THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT

 
 
 \y /y //j /''" '
 
 SCHOOL EDITION.— With Denman's Questions. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT 
 
 THE MIND 
 
 BY ISAAC WATTS, D. D. 
 
 " Whoever has tne care of instructing others, may be charged with defi. 
 ciency in his duty, if this Boolf is not recommended,"— Dr. Johnson. 
 
 NEW-YORK: 
 PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & 00 
 
 CINCINNATI: H. W. DERBY §• CO. 
 
 1849.
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849, 
 By a. S. BARNES & CO. 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for 
 the Southern District of New York.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Page. 
 The Introduction, 5 
 
 Chap. I. — General Rules for the Improvement of 
 
 Knowledge, 7 
 
 Chap. II. — Five Methods of Improving, described, 
 and compared; viz. Observation, Reading, In- 
 struction by Lectures, Conversation, and Stu- « 
 dy, with their several Advantages and Defects, 21 
 
 Chap. III. — Of Observation, either by the Senses 
 
 or the Mmd, 22 
 
 Chap. IV. — Of Reading and Books, with Direc- 
 tions relating thereto 38 
 
 Chap. V. — The Judgment of Books, both Approba- 
 tion and Censure, 49 
 
 Chap. VI. — Of living Instructions and Lectures, of 
 
 Teachers and Learners, 61 
 
 Chap. VII. — Of learning a Language, particularly 
 
 the Latin, 65 
 
 Chap. VIII. — Of inquiring into the Sense and 
 Meaning of any Writer or Speaker, whether 
 human or divine, 73 
 
 Chap. IX. — Of Conversation, and profiting by it, 
 
 and of Persons fit or unfit for free Converse, . 11 
 
 Chap. X. — Of Disputes, and general Rules rela- 
 ting to them, 92 
 
 Chap. XI. — Of Socratical Disputation, by Ques- 
 tion and Answer, 103 
 
 Chap. XII. — of Forensic Disputes, in Courts of 
 
 Justice or Public Assemblies, 106 
 
 Chap. XIII. — Of Academic or Scholastic Disputes, 
 and tlie Rules of them, and how far they may 
 be useful, 109
 
 IV CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Chap. XIV.— Of Study, or Meditation, and the 
 final Determination of Things by our own Judg- 
 ment, 118 
 
 Chap. XV.— Of fixing the Attention, 129 
 
 Chap. XVI. — Of enlarging the Capacity of the 
 
 Mind, 133 
 
 Chap. XVII. — Of the Memory, and the Improve- 
 ment thereof, 150 
 
 Chap. XVIII. — Of determining a Question; several 
 
 Cautions about it; of Reason and Revelation; 
 
 ■ of Argument and Ridicule; of Assent only in 
 
 Proportion to Evidence, &c 171 
 
 Chap. XIX. — Of inquiring into Causes and Effects, 189 
 Chap. XX. — Of the Sciences, and their Uses in 
 
 particular Professions, 192 
 
 PART II. 
 
 The Introduction, 221 
 
 Chap. I. — Methods of teaching, and reading Lec- 
 tures, 223 
 
 Chap. II, — Of an instructive Style, 229 
 
 Chap. III. — Of convincing of Truth, or delivering 
 
 from Error, 235 
 
 Chap. IV.— Tlie Use and Abuse of Authority, . 242 
 Chap. V. — Of managing the Prejudices of Men, . 251 
 Chap. VI.— Of Instruction by Preaching, . . . 260 
 Chap. VII. — Of writing Books for the Public, . . 272 
 Chap. VIII. — Of writing and reading Controver- 
 sies, 276
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR THE ATTAINMENT OF USEFUL KNOW- 
 LEDGE. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 No man is obliged to learn and know every thing; 
 this can neither be sought nor required, for it is utterly 
 impossible; yet all persons are under some obligation to 
 improve their own understanding; otherwise it will be a 
 barren desert, or a forest overgrown with weeds and 
 brambles. Universal ignorance or infinite errors will 
 overspread the mind which is utterly neglected, and lies 
 witliout any cultivation. 
 
 Skill in tlie sciences is indeed the business and pro- 
 fession but of a small part of mankind; but there are 
 many ntiiers placed in such an exalted rank in the world, 
 as allows them much leisure and large opportunities to 
 cultivate their reason, and to beautify and enrich their 
 minds with various knowledge. Even the lower orders 
 of men have particular callings in life, wherein they 
 ougiit to acquire a just degree of skill; and this is not to 
 be done well, witliout thinking and reasoning about them. 
 
 Tlie common duties and benefits of society, which be- 
 long to every man living, as we are social creatures, and 
 even our native and necessary relations to a family, a 
 neighbourliood or government, oblige all persons what- 
 1*
 
 b INTRODUCTION. 
 
 soever to use their reasoning powers upon a thousand 
 occasions; every hour of hfe calls for some regular exer- 
 cise of our judgment, as to time and things, persons and 
 actions: without a prudent and discreet determination 
 in matters before us, we shall be plunged into perpetual 
 errors in our conduct. Now that which should always 
 be practised must at some time be learned. 
 
 JJesides, every son and daughter of Adam has a most 
 important concern in the aftairs of the life to come, and 
 therefore it is a matter of the highest moment, for every 
 one to understand, to judge, and to reason right about 
 the things of religion. It is vain for any to say, we have 
 no leisure time fur it. The daily intervals of time, and 
 vacancies from necessary labour, together with the one 
 day in seven in t!ie Cluistian world, allows sufficient 
 time for this, if nien would but apply themselves to it 
 with half so much zeal and diligence as tliey do to the 
 trifles and amusements of this life, and it would turn to 
 infinitely better account. 
 
 Thus it appears to be the necessary duty and the in- 
 terest of every person living, to improve his understand- 
 ing, to inform his judgment, to treasure up useful know- 
 ledge, and to acquire the skill of good reasoning, as far 
 as his station, capacity, and circumstances furnish him 
 with proper means for it. Our mistakes in judgment 
 may plunge us into much folly and guilt in practice. 
 By acting without thought or reason, we dishonour the 
 God that made us reasonable creatures, we often become 
 injurious to our neighbours, kindred, or friends, and we 
 bring sin and misery upon ourselves; for we are accounta- 
 ble to God, our judge, for every part of our irregular and 
 mistaken conduct, where he hath given us sufficient ad- 
 vantages to guard against those mistakes.
 
 GENERAL RULES, ScC. 7 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL RULES FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF KNOWLEDGE.* 
 
 Rule 1. — Deeply possess your mind with the vast 
 importance of a good judgment, and the rich and inesti- 
 mable advantage of right reasoning. Review the in- 
 stances of your own misconduct in hfe; think seriously 
 with yourselves how many follies and sorrows you had 
 escaped, and how mucii guilt and misery you had pre- 
 vented, if from your early years you had but taken due 
 pains to judge aright concerning persons, times, and 
 things. Tliis will awaken you with lively vigour to 
 address yourselves to tiie work of improving your reason- 
 ing powers, and seizing every opportunity and advantage 
 for tliat end. 
 
 II. Consider the weaknesses, frailties, and mistakes of 
 human nature in general, which arise from the very con- 
 stitution of a soul united to an animal body, and sub- 
 jected to many inconveniences thereby. Consider the 
 many additional weaknesses, mistakes, and frailties, 
 which are derived from our original apostasy and fall 
 from a state of innocence: how much our powers of un- 
 derstanding are yet mors darkened, enfeebled, and im- 
 posed upon by our senses, our fancies, our unruly pas- 
 sions, &,c. Consider the depth and difficulty of many 
 truths, and the flattering appearances of falsehood, 
 whence arises an infinite variety of dangers to which 
 we are exposed in our judgment of things. Read with 
 greediness those authors that treat of the doctrine of 
 prejudices, prepossessions, and springs of error, on pur- 
 pose to make your soul watchful on all sides, that it suf- 
 fer itself, as far as possible, to be imposed upon, by none 
 of them. 
 
 III. A slight view of things so momentous is not suf- 
 ficient. You should therefore contrive and practise some 
 
 * Thour:;h the most of these following Rules are chiefly addressfd 
 to those whom th«ir fortune or their station require to addict them- 
 selves to the peculiar improvement of their minds in greater degrees 
 of knowledge, yet every one who has leisure and opportunity to be 
 acquainted with such writings as these, may find something among 
 them for their own use.
 
 S GENERAL RULES 
 
 proper methods to acquaint yourself with your own igno- 
 rance, and to impress your mind with a deep and pain- 
 ful sense of the low and imperfect deofrees of your present 
 knowledge, that you may be incited with labour and 
 activity to pursue after greater measures. Among others, 
 you may find some such methods as these successful. 
 
 1. Take a wide survey now and then of the vast and 
 unlimited regions of learning. Let your meditations run 
 over the names of all the sciences, with their numerous 
 branchings, and innumerable particular themes of know- 
 ledge; and then reflect how few of them you are ac- 
 quainted with in any tolerable degree. The most learned 
 of mortals will never find occasion to act over again what 
 is fabled of Alexander the Great, that when he had con- 
 quered what was called the eastern world, he wept for 
 want of more worlds to conquer. The worlds of science 
 are immense and endless. 
 
 2. Think what a numberless variety of questions and 
 difficulties there are belonging even to that particular 
 science in which you have made the greatest progress, 
 and how few of thern there are in which you have ar- 
 rived at a final and undoubted certainty; excepting only 
 those questions in the pure and simple mathematics, 
 whose theorems are demonstrable, and leave scarce any 
 doubt; and yet, even in the pursuit of some few of these, 
 m.inkind have been strangely bewildered. 
 
 3. Spend a few thouglits sometimes on the puzzling 
 inquiries concerning vacuums and atoms, the doctrine 
 of infinites, indivisibles, and incommensurables in ge- 
 ometry, wherein there appear some insolvable difficul- 
 ties: do this on purpose to give you a more sensible im- 
 pression of the poverty of your understanding, and the 
 imperfection of your knowledge. This will teach you 
 what a vain thing it is to fancy that you know all things, 
 and will instruct you to think modestly of your present 
 attainments, when every dust of the earth, and every 
 inch of empty space, surmounts your understanding, and 
 triumplis over your presumption. Arillimo had been 
 bred up to accounts all his life, and thought himself a 
 complete master of numbers. But when he was pushed 
 liard to give the square root of the number 2, he tried
 
 TO OBTAIN KNOAVLEDGE. 9 
 
 at it, and laboured long in millesimal fractions, till he 
 confessed there was no end of the inquiry; and yet he 
 learned so much modesty by this perplexing question, 
 that he was afraid to say it was an impossible thing. It 
 is some good degree of improvement, when we are afraid 
 to be positive. 
 
 4. Read the accounts of those vast treasures of know- 
 ledge which some of the dead have jjossessed, and some 
 of the living do possess. Read and be astonished at the 
 almost incredible advances which have been made iii 
 science. Acquaint yourself witli some persons of great 
 learning, that by converse among them, and comparing 
 yourself with tliem, you may acquire a mean opinion of 
 your own attainments, and may thereby be animated 
 with new zeal, to equal them as far as possible, or to ex- 
 ceed: thus let your diligence be quickened by a generous 
 and laudable emulation. If Vanillus had never met 
 with Scitorio and Palydes, he had never imagined him- 
 self a mere novice in philosophy, nor ever set himself to 
 study in good earnest. 
 
 Remember tliis, that if upon some few superficial 
 acquirements you value, exalt, and swell yourself, as 
 though you were a man of learning already, you are 
 thereby building a most unpassable barrier against all 
 improvement; you will lie down and indulge idleness, 
 and rest yourself contented in the midst of deep and 
 shameful ignorance. Multi ad scientiam pervenissent 
 si se illuc pervenisse non putassent. 
 
 IV. Presume not too much upon a bright genius, a 
 ready wit, and good parts; for this, without labour and 
 study, will never make a man of knowledge and wisdom. 
 This has been an unhappy temptation to persons of a 
 vigorous and gay fancy, to despise learning and study. 
 They have been acknowledged to shine in an assembly, 
 and sparkle in a discourse on common topics, and thence 
 they took it into their heads to abandon reading and 
 labour, and grow old in ignorance; but when they had 
 lost their vivacity of animal nature and youtli, they be- 
 came stupid and sottish even to contempt and ridicule. 
 Lucidus and Scintillo are young men of this stamp; they 
 shine in conversation; they spread their native riches
 
 10 GEKERAL RULES 
 
 before the ignorant; they pride themselves in their own 
 lively images of fancy, and imagine themselves wise and 
 learned; but they had best avoid the presence of the 
 skilful, and the test of reasoning; and I would advise 
 them once a day to think forward a little, what a con- 
 temptible figure they will make in age. 
 
 The witty men sometimes have sense enough to know 
 their own foible; and therefore they craftily shun the 
 attacks of argument, or boldly pretend to despise and 
 renounce them, because they are conscious of their own 
 ignorance, and inwardly confess their want of acquaint- 
 ance with the skill of reasoning. 
 
 V. As y<»u are not to fancy yourself a learned man 
 because you are blessed with a ready wit; so neither 
 must you imagine that large and laborious reading, and 
 a strong memory, can denominate you truly wise. 
 
 What that excellent critic has determined when he 
 decided the question, whether wit or study makes the 
 best poet, may well be applied to every sort of learning: 
 
 Ego nee studimn sine divile vena, 
 
 IVec rude quid prosit, video, ingenium: alterius sic 
 Altera poscit opem res, et conjurat amice. 
 
 ^^ Hor. de Art. Poet. 
 
 Thus made English: 
 
 Concerning poets there has been contest, 
 
 Whether they're made by art or nature best; 
 
 But if I may presume in this affair. 
 
 Among the rest my judgment to declare, 
 
 No art without a genius will avail, 
 
 And parts without the help of art will fail: 
 
 But both ingredients jointly must unite. 
 
 Or verse will never shine with a transcendent light. 
 
 Oldham. 
 
 It is meditation and studious thought, it is the exer- 
 cise of your own reason and judgment upon all you read, 
 that gives good sense even to the best genius, and affords 
 your understanding the truest improvement. A boy of 
 a strong memory may repeat a whole book of Euclid, 
 yet be no geometrician; for he may not be able perhaps 
 to demonstrate one single theorem. Memorino has 
 learned half the Bible by heart, and is become a living 
 concordance, and a speaking index to theological folios, 
 and yot he understands little of divinity.
 
 TO OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 11 
 
 A well furnished library, and a capacious memory, 
 are indeed of singular use toward the improvement of 
 the mind; but if all your learning be nothing else but a 
 mere amassment of what others have written, without 
 a due penetration into the meaning, and without a judi- 
 cious choice and determination of your own sentiments, 
 I do not see what title your head has to true learning 
 above your shelves. Though you have read philosophy 
 and tlieoiogy, morals and metaphysics in abundance, 
 and every other art and science, yet if your memory is 
 the only faculty employed, with the neglect of your rea- 
 soning powers, you can justly claim no higher character 
 but that of a good historian of the sciences. 
 
 Here note, many of the foregoing advices are more 
 peculiarly proper for those who are conceited of their 
 abilities, and are ready to entertain a high opinion of 
 themselves. But a modest, humble youth, of a good 
 genius, should not suffer himself to be discouraged by 
 any of these considerations. They are designed only as 
 a spur to diligence, and a guard against vanity and pride. 
 
 VI. Be not so weak as to imagine, that a life of learn- 
 ing is a life of laziness and ease; dare not give up your- 
 self to any of the learned professions, unless you are 
 resolved to labour hard at study, and can make it your 
 delight, and the joy of your life, according to the motto 
 of our la-e Lord Chancellor King: 
 
 .... Labor ipse voluptas. ' 
 
 It is no idle thing to be a scholar indeed. A man 
 much addicted to luxury and pleasure, recreation and 
 pnstime, should never pretend to devote himself entirely 
 to the sciences, unless his soul be so reformed and refined, 
 that he can taste all these entertainments eminently in 
 his closet, among his books and papers. Sobrino is a 
 temperate man, and a pliilosopher, and he feeds upon 
 partridge and piieasant, venison and ragouts, and every 
 delicacy, in a growing understandmg, and a serene and 
 healthy soul, though he dines on a dish of spiouts or 
 turnips. Languinos loved his ease, and therefore chose 
 to be brought up a scholar; he had much indolence in 
 his temper; and as he never cared for study, he falls
 
 12 GENERAL RULES 
 
 under universal contempt in his profession, because he 
 has nothing but the gown and the name. 
 
 VII. Let the hope of new discoveries, as well as the 
 satisfaction and pleasure of known truths, animate your 
 daily industry. Do not think learning in general is ar- 
 rived at its perfection, or that the knowledge of any par- 
 ticular subject in any science cannot be improved, mere- 
 ly because it has lain five hundred or a thousand years 
 without improvement. The present age, by the bless- 
 ing of God on the ingenuity and diligence of men, has 
 brouglit to light such truths in natural piiilosophy, and 
 such discoveries in the heavens and the eartli, as seemed 
 to be beyond the reach of man. But may there not be 
 Sir Isaac Newtons in every science? You should never 
 despair therefore of finding out that which has never yet 
 been found, unless you see something in the nature of it 
 which renders it unsearchable, and above the reach of 
 our faculties. 
 
 Nor should a student in divinity imagine that our age 
 is arrived at a full understanding of every thing which 
 can be known by tlie Scriptures. Every age since the 
 Reformation hath thrown some further liglit on difficult 
 texts and paragraphs of the Bible, which have been long 
 obscured by the early rise of antichrist: and since there 
 are at present many difficulties and darknesses lianging 
 about certain trutlis of the Christian religion, and since 
 several of tliese relate to important doctrines, such as 
 the origin of sin, the fall of Adam, tlie person of Christ, 
 the blessed Trinity, and decrees of God, &c. wliicli do 
 still embarrass the minds of honest and inquiring rea- 
 ders, and which make work for noisy controversy; it is 
 certain there are several things in the Bible yet un- 
 known, and not sufficiently explained; and it is certain 
 that there is some way to solve these difficulties, and to 
 reconcile these seeming contradictions. And wliy may 
 not a sincere searcher of truth in the present age, by la- 
 bour, diligence, study, and prayer, with the best use of 
 his reasoning powers, find out the proper solution of 
 those knots and perplexities which have hitherto been 
 unsolved, and which have afforded matter for angry 
 quarrelling.' Happy is every man who shall be favoured
 
 TO OBTAIX KNOWLEDGE. 13 
 
 of Heaven, to give a helping hand towards the intro- 
 duction of the blessed age of light and love. 
 
 VIII. Do not liO\tr always ou the surface of things, 
 nor take up suddenly with mere appearances; but pene- 
 trate into the depth of matters, as far as your time and 
 circumstances allow, especially in those things which re- 
 late to your own profession. Do not indulge yourselves to 
 judge of things by the first glimpse, or a short and su- 
 perficial view of them; for this will fill the mind with 
 errors and prejudices, and give it a wrong turn and ill 
 habit of thinking, and make much work for retraction. 
 Subito is carried away witli title pages, so that he ven- 
 tures to pronounce upon a large octavo at once, and to 
 recommend it wonderfully when he has read half the 
 preface. Another volume of controversies, of equal size, 
 was discarded by liim at once, because it pretended to 
 treat of the Trinity, and yet he could neither find the 
 word essence nor subsistencies in tlie twelve first pages; 
 but Subito changes his opinions of men and books and 
 things so often, that nobody regards him. 
 
 As for those sciences, or those parts of knowledge, 
 which either your profession, your leisure, your inclina- 
 tion, or your incapacity, forbid you to pursue- with much 
 application, or to search far into them, you must be con- 
 tented with an historical and superficial knowledge of 
 them, and not pretend to form any judgment of your 
 own on those subjects which you understand very im- 
 perfectly. 
 
 IX. Once a day, especially in the early years of life 
 and study, call yourselves to an account what new ideas, 
 what new proposition or truth you have gained, what 
 further confiruiation of known truths, and what ad- 
 vances you have made in any part of knowledge; and 
 let no day, if possible, pass away without some intellec- 
 tual gain: such a course, well pursued, n)ust certainly 
 advance us in useful knowledge. It is a wise proverb 
 among the learned, borrowed from the lips and practice 
 of a celebrated painter. Nulla dies sine linea, " Let no 
 day pass without one line at least;" and it was a sacred 
 rule among the Pythagoreans, That they should every 
 evening thrice run over tiie actions and alTairs of the 
 
 2
 
 14 
 
 GENERAL RULES 
 
 day, and examine what tlieir conduct had been, what 
 they had done, or what they had neglected: and they 
 assured their pupils, that by this method they would 
 make a noble progress in the path of virtue. 
 
 MyiS y-vov i/.^\v.-AOt<Ttv tTt' Ofi,uu,crt 7r(0ir&stt'<r0xi 
 II>) Traes^yn'i T» S' i^i^x; '» jUO» Stov oox' sTsXe(rS)i; 
 
 Nor let soft slumber close your eyes, 
 Before you've recollected fhrite 
 The train of action through the day: 
 Where have my feet chose out their way? 
 Whtt have I learn'd, where'er I've been, 
 From all I've heard, from all I've seen? 
 What know I more that's worth the knowing? 
 What have I done that's worth the doing? 
 What have I souj^ht that I sljould shun? 
 What duty have I left undone? 
 Or into what new follies run? 
 These self-inquiries are the road 
 That leads to virtue, and to God. 
 
 I would be glad, among a nation of Christians, to 
 find young men heartily engaged in the practice of what 
 this heatlien writer teaches. 
 
 X. Maintain a constant watch at all times against a 
 dogmatical spirit: fix not your assent to any proposition 
 in a firm and unalterable manner, till you have some 
 firm and unalterable ground for it, and till you have ar- 
 rived at some clear and sure evidence; till you have 
 turned the proposition on all sides, and searched the 
 matter through and through, so that you cannot be mis- 
 taken. And even where you may think you liave full 
 grounds of assurance, be not too early, nor too frequent, 
 in expressing this assurance in too peremptory and posi- 
 tive a manner, remembering tiiat human nature is al- 
 ways liable to mistake in this corrupt and feeble state. 
 A dogmatical spirit has many inconveniences attending 
 it: as 
 
 1. It stops the ear against all further reasoning upon 
 that subject, and shuts up the mind from all further im- 
 provements of knowledge. If you have resolutely fixed 
 your opinion, though it be upon too slight and insutfi- 
 cient grounds, yet you will stand determined to renounce 
 the strongest reason brought for the contrary opinion,
 
 TO OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 15 
 
 and grow obstinate against the force of the clearest ar- 
 gument. Positive is a man of this cliaracter; and has 
 often pronounced his assurance of tiie Cartesian vor- 
 texes: last year some furtlier light broke in upon his un- 
 derstanding, with uncontrollable force, by reading some- 
 thing of mathematical philosophy; yet having asserted 
 his former opinions in a most confident manner, he is 
 tempted now to wink a little against the truth, or to 
 prevaricate in his discourse upon that subject, lest by 
 admitting conviction, he should expose himself to the 
 necessity of confessing his former folly and mistake: 
 and he has not humility enough for that. 
 
 2. A dogmatical spirit naturally leads us to arrogance 
 of mind, and gives a man some airs in conversation 
 which are too hauj^lity and assuming. Audens is a man 
 of learning, and very good company; but his infallible 
 assurance renders his carriage sometimes insupportable. 
 
 A dogmatical spirit inclines a man to be censorious of 
 his neighbours. Every one of his own opinions appears 
 to him written as it were with sunbeams; and he grows 
 angry that his neighbour does not see it in the same 
 light. He is tempted to disdain his correspondents, as 
 men of a low and dark understanding, because they will 
 not believe what he does. Furio goes furtlier in this 
 wild track; and charges those who refuse his notions 
 with wilful obstinacy and vile hypocrisy; he tells them 
 boldly, that they resist the truth, and sin against their 
 consciences. 
 
 These are the men that, when they deal in contro- 
 versy, delight in reproaches. They abound in tossing 
 about absurdity and stupidity among their brethren; 
 they cast the imputation of heresy and nonsense plenti- 
 fully upon their antagonists: and in matters of sacred 
 importance, they deal out their anathemas in abun- 
 dance upon Christians better than themselves; they de- 
 nounce damnation upon their neighbours, without cither 
 justice or mercy; and when thev pronounce sentences 
 of divine wrath against supposed heretics, they add 
 their own human fire and indignation. A dogmatist in 
 religion is not a great way off from a bigot, and is in 
 high danger of growing up to be a bloody persecutor.
 
 ib GENERAL RULES 
 
 XI. Though caution and slow assent will guard yo\i 
 against frequent mistakes and retractions; yet you should 
 get luamility and courage enough to retract any mistake, 
 and confess an error: frequent changes are tokens of le- 
 vity in our first determinations; yet you should never be 
 too proud to change your opinion, nor frigiitened at the 
 name of changeling. Learn to scorn thuse vulgar bug- 
 bears, which confirm foolish man in his old mistakes, for 
 fear of being charged with inconstancy. I confess it is 
 better not to judge, than to judge falsely; it is wiser to 
 withhold our assent till we see complete evidence; but 
 if we have too suddenly given up our assent, as the wisest 
 man does sometimes, if we have professed what we find 
 afterwards to be false, we should never be ashamed nor 
 afraid to renounce a mistake. That is a noble essay 
 which is found among the occasional papers " to encour- 
 age the world to practise retractations;" and I would re- 
 commend it to the perusal of every scholar and every 
 Cinistian. 
 
 XII. He that would raise his judgment above the vul- 
 gar rank of mankind, and learn to pass a just sentence 
 on persons and tilings, must take heed of a fanciful tem- 
 per of mind, and a humorous conduct in his atfairs. 
 Fancy and humour, early and constantly indulged, may 
 expect an old age overrun with follies. 
 
 The notion of a humourist is one that is greatly pleased, 
 or greatly displeased with little things; who sets his heart 
 much upon matters of very small importance; who has 
 his will determined every day by trifles, his actions sel- 
 dom directed by the reason and nature of things, and his 
 passions frequently raised by things of little moment. 
 Where this practice is allowed, it will insensibly warp 
 the judgment to pronounce little things great, and tempt 
 you to lay a great weight upon tiiem. In short, this 
 temper will incline you to pass an unjust value on almost 
 every thing that occurs; and every step you take in tliis 
 patli is just so far out of the way to wisdom. 
 
 XIII. For the same reason have a care of trifling with 
 things important and momentous, or of sporting with 
 things awful and sacred: do not indulge a spirit of ridi- 
 cule, as some witty men do on all occasions and subjects-
 
 TO OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 17 
 
 This will as unhappily bias the judgment on the other 
 side, and incline yon to pass a low esteem on the most 
 valuable objects. Whatsoever evil habit we indulge in 
 practice, it will insensibly obtain a power over oiir un- 
 derstanding, and betray us into many errors. Jocander 
 is ready with his jests to answer every thing that he hears; 
 he reads books in the same jovial humour, and has gotten 
 the art of turning every thought and sentence into mer- 
 riment. How many awkward and irregular judgments 
 does this man pass upon solemn subjects even when he 
 designs to be grave and in earnest! His mirth and laugh- 
 ing humour is formed into habit and temper, and leads 
 his understanding shamefully astray. You will see him 
 wandering in pursuit of a gay flying feather, and he is 
 drawn by a sort of ignis fatuus into bogs and mire almost 
 every day of his life. 
 
 XIV. Ever maintain a virtuous and pious frame of 
 spirit; for an indulgence of vicious inclinations debases 
 the understanding and perverts the judgment. Whore- 
 dom and wine, and new wine, take away tlie heart and 
 soul, and reason of a man. Sensuality ruins the better 
 faculties of the mind: an indulgence to appetite and pas- 
 sion enfeebles the powers of reason; it makes the judg- 
 ment weak and susceptible of every falsehood, and espe- 
 cially of such mistakes as have a tendency towards the 
 gratification of the animal: and it warps the soul aside 
 strangely from that steadfast honesty and integrity that 
 necessarily belongs to the pursuit of truth. It is the vir- 
 tuous man who is in a fair way to wisdom. " God gives 
 to those that are good in his sight wisdom, and know- 
 ledge, and joy," Eccles. ii. 26. 
 
 Piety towards God, as well as sobriety and virtue, are 
 necessary qualifications to make a truly wise and judi- 
 cious man. He that abandons religion must act in such 
 a contradiction to his own conscience and best judgment 
 that he abuses and spoils the faculty itself It is thus in 
 the nature of things, and it is thus by the righteous judg- 
 ment of God: even the pretended sages among the hea 
 thens, who did not like to retain God in their knowledge 
 they were given up to a reprobate mind, £<? vou. a'\'x.,aov 
 an undistinguishing or injudicious mv'^. '«• .at thej 
 2*
 
 18 GENERAL RULES 
 
 judged inconsistently, and practised mere absurdities, 
 
 -.'. ^.^ x.^xorr:., RoiXl. l. 28. 
 
 And it is the character of the slaves of antichrist, 2 
 Thess. ii. 10, &c. that those "who receive not the love 
 of the truth were exposed to the power of diabolical 
 sleights and lying wonders." When divine revelation 
 shines and blazes in the face of men with glorious evi- 
 dence, and they wink their eyes against it, the god of 
 this world is suffered to blind them, even in the most ob- 
 vious, common, and sensible things. The great God of 
 Heaven, for this cause, sends them strong delusions, that 
 they should believe a lie; and tlie nonsense of transub- 
 stantiation, in the popish world, is a most glaring accom- 
 plishment of this propliecy, beyond even what could have 
 been thought of or expected among creatures who pre- 
 tend to reason. 
 
 XV. VV^atcii against the pride of your own reason, and 
 a vain conceit of your own intellectual powers, with the 
 neglect of divine aid and blessing. Presume not upon 
 great attainments in knowledge by your own self-sutS- 
 ciency: those who trust to their own understandings en- 
 tirely are pronounced fools in the word of God; and it ia 
 the wisest of men gives them this character. " He that 
 trusteth in his own heart is a fool," Prov. xxviii. 26. 
 And the same divine writer advises us to " trust in the 
 Lord with all our heart, and not to lean to our under- 
 standings, nor to be wise in our own eyes," chap. iii. 5. 1. 
 
 Those who, with a neglect of religion and dependence 
 on God, apply themselves to search out every article in 
 the things of God by the mere dint of their own reason, 
 have been suffered to run into wild excesses of foolery, 
 and strange extravagance of opinions. Every one who 
 pursues this vain course, and will not ask for the conduct 
 of God in the study of religion, has just reason to fear he 
 shall be left of God, and given up a prey to a thousand 
 prejudices; that he shall be consigned over to the follies 
 of his own heart, and pursue his own temporal and eter- 
 nal ruin. And even in common studies we should, by 
 humility and dependence, engage the God of truth on 
 our side. 
 
 XVI. Offer up, therefore, your daily requests to God
 
 TO OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 19 
 
 the father of lights, that he would bless all your attempts 
 and labours in reading, study, and conversation. Think 
 with yourself how easily and how insensibly, by one turn 
 of thought, he can lead you into a large scene of useful 
 ideas: he can teach you to lay hold on a clue which ma}' 
 guide your thoughts with safety and ease through all the 
 difficulties of an intricate subject. Think how easily the 
 Author of your beings can direct your motions, by his 
 providence, so that the glance of an eye, or a word 
 striking the ear, or a sudden turn of the fancy, shall con- 
 duct you to a train of happy sentiments. By his secret 
 and supreme method'of government, he can draw you 
 to read such a treatise, or converse with such a person, 
 who may give you more light into some deep subject in 
 an hour, than you could obtain by a month of your own 
 solitary labour. 
 
 Think with yourself with how much ease the God of 
 spirits can cast into your minds some useful suggestion, 
 and give a happy turn to your own thoughts, or the 
 thoughts of those with whom you converse, whence you 
 may derive unspeakable light and satisfaction, in a mat- 
 ter that has long puzzled and entangled you: he can 
 show you a path whicii the vulture's eye has not seen, 
 and lead you by some unknown gate or portal, out of a 
 wilderness and labyrinth of difficulties, wherein you have 
 been long wandering. 
 
 Implore constantly his divine grace to point your in- 
 clination to proper studies, and to fix your heart there. 
 He can keep off' temptations on the right hand, and on 
 the left, both by the course of his providence, and by the 
 secret and insensible intimations of his Spirit. He can 
 guard your understandings from every evil influence of 
 error, and secure you from the danger of evil books and 
 men, which might otherwise have a fatal effect, and lead 
 you into pernicious mistakes. 
 
 Nor let this sort of advice fill under the censure of 
 the godless and profane, as a mere piece of bigotry or 
 enthusiasm, derived from faith and the Bible: for the 
 reasons which I have given to support this pious prac- 
 tice, of invoking the blessing of God on our studies, are 
 derived from the light of nature as well as revelation.
 
 20 GENERAL RULES, &C. 
 
 He that made our souls, and is the Father of spirits, 
 shall he not be supposed to have a most friendly influ- 
 ence toward the instruction and government of them? 
 The Author of our rational powers can involve them in 
 darkness when he pleases, by a sudden distemper; or 
 he can abandon them to wander into dark and foolish 
 opinions, when they are filled with a vain conceit of 
 their own light. He expects to be acknowledged in the 
 common affairs of life; and he does as certainly expect 
 it in the superior operations of the mind, and in the 
 search of knowledge and truth. The very Greek 
 heathens, by the light of reason, were taught to say, 
 'ExA.o; i«?zc/i£^B«, and the Latins, A Jove Principium 
 Musae. In works of learning they thouglit it neces- 
 sary to begin with God. Even the poets call upon the 
 muse as a goddess to assist them in their compositions. 
 
 The first lines of Homer in his Iliad and his Odyssey, 
 the first line of Musaeus in his song of Hero and Leander, 
 the beginning of Hesiod in his poem of Works and 
 Days, and several others, furnish us with sufficient ex- 
 amples of this kind; nor does Ovid leave out this piece 
 of devotion, as he begins his stories of the Metamor- 
 phoses. Christianity so much the more obliges us, by 
 the precepts of Scripture, to invoke the assistance of the 
 true God in all our labours of the mind, for the improve- 
 ment of ourselves and others. Bishop Saunderson says, 
 that study without prayer is atheism, as well as that 
 prayer without study is presumption. And we are still 
 more abundantly encouraged by the testimony of those 
 who have acknowledged, from their own experience, 
 that sincere prayer was no hinderance to their studies: 
 they have gotten more knowledge sometimes upon their 
 knees, than by their labour in perusing a variety of au- 
 thors; and they have left this observation for such as fol- 
 low. Bene orasse est bene studuisse, " praying is the 
 best studying." 
 
 To conclude, let industry and devotion join together, 
 and you need not doubt the happy success. Prov. ii. "Z: 
 " Incline thine ear to wisdom; apply thine heart to un- 
 derstanding: cry after knowledge, and lift up thy voice: 
 seek her as silver, and search for her as for hidden trea-
 
 THE FIVE METHODS, &C. 21 
 
 Bures; then shalt thou understand the fear of the Lord," 
 &c. wliich " is the beginning of wisdom." It is " the 
 Lord who gives wisdom even to the simple, and out of 
 his mouth cometh knowledge and understanding." 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OBSERVATION, READING, INSTRUCTION BY LECTURES, CON- 
 VERSATION, AND STUDY, COMPARED. 
 
 There are five eminent means or methods whereby 
 the mind is improved in the knowledge of things; and 
 tliese are observation, reading, instruction by lectures, 
 conversation, and meditation; which last, in a most 
 peculiar manner, is called study. 
 
 Let us survey the general definitions or descriptions 
 of them all. 
 
 I. Observation is the notice that we take of all occur- 
 rences in human life, whether they are sensible or intel- 
 lectual, whether relating to persons or things, to our- 
 selves or others. It is this that furnishes us, even from 
 our infancy, with a rich variety of ideas and proposi- 
 tions, words and phrases: it is by this we know that fire 
 will burn, tliat the sun gives light, that a horse eats 
 grass, that an acorn produces an oak, that man is a be- 
 ing capable of reasoning and discourse, that our judg- 
 ment is weak, that our mistakes are many, that our sor- 
 rows are great, that our bodies die and are carried to the 
 grave, and that one generation succeeds another. All 
 those things which we see, which we hear or feel, which 
 we perceive by sense or consciousness, or which we 
 know in a direct manner, with scarce any exercise of our 
 reflecting faculties, or our reasoning powers, may be in- 
 cluded under the general name of observation. 
 
 When this observation relates to any thing that im- 
 mediately concerns ourselves, and of which we are con- 
 scious, it may be called experience. So I am said to 
 know or experience that I have in myself a power of 
 thinking, fearing, loving, &c. that I have appetites and 
 passions working in me, and many personal occurrences 
 uave attended me in this life.
 
 22 THE FIVE METHODS 
 
 Observation therefore includes all that Mr. Locke 
 means by sensation and reflection. 
 
 When we are searching out the nature or properties 
 of any being by various methods of trial, or when we ap 
 ply some active powers, or set some causes to work to 
 observe what effects they would produce, this sort of ob- 
 servation is called experiment. So when I throw a bul- 
 let into water, I find it sinks; and when I throw the 
 same bullet into quicksilver, I see it swims: but if I beat 
 out this bullet into a thin hollow shape, like a dish, then 
 it will swim in the water too. So when I strike tv»?o 
 flints together, I find they produce fire; when I throw a 
 seed in the earth, it grows up into a plant. 
 
 All these belong to the first method of knowledge; 
 which I shall call observation. 
 
 II. Reading is that means or method of knowledge 
 whereby we acquaint ourselves with what other men 
 have written, or published to the world in their writinus. 
 These arts of reading and writing are of infinite advan- 
 tage; for by them we are made partakers of the senti- 
 ments, observations, reasonings, and improvements of all 
 the learned world, in the most remote nations, and in 
 former ages almost from the beginning of mankind. 
 
 III. Public or private lectures are such verbal instruc- 
 tions as are given by a teacher wliile the learners attend 
 in silence. This is the way of learning religion from 
 the pulpit; or of pliilosophy or theology from the pro- 
 fessor's chair; or of mathematics, by a teacher showing 
 us various theorems or problems, i. e. speculations or 
 practices, by demonstration and operation, with all the 
 instruments of art necessary to those operations. 
 
 IV. Conversation is another method of improving our 
 minds, wherein, by mutual discourse and inquiry-, we 
 learn the sentiments of others, as well as communicate 
 our sentiments to others in the same manner. Some- 
 times, indeed, though both parties speak by turns, yet 
 the advantage is only on one side, as when a teacher 
 and a learner meet and discourse together: but frequently 
 the profit is mutual. Under this head of conversation 
 we may also rank disputes of various kinds. 
 
 V. Meditation or study includes all those exercises of
 
 f 
 
 OF IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 23 
 
 the mind, whereby we render all the former methods 
 useful for our increase in true knowledge and wisdom. 
 It is by meditation we come to confirm our memory of 
 things that pass through our thoughts in the occurrences 
 of life, in our own experiences, and in the observations 
 we make. It is by meditation that we draw various in- 
 ferences, and establish in our minds general principles 
 of knowledge. It is by meditation that we compare the 
 various ideas which we derive from our senses, or from 
 the operations of our souls, and join them in proposi- 
 tions. It is by meditation that we fix in our memory 
 whatsoever we learn, and form our judgment of the 
 truth or falsehood, the strength or weakness, of what 
 others speak or write. It is meditation or study that 
 draws out long chains of argument, and searches and 
 finds deep and difficult truths which before lay concealed 
 in darkness. 
 
 It would be a needless thing to prove, tliat our own 
 solitary meditations, together with the few observations 
 that the most part of mankind are capable of making, 
 are not sufficient, of themselves, to lead us into the at- 
 tainment of any considerable proportion of knowledge, at 
 least in an age so much improved as ours is, without the 
 assistance of conversation and reading, and other proper 
 instructions that are to be attained in our days. Yet 
 each of these five methods have their peculiar advan- 
 tages, whereby they assist each other; and their pecu- 
 liar defects, which have need to be supplied by the other's 
 assistance. Let us trace over some of the particular ad- 
 vantages of each. 
 
 I. One method of improving the mind is observation; 
 and the advantages of it are these. — 
 
 1. It is owing to observation, that our mind is fur- 
 nished with the first simple and complex ideas. It is 
 this lays the ground-work and foundation of all know- 
 ledge, and makes us capable of using any of the other 
 methods for improving the mind: for if we did not at- 
 tain a variety of sensible and intellectual ideas by the 
 sensations of outward objects, by the consciousness of 
 our own appetites and passions, pleasures and pains, and 
 by inward experience of the actings of our own spirits,
 
 24 THE FIVE METHODS 
 
 it would be impossible either for men or books to teach 
 us any thing^. It is observation that must give us our 
 first ideas of things, as it includes in it sense and con- 
 sciousness. 
 
 2. All our knowledge derived from observation, whe- 
 ther it be of single ideas or of propositions, is knowledge 
 gotten at first hand. Hereby we see and know things 
 as they are, or as they appear to us; we take the im- 
 pressions of them on our minds from the original objects 
 themselves, which give a clearer and stronger conception 
 of things: these ideas are more lively, and the proposi- 
 tions (at least in many cases) are much more evident. 
 Whereas, what knowledge we derive from lectures, 
 reading, and conversation, is but the copy of other men's 
 ideas, that is, the picture of a picture; and it is one re- 
 move further from the original. 
 
 3. Another advantage of observation is, that we may 
 gain knowledge all the day long, and every moment of 
 our lives; and every moment of our existence we may 
 be adding something to our intellectual treasures there- 
 by, except only while we are asleep, and even then the 
 remembrance of our dreaming will teach us some truths, 
 and lay a foundation for a better acquaintance with hu- 
 man nature, both in the powers and in the frailties of it. 
 
 II. The next way of improving the mind is by read- 
 ing, and the advantages of it are such as these: 
 
 1. By reading we acquaint ourselves, in a very exten- 
 sive manner, with the affairs, actions, and thoughts, of 
 the living and tlie dead, in the most remote nations, and 
 most distant ages, and that with as much ease as though 
 they lived in our own age and nation. By reading of 
 books we may learn something from all parts of man- 
 kind; whereas, by observation we learn all from our- 
 selves, and only what comes within our own direct cog- 
 nizance; by conversation we can only enjoy the assist- 
 ance of a very few persons, viz. those who are near us, 
 and live at the same time when we do, that is, our neigh- 
 bours and contemporaries; but our knowledo-e is much 
 more narrowed still, if we confine ourselves merely to 
 our own solitary reasonings, without much observation
 
 OP IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 2b 
 
 or reading: for then all our improvement must arise only 
 from our own inward powers and meditations. 
 
 2. By reading we learn not only the actions and the 
 sentiments of diiferent nations and ages, but we transfer 
 to ourselves the knowledge and improvements of the 
 most learned men, the wisest and the best of mankind, 
 when or wheresoever they lived: for though many books 
 have been written by weak and injudicious persons, yet 
 the most of those books which have obtained great re- 
 putation in the world, are the products of great and 
 wise men in their several ages and nations: whereas we 
 can obtain the conversation and instruction of those only 
 who are within the reach of our dwelhng, or our ac- 
 quaintance, whether they are wise or unwise: and some- 
 times that narrow sphere scarce affords any person of 
 great eminence in wisdom or learning, unless our in- 
 structer happen to have this character. And as for our 
 study and meditations, even when we arrive at some 
 good degrees of learning, our advantage for further im- 
 provement in knowledge by them, is still far more con- 
 tracted than what we may derive from reading. 
 
 3. When we read good authors, we learn the best, the 
 most laboured, and most refined sentiments, even of 
 those wise and learned men; for they have studied hard, 
 and have committed to writing their maturest thoughts, 
 and the result of their long study and experience: where- 
 as, by conversation, and in some lectures, we obtain 
 many times only the present thoughts of our tutors or 
 friends, wliich, (though they may be bright and useful) 
 yet, at first perhaps, may be sudden and indigested, and 
 are mere hints wliich have risen to no maturity. 
 
 4. It is another advantage of reading, that we may 
 review what w«, have read; we may consult the page 
 again and again, and meditate on it at successive sea- 
 sons, in our serenest and retired hours, having the book 
 always at hand: but what we obtain by conversation and 
 in lectures, is oftentimes lost again as soon as tiie com- 
 pany breaks up, or at least when the day vanishes, un- 
 less we happen to have the talent of a good memory, or 
 quickly retire and note down wliat remarkables we have 
 found in those discourses. And for the same reason, and 
 
 3
 
 26 THE FIVE METHODS. 
 
 for the want of retiring and writing, many a learned 
 man has lost several useful meditations of his own, and 
 could never recall them again. 
 
 III. The advantage of verbal instructions by public 
 or private lectures are these: 
 
 1. There is something more sprightly, more delight- 
 ful and entertaining, in the living discourse of a wise, 
 learned, and well qualified teacher, than there is in the 
 silent and sedentary practice of reading. The very 
 turn of voice, the good pronunciation, and the polite and 
 alluring manner which some teachers have attained, 
 will engage the attention, keep the soul fixed, and con- 
 vey and insinuate into the mind, the ideas of things in a 
 more lively and forcible way, than the mere reading of 
 books in tlie silence and retirement of the closet. 
 
 2. A tutor or instructer, when he paraphrases and ex- 
 plains otlier authors, can mark out the precise point of 
 difficulty or controversy, and unfold it. He can show 
 you which paragraphs are of greatest importance, and 
 which are of less moment. He can teach his hearers 
 what authors, or what parts of an author a-re best worth 
 reading on any particular subject, and thus save his dis- 
 ciples much time and pains, by shortening tlie labours 
 of their closet and private studies. He can show you 
 what were the doctrines oi the ancients, in a compendium 
 which perhaps would cost much labour and the perusal 
 of many books to attain. He can inform you what new 
 doctrines or sentiments are arising in the world before they 
 come to be public; as well as acquaint you with his own 
 private thoughts, and his own experiments and observa- 
 tions, which never were, and perhaps never will be publish- 
 ed to the world, and yet may be very valuable and useful. 
 
 3. A living instructer can convey to our senses those 
 notions with which he would furnish our minds, when 
 he teaches us natural philosophy, or most parts of mathe- 
 matical learning. He can make the experiments before 
 our eyes. He can describe figures and diagrams, point 
 to the lines and angles, and make out the demonstration 
 in a more intelligible manner by sensible means, which 
 cannot so well be done by mere reading, even though we 
 should have the same figures lying in a book before our
 
 OF IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. Zi 
 
 eyes. A living teacher, therefore, is a most necessary 
 help in these studies. 
 
 I might add also, that even where the subject of dis- 
 course is moral, logical, or rhetorical, &c. and which does 
 not directly come under the notice of our senses, a tutor 
 may explain his ideas by such familiar examptes, and 
 plain or simple similitudes, as seldom find place in books 
 and writings. 
 
 4. When an instructor in his lectures delivers any 
 matter of difficulty, or expresses himself in such a man- 
 ner as seems obscure, so that you do not take up his 
 ideas, clearly or fully, you have opportunity, at least 
 when the lecture is finished, or at other proper seasons, 
 to inquire how such a sentence should be understood, 
 or how such a difficulty may be explained and removed. 
 
 If tl)ere be permission given to free converse with the 
 tutor, either in the midst of the lecture, or rather at the 
 end of it, concerning any doubts or difficulties that occur 
 to the liearer, this brings it very near to conversation 
 or discourse. 
 
 IV. Conversation is the next method of improvement, ' 
 and it is attended with the following advantages: 
 
 1. Wlien we converse familiarly with a learned friend, 
 we have his own help at hand to explain to us every 
 word and sentiment that seems obscure in his discourse, 
 and to inform us of his whole meaning: so that we are 
 in much less danger of mistaking his sense: whereas in 
 books, wliatsoever is really obscure may also abide al- 
 ways obscure witliout remedy, since the autlior is not 
 at hand, that we may inquire his sense. 
 
 If we mistake the meaning of our friend in conversa- 
 tion, we are quickly set right again; but in reading, we 
 many times go on in tl^e same mistake, and are not 
 capable of recovering ourselves from it. Thence it comes 
 to pass that we have so many contests in all ages about 
 the meaning of ancient autiiors, and especially the sacred 
 writers. Happy should we be could we but converse 
 with Moses, Isaiah, and St. Paul, and consult the pro- 
 phets and apostles, when we meet with a difficult text: 
 but that glorious conversation is reserved for the ages of 
 future blessedness.
 
 28 THE FIVE METHODS 
 
 2. When we are discoursing upon any theme with a 
 friend, we may propose our doubts and objections against 
 his sentiments, and have them solved and answered at 
 once. — The difficulties that arise in our minds may be 
 removed by one enliglitening word of our correspondent: 
 whereas in reading, if a difficulty or question arise in our 
 thoughts, which the author has not happened to mention, 
 we must be content without a present answer or solution 
 of it. Books cannot speak. 
 
 3. Not only the doubts which arise in the mind upon 
 any subject or discourse are easily proposed and solved 
 in conversation, but the very difficulties we meet with 
 in books, and in our private studies, may find a relief by 
 friendly conferences. We may pore upon a knotty point 
 in solitary meditation many months without a solution, 
 because perhaps we have gotten into a wrong tract of 
 thought; and our labour (while we are pursuing a false 
 scent) is not only useless and unsuccessful, but it leads 
 us perhaps into a long train of error for want of being 
 corrected in the first step. But if we note down this 
 difficulty when we read it, we may propose it to an in- 
 genious correspondent when we see him; we may be re- 
 lieved in a moment, and find the difficulty vanish: he 
 beholds the object perhaps in a different view, sets it be- 
 fore us in quite another light, leads us at once into evi- 
 dence and truth, and that with a delightful surprise. 
 
 4. Conversation calls out into light what has been 
 lodged in all the recesses and secret chambers of the 
 soul: by occasional hints and incidents it brings old useful 
 notions into remembrance; it unfolds and displays the 
 hidden treasures of knowledge with which reading, ob- 
 servation, and study, had before furnished the mind. 
 By mutual discourse the soul is awakened and allured 
 to bring forth its hoards of knowledge, and it learns how 
 to render them most useful to mankind. A man of vast 
 reading without conversation is like a miser, who lives 
 only to himself 
 
 5. In free and friendly conversation, our intellectual 
 powers are more animated, and our spirits act with a 
 superior vigour in tlie quest and pursuit of unknown 
 truths. There is a sharpness and sagacity of thought
 
 OF IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 29 
 
 that attends conversation beyond what we find whilst 
 we are shut up reading and musing in our retirements. 
 Our souls may be serene in solitude, but not sparkling, 
 though perliaps we are employed in reading the works 
 of the brightest writers. Often has it happened in free 
 discourse, that new thoughts are strangely struck out, 
 and the seeds of truth sparkle and blaze through the 
 company, which in calm and silent reading would never 
 have been excited. By conversation you will both give 
 and receive this benefit; as flints, when put into motion, 
 and striking against each other, produce living fire on 
 both sides, which would never have arisen from the 
 same hard materials in a state of rest. 
 
 6. In generous conversation, amongst ingenious and 
 learned men, we have a great advantage of proposing 
 our private opinions, and of bringing our own sentiments 
 to the test, and learning in a more compendious and 
 safer way what the world will judge of them, how man- 
 kind will receive them, what objections may be raised 
 against them, what defects there are in our scheme, and 
 how to correct our own mistakes; which advantages are 
 not so easy to be obtained by our own private medita- 
 tions: for the pleasure we take in our own notions, and 
 the passion of self-love, as well as the narrowness of 
 our views, tempt us to pass too favourable an opinion 
 on our own schemes; whereas the variety of genius in 
 our several associates will give happy notices how our 
 opinions will stand in the view of mankind. 
 
 7. It is also another considerable advantage of con- 
 versation, that it furnishes the student with the know- 
 ledge of men and the affairs of life, as reading furnishes 
 him with book learning. A man who dwells all his days 
 among books may have amassed together a vast heap 
 of notions; but he may be a mere scholar, which is a 
 contemptible sort of character in the world. A hermit, 
 who has been shut up in his cell in a college, has con- 
 tracted a sort of mould and rust upon his soul, and all 
 his airs of behaviour have a certain awkwardness in them; 
 but these awkward airs are worn away by degrees in 
 company: the rust and the mould are filed and brushed 
 off by polite conversation. The scholar now becomes 
 
 3*
 
 so THE FIVE METHODS 
 
 a citizen or a gentleman, a neighbour, and a friend; he 
 learns how to dress his sentiments in the fairest colours, 
 as well as to set them in the strongest light. Thus he 
 brings out his notions with honour; he makes some use 
 of thern in the world, and improves the theory by the 
 practice. 
 
 But before we proceed too far in finishing a bright cha- 
 racter by conversation, we should consider that some- 
 thing else is necessary besides an acquaintance with men 
 and books: and therefore I add, 
 
 V. Mere lectures, reading, and conversation, without 
 thinking, are not sufficient to make a man of knowledge 
 and wisdom. It is our own thought and reflection, study 
 and meditation, must attend all the other methods of im- 
 provement, and perfect them. It carries these advan- 
 tages with it: 
 
 1. Though observation and instruction, reading and 
 conversation, may furnish us with many ideas of men 
 and things, yet it is our own meditation, and the labour 
 of our own thoughts, that must form our judgment of 
 things. Our own thoughts should join or disjoin these 
 ideas in a proposition for ourselves: it is our own mind 
 that must judge for ourselves concerning the agreement 
 or disagreement of ideas, and form propositions of truth 
 out of them. Reading and conversation may acquaint 
 us with many truths, and with many arguments to sup- 
 port them; but it is our own study and reasoning that 
 must determine whether these propositions are true, and 
 whether these arguments are just and solid. 
 
 It is confessed there are a thousand things which our 
 eyes have not seen, and which would never come within 
 the reach of our personal and immediate knowledge and 
 observation, because of the distance of times and places: 
 these must be known by consulting other persons; and 
 that is done either in their writings or in their discourses. 
 But after all, let this be a fixed point with us, that it is 
 our own reflection and judgment must determine how 
 far we should receive that which books or men inform 
 us of, and how far they are worthy of our assent and 
 credit. 
 
 2. It is meditation and study that transfers and con-
 
 OF IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 31 
 
 veys the notions and sentiments of other? to ourselves, 
 so as to make them properly our own. It is our own 
 judgment upon them, as well as our memory of iliem, 
 that makes them become our own property. It does as 
 it were concoct our intellectual food, and turns it into a 
 part of ourselves: just as a man may call his limbs and 
 his flesh his own, whether he borrowed the materials 
 from the ox or the slieep, from the lark or the lobster: 
 whether he derived it from corn or milk, the fiuits of the 
 trees, or the herbs and roots of the earth; it is all now 
 become one substance with himself, and he wields and 
 manages those muscles and limbs for his own proper pur- 
 poses, which once were the substance of otlier animals 
 or vegetables: that very substance which last week was 
 grazingr in rhe field or swimming in the sea, waving in 
 the milk-pail, or glowing in the garden, is now become 
 part of the man. 
 
 3. By study and meditation we improve the hints that 
 we have acquired by observation, conversation, and read- 
 ing: we take more time in thinking, and by the labour 
 of the mind we penetrate deeper into the themes of 
 knowledge, and carry our thoughts sometimes nmch far- 
 ther on many subjects, than we ever met with, either in 
 the books of the dead or discourses of the living. It is 
 our own reasoning that draws out one truth from another, 
 and forms a whole scheme or science from a few hints 
 which we borrowed elsewhere. 
 
 By a survey of these things we may justly conclude, 
 that he who spends all his time in hearing lectures, or 
 poring upon books, without observation, meditation, or 
 converse, will have but a mere historical knowledije of 
 learning, and be able only to tell what others have 
 known or said on the subject: he that lets all his time 
 flow away in converpation, without due observation, 
 reading, or study, will gain but a slight and superficial 
 knowledge, which will be in danger of vanishing with 
 the voice of the speaker: and he that confines himself 
 merely to his closet, and his own narrow observation of 
 things, and is taught only by his own solitary thoughts, 
 without instruction bv lectures, reading, or free conver- 
 sation, will be in danger of a narrow spirit, a vain con-
 
 32 RULES RELATINTG 
 
 ceit of himself, and an unreasonable contempt of others; 
 and after all, he will obtain but a very limited and im- 
 perfect view and knowledge of things, and he will sel- 
 dom learn how to make that knowledge useful. 
 
 Tliese five methods of improvement should be pursued 
 jointly, and go hand in hand, where our circumstances 
 are so happy as to find opportunity and conveniency to 
 enjoy them all; though Iniust give opinion that two of 
 tiieni, viz: reading and meditation, should employ nmch 
 more of our time than public lectures, or converbation 
 and discourse. As for observation, we may be always 
 acquiring knowledge that way, whether we are alone or 
 ill company. 
 
 But it will be for our further improvement, if we go 
 over all these five methods of obtaining knowledge more 
 distinctly and more at large, and see what special ad- 
 vances in useful science we may draw from them all. 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 RULES RELATING TO OBSERVATION. 
 
 Though observation, in the strict sense of the word, 
 and as it is distinguislied from meditation and study, is 
 the first means of improvement, and in its strictest sense 
 does not include in it any reasonings of the mind upon 
 the things which we observe, or inferences drawn from 
 them; yet the motions of the mind are so exceedingly 
 Bvvift, that it is hardly possible for a thinking man to 
 gain experiences or observations without making some 
 secret and short reflections upon them, and therefore in 
 giving a few directions concerning this method of im- 
 provement, I shall not so narrowly confine myself to the 
 first mere impression of object on the mind by observa- 
 tion; but include also some hints which relate to the first, 
 most easy, and obvious reflections or reasonings which 
 arise from them. 
 
 1. Let the enlargement of your knowledge be one 
 constant view and design in life; since there is no time
 
 TO OBSERVATION. S3 
 
 or place, no transactions, occurrences, or engagements 
 in life, which exclude us from this method of improving 
 the mind. When we are alone, even in darkness and 
 silence, we may converse with our own hearts, observe 
 the working of our own spirits, and reflect upon tlie in- 
 ward motions of our own passions in some of the latest 
 occurrences in life; we may acquaint ourselves with the 
 powers and properties, tiie tendencies and inclinations 
 both of body and spirit, and gain a more intimate know- 
 ledge of ourselves. When we are in company, we may 
 discover something more of human natiu-e, of human 
 passions and follies, and of himian affairs, vices, and vir- 
 tues, by conversing with mankind, and observing their 
 conduct. Nor is there any thing more valuable than 
 the knowledge of ourselves, and the knowledge of men, 
 except it be the knowledge of God who made us, and 
 our relation to him as our Governor. 
 
 When we are in the house or the city, wheresoever 
 we turn our eyes, we see the works of men; when we 
 are abroad in the country, we behold more of the works 
 of God. The skies above, and the ground beneath us, 
 and the animal and vegetable world round about us, 
 may entertain our observation with ten thousand varie- 
 ties. 
 
 Endeavour therefore to derive some instruction or im- 
 provement, of the mind from every thing which you see 
 or hear, from every thing whicii occurs in human life, 
 from every thing within you or without you. 
 
 Fetch down some knowledge from the clouds, the 
 stars, ihe sun, the moon, and the revolutions of all the 
 planets. Dig and draw up some valuable meditations 
 from the depths of the earth, and searcii thetn through 
 the vast oceans of water. Extract some intellectual 
 improvetnents from the minerals and metals; from the 
 wonders of nature among the vegetables, and herbs, 
 trees, and flowers. Learn some lessons from the birds 
 and the beasts, and tlie meanest insect. Read the wis- 
 dom of God, and his admirable contrivance in them all: 
 read his almighty power, his rich and various goodness 
 in ail the works of his hands. 
 
 From the day and the night, the hours and the flying
 
 84 RULES RELATING 
 
 minutes, learn a wise improvement of time, and bo 
 watchful to seize every opportunity to increase in know- 
 ledge. 
 
 From the vicissitudes and revolutions of nations and 
 families, and from the various occurrences of the world, 
 learn the instability of mortal affairs, the uncertainty 
 of life, the certainty of death. From a coffin and a 
 funeral, learn to meditate upon your departure. 
 
 From the vices and fijllies of others, observe what is 
 hateful in them; consider how such a practice looks in 
 another person, and remember that it looks as ill or 
 worse in yourself From the virtue of others, loam 
 eomething worthy of your imitation. 
 
 From the deformity, the distress, or calamity of others, 
 derive lessons of tliaiikf iliiess to God, and hymns of 
 g-rateful praise to your Creator, Governor, and Bene- 
 factcjr, vvlio has formed you in a better mould, and 
 guarded you from those evils. Learn also the sacred 
 lesson of contentment in your own estate, and compas- 
 sion to your neighbour under his miseries. 
 
 From your natural powers, sensations, judgment, 
 memory, hands, feet, &c. make this inference, tliat they 
 were not given you for nothing, but for some useful em- 
 ployment to the honour of your Maker, and for the good 
 of your fellow creatures, as well as for your own best 
 interest and final happuiess. 
 
 From the sorrows, the pains, the sicknesses, and suf- 
 ferings that attend you, learn the evil of sin, and the 
 imperfection of your present state. From your own 
 sins and follies, learn the patience of God toward you, 
 and the practice of humility toward God and man. 
 
 Thus from every appearance in nature, and from 
 every occurrence of life, you may derive natural, moral, 
 and religious observations to entertain your minds, as 
 well as rules of conduct in the affairs relating to this 
 life and that which is to come. 
 
 II. In order to furnish the mind with a rich variety 
 of ideas, tiie laudable curiosity of young people should 
 be indulged and gratified, rather than discouraged. It 
 is a very hopeful sign in young persons, to see them cu- 
 rious in observing, and inquisitive in searching into the
 
 TO OBSERVATION^. 36 
 
 greatest part of things that occur; nor should such aa 
 inquiring temper be frowned into silence, nor be rigor- 
 ously restrained, but should rather be satisfied with pro- 
 per answers given to all those queries. 
 
 For this reason also, where time and fortune allow it, 
 young people should be led into company at proper sea- 
 sons, should be carried abroad to see the fields, and tiie 
 woods, and the rivers, the buildings, towns, and cities 
 distant from their own dwelling; they should be enter- 
 tained with the sigiit of straoge birds, beasts, fishes, in- 
 sects, vegetables, and productions both of nature and 
 art of every kind, whetlier tiiey are the products of 
 their own or foreign nations: and in due time, where 
 Providence ffives opportunity, they may travel under a 
 wise inspector or tutor to different parts of the world for 
 the same end, that tliey may bring home treasures of 
 useful knowledge. 
 
 III. Among all these observations write down what 
 is most remarkable and uncommon: reserve these re- 
 marks in store for proper occasions, and at proper sea- 
 sons take a review of them. Such a practice will give 
 you a habit of useful thinking; this will secure the 
 workings of your soul from running to waste; and by 
 this means even your looser moments will turn to hap- 
 py account both here and hereafter. 
 
 And whatever useful observations have been made, 
 let them be at least some part of the subject of your 
 conversation among your friends at next meeting. 
 
 Let the circumstances or situation in life be what or 
 where they will, a man should never neglect this im- 
 provement which may be derived from observation. 
 Let him travel into the East or West Indies, and fulfil 
 the duties of the military or the mercantile life there; 
 let him rove through tlie earth or the sea>s, for his own 
 humour as a traveller, or pursue his diversions in what 
 part of the world he pleases as a gentleman: let pros- 
 perous or adverse fortune call him to the most distant 
 parts of the globe; still let him carry on his knowledge 
 and the improvement of his soul by wise observations. 
 In due time, by this means, lie may render himself some 
 way useful to the societies of mankind.
 
 S6 RULES HEI.ATING 
 
 TheobaJdino, in his younger years, visited the forests 
 of Norway on the account of trade and timber, and be- 
 sides his proper observations of the growth of trees on 
 those northern mountains, he learned there was a sort 
 of people called Fins, in those confines which border 
 upon Sweden, whose habitation is in the woods; and he 
 lived afterwards to give a good account of them and 
 some of their customs to the Royal Society for the im- 
 provement of natural knowledge. Puteoli was taken 
 captive into Turkey in iiis youth, and travelled with his 
 master in their holy pilgrimage to Mecca, whereby he 
 became more intelhgent in the forms, ceremonies, and 
 fooleries of the Mahometan worsiiip, than perhaps any 
 Briton knew before; and by his manuscripts we are 
 more acquainted in this last century with the Turkish 
 sacreds, than any one had ever informed us. 
 
 IV. Let us keep our minds as free as possible from 
 passions and prejudices; for these will give a wrong turn 
 to our observations both on persons and things. The 
 eyes of a man in the jaundice make yellow observa- 
 tions on every thing; and the soul, tinctured with any 
 passion or prejudice, diffuses a false colour over tiie real 
 appearance of things, and disguises many of the com- 
 mon occurrences of life: it never beholds things in a 
 true light, nor suffers them to appear as tliey are. 
 Whensoever, therefore, you would make proper obser- 
 vations, let self, with all its influences, stand aside as 
 far as possible; abstract your own interest and your own 
 concern from them, and bid all friendships and enmities 
 stand aloof and keep out of the way, in the observa- 
 tions that you make relating to persons and tilings. 
 
 If this rule were well obeyed, we should be much 
 better guarded against tliose common pieces of miscon- 
 duct in the Observations of men, viz: the false judg- 
 ments of pride and envy. How ready is envy to min- 
 gle with the notices which we take of other persons! 
 How often is mankind prone to put an ill sense upon 
 the action of their neighbours, to take a survey of them 
 in an evil position and in an unhappy light! And by 
 this means we form a worse opinion of our neighbours 
 than they deserve; while at the same time pride and
 
 , TO OBSERVATION. 37 
 
 self-flattery tempt us to make unjust observations on 
 ourselves in our own favour. In all the fiivoiirable 
 judgments we pass concerning ourselves, we should al- 
 low a little abatement on this account. 
 
 V. In making your observations on persons, take care 
 of indulging that busy curiosity which is ever inquiring 
 into private and domestic affairs, with an endless itch 
 of learning the secret history of families. It is but sel- 
 dom that such a prying curiosity attains any valuable 
 ends: it often begets suspicions, jealousies, and distur- 
 bances in households, and it is a frequent temptation to 
 persons to defame their neighbours: some persons cannot 
 help telling wliat they know: a busybody is most liable 
 to become a tattler upon every occasion. 
 
 VI. Let your observation, even of persons and their 
 conduct, be chiefly designed in order to lead you to a 
 better acquaintance with things, particularly with hu- 
 man nature; and to inform you what to imitate and 
 what to avoid, rather tlian to furnish out matter for the 
 evil passions of the mind, or the impertinencies of dis- 
 course and reproaches of the tongue. 
 
 VII. Though it may be proper sometimes to make 
 your observations concerning persons as well as things 
 the subject of your discoui-se in learned or useful con- 
 versations, yet what remarks you make on particular 
 persons, particularly to their disadvantage, should for 
 the most part lie hid in your own breast, till some just 
 and apparent occasion, some necessary call of Provi- 
 dence, leads you to speak to them. 
 
 If the character or conduct which you observe be 
 greatly culpable, it should so much the less be published. 
 You may treasure up such remarks of the follies, inde- 
 cencies, or vices of your neighbours as may be a con- 
 stant guard against your practice of the same, without 
 exposing the reputation of your neighbour on that ac- 
 count. It is a good old rule, that our conversation 
 should rather be laid out on things than on persons; and 
 this rule should generally be o!)served, unless names be 
 conceah^d, wheresoever the faults or follies of mankind 
 are our pre^icnt theme. 
 
 Our late Archbishop Tillotson has written a small but 
 4
 
 38 OF BOOKS AND READING. 
 
 excellent discourse on evil speaking, wherein he admira- 
 bly explairrs, limits, and applies, that general apostolic 
 precept, Speak evil of no man, Tit. iii. 2. 
 
 VIII. Be not too hasty to erect general theories from 
 a few particular observations, appearances, or e.xperi- 
 ments. Tliis is whattiie logicians call a filse induction. 
 When general observations are drawn from so many 
 particulars as to become certain and indubitable, these 
 are jewels of knowledge, comprehending great treasure 
 in little room: bnt they are therefore to be made with 
 the greater care and caution, lest errors beconre large and 
 diffusive, if we should mistake in these general notions. 
 
 A hasty determination of some universal principles, 
 without a due survey of all the particular cases which 
 mav be included in them, is the way to lay a trap for 
 our own understandings, in their pursuit of any subject, 
 and we shall often be taken ca[)tives into mistal^ie and 
 falsehood. Niveo in his youth observed, that on three 
 Christmas Days together there fell a good (piantity of 
 snow, and now hath writ it down in his almanac, as a 
 part of his wise remarks on the weather, that it will al- 
 ways snow at Christmas. Enron, a younff lad, took no- 
 tice ten times, that there was a sliarp frost when the 
 wind was in the north-east, therefore, in the middle of 
 the last July, he almost expected it should freeze, be- 
 cause the weatlrer-cocks showed him a north-east wind; 
 and he was still more disappointed, when he found it a 
 very sultry season. It is the same hasty judgment that 
 hatli thrown scandal on a whole nation for the sake of 
 some culpable characters belonging to several particular 
 natives of that country; whereas all the Frenchmen are 
 not gay and airy; all the Italians are not jealous and re- 
 vengeful; nor are all the English overrun with the spleen. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF BOOKS AND READING. 
 
 I. The world is full of Books; but there are multi- 
 tudes which are so ill written, they were never worth
 
 OF BOOKS AND READING. 89 
 
 any man's reading; and there are thousands more which 
 may be good in their kind, yet are worth notliing whetj 
 the month or year, or occasion is past for which tliey 
 were written. Otliers may be valuable in themselves 
 for some special purpose, or in some peculiar science, 
 but are not fit to be peruse^ by any but those who are 
 engaged in that particular science or business. To what 
 use is it for a divine or physician, or a tradesman, to 
 read over the huge volumes of repoils of judged cases 
 in the law? or fur a lawyer to learn Hebrew, and read 
 the Rabbins? It is of vast advantage for improvement 
 of knowledge, and saving lime, for a young man to 
 have the most proper books for his reading recommend- 
 ed by a judicious friend. 
 
 II. Books of importance of any kind, and especially 
 complete treatises on any subject, siiould be first read in 
 a more general and cursory manner, to learn a little 
 what the treatise promises, and what you may expect 
 from the writer's manner and skill. And for this end I 
 would advise always that the preface be read, and a sur- 
 vey taken of the table of contents, if there be one, be- 
 fore the survey of tiie book. By this means you will 
 not only be better fitted to give the book the first read- 
 ing, but you will be much assisted in your second peru- 
 sal of it, which should be done with greater attention 
 and deliberation, and you will learn with more ease and 
 readiness wliat the author pretends to teach. In your 
 reading, mark what is new or unknown to you before 
 and review those cliapters, pages, or paragraplis. Un- 
 less a reader has an uncommon and most retentive me- 
 mory, 1 may venture to aflirin, that tiiere is scarce any 
 book or chapter worth reading once, that is not worthy 
 of a second perusal. At least to take a careful review 
 of all the lines or paragraplis which you marked, and 
 make a recollection of tlie sections which you thought 
 truly valuable. 
 
 There is another reason also why 1 would choose to 
 take a superficial and cursory survey of a book, before I 
 sit down to read it, and dwell upon it with studious at- 
 tention; and that is, that there may be several difficul 
 ties in it which we cannot easily understand and con-
 
 40 OF BOOKS AND READING. 
 
 qner at the first reading, for want of a fuller compre- 
 hension of the autlior^s whole scheme. And tiierefore 
 in such treatises, we sliould not stay till we master every 
 difficulty at tiie first perusal; for perliaps many of these 
 would a'jipear to be solved when we have proceeded fur- 
 ther in t!iat book, or would vanish of themselves upon a 
 second reading. 
 
 III. If three or four persons agreed to read the same 
 book, and each brings his own remarks upon it, at some 
 set houis appointed for conversation, and they commu- 
 nicate mutually their sentiments on the subject, and de- 
 bate about it in a friendly manner, this practice will ren- 
 der the reading any author more abundantly beneficial 
 to any one of them. 
 
 IV. If several persons engaged in the same study, 
 take into their hands distinct treatises on one subject, 
 and appoint a season of communication once a week, 
 they may inform each other in a brief manner concern- 
 ing the sense, sentiments, and methods of those several 
 authors, and thereby promote eacii other's iniprovement, 
 either by recommending the perusal of the same book 
 to their companions, or perhaps by satisfying their in- 
 quiries concerning it by conversation, without every one's 
 perusing it. 
 
 V. Remember that your business in reading or in con- 
 versation, especially on subjects of natural, moral, or 
 divine science, is not merely to know tiie opinion of the 
 author or speaker, for this is but the mere knowledge of 
 history; but your chief business is to consider whether 
 their opinions are riglit or no, and to improve your own 
 i'olid knowledge on that subject by meditation on the 
 themes of tlieir writing or discourse. Deal freely with 
 every author you read, and yield up your assent only 
 to evidence and just reasoning on the subject. 
 
 Here I would be understood to speak only of human 
 authors, and not of the sacred and inspired writings. 
 In these our business is only to find out the true sense, 
 and understand the true meaning of the paragraph and 
 page, and our assent then is bound to fullow when we 
 are before satisfied that the writing is divine. Yet I
 
 OF BOOKS AND READING. 41 
 
 might add also, that even this is sufficient evidence to 
 demand our assent. 
 
 But in the composures of men, remember you are a 
 man as well as they; and it is not their reason but your 
 own that is given to guide you when you arrive at years 
 of discretion, of manl}' age and judgment. 
 
 VI. Let tliis therefore be your practice, especially 
 after you have gone through one course of any science 
 in your academical studies; if a writer on tliat subject 
 maintains the same sentiments as you do, yet if he does 
 not explain his ideas or prove his positions well, mark 
 the faults or defects, and endeavour to do better, either 
 in the margin of your book, or rather in some papers ot 
 your own, or at least let it be done in your private 
 meditations. As for instance: — 
 
 Where the author is obscure, enlighten him: where he 
 is imperfect, supply his deficiencies: wiiere he is too brief 
 and concise, ampHfy a little, and set his notions in a 
 fairer view: where he is redundant, mark those para- 
 graphs to be retrenched: when he trifles and grows im- 
 pertinent, abandon those passages or pages: when he 
 argues, observe whether his reasons be conclusive: if 
 the conclusion be true, and yet the argument weak, en- 
 deavour to confirm it by belter proofs: where he derives 
 or infers any proposition darkly and doubtfully, make the 
 justice of tlie inference appear, and make tut ther inferen- 
 ces or corollaries, if such occur to your mind: where you 
 suppose he is in a mistake, propose your objections and 
 correct his sentiments: what he writes so well as to ap- 
 prove itself of your judgment, both as just and useful, 
 treasure it up in your memory, and count it a part of 
 your intellectual gains. 
 
 Note, Many of tiiese same directions, which I have 
 now given, n)ay be practised with regard to conversa- 
 tion as well as reading, in order to render it useful in 
 ^he most extensive and lasting manner. 
 
 VII. Other things also of the like nature may be use- 
 fully practised witii regard to the authors which you 
 read, viz. If the method of a book be irregular, reduce 
 it into form, by a little analysis of your own, or by hints 
 m the margin: If those tilings are heaped together, 
 
 1 4*
 
 42 OF BOOKS AND READING. 
 
 which should be separated, you may wisely disting-uish 
 and divide them: if several thing's relating- to the same 
 subject are scattered up and down separately t'iirongh 
 the treatise, you may bring them all to one view by 
 references; or if the matter of a book be really valuable 
 and deserving, you may throw it i.!)to a better method, 
 reduce it to a more logical scheme, or abridge it into a 
 lesser form: all these practices will have a tendency both 
 to advance your skill in logic and method, to improve 
 your judgment in general, and to give you a fuller survey 
 of that subject in particular. When you have finished 
 the treatise with all your observations upon it, recollect 
 and determine what real improvements you have made 
 by reading that autiior. 
 
 VIII. If a book has no index to it, or good table of 
 contents, it is very useful to make one as you are read- 
 ing it: not with that exactness as to include the sense of 
 every pawe and paragraph, which should be done if you 
 designed to print it; but it is sufficient in your index to 
 take notice only of those parts of the book which are 
 new to you, or which you tliink well written, and well 
 worthy of your remembrance or review. 
 
 Shall 1 be so free as to assure my yoimger friends, 
 from my own experience, that these methods of reading" 
 will cost some pains in the first year of your study, and 
 especially in the first autiiors which you peruse in any 
 science, or on any particular subject: but the profit will 
 richlv compensate the pains. And in the following years 
 of life, after you have read a few valuable books on any 
 special subject in this manner, it will be easy to read 
 others of the same kind, oecause you will not usually 
 find very much new matter in them which you iiave not 
 already examined. 
 
 If the writer be remarkable for any peculiar excellen- 
 cies or defects in his style or manner of writing, make 
 just observations upon this also; and whatsoever orna- 
 ments you find there, or whatsoever blemislies occur in 
 the language or manner of the writer, you may make 
 just remarks upon them. And remember that one book 
 read over in this manner, with all this laborious rnedita.-
 
 OF BOOKS AND READING. 49 
 
 tion, will tend more to enrich your understanding, than 
 the skinitning' over the surface of twenty authors. 
 
 JX. By perusing books in the manner I have de- 
 scribed, you will make all your reading: subservient not 
 only to tiie enlargement of your treasures of knowledge, 
 but also to the improvement of your reasoning ()nwers. 
 
 There are many who read with constancy and dili- 
 gence, and yet make no advances in true knowledge by 
 it. They are deliglited witii the notions which they 
 read or hear, as they would be with stories that are told; 
 but tliey do not weigh them in their minds as in a just 
 balance, in order to determine their truth or falsehood; 
 they make no observations upon them, or inferetices 
 from them. Perltaps tlieir eye slides over the pages, or 
 the words slide over their ears, and vanish like a riiap- 
 sody of evening tales, or the shadows of a cloud tiying 
 over a green field in a summer's day. 
 
 Or if tliey review them sufficiently to fix them in 
 their remembrance, it is merely with a design to tell the 
 tale over again, and show what men of learning they 
 are. Thus they dream out their days in a course of 
 reading, without real advantage. As a man may be 
 eating all day, and, for want of digestion is never nour- 
 ished; so those endless readers may cram themselves in 
 vain with intellectual food, and without real improve- 
 ment of their minds, for want of digesting it by proper 
 reflections. 
 
 X. Be diligent therefore in observing these directions. 
 Enter into the sense and arguments of tlie authors you 
 read; examine all their proofs, and then judge of the 
 truth or falsehood of their opinions; and thereby you 
 shall not only gain a rich increase of your understand- 
 ing, by those truths which the author teaches, when you 
 see tfiem well supported, but you shall acquire also by 
 degrees a habit of judging justly, and of reasoning well, 
 in imitation of the good writer whose works you peruse. 
 
 This is laborious indeed, and the mind is backward 
 to undergo the fatigue of weighing every argument, and 
 tracing every thing to its original. It is mucii less la- 
 bour to take all things upon trust: believing is much 
 easier than arguing. But when Studentio had once
 
 44 OF BOOKS AND READING. 
 
 persuaded his mind to tie itself down to this method 
 which 1 have prescribed, lie sensibly gained an admira- 
 ble facility to read, and j»idge of wimt he read by his 
 daily practice of it, and the man made large advances 
 in the pursuit of truth; vviiile Plumbinus and Pliimeo 
 made less progress in knowledge, though they had read 
 over more folios. Plumeo skimmed over the pages like 
 a swalluw over the flowery meads in iM.ay. Planibinus 
 read every line and syllable, but did not give himself the 
 trouble of thinking and judging about them. They 
 both could boast in company of their great reading, for 
 they knew more titles and pages than Studentio, but 
 were far less acquainted with science. 
 
 I confess those whose reading is designed only to fit 
 them for much talk, and little knowledge, may content 
 themselves to run over their authors in such a sudden 
 and trifling way; they may devour libraries in this man- 
 ner, yet be poor reasoners at last; and have no solid 
 wisdom or true learning. The traveller who walks on 
 fair and softly in a couise that f)oints right, and examines 
 every turning before lie ventures upon it, will come 
 sooner and safer to iiis journey's end, tiian he who runs 
 through every lane he meets, though he gallops full 
 speed all the day. The man of much readujg, and a 
 large retentive memory, but without meditation, tnay 
 become, in the sense of the world, a knowing man; and 
 if he converse much with the ancients, he may attain 
 the fame of learning too; but he s()ends his days afar ofl" 
 from wisdom and true judgment, and possesses very 
 little ol the substantial riches of the mind. 
 
 XI. Never apply yourselves to read any human author 
 with a determination beforehand either for or ;igainst 
 him, or with a settled resolution to believe or disbelieve, 
 to conflrm or to oppose, wiiatsoever he saith; but always 
 read with a design to lay your mind open to trutli, and 
 to cm-brace it wheresoever you find it, as well as to reject 
 every falsehood, though it appear under ever so fair a 
 disguise. How unhappy are those men who seldom 
 take an author into their hands but they have deterinined 
 before tliey begin whether they will like or dislike him! 
 They have got some notion of his name, his character.
 
 OF BOOKS AND READING. 45 
 
 his party, or his principles, by general conversation, or 
 perhaps by some slight view of a few pages; and liaving 
 all their own opinions adjusted beforehand, they read 
 all that he writes with a prepossession either for or against 
 him. Unhappy those who hunt and purvey for a party, 
 and scrape together out of every author all those things, 
 and tiiose only, which favour their own tenets, while 
 they despise and neglect all the rest! 
 
 Xll. Yet take this caution. 1 would not be under- 
 stood here, as though I persuaded a person to live with- 
 out any settled principles at all, by which to judge of 
 men, and books, and things: or that I would keep a man 
 always doubting about his foundations. The chief things 
 that 1 design in tiiis advice, are these three: 
 
 1. That after our most necessary and important prin- 
 ciples of science, prudence, and religion, are settled upon 
 good grounds, with regard to our present conduct and 
 our future hopes, we should read with a just freedom 
 of thought all those books which treat of such subjects 
 as may admit of doubt and reasonable dispute. Nor 
 should any of our opinions be so resolved upon, especially 
 in younger years, as never to hear or to bear an oppo- 
 sition to them. 
 
 2. When we peruse those authors who defend our 
 own settled sentiments, we should not take all their 
 arguments for just and solid; but we should make a wise 
 distinction between the corn and the chatF, between 
 solid reasoning and the mere superficial colours of it; 
 nor should we readily swallow down all their lesser 
 opinions because we agree with them in the greater. 
 
 3 That when we read tliose authors which oppose 
 our most certain and established principles, we should 
 be leady to receive any informations from them in other 
 pomts, and not abandon at once every thing tiiey say, 
 though we are well fixed in our opposition to their main 
 point of arguing. 
 
 Fas est ab hoste doceri. Virg. 
 
 Seize upon truth where'er 'tis found, 
 
 Amongst your fiiends, amongst your foes, 
 On Christian or on heathen ground; 
 The flower's divine where'er it grows: 
 Neglect the prickles and assume the rose.
 
 4t3 OF BOOKS AND READING. 
 
 XIII. What I have said hitherto on this subject, re- 
 lating to books and reading, must be chietJy understood 
 of that sort of books, and those hours of our reading and 
 study, whereijy we design to improve the intellectual 
 powers of the mind witli natural, moral, or divine know- 
 ledge. As for those treatises which are written to di- 
 rect or to enforce and persuade our practice, there is one 
 thing further necessary; and that is, that when our con- 
 sciences are convinced tiiat these rules of prudence or 
 duty belong to us, and require our conformity to them, 
 we should then call ourselves to account, and inquire 
 seriously wiiether we have put them in practice or no; 
 we should dwell upon the arguments, and impress the 
 motives and methods of persuasion upon our own hearts, 
 till we feel the force and power of tliem inclining us to 
 the practice of the things which are there recommended. 
 
 If folly or vice be represented in its open colours, or 
 its secret disu-uises, let us search our hearts, and review 
 our lives, and inquire how far we are criminal; nor siiould 
 we ever think we have done with the treatise while we 
 feel ourselves in soirow for our past misconduct, and 
 aspiring afier a victory over those vices, or till we find a 
 cure of those follies begim to be wronglit upon our souls. 
 
 In all our studies and pursuits of knowledge, let us 
 remember that virtue and vice, sin and holiness, and the 
 conformation of our hearts and lives to the duties of true 
 religion and morality, are things of far more conse- 
 quence than all the furniture of our understanding, and 
 the richest treasures of more speculative knowledge; and 
 that because they have a more immediate and edectual 
 influence U[)on our eternal felicity or eternal sorrow. 
 
 XIV. There is yet another sort of books, of which it 
 is proper I should say something, while I am treating 
 on this subject; and these are iiistory, poesy, travels; 
 books of diversion or amusement: among which we may 
 reckon also little common pamphlets, newspapers, or 
 Buch like: for many of these 1 confess once reading may 
 be sufficient, where there is a tolerable good memory. 
 
 Or when several persons are in company, and one 
 reads to the rest such a sort of writing, once hearing 
 may be sufficient, provided that every one be so attcn-
 
 OF BOOKS AND READING. 47 
 
 live, and so free, as to make their occasional remarks 
 oh such lines or sentences, such periods or paragraphs, 
 as in their opinion deserve it. Now all those paragraphs 
 or sentiments deserve a remark, which are new and un- 
 common, are noble and excellent for the matter of them, 
 are strong and convincing for the argument contained 
 in tliem, are beautiful and elegant for the language or 
 the manner, or any way worthy of a second rehearsal; 
 and at the request of any of the company let those para- 
 graphs be read over again. 
 
 Such parts also of these writings as may happen to 
 be remarkably stupid or silly, false or mistaken, should 
 become subjects of an occasional criticism, made by some 
 of the company; and this may give occasion to the repe- 
 tition of them, for the confirmation of the censure, for 
 amusement or diversion. 
 
 Still let it be remembered, that where the historical 
 narration is of consideral)le moment, where the poesy, 
 oratory, &,c. shine with some degrees of perfection and 
 glory, a single reading is neither sufficient to satisfy a 
 mind that has a true taste of tiiis sort of writings; nor 
 can we make the fullest and best im[)rovement of them 
 without proper reviews, and tliat in our retirement as 
 well as in company. Who is there that has any gout 
 for polite writings that would be sufficiently satisfied with 
 hearing the beautiful pages of Steele or Addison, the ad- 
 mirable descriptions of Virgil or Milton, or some of the 
 finest poems of Pope, Young, or Dryden, once read over 
 to them, and then lay them lay for ever? 
 
 XV. Among these writitigs of tiie lat'er kind we may 
 justly reckon short miscellaneous essays on all manner 
 of rubjects; such as the Occasional Papers, the Tatlers, 
 the Spectators, and some other books that have been 
 compiled out of the weekly or daily products of the 
 press, wherein are contained a great number of bright 
 thouglits, ingenious remarks, and admirable observations, 
 which have had a considerable share in furnishing the 
 present age witii knowledge and politeness. 
 
 I wish every paper among these writings could have 
 been recommended both as innocent and usefa'. I wish 
 every unseemly idea and wanton expre^ion had bees
 
 48 OF BOOKS AND READING. 
 
 banished from amon,^st them, and every trifling page 
 had been excluded from the company oi' the rest wlien 
 they had been bound up in volumes: but it is not to be 
 expected, in so i/iiperfect a state, that every page or 
 pi«ce of sucii mixed public papers should be entirely 
 blameless and laudable. Yet in the main it must be 
 confessed, tiiere is so much virtue, prudence, ingenuity, 
 and goodness in them, especially in eight vidumes of 
 Spectators, tliere is such a reverence for things sacred, 
 so many valuable remarks for our conduct in life, that 
 they are not improper to lie in parlours, or siunmer- 
 houses, or places of usual residence, to entertain our 
 thoughts in any moments of leisure or vacant iiours that 
 occur. There is such a discovery of the follies, iniqui- 
 ties, and fashionable vices of mankind contained in them, 
 that we may learn much of the humours and madnesses 
 of the age and the public world, in our own solitary 
 retirement, witliout the danger of frequenting vicious 
 company, or receiving the mortal infection. 
 
 XVI. Among other books which are proper and re- 
 quisite, in order to improve our knowledge in general, 
 or our acquaintance with any particular science, it is 
 necessary that we should be furnislied with Vocabularies 
 and Dictionaries of several sorts, viz. of common words, 
 idioms and phrases, in order to explain their sense; of 
 technical words or the terms of art, to show their use in 
 arts and sciences; of names of men, countries, towns, 
 rivers, &c. which are called historical and geographical 
 dictionaries, &c. Tliese are to be consulted and used upon 
 every occasion; and never let an unknown word f)ass in 
 your readir)g without seeking for its sense and meaning 
 in some of these writers. 
 
 If such books are not at hand, you must supply the 
 want of them as well .as you can, by consulting such as 
 can inform you: and it is useful to note down the matters 
 of doubt and inquiry in some pocket-book, and take the 
 first opportunity to get tliem resolved, either by persons 
 or books, when we meet with tliem. 
 
 XVII. Be not satisfied with a mere knowledtj-e of the 
 best authors that treat of any subject, instead of ac- 
 quainting ourselves tiioroughly with tiie subject itself.
 
 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 43 
 
 There is many a young' student that is fond of enlarging 
 his knowledo-e of books, and he contents himself with 
 the notice he has of their title-page, which is the a'ttain- 
 ment of a bookseller rather than a scliolar. Such per- 
 sons are under a great temptation to practise these two 
 follies. (1.) To heap up a great number of books at a 
 greater expense than most of them can bear, and to 
 furnish their libraries infinitely better than their under- 
 standing. And (2) when they have gotten such rich 
 treasures of knowledge upon their shelves, they imagine 
 themselves men of learning, and take a pride in talking 
 of tiie names of famous authors, and the subjects of 
 which they treat, without any real improvement of their 
 own minds in true science or wisdom. At best their 
 learning reaches no further tlian the indexes and table 
 of contents, while they know not how to judge or reason 
 concerning the matters contained in those authors. 
 
 And indeed how many volumes of learning soever a 
 man possesses, he is still deplorabl}' poor in his under- 
 standing, till he has made those several parts of learn- 
 ing his own property by reading and reasoning, by judg- 
 ing for himself, and .-emembering what he has read. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 
 
 I. If we would form a judtrment of a book which we 
 have not seen before, the first thing that offers is the 
 title-page, and we may sometimes guess a little at the 
 import and design of a book thereby; though it must be 
 confessed that titles are often deceitful, and promise 
 more than the Dook performs. The author's name, if it 
 be known in the world, may help us to conjecture at 
 the performance a little more, and lead us to guess in 
 what manner it is done. A perusal of the preface or 
 intrcjduction (which I before recommended) mav further 
 assist our judgment; and if there be an index of the con- 
 tents, it will give us still some advancing liglit. 
 
 If we have not leisure or inclination to read over the 
 5
 
 50 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 
 
 book itself regularly, then by the titles of chapters we 
 may be directed to peruse several particular chapters or 
 sections, and observe whetiier there be any thing valua- 
 ble or important in them. We shall find hereby whether 
 the author explains his ideas clearly, whether he reasons 
 strongly, whether he methodizes well, whether his 
 thought and sense be manly, and his manner polite; or, 
 on the other hand, whetiier he be obscure, weak, trifling, 
 and confused; or, finally, whether the matter may not 
 be solid and substantial, though the style and manner be 
 rude and disagreeable. 
 
 II. By having run through several chapters and sec- 
 tions in tliis manner, we may generally judge whether 
 the treatise be worth a complete perusal or no. But if 
 by such an occasional survey of some chapters our ex- 
 pectation be utterly discouraged, we may well lay aside 
 that book; for there is great probability he can be but 
 an indifferent writer on that subject, if he affords but 
 one prize to divers blanks, and it may be some down- 
 right blots too. The piece can hardly be valuable if in 
 seven or eigiit chapters wiiich we peruse tiiere be but 
 little truth, evidence, force of reasoning, beauty, in- 
 genuity of thought, &.C. mingled with much error, 
 ignorance, impertinence, dulness, mean and common 
 tiioughls, inaccuracy, sopliistry, railing, &c. Lile is 
 too short, and time is too precious, to read every new 
 book quite over, in order to find that it is not worth tho 
 reading. 
 
 III. There are some general mistakes which persons 
 are frequently guilty of in passing a judgment on the 
 books which tliey read. 
 
 One is tiiis; when a treatise is written but tolerably 
 well, we are ready to pass a favourable judgment of it, 
 and sometimes to exalt its character far beyond its 
 merit, if it agree with our own principles, and support 
 the opinions of our party. On the other hand, if the 
 aiithor be of different sentiments, and espouse contrary 
 principles, we can find neither wit nor reason, good 
 sense, nor good language in it; whereas, alas! if our 
 opinions of tilings were certain and infallible truth, yet 
 a silly author may draw his pen in the defence of them,
 
 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. SI 
 
 and he may attack even gross errors with feeble and 
 ridiculous arguments. Truth in this world is not al- 
 ways attended and supported by the wisest and safest 
 metfiods; and error, though it can never be maintained 
 by just reasoniivg, yet may be artt'ully coveied and de- 
 fended. An increnious writer may put excellent colours 
 upon his own mistakes. Some Socinians who deny the 
 Atonement of Christ, have written well, and with much 
 appearance of argument for their own unscriptural senti- 
 ments; and some wi iters for the Trinity and Satisfaction 
 of Christ, have exposed themselves and the sacred doc- 
 trine by their feeble and foolish manner of liandling it. 
 Books are never to be judged of merely by their subject, 
 or ihe opinion they represent, but by the justness of their 
 sentiment, the beauty of their maimer, the force of their 
 expression, or tiie strength of reason, and the weiglit of 
 just and proper argument wliich appears in theui. 
 
 But this folly and weakness of trifling, instead of 
 arguing, does not happen to fall oi.ly to the sliare of 
 Christian writers; there are some who have taken the 
 pen in hand to support the Deistical or Antichristian 
 scheme of our days, who make big pretences to reason 
 upon all occasions, but seem to iiave left it all beliind 
 them when they arc jesting with the Bible, and grinning 
 at the books wliich we call sacred. 
 
 Some of these performances would scarce have been 
 thought tolerable, if they had not assaulted the Chris- 
 tian faith, though they have now grown up to a place 
 amongst the admired pens. I much question whether 
 several of the rhapsodies called the Characteristics, 
 would ever have survived the first edition, if they had 
 not discovered so strong a tincture of infidelity, and now 
 and then cast out a profane sneer at our imly religion. 
 I have sometimes indeed been ready to wonder how a 
 book, in the main so loosely written, sliould ever ob- 
 tain so many readers among men of sense. Surely 
 they must be conscious in the perusal, that sometimes a 
 patrician may write as idly as a man of plebeian rank, 
 and trifle as much as an old school-man, though it is in 
 another form. 1 am forced to say, there are tew books 
 that ever 1 read, which made any pretences to a great
 
 52 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 
 
 genius, from which I derived so little valuable know- 
 ledge as from these treatises. Tliere is indeed amongst 
 them a lively pertness, a parade of literature, and much 
 of what some folks nowadays call politeness; but it is 
 hard that we should be bound to admire all the reveries 
 of this author under the penalty of being unfashionable. 
 
 IV. Another mistake which some persons fall into is 
 this: when they read a treatise on a subject with which 
 they have but Ii-ttle acquaintance, they find almost every 
 thing new and strange to them: their understandings are 
 greatly entertained and improved by the occurrence of 
 many things which were unknown to them before; they 
 admire the treatise, and commend the author at once; 
 whereas if they had but attained a good degree of skill 
 in that science, perhaps they would find that the author 
 had written very poorly, that neither his sense nor his 
 method was just and proper, and that he had nothing 
 in him but what was very common or trivial in his dis- 
 co'irses on that subject. 
 
 Hence it comes to pass that Cario and Faber, who 
 were both bred up to labour, and unacquamted with the 
 sciences, shall admire one of the weekly papers, or a 
 little pamphlet that talks pertly on some critical or 
 learned theme, because the matter is all strange and new 
 to them, and they join to extol the writer to the skies; and 
 for the same reason a young academic shall dwell upon 
 a Journal or an Observator that treats of trade and 
 politics in a dictatorial style, and shall be lavish in tl>e 
 praise of the author: while at the same time persons well 
 skilled in those different subjects, hear the impertinent 
 tattle with a just contempt: for tliey know how weak 
 and awkward many of those little diminutive discourses 
 are; and that those very papers of science, politics, or 
 trade, which were so much admired by the ignorant, are 
 perhaps but very mean performances; though it must 
 also be confessed there are some excellent essays in those 
 papers, and uiat upon science as well as trade. 
 
 V. But there is a danger of mistake in our judgment 
 of books, on the other band also: for wlien we have 
 made ourselves masters of any particular theme of know- 
 ledge, and surveyed it long on all sides, there is perhaps
 
 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 53 
 
 scarce any writer on that subject who muc]i entertains 
 and pleases us afterwards, because we find httle or no- 
 thing- new in him; and 3'et, in a true judgment, perhaps 
 his sentiments are most proper and just, his explication 
 clear, and his reasoninor stronof, and all the parts of the 
 disconrse are well connected and set in a happy litjht; 
 but we knew most of those things before, and therefore 
 they strike us not, and we are in danger of discommend- 
 ing them. 
 
 Tiius the lenrned and the unlearned have their several 
 distinct dangers and prejudices ready to attend them in 
 their judgment of the writings of men. These which I 
 have me?itioned are a specimen of them, and indeed but 
 a mere specimen; for the prejudices that warp our judg- 
 ment aside from truth are almost infinite and endless. 
 
 VI. Yet I cannot forbear to point out two or tliree 
 more of these fillies, tliat I may attempt something to- 
 wards t!ie correctioti of them, or at least to guard others 
 against them. 
 
 There are some persons ofa forward and lively temper, 
 and who are fond lo intermeddle with all appearances 
 of knowledge, will give their judgment on a book as 
 soon as the title of it is mentioned, for they would not 
 willingly seem ignorant of any thing that others know. 
 And especially if they hap[)en to have any su[)erior 
 character or possessions of this world, they fanc}' they 
 have a right to talk freely upon every thing that stirs 
 or ai)f)ears, tliough tliev have no other pretence to this 
 freedom. Divito is worth forty thousand pounds. F^oli- 
 tulus is a fine )'oung gentleman, who sparkles in all the 
 shinincf things of diess and equipage. Aulinus is a 
 small attendant on a minister of state, and is at court 
 almost every day. These three happened to meet on a 
 visit where an excellent book <»f warm and refined de- 
 votions lay in the window. What dull stuff is here! 
 said Divito; I never read so much nonsense in one page 
 in my life; nor would I give a shilling for a thousand 
 such treatises. Aulinus, thousrh a courtier, had not 
 used to sueak roualily, yet would not allow tiiere was a 
 line of good sense in the book, and pronounced him a 
 madman that wrote it in his secret retirement, and de- 
 5^
 
 64 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 
 
 clarod him a fool that published it after his death. Poli- 
 tulus had more manners than to dilier from men of such 
 rank and character, and tlierefore he sneered at the de- 
 vout expressions as he lieard tiiem read, and made the 
 divine treatise a matter of scorn and ridicule; and yet it 
 was well known, that neither this fine gentleman, nor 
 the courtier, nor tlie man of wealth, had a grain of de- 
 votion in tliem beyond their horses that waited at the 
 door with their gilded chariots. But tliis is the way of 
 the world; blind men will talk of the beauty of colours, 
 and of the harmony or disproportion of fitfures in paint- 
 ing; the deaf will prate of discords in music; and those 
 wiio have nothing to do vvitii religion will arraign tiie 
 best treatise on divine subjects, though they do not un- 
 derstand the very language of the scripture, nor tlie com- 
 mon terms or phrases used in Christianity. 
 
 VII. 1 might here name another sort of judges, who 
 will set theuisflves up to decide in favour of an author, 
 or will pronounce him a mere blunderer, according to 
 the company tiiey have kept, and the judgment they 
 liave heard passed upon a JDOok by others of their own 
 tilamp or size, though they have no knowledge or taste 
 of the subject themselves. These, with a fluent and 
 voluble tongue, become mere echoes of tlie praises or 
 censures of other men. Sonillus happened to be in the 
 room where the three gentlemen just mentioned gave 
 out their thoughts so freely upon an admirable book of 
 devotion: and two days afterwards he met with some 
 friends of his, where this book was the subject of con- 
 versation and praise. Sonillus wondered at their dul- 
 ness, and repeated the jests which he had heard cast 
 upon the weakness of the author. His knowledge of 
 the book, and his decision upon it, was all from hearsay, 
 for he had never seen it; and^f he had read it through, 
 he had no manner of right to judge about the things of 
 religion, having no more knowledge or taste of any 
 thing of inward piety than a hedgehog or a bear has of 
 politeness. 
 
 When I bad written these remarks, Probus, who 
 knew all the four gentlemen, wished they might have 
 an opportunity to re«ul their own ciiaracter as it is repre-
 
 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 55 
 
 Bented here. Alas! Probus, I fear it would do them 
 very little good, though it may guard others against 
 their folly: for there is never a one of them would find 
 their own name in these characters if tliey read them; 
 though all tlieir acquaintance would acknowledge the 
 features immediately, and see the persons almost alive 
 in the picture. 
 
 VI 11. There is yet another mischievous principle 
 whicli prevails among some persons in passing a judg- 
 ment on the writings of others, and tliat is, when from 
 the secret stimulations of vanity, pride, or envy, they de- 
 spise a valuable book, and throw contempt upon it by 
 wholesale: and if you ask them the reason of their severe 
 censure, they will tell you, perhaps, they have found a 
 mistake or two in it, or there are a {"ew sentiments 
 or expressions not suited to their tooth and humour. 
 Bavius cries down an admirable treatise of philosophy, 
 and says there is atheism in it, because there are a few 
 sentences that seem to suppose brutes to be n)ere ma- 
 chines. Under tlie same intiuence, Momus will not al- 
 low Paradise Lost to be a good poem, because he lias 
 read some flat and heavy lines in it; and he thought Milton 
 had too much honour done him. It is a paltry humour 
 that inclines a man to rail at any human performance, 
 because it is not absolutely perfect. Horace would give 
 us a better example: — 
 
 Sunt delicta tameii quibus ignovisse velimus, 
 
 IVain iif(jue cliorda sotiuin rtddit quemvult manus et mens, 
 
 IVec semper leriet qundcunque iniiiabilur arcus: 
 
 V{ rum ubi plura iiiteiit in carmine, iioii ego paucis 
 
 Offendar macuiis, quas aiil incuria fudit, 
 
 Aul humaiia parum cavil natura. 
 
 Hor. de Art. Poel. 
 Thus Englished: — 
 
 Be not two rigi<l]y censorious: 
 
 A string may jar in the best master's hand, 
 
 And ilie most sUilful archer miss his aim: 
 
 So in a poem elegantly writ, 
 
 1 will not quarrel with a small mistake, 
 
 Such as our nature's frailly may excuse. 
 
 Roscormnon. 
 
 This noble translator of Horace, whom I here cite, 
 has a very honourable opinion of Homer in the niamj
 
 56 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 
 
 J'et he allows him to be justly censured for some grosser 
 spots and blemishes in him: — 
 
 For who without aversion ever looked 
 On holy garbage, though by Homer cooked; 
 Whose railing heroes, and whose wounded gods, 
 Make some suspect he snores as well as nods. 
 
 Such wise and just distinctions ou^ht to be made 
 when we pass a judgment on mortal things; but Envy 
 condemns by wholesale. Envy is a cursed plant; some 
 fibres of it are rooted almost in every man's nature, and 
 it works in a sly and imperceptible manner, and that 
 even in some persons who in the main are men of wis- 
 dom and piety. They know not how to bear the praises 
 that are given to an ingenious author, especially if he 
 be living, and of their profession; and therefore they will, 
 if possible, find some blemish in his writings, that they 
 may nibble and bark at it. Tliey will endeavour to 
 diminish the honour of the best treatise that has been 
 written on any subject, and to render it useless by their 
 censures, rather than suffer their envy to lie asleep, and 
 the little mistakes of that author to pass unexposed. 
 Perhaps they will commend the work in gencial with a 
 pretended air of candour; but pass so many sly and in- 
 vidious remarks upon it afterwacds, as shall elfectually 
 destroy all their cold and formal praises.* 
 
 IX. When a person feels any tiling of this invidious 
 humour working in him, he may by the following con- 
 sideration attempt the correction of it. Let iiiin think 
 with himself how many are the beauties of such an 
 author whom he censures, in comparison of his blem- 
 ishes, and remember that it is a much more honourable 
 and good-natured thing to find out peculiar beauties 
 than faults; true and undisguised candour is a much 
 more amiable and divine talent than accusation. Let 
 
 " I grant when Wisdonm itself censures a weak and foolish perfor- 
 mance, it will pass its severe sentence, and yet with an air of candour, 
 if the author has any thing valuable in him: but Envy will sometimes 
 imitate the same favourable airs, in order to make its false cavils 
 appear more just and credible, when it has a mind to snarl at sonie 
 of the brightest performances of a human writer.
 
 IUDGME>fT OF BOOKS. 57 
 
 him reflect a^ain, what an easy matter it is to find a 
 mistake in all liuman authors, who are necessarily fal- 
 lible and imperfect. 
 
 I confess, where an author sets up himself to ridicule 
 divine writerp, and things sacred, and yet assumes an air 
 of sovereignty and dictatorship, to exalt and ahnost deify 
 all tl>e pagan ancients, and cast his scorn upon all the 
 moderns, especially if they do but savour of miracles and 
 the gospel; it is fit the admirers of this author should 
 know, that nature and these ancients are not the same, 
 though some writers always unite them. Reason and 
 nature never made these ancient heathens their standard, 
 either of art or genius, of writing or heroism. Sir 
 Richard Steele, in his little essay, called the Christian 
 Hero, has shown our Saviour and St. Paul in a more 
 glorious and transcendent light than a Virgil or Homer 
 could do for tlieir Achilles, Ulysses, or ^^neas: and I am 
 persuaded, if Moses and David liad not been inspired 
 writers, these very men would have ranked them at 
 least with Herodotus and Horace, if laot given them the 
 superior place. 
 
 But where an author has many beauties consistent 
 with virtue, piety, and truth, let not little critics exalt 
 themselves, and shower down their ill nature upon him 
 without bounds or measure; but rather stretch tlieir own 
 powers of soul till they write a treatise superior to that 
 which they condeum. This is the noblest and surest 
 manner of suppressing what they censure. 
 
 A little wit, or a litlle learning, with a good degree 
 of vanity and ill, nature, will teach a man to pour out 
 whole pages of remark and repruacli upon one real or 
 fancied mistake of a great and good author: and this 
 may be dressed up by the same talents, and made enter- 
 taining enough to the world, which loves reproach and 
 scandal: but if the remarker would but once make this 
 attempt, and try to outshine the author by writing a 
 better book on the same subject, he would soon be con- 
 vinced of his own insufficiency, and perhaps might learn 
 to judge more justly and favourably of the performance 
 of other men. A cobbler or a shoemaker may find some 
 httle fault with the latchet of a shoe that an Apellea
 
 58 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 
 
 had painted, and perhaps with justice too, when the 
 whole figure and portraiture is such as none but Apelles 
 could paint. Every poor low genius may cavil at wliat 
 the lichest and the noblest hath performed; but it is a 
 sign of envy and malice, added to the littleness and 
 poverty of genius, when such a cavil becomes a sufficient 
 reason to pronounce at once against a bright author, 
 and a whole valuable treatise. 
 
 X. Another, and that a very frequent fault, in passing 
 a judgment upon books, is this, that persons spread the 
 same praises or the same reproaches over a whole trea- 
 tise, and all tlie chapters in it, which are due only to 
 some of them. Tiiey judge as it were by wholesale, 
 without making a due distinction between the several 
 parts or sections of the performance; and this is ready 
 to lead those who hear them talk into a dangerous mis- 
 take. Florus is a great and just admirer of the late 
 Archbishop of Cambray, and mightily commends every 
 thing he has written, and will allow no blemish in him; 
 whereas the writings of that excellent man are not all 
 of a piece; nor are those very books of his, vvliicli have 
 a good number of beautiful and valuable sentiments in 
 them, to be recommended throughout, or all at once 
 without distinction. Tiiere is his demonstration of the 
 Existence and Attributes of God, which has justly gained 
 a universal esteem, for bringing down souie new and 
 noble thouglits of the wisdom of the creation to the un- 
 derstanding of the unlearned, and they are such as well 
 deserve the perusal of the man of science, perhaps as 
 far as the 30th section; but there are many of tlie follow- 
 ing sections which are very weakly written, and some of 
 them built upon an enthusiastical and mistaken sclieme, 
 akin to tlie peculiar opmions of Father Malebranche; such 
 as sect 51, 53, "That we know the finite only by the ideas 
 of the infinite." Sect. 55, 60, "That the superior rea- 
 son in man is God iiirnself acting in him." Sect. 61, 
 62, "Tliat tile idea of unity cannot be taken from crea- 
 tures, but from God only:" and several of his sections, 
 from 65 to 68, upon the doctrine of liberty, seem to be 
 inconsistent. Again, toward tiie end of iiis book, he 
 Bpends more time and pains than are needful in refuting
 
 jrrPGMEXT OF BOOKS. 59 
 
 the Epicurian fancy of atoms moving eternally through 
 infinite changes, which miglit be done etiectually in a 
 much shorter and better way. 
 
 So in his postliuuions essays, and his letters, there are 
 many admirable thoughts in practical and experimental 
 reliuion, and very beautiful and divine sentiments in 
 devotion; but sometimes in large paragra|)lis, or in whohj 
 chapters tuofetiier, you find him in the clouds of mystic 
 divinity, and he never descends within the reach of 
 comn)on ideas or common sense. 
 
 But remember this also, that there are but few such 
 au'hors as this great man, who talks &i very weakly 
 sometimes, and yet in otiier places is so much superior 
 to the greatest part of writers. 
 
 Tiiere are otiier instances of this kind, where men of 
 good sense in the main set up forjudges, but ihey carry 
 too many of their passions about tiiem, and tiien, like 
 lovers, tiiey are in rapture at the name of tiieir fair idol: 
 Ihey lavisii out all iheir incense upon tiiat slirine, and 
 cannot bear tiie thouglit of admitting a blemish in them. 
 
 You siiall iiear Altisono not only admire Casimire of 
 Poland in his lyrics, as tlie utmost purity and perfection 
 of Latin poesy; but he will allow nothing in him to be 
 extravagant or taulty. and will vindicate every line: nor 
 can 1 inucli wonder at it, when 1 have heard him pro- 
 nounce Lucan the best of the ancient Latins, and idolize 
 his very weaknesses and mistakes. 1 will readily ac- 
 knowledge tlie Odes of Casimire to have more spirit and 
 force, more magnificence and fire in them, and in twenty 
 places arise to more dignity and beauty than I could 
 ever meet with in any of our modern poets: yet I am 
 afraid to say that " Palla sutilis e luce" has dignity 
 enough in it for a robe made for the Almighty: Lib. iv. 
 Od. 7, 1, 37, or tiiat the man of virtue in Od. 3, 1. 44, 
 " under the ruins of heaven and earth, will bear up the 
 fragments of the falling world with a comely wound on 
 his shoulders." 
 
 Late ruenti 
 
 Subjiciens sua colla caelo 
 Muiidum dtcuro viilnere fulcie; 
 Interque caeli fragmina.
 
 60 JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. 
 
 Yet I must needs confess also, that it is hardly possi- 
 ble a man should rise to so exalted and sublime a vein 
 of poesy as Casimire, who is not in danger now and 
 then of such extravagances; but still they should not be 
 admired or defended, if we pretend to pass a just judg- 
 ment on the writings of the greatest men. 
 
 Milton is a noble genius, and the world agrees to con- 
 fess it: his poem of Paradise Lost is a glorious perfor- 
 mance, and rivals the most famous pieces of antiquity; 
 but that reader must be deeply prejudiced in favour of 
 the poet, who can imagine him equal to himself through 
 all that work. Neither the sublime sentiments, nor 
 dignity of numbers, nor force or beauty of expression, 
 are equally maintained, even in all those parts which 
 requn-e grandeur or beauty, force or harmony. I can- 
 not bi]t consent to Mr. Diyden's opinion, though I will 
 not use his words, that for some scores of lines together 
 there is a coldness and flatness, and almost a perfect 
 absence of tliat spirit of poesy which breathes, and lives, 
 and flames in other pages. 
 
 XI. When you hear any person pretending to give 
 his judgment of a book, consider with yourself whether 
 he be a capable judge, or whether he may not lie under 
 some unhappy bias or prejudice, for or against it, or 
 whether he has made a sufficient inquiry to form his 
 justest sentiments upon it. 
 
 Though he be a man of good sense, yet he is incapa- 
 ble of passing a true judgment of a particular book, if 
 he be not well acquainted with the subject of which it 
 treats, and the manner in which it is written, be it verse 
 or prose: or if he hath not had an opportunity or leisure 
 to look sufficiently into the writing itself. 
 
 Again, though he be ever so capable of judging on 
 all other accounts, by the knowledge of tlie subject, 
 and of the book itself, yet you are to consider also 
 whether there be any tiling in the author, in his man- 
 ner, in his language, in his opinions, and his particular 
 party, which may warp the sentiments of him tiiat judg- 
 eth, to think well or ill of the treatise, and to pass too 
 favourable or too severe a sentence concerning it. 
 
 If you find that he is either an unfit judge because of 
 
 I
 
 JUDGMENT OF BOftKS. 61 
 
 his ignorance or because of his prejudices, his judcrrnent 
 of that bock should go for notliiiig. Piiilographo is a 
 good divine, a useful preacher, and an approved exposi- 
 tor of scripture; but lie never had a taste for any of the 
 polite learning of the age; he was fond of every thing 
 that appeared in a devout dress; but all verse was alike 
 to him: he told me last week there was a very fine book 
 of poems published on the three Christian Graces, Faith, 
 Hope, and ("iiarity; and a most elegant piece of oratory 
 on the four last things. Death, Judgment, Heaven, 
 and Hell. Do you think I sliall buy either of those 
 books merely on Philographo's recommendation? 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF LIVING INSTRUCTIONS AND LECTURES, OF TEACHERS 
 AND LEARNERS. 
 
 I. There are few persons of so penetrating a genius, 
 and so just a judgment, as to be capable of learning the 
 arts and sciences without the assistance of teachera. 
 There is scarce any science so safely and so speedily 
 learned, even by the noblest genius and the best books, 
 without a tutor. His assistance is absolutely necessary 
 for most persons, and it is very useful for all beginners. 
 Books are a sort of dumb teachers; they point out the 
 way to learning; but if we labour under any doubt or 
 mistake, they cannot answer sudden questions, or explain 
 present doubts and difficulties: this is properly the work 
 of a living instructor. 
 
 n. There are very few tutors who are sufficiently 
 furnished with such universal learning, as to sustain all 
 the parts and provinces of instruction. The sciences are 
 numerous, and many of them lie far wide of eacli other; 
 and it is best to enjoy the instructions of two or three 
 tutors at least, in order to run through the whole ency- 
 clo[)a3dia, or circle of sciences, where it may be obtained; 
 then we may expect that each will teach the few parts 
 of learning which are committed to his care in greater 
 6
 
 62 OF LIVING INSTKUCTIOVS 
 
 perfection. But where this advantage cannot be had 
 with convenience, one great man must supply the place 
 of two or three common instructors. 
 
 III. It is not sutlicient lliat instructors be competently 
 skilful in those sciences wiiich tliey profess and teach; but 
 they should liave skill also in the art or method of 
 teacliing, and patience in tiie practice of it. 
 
 It is a great unhappiness indeed, when persons by a 
 spirit of party, or faction, or interest, or by purchase, 
 are set up for tutors, who have neither due knowledge 
 of science, nor skill in the way of communication. And, 
 alas! there are others who, with all their ignorance 
 and insutHciency, have self admiration and elFroiitery 
 enough to set up tlieinselves; and the poor pupils fare 
 accordingly, and grow lean in their understandings. 
 
 And let it be observed also, theie are some very 
 learned men, who know much themselves, but have not 
 the talent of communicating their own knowledge; or 
 else they are lazy, and will take no pains at it. I^ither 
 they have an obscure and perplexed way of talking, or 
 they show their learning uselessly, and make a long 
 periphrasis on every word of the book they explain, or 
 they cannot condescend to young beginners, or they run 
 presently into the elevated parts of the science, because 
 it gives themselves greater pleasure, or they are soon 
 angry and im()atient, and cannot bear vvitii a few im- 
 pertinent cpiestions of a young inquisitive and sprightly 
 genius; or else they skim over a science in a very slight 
 and superficial survey, and never lead their disciples 
 into the depths of it. 
 
 IV. A good tutor should have characters and qualifi- 
 cations very dirterent from all these. He is such a one 
 as both can and will apply himself with diligence and 
 concern, and indefatigable patience, to eHect what he 
 undertakes; to teach his disciples, and see that they 
 learn; to adapt his way and method, as near as niay be, 
 to the various dispositions, as well as to the capacities 
 of those vvliom he instructs, and to inquii'e often into 
 their progress and improvement. 
 
 And he should take paiticular care of his Ovvn tem- 
 per and conduct, that there be nothing in hirn or about
 
 BY TEACHERS. 63 
 
 him wliich may be of ill example; nothing that may 
 savour of a haughty temper, or a mean and sordid spirit; 
 nothing' tliat may expose him to the aversion or to the 
 contempt of his scholars, or create a prejudice in their 
 minds against him and his instrnctions: but, if possible, 
 he should have so much of a natural candour and sweet- 
 ness mixed with all tlie improvements of learriiiiir, as 
 might convey knowledge into the minds of iiis disciples 
 with a sort of gentle insinuation and sovereign dchglit, 
 and may tempt them into the highest improvements of 
 their reason by a resistless and insensible force. But I 
 shall have occasion to say more on this subject, wlien I 
 come to speak more directly of tiie methods of the com- 
 munication of knowledge. 
 
 V. The learner sliould attend with constancy and care 
 on all the instructions of his tutor; and if he happens to 
 be at any time unavoidably iiindered, he must endeavour 
 to retrieve the loss by double industry for time to come. 
 He should always recollect and review his lectures, 
 read over some other author or authors upon t!ie same 
 subject, confer upon it with his instructor, or with his 
 associates, and v/rite down the clearest result of his 
 present thoughts, reasonings, and in(juiries, which he 
 may have recourse to hereafter, either to re-examine 
 them and to apply tliem to projier use, or to improve 
 them farther to his own advantage. 
 
 VI. A student should never satisfy himself with bare 
 attendance on tlie lectures of his tutor, unless he clearly 
 takes up his sense and meaning, and undeistands the 
 things which he teaches. A young disciple should be- 
 have himself so well as to gain the affection and ear of 
 his instructor, that upon every occasion he may, with 
 the utmost freedom, ask questions, and talk over his 
 own sentiments, his doubts, and difficulties with him, 
 and m an humble and modest manner desire the solution 
 of them. 
 
 VII. Let the learner endeavour to maintain an hono- 
 rable opinion of his instructor, and heedfully listen to 
 his instructions, as one willing to be led by a more ex- 
 perienced guide; and though he is not bound to fall in 
 
 I with every sentiment of his tutor, yet he should so far
 
 64 OF LIVING IKSTRUCTIONS, &C. 
 
 comply with him as to resolve upon a just consideration 
 of llie matter, and try and examine it thorouglilv with 
 an honest lieart, before lie presume to determine against 
 him: and then it shuuld be done with great modesty, 
 with an humble jealousy of himself, and apparent un- 
 willingness to dirter from his tutor, if the force of argu- 
 ment and truth did not constrain him. 
 
 VIII. It is a frequent and growing folly in our age, 
 that pert yoimg disciples soon fancy tliemselves wiser 
 than those who teacli tliem: at the hist view, or upon a 
 very little thought, they can discern the insignificancy, 
 weakness, and mistake of what their teacher asserts. 
 The youth of our day, by an early petulancy, and pre- 
 tended liberty of thinking for themselves, dare reject at 
 once, and that with a sort of scorn, all those sentiments 
 and doctrines which tiieir teachers have determined, 
 perhaps, after long and repeated consideration, after 
 years of mature study, careful observation, and much 
 
 (^jtrudent experience. 
 
 IX. It is true teachers and masters are not infallible, 
 nor are they always in the right; and it must be ac- 
 knowledged, it is a matter of some difficulty fur younger 
 minds to maintain a just and solemn veneration for the 
 authority and advice of their parents and tlie instruc- 
 tions of their tutors, and yet at the same time to secure 
 to tiiemselves a just freedom in their own thouglits. 
 We are sometimes too ready to imbibe all their sei»ti- 
 metits williout examination, if we reverence and love 
 them; or, on the other hand, if we take all freedom to 
 contest their opinions, we are sometimes tempted to cast 
 otF that love and reverence to their persons which God 
 and nature dictate. Youth is ever in danger of these 
 two extremes. 
 
 X. But I think 1 may safely conclude thus: Though 
 the authority of a teacher must not absolutely determine 
 the judgment of liis pupil, yet young and raw and un- 
 experienced learners should pay all proper deference that 
 can be to the instructions of their parents and teachers, 
 short of absolute submission to tlieir dictates. Yet still 
 we must maintain this, that they should never receive 
 any opinion into their assent, whether it be conformable
 
 OF LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 65 
 
 or contrary to the tutor's mind, without sufficient evi- 
 dence of it first given to their own reasoning powers. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 
 
 The first thing required in reading an author, or in 
 hearing lectures of a tptor, is, that you well understand 
 the lajiguage in w'hicli they write or speak. Living 
 lariguag(;p, or such as are the native tongue of any na- 
 tion in tlie present age, are more easily learned and 
 taught by a few rules and much familiar converse, 
 joined to the reading some proper authors. Tlie dead 
 languages are such as cease to be spoken in any nation; 
 and even these are more easy to be taught (as far as 
 may be) in tiiat method wherein living languages are 
 best learned, i. e. partly by rule, and partly by rote or 
 custom. And it may not be improper in this place to 
 mention a very few directions for that purpose. 
 
 I. Begin with the most necessary and most general 
 observations and rules which belong to that language, 
 compiled in tlie form of a grammar; and tliese are but 
 few in most languages. Tiie regular declensions and 
 variations of nouns and verbs should be early and 
 thoruuglily learned by heart, together with twenty or 
 thirty of the plainest and most necessary rules of syntax. 
 
 But let it be observed that, in almost all languages, 
 some of the very commonest nouns and verbs have many 
 irregularities in them; sucli are the common auxiliary 
 verbs — to be, and to have — to do, and to be done, &c. 
 The comparatives and superlatives of the words — good, 
 bad, great, small, much, little, &c.; and these should be 
 learned among the first rules and variations, because 
 they continually occur. 
 
 But as to other words, which are less frequent, let but 
 
 few of the anomalies or irregularities of the tongue be 
 
 taught among the general rules to young beginners. 
 
 Tliese will come in afterwards to be learned by advanced 
 
 6*
 
 56 OF LEARNING \ LANGUAGE. 
 
 scholars in a way of notes on the rules, as in the Latin 
 Grammar, called the Oxford Grammar, or in Ruddi- 
 man's notes on his Rudiments, &c. Or they may be 
 learned by examples alone, when they do occur; or by 
 a larger and more complete system of grammar, vvliich 
 descends to the more particular forms of speech; so the 
 helero -lite nouns of the Latin tongue, which are taught 
 in the soiiool-book called Quae Genus, should not be 
 touched in the first learning of the ruduuents of the 
 tongue. 
 
 II. As tlie grammar by which you learn any tongue 
 should be very short at first, !»o it must be written in a 
 tongue with which you are well acquainted, and wliich 
 is very familiar to you. Therefore I much prefer even 
 the commou English accidence (as it is called) to any 
 grammar whatsoever written in Latin for tliisend. The 
 English accidence has, doubtless, many fiuits; but those 
 editions of it which were printed since tlie year ll^S, 
 under the correction of a learned professor, are the best; 
 or the English rudiments of the Latin tongue, by that 
 learned North Briton, Mr. Ruddiman, which are per- 
 haps the most useful books of this kind I am acquainted 
 witli; especially because I would not depart too fir from 
 the ancient and conmion forms of teaciiing, which seve- 
 ral good grammarians have done, to the great detriment 
 of such lads as have been removed to otiier schools. 
 
 The tiresome and unreasonable method of learning" 
 the Latin tongue by a grammar, with Latin rules, 
 w^ould appear, even to those masters who teach it so, in 
 its proper colours of absurdity and ridicule, if those very 
 masters would attempt to learn the Chinese or Arabic 
 tongue, by a grammar written in the Chinese or Arabic 
 language. Mr. Clarke, of Hull, has said enough in a 
 few pages of the preface to his new grammar, 1123, to 
 make that practice appear very irrational and improper; 
 though he has said it in so warm and angry a manner, 
 that it has kindled Mr. Ruddiman to write against liim, 
 and to say what can be said to vindicate a practice, 
 which, I think, is utterly indefensible. 
 
 III. At the same time when you begin the rules, begin 
 also the practice. As, for instance, when you decline
 
 OF LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 67 
 
 musa, mus8B, read and construe the same day some easy 
 Latin author, by the help of a tutor, or with some Eng- 
 lish translation: choose such a book whose style is 
 simple, and the subject of discourse is very plain, obvi- 
 ous, and not hard to be understood: many little books 
 have been composed with this view, as Corderius's Col- 
 loquies, some of Erasmus's little writings, the sayings of 
 the wise men of Greece, Cato's moral distiches, and the 
 rest which arp collected at the end of Mr. Ruddiman's 
 English Grammar; or the Latin Testament, of Castel- 
 lio's translation, which is accounted the pmest Latin, 
 &c. These are very proper upon this occasion, together 
 with /Esop's and Phaedrus's Fables, and little stories, 
 and the common and daily affairs of domestic life, writ- 
 ten in the Latin tongue. But let tlie higher poets, and 
 orators, and historians, and other writers whose lan- 
 guage is more laboured, and whose sense is more re- 
 mote from common life, be rather kept out of sight till 
 there be some proficiency made in tlie language. 
 
 It is strange that masters should teach children so 
 early Tully's Epistles or Orations, or the poerns of Ovid 
 or Virgil, whose sense is often ditHcult to find because 
 of tlie great transposition of the words; and when they 
 have found the grammatical sense, they have very little 
 use of it, because they have scarce any notion of the 
 ideas and design of the writer, it being so remote from 
 the knowledge of a child: whereas little common stories 
 and colloquies, and the rules of a child's beliaviour, and 
 such obvious subjects, will much better assist the memo- 
 ry of the words by their acquaintance with the things. 
 
 IV. Here it may be useful also to appoint the learner 
 to get by heart the more common and useful words, both 
 nouns and adjectives, pronouns and verbs, out of some 
 well formed and judicious vocabulary. This will furnish 
 1 im vvitli names for the most familiar ideas. 
 
 V. As soon as ever the learner is capable, let the tu- 
 tor converse with him in the tongue which is to ba 
 learned, if it be a living language, or if it be Latin, 
 which is the living language of the learned world: thus 
 he will acquaint lihnself with it a little by rote, as well 
 as by rule, and by living practice, as well as by reading tha
 
 b» OF LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 
 
 writing's of the dead. For if a child of two years old by this 
 method learns to speak his mother tonofue, I am sure the 
 same method will greatly assist and facilitate the learn- 
 ing of any other language to those who are older. 
 
 VI. Let the chief lessons, and the chief exercises of 
 schools, V. c. where Latm is learned (at least for the 
 first year or more,) be the nouns, verbs, and general 
 rules of syntax, together with a mere translation out of 
 some Latin author into English; and let scholars be 
 employed and examined by their teacher daily in redu- 
 cing the words to their original or theme, to the first 
 case of nouns or first tense of verbs, and giving an ac- 
 count of their formations and changes, their syntax and 
 dependencies, wliich is called parsing. Tliis is a most 
 useful exercise to lead boys into a complete and thorough 
 knowledge of what they are doing. 
 
 The English translations, wiiich the learner has made, 
 should be well corrected by the master, and then they 
 should be translated back again for tlie next day's ex- 
 ercise by the child into Latin, while the Latin author is 
 withheld from him; but he should have the Latin words 
 given him in their first case and tense; and should never 
 be left to seek them himself from a dictionary; and 
 the nearer he translates it to the words of the author 
 whence he derives his English, the more sliould the 
 child be commended. Thus he will gain skill in two 
 languages at once. I think Mr. Clarke has done good 
 service to the public by his translations of Latin books 
 for this end. 
 
 But let the foolish custom of employing every silly 
 boy to make themes or declamations and verses upon 
 moral subjects, in a strange tongue, before he under- 
 stands common sense, even in his own language, be 
 abandoned and cashiered for ever. 
 
 Vn. As the learner improves, let him acquaint him- 
 self with the anomalous words, the irregular declensions 
 of nouns and verbs, the more uncommon connexions of 
 words m syntax, and the exceptions to the general rules 
 of grammar. But let them all be reduced, as far as 
 possible, to those several original and general rules,
 
 OF LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 69 
 
 which he has learned, as the proper rank and place to 
 which they belong. 
 
 VIII. While he is doing this, it m-ay be proper for 
 him to converse with autliors which are a little more 
 difficult, witli historians, orators, poets, &c.; but let his 
 tutor inform him of the Roman or Greek customs which 
 occur therein. liCt the lad then translate some parts of 
 them into his mother tongue, or into some other well 
 known language, and thence back again into the origi- 
 nal language of the author. But let the verse be trans- 
 lated into prose, for poesy does not belong to grammar. 
 
 IX. By this time he will be able to acquaint himself 
 with some of the special emphases of speech, and the 
 peculiar idioms of the tongue. He sliould be taught 
 also the special beauties and ornaments of the language; 
 and this m-ay be doi::3 partly by the help of authors, who 
 have collected such idioms and cast them into an easy 
 method, and partly by the judicious remarks which his 
 instructor may make upon tlie authors which he reads, 
 wheresijever such peculiarities of speech or special ele- 
 gancies occur. 
 
 X. Though the labour of learning all the lessons by 
 heart that are borrowed from poetical authors which 
 they construe, is an unjust and unnecessary imposition 
 upon the learner, yet he must take the pains to commit 
 to memory the most necessary, if not all the common 
 rules of grammar, with an example or two under each 
 of them: and some of the select and most useful periods 
 or sentences in the Latin or Greek author which he 
 reads may be learned by heart, together with some of 
 the choicer lessons out of their poets; and sometimes 
 whole episodes out of heroic poems, &c. as well as 
 whole odes among the lyrics, may deserve this honour. 
 
 XI. Let this be always carefully observed, that the 
 learners perfectly understand the sense as well as the 
 language of all those rules, lessons, or paragraphs, which 
 they attempt to commit to memory. Let the teacher 
 possess them of their true meaning, and then the labour 
 will become easy and pleasant: whereas, to impose on a 
 child to get by heart a long scroll of unknown phrases 
 or words, without any ideas under them, is a piece of
 
 70 OF LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 
 
 useless tyranti}?, a cruel imposition, and a practice fitter 
 for a jackdaw or a parrot, than for any thing that wears 
 the shape of a man. 
 
 XII. And here, I think, I have a fair occasion given 
 rne to consider that question which has been often de- 
 bated in conversation, viz. whetlier the teaching of a 
 school full of boys to learn Latin by the lieathen poets, as 
 Ovid in his Epistles, and the silly fables of his Meta- 
 morphoses, Horace, Juvenal, and Martial, in their im- 
 pure odes, satires, and epigrams, &c. is so proper and 
 agreeable a practice in a Clu-istian country. 
 
 XIII. (1.) I grant the language and style of those 
 men, who wrote in their own native tongue, must be 
 more pure and perfect, in some nice elegancies and 
 peculiarities, than modern writers of other nations who 
 have imitated them; and it is owned also, that the beau- 
 ties of tiieir poesy may much excel; but in either of 
 these things boys cannot be supposed to be much im- 
 proved or injured by one or the other. 
 
 XIV. (2.) It shall be confessed too that modern poets, 
 in every living language, have brought into their work 
 so many words, epithets, phrases, and metaphors, from 
 the heatlien fables and stories of their gods and heroes, 
 that in order to understand these modern writers, it is 
 necessary to know a little of those ancient follies: but it 
 may be answered, that a good dictionary, or such a book 
 as tlie Pantheon or history of those Gentile deities, may 
 give suflicient information of those stories, so far as they 
 are necessary and useful to school boys. 
 
 XV. (3.) I will grant yet further, that lads who are 
 designed to make great scholars or divines, may, by 
 reading these heathen poets, be taught better to under- 
 stand the writings of the ancient fathers against the 
 heathen religion; and they learn here what ridiculous 
 fooleries the Gentile nations believed as the articles of 
 tlieir faith, what wretched and foul idolatries they in- 
 dulged and practised as duties of religion, for want of 
 the divine revelation. But this perhaps may be learned 
 as well either by the Pantheon, or some other collection 
 at school; or after they have left the school, they may
 
 OF LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 71 
 
 read what their own incUnations lead them to, and 
 whatsoever of this kind may be really useful for them. 
 
 XVI. But the great question is, whetlier all these ad- 
 vantages which have been mentioned will compensate 
 for the long months and years that are wasted among 
 their incredible and tridii.o; romances, their false and 
 shameful stories of their gods and goddesses and their 
 amours, and the lewd heroes and vicious poets of the 
 heathen world. Can these idle and ridiculous tales be 
 of any real and solid advantage in human life.^ Do they 
 not too often defile the mind with vain, mischievous, 
 and impure ideas? Do they not stick long upon the 
 fancy, and leave an unhappy influence upon youth? Do 
 they not tincture the imagination with folly and vice 
 very early, and pervert it from all that is good and holy? 
 
 XVII. Upon the whole survey of things it is my 
 opinion that, for almost all boys who learn this tongue, 
 it would be much safer to be taught Latin poesy (as 
 soon and as far as they can need it) from those excellent 
 translations of David's Psalms, which are given us by 
 Buchanan in the various measures of Horace; and the 
 lower classes had better read Dr. Johnston's translation 
 of these psalms, another elegant writer of the Scots 
 nation, instead of Ovid's Epistles; for he has turned the 
 same psalms, perhaps with greater elegance, into elegiac 
 verse, whereof the learned W. Benson, esq. has lately 
 published a noble edition, and I hear that these psalms 
 are honoured with an increasing use in the schools of 
 Holland and Scotland. A stanza or a couplet of these 
 writers would now and then stick upon the minds of 
 youth, and would furnish them infinitely better with 
 pious and moral thoughts, and do something towards 
 making them good men and Christians. 
 
 XVtIl. A little book collected from the psalms of 
 both these translators Buchanan and Johnston, and a 
 few other Christian poets, would be of excellent use for 
 schools to begin their instructions in Latin poesy; and I 
 am well assured this would be richly sufficient for all 
 those in lower rank, who never design a learned profes- 
 sion, and yet custom has foolishlv bound them to learn 
 that language.
 
 72 OF LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 
 
 But lest it should be thought hard to cast Horace 
 and Virgil, Ovid and Juvenal entirely out of the schools, 
 I add, if here and there a few lyric odes, or pieces of 
 satires, or some episodes of heroic verse, with here and 
 there an epigram of Martial, all which sliall be clear 
 from the stains of vice and impiety, and which may in- 
 spire the mind with noble sentiments, fire the fancy w'ith 
 bright and warm ideas, or teach lessons of morality and 
 prudence, were chosen out of those ancient Roman 
 writers for the use of tlie scliools, and were collected and 
 printed in one moderate volume, or two at the most, it 
 would be abundantly sufficient provision out of the 
 Roman poets for ihe instruction of boys in all that is 
 necessary in that age of life. 
 
 Surely Juvenal himself would not have the face to 
 vindicate the masters who teach boys his sixth satire, 
 and many paragraphs of several others, when he him- 
 self has charged us, 
 
 Nil diclu foedum, visuque, haec limina tangat 
 Intra quae puer est. Sat. 14. 
 
 Suffer no lewdness, nor indecent speech, 
 Th' apartment of the tender youth to reach. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 Thus far in answer to the foregoing question. 
 
 But I retire; for Mr. Clarke, of Hull, in his treatise 
 on education, and Mr. Philips, preceptor to the Duke 
 of Cumberland, have given more excellent directions 
 for learning Latin. 
 
 XIX. When a language is learned, if it be of any use 
 at all, it is a pity it should be forgotten again. It is 
 proper, therefore, to take all just opportunities to read 
 something frequently in that language, when other ne- 
 cessary and important studies will give you leave. As 
 in learning any tongue, dictionaries which contain words 
 and phrases should always be at hand, so they should 
 be ever kept witliin reach by persons who would re- 
 member a tongue which tliey liave learned. Nor should 
 we at any time content ourselves with a doubtful guess 
 at the sense or meaning of any words which occur, but 
 consult the dictionary, which may give us certain infer-
 
 OF LEARNING A LANGUAGE. 73 
 
 Illation, and thus secure us from mistake. It is mere 
 sloth which makes us content ourselves with uncertain 
 guesses; and indeed this is neither safe nor useful for 
 persons who would learn any language or science, or 
 have a desire to retain what they have acquired. 
 
 XX. When you have learned one or many languages 
 ever so perfectly, take heed of priding yourself in these 
 acquisitions: they are but mere treasures of words, or 
 instruments of true and solid knowledge, and whose 
 chief design is to lead us into an acquaintance with 
 things, or to enable us the more easily to convey those 
 ideas or that knowledge to others. An acquaintance 
 with the various tongues is nothing else but a relief 
 against the mischief which the building of Babel intro- 
 duced: and were I master of as many languages as were 
 spoken at Babel, I should make but a poor pretence to 
 true learning or knowledge, if I had not clear and dis- 
 tinct ideas, and useful notions in my head under the 
 words which my tongue could pronounce. Yet so un- 
 happy a thing is human nature, tliat this sort of know- 
 ledge of sounds and syllables is ready to puff up the 
 mind with vanity, more than the most valuable and 
 solid improvements of it. The pride of a grammarian. 
 or a critic, generally exceeds that of a philosopher. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF INQUIRING INTO THE SENSE AND MEANING OF ANY 
 WRITER OR SPEAKER, AND ESPECIALLY THE SENSE OP 
 THE SACRED WRITINGS. 
 
 It is a great un happiness that tliere is such an ambi- 
 guity in words and forms of speech, that the same sen- 
 tence may be drawn into different significations: where- 
 by it conies to pass, that it is difficult sometimes for the 
 reader exactly to hit upon the ideas which the writer or 
 speaker had in his mind. Some of the best rules to di- 
 rect us herein are such as tliese: 
 
 I. Be well acquainted with the tongue itself, or lan- 
 7
 
 74 OF KNOAVING THE SENSE 
 
 guage, wlierein the author's mind is expressed. Learn 
 not only the true meaning of each word, but the sense 
 which tliose words obtain when placed in such a par- 
 ticular situation and order. Acquaint yourself will) the 
 peculiar power and empliasis of tlie several modes of 
 speech, and the various idioms of the tongue. The 
 secondary ideas wliich custom has superadded to many 
 words should also be known, as well as the particular 
 and primary meaning of them, if we would understand 
 any writer. See Logic, part 1. cap. 4. § 3. 
 
 II. Consider the signification of those words and 
 phrases, more especially in the same nation, or near the 
 same age in which tliat writer lived, and in what sense 
 they are used by authors of the same nation, opinion, 
 sect, party, &.c. 
 
 Upon this account we may learn to interpret several 
 phrases of the New Testament, out of that version of 
 the Hebrew Bible into Greek, which is called the Sep- 
 tuagint; for though tiiat version be very imperfect and 
 defective in many things, yet it seems to me evident 
 that the holy writers of the New Testament made use 
 of that version many times in their citation of texts out 
 of the Bible. 
 
 III. Compare the words and phrases in one place of 
 an author, with the same or kindred words and phrases 
 used in other places of the same author, wliicli are 
 generally called parallel places; and as one expression ex- 
 plains another wliich is like it, so sometimes a contrary 
 expression will explain its contrary. 
 
 Remember always that a writer best interprets him- 
 self; as we believe the Holy Spirit to be the supreme 
 agent in the writings of the Old Testament and the 
 New, he can best explain himself. Hence the theologi- 
 cal rule arises, that scripture is the best interpreter of 
 scripture; and therefore concordances, which show us 
 parallel places, are of excellent use for interpretation. 
 
 IV. Consider the subject on which the author is treat- 
 ing, and by comparing other places where he treats of 
 the same subject, you may learn his sense in the place 
 which you are reading, though some of the terms wiiich 
 he uses in those two places may be very ditFerent.
 
 OF WRITERS OR SPEAKERS. 75 
 
 And on the other liand, if the author uses the same 
 words where the subject of which he treats is not just 
 the same, you cannot learn his sense by comparing 
 those two places, though the mere words may seem to 
 agree: for some authors, when they are treating of a 
 quite ditferent subject, may use perhaps the same words 
 in a very ditferent sense, as St. Paul does the words faith, 
 and law, and riofhteousness. 
 
 V. Observe fiie scope and design of the writer; in- 
 quire into his aim and end in that book, or section, or 
 paragraph, which will help to explain particular senten- 
 ces: for we suppose a wise and judicious writer directs 
 his expressions generally toward his designed end. 
 
 VI. When an author speaks of any subject occasion- 
 ally, let his sense be explained by those places where 
 he treats of it distinctly and professedly: where he 
 speaks of any subject in mystical or metaphorical terms, 
 explain them by other places where he treats of the 
 same subject in terms that are plain and literal: where 
 he speaks in an oratorical, atfecting, or persuasive way, 
 let this be explained by other places where he treats of 
 the same theme in a doctrinal or instructive way: where 
 the author speaks more strictly and particularly on any 
 theme, it will explain the more loose and general ex- 
 pressions: where he treats more largely, it will explain 
 the shorter hints and brief intimations; and wheresoever 
 he writes more obscurely, search out some more per- 
 spicuous passages in the same writer, by which to de- 
 termine the sense of that obscure language. 
 
 VII. Consider not only the person who is introduced 
 speaking, but the persons to whom the speech is direct- 
 ed, the circumstances of time and place, the temper 
 and spirit of tiie speaker, as well as the temper and 
 spirit of the hearers: in order to interpret scripture well, 
 there needs a good acquaintance with the Jewish cus- 
 toms, some knowledge of the ancient Roman and Greek 
 times and manners, which sometimes strike a strange 
 and surprising light upon passages which were before 
 very obscure. 
 
 VIII. In particular propositions, the sense of an au- 
 thor may sometimes be known by the inferences which
 
 76 OF KNOWING THE SENSE 
 
 lie draws from them, and all those senses may be excluded 
 which will not allow of that inference. 
 
 Note. This rule indeed is not always certain, in read- 
 ing' and interpreting^ human authors, because they may 
 mistake in drawing their inferences; but in explaining 
 scripture it is a sure rule; for the sacred and inspired 
 writers always make just inferences from their own 
 propositions. Yet even in them, we must take heed we 
 do not mistake an allusion for an inference, which is 
 many times introduced almost in the same manner. 
 
 IX. If it be a matter of controversy, the true sense of 
 the author is sometimes known by the objections that 
 are brought against it. So we may be well assured, 
 the apostle speaks against our "justification in the sight 
 of God, by our own works of holiness," in tlie 3d, 4th, 
 and 5th chapters of the epistle to the Romans, because 
 of the objection brought against him in the beginning of 
 the 6th chapter, viz. "What shall we say then? shall we 
 continue in sin that grace may abound?" which objec- 
 tion could never have been raised, if he had been prov- 
 ing our justification by our own works of righteousness. 
 
 X. In matters of dispute, take heed of warping the 
 sense of the writer to your own opinion, by any latent 
 prejudices of self-love and party spirit. It is this reign- 
 ing principle of prejudice and party, that has given 
 such a variety of senses both to the sacred writers and 
 others, which would never have come into the mind of 
 the reader if he had not laboured under some such pre- 
 
 XI. For the same reason take heed of the prejudices 
 of passion, malice, envy, pride, or opposition to an au- 
 thor, whereby you may be easily tempted to put a false 
 and invidious sense upon his words. Lay aside there- 
 fore a carping spirit, and read even an adversary with 
 attention and diligence, with an honest design to find 
 out his true meaning; do not snatch at little lapses and 
 appearances of mistake, in opposition to his declared 
 and avowed meaning; nor impute any sense or opinion 
 to him which he denies to be his opinion, unless it be 
 proved by the most plain and express language. 
 
 Lastly, remember that you treat every author, writer,
 
 OF WRITERS OR SPEAKERS. 77 
 
 or speaker, just as you yourselves would be willing to 
 be treated by others, who are searching out the meaning 
 of what you write or speak; and maintain upon your 
 spirit an awful sense of the presence of God, who is the 
 judge of hearts, and will punish those who, by a base 
 and dishonest turn of mind, wilfully pervert the meaning 
 of the sacred writers, or even of common authors, under 
 the influence of culpable prejudices. See more. Logic, 
 part I. cap. 6, § 3, " Directions concerning the deftni- 
 tions of names." 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 RULES OF IMPROVEMENT BY CONVERSATION. 
 
 I. If we would improve our minds by conversation, 
 it is a great happiness to be acquainted with persons 
 wiser tiian ourselves. It is a piece of useful advice 
 therefore to get the favour of their conversation fre- 
 quently, as far as circumstances will allow: and if they 
 happen to be a little reserved, use all obliging methods 
 to draw out of them what may increase your own know- 
 ledge. 
 
 II. Wliatsoever company you are in, waste not the 
 time in trifle and impertinence. Ifyou spend some hours 
 amongst children, talk with them according to their 
 capacity; mark the young buddings of infant reason; 
 observe the diflerent motions and distinct workings of 
 t!ie animal and the mind, as far as you can discern them; 
 take notice by what degrees tlie little creature grows up 
 to the use of his reasoning ])owers, and what early pre- 
 judices beset and endanger liis understanding. By this 
 means you will learn to address yourself to children for 
 their beneflt, and perhaps you may derive some useful 
 philosophemes or theorems for your own entertainment. 
 
 III. Ifyou happen to be in company with a merchant 
 or a sailor, a farmer or a mechanic, a milk-maid or a 
 spinster, 15ad them into a discourse of the matters of 
 their own peculiar province or profession; for every one 
 
 7*
 
 78 OF CONVERSATION. 
 
 knows, or should know, their own business best. In 
 this sense a common mechanic is wiser than tlie philoso- 
 pher. By this means you may gain some improvement 
 in knowledge from every one you meet. 
 
 IV. Confine not yourself always to one sort of com- 
 pany, or to persons of the same party or opinion, either 
 in matters of learning', religion, or civil life, lest, if you 
 should happen to be nursed up or educated in early 
 mistake, you should be confirmed and established in the 
 same mistake, by conversing only with persons of the 
 same sentiments. A free and general conversation with 
 men of very various countries and of different parties, 
 opinions, and practices, so far as it may be done safely, is 
 of excellent use to undeceive us in many wrong judg- 
 ments which we may have framed, and to lead us into 
 juster thoughts. It is said, when the king of Siani, near 
 China, first conversed with some European merchants, 
 who sought the favour of trading on his coast, he in- 
 quired of them some of the common appearances of 
 summer and winter in their country; and when they 
 told him of water growing so hard in their rivers, that 
 men and horses and laden carriages passed over it, and 
 that rain sometimes fell down as wliite and light as 
 feathers, and sometimes almost as hard as stones, he 
 would not believe a syllable they said; for ice, snow, and 
 hail, were names and things utterly unknown to him 
 and to his subjects in that iiot climate: he renounced all 
 traffic with such shameful liars, and would not suffer 
 them to trade with his people. See here the natural 
 effects of gross ignorance. 
 
 Conversation with foreigners on various occasions, 
 has a happy influence to enlarge our minds, and to set 
 them free from many errors and gross prejudices we are 
 ready to imbibe concerning them. Domicilliis has never 
 travelled five miles from his mother's chimney, and lie 
 imagines all outlandish men are papishes, and worship 
 nothing but a cross. Tityrus, the shepherd, was bred 
 up all his life in the country, and never saw Rome; he 
 fancied it to be only a huge village, and was therefure 
 infinitely surprised to find such palaces, such streets, 
 such glittering treasures and gay magnificence as his
 
 OF CONVERSATION. 79 
 
 first i(;urney to the city showed him, and with wonder he 
 confesses his folly and mistake. 
 
 So Virgil introduces a poor shepherd, 
 
 Urbein quam dicunt Romam, Meliboec, pulavi 
 Stulius tgo huic nostra; siiiiilein, quo sa;pe solemus 
 Pastorcs ovium teneros depellere ioetiis, &c. 
 
 Thus Enghshed: — 
 
 Fool that I was! I thought imperial Rome 
 
 Like market-towns, where once a week we come. 
 
 And thither drive our tender lambs from home. 
 
 Conversation would have given Tityrus a better notion 
 of Rome, though he had never happened to travel thither. 
 
 V. In mixed compan}'^, among acquaintance and 
 strangers, endeavour to learn something from all. Be 
 swift to liear; but be cautious of your tongue, lest you 
 betray your ignorance, and perhaps offend some of those 
 who are present too. The scripture severely censures 
 those who speak evil of the things they know not. Ac- 
 quaint yourself therefore sometimes with persons and 
 parties which are far distant from your common life and 
 customs: this is a way whereby you may furm a wiser 
 opinion of men and tilings. Prove all things, and hold 
 fast that which is good, is a divine rule, and it comes 
 from the Father of light and truth. But young persons 
 should practise it indeed with due limitation, and under 
 the eye of their elders. 
 
 VI. Be not frighted nor provoked at opinions different 
 from your own. Some persons are so confident they 
 are in the right, that they will not come within the 
 hearing of any notions but their own: they canton out 
 to themselves a little province in the intellectual world, 
 where they fancy the light shines; and all the rest is in 
 darkness. They never venture into the ocean of know- 
 ledge, nor survey the riches of other minds, which are 
 as solid and as useful, and perhaps are finer gold than 
 what they ever possessed. Let not men imagine there 
 is no certain truth but in the sciences which they study, 
 and amongst that party in which they were born and 
 educated. 
 
 VII. BeUeve that it is possible to learn something
 
 80 OF CONVERSATION. 
 
 from persons much below yourself. We are all short- 
 sighted creatures; our views are also narrow and limited; 
 we often see but one side of a matter, and do not extend 
 our sight far and wide enough to reach every thing tliat 
 has a connexion with the thing we talk of; we see but 
 in part, and know but in part; therefore it is no wonder 
 we form not right conclusions; because we do not survey 
 the whole of any subject or argument. Even tlie proud- 
 est admirer of his own parts inight find it useful to con- 
 sult with others, though of inferior capacity and penetra- 
 tion. We have a different prospect of tiie same thing 
 (if I may so speak) according to the different position 
 of our understandings towards it: a weaker man may 
 sometimes liglit on notions which have escaped a wiser, 
 and which the wiser man might make a happy use of, 
 if he would condescend to take notice of them. 
 
 VIII. It is of considerable advantage, when we arc 
 pursuing any difficult point of knowledge, to have a 
 society of ingenious correspondents at hand, to whom 
 we may propose it: for every man has something of a 
 different genius and a various turn of mind, whereby 
 the subject proposed will be shown in all its lights, it 
 will be represented in all its forms, and every side of 
 it be turned to view, that a juster judgment may be 
 framed. 
 
 IX. To make conversation more valuable and useful, 
 whether it be in a designed or accidental visit, among 
 persons of the same or of different sexes, after the ne- 
 cessary salutations are finished, and the stream of com- 
 mon talk begins to hesitate, or runs flat and low, let 
 some one person take a book which may be agreeable to 
 the whole company, and by common consent let him 
 read in it ten lines, or a paragraph or two, or a few pa- 
 ges, till some word or sentence gives an occasion for any 
 of the company to offer a thought or two relating to 
 that subject: interruption of the reader should be no 
 blame; for conversation is the busmess: whether it be to 
 confirm what the author says, or to improve it, to en- 
 large u[)on or to correct it, to object against it, or to ask 
 any question that is akin to it; and let every one that 
 please add their opinion and promote the conversation.
 
 OF CONVERSATION. 81 
 
 When the discourse sinks again, or diverts to trifles, let 
 him that reads pursue the page, and read on further para- 
 graplis or pages, till some occasion is given by a word 
 or sentence for a new discourse to be started, and that 
 with the utmost ease and freedom. Such a method as 
 this would prevent the hours of a visit from running all 
 to waste; and by this means, even among scholars, they 
 would seldom find occasion for that too just and bitter 
 reflection, " I have lost my time in the company of the 
 learned." 
 
 By such a practice as this, young ladies may very 
 honourably and agreeably improve their hours; while one 
 applies herself to reading, the others employ their atten- 
 tion, even among the various artiflces of the needle; but 
 let all of them make their occasional remarks or inqui- 
 ries. This will guard a great deal of that precious time 
 from modish trifling, impertinence, or scandal, which 
 might otherwise afford matter for painful repentance. 
 
 Observe this rule in general, whensoever it lies in 
 your power to lead the conversation, let it be directed to 
 some profitable point of knowledge or practice, so far as 
 may be done with decency; and let not the discourse and 
 the hours be suffered to run loose without aim or de- 
 sign: and when a subject is started, pass not hastily to 
 another, before you have brought the present theme of 
 discourse to some tolerable issue, or a joint consent to 
 drop it. 
 
 X. Attend with sincere diligence, while any one of 
 the company is declaring his sense of the question pro- 
 posed: hear the argument with patience, though it differ 
 ever so much from your sentiments, for you yourself are 
 very desirous to be heard with patience by others who 
 differ from you. Let not your thoughts be active and 
 busy all the while to find out something to contradict, 
 and by what means to oppose the speaker, especially in 
 matters which are not brought to an issue. This is a 
 frequent and unhappy temper and practice. You should 
 rather be intent and solicitous to take up the mind and 
 meaning of the speaker, zealous to seize and approve all 
 that is true in his discourse; nor yet should you want 
 courage to oppose where it is necessary; but let your
 
 82 OF CONVERSATION. 
 
 modesty and patience, and a friendly temper, be as con- 
 spicuous as your zeal. 
 
 XI. When a man speaks with much freedom and 
 ease, and gives his opinion in the plainest language of 
 common sense, do not presently imagine you shall gain 
 nothing by his company. Sometimes you will find a 
 person who, in his conversation or his writings, delivers 
 his thoughts in so plain, so easy, so familiar, and per- 
 spicuous a manner, tliat you both understand and assent 
 to every thing he saith, as fast as you read or hear it: 
 hereupon some hearers have been ready to conclude in 
 haste, Surely this man saith none but common things; I 
 knew as much before, or 1 would have said all this my- 
 self This is a frequent mistake. Pellucido was a very 
 great genius; when he spoke in the senate, he was wont 
 to convej' his ideas in so simple and happy a manner as 
 to instruct and convince every hearer, and to enforce the 
 conviction througli the whole illustrious assembly; and 
 that with so much evidence, that you would have been 
 ready to wonder, that every one who spoke had not said 
 the same things: but Pellucido was the only man 
 that could do it; the only speaker who had attained this 
 art and honour. Such is the writer of whom Horace 
 would say, 
 
 Ut sibi quivis 
 
 Speret idem; sudet multumj frustraque laboret 
 
 Ausus idem. De ^rt. Poet, 
 
 Smooth be your style, and plain and natural. 
 To strike the sons of Wapiiing or Whitehall. 
 While others think this easy to attain, 
 Let them but try, and with their utmost pain, 
 They'll sweat and strive to imitate in vain. 
 
 XII. If any thing seem dark in the discourse of your 
 companion, so that you have not a clear idea of what is 
 spoken, endeavour to obtain a clearer conception of it by 
 a decent manner of inquiry. Do not charge the speaker 
 with obscurity, either in bis sense or his words, but 
 entreat his favour to relieve your own want of 'penetra- 
 tion, or to add an enlightening word or two, that you 
 may take up his whole meaning. 
 
 If difficulties arise in your mind, and constrain your
 
 OF CONVERSATION. 83 
 
 dissent to the things spoken, represent what objection 
 some persons would be ready to make against the senti- 
 ments of the speaker, without telhng him you oppose. 
 This manner of address carries something more modest 
 and obhging in it, than to appear to raise objections of 
 your own by way of contradiction to him that spoke. 
 
 XIII. When you are forced to differ from him who 
 dehvers liis sense on any point, yet agree as far as you 
 can, and represent how far you agree; and if there be 
 any room for it, explain the words of the speaker in such 
 a sense to which you can in general assent, and so agree 
 with him, or at least, by a small addition or alteration 
 of his sentiments, show your own sense of things. It is 
 the practice and delight of a candid hearer, to make it 
 appear how unwilling he is to differ from him that 
 speaks. Let the speaker know that it is nothing but 
 truth constrains you to oppose him; and let that differ- 
 ence be always expressed in few, and civil, and chosen 
 words, such as may give the least offence. 
 
 And be careful always to take Solomon''s rule with 
 you, and let your correspondent fairly finish his speech 
 before you reply; "for he that answereth a matter be- 
 fore he heareth it, it is folly and shame unto him." 
 Prov. xviii. 13. 
 
 A little watchfulness, care, and practice in younger 
 life, will render all these things more easy, familiar, and 
 natural to you, and will grow into habit. 
 
 XIV. As you should carry about with you a constant 
 and sincere sense of your own ignorance, so you should 
 not be afraid nor ashamed to confess this ignorance, by 
 takingvall proper opportunities to ask and inquire for 
 farther information; whetlier it be the meaning of a 
 word, the nature of a thing, the reason of a proposition, 
 the custom of a nation, &c. never remain in ignorance 
 for want of asking. 
 
 Many a person had arrived at some considerable de- 
 gree of knowledge, if he had not been full of self-con- 
 ceit, and imagined that he had known enough already, 
 or else was ashamed to let others know that he was 
 unacquainted with it. God and man are ready to teach 
 the meekj the humble, and the ignorant; but he that
 
 84 OF CONVERSATION. 
 
 fancies himself to know any particular subject well, 
 or that will not venture to ask a question about it, such 
 a one will nut put himself into the way of improvement 
 by inquiry and diligence. A fool may be "• wiser in his 
 own conceit than ten men who can render a reason;" 
 and such a one is very likely to be an everlastiriir fool; 
 and perhaps also it is a silly shame renders his folly in- 
 curable. 
 
 Stultorum incurata pudor malus ulcera celat. 
 
 Hor. Epist. 16. Lib. i. 
 
 In English thus: 
 
 If fools have ulcers, and their pride conceal them, 
 They must have ulcers still, for none can heal them. 
 
 XV. Be not too forward, especially in the younger 
 part of life, to determine any question in company 
 with an infallible and peremptory sentence, nor speak 
 with assuming- airs, and with a decisive tone of voice. 
 A young man, in the presence of his elders, should 
 rather hear and attend, and weigh the arguments which 
 are brougiit for the proof or refutation of any doubtful 
 proposition: and when it is your turn to speak, propose 
 your thoughts rather in tiie way of inquiry. By this 
 means your mind will be kept in a fitter temper to re- 
 ceive truth, and j-ou will be more ready to correct and 
 improve your own sentiments, where you have not been 
 too positive in affirming them. But if you have magis- 
 terially decided tlie point, you will find a secret unwil- 
 lingness to retract, though you should feel an inward 
 conviction that you were in the wrong. 
 
 XVI. It is granted, indeed, that a season may hap- 
 pen, when some bold pretender to science may assume 
 haught}'^ and positive airs, to assert and vindicate a gross 
 and dangerous error, or to renounce and vilify some 
 very important truth: and if he has a popular talent of 
 talking, and there be no remonstrance made against him, 
 the company may be tempted too easily to give their 
 assent to the imprudence and infallibility of the pre- 
 sumer. They may imagine a proposition so much vili- 
 fied can never be true, and tliat a doctrine whicli is so 
 boldly censured and renounced can never be defended.
 
 k 
 
 OF CONVERSATION. 85 
 
 Weak minds are too ready to persuade themselves, that 
 a man would never talk witii su mucli assurance unless 
 he were certainly in the right, and could well maintain 
 and prove what lie said. By this means truth itself is 
 in danger of being betrayed or lost, if there be no oppo- 
 sition made to such a pretending talker. 
 
 Now in such a case, even a wise and a modest man 
 may assume airs too, and repel insolence with its own 
 weapons. There is a time, as Solomon, the wisest of 
 men, teaches us, " when a fool should be answered ac- 
 cording to his folly, lest he be wise in his own conceit," 
 and lest others too easily yield up their faith and reason 
 to his miperious dictates. Courage and positivity are 
 never more necessary than on such an occasion. But 
 it is good to join some argument with them of real and 
 convincing force, and let it be strongly pronounced too. 
 
 When such a resistance is made, you shall find some 
 of those bold talkers will draw in their horns, when 
 their fierce and feeble pushes against truth and reason 
 are repelled with pushing and confidence. It is pity in- 
 deed that truth should ever need such sort of defences; 
 but we know that a triumphant assurance hatli sou)e- 
 tinies supported gross falsehoods, and a whole company 
 have been captivated to error by this means, till some 
 man with equal assurance has rescued them. It is pity 
 that any momentous point of doctrine should happen 
 to fall under such reproaches, and require such a mode 
 of vindication: though if I happen to hear it, I ought 
 not to turn my back and to sneak otF in silence, and 
 leave the truth to lie baliled, bleeding, and slain. Yet 
 I must confess, I should be glad to have no occasion ever 
 given me to figlit with any man at this sort of weapons, 
 even though 1 should be so happy as to silence his in- 
 solence and to obtain an evident victory. 
 
 XVII. Be not fond of disputing every thing pro and 
 con, nor indulge yourself to show your talent of attack- 
 ing and defending. A logic which teaches nothing else 
 is little worth. This temper and practice will lead you 
 just so fir out of the way of knowledge, and divert your 
 honest inquiry after the truth which is debated or sought. 
 In set disputes, every little straw is often laid hold on 
 8
 
 eb OF CONVERSATION. 
 
 to support our own cause; every thing tliat can be drawn 
 in any way to give colour to our argument is advanced, 
 and that perhaps with vanity and ostentation. This 
 puts the mind out of a proper posture to seek and re- 
 ceive the truth. 
 
 XVIII. Do not bring a warm party spirit into a free 
 conversation which is designed for mutual improvement 
 in the search of truth. Take heed of allowing yourself 
 in those self-satisfied assurances which keep the doors 
 of the understanding barred fast against the admission 
 of any new sentiments. Let your soul be ever ready to 
 hearken to farther discoveries, from a constant and rul- 
 ing consciousness of our present fallible and imperfect 
 state; and make it appear to your friends, that it is no 
 hard task to you to learn and pronounce those little 
 words, " I was mistaken," how hard soever it be for the 
 bulk of mankind to pronounce them. 
 
 XIX. As you may sometimes raise inquiries for your 
 own instruction and improvement, and draw out the 
 learning, wisdom, and fine sentiments of your friends, 
 who perhaps may be too reserved or modest; so, at other 
 times, if you perceive a person unskilful in the matter 
 of debate, you may, by questions aptly proposed in the 
 Socratic method, lead him into a clearer knowledge of 
 the subject: then you become his instructor, in such a 
 manner as may not appear to make yourself his superior. 
 
 XX. Take heed of aftecting always to shine in com- 
 pany above the rest, and to display the riches of your 
 own understanding or your oratory, as though you would 
 render yourself admirable to all that are present. This 
 is seldom well taken in polite company; much less should 
 you use such forms of speech as should insinuate the 
 ignorance or dulness of those with whom you converse. 
 
 XXI. Though you should not affect to flourish in a 
 copious harangue and a diffusive style in company, yet 
 neitlier should you rudely interrupt and reproach him 
 that happens to use it: but when he has done speaking, 
 reduce his sentiments into a more contracted form; not 
 with a show of correcting, but as one who is doubtful 
 whether you hit upon his true sense or no. Thus matters 
 may be brought more easily from a wild confusion into
 
 OF CONVERSATION. 87 
 
 a single point, qu-^stions may be sooner determined, and 
 difficulties more easily removed. 
 
 XXII. Be not so ready to charge ignorance, prejudice, 
 and mistake upon otiiers, as you are to suspect yourself 
 of it: and in order to show how free you are from preju- 
 dices, learn to bear contradiction with patience; let it be 
 easy to you to hear your own opinion strongly opposed, 
 especially in matters which are doubtful and disputable, 
 amongst men of sobriety and virtue. Give a patient 
 hearing to arguments on all sides; otherwise, you give 
 the company occasion to suspect that it is not the evi- 
 dence of truth has led you into this opinion, but some 
 lazy anticipation ofjudgment, some beloved presumption, 
 some long and rash possession of a party scheme, in 
 which you desire to rest undisturbed. If your assent 
 has been established upon just and sufficient grounds, 
 why should you be afraid to let the truth be put to the 
 trial of argument.'' 
 
 XXII I. Banish utterly out of all conversation, and 
 especially out of all learned and intellectual conference, 
 every thing tliat tends to provoke passion or raise a fire 
 in tlie blood. Let no sharp language, no noisy excla- 
 mations, no sarcasms, or biting jests be heard among 
 you; no perverse or invidious consequences be drawn 
 from each other's opinions, and imputed to the person: 
 let there be no wilful perversion of another's meaning; 
 no sudden seizure of a lapsed syllable to play upon it, 
 nor any abused construction of an innocent mistake: 
 suffiir not your tongue to insult a modest opponent that 
 beigns to yield; let there be no crowing and triumph, 
 even where there is evident victory on your side. All 
 these things are enemies to friendship, and the ruin of 
 free conversation. The impartial search of truth re- 
 quires all calmness and serenity, all temper and candour; 
 mutual instructions can never be attained in tiie midst 
 of passion, pride, and clamour, unless we suppose, in the 
 midst of such a scene, there is a loud and penetrating 
 lecture read by botii sides, on the folly and shameful in- 
 firmities of human nature. 
 
 XXIV. Whensoever, therefore, any unhappy word 
 shall arise in company, that might give you a reasonable
 
 88 OF CONVERSATION. 
 
 disgust, quash the rising resentment, be it ever so just, 
 and command your soul and your tongue into silence, 
 lest you cancel the hopes of all improvement for that 
 hour, and transform the learned conversation into the 
 mean and vulgar form of reproaches and railing. The 
 man who began to break the peace in snch a society, 
 will fall under the shame and conviction of such a silent 
 reproof, if he has any thing ingenuous about him. If 
 this should not be sufficient, let a grave admonition, or 
 a soft and gentle turn of wit, with an air of pleasantry, 
 give the warm disputer an occasion to stop the progress 
 of his indecent fire, if not to retract the indecency and 
 quench the flame. 
 
 XXV. Inure yourself to a candid and obliging manner 
 in your conversation, and acquire the art of pleasing ad- 
 dress, even when you teach, as well as when you learn; 
 and when you oppose, as well as when you assert or 
 prove. This degree of politeness is not to be attained 
 without a diligent attention to such kind of directions 
 as are here laid down, and a frequent exercise and prac- 
 tice of them. 
 
 XXVI. If you would know what sort of companions 
 you should select for the cultivation and advantage of 
 the mind, the general rule is, choose such as, by their 
 brightness of parts, and their diligence in study, or by 
 their superior advancement in learning, or peculiar ex- 
 cellency in any art, science, or accomplishment, divine 
 or human, may be capable of administering to your im- 
 provement; and be sure to maintain and keep some due 
 regard to their moral character always, lest while you 
 wander in quest of intellectual gain, you fall into the 
 contagion of irreligion and vice. No wise man can 
 venture into a house infected with the plague, in order 
 to see the finest collections of any virtuoso in Europe. 
 
 XXVII. Nor is it every sober person of your acquaint- 
 ance, no, nor every man of bright parts, or rich in learn- 
 ing, that is fit to engage in free conversation for the in- 
 quiry after truth. Let a person have ever so illustrious 
 talents, yet he is not a proper associate for such a pur- 
 pose, if he lie under any of the following infirmities: 
 
 1. If he be exceedingly reserved, and hath either
 
 OF CONVERSATION. 89 
 
 no inclination to discourse, or no tolerable capacity of 
 speech and language for the communication of his senti- 
 ments. 
 
 2. If he be liaughty and proud of his knowledge, im- 
 perious in his airs, and is always fond of imposing his 
 sentiments on all the company. 
 
 3. If he be positive and dogmatical in his own opin- 
 ions, and will dispute to the end; if he will resist tiie 
 brightest evidence of truth, rather than suffer himself 
 to be overcome, or 3'ield to the plainest and strongest 
 reasonings. 
 
 4. If he be one who always affects to outshine all the 
 company, and delights to hear himself talk and flourish 
 upon a subject, and make long harangues, while the rest 
 must be all silent and attentive. 
 
 0. If he be a person of whiffling and unsteady turn of 
 mind, who cannot keep close to a point of controversy, 
 but wanders from it perpetually, and is always solicitous 
 to say something, whether it bo pertinent to the question 
 or no. 
 
 6. If he be fretful and peevish, and given to resent- 
 ment upon all occasions: if he knows not how to bear 
 contradiction, or is ready to take things in a wrong 
 sense; if he is swift to feel a supposed offence, or to im- 
 agine himself affronted, and then break out into a sudden 
 passion, or retain silent and sullen wrath. 
 
 7. If he aflect wit on all occasions, and is full of his 
 conceits and puns, quirks or quibbles, jests and repartees; 
 these may agreeably entertain and animate an hour of 
 mirth, but they have no place in the searcli after truth. 
 
 8. If he carry always about him a sort of craft, and 
 cunning, and disguise, and act rather like a spy than a 
 friend. Have a care of sucli a one as will make an ill 
 use of freedom in conversation, and immediately charge 
 heresy upon you, when you happen to difler from those 
 sentiments whicli authority or custom has established. 
 
 In short, you should avoid tiie man, in such select 
 conversation, who practises any thing tliat is unbecom- 
 ing tlie character of a sincere, free, and open searcher 
 after truth. 
 
 Now, though you may pay all the relative duties of 
 8*
 
 90 OF CONVERSATION. 
 
 life to persons of these unhappy qualifications, and treat 
 them with decency and love, so far as religion and hu- 
 manity oblige you, yet take care uf entering into a free 
 debate on matters of trutii or falsehood in tlieir company, 
 and especially about the principles of religion. I con- 
 fess, if a person of such a temper happens to judge and 
 talk well on such a subject, you may hear him with at- 
 tention, and derive what profit you can from his dis- 
 course; but he is by no means to be chosen for a free 
 conference in matters of learning and knowledge. 
 
 XXVIII. While I would persuade you to beware of 
 such persons, and abstain from too much freedom of 
 discourse amongst them, it is very natural to infer that 
 you should watch against the working of these evil 
 qualities in your own breast, if you Imppen to be tainted 
 with any of them yourself. Men of learning and inge- 
 nuity will justly avoid your acquaintance, when they 
 find such an unhappy and unsocial temper prevailing 
 in you. 
 
 XXIX. To conclude, when you retire from company, 
 then converse with yourself in solitude, and inquire what 
 you have learned for the improvement of ymir under- 
 standing, or for the rectifying your inclinations, for tlie 
 increase of your virtues, or tlie ameliorating your con- 
 duct and behaviour in any future parts of life. If you 
 have seen some of your company candid, modest, h'um- 
 ble in their manner, wise and sagacious, just and pious 
 in their sentiments, polite and graceful, as well as clear 
 and strong in their expression, and universally accepta- 
 ble and lovely in their behavio^ir, endeavour to impress 
 the idea of all these upon your memory, and treasure 
 them up for your imitation. 
 
 XXX. If th.e laws of reason, decency, and civility, have 
 not been well observed amongst your associates, take 
 notice of those defects for your own improvement: and 
 from every occurrence of this kind remark something 
 to imitate or to avoid, in elegant, polite, and useful con- 
 versation. Perhaps you will find that some persons 
 present have really displeased the company, by an ex- 
 cessive and too visible an affectation to please, i. e. hj 
 giving loose to servile flattery or promiscuous praisej
 
 OF CONVERSATION. 9] 
 
 while others were as ready to oppose and contradict every 
 thing that was said. Some have deserved just censure 
 for a morose and affected taciturnity; and others have 
 been anxious and careful lest their silence should be in- 
 terpreted a want of sense, and therefore they have ven- 
 tured to make speeches, though they had nothing to 
 say which was worth hearing. Perhaps you will ob- 
 serve tliat one was ingenious in his thoughts, and bright 
 in his language, but he was so topful of himself that ho 
 let it spill on all the company; that he spoke well indeed, 
 but that he spoke too long, and did not allow equal 
 liberty or time to his associates. You will remark that 
 another was full charged, to let out his v^^ords before his 
 friend had done speaking, or impatient of the least oppo- 
 sition to any thing he said. You will remember that 
 some persons have talked at large, and with great con- 
 fidence, of things which they understood not, and 
 others counted every thing tedious and intolerable that 
 was spoken upon subjects out of their sphere, and they 
 would fain confine the conference entirely within the 
 limits of their own narrow knowledge and study. The 
 errors of conversation are almost infinite. 
 
 XXXI. By a review of such irregularities as these, 
 you may learn to avoid those follies and pieces of ill 
 conduct which spoil good conversation, or make it less 
 agreeable and less useful; and by degrees you will ac- 
 quire that delightful and easy manner of address and be- 
 haviour in all useful correspondencies, which may ren- 
 der your company every where desired and beloved; and 
 at the same time, among the best of your companions, 
 you may make the highest improvement, in your own 
 intellectual acquisitions, that the discourse of mortal 
 creatures will allow, under all our disadvantages in tliis 
 sorry state of mortality. But there is a day coming 
 when we shall be seized away from this lower class in 
 the scliool of knowledge, where we labour under the 
 many dangers and darknesses, the errors and the incum- 
 brances of flesh and blood, and our conversation shall be 
 with angels and more illuminated spirits, in the upper 
 regions of the universe.
 
 92 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 
 
 I. Under the g^eneral head of conversation for the 
 improvement of the mind, we may rank the practice of 
 disputing; that is, when two or more persons appear to 
 maintain different sentiments, and defend their own or 
 oppose the other's opinion, in alternate discourse, by some 
 methods of argument. 
 
 II. As these disputes often arise in good earnest, 
 where the two contenders do really believe the different 
 propositions which they support; so sometimes they are 
 appointed as mere trials of skill in academies or schools 
 by the students; sometimes they are practised, and that 
 with apparent fervour, in courts of judicature by law- 
 yers, in order to gain the fees of their different clients, 
 while both sides perhaps are really of the same senti- 
 ment with regard to the cause which is tried. 
 
 III. In common conversation, disputes are often man- 
 aged without any forms of regularity or order, and they 
 turn to good or evil purposes, chiefly according to the 
 temper of the disputants. Tliey may sometimes be suc- 
 cessful to search out truth, sometimes elTectual to main- 
 tain truth, and convince the mistaken; but at other times 
 a dispute is a mere scene of battle in order to victory 
 and vain triumph. 
 
 IV. There are some few general rules whic'i slionld 
 be ol)served in all debates whatsoever, if we would find 
 out truth by tliem, or convince a friend of liis error, even 
 though they be not managed according to any settled 
 forms of disputation; and as there are almost as many 
 opinions and judgments of things as there are persons, 
 so when several persons happen to meet and confer to- 
 gether upon any subject, tliey are ready to declare their 
 different sentiments, and support them by such reason- 
 ings as they are capable of This is called debating or 
 disputing, as is above described. 
 
 V When persons begin a debate, they should always 
 take care that they are agreed in some general princi- 
 ples or propositions, which either more nearly or remote-
 
 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 93 
 
 ly affect the question in hand; for otherwise they have 
 no foundation or hope of convincing eacli other; they 
 must have some common ground to stand upon, while 
 they maintain the contest. 
 
 When they find they agree in some remote proposi- 
 tions, then let tliem search farther, and inquire how near 
 they approach to each other's sentiments, and whatso- 
 ever propositions tliey agree in, let tliese lay a founda- 
 tion for the mutual hope of conviction. Hereby you 
 will be prevented from running at every turn to some 
 original and remote propositions and axioms, which 
 practice both entangles and prolongs dispute. As for 
 instance, if there was a debate proposed betwixt a pro- 
 testant and a papist, whether there be such a place as 
 Purgatory.' Let them remember that they both agree in 
 this point, that Christ has made satisfaction or atone- 
 ment for sin, and upon this ground let them both stand, 
 while they search out tlie controverted doctrine of Pur- 
 gatory by way of cojiference or debate, 
 
 VI. 1'lie question should be cleared from all doubtful 
 terms and needless additions; and all things tliat belong 
 to the question sliould be expressed in plain and intelli- 
 gible languaij-e. This is so necessary a thing, that with- 
 out it men will be exposed to such sort of ridiculous con- 
 tests as was found one day between the two unlearned 
 combatants Sartor and Sutor, wlio assaulted and defend- 
 ed the doctrine of transubstantiation with much zeal 
 and violence: but Latino happening to come into their 
 company, and inquiring the subject of their dispute, 
 asked each of them what he meant by that long hard 
 word transubstantiation. Sutor readily informed him 
 that lie understood — bowing at the name of Jesus: but 
 Sartor assured liim that he meant nothing but bowing 
 at tlie higli altar. "No wonder, then," said Latino, 
 " that you cannot agree when you neither understand 
 one anotlier, nor the word about which you contend." 
 I think the whole family of the Sartors and Sutors 
 would be wiser if they avoided such kind of debates till 
 they understood the terms better. But alas! even their 
 wives carry on such conferences: the other day one was 
 heard in the street explaining to her less learned neigli-
 
 94 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 
 
 bour the meaning of metaphysical science; and she as- 
 sured her, that as physics were medicines fijr the body, 
 so metapliysics were physics for the soul; upon this they 
 went on to dispute the point — how far the divine excel- 
 led the doctor. 
 
 Audilum admissi risum teneatis, amici? 
 
 Rideiitcm dicere verutnquid vetat? 
 
 Can it be faulty to repeat 
 
 A dialogue that walk'd the street' 
 
 Or can my gravest friends forbear 
 
 A laugh, when such disputes they hear? 
 
 VII. And not only the sense and meaning of the 
 words used in the question should be settled and adjust- 
 ed between the disputants, but the precise point of in- 
 quiry should be distinctly fixed; the question in debate 
 should be limited precisely to its special extent, or de- 
 clared to be taken in its more general sense. As for in- 
 stance, if two men are contending whetlier civil govern- 
 ment be of divine right or not: here it must be observed, 
 the question is not whether monarchy in one man, or a 
 republic in multitudes of the people, or an aristocracy 
 in a few of the chief, is appointed of God as necessary; 
 but whether civil government in its most general sense, 
 or in any form whatsoever, is derived from the will and 
 appointment of God. Again, the point of inquiry should 
 be limited further. Thus the question is, not whether 
 government comes from the will of God by the liglit of 
 divine revelation, for that is granted; but whether it is 
 derived from the will of God by the liglit of reason too. 
 This sort of specification or limitation of the question 
 hinders and prevents the disputants from wandering 
 away from the precise point of inquiry. 
 
 It is tliis trifling humour or dishonest artifice of chang- 
 ing the question, and wandering away from the first 
 point of debate, which gives endless length to disputes, 
 and causes both disputants to part without any satisfac- 
 tion. And one chief occasion of it is this: when one of 
 the combatants feels his cause run low and fail, and is 
 just ready to be confuted and demolislied, he is tempted 
 to step aside to avoid tlie blow, and betakes him to a dif- 
 ferent question: thus, if his adversary be not well aware
 
 OF DISPCTES IK GF.KERAL. 95 
 
 i.'f him, he begins to entrench himself in a now fastness, 
 and holds out tiie siege with, a new artillery of thoughts 
 nd words. It is the pride of man which is the spring 
 if this evil, and an unwillingness to yield up their own 
 tpinions even to be overcome by tru^h itself. 
 
 VIII. Keep this always theretore upon your mind as 
 an everlasting rule of conduct in your debates to find 
 out truth, tliat a resolute design, or even a warm affec- 
 tation of victory, is the bane of all real improvement, 
 and an etiectual bar against t!ie admission of the truth 
 which you profess to seek. This works witii a secret, 
 but a powerful and mischievous influence in every dis- 
 pute, unless we are much upon our guard. It appears 
 in frequent conversation; every age, every sex, and each 
 party of mankind, are so fond of being in the rigiit, that 
 ti)ey kiiov,- not how to renounce this unhappy prejudice, 
 this vain love of victory. 
 
 When truth with briglit evidence is ready to break in 
 upon a disputant, and to overcome his objei'tions and 
 mistakes, how swit't and ready is the mind to engage 
 wit and fancy, craft and subtlety, to cloud and perplex 
 and puzzle the truth, if possible! How eager is lie to 
 throw in some impertinent question to divert from the 
 main subjeetl How swit\ to take hold of some occasion- 
 al word, thereby to lead the discourse ori' from the point 
 in hand! So much atraid is human nature of parting with 
 its errors, and being overcome b}- truth. Just thus a 
 hunted hare calls up all the shifts tliat nature hath 
 taught her: she treads back her mazes, crosses and con- 
 founds her former track, and uses all possible methods 
 to divert the scent, when slie is in danger of being seiz- 
 ed and taken. Let puss practise what nature teaciies; 
 but would one imagine that any rational being should 
 take such pains to avoid truth, and to escape tiie im- 
 provement of its understanding.^ 
 
 IX. When you come to a dispute in order to find out 
 truth, do not presume that you are certainly possessed 
 of it beforehand. Enter the "debate with a sincere design 
 of yielding to reason, on which side soever it appears. 
 Use no subtle arts to cloud and entangle the question; 
 hide not yourself in doubtful words and phrases; do not
 
 96 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 
 
 affect little shifts and subterfuges to avoid the force of 
 an argument; take a generous pleasure to espy the first 
 rising beams of trutli, though it be on the side of your 
 opponent; endeavour to remc ve the little obscurities that 
 hang about it, and suffer and encourage it to break out 
 into open and convincing light; that while your opponent 
 perhaps may gain the better of your reasonings, yet you 
 yourself may triumph over error; and I am sure that is 
 a much more valuable acquisition and victory. 
 
 X. Watch narrowly in every dispute, that your oppo- 
 nent does not lead you unwarily to grant some principle 
 of the proposition, which will bring with it a fatal con- 
 sequence, and lead you insensibly into his sentiment, 
 though it be far astray from the truth; and by this wrong 
 step you will be, as it were, plunged into dangerous 
 errors before you are aware. Polonides, in free conver- 
 sation, led Incauto to agree with him in this plain pro- 
 position: That the blessed God has too much justice in 
 any case to punish* any being who is in itself innocent: 
 till he not only allowed it with an unthinking alacrity, 
 but asserted it in most universal and unguarded terms. 
 A little after, Polonides came in discourse to commend 
 the virtues, the innocence, and the piety of our blessed 
 Saviour; and thence inferred, it was impossible that God 
 should ever punish so holy a person, who was never 
 guilty of any crime: then Incauto espied the snare, and 
 found himself robbed and defrauded of tlie great doctrine 
 of tlie atonement by the death of Christ, upon which 
 he had placed his immortal hopes according to the gos- 
 pel. This taught him to bethink himself what a dan- 
 gerous concession he had made in so universal a manner, 
 that God would never punish any being who was inno- 
 cent; and he saw it needful to recall his words, or to ex- 
 plain them better, by adding this restrictioa or limita- 
 tion, viz. unless this innocent being were some way in- 
 volved in another's sin, or stood as a voluntary surety 
 for the guilty: by this limitation he secured the great 
 and olessed doctrine of the sacrifice of Christ for the sins 
 
 * The word punish here signifies, to bring some natural evil upon 
 a person on account of moral evil done.
 
 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 97 
 
 of men, and learnt to be more cautious in his conces- 
 sions for the time to come. 
 
 Two months ago Fatalio had ahnost tempted his 
 friend Fidens to leave oti' prayer, and to abandon his 
 dependence on the providence of God in the common 
 affairs of life, by obtaining of him a concession of the 
 like kind. Is it not evident to reason, says Fatalio, that 
 God''s immense scheme of transactions in the universe 
 was contrived and determined long before you and I 
 were born? Can you imagine, my dear Fi-dens, that the 
 blessed God changes liis original contrivances, and 
 m^es new interruptions in tlie course of them, so often 
 as you and I want his aid, to prevent the little accidents 
 of life, or to guard us from them? Can you suffer your- 
 self to be persuaded that the great Creator of this world 
 takes care to support a bridge which was quite rotten, 
 and to make it stand firm a iew minutes longer till you 
 had rode over it? Or, will he uphold a falling tower, 
 while we two were passing by it, that such worms as 
 you and I are might escape the ruin? 
 
 But you say, you prayed for his protection in the 
 morning, and he certainly hears prayer. I grant he 
 hears it: but are you so fond and weak, said he, as to 
 suppose that the universal Lord of all had such a regard 
 to a word or two of your breath, as to make alterations 
 in his own eternal scheme upon that account. Nor is 
 there any other way whereby his providence can pre- 
 serve you in answer to prayer, but by creating such per- 
 petual interruptions and changes in his own conduct, 
 according to your daily behaviour. 
 
 I acknowledge, says Fidens, there is no other way to 
 secure the doctrine of divine providence in all these 
 common affairs; and therefore I begin to doubt whether 
 God does or ever will exert himself so particularly in 
 our little concerns. 
 
 Have a care, good Fidens, that you yield not too fan 
 take heed lest you have granted too much to Fatalio. 
 Pray let me ask of you, could not the great God, who 
 grasps and surveys all future and distant things in one 
 single view, could not he from the beginning foresee your 
 morning prayer for his protection, and appoint all second 
 9
 
 98 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 
 
 causes to concur for tlie support of that crazy bridge, or 
 to make that old tower stand firm till you had escaped 
 the danger? Or could not he cause all tlie mediums to 
 work so as to make it fall before you came near it? Can 
 he not appoint all iiis own transactions in the universe, 
 and every event in the natural world, in a way of per- 
 fect correspondence with his own foreknowledge of all 
 the events, actions, and appearances of the moral world 
 in every part of it? Can he not direct every thing in 
 nature, which is but his servant, to act in perfect agree- 
 ment with his eternal prescience of our sins, or of our 
 piety? And hereby all the glory of providence, and our 
 necessary dependence upon it by faith and prayer, are 
 as well secured, as if he interposed to alter his own 
 scheme every moment. 
 
 Let me ask again; did not he in his own counsels or 
 decrees appoint thunders and lightnings and earth- 
 quakes, to burn up and destroy Sodom and Gomorrah, 
 and turn them into a dead sea, just at the time when 
 the iniquities of those cities were raised to their supreme 
 height? Did he not ordain the fountains of the deep to 
 be broken up, and overwhelming rains to fall from 
 heaven, just wlien a guilty world deserved to be drown- 
 ed; while he took care of the-security of righteous Noah, 
 by an ark which should float upon tliat very deluge of 
 waters? Thus he can punish the criminal when he 
 pleases, and reward the devout worshipper in the proper 
 season by his original and eternal schemes of appoint- 
 ment, as well as if he interposed every moment anew. 
 Take heed, Fidens, tliat you be not tempted away, by 
 such sophisms of Fatalio, to withhold prayer from God, 
 and to renounce your faith in his providence. 
 
 Remember this short and plain caution of tlie subtle 
 errors of men. Let a snake but once tln-ust in his head 
 at some small unguarded fold of your garment, and he 
 will insensibly and unavoidably wind his whole body into 
 your bosom, and give you a pernicious wound. 
 
 XI. On the other hand, when you have found youi 
 opponent make any such concession as may turn to your 
 real advantage in maintaining the truth, be wise and 
 watchful to observe it, and make a happy improvement
 
 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 99 
 
 s^f it. Rhapsodns has taken a great deal of pains to de- 
 tract from the lionour of Christianity, by sly insinua- 
 tions that the sacred writers are perpetually promoting 
 virtue and piety by promises and threatenings; whereas 
 neither the fear of future punishment, nor the hope of 
 future reward, can possibly be called good affections, or 
 such as are the acknowledged springs and sources of all 
 actions truly good. He adds further, that this fear, or 
 this hope, ca nnot consist in reality with virtue or goodness, 
 if it either stands as essential to any moral performance 
 or as a considerable motive to any good action; and thus 
 he would fiin lead Christians to be asliamed of the gos- 
 pel of Christ, because of its future and eternal promises 
 and threatenings, as being inconsistent witli his notion 
 of virtue; for he supposes virtue should be so beloved and 
 practised for the sake of its own beauty and loveliness, 
 that all other motives arising from rewards or punish- 
 ments, fear or hope, do really take away just so much 
 from the very nature of virtue as their influence reaches 
 to; and no part of those good practices are really valua- 
 ble, but what arises from the mere love of virtue itself, 
 without any regard to punishment or reward. 
 
 But observe, in two pages afterwards, he grants that 
 — this principle of fear of future punishment, and hope 
 of future reward, how mercenary and servile soever it 
 may be accounted, is yet in many circumstances a great 
 advantage, security, and support to virtue; especially 
 where there is danger of the violence of rage or lust, or 
 any counter-working passion to control and overcome 
 the good affections of the mind. 
 
 Now the rule and the practice of Christianity, or the 
 gospel, as it is closely connected with future rewards 
 and punishments, may be well supported by this con- 
 cession. Pray, Fi hapsodus, tell me, if every man in this 
 present life, by the violence of some counter-working 
 passion, may not have his good affections to virtue con- 
 trolled or overcome? May not, therefore, his eternal 
 fears and hopes be a great advantage, security, and sup- 
 port to virtue in so dangerous a state and situation, as 
 our journey through this world towards a better.' And
 
 100 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 
 
 this is all that the defence of Christianity necessarily 
 requires. 
 
 And yet further let me ask our rhapsodist, If you have 
 nothing else, sir, but the beauty and excellency and 
 loveliness of virtue to preach and flourish upon, before 
 such sorry and degenerate creatures as the bulk of man- 
 kind are, and you have no future rewards or punish- 
 ments with which to address their hopes and fears, how 
 many of these vicious wretches will you ever reclaim 
 from all their variety of profaneness, intemperance, and 
 madness? How many have you ever actually reclaimed 
 by this smooth soft method, and these fine words? What 
 has all that reasoning and rhetoric done which have 
 been displayed by your predecessors the heathen moral- 
 ists, upon this excellency and beauty of virtue? What 
 has it been able to do towards the reforming of a sinful 
 world? Perhaps now and then a man of better natural 
 mould has been a little refined, and perhaps also there 
 may liave been here and there a man restrained or re- 
 covered from injustice or knavery, from drunkenness 
 and lewdness, and vile debaucheries, by this fair reason- 
 ing and philosophy: but have the passions of revenge 
 and envy, of ambition and pride, and the inward secret 
 vices of the mind been mortified merely by this philoso- 
 phical language? Have any of these men been made 
 new creatures, men of real piety and love to God? 
 
 Go dress up all the virtues of human nature in all the 
 beauties of your oratory, and declaim aloud on the 
 praise of social virtue, and the amiable qualities of good- 
 ness, till your heart or your lungs ache, among tlie looser 
 herds of mankind, and you will ever find, as your hea- 
 then fathers have done before, that the wild passions and 
 appetites of men are too violent to be restrained by such 
 mild and silken language. You may as well build up 
 a fence of straw and feathers to resist a cannon ball, or 
 try to quench a flaming granado with a sliell of fair 
 water, as hope to succeed in these attempts. But an 
 eternal heaven and an eternal hell carry divine force 
 and power with them: this doctrine, from the mouth of 
 Christian preachers, has begun the reformation of multi- 
 tudes; this gospel has recovered thousands among the
 
 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 101 
 
 nations from iniquity and death. They have been awa- 
 kened by these awful scenes to begin rehgion, and after- 
 wards their virtue has improved itself into superior and 
 more refined principles and habits by divine grace, and 
 risen to high and eminent degrees, though not to a con- 
 summate state. I'he blessed God knows human nature 
 much better than Rhapsodus doth, and has throughout 
 his word appointed a more proper and more effectual 
 method of address to it by the passions of hope and fear, 
 by punishments and rewards. 
 
 If you read on four pages further in these writings, 
 you will find the autiior makes another concession. He 
 allows that the master of a family, using proper rewards 
 and gentle punishments towards his children, leaches 
 them goodness, and by this help instructs them in a virtue 
 which they afterwards practise upon other grounds, and 
 without tliinking of a penalty or a bribe; and this, says 
 he, is what we call a liberal education and a liberal 
 service. 
 
 This new concession of that author may also be very 
 happily improved in favour of Christianity. — What are 
 the best of men in this life' They are by no means per- 
 fect in virtue: we are all but children here under the 
 great master of the family, and he is pleased, by hopes 
 and fears, by mercies and corrections, to instruct us in 
 virtue, and to conduct us onward towards the sublimer 
 and more perfect practice of it in the future world, 
 where it shall be performed, as in his own language, 
 perhaps — without thinking of penalties or bribes. And 
 since he hath allowed that this conduct may be called a 
 liberal education, and a liberal service, let Christianity 
 then be indulged the title of a liberal education also, 
 and it is admirably fitted for such frail and sinful crea- 
 tures, while they are training up towards the sublimer 
 virtues of the heavenly state. 
 
 XII. When you are engaged in a dispute with a per- 
 son of very different principles from yourself, and you 
 cannot find any ready way to prevail with him to em- 
 brace the truth by principles which you both freely ac- 
 knowledge, you may fairly make use of his own princi- 
 9*
 
 102 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 
 
 pies to show him his mistake, and thus convince or si- 
 lenceliim from his own concessions. 
 
 If your opponent should be a Stoic philosopher or a 
 Jew, you may pursue your argument in defence of some 
 Christian doctrine or duty against such a disputant, by 
 axioms or laws borrowed either from Zeno or Moses. 
 And though you do not enter into the inquiry how ma- 
 ny of the laws of Moses are abrogated, or whether Ze- 
 no was right or wrong in his philosophy, yet if from 
 the principles and concessions of your opponent, you 
 can support your argument for the gospel of Christ, this 
 has been always counted a fair treatment of an adver- 
 sary, and it is called argumentum ad hominem, or 7'utio 
 ex co7icessis. St. Paul sometimes makes use of tliis sort 
 of disputation, when he talks with Jews or heathen phi- 
 losophers; and at last he silences if not convinces them: 
 which is sometimes necessary to be done against an ob- 
 stinate and clamorous adversary, that just honour might 
 be paid to truths which he knew were divine, and that 
 the only true doctrine of salvatoin might be confirmed 
 and propagated among sinful and dying men. 
 
 XIII. Yet great care must be taken, lest your debates 
 break in upon your passions, and awaken them to take 
 part in the controversy. When the opponent pushes 
 hard, and gives just and mortal wounds to ourovvnopin- 
 ons, our passions are very apt to feel the strokes, and to 
 rise in resentment and defence. Self is so mingled with 
 the sentiments which we have chosen, and has such a 
 tender feeling of all the opposition which is made to 
 them, that personal brawls are very ready to come in as 
 seconds, to succeed and finish the dispute of opinions. 
 Then noise, and clamour, and folly, appear m all their 
 shapes, and chase reason and truth out of sight. 
 
 How unhappy is the case of frail and wretched man- 
 kind m this dark or dusky state of strong passion and 
 glimmering reason! How ready are we, when our pas- 
 sions are engaged in the dispute, to consider more what 
 loads of nonsense and reproach we can lay upon our op- 
 ponent, than what reason and truth require in the con- 
 troversy itself! Dismal are the consequences mankind 
 are too often involved in by this evil principle; it is this
 
 THE SOCRATICAL WAT OF DISPUTATION. 103 
 
 common and dangnrous practice that carries the heart 
 aside from all that is fair and honest in oar search after 
 truth, or the propagation of it in the world. One would 
 wish from one's very soul that none of the Chrisliaa fa- 
 thers had been guilty of such follies as ttiese. 
 
 But St. Jerome fairly confesses this evil principle, in 
 his apology for himself to Pammachius, " ttiat he had 
 not so much regarded wliat was exactly to be spoken in 
 the controversy he had in hand, as what was fit to lay a 
 load on Jovinian." And, indeed, I fear this was the vile 
 custom of many of the writers even in the church af- 
 fairs of those times. But it will be a double scandal 
 upon us, in our more enlightened age, if we will allow 
 ourselves in a conduct so criminal and disI)onest. Hap- 
 py souls, who keep such a sacred dominion over their 
 inferior and animal powers, and all the influences of 
 pride and secular interest, that the sensitive tumults, or 
 these vicious influences, never rise to disturb tlie supe- 
 rior and better operations of the reasoning mind! 
 
 XIV. Tiiese general directions are necessary, or at 
 least useful, in all debates whatsoever, whether they 
 arise in occasional conversation, or are appointed at any 
 certain time or place: whether they are managed with 
 or witiiout any formal rules to govern them. But there 
 are three sorts of disputation in which there are some 
 forms and orders observed, and which are distinguished 
 by these three names, viz. Socratic, Forensic, and Aca- 
 demic, i. e. the disputes of the schools. 
 
 Concerning each of these it may not be improper to 
 discourse a little, and give a few particular directions or 
 remarks about them. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE SOCRATICAL WAY OF DISPUTATION. 
 
 I. This method of dispute derives its name from Soc- 
 rates, by whom it was practised, and by other philoso- 
 phers in his age, long before Aristotle invented tiie par-
 
 104 THE SOCRATICAL WAT OF DISPUTATION. 
 
 ticular forms of syllogism in mood and figure, which are 
 now used in scholastic disputations, 
 
 I]. The Socratical way is managed by questions and 
 answers in such a manner as this, viz. If I would lead a 
 person into the belief of a heaven or hell, or a future 
 state of rewards and punishments, I might begin in some 
 such manner of inquiry, and suppose the most obvious 
 and easy answers. 
 
 Q. Does not God govern the world.' 
 
 A. Surely he that made it governs it. 
 
 Q. Is not God both a good and a righteous gover- 
 nor? 
 
 A. Both these characters doubtless belong to him. 
 
 Q. What is the true notion of a good and righteous 
 governor? 
 
 A. That he punishes the wicked and rewards the 
 good. 
 
 Q. Are the good always rewarded in this life? 
 
 A. No surely; for many virtuous men are miserable 
 here, and greatly afflicted. 
 
 Q. Are the wicked always punished in this life? 
 
 A. No certainly; for many of them live without sor- 
 row, and some of the vilest of men are often raised to 
 great riclies and honour. 
 
 Q. Wherein then doth God make it appear that he is 
 good and righteous? 
 
 A. I own there is but little appearance of it on earth. 
 
 Q. Will there not be a time, then, when the tables 
 shall be turned, and the scene of things changed, since 
 God governs mankind rigliteously? 
 
 A- Doubtless there must be a proper time, wherein 
 God will make that goodness and that righteousness to 
 appear. 
 
 I Q. If this be not before their death, how can it be 
 done? 
 
 A. I can think of no other way but by supposing man 
 to have some existence after this life. 
 
 Q. Are you not convinced then that there must be a 
 state of reward and punishment after death? 
 
 A. Yes surely; I now see plainly, that the goodness
 
 OF DISPUTATION. 105 
 
 and righteousness of God, as governor of the world, ne- 
 cessarily require it. 
 
 III. Now the advantages of this method are very con- 
 siderable. 
 
 1. It represents the form of a dialogue or common 
 conversation, which is a much more easy, more pleasant, 
 and a more sprightly way of instruction, and more fit 
 to excite the attention, and sharpen the penetration of 
 the learner, than solitary reading or silent attention to 
 a lecture. Man, being a sociable creature, delights more 
 in conversation, and learns better this way, if it could 
 always be wisely and hajipily practised. 
 
 2. Tliis metliod hath something very obliging in it, and 
 carries a very humble and condescending air, when he 
 that instructs seems to be the inquirer, and seeks infor- 
 mation from him who learns. 
 
 3. It leads felie learner into the knowledge of truth as 
 it were by his own invention, which is a very pleasing 
 thing to human nature; and by questions pertinently and 
 artificially proposed, it does as effectually draw him on 
 to discover his own mistakes, which he is much more 
 easily persuaded to relinquish when he seems to have 
 discovered them himself 
 
 4. It is managed in a great measure in the form of 
 the most easy reasoning, always arising from something 
 eisserted or known in the foregoing answer, and so pro- 
 ceeding to inquire something unknown in the following 
 question, which again makes way for the next answer. 
 Now sucii an exercise is very alluring and entertaining 
 to tlie understanding, while its own reasoning powers 
 are all along employed, and tliat without labour or diffi- 
 culty, because, the querist finds out and proposes all the 
 intermediate ideas or middle terms. 
 
 IV. There is a method very nearly akin to this, which 
 has much obtained of late, viz. writing controversies by 
 questions only, or confirming or refuting any position, 
 or persuading to or dehorting from any practice, by the 
 mere proposal of queries. The answer to them is sup- 
 posed to be so plain and so necessary, that they are not 
 expressed, because the query itself carries a convincing
 
 i06 OF FORENSIC DISPUTES. 
 
 argument in it, and seems to deternaine what the answer 
 must be. 
 
 V. If Christian catecliisms could be framed in the 
 manner of a Socratical dispute by question and answer, 
 it would wonderfully enlighten the minds of children, 
 and it would improve their intellectual and reasoning 
 powers, it the same time that it leads them into the know- 
 ledge of religion: and it is upon one account well suited 
 to tiie capacity of children; for the questions may be 
 pretty numerous, and the querist must not proceed too 
 swiftly towards the deterinination of his point proposed, 
 that lie may with more ease, with brighter evidence, 
 and with surer success, draw the learner on to assent to 
 those principles, step by step, from whence the final 
 conclusion will naturally arise. The only inconveni- 
 ence would be this, that if children were to reason out 
 all their way entirely into the knowledge of every part 
 of their religion, it would draw common catechisms into 
 too large a volume for their leisure, attention, or me- 
 mory. 
 
 Yet those who explain their catechisms to them may, 
 by due a[)plication and forethought, instruct them in 
 this manner. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 OF FORENSIC DISPUTES. 
 
 I. The forum was a public place in Rome where 
 lawyers and orators made their speeches before the 
 proper judge in matters of property or in criminal cases, 
 to accuse or excuse, to complain or defend: thence all 
 sorts of disputations in public assemblies or courts of jus- 
 tice, where several persons make their distinct speeches 
 for or against any person or thing whatsoever, but more 
 especially in civil matters, may come under the name 
 of Forensic disputes. 
 
 II, This is practised not only in the courts of judica- 
 ture, where a single person sits to judge of the truth or
 
 OF FORENSIC DISPUTES. 107 
 
 goodness of any cause, and to determine according to 
 the weight of reasons on eitiier side; but it is used also 
 m pohtical senates or parHarnents, ecclesiastical synods, 
 and assemblies of various kinds. 
 
 In these assemblies, generally one person is chosen 
 chairman or mediator, nut to give a determination to 
 the controversy, but chiefly to keep the several speakers 
 to the rules of order and decency in their conduct: but 
 the final determination of the questions arises from the 
 majority of opinions or votes in the assembly, accord- 
 ing as they are or ought to be swayed by tlje superior 
 weight of reason appearing in the several speeches that 
 are made. 
 
 III. The method of proceeding is usually in some 
 such form as this. The first person who speaks, when 
 the court is set, opens the case either more briefly or at 
 large, and proposes the case to the judge or the chair- 
 man, or moderator of the assembly, and gives his own 
 reasons for his opinion in the case proposed. 
 
 IV. This person is succeeded by one, or perhaps two, 
 or several more, who paraphrase on the same subject, 
 and argue on the same side of the question: they confirm 
 what the first has spoken, and urge new reasons to en- 
 force the same: then those who are of a diflerent opinion 
 stand up and make their several speeches in succession, 
 opposing the cause which others have maintained, giving 
 their reasons against it, and endeavouring to refute the 
 arguments whereby the first speakers have supported it. 
 
 V. After this, one and another raises up to make their 
 replies, to vindicate or to condemn, to establish or to 
 confute what has been offered before on each side of the 
 question; till at last, according to the rules, orders, or 
 customs of the court or assembly, the contioversy is de- 
 cided, either by a single judge, or the suffrages of the 
 assembly. 
 
 VI. Where the question or matter in debate consists 
 of several parts, after it is once opened by tlie first or 
 second speaker, sometimes those who follow take each 
 of them a particular part of the debate, according to 
 their inclination or their prior agreement, and apply 
 themselves to argue upon that single point only, that so
 
 108 OF FORENSIC DISPUTES. 
 
 the whole complexion of the debate may not be thrown 
 into confusion by the variety of subjects, if every speaker 
 should handle all the subjects of debate. 
 
 VII. Before the tinal sentence of determination is 
 given, it is usual to have tlie reasons and arguments, 
 which have been offered on botli sides, summed up and 
 represented in a more compendious manner; and this 
 is done either by the appointed judge of tlie court, or 
 the cliairman, or some noted person in the assembly, 
 that so judgment may proceed upon the fullest survey 
 of the whole subject, tliat as far as possible in human 
 affairs nothing may be done contrary to truth or justice. 
 
 VIII. As this is a practice in which multitudes of 
 gentlemen, besides those of the learned professions, may 
 be engaged, at least, in their maturer years of life, so it 
 would be a very proper and useful thing to introduce 
 this custom into our academies, viz. to propose cases, 
 and let the students debate them in a forensic manner 
 in the presence of their tutors. There was something 
 of this kind practised by the Roman youth in their 
 schools, in order to train them up for orators, both in 
 the forum and in the senate. Perhaps Juvenal gives 
 some hints of it when he says, 
 
 et nos, 
 
 Consilium dedimus Syllae, privatus utaltum 
 
 Dormiret Sat. 1. 
 
 Where with men boys I strove to get renown, 
 Advising Sylla to a private gown, 
 That he might sleep the sounder. 
 
 Sometimes these were assigned to the boys as single 
 subjects of a theme or declamation: so the same poet 
 speaks sarcastically to Hannibal: 
 
 I demens, et saevas curre per Alpes, 
 
 Ut pueris placeas et declamatio fias. Sut. 10. 
 
 Go climb the rugged Alps, ambitious fool. 
 To please the boys, and be a theme at school. 
 
 See more of this matter in Rennet's Antiquities of 
 Rome, in the second Essay on the Roman education.
 
 OF ACADEMIC, OR &C. 109 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 OF ACADEMIC, OR SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. 
 
 The common methods in which disputes are managed 
 in schools af learning are these, viz. 
 
 I. The tutor appoints a question in some of the 
 sciences, to be debated amongst his students: one of 
 them undertakes to affirm or to deny the question, and 
 to defend his assertion or negation, and to answer all 
 objections against it; he is called the respondent: and 
 the rest of the students in the same class, or who pursue 
 the same science, are the opponents, who are appointed 
 to dispute or raise objections against the proposition thus 
 affirmed or denied. 
 
 II. Each of the students successively in their turn be- 
 come the respondent or the defender of that proposition, 
 while the rest oppose it also successively in their turns. 
 
 III. It is the business of the respondent to write a 
 thesis in Latin, or short discourses on the question pro- 
 posed; and he either affirms or denies the question, ac- 
 cording to the opinion of the tutor, which is supposed 
 to be the truth, and he reads it at the beginning of the 
 dispute. 
 
 IV. In his discourse (which is written with as great 
 accuracy as the youth is capable of) he explains the 
 terms of the question, frees them from all ambiguity, 
 fixes their sense, declares the true intent and meaning 
 of the question itself, separates it from other questions 
 with which it may have been complicated, and distin- 
 guishes it from other questions which may happen to 
 be akin to it, and then pronounces in the negative or af- 
 firmative concerning it. 
 
 V. When this is done, then, in the second part of his 
 discourse, he gives his own strongest arguments to con- 
 firm the proposition he has laid down, i. e. to vindicate 
 his own side of the question; but he does not usually 
 proceed to represent the objections against it, and to 
 solve or answer them; for it is the business of the other 
 students to raise objections in disputing. 
 
 10
 
 110 
 
 OF ACADEMIC, OB 
 
 VI. Note, in some schools the lespondent is admitted 
 to talk largely upon the question, with many flourishes 
 and illustrations, to introduce great authorities from 
 ancient and modern writings for the support of it, and 
 to scatter Latin reproaches in abundance on all those 
 who are of a different sentiment. But this is not al- 
 ways permitted ; nor should it indeed ever be indulged, 
 lest it teach youth to reproach instead of to reason. 
 
 VII. When the respondent has read over his thesis in 
 the school, the junior student makes an objection, and 
 draws it up into the regular form of a syllotrism : the 
 respondent repeats the objection, and either denies the 
 major or minor proposition directly, or he distinguishes 
 upon some word or phrase in the major or minor, and 
 shows in what sense the proposition may be true, but 
 that sense does not affect the question : and then declares, 
 that in the sense which affects the present question, the 
 proposition is not true, and consequently he denies it. 
 
 VII [. Then the opponent proceeds by another syllo- 
 gism to vindicate the proposition that is denied : again 
 the respondent answers by denying or distinguishing. 
 
 Thus the disputation goes on in a series or succession 
 of syllogisms and answers, till the objector is silenced, 
 and has no more to say. 
 
 IX. When he can go no further, the next student be- 
 gins to propose his objection, and then the third and the 
 fourth, even to the senior, who is the last opponent. 
 
 X. D iring this time the tutor sits in the chair as presi- 
 dent or moderator, to see that the rules of diputation 
 and decency be observed on both sides; and to admonish 
 each disputant of any irregularity in their conduct. 
 His work is also to illustrate and explain the answer or 
 distinction of the respondent where it is obscure, to 
 strengthen it where it is weak, and to correct it where it 
 is false: and when the respondent is pinched w.th a 
 strong objection, and is at lo s for an answer, the mode- 
 rator assists him, and suggests some answer to the ob- 
 jection of the opponent, in defence of the question, ac- 
 cording to his opinion or sentiment. 
 
 XI. In public disputes, where the opponents and re- 
 spondents choose their own side of the question, the
 
 OF SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. Ill 
 
 moderator's work is not to favour either disputant; but 
 he only sits as president, to see that the lavvs of dispu- 
 tation be observed, and a decorum maintained. 
 
 XII. Now the laws of disputation relate either to the 
 opponent or to the respondent, or to both. 
 
 The laws obliging the opponent are these. 
 
 1. That he must directly contradict the proposition of 
 the respondent, and not merely attack anv of the argu- 
 ments whereby the respondent has supported tliat prop- 
 osition; for it is one thing to confute a single argument 
 of the respondent, and another to confute the thesis it- 
 self. 
 
 2. (Which is akin to the former) he must contradict 
 or oppose the very sense and intention of the proposi- 
 tion as the respondent has stated it, and not merely oppose 
 the words ofthe thesis in any other sense; for this would be 
 the way to plunge tlie dispute into ambiguity and dark- 
 ness, to talk beside the question, to wrangle about words, 
 and to attack a proposition different from what the 
 respondent has espoused, wliich is called ignoratio elenchi. 
 
 3. He must propose his argamenta in a plain, short, 
 and syllogistic form, according to the rules of logic, 
 without flying to fallacies or sophisms, and, as far as 
 may be, he should use categorical syllogisms. 
 
 4. Though the respoiident may be attacked either Uf»- 
 on a point of his own concession, which is called argu- 
 mentam ex concessis, or by reducing him to an absurdity, 
 which is called reductio ad absurdam, yet it is the neat- 
 est, the most useful, and the best sort of disputation, 
 where the opponent draws his objections from the nature 
 of the question itself 
 
 5. Wiiere the respondent denies any proposition, the 
 opponent, if he proceed, must directly vindicate and 
 confirm that proposition, i. e. he must make ihat propo- 
 sition the conclusion of his next syllogism. 
 
 6. Where the respondent limits or distinguishes any 
 proportion, the opponent must directly prove his own 
 proposition in that sense, and according to the member 
 of the distinction in which the respondent denied it. 
 
 XIII. the laws that oblige the respondent are these.
 
 112 OF ACADEMIC, OR 
 
 1. To repeat the argument of the opponent in the 
 very same words in which it was proposed, before he at- 
 tempts to answer it. 
 
 2. If tlie syllogism be false in the loorical form of it, 
 ho must discover the fault according to the rules of 
 logic. 
 
 3. If the argument does not directly and effectually 
 oppose his thesis, he must show this mistake, and make 
 it appear that his thesis is safe, even though the argu- 
 ment of the opponent be admitted; or, at least, that 
 the argument does only aim at it collaterally, or at a 
 distance, and not directly overthrow it, or conclude 
 against it. 
 
 4. Where the matter of the opponent's objection is 
 faulty in any part of it, the respondent must grant what 
 is true in it, he must deny what is false, lie must distin- 
 guish or limit the proposition whicli is ambioruous or 
 doubtful, and then, granting the sense in wliich it is 
 true, he must deny the sense in which it is false. 
 
 5. If an hypothetic proposition be false, the respon- 
 dent must deny the consequence; if a disjunctive, he 
 must deny the disjunction; if a categoric or relative, he 
 must simply deny it. 
 
 6. It is sometimes allowed for the respondent to use 
 an indirect answer after he has answered directly; and 
 he may also show how the opponent's argument may be 
 retorted against himself. 
 
 XIV. The laws that oblige both disputants are these. 
 
 1. Sometimes it is necessary there should be a men- 
 tion of certain general principles in which they both 
 agree, relating to tiie question, that so they may not dis- 
 pute on those things which either are or ought to have 
 been first granted on both sides. 
 
 2. When the state of the controversy is well known, 
 and plainly determined and agreed, it must not be al- 
 tered by either disputant in the course of the disputa- 
 tion; and the respondent especially should keep a watch- 
 ful eye on the opponent in this matter. 
 
 3. Let neither party invade the province of the oth- 
 er; especially let the respondent take heed that he does
 
 SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. 113 
 
 not turn opponent, except in retorting the argument 
 upon his adversary after a direct response; and even this 
 is aliowed only as an illustration or confirmation of his 
 own response. 
 
 4. Let each wait with patience till the other has done 
 speaking. It is a piece of rudeness to interrupt another 
 in his speech. 
 
 Yet, though the disputants have not this liberty, the 
 moderator may do it, when either of the disputants 
 break the rules, and he may interpose so far as to keep 
 them in order. 
 
 XV. It must be confessed there are some advantages 
 to be attained by academical disputation. It gives vi- 
 gour and briskness to the mind thus exercised, and re- 
 lieves the languor of private study and meditation. It 
 sharpens the wit, and all the inventive powers. It makes 
 the thoughts active, and sends them on all sides to find 
 arguments and answers both for opposition and defence. 
 It gives opportunity of viewing the subject of discourse 
 on all sides, and of learning wiiat inconveniences, diffi- 
 culties, and objections, attend particular opinions. It 
 furnishes the sou! with various occasions of starting such 
 thoughts as otherwise would never have come into the 
 mind. It makes a student more expert in attacking and 
 refuting an error, as well as in vindicating a truth. It 
 instructs the scholar in the various methods of warding 
 off the force of objections, and of discovering and re- 
 pelling tlie subtle tricks of sophisters. It procures also 
 a freedom and readiness of speech, and raises the mod- 
 est and difKdent genius to a due degree of courage. 
 
 XVI, But there are some very grievous inconvenien- 
 ces tliat may sometimes overbalance all these advanta- 
 ges. For many young students, by a constant habit of 
 disputing, grow impudent and audacious, proud and dis- 
 dainful, talkative and impertinent, and render themselves 
 intolerable by an obstinate humour of maintaining what- 
 ever tliey have asserted, as well as by a spirit of contra- 
 diction, opposing almost every thing that they hear. 
 The disputation itself often awakens the passions of am- 
 bition, emulation, and anger; it carries away the mind 
 
 10*
 
 114 OF ACADEMIC, OR 
 
 from that calm and sedate temper which is so necessary 
 to contemplate truth. 
 
 XVII. It is evident also, that by frequent exercises of 
 this sort, wherein opinions true and false are argued, 
 supported, and refuted on both sides, the mind of man 
 is led by insensible degrees to an uncertainty and fluctu- 
 ating temper, and falls into danger of a sceptical hu- 
 mour, which never comes to an establishment in any 
 doctrines. Many persons, by this means, become much 
 more ready to observe whatsoever is offered in searching 
 out truth; they hardly wait till they have read or heard 
 the sentiment of any person, before their heads are bus- 
 ily employed to seek out arguments against it. They 
 grow naturally sharp in finding out difficulties; and by 
 indulging this humour they converse with the dark and 
 doubtful parts of a subject so long, till they almost ren- 
 der themselves incapable of receiving the full evidence 
 of a proposition, and acknowledging the light of truth. 
 It has some tendency to make a youth a carping critic, 
 rather than a judicious man. 
 
 XVIII. I would add yet further, that in these dispu- 
 tations the respondent is generally appointed to main- 
 tain the supposed truth, tliat is, tlie tutor's opinion. But 
 all the opponents are busy and warmly engaged in find- 
 ing arguments against the truth. Now if a sprightly 
 young genius happens to manage his arguments so well 
 as to puzzle and gravel the respondent, and perliaps to 
 perplex the moderator a little too, he is soon tempted to 
 suppose his argument unanswerable, and the truth en- 
 tirely to lie on his side. The pleasure which he takes 
 in having found a sophism which has great appearance 
 of reason, and which he himself has managed with such 
 success, becomes perhaps a strong prejudice to engage his 
 inward sentiments in favour of his argument, and in op- 
 position to the supposed truth, 
 
 XIX. Yet perhaps it may be possible to reduce scho- 
 lastic disputations under such a guard as, may, in some 
 measure, prevent most of these abuses of them, and tlie 
 unliappy events that too often attend them; for it is pity 
 that an exercise which has some valuable benefits atten- 
 ding it, should be utterly thrown away, if it be pos.sible
 
 SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. 115 
 
 to secure young minds against the abuse of it; for which 
 purpose some of these directions may seem proper. 
 XX. General directions for scliolastic disputes: 
 
 1. Never dispute upon mere trifles, things that are 
 utterly useless to be known, under a vain pretence of 
 sharpening the wit; for the same advantage may be de- 
 rived from solid and useful subjects, and thus two hap- 
 py ends may be attained at once. Or if such disputa- 
 tions are always thought dangerous in important mat- 
 ters, let them be utterly abandoned. 
 
 2. Do not make infinite and unsearchable things the 
 matter of dispute, nor such propositions as are made up 
 of mere words without ideas, lest it lead young persons 
 into a most unhappy habit of talking without a mean- 
 ing, and boldly to determine upon things that are hardly 
 within the reach of human capacity. 
 
 3. Let not obvious and known truths, or some of the 
 most plain and certain propositions, be bandied about in 
 a disputation, for a mere trial of skill; for he that oppo- 
 ses them in this manner will bo in danger of contracting 
 a habit of opposing all evidence, will acquire a spirit of 
 contradiