAN, 183 Such is Whit' Sunday Island. The Pacific has many of these flat islands, though not many just like this. 4. The ships on the Pacific are nearly all from the United States and countries of Europe. They are going to China, India, Japan, and Australia, or return- ing with tea, coffee, and spices, silk, pearls, and gold. The island peoples of the Pacific have small odd- looking ves- sels, in which they go from place to place along their own coasts, but do not venture far out into the wide sea. If we sail across the Pacific from the strange shores of Asia and Australia, we can reach our own country. 5. You have now visited all the most important coun- tries of the world. You have seen no two which are quite alike, but something interesting or pleasant has met you everywhere. You have learned just enough of the great earth to make you wish to know more ; and you will find a few important things, which you will be glad to learn, in Part Second. Whitsunday Island. 184 GEOGBAPHICAL HEADER. THE CHILD'S ^W^ORLD. "Great, wide, beautiful, wonderful World, With the wonderful water round you curled, And the wonderful grass upon your breast, — World, you are beautifully drest. " The w^onderful air is over me, And the wonderful wind is shaking the tree : It walks on the water, and whirls the mills, And talks to itself on the top of the hills. " You, friendly Earth ! how far do you go With the wheat-fields that nod and the rivers that flow. With cities and gardens, and cliffs and isles, And people upon you for thousands of miles ? " Ah, you are so great, and I am so small, I tremble to think of you. World, at all ; And yet, when I said my prayers to-day, A whisper inside me seemed to say, — ' You are more than the Earth, though you are such a dot You can love and think, and the Earth cannot.' " ^^ Lilliput Lectures.^* Part II. GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. TO THE TEACHER. It will be observed that each lesson in Part II. consists of three distinct divisions. The Introduction serves to recall previously- acquired ideas connected with the topic of the lesson, and to awaken interest in what follows. It should be carefully read, not memorized ; and the teacher should call attention to any important points. The large print is the lesson proper, which is to be memo- rized and recited in the usual way. The words in boldface indi- cate the leading idea of each paragraph. In the reviews, are questions upon the lessons which the teacher can use in recitation if desired. The Exercise is not a part of the lesson, to be studied before- hand, but only suggests a familiar talk between teacher and pupils after the recitation, such as all primary teachers are more or less accustomed to. The pupils are questioned to test their general com- prehension of the subject treated. The geographical names used in the lesson are found on the map, so that the succeeding Map-Lesson is made easy; and items of information are given, calculated to interest the pupils or to fix in mind the facts of the lesson. In short, this is the teacher's opportunity for oral instruction; and it may be extended at discretion, especially with reference to local or home geography. The Map-Lessons are to be recited from a wall-map, a black- board-map, or with no map in view, according to the judgment of the teacher. The Written Exercises and Reviews occurring at frequent intervals add variety, and will be found of great value. By means of the Readings in Part I., bearing upon the subjects of successive lessons, and the variety of work presented in Part II., a constant interest will be maintained in classes, and the happiest results may be expected. 186 INTRODUCTION. I. -THE EARTH. (Part L, Pages 1-3.) In the preceding part of the book, you have been reading, making imaginary journeys all over the world. In this part, are lessons about the most important countries, to be studied and learned by heart. This is a different kind of work ; but you will find it just as pleasant, for you wish to become wise, and every lesson will help you a little in gaining a knowledge of the great world. The eartli is the world on which we live. The shape of the earth is round, like an orange. The size of the earth is so great that to go round it one must travel two hun- dred and fifty miles a day, for one hundred days. The surface of the earth is composed of land and water. The water covers nearly three quarters of the sur- face, and is divided into oceans. The whole water- surface is called the sea. ^ ^'°^®' The land forms about one quarter of the surface. It 187 188 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. is divided into large masses, called continents, and small bodies, called islands. Exercise. — How far is it round the earth ? How many- weeks in the hundred days spent in going round it ? How many months ? Do you see more land, or more water, on the earth ? How do people make the land useful? AAliat use is made of the sea? Would you think there would be more sea than land? Why do you think so? If there were three jDarts of land to one part of water, the land would be much less pleasant than it is. Some time you will understand this. The picture in this lesson shows you the shape of the earth. The two dark, rough-looking places represent continents ; the rest, oceans. II. -REPRESENTATIONS OP THE EARTH. It is not very easy to learn how the continents and oceans are situated on the earth, nor where the different countries are, unless there is some way of snowing these things to our Balloon View of New York and Vicinity. eyes. For this reason people have contrived ways of repre* senting the earth, to help in learning geography. REPRESENTATIONS OF THE EARTH. 189 The earth is represented both by globes and maps. A globe is a ball with drawings upon it, to represent the continents and oceans as they appear on the earth. NEW A map is a drawing which represents any part of the surface of the earth. A hemisplierc-map represents one-half of the earth's surface. The colors on the large maps in this book show how the land is divided into continents, and the continents into countries. Exercise. — Here is a view of New York and the country around it, as one would see it looking down from a balloon. There are the two great cities, the smaller cities scattered about, the river, the bay, the ocean, and the islands. Next comes a map of the same country. It does not show any of these things as they look in nature, but has only lines and marks to stand for them, with a name beside each to show what it represents. Which is prettiest to look at, — the balloon view, or the map ? What can you learn from the map which the view does not show ? Read the names of all the objects represented on this map. Which city have you read about ? Which river ? What can you remember about them ? Can you make a map of your schoolroom ? Try it. 190 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER, III.— DIRECTION ON MAPS AND GLOBES. Map-makers put on the globe and on maps, two sets of lines to enable us to see the direction of places and countries from each other, as well as their location. They are north- and-south lines, and east-and-west lines. On the globe, as the picture of the hemispheres shows, the north-and-south lines all meet in two points. NORTH POLE The Earth In Hemispheres. Directions are shown on maps and globes by two sets of lines crossing each other. North-and-south lines cross the map from top to bot- tom, and are called meridians. On the globe the meridians all meet in two points, the Nortli Pole and the South Pole. The east-and-west lines cross the map from side to side, and are called parallels. The line extending around the globe, half way be- tween the poles, is the Equator. Toward the top of the map, along a meridian, i» north; toward the bottom, south. DISTAl^CES ON MAPS. 191 Toward the right hand, along a parallel, is east; toward the left, west. Exercise. — Turn to the hemisphere-maps (pp. 194, 195). What continents are shown upon each? What oceans? Find the Equa- tor ; the meridians ; the parallels. Trace a line directly north and south across the map. Trace a line directly east and west. In what direction is Europe from Asia? Asia from Australia? Africa from Europe ? Australia from Europe ? Africa from Asia ? South America from North America? On p. 190 is a picture of the hemispheres : find in it the meridians ; the parallels ; the North Pole ; the South Pole ; the Equator. Can you tell the names of the continents and oceans in the picture ? IV. -DISTANCE ON MAPS AND GLOBES. Distance on maps and globes is shown by numbers upon the parallels and meridians. You know that along some railroads you see mile-posts, from time to time, with num- bers upon them giving the distance in miles from some important place. But on globes and maps distances are marked in degrees^ not miles. A degree (written 1°) is one three hundred and sixtieth part of the whole distance around the earth. Dis- tance north or south is always reckoned from the Equator. Distance east or west is reckoned from some meridian agreed upon, which is named the prime meridian. Distance from the Equator is called latitude. Places north of the Equator are in north latitude; those south, in south latitude. Distance from the prime meridian is called longitude. Places east of the prime meridian are in east longitude ; those west, in west longitude. 192 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER, Each parallel is marked with the number of degrees of latitude between it and the Equator. Each meridian is marked with the number of degrees of longitude between it and the prime meridian. The Equator and the prime meridian are marked 0, because they are the lines from which reckoning begins. Exercise.— Turn to the map of the Eastern Hemisphere. What figure is against the Equator, in the border of this map? Find the meridian marked 0. Why are these two lines marked ? Read the numbers on the meridians east of the prime merid- ian. Read the numbers on the parallels north of the Equator. What do these numbers show? Is Xorth America in east, or west, longitude ? Is it in north, or south, latitude ? V. -REVIEW. I. What is the shape of the earth? How large is it? Of what does its surface consist ? How much of it is land ? How much is water ? What is the whole water-surface called ? How is the water divided ? How is the land divided ? AVhat is geography ? II. How is the earth represented for study ? What is a globe ? What is a map ? What do the hemisphere-maps show ? What are the colors on the maps for ? III. How is direction shown on maps? AVhat are the north- and-south lines called ? The east-and-west lines ? Where do the meridians meet ? AVhere is the Equator ? Which way on the map is north? East? South? AVest? IV. How is distance shown on maps ? What is a degree ? What is latitude? North latitude? South latitude? What is longitude ? East longitude ? AVest longitude ? What does the number on each parallel show ? On each meridian ? How are the Equator and the prime meridian marked ? Why ? C02iTINENTS, ISLANDS, AND OCEANS, 193 VI. -CONTINENTS, ISLANDS, AND OCEANS. You have already noticed how the sea is divided into oceans, and the land into continents and islands. You will see on the globe, that all the great islands are near the bor- ders of the continents ; but there are very many little ones far away in the midst of the oceans. The continents and islands contain countries, and are the homes of people. The oceans afford routes of travel and trade between the countries on their borders. There are six continents. Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia are in the Eastern Hemisphere ; North Amer- ica and South America, in the Western. The largest continent is Asia, but Europe and North America have the richest and most important countries. The largest islands are New Guinea and Borneo, be- tween Asia and Australia ; but the richest and most powerful is Great Britain, near the coast of Europe. There are five oceans. The Pacific is the largest. All the most important countries border on the Atlantic or its arms, and the most travel and trade cross it. The others are the Indian^ Arctic^ and Antarctic Oceans. Exercise. — Turn to the Hemisphere Maps. What continents, in each hemisphere, border upon the Pacific Ocean ? The Atlantic Ocean ? What continents border upon the Indian Ocean ? The Arctic? The Antarctic? Which of all these oceans border upon our own country ? Which ocean do we use most ? What use do we make of it ? The girls may write what we would see in crossing the Atlantic ; the boys write how, where, and for what, whales are caught. (Pages 110-112.) WESTEEN HEMISPHERE. What continents are in the Western hemisphere ? What oceans are partly in the Western hemisphere ? In which continent is the United States ? In what direction from us is South America? In what direction from South America are we ? In what direction from us is each of the oceans ? Which continent is crossed by the Equator ? Is North America in north latitude, or in south latitude ? Why? 194 EASTEEir HEMISPHERE. What continents are in the eastern hemisphere ? What ocean is wholly in this hemisphere? What ones partly? What continent is crossed by the Equator ? AVhich continents are in north latitude ? In what latitude is most of Africa? In what latitude is Australia ? In w hat direction from Europe is Asia ? Africa ? Australia ? What oceans touch Europe ? Asia ? Africa ? Australia ? 195 196 GEOGBAPHICAL PBIMEB, VIL -BORDER LANDS AND WATERS. When you notice the map of North America, you see that a very crooked line marks its borders. In some places the land juts out into the ocean, so that parts of it are nearly R 1 I. Mountain. 6. Bay. 2. Plain. 3. Island. 4. Cape. 5. Peninsula. 7. Harbor. 8. River. 9. Strait. separated from the rest. In other places, parts of the oceans run into the land so that they seem almost like lakes. There are small points of land here and there, and there is a long narrow neck connectino; North America with South America. LANDSUBFACE. 197 The land which borders upon the water is called the coast or shore. A peninsula is a part of the coast land nearly sur- rounded by water. A cape is a point of land projecting into the water. An isthmus is a narrow neck of land connecting two bodies of land. Parts of the oceans which lie within or among the lands are called g-ulfs, hays, and seas. Narrow passages of water, connecting bodies of water, are called straits, channels, and sounds. The shallow passages are the ones usua-lly called sounds. Exercise. — Turn to the map of N^orth America (p. 243). Point to any part of the coast. Xame all the gulfs, bays, and seas which you find along the coast. What straits can you find? What waters does each connect? Wliat isthmus can you find? What lands does it connect? Name all the capes which you see; the peninsulas; the islands. Name the lands and waters in the picture opposite. W^hat harbor (p. 40) have you read about? Where is New York Harbor ? VIII. - LAND-SURFACE, (Part L, Pages 20, 65, m.) In parts of our country, we have seen wide plains, some with a level surface, and some covered with low hills. Else- where the land is lifted up into great mountain-ranges with valleys between them ; or it forms wide table-lands so dry as to be almost deserts. All these different lands are use- ful. Some are good for tillage and pasturage, some afford fine forests, and others contain rich minerals. Hills are parts cf the land but little higher than the surrounding country. Mountains are very high lands. 198 GEOGBAPHICAL PBIMEB, A long ridge of mountain land is a mountain-raiige. Many ranges connected make a mountain-system. A valley is a narrow tract of land between higher lands. A plain is an extended region of level land. Some plains are quite flat, others have a rolling surface. A high plain is called a table-land, or plateau. Some table-lands are surrounded by mountains. Exercise. — What plains in the United States have you read about ? What mountains do you remember ? Find these on the map (p. 243) of North America. Do you remember the highest mountains in the world (p. 176) ? The highest peak is Mount Everest, more than five and one-half miles high. There is a pic- ture of it on p. 177. Find it. What kinds of land are shown in the picture on p. 7 ? 16 ? 30 ? 47 ? IX. -THE WATER UPON THE LAND. (Part I., Pages 23-29.) You know that some of the rain, as it falls, sinks into the ground, and makes springs. Brooks flow from springs, making rivers and lakes ; and rivers find their way from the highlands, through the valleys and across the plains, to the sea. Did you know that the water is only seeking its own home? That which feeds the springs, and makes the lakes and streams, once rose from the sea as vapor, and floated away over the land to produce rain-clouds. This is one benefit that comes from there being more sea than land on the earth, for so the land gets more moisture. A sprinsr is water flowing from within the ground. Springs are the sources of brooks and rivers. Brooks are small streams of water ; rivers are large streams. THE WATER UPON THE LAND. 199 Tributaries are the streams which flow into a river. Towards the source, or beginning, is up stream ; and towards the opposite end, or mouth, is down stream. The banks of a stream are the ground along each side of it. The rig-lit bank is the one on the right hand Lake Champlain. of a person facing down stream. The other one is the left bank. A lake is a body of water in a hollow of the land. Most lakes are fresh, but some are salt like the sea. Exercise. — Turn to the map of North America (p. 243). Find Lake Superior ; some other great lakes. How are they represented ? Find the Mississippi River. How are rivers represented ? What other rivers can you find ? Where is the source of the Missouri ? Where does the water of the Missouri find the ocean ? 200 GEOGRAPUICAL PBIMEB. X.- REVIEW. YL How many continents are there? Name those in each hemisphere. Which is the largest ? Which have the most impor- tant countries ? What and where are the largest two islands V What and where is the most rich and powerful island ? How many oceans are there? iS'ame them. Which is the largest? Which is most important ? Why is the Atlantic important ? Vn. What is the coast? A peninsula? A cape? An isth- mus? What are parts of the ocean extending into the land called ? What are narrow passages of water called ? How do the sounds differ from other passages of water ? YIII. What are hills? Mountains? Wliat is a mountain- range? A mountain-system? A valley? A j)lain? A table- land ? What kinds of surface have plains ? What is the highest mountain-system in the world ? W^hat is the highest peak ? How high is it ? IX. What is a spring? A brook? A river? A tributary stream ? A lake ? What is meant by up stream ? Down stream ? What is the source of a stream ? The mouth ? The banks ? The right and the left bank ? What kind of water is in lakes ? Write all you remember about the Mississippi, — where its source is, what great tributaries it has, and what sort of country is along its course. XL -CLIMATE AND ZONES. (Part L, Pages 76-78, 92, 99.) On the Amazon, you know, there is constant summor. Our country has summer during a part of the year, and win- ter about as long. The Arctic shores have winter nearly all the time. Some countries have a moist air, and others are very dry ; wliile in some the air is so impure as to make people sick. In describing these conditions, we use the word climate. South America has a hot climate^ our country has a THE PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 201 temperate climate^ and the Arctic shores liave a cold climate. Countries alike in climate are situated about the same dis- tance from the Equator : so we think of them as forming belts, or zones^ around the earth. There are four parallels, with names, which mark the boundaries of the zones. The climate of a country is the state of the air. It may be warm, cold, or temperate; moist or dry, healthy or unhealthy. The hottest countries lie on and near the Equator, and form the Torrid (burning) Zone. It extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn. The temperate countries form two Temperate Zones. The northern extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle ; the southern, from the Tropic of Capri- corn to the Antarctic Circle. The very cold regions form two Frigid (frozen) Zones. The northern extends from the Arctic Circle to the North Pole ; the southern, from the Antarctic Circle to the South Pole. Exercise. — Turn to the map of Hemispheres. Find the Equa- tor and the four named parallels. In which zone is our country? Most of Africa? Of South America? Of Europe and Asia? Which zones have most land? Which zone has least? In which would you rather live ? Why ? W^hat climate is there at the foot (p. 99) of the Andes? On their middle slopes? At the top? Climate always grows cooler from the bottom to the top of moun- tains, as w^ell as from the Equator towards the Poles. XII. -THE PLANTS AND ANIMALS. (Part L, Pages 93-97.) Nowhere are there such great forests, such brilliant flowers, so many choice fruits and rich spices, as in the selvas of the -OJ GEOGRAPHICAL PlilMER. Amazon and in the Indies. The Torrid Zone has no winter to stop the growth of plants, but plenty of heat and moisture to perfect them. Beyond this zone, plants become fewer and less luxuriant until, in the Frigid Zone, there are hardly any but mosses. The Torrid Zone, too, has the largest and most dangerous wild beasts and serpents, and the most brilliant birds and insects. In the Temperate Zone most of the wild animals are harmless, many of the birds sing, and few in- sects are poisonous. T^ORTH FRTfllD. SOUTH FRllii^- The Zones. Plants grow most luxuriantly in the Torrid Zone. Coffee, sugar-cane, spices, and many delicate fruits belong to this zone. RACES OF MEN. 203 111 the Temperate Zone plants stop growing in winter, and most trees lose their leaves. Most of the cultivated plants are native to the North Temperate Zone. The Frigid Zone has few plants except mosses. Wild animals are most numerous, largest, and most dangerous in the Torrid Zone, and the birds and insects are most brilliant. The domestic animals nearly all originated in the North Temperate Zone. The Frigid Zone has few large land-animals, but the greatest creatures of the sea are found there. Exercise. — The picture on the opposite page shows some plants and animals in the different zones. Name some in the Torrid Zone. Have you seen any of these, or any others of that zone? What animals of our country have you seen most? Do you see any of them in the picture? In what zone are they? Because they are tamed, and accustomed to live among men, they are called domestic animals. What animals do you see in the South Temperate Zone ? In the Frigid Zones ? What makes the Torrid Zone best for plants ? XIII. -RACES OF MEN. In our countr}^, are white men and negroes, reddish-brown Indians, and a few yellowish-brown Chinese and Japanese. On the islands of the Pacific, are blackish-brown people, and in Australia black people. On account of such differences among them, mankind are divided into races. There are six races of men, — one white, three brown- ish, and two black. The white race are the native people of Europe and Western Asia ; but they have spread over America and parts of the other continents. This is the most powerful race, and has made most improvement. 204 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. The yellowish-brown people belong to Japan, China, and the rest of Eastern Asia. They are called the yellow^ or Mongolian., race. The blackish-brown people live on the islands of the Pacific. They are called the hrown race,, or Malays, The reddish-brown, or cop- per-colored people, are the In- dians of America. They are called the red race. The black races belong to Africa and Australia. The first negroes of our country came from Africa. Exercise. — You have seen persons belonging to the white race : what other races have you seen ? Think of one person of each race that you have seen, and write all about him. Tell whether he is a large or a small person, the color of his skin and eyes, what sort of hair he has, any thing singular about the shape of his head and features, and what sort of dress he wears. One of the White or Ruling Race. XIV. -CIVILIZED MEN. (Part I., Pages 60-63.) In our country, in Europe, and in other parts of the world, are states, kingdoms, and empires, with rich cities and educated people who busy themselves about many different things. These are civilized nations. In Africa, and some other countries, are men who get all their food and clothing from the wild plants and animals, and know how to build only the rudest huts for shelter. These are savages. In still other countries the people CIVILIZED MEN. 205 till the soil, or raise cattle, instead of supplying their wants only from wild plants and animals. They build better houses, and know how to make many thmgs ; but they have neither books nor schools for the improvement of their minds. Such are barbarous people. They are often as cruel and warlike as the savages. Civilized men supply their wants cliiefly by agricul- ture, manufacturing, and commerce. In countries on the sea-coast, they also engage in fishing ; where there are fine forests, in lumhering ; and v^ummerce. where there are valuable beds of stone or other min- erals, in quarrying and mining. Agriculture is tilling the soil, and raising plants and animals, to procure materials for food and clothing. 206 GEOGRAPHICAL riilMER. Manufacturing: is making articles from raw materials. Most things obtained by agriculture must be manufac- tured before they are fit for use. Commerce is buying and selling, or exchanging goods. Some countries can better produce one thing, and some another. By commerce, each can obtain the productions of all. Exercise. — These are but few of the things civilized people do : name some classes of persons who do other things. (Artists, who spend their time in making beautiful things ; preachers and teachers, who instruct the people; lawyers, doctors, authors, etc.) Name the materials we use most for food ; for clothing ; for shelter. How do we get them ? Name some of the things we obtain only by commerce. From what countries do they come ? What business is shown in the picture on the preceding page ? On p. 30? 36? 49? Which business would you prefer? Why? The pictures on pp. 64, 80, and 165 show savage life. Would you like it ? XV. -REVIEW. XI. What is climate ? How many zones are there ? Wliere is the Torrid Zone? Each Temperate Zone? Each Frigid Zone? How does climate change from the Equator to the Poles ? From the bottom to the top of mountains? Xn. In what zone are plants most luxuriant ? In what zones least so? To what zone do most of our cultivated plants belong? Where are wild animals largest and most dangerous ? In which were the domestic animals native ? What sort of animals live in the Frigid Zone? XIII. How many races are there? What are their colors? Where are the white race ? The yellow race ? The brown race ? The red race ? W^here are the black races ? XIV. How do civilized nations supply their wants? Define agriculture ; manufacturing ; commerce. How do savages supply their wants ? Barbarous people ? r NORTH AMERICA. XVL— THE UNITED STATES. (Part L, Pages 8-12, 17-19, 03-69.) In imaginary journeys wc crossed the Atlantic Plain in New Jersey, seeing its fine farms ; and the Appalachian Mountains in Pennsylvania, noticing the abundance of iron and coal ; then entered the rich, rolling Central Plain in A Western Farm. Ohio. We descended the Mississippi, passing prairie farms, cotton-fields and sugar-plantations. We crossed the Rocky Mountains, the barren Table-land, and the Sierra Nevada, with their treasures of gold and silver, and through wide, fruitful valleys reached the Pacific. 207 208 GEOGJRAPHICAL FBIMEIL The United States is in the middle of North America. It extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, and from the Great Lakes to thejGiilf of Mexico. The Atlantic Plain is on the eastern side, bordering upon the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachian Mountains lie next, extending from the northern boundary nearly to the southern. The Central Plain fills the middle, reaching from the Appalachian to the Rocky Mountains. The Table-land and the nioiintain-systems that form its borders occupy the western part of the country. Be- yond them are only valleys and low coast-ranges. Exercise. — (Open books to map of United States.) Across what three States (pp. 8, 20) were our first journeys ? Find these States. Find the cities noticed in them. How (see map, left-hand lower corner) are the cities marked on the map? Why, then, is Trenton marked differently from Cincinnati? What region is between the Appalachian and the Kocky Mountains ? The Central Plain is the richest division of our country r it is also the largest. Write all you remember about the surface of the Central Plain. XVII. -CLIMATE OP THE UNITED STATES. (Part I., Pages 10, 33-37.) You know how much warmer the southern part of our country is than the northern. The southernmost points reach nearly to the tropic, and are almost as warm as the Torrid Zone. But the western half is very unlike the eastern in moisture. You remember how productive the country is throughout the East, how dry it becomes towards the Rocky Mountains, and how barren the Table-land is. But beyond the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains are rich valleys, with plenty of rain. DIVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. 209 The United States is in the southern half of the North Temperate Zone. The climate of the northern border is cool, winter lasting several months. Towards the south it becomes warmer, and the southern border has hardly any winter. Kain is abundant in the eastern half of the country, but the high lands in the western half are generally quite dry. The Pacific coast lands have rain enough, and are warmer than the Atlantic coasts. The cultivated plants vary with the climate, wheat growing to the extreme north. Farther south are corn, tobacco, and the vine ; then cotton and rice ; and, in the southernmost parts, sugar-cane, figs, and oranges. Exercise. — (Open books to map of United States.) Name the northern divisions of the country west of Lake Huron ; the northern- most State on the Atlantic coast. What parallel crosses these divis- ions ? Where is this parallel on the globe ? (Half way from the Equator to the North Pole.) Name the two southernmost States. What parallel is near their southern points ? Find the southernmost point of California: what city on the Atlantic coast is just opposite this ? You see that the Pacific coast is opposite the middle and northern part of the Atlantic coast, but it is as warm as the middle and southern part. Find the meridian of 100° west longitude ; all the dry, barren lands lie west of it. XVIIL- DIVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. The eastern half of the United States contains a much larger population than the western. Near the Rocky Moun- tains and on most of the Table-land beyond, the ground will not produce enough to support a population ; but most things that are needed must be brought from long distances with great trouble. So not many people have gone to these 210 GEOGRAPHICAL PlUMEll. high lands, except where gold and silver can be obtained. Tlie Territories are great divisions of country which do not yet contain people enough to make States. The United States is divided into thirty-eight States and nine Territories. All the States but four lie east of the Rocky Moun- tains. Colorado is crossed by these mountains. Nevada is on the Table-land ; and California and Oregon are on the Pacific coast. The Territories, excepting two, lie among the Rocky Mountains, or west of them. Two are in the Central Plain. The District of Columbia, in which Washington is situated, belongs to the Government. Alaska, in the north-west corner of North America, belongs to the United States. It was bought of Russia. Exercise. — (Open books to map of United States.) Read the names of all the Territories. Read the names of all the States that touch the Atlantic; the Gulf of Mexico; the Pacific; the Missis- sippi ; the Missouri; the Ohio. What other States are there ? Copy the names of all the States. XIX. — GOVERNMENT OP THE UNITED STATES. In the United States the rulers and law-makers of the nation are all chosen by the people. Such a government is a EepubUc. The highest officer is the President. There are two bodies of men, who unite to make the laws. They are together called the Congress: one body is the Senate^ and the other is the House of Representatives, P>ery State sends two of its citizens to the Senate, and one or more to the House ; and every State takes part in choosing the President, so that all have a share in governing GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 211 the country. The President lives at Washington, and Con- gress meets there : thus it is the seat of government. The United States is a republic. It contains over fifty millions of people. The President is the highest officer of the Government. Faneuil Hall, Boston,— the Old "Cradle of Liberty." The laws are made by Congress, which meets every year. Congrress consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of two senators from each State. The House consists of representatives from each " \ MADISON I Dubuque ey—i T \ >=f> U'^ ^'^' OV W A DESjfcl^S ._..! lSFKIKGFIEXD ''Jj 1 l^'^ y«"^^ux,^ tern*"' - rv •1 . it.iroi: AH V ^ 214 GEOGEAPHICAL PRIMER. State. The number each State sends, depends upon its population. The seat of government of a country is called the capital. Wasliing'ton is the capital of the United States. Exercise. — Who is now President? What President died in 1881 ? Who took his place ? How did Mr. Arthur become Vice- president? (The people chose hhn.) When Queen Victoria dies, who will succeed her ? (Her son inherits the office.) Where the chief ruler inherits his office, the government is a monarchy. Eng- land is a monarchy. The picture on p. 211 shows you a famous old building in Boston. It is called " The Cradle of American Liberty," on account of the spirited public meetings held there during the exciting times of the Revolutionary War. XX. -REVIEW. XVI. Where is the United States? How far does it extend? What regions compose the country ? Where is the Atlantic Plain ? The Appalachian system? The Central Plain? The Table-land? What mountain-systems border the Table-land (p. 66)? What lies west of the Sierra system ? XVII. In what zone is the United States ? Describe the climate. In what parts of the country is rain abundant? Which part is dry ? Which is warmer, the Atlantic or Pacific coast ? Name some cultivated plants in the north, the middle, and the south. XVIII. How maily States in the Union ? How many Territo ries? In which part are most of the States? The Territories? Where is the District of Columbia? Alaska? How did Alaska become ours? XIX. What is the government of the United States ? What is the population ? What is a republic ? What is the highest officer ? By what body are the laws made ? Of what does Congress con- sist? How is the Senate composed? The House? What is the capital of the United States ? What is the capital of any country'^ NEW ENGLAND. 215 (Map of United States.) What two oceans border upon the United States? What country at the north? What gulf and country at the south ? What system of mountains in the eastern part ? What two systems in the western part ? Name the greatest river in the United States ; its greatest two tributaries ; two long rivers west of the Rocky Mountains ; five great lakes north of the Ohio ; a salt lake west of the Rocky Mountains. jSTame the Territories. Which two are farthest east? Name tha States bordering upon the Atlantic; upon the Gulf of Mexico; upon the Pacific ; upon the Mississippi ; upon the Missouri ; upon the Ohio; upon the Great Lakes. Which States do not border upon any of these waters ? Name the northernmost State of the Union ; the southernmost two States. XXI. -NEW ENGLAND. (Part I., Pages 59-61.) You have already learned much about this part of our country. A brave captain from England, who explored it when it was all a wilderness, called it New England^ in honor of his own country across the Atlantic. The first white settlers are called " the Pilgrim Fathers." They were Eng- lish people, and came over in a ship named "The May- flower'' in the year 1G20. Their landing-place was at Plymouth, on the coast of Massachusetts. New England contains six States, — Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. The country is rough, but beautiful. The river- valleys and a part of the coast are the only level lands. There are no very high mountains. The White Mountains, in New Hampshire, are the highest ; and the Green Mountains, in Vermont, are the longest range. 216 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMEB, The lakes are quite small, and the rivers are short and full of rapids and falls. Moosehead is the largest lake, and the Connecticut is the longest river. A New England Homestead. The climate is cool. The winters are long, but the summers are very pleasant. Exercise. — (Open books to map of New England.) Find the States, mountains, river, and lake named in this lesson. Tell what surromids Maine, beginning at the north. This is called bound- ing Maine. Bound each State. Find an island belonging to Maine ; two islands belonging to Massachusetts. XXII. -BUSINESS AND CITIES. New England is not a great farming country ; for the rough, stony land is hard to till, and many of the people prefer to get a living in some other way. Vermont is the only State where farming is the chief business. The others take advantage of their rapid streams for driving mill- wbeels, and their fine harbors for commerce. Besides these BUSINESS AND CITIES. 217 occupations, Maine produces lumber, and builds ships, and Massachusetts sends many men to the fisheries. Vermont furnishes marble, and other States granite. Massachusetts and Rhode Island are more densely peopled than any other States in the Union. The leading: occupations in New England are manu- facturing and commerce. Massachusetts, Rhode Isl- and, and Connecticut manufacture most, and have the largest cities. Massachusetts has most commerce. ^,^fe A Manufacturing Village. Boston is the largest city in New England. It has nearly four hundred thousand inhabitants, and is next to New York in the extent of its commerce. 218 GEOailAPIlICAL PlilMEB. Provkleiico, the second, is a large manufacturing city. New Haven is the seat of Yale College. Lowell is famous for its cotton-mills, and Worcester for its machinery. Cambridge contains Harvard Uni- versity, the oldest college in Nevi^ England. Exercise. — (Open books to map of New England.) Which two States have the most seacoast ? How do they make it useful ? How^ does the map show the largest city in a State ? (The name has a line drawn under it.) Plow the capital? One State has two capitals : which is it ? What are they ? How is Newport situated ? Find all the cities named in the lesson. Which of these are capitals? Find the otlier capital cities. Find a bay on the coast ; a sound ; two capes ; four islands near the coast. Find two lakes ; the live rivers which look the longest. XXIII. -MAP LESSON. Note. — To locate an island, tell its direction from the nearest coast; mountains or lakes, tell in what part, of what State, each is; rivers, tell where each rises, the course it takes, and the Avater into which it flows; cities, tell what and how situated each is. Thus: Portland, the largest city in Maine, is situated in the south-western part of the State, on the coast. Bound . Irocate. Maine. Mount Desert Island, Moose^-head Lake, Pe- nob^-scot Kiver, Ken-ne-bec' River, Au-Gus'- TA, PortMand. New Hamp'-shiije. White Mountains, Mer^-ri-mac River, Con'-cokd, Man'-ches-ter. Ver-mont'. Green Mountains, Lake Champlain, MoNT-rpy- LiER, Burlington. Mas-sa-chu^-setts. Cape Cod, Cape Ann, Nan-tuck'-et, Martha's Vineyard, Boston, Lo^-well, Wor'-ces-tei* ( Woos'-tfr), Cam'-bridge. Connecticut. Long Island Sound, Con-nect^i-cut River, Hart' FORD, New Haven. Hhode Island. Nar-ra-gan'-sett Bay, Prov'-i-dence, New^-port. Xongitude "West 220 GEOGBAPHICAL PBIMEB. XXIV. -REVIEW. XXI. How many States in New England? Name them. When and where was the first settlement ? What sort of country is New England? Where are the level lands? What and where are the highest mountains ? What and where the longest range ? What is peculiar about the lakes and streams ? Name the largest lake ; the longest river. What is the climate of New England? XXII. What are the leading occupations in New England? What else is done ? What State makes farming most important ? Which States lead in manufacturing? Which are most densely peopled ? Which have the largest cities ? What is the largest city in New England? The second in size? What is interesting about New Haven ? Lowell ? Worcester ? Cambridge ? XXIII. Write the names of the States, mountains, rivers, and cities learned in Lesson XXIII. XXV. -MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. (Part I., Pages 37-47.) These are the States which lie west and south of New England, in the Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic Plain. They are rich in farming land, water-power, and beds of coal and iron. The English made their first settle- ment this side of the Atlantic, near the mouth of James River, in 1607 ; and the Dutch at the mouth of the Hudson, seven years later. The Middle Atlantic States are seven, — New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir- ginia, and West Virginia. Mountains extend from North-eastern New York to South-western Virginia. The Adirondacks are the highest ; and the Alleghany range is the longest. BUSINESS AND CITIES. 221 There are rich farming lands on both sides of the mountain-region, and in the valleys within it. The Hudson is the most important river; but the Ohio begins in Western Pennsylvania. There are many lakes in New York. The climate, in New York, is much like that England ; but the summer grows longer, and the win- ter is milder, towards the south. Locks on the Erie Canal, at Lockport. Exercise. — (Open books to map of Middle Atlantic States.) Find the states, mountains, and rivers named in this lesson. What rivers do you see, about which you have read ? Find James River. What makes James River interesting ? Find Lake Ontario ; Niag- ara River. What do you know (pp. 51, 52) about them? Who made the first settlement in New York, and where ? The picture shows you some " locks " in the Erie Canal: what have you read about this canal? The locks are built to enable boats to pass from one level in the bed of the canal to another. XXVL- BUSINESS AND CITIES. (Part I., Pages 12, 19, 37, 46, 62.) This is a better farming region than New England ; for there is more good land, and the climate is warmer. The four 222 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. southern are chiefly farming States, raising grain, tobacco, and fruits. In the other three, manufacturing, mining, and commerce arc also very important. Long Island and Central New Jersey are hardly more than vast gardens for supplying the great cities with fruits and vegetables. The mountain- forests occupy mauy people in lumbering ; and large num- bers work at the oyster-beds and other coast fisheries. Agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and commerce are the leading occupations. Pennsylvania leads in mining, New York in manufacturing and commerce. Newark, N.J. The three northern States in this group, and the three southern in New England, constitute the leading manu- facturing* and commercial region in the United States, Many of the j»reatest cities of the Union are in the Middle Atlantic States. New York and Philadelphia are the largest in the Western Hemisphere. New York contains more than a million of people. Its commerce extends to nearly all important countries, and it has a great amount of other business. REVIEW. 223 Brooklyn is on Long Island, opposite New York. Many persons live there, and do business in New York. Philadelphia is as famous for manufacturing as New York for commerce. It has more than three-fourths of a million of people. Baltimore is a great market for tobacco and grain. The other large cities are Pittsburg, Buffalo, Wash- injjton, Newark, and Jersey City. But there are many fine cities of smaller size. Exercise. — (Open books to map of Middle Atlantic States.) What great water route (p. 46) crosses New York ? Where does it reach the coast? What cities are there for the gardens of Long Island and New »Jersey to supply? Find each of the great cities named in this lesson. What have you read about the first four? About the next three? On the opposite page you see a part of Newark, with its smoking factory chimneys. Like Pittsburg, it is a famous place for manufacturing. Jersey City is situated like Brooklyn, with only a river separating it from New York. Find the capital of each State ; of the United States. XXVIL- REVIEW. XXV. Name the Middle Atlantic States. When and where were the first settlements in these States? What part of this region is mountainous? Name the highest mountains; the prin- cipal range. Where are the good farming lands ? Name the most important rivers. What large river begins in Pennsylvania? What State has most lakes ? Describe the climate. XXVI. What are the chief occupations ? Which are mostly farming States? What do they raise? What States form the greatest manufacturing and commercial region in the country? What State leads in these occupations ? Li mining ? What great cities are there in these States ? Which two are largest ? What have you learned about New York ? About Philadelphia ? Brook- lyn ? Baltimore ? Name the other large cities in these States. 224 GEOGBAPHICAL FlilMEE. XXVIII. -MAP LESSON. Bound. Locate. New York. Long Island, Adirondack Mountains, Catskill Mountains, Hudson River, Albany, New York City, Brooklyn, Buffalo. Cape May, Delaware River, Trenton, New^- ark, Jersey City. Alleghany Mountains, Blue Ridge, Susque- hanna River, Ohio River, Harrisbukg, Philadelphia, Pittsburg. Delaware Bay, Do^-ver, Wilmington. Chesapeake Bay, Po-to'-mac River, An-nap'-o- Lis, Baltimore. Blue Ridge Mountains, James River, Rich'- MOND. Alleghany Mountains, Wheel^-ing. Washington. S'ew Jersey. PeNN-S YL-V a'-ni-a . Delaware. Ma'-ry-land. Vir-gin'-i-a. West Virginia. DiST. CO-LUM^-BI-A. How would you go by water from Albany to Philadelphia? From Philadelphia to Baltimore? From Baltimore to Washing- ton? From New York to Richmond? From Buffalo to New York? Write the names of all States, mountains, rivers, and cities learned in Lesson XXVIII. XXIX. -COTTON-aRO WING STATES. (Part L, Pages 33-35.) In the journey down the Mississippi we saw cotton growing soon after passing the mouth of the Ohio. All the States lying farther south than this, whether in the Atlantic Plain or in the Central Plain, produce cotton, and most of them make it their principal crop : hence all of them together are often called the cotton States, Four border on the Atlantic, four on the Gulf, and two are inland. Those on the coast are commonly called the South Atlantic States and QuJf States » 226 GEOGBAPHICAL PRIMER. There are ten cotton-grrowing States, — North Caro- lina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Missis- sippi, Louisiana, Texas, Tennessee, and Arkansas. The surface consists mostly of plains easy to cultivate and very productive. The Black Mountains in North ^-~^^_-_:r "' Carolina are the ^;^^____ loftiest part of the Appalachian system, being about a mile and a quarter high. The streams which flow from the mountains are navigable through the plains. The Mississippi and several of its tributaries cross the cotton States, connecting them with States farther inland. This is the warmest portion of the United States. The winter is mild everywhere, and the southernmost parts rarely have freezing weather. Exercise. — (Open books to map of South Atlantic and Gulf States.) Which cotton State is not shown on this map? Find it on the map of the United States. Which cotton States extend farthest south? Which lie farthest north? Find the States, mountains, and rivers named in this lesson. Why is this the warmest part of the United States ? Bound each State, and name its capital. The picture shows a small part of San Antonio, in Texas. It is one of the oldest towns in America. Square in San Antonio, Tex. BUSINESS AND CITIES, 227 XXX. - BUSINESS AND CITIES. (Part I., Pages 9, 10, 35, 36.) Ever since these States were settled, agriculture has been their main business, — until recently almost the only one. This is not strange, because the level surface and rich soil make cultivation easy and crops abundant ; and the market, too, is sure, for the climate favors the growth of things needed for use where they cannot be produced. But the cotton States have stores of coal and iron and abundant water-power, which are now used in manufacturing, espe- cially in Georgia. A few cities owe their growth to their manufactures, but most depend on the cotton trade for business. Agriculture is the main business of the cotton States. Besides the great cotton crop, rice grows on low lands Charleston, S.C., Harbor. along the coast, and the warmest portions produce sugar and tropical fruits. Maniifactiiringr increases rapidly. Iron and cotton manufacture's take the lead. 228 GEOGEAPHICAL PRIMER. New Orleans is the only great city. It is the main centre of the Mississippi trade, and the largest cotton- market in the world. Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, Galveston, and Mem- phis are cotton-markets. Atlanta has extensive iron- works, and Augusta has cotton-mills. Exercise — (Open books to map of South Atlantic and Gulf States.) In what part of our country can these States sell their cotton? Why is not cotton raised in New England? The coal and iron come mainly from the Blue Ridge. Which States would you suppose have the most water-power? Why? Eind the cotton- markets named in the lesson ; the manufacturing cities ; the largest city in each State. (Galveston is the largest in Texas.) What have you read about New Orleans? Eind the capital of each State. The picture on p. 227 shows you a part of Charleston harbor, the best in the South Atlantic States. The cotton States have not very many good harbors for large vessels. fcCp Zi S^ -'-90 ^'.O RS^ r. W^ l«l? l^Air 1^^ -t< Hi « fi«a i&liog iSc g^^ 1-4 Si 00 Ja ^ ^ m m ^ ' .i ."^S « ^ ^ I Z ^ ^ Iz; C/2O P^ <<;^h:5Eh<1H 230 GEOGBAPHIGAL PEIMEB. XXXII. -REVIEW. XXIX. Name the cotton States. What is their general sur- face? What mountains in this region? Name the principal range; the highest part of the Appalachian system. How high are the Black Mountains? What great river crosses the cotton States? Describe the climate. XXX. What is the main occupation of these States ? The chief crop ? What else is raised ? What other business is now impor- tant ? What kinds of manufactures ? How many great cities in the cotton States ? How is New Orleans important ? What is the business of the other cities ? Name the cotton markets ; the manu- facturing cities. Write about the country in the southern parts of the Atlantic and Central Plains (pp. 9, 35, 36). Write the names of all States, rivers, mountains, and cities learned in Lesson XXXI. XXXIII. - CENTRAL STATES. (Pabt I., Pages 29-32, 47-50.) The middle and northern portion of the Central Plain eon- tains eleven States, which are together called the Central States, and two Territories. Two of the States lie in the higher prairies west of the Missouri : Dakota and Indian Territory border these. The Central States have access to the Gulf by the Mississippi and its tributaries ; and to the Atlantic by the Great Lakes, the Erie Canal, and the Hudson, or by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence. The Central States are eleven, — Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and. Nebraska. The surface consists principally of very fertile plains, CENTRAL STATES. 231 partly rolling and partly flat. West of the Mississippi most of the country is prairie-land. The Mississippi river, the Missouri, and the Ohio flow through the Cen- tral States. The Great Lakes bor- der these States, and Minnesota has many small lakes. At the extreme north the summer is rather short, but hot ; the winter long and very cold. At the south the summer is much longer, and the winter i^ mild. c^'^^g° stock- Yard. ExEiicisi:. — (Open books to map of Central States.) Which States are shown here ? Which great lakes ? Which great lake is wholly in the Central States ? In what State is most of Lake Michigan ? What other States border on it ? What States bor- der on Lake Superior ? Huron V Erie ? Mississippi Eiver ? Ohio Eiver ? What river do you see on the western boundary of !Minne- sota ? AVhere (map of North America) does this stream reach the sea ? A lake feeding the ]\Iinnesota almost touches one feeding the Red River ; where do its waters reach the sea ? Find Minnesota River ; Illinois ; Cumberland ; Des Moines. Bound each State, (map of the United States for Kansas and Nebraska). Bound Dakota; Indian Territory. Find their capitals. 232 GE'^CRAPRICAL PRIMER, XXXIV. -BUSINESS AND CITIES. (Pakt I., Pages 22, 33, 48.) The Central States might be called the grain farm and pasture of the Union ; for grain-growing and stock-raising are as important here as cotton-planting farther south. The surface and soil are as good here as there ; but the crops are different on account of the climate. This region has in- creased very rapidly in population and wealth, and has large, rich cities, some of which are not yet fifty years old. West of the Mississippi there are not people enough to occupy all the fertile land ; but many thousands are going there every year. A Grain Elevator. Agriculture is the main business of the Central REVIEW, 233 Suites. Wheat and corn are the great crops ; but to- bacco is important in Kentucky and Missouri. Great numbers of horses, cattle, sheep, and swine are also raised here. Manufacturingr is fast increasing. It consists mostly of flouring, curing and packing meat, and making tools and machinery for farming. Copper is mined on the southern shore of Lake Su- perior, and iron and lead in several places. The greatest cities are Chicago, St. Louis, and Cin- cinnati. Next come Cleveland, Louisville, Detroit, Mil- waukee, and Indianapolis. Exercise. — (Open books to map of Central States.) Find each of the cities named in the lesson. Which are on the Lakes ? On the 'Mississippi ? On the Ohio ? What do you know about Chi- cago? St. Louis? Cincinnati? What tobacco States (p. 222) have you learned of farther east ? Which (p. 209) grows farther north — wheat, or corn ? Where can this region find a market for its meat and breadstuff ? (p. 118.) Find the capital of each State ; the largest city in each. What do you know (p. 29) about Minne- apolis and St. Paul ? There are rapids at Louisville, but boats go up the Ohio all the way to Pittsburg : how do you suppose they get past the rapids ? (By a canal.) XXXV. — RE VIE Vi^. XXXIII. N"ame the Central States. What part of the Central Plain is mostly prairie-land? What great streams and lakes in this region ? Which great lake is wholly in the Central States ? Describe the climate. AVhich two Territories lie in the Central Plain ? What States do they border ? XXXIY. What is the great business of the Central States? The leading crops ? Which States produce tobacco ? AVhat tobacco States have you learned of farther east? Which grows farther 234 GEOGBAPHICAL PRIMEE. north — wheat, or corn? What manufacturing is done in the Cen- tral States? What mining? What great cities in the Central States ? What do you know about Chicago ? St. Louis ? Cincin- nati ? AVhich cities are next them in size ? Name the largest city in each State. XXXVI. -MAP LESSON. Bound. Locate. Kentucky. Cum'-ber-land River, Fuank'-fort, LouMs-ville. Ohio. Ohio River, Co-lum'-bus, Cincinnati, Clever-land. Indiana. Wabash River, In-di-an-ap'-o-lis. Illinois. Illinois River, Spkingfield, Chicago. Michigan. Lake Michigan, Mackinaw Straits, Lansing, Detroit Wisconsin. Wisconsin River, Mad'-i-son, Mil-wauMvce. Minnesota. Itasca Lake, Mississippi River, St. Paul, Minneapolis. Iowa. Des Moines River {de moin'), Des Moines (c'ty). Missouri. Mis-sou^-ri River, Jefferson City, St. Louis. Kansas. (Map of United States.) To-pe'-ka, Leav '-en-worth. Nebraska. (Map of United States.) Platte River, Lincoln, 0-ma-ha^ Write the names of all the states, lakes, rivers, and cities learned in Lesson XXXVI. XXXVII.-THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS. (Part L, Pages 65-70.) In some respects, this is the most remarkable portion of the United States. The highest two mountain-systems are here ; the only great table-land is between them ; and the only part of the country which does not produce useful plants is on the table-land. Here, too, are smoking volcanoes, spouting geysers, and canons so narrow and deep that the streams at the bottom of them cannot be used cither for driving mill-wheels, or carrying boats, or even for moistening the soil. 'i/^-^ t^ j)b St. Joseph ?^ \ Insas City )Daytoni> rtf- ..J (i^Terrejaaiite I l/^ jncumati' COLUMBUS j^vansvi]]e , 02015 ' Cairo 1 } I ^KANSAS T E ( K W E S Longitude 236 GEOGRAPHICAL PBIMEB. The Western Highlands contain four States and seven Territories. They are, Colorado, Nevada, California, and Oregon; Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. Much of the surface is mountainous, and the table- land barren. But there are good lands in the valleys among the mountains and near the Pacific. The highest land is Mount Whitney, near- ly three miles high. The largest lakes are salt, and some of the longest rivers flow through deep canons, and are useless. The climate is dry, except near the Pa- An Indian Cannp-Fire. clfic. Thc COast lauds are warmer than on the Atlantic coast. Exercise. — (Open books to map of Pacific States.) Find each State and Territory r^med in the map. Which are crossed by the Rocky Mountains ; Which are crossed by the Sierra N'evada and Cascade Mountains ? Bound each State ; each Territory. (Map of the United States for the most easterly.) Find Missouri River ; Yellowstone ; Colorado ; Columbia ; Great Salt Lake. Find Yellowstone Park. This region, about three-fourths as large as Connecticut, contains such wonderful canons and geysers, and waterfalls, and lake and mountain scenery, that the government has reserved it for a national park. The geysers are singular springs, that every little while throw up into the air columns of boiling-hot water. Write about the appearance of the table-land, and what grows upon it. BUSINESS AND CITIES. 237 XXXVIII. -BUSINESS AND CITIES. (Part I., Pages 70-74.) You remember that the largest part of this vast region is unfit for most kinds of business. There are woods and pas- ture-lands among and around the Rocky Mountains ; and fine forests grow at the west of the Sierra system. But the dry table-land is useless except where the surface can be irri' gated. This is done by leading water from some stream, through artificial channels, and distributing it over the ground where it is needed. Fine farming land has been made in this way, especially in Utah. The highland region contains few people except where gold and silver are found, and in the wide valleys of California and Oregon. There is gold in California, silver in Nevada, and both gold and silver in Colorado, and at different places in the Territories. California has vast cattle-ranches, wheat- farms, orchards, and vineyards. Oregon carries on wheat- farming, wool -grow- ing, lumbering, and salmon-fishing. California Fruits. San Francisco, in California, is the only great city in all this region; but there are several smaller ones which are growing rapidly. 238 GEOGBAPHICAL PRIMER. Denver^ near rich silver and gold mines in Colorado, is the largest inland city. Salt Lake City is in the irri- gated lands of Utah ; and Virginia City in the richest silver district of Nevada. Exercise. — (Open books to map of Pacific States.) Find San Francisco : what do you know about it ? Find the largest city in each State ; the capital of each State. Find Salt Lake City ; the capitals of the other Territories. Write about the discovery of gold in California. XXXIX. -MAP LESSON. Bound. Liocate. Okegon. Cascade Mountains, Columbia River, Salem, Portland. Califok]^ia. Sierra Nevada, Mount Whitney, Sac-ka-men^- TO, San Francisco, Los An'-gel-es. Ne-va'-I)A (-vaW-), Colorado River, Carson City, Virginia City. Col-o-ra'-do (-rah'-). Rocky Mountains, Denver, Leadville. U'-TAH. Wah-satch' Mountains, Great Salt Lake, Salt Lake City. Washington. Cape Flattery, Cascade Mountains, O-lym'-pia. XL. -REVIEW. XXXVII. What States and Territories are in the western high- lands? What kind of surf ace has this region ? What large barren district ? What is the highest land in the United States ? How high is Mount Whitney? What is peculiar about the lakes and streams in this region? Describe the climate. XXXVIII. What parts of this region have most people ? Where are gold and silver found ? What pursuits are important in Cali- fornia ? In Oregon ? What cities in this region ? What can you say about San Francisco ? Denver ? Salt Lake City ? Virginia City ? Name the capital and largest city of each State. XXXIX. Write the names of the States, Territories, moun- tains, rivers, and cities learned in Lesson XXXIX. PACIFIC STATES AND TEERITOEIES. ® Capitals o Cities, Towns Longitude "West from 240 GEOGRAPHICAL PBIMER. XLI.-COLD GOUNTBIES OF-^ORTH AMERICA. (Part I., Pages 52-56 aist® 75-78.) We have learned that the part of- North America north of our country, excepting the south- ern portions/ is mostly a cold forest-land, with few inhabitants but Indians ; and that the Arctic shores are too cold for forests, and have no people but Esqui- maux. All this region, except Alaska, belongs to Great Britain. In the sea, north-east of the continent, are Greenland and Ice- land, very cold islands. These belong to Denmark, and are called Danish America. Their people came originally from the cold countries of Europe. All of the continent of ' North America north of the United States, excepting Alaska, belongs to Great Britain, and is called British America. Only the southern part of British America is inhab- ited by civilized men. This is divided into several prov- inces, which together form the Dominion of Canada. The island of Newfoundland is a separate province. The chief ruler of the Dominion is a governor-gen- eral appointed by the government of Great Britain. Montreal is the only great city of the Dominion ; but A Fur-Trader. THE WARM, SOUTHERN COUNTRIES, 241 Quebec, farther down the river, is older. The capital is Ottawa. There are several other fine cities. Exercise. — (Open books to map of North America.) Find Greenland ; Iceland ; Alaska. To what countries do they belong? Find British America. Find three great rivers in British America; three large lakes. You remember Red Kiver on the western boun- dary of Minnesota : into which of these lakes does it flow ? Find Montreal ; Quebec. Write what you know (pp. 53, 54) about them. XLII.-THB WARM, SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. (Part I., Pages 82-88.) We know that the countries of North America at the south of us are as much warmer than ours, as those north of us are colder. We remember the hot coast lands, with their abundance of interesting and valuable plants ; and the grad- ual change as the land rises, until in the high, cool interior, the fields and forests look almost like our own. We have read, too, of terrific volcanoes in these countries, and of earthquakes that shake down people's houses ; and have found that, after all, a country of continual summer may not be the pleasantest place in the world to live in. South of the United States, are the hot countries of Mexico^ Central America^ and the West Indies. Mexico is a republic, made up of many small States, united under one government. Mexico City,, its capital, is on a high table-land in the interior. Central America consists of small separate republics of not much importance. The West Indies include four large islands, and a great number of very small ones. Cuba and Hayti are much the largest. Cuba, which belongs to Spain is the 242 GEOGRAPHICAL PUIMER. greatest sugar district in the world, tal and largest citj'. Havana is its capi- ExERCiSE. — (Open books to map of North America.) Find Mexico; Central America; Cuba; llayti. What line passes just north of Cuba ? In what zone are these liot countries? In what zone is the northern part of Mexico ? Do you suppose this part to be cooler, or w^armer, than the southern? Why? What small islands of the AVest Indies lie north of the tropic ? The little one farthest east was the first land fomid by Columbus. Its name is San Salvador, XLin.-MAP LESSON. Bound. North Amekica. British America. United States. Mexico. Central America. A-LAS^-KA. New^^-found-land. Cuba. Hay'-tl Locate. Greenland. Iceland. Ja-mai^-ca {-ma^-). Hudson Bay. Gulf of Mexico. Gulf of St. Lawrence. Gulf of California. Car-ib-be'-an Sea. Pan-a-ma' Isthmus. {-mail') Montreal. Ot^-ta-wa. Washington. Chicago. Philadeljihia. New York. San Francisco. Mexico (city). Ha-va^-na. {-mh'-) XLIV. - REVIEW. XLT. What is Danish America? To what country does the northern part of North America belong? What part of British America is peopled by civilized men ? How is it divided ? What island forms a separate province ? How is the Dominion governed ? AVhat is the capital? Name the other chief cities. XLII. What countries lie south of the United States? What is Mexico? What and where is its capital? Of what does Central America consist? W^hat do the West Indies include? Name the largest two islands. What is interesting about Cuba? What is its chief city? SOUTH AMERICA. XL V. -COUNTRIES OP THE PLAINS. (Pabt I., Pages 90-96, 102-107.) South America is a remarkable continent. It has the high- est mountains on the globe excepting the Himalaya, the most extensive forests in the world, and vast treeless plains that at one season are covered with the richest vegetation, and at another are parched by the sun and swept by flames until they seem like a desert. It lies mainly in the Torrid Zone ; yet even here the valleys between the Andes have the temperature of spring, and the tops bear snow throughout the year. All the South- American countries are republics excepting Brazil, which is ruled by an emperor. Guiana is a small mountain- land belonging to countries in Europe. The hard names in this lesson are pronounced thus : — Brah-zeeF,Yen-ez-weeMali, Pah-rah-gwa^, U-roo-gwa^, Ar^-j en-tine, Ri'-o Ja-nee^-ro, Bo^-nus A^-riz, Ghe-ah^-nah. The plains of South America contain five countries, — Brazil, Venezuela, Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Ar- gentine Republic. Brazil includes the larger part of the selvas, and has valuable diamond and gold districts. There are few people except in the coast regions. Agriculture is the chief pursuit, and coffee the prin- 244 COUNTBIES OF THE PLAINS, 245 cipal crop. Rio Janeiro, the capital, is tlic greatest coffee-market in the world. BaUa is also a large city. Venezuela, the Argentine Kepublic, Paraguay, and Uruguay contain the vast llanotj, pampas, and other tree- less plains. Cattle-raising is the main business, with agriculture in some of the best districts. Buenos Ayres^ and Montevideo, on the La Plata, are the only large cities in these four coun- tries. They are fa- mous markets for hides, horns, and tallow. Exercise . — (Open books to map of South America.) Find Guia- na. What is it? Bound each of the countries of the plains. Find their capitals. Which of these countries is the largest ? Which are in the Torrid Zone? In what zone are the others? Which part of these temperate countries is warmest ? Why ? On the Amazon where do you see the sun at noon ? In our country, where ? In Uruguay, where? Why? (One must always look toward the Torrid Zone to see the sun at noon.) What (p. 95) are the selvas? What (p. 102) are the llanos? What (p. 105) are the pampas? A Brazilian Plantation. 24G GEOGRAPHICAL PBIMEE, XL VI. - COUNTRIES OF THE ANDES. (Part L, Pages 97-101.) You remember that the Andes extend along the whole western coast of South America, shutting off from the Pacific all the rich plains. You know that the larger part is a great double range, with a long, high, wide valley between the tops. The mountains are highest, and the tops of the two ridges widest apart, in the middle portion, where the inner valley contains a large lake. Here, in the eastern ridge, is the highest land in America, nearly five miles high. The hard names of this lesson are pronounced on p. 248. A Bridge in the Andes. The countries of the Andes are Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chili. All but Chili extend across REVIEW. 247 the mountains into the selvas. All are torrid except Chili, which has a climate similar to our own. These countries all have rich deposits of gold, silver, and copper; but Chili is the only one which attends much to iiiiniu^. In the four torrid countries most of the people live in the valleys among the Andes, which have a better climate than the lowlands. Santiago^ the capital of Chili, and Lima, the capital of Peru, are the largest cities on the west side of the Andes. Exercise. — (Open books to map of South America.) Name the countries of the Andes; their capitals. Do these cities seem to be among the mountains, or in the lowlands ? Why do people prefer to live in the highlands ? Where do you see lakes in the wide valley ? The highest mountains, called Nevada de Soi^afo, lie east of that largest lake ; what capital is near them V XLVIL- REVIEW. XLV. Name the countries of the plains. What is the chief pursuit in Brazil? The principal crop? What minerals has Bra- zil ? What part is most peopled ? What great cities has Brazil ? W^hat do you know about Rio Janeiro ? AVhat is the chief busi- ness of the other countries of the plains ? What is the largest city of these four countries ? XL VI. What countries are crossed by the Andes? Which one is on the west side ? What is the climate of these countries ? What valuable minerals have they? In which one is most attention given to mining ? What is the best part of the torrid countries to live in? Why? What are the greatest two cities on the Pacific side of the moantains ? Where and how high is the highest laud in America? 248 GEOGBAPIIICAL PRIMEE, XLVIIL-MAP LESSON. Bound. Locate. Yen-ez-ue'-la. Cape Horn. Mon-te-vid^-eo. Bra-zil^ Ter'-ra del Fu-e'-go. Buenos Ayres. Pa-iia-guay^ Andes Mountains. San-ti-a^-go (-aW-), U-RU-GUAY^ Am'-a-zon River. Li^-ma. Ar^-g EN-TINE Kep. Pa-ra-na^ River (-naW). La Paz ilah). Ciii'-Li [che'-le). La Pla'-ta Eiver. Qui'-to {ke'-). Bo-Liv^-iA. Orinoco River. Bo-go-ta' {tali'). Pe-ru^ Ca-ra'-cas {-rah'-). Yal-pa-rai'-so (-rV-). Ec^-UA-DOR (wa). Rio Janeiro. Ba-lii^-a (-e'-). Co-LOM^-BiA. A-sun^-cion. Pa-ra' {-rah'). XLIX. — WESTERN HEMISPHERE (Examination). What two continents in the Western Hemisphere? How are they connected ? In what zone is most of North America? Most of South America ? What part of North America is in the Torrid Zone ? What part of South America is in the Temperate Zone ? Name the countries of North America ; of South America. What parts of each continent belong to European governments ? AVhich is the most important country of North America? Of South Amer- ica? What is the government of the United States? Of Brazil? Of all the other independent countries of the New World ? Of what does the United States consist ? Name the States ; the Territories ; the capital. In what part of the United States are manufacturing and commerce most important? In what parts is agriculture the great business? What is the chief crop of the South Atlantic and Gulf States ? Of the Central ? Where are coal and iron mined? Gold and silver? Copper? Name the great cities of the United States, — naming, in New England, o?ie; in the Middle Atlantic States, four; in the cotton States, one; in the Central States, three ; on the Pacific coast, one. Name the largest city in the Dominion ; in Mexico ; in the West Indies. Name the largest cities of South America, — on the east- ern coast, four ; on the western, two. In what country is each ? '^c '4:% ^4% J B B E AJN- C.Gall Sj^ ® BOGOTA COLOMBIA I rjTEIMDADI. ^■^Pi 1fei4«^- *tov^i« P^^^^ CAYENNE r w o SOUTH AMERICA ©Capitals o Cities, Towns / Longitude 67 West 57 from i7 Greenwich EUROPE. L.~THE CONTINENT. Europe lies east of the Atlantic, opposite the northern half of North America. It extends only about as far south as Cape Hatteras. One would suppose that the climate would be like that of the regions opposite on the American coast ; but a large part is really very much warmer. Europe is the smallest of the continents, except Australia ; and has a coast more broken than any of the others. The whole south- western part is like a great peninsula, lying between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic. The countries of Eu- rope are all monarchies except France and Switzerland. Eastern Europe is a great low plain, with mountains only on its borders. The longest river is the Volga. Western Europe consists mostly of mountain-lands and valleys, with small plains and table-lands. The Alps are the hig-hest mountains. The loftiest peak, Mount Blanc, is nearly three miles high. The Danube, the Rhine, and the Rhone are the prin- cipal rivers of Western Europe. The climate, in all the coast countries, is much warmer than in coast regions opposite in America. Eastern Europe is cooler than Western Europe. Exercise. — (Open books to map of Europe, p. 267.) Name the oceans which border upon Europe ; the seas and bays along the coast ; a cluster of islands off the west coast ; four islands in the Mediterranean. Find the mountains and rivers named in the lesson. Nar^ the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean ; upon the 250 THE nmrisu isles. 251 Atlantic ; the great country of Eastern Europe ; the small countries which touch the Black Sea; a little country between Italy and the German Empire. What (p. 210) is a republic? AVhat (p. 214) is a monarchy ? AVhat is the only monarchy (p. 244) you found in America ? LI. -THE BRITISH ISLES* (Part L, Pages 113-121.) The British Isles together form the '' United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." The government has great possessions in America, Australia, Asia, and other parts of the world ; and all these together form the British Empire, The British possessions are so scattered on all parts of the globe that people often say, '^ The sun never sets on the British flag," by which they mean, that there is never a time when it is not day in some coun- try belonging to Great Britain. Great Britain is but little larger than the State of Min~ nesota, yet it contains more than half as many people as the United States. England is the richest and most popu- lous part. Manufacturing and com- merce are the chief occupa- tions, but great care is given to farming. The leading manufactures are cotton, woollen, and linen goods, and iron and steel wares of every sort. A Scotch Highlander. 252 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. England has more great cities than any other country of its size. London is the capital of the British Empire, and is the largest city on the globe. It contains nearly four millions of people. liiverpool is the great seaport of northern England. Manchester is the leading city of the world in cotton manufactures, and Birniing-ham in iron-works. Leeds is celebrated for its manufactures of wool. Glasgow, in Scotland, is famous for the iron steam- ships built there ; and Edinburgh for its University. Dublin is the most important city in Ireland. Exercise. — (Open books to map of British Isles.) Name the waters which separate Great Britain from the Continent; Ireland from Great Britain. Name the different parts of Great Britain. Which includes the largest i)art of the island ? Which has most of the great cities? Find all the cities named in the lesson. Head what is said in Part I. (pp. IIG, 117) about London; about Man- chester and Liverpool (p. 118) ; about Edinburgh (p. 120). There are other large cities in England, about which you will like to learn at another time ; and there are smaller ones which are very interesting. Find Cambridge; Oxford: at these two places are the old and celebrated English universities, of which we often hear. There is also a famous university in Ireland, at Dublin. LII.-MAP LESSON. Bonnd. liocate. England. Strait of Dover, Land's End, Wales, Thames {temz Kiver, London, Liverpool, Manchester, Bir'-min^ ham, Leeds, Cambridge, Ox'-ford. Scotland. Heb'-ri-des Islands, Glas'-gow, EdMn-burgh {hur-rU.) Ireland. Cape Clear, St. George's Channel, Dublin, Bel-fast', Cork. 1 — J^ ORKNEY f? ISLANDS BRITISH ISLES firth ® Capitals o Cities,Towns Q ^ T lU K T I C O C E A K 8 longitude East 254 GEOGBAPHICAL PBIMEB, LIIL- FRANCE, BELGIUM, AND HOLLAND. (Pabt I., Pages 122-133.) These are among the most famous countries of Europe, on account of the great number of people they contain, their careful farming, and the immense variety of rich and costly things they manufacture. Belgium contains more persons to each square mile of territory than any other country in the world. France is the only great republic in Europe. France, Belgium, and Holland lie on the coast of Europe, opposite England. The chief pursuits of the people are agriculture, man- ufacturing, and commerce. Among their manufac- tures, are velvets, silks, rib- bons, laces, gloves, jewelry, elegant cloths, carpets, fur- niture, and parlor -orna- ments. Paris is the capital of France, and is the largest city on the Continent of Europe. Marseille is the principal seaport, and Lyon is cele- brated for its silk manu- A Shepherd of the Landes. faCturCS. Brussels, the capital of Belgium, is famous for its laces and carpets. THE NORTH COUNTBIES. 255 Amsterdam, in Holland, has a very extensive com- merce. Exercise. — (Open books to map of Europe, p. 267.) Find the countries named. Bound each. Find Paris. What have you read (p. 126) about it? Turn to the map of Central Europe. Find Mount Blanc ; Lyon ; Marseille. What have you read (pp. 128, 129) about these cities ? Find Brussels ; Amsterdam. Many of the merchant-ships that come to Amsterdam are laden with spices, coffee, medicines, choice woods, and other things from far-off lands in the Indies, belonging to Holland. Which of these three countries is a republic? In the south- western part of France is a plain called the Landes, where the people are shepherds. They walk on stilts, and have raised seats so as to be able to overlook their flocks. The picture on the oppo- site page shows you one of the shepherds, resting on the high seat, and knitting. LIV.-THB NORTH COUNTRIES. (Part I., Pages 133, 134.) In the old times these north countries were famous for the courage and daring of the people, and their skill as sailors. The leaders were often called sea-kings. They used to set out with their followers, and make voyages along the coast ; and when they found an inviting region they would attack and often conquer it. Thus they gained possession of parts of England and France, and other territories much richer than their own. Some of these rovers discovered Iceland and Greenland, which still belong to Denmark ; and it is said they even sailed as far as the New England coast, long before the time of Columbus. Denmark, SAveden, and Norway lie on the coast farther north than Holland. All taken together are )ften called the Scandinavian countries. NorAvay and most of Sweden are high, mountainous 256 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. lands, famous for their forests of tall pines and firs, and their iron and copper ores. Denmark is a low country. The islands are the best part of it. In Norway and Sweden many people are employed in the fisheries, the forests, and the mines; but in Den- mark the principal occupation is farming. The only large cities of the Scandinavian countries are their capitals. Copenliag-en, the capital of Denmark, is the largest and most celebrated of all the Scandinavian cities. Stocldiolm, the capital of Sweden, is a beautiful city, situated on a cluster of islands. Exercise. (Open books to map of Central Europe.) Find Denmark. Where are the isl- ands ? Find the capital : how is it situated ? Turn to the map of Europe. Find Sweden and Xorway. Find the capital of Sweden. These two coun- tries have the same king, but each has its own capital. Find the capital of Norway. What parallel near these two cities ? Find where this parallel In Stockholm. crosses North Amer- ica. What sort of countiy is that part of North America ? BEVIEW.— THE SUJS^NV LANDS. 257 LV.- REVIEW. L. Where is Europe ? How far south does it extend ? What is remarkable about its size? Its coast? Describe Eastern Europe; Western Europe. What are the highest mountains in Europe? What, and how high, is the loftiest peak? Name the chief rivers of Western Europe. Describe the climate of Europe. LI. Where are the British Isles ? JN'ame the two great islands. What kingdom do they form ? What is the British Empire ? How large is Great Britain ? How populous ? What part of the island is most important ? What are the leading kinds of business ? The principal manufactures? Name the great cities. W^hich are in England ? Which in Scotland ? W^hat important city in Ireland ? LIII. Where are France, Belgium, and Holland ? What are the chief pursuits of the people ? Name some of the important manu- factures. Name the largest cities of France ; an important city in Belgium ; in Holland. What do you know about each of these cities ? What distant possessions has Holland ? What is the gov- ernment of France? LIV. What and where are the Scandinavian countries? Describe Norway and Sweden ; Denmark. What important pursuits in these countries? What are the largest Scandinavian cities? What im- portant city in Norway ? AVrite what you know about the country in France. LVL-THB SUNNY LANDS. (Pakt I., Pages 135-145, 155-157.) Three large peninsulas of Europe border upon the Mediter- ranean, and are famous for their fine climate, and their clear, sunny skies. Though no farther south than the middle of the United States, their climate and many important pro- ductions are more like those of Florida and Texas than Virginia and Kentucky. The eastern and middle peninsulas contained the first civilized nations in Europe, — the Grecians 258 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. and Romans ; and many things still remain there which show the wealth and grandeur of those ancient states. The peninsulas of Southern Europe contam Spain and Portugal, Italy, Greece, and European Turkey. The surface in many parts is mountainous ; but these countries have some of the most fertile valleys and small plains in Europe. A Spanish Peasant. A Greek. The climate is delightful, with long summers, and short, mild winters. Agriculture is the main business. Fruits, wine, and olive-oil are the most abundant productions. Italy and Spain contain a number of great cities. The largest are Naples, Rome, and Milan, in Italy, and Madrid, the capital of Spain. Rome, the most famous city of ancient times, is the capital of Italy. SWITZERLAND AND GERMANY. 259 Constantinople is the capital and largest city of Turkey ; Lisbon, of Portugal ; and Athens, of Greece. Venice is an old city, built on a cluster of islands. Exercise. — (Open books to the map of Europe.) Bound the countries named. What parallel crosses these countries ? Find what States of our country are crossed by this parallel. The peninsulas of Southern Europe all have high mountains along the northern border, shutting off the cold north winds : besides, they are near the hot countries of Africa, with nothing to interrupt the warm south winds. That is one reason why they are so much wanner than the middle of our country. Find the cities named. (Milan is on the map of Central Europe.) In what country is each ? Read what is said in Part I. about Madrid (p. 138), Rome (142), Venice (143), Naples (144), Constantinople and Athens (157). An Italian Peasant Girl, Spinning. LVII - SWITZERLAND AND GERMANY. (Part I., Pages 145-153.) The great kingdom of Prussia, the smaller kingdoms of Saxony, Bavaria, and Wurtemburg, and a number of other little states in the middle part of Europe, are all peopled by Germans. In 1871 these states united, forming the Empire of Germany^ and made King William of Prussia their em- peror. Germany is celebrated for its schools and its learned men, and for the treasures of painting and sculpture, and other interesting things, collected in the cities. 260 GEOGRAPHICAL PRTMER. Switzerland is a small republic, situated among the highest mountain-lands of Europe. Geneva is its most important city. Berne is its capital. The kingdom of Prussia and a number of smaller states, together form the Empii-c of Germany. The Fair at Leipzig. The surface of Southern Germany is mountainous but the northern part is a plain. The Rhine, which flows through the highlands, is the most famous river. The climate is cooler than on the coast farther west. Farming, wool-growing, and manufacturing are the leading occupations of the Germans. The largest cities* are Berlin, Hamburg, and Breslau. Munich, Dresden, and Leipzig are also noted. Berlin, the capital of Prussia, is also the capital of the empire. THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE, 261 Exercise. — (Open books to map of Central Europe.) Find Switzerland: what famous mountain just outside of it? Find Geneva: what have you read (p. 149) about it? Find Berne: what is it? Bound the German Empire. Find Berlin; Munich: what have you read (pp. 152, 153) about each? Find Hamburg : this is the city from which most of the German emigrants sail for America- Find Breslau : this is the greatest wool-market in Europe, Find Dresden and Leipzig. Dresden is celebrated for its picture-galleries, and Leipzig for its great yearly fairs. LVin.-THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE, (Part I., Pages 154, 155.) The leading state of this great empire is Austria,, sikiated in the western highlands south of the Danube. Its people and their near neighbors are Germans. The other peoples of the empire speak differ- ent languages, and are very unlike the Austrians. The kingdom of Hungary,, in the middle part, is the largest division of the empire. The real name of the government is the Austro- Hungarian Monarchy, The Austrian Empire lies in Central Europe, south-east of the German Empire. It consists of Austria, Hungary, and a number of provinces, united under an Austrian emperor. a Hungarian Gemleman. The surface of Hungary is composed largely of plainL. 262 GEOGRAPHICAL PEIMEB. The other parts of the empire are generally hilly or mountainous. The Danube is the greatest river. The climate is Avarmer than that of Germany. The chief pursuit is agriculture, but manufacturing and mining are also important. Grain, flax, and wine are produced in the rich plains. The greatest cities are Vienna, Buda-Pesth, and Prague. A^ienna is the capital of the empire. Exercise. — (Open books to map of Europe.) Bound the Aus- trian Empire ; find its capital. What have you read (p. 154) about Vienna? Turn to the map of Central Europe, and fiiKl another capital in this empire : this is the capital of Hungary. The Danube flows through it : and, only a few years ago, the parts on the oppo- site sides of the river were separate cities, named Pesth and Buda ; but now they are united into one, and its name is Buda-Pesth. Find Prague : in what province is it? Bohemia was once a king- dom, and Prague was its capital. Find a city directly east of Prague. There are famous salt-mines near Cracow. In the mountains be- tween Cracow and Vienna, are the most productive gold and silver mines in Europe. What parts of Italy and France are shown in this map? Where will you find the rest? (On map of Europe.) LIX.-MAP LESSON. Bonnd. I.ocate. German Empire. Rhine River, Ber'-lin, Bres^-]au, Hamburg, Dres^-den, Leip'-zig, Munich. Austrian Empire. Alps Mountains, Danube River, Vienna, Bu'- da-Pesth', Prague. Switzerland. Alps Mountains, Geneva, Berne. Holland. Rhine River, The Hague [hag), Amsterdam. Belgium. Brus^sels. Denmark. Co-pen-ha^-gen. Italy. Alps Mts., Po River, MiFan, Venice. France. Mount Blanc, Rhone River, Lyon. Longitude 264 GEOGBAPHICAL PRIMEB,. LX. — RUSSIA AND ROUMANIA. (Part I., Pages 158, 159.) Russia and the little kingdom of Roumania lie in the great plain of Eastern Europe. We have already noticed the frozen lands on the Arctic shores, the vast country south of them, and the smaller forests among cultivated lands that fill the middle portion of Russia. In the south, west of the A Friendly Chat. river Don, are rich prairies, almost like those of the Missis- sippi. Towards the Caspian, the land is poor, and the best parts are only pasture-grounds. In some respects they are much like the pampas of South America. The Cossacks, who live here, raise herds of horses and cattle, and are about as daring riders as the Gauchos. HE VIEW. 265 Russia fills nearly all the great plain of Eastern Europe. The northern part is very cold, and is mostly a forest region. The settled portions of Russia are principally in the middle and south-western parts, where the climate is moderate, and there are rich farming lands. The great business of the people is farming and stock-raising. Fine crops of wheat and flax, and large herds of horses and cattle, are raised. The largest cities are St. Petersburg and Moscow. St. Petersburg is the capital. Roumania is a small kingdom in the plains at the mouth of the Danube. It contains rich wheat lands, and is a farming country, Bukharest is its capital. Exercise. — (Open hooks to the map of Europe.) Bound Rus- sia. Find St. Petersburg: what have you read (p. 159) about it? Find Moscow : this was the capital before St. Petersburg was built. The Russians are a sociable people, fond of meeting and chatting together. The picture shows a little group who seem to be having a fine time. One of them, you see, is a wandering musician, with his instrument on his shoulders, and staff in his hand. I wonder what sort of music he can make. Find Roumania. What countries are its neighbors ? To what country (p. 155) did Roumania and the little States south of the Danube once belong ? LXL- REVIEW'. LVI. What countries of Europe are in the southern peninsulas V Describe their surface ; their climate ; the chief occupations and productions. Name the largest cities of the southern countries. Name the capital of each of these countries. LYII. W^hat and where is Switzerland? Its most important city ? What do you know about Geneva ? What is the capital of 266 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. Switzerland? What forms the Empire of Germany? Describe the surface. J^ame the chief river. Describe the climate. What is the chief pursuit of the people ? Name the tKree principal cities. What three others are interesting ? What makes them so ? What is the capital of the German Empire ? LVIII. Where is the Austrian Empire ? Of what does it consist? What is the surface? The climate? The chief pursuit of the people ? Name some of the chief crops ; the largest three cities. What is the capital of the empire? What is the new name of the government ? LX. What countries lie in the plains of Eastern Europe? Where is Russia ? What are the most settled portions ? Why are these better to live in than the northern? What is the chief pur- suit? What do the farms produce? Name the two chief cities. Tell something about each. What and where is Koumania? PU '-A S :j H g . . i i ^ . S S g 5 I I ^ V J S 1 g § g S 3 •^ w! S? . -? -1-1 . f-< H C« )^ ^ < o in ^ q >^ ^ tf K w n < W ^ ^ W > ^ I ^ ^ 4^ 1^ - S :t .. I ? ^ .)^ ^ r^ ^ ?, ^ ^ .j! ^S i' ^ 4 .S:^ ^ ? ^ -r. tI ill i i -s ^z ^ -3 ^ ^^ 5 = •'^ s AFRICA. LXIII. -NORTHERN AFRICA. (Part L, Pages 160-164.) Africa is the largest continent, except Asia ; but it con- tains neither great arms of the sea nor peninsulas, and has no vast systems of high mountains. In the northern part, is the greatest rainless region on the globe ; but in the middle portion, are fresh- water lakes and rivers which are among the largest in the world. A Camel and his Driver. Northern Africa includes the Sahara, northern Egypt, and the Barbary States. The native inhabitants are of the white race. The Sahara is a rainless region, but contains many fertile oases, Fezzan is a group of the largest ones. 268 MIDDLE AND SOUTUERN AFRICA. 269 The Egypt is the most important country in Africa. "Nile Valley has always been famous for its abundant grain- crops. Cairo is the capital. The Barbary States are the fertile countries north of the Sahara. Algeria belongs to France. Exercise. — (Open books to map of Africa.) Find the Atlas Moun- tains ; the Isthmus of Suez. A ship-canal crosses this isthmus : what waters does it connect? Find the Barbary States; Egypt; their capi- tals. Algeria used to belong to Tur- key, and the governor was called the '' Deij of Algiers." What (p. 160) are the oases V Find Fezzan. The Dey of Algiers, and Attendants. LXIV. — MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN AFRICA. (Part L, Pages 165, 166.) In Middle Africa, are wonderful forests, vast treeless plains, and immense marshes, with many of the largest ani- mals in the world. Many of the trees and smaller plants yield food for the savage tribes ; and a great number furnish gums, oils, and other valuable articles. The plumes of the ostrich and the ivory tusks of the elephant are also of great value. Middle Africa is the land of the negroes, and most of the tribes are savages. There are a very few white men, at trading-posts or mission-stations. Soutliern Africa contains many British and Dutch colonists. 270 GEOGRAPHICAL PBIMEB. Cape Colony is the most important British possession in Africa. It has fertile lands on the coast, fine pas- ture-grounds farther inland, and rich diamond-fields near the northern border. Cape Town is the capital. A Mode of Travelling in Central Africa. Exercise. — (Open books to map of Africa.) Find Cape Col- ony ; Cape Town ; four large rivers in Africa ; two large lakes. LXV.-MAP LESSON. Bound. Liocate. Egypt. Cape Good Hope. Gulf of Guinea. Congo River. Algeria. Isthmus of Suez. Atlas Mountains. Cairo. Makocco. Madagascar. Yictoria Lake. Algiers. Tripoli. Mediterranean Sea. Nile Kiver. Cape Town. Cape Colony Red Sea. Niger River. Fez. Longitude "West Longitude 20 JEast from AO Greenwich ASIA. LXVI. — NORTHERN AND "WESTERN ASIA. (Part I., Pages 167-170, and 179.) The Russians, who possess the whole of Eastern Europe, rule over all of Northern Asia. The northernmost portion is called Siberia^ and the south- western, Russian Turkestan, These possessions and Russia itself together form the Bus- sian Empire, South-east of the Aral Sea are three small independent countries. Their people are mostly wandering herdsmen, but there are cultivated lands and cities in the best parts. Northern Asia forms part of the Russian Empire, but does not contain a large population. Siberia is very cold, except in the southern part. Russian Turkestan has hot summers, but very cold winters ; and a large part is quite dry. There are rich lands in the eastern part of Russian Turkestan, and albo in the southern part of Siberia. 272 At Home in Turkestan. TUB INDIES, 273 Turkey, Persia, and Arabia contain vast dry regions, with only wandering herdsmen for inhabitants ; but they have, also, some of the most fertile lands in Asia. All of these three countries produce fruits, drugs, and perfumeries ; and Arabia yields coffee and spices. Turkey is part of the Turkish Empire, with its capi- tal at Constantinople, in Europe. Persia is a kingdom, and Teheran is its capital. Exercise. — (Open books to the map of Asia.) Find Siberia. Find Russian Turkestan ; a body of water within it. Find three countries south-east of the Aral. Find Persia; Turkey; Arabia. AVhat interesting places in Turkey (pp. 167, 168) did you read about? Find Ispahan : what have you read (p. 170) about it? LXVII.-THE INDIES. (Part L, Pages 171, 172.) We have already seen what a wonderful region this part of Asia is. Long ago, w^ieu the sea-going peoples of Europe were each trying to gain as much as possible of the wealth of the Indies, they began to establish trading-stations on the coasts of the peninsulas and the islands. Little by little, and in various ways, they have increased their territories, until now the larger part of the Indies belongs to them. But most of the eastern peninsula is still ruled by native peoples. The Indies include two great peninsulas and a large group of islands at the south-east of Asia. The climate is hot, with abundance of rain. Rare woods, spices, ivory, and precious stones are part of the natural wealth. The cultivated productions are coffee, sugar, indigo, rice, cotton, and opium. 274 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. Great Britain controls the whole of the western pen- insula, Ceylon, and the west shore of the eastern penin- sula. Calcutta is the capital of British India. France has a small territory in the eastern peninsula, south of Anam. Spain possesses the Philippine Islands. Holland controls the other islands, large and smalL excepting parts of Borneo and New Guinea. A Hindoo Jeweller. Exercise. — (Open books to the map of Asia.) Fhid India. What great river has it? What have you read (p. 172) about the plains of the Ganges ? Find a city at the mouth of the Ganges. What do you know about it? Find Anam. The French territory is named Cochin China : have you ever heard this name ? Find the islands which belong to Spain. Name four other large islands. What line crosses two of them ? Which islands are wholly south of the Equator ? The native islanders are of the brown race. The native people on the plains of the Ganges are called Hindoos. You know what skilful workmen they are. In the picture you see a Hindoo jewel- ler at his work, with his little box of tools and materials beside him. Would you think he could do fine work? THE EMPIRES OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 275 LXVIII.-THB EMPIRES OP CHINA AND JAPAN. (Part L, Pages 173-178.) The Chinese Empire is not nearly so large as the Russian Empire, but it contains about three times as many people. The rich plains along the rivers in China are the most popu- lous part. If China could be laid down on North America, it would stretch from Cape Hatteras to Kansas, and from Lake Ontario to the island of Hayti. The Japanese Empire consists of a cluster of islands, somewhat larger than the British Isles. They lie opposite our country, extending as far north and south as the whole length of California and Oregon. The people of both empires belong to the yel- low race. The Chinese Empire occu- pies the larger part of Middle and Eastern Asia. The capital is Peking, in China. The climate of China is like that of the eastern half of the a chhese s^mTster. United States. The most famous prodvietions are tea, silks, porce- lain, and curious carvings in ivory and wood. The Japanese Empire consists wholly of islands. Tokio is its capital. The climate is like that of our Atlantic States. The productions are much like those of China. 276 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. The Chinese and Japanese are more advanced in civilization than any other nations of their race. A Japanese Restaurant. Exercise. — (Open books to the map of Asia.) Find China; the Himalaya Mountains ; Thibet ; Mongolia. What have you read (pp. 176-178) about each ? Find Peking : Canton. What have you read (p. 175) about these cities ? Find the Japanese Islands ; the name of the largest ; an important city in Nippon. o m m 5 2 H Ps < CC H Ph ^ ;?; PQ cc •-5 O p:^ s AUSTRALIA. LXX.- AUSTRALIA AND THE PACIFIC. (Part I., Pages 180-183.) We have noticed in the Pacific Ocean great numbers ol small islands. Some are only groups of volcanoes with a Australian Scenes. strip of coast land around them. These are volcanic islands. The Sandwich Islands, about midway between Mexico and 278 BEVIEW. 279 China, are the most famous of this class. Other islands are low and flat ; some being only rings of land, like Whitsunday, These are coral islands ; that is, the soil is formed, and the plants are growing, on the top of a bank of coral. Australia, the smallest of the continents, belongs to Great Britain. The south-eastern part is best known, and contains most of the white inhabitants. Low mountains, rich in gold, border the coast ; and rivers flow from them westward through fertile plains. Gold-mining is the chief occupation of the people, but wool-growing and cattle-raising are important. The white inhabitants are mostly from Great Britain. As yet they are fewer in number than the population of New York State. The natives are black. Exercise. — (Open books to the map of Eastern Hemisphere.) Find Australia: on which side of the Equator is it? What are some of the strange things (p. 181) one may see in Australia? LXXL— REVIEW^. LXIIT. What countries are in Northern Africa? Of what race are the native people ? W^hat is the Sahara ? Egypt ? Name the Barbary States. Which belongs to France ? LXiy. Who are the people of Middle Africa? What useful things come from Middle Africa? AVhat white colonists are in South Africa? What does Cape Colony contain that is valuable? LXVI. To what countiy does Northern Asia belong ? What three important countries in Western Asia? What sort of coun- tries are they? What do they produce? Of what empire is Turkey a part ? What is its capital ? What is Persia ? LXVII. What do the Indies include? AVhat is the climate? What are the productions ? What part of the Indies belongs to Great Britain? To France? To Spain? To Holland? 280 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. LXVIII. Where is the Chmese Empire ? What is the capital ? What is the climate of China ? What are the leading productions ? Wliat forms the Empire of Japan ? What is its capital ? Of what race are the Chinese and Japanese ? LXX. To whom does Australia belong? W^hat part is best known ? Describe that part. What are the pursuits of the white inhabitants? Where did they come from? How great is the number of them ? Of what color are the natives ? LXXII.- EASTERN HEMISPHERE (Examination). What kingdom do the British Isles form ? Of what does the British Empire consist ? What European countries border on the Atlantic ? What is the government of France ? What small repub- lic in Central Europe? What European countries border on tiie Mediterranean ? What two empires in Central Europe ? What great country in Eastern Europe ? Where is the rest of the Rus- sian Empire ? What high mountains in Europe ? Name the highest peak in Europe. Name four important rivers in Europe. In what country is London ? Paris ? Berlin ? Vienna ? Constantinople ? Naples ? Liverpool? Glasgow? Manchester? Edinburgh? Lyon? Madrid? Lisbon? Marseille? Dublin? Munich? Rome? Athens? St. Petersburg? Moscow? ^lilan? Bukharest? What three important countries in W^estern Asia? What great empire in Middle and Eastern Asia? Where is the Japanese Empire ? What important articles come from China and Japan ? Of what do the Indies consist? What four European countries control the Indies ? What valuable things come from the Indies ? In what country is Peking? Tokio? Canton? Calcutta? What countries are in Northern Africa? Where is Cairo ? Al- giers? What race occupies Middle Afriqa? What valuable things come from Middle Africa? What is the principal country in South Africa? What precious things come from there? What impor- tant town in South Africa? To what country does Australia belong? Wlmt does it produce ? TABLES. Popnlation of tliG Princi UNITED STATES. NEW ENGLAND. Boston, Mass 362,532 Providence, R.I 104,850 New Haven, Conn • . 02,882 Lowell, Mass 59,485 Worcester, Mass 58,295 Cambridge, Mass 52,740 Fall River, Mass 49,000 Hartford, Conn 42,553 Lawrence, Mass 39,178 Lynn, Mass 38,281 Portland, Me 33,810 Springfield, Mass 33,340 Manchester, N.H 32,633 Rutland, Vt 12,149 MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. New York, N.Y 1,206,590 Philadelphia, Penn 846,934 Brooklyn, N.Y 566,689 Baltimore, Md 332,190 Pittsburg, Penn 156,381 Buffalo, N.Y 155,137 Washington, D.C 147,307 Newark, N.J 136,400 Jersey City, N.J 120,728 Albany, N.Y 90 903 Rochester, N.Y 89,363 Alleghany City, Penn. . . 78,081 Richmond, Va 63,803 Troy, N.Y 56,747 Syracuse, N.Y 51,791 Paterson, N.J 50,887 Wilmington, Del. ..... 42,499 Wheeling, W. Va 31,216 SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES. Charleston, S.C 50,000 Atlanta, Ga 37,398 Savannah, Ga 30,681 Augusta, Ga 23,023 Wilmington, N.C 17,301 Jacksonville, Fla 14,500 GULF STATES. New Orleans, La 216,140 Mobile, Ala 31,205 Galveston, Tex 22,253 San Antonio, Tex 20,561 VicKSBURG, Miss 11,814 CENTRAL STATES. Chicago, III 503,304 St. Louis, Mo 350,522 Cincinnati, O 255,700 Cleveland, O 160,142 Louisville, Ky 123,615 Detroit, Mich 116,346 Milwaukee, Wis 115,578 Indianapolis, Ind 75,074 Kansas City, Mo 55,813 Columbus, O 51,665 Toledo, O 50,143 Minneapolis, Minn 46,887 pal Cities in tlio World. Nashville, Tenn. . St. Paul, Minn. . . Denver, Col. . . . Omaha, Neb. . . . Des Moines, Ia. . . Leavenworth, Kan. Little Rock, Ark. . PACIFIC STATES. San Francisco, Cal. . , . Oakland, Cal Portland, Or Virginia City, Nev. . . . Salt Lake, Utah .... 43,401 41,403 35,030 30,518 22,408 16,550 13,185 233,956 34,566 17,587 13,705 20,708 DOMINION OF CANADA. Montreal 117,780 Quebec 59,700 Toronto 46,100 Halifax 29,580 Ottawa 21,540 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMER- ICA, AND ^VEST INDIES. Mexico City, Mex 230,000 La Puebla, Mex 75,500 GUADALAHARA, MeX 70,000 New Guatemala, C.A. . . . 40,000 Havana, W. Ind 230,000 Matanzas, W. Ind 36,000 SOUTH AMERICA. Rio Janeiro, Brazil .... Bahia, Brazil Pernambuco, Brazil .... Para, Brazil ....... Buenos Ayres (Arg. Rep.) . Montevideo, Ur Asuncion, Par Caracas, Ven Santiago, Chili ...... Valparaiso, Chili La Paz, Bol Lima, Peru Quito, Ec Bogota, Col EUROPE. London, Eng 3, Liverpool, Eng Birmingham, Eng, ..... Manchester, Eng Leeds, Eng Sheffield, Eng Bristol, Eng Glasgow, Scot Edinburgh, Scot Dublin, Ir Belfast, Ir Paris, France 1, Lyon, France Marseille, France .... Bordeaux, France Brussels, Belg 281 228,700 128,900 116,700 35,000 177,800 104,300 48,000 48,900 129,800 97,700 76,400 100,000 70,000 45,000 ,533,500 527,100 377,400 359,200 298,200 282,000 202,900 555,900 215,100 314,700 174,400 ,998,800 322,600 234,700 212,100 161,800 282 GEOGBAPIIICAL PRIMER, ANTWznr, Eelg 150,700 Amsterdam, IIol 296,200 Rotterdam, IIol 136,200 Copenhagen, Den 181,300 Stockholm, Swed 157,200 Christiania, Nor 77,000 Berlin, Prus 966,900 Breslau, Prus 239,000 Dresden, Sax 197,300 Leipzig, Sax 127,400 Hamburg (Free) 264,700 Munich, Bav 198,800 Vienna, AusT 660,700 Buda-Pesth Hun 254,500 Prague, Bon 106,500 BuKHAREST, Rou 221,800 Geneva, Switz 67,400 Madrid, Sp 367,300 Barcelona, Sp 216,000 Lisbon, Port 224,100 Naples, It 415,500 Rome, It 219,600 Milan, It 199,000 Venice, It 128,900 Athens, Greece 74,000 Constantinople, Tur. . . . 600,000 Adrianople, Tur 100,000 St. Petersburg, Rus. . . . 668,000 Moscow, Rus 602,000 Warsaw, Rus 320,100 Odessa, Rus 184,800 ASIA. Damascus, Tur 150,000 Smyrna, Tur 150,000 Tabriz, Per 120,000 Teheran, Per 100,000 Mecca, Ar 50,000 Candahar, Afgh 80,000 Calcutta, Br, Ind 704,700 Bombay, Br. Ind 644,400 Madras, Br. Ind 397,600 Bangkok, Siam 500,000 Peking, China 1,648,800 Canton, China 1,236,000 Su-chau, China 1,000,000 Chang-chau, China . . . 1,000,000 ToKio, Japan 789,000 Manila, Phil. Ids 160,000 AFRICA. Cairo, Egypt 349,900 Alexandria, Egypt .... 212,000 Fez, Morocco 150,000 Tunis, Tunis 125,000 Algiers, Algeria 52,000 Cape Town, Cape Col. . . . 33,200 AUSTRALIA. Melbourne 212,200 Sydney 134,800 Lengths of the Principal Eivers of the "World. NEW WORLD. Mississippi (Lower, with Mo.) . 4,200 Amazon, S.A 3,750 La Plata (and Parana) S.A. . . 2,300 Mackenzie, N. A 2,300 St. Lawrence, N.A 2,000 Saskatchewan, N.A 1,900 Yukon, N.A 1,600 Orinoco, S.A 1,550 San Francisco, S.A 1,550 Rio Grande del Norte, N.A. . 1,500 Columbia 1,020 Colorado 1,000 Alabama 650 Susquehanna 400 Connecticut 350 Hudson 330 OLD W^ORLD. Nile, Af 4,000 Yenisei, Asia 3,400 Yang-tse-kiafg, Asia ... . 3,320 Obi, Asia 3,000 Niger, Af 3,000 Lena, Asia. . . , 2,700 A moor, Asia 2,650 Brahmapootra, Asia .... 2,300 Volga, Europe 2,000 Indus, Asia 1,850 Danube, Europe 1,800 Euphrates, Asia 1,750 Ganges, Asia 1,600 Zambesi, Ar 3,600 Murray, Aust 1,500 Rhine 880 Height of the Highest Mountains in the "World. OLD WORLD. Mount Everest (Himalaya), IIindookoosh (Afghn.) Elburz (Caucasus) . . Ararat (Armenia) . . Mount Blanc (Alps) . Monte Rosa (Alps) Pic Anethoux (Pyr.) . Kiliman.taro (Africa) Kosciusko (Aust.) . . 29,000 f 20,000 ' 18,572 « 16.960 • 15,780 ♦ 15,223 « 11,168 ' 20.065 ' 7,176 * NEW WORLD. Nevado de Sorata (Bol.) . 25,000 ft. Aconcagua (Chili) .... 24,422 ♦' CiiiMBORAZo (Ecuador) . . 21,414 ** Popocatapetl (Mex.) . . . 17,784 " Orizaba (Mex.) 17,897 " Mount AVhitney (Cal.) . . 15,000 " Uncompaghre (Col.) . . . 14,587 ** Gray's Peak (Col.) . . . 14,295 " St. Elias (Alaska) .... 14,C70 " RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY BIdg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW FEB 2 7 1996 J 20,000 (4/94) J U OvJ^DO 54j;]96 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY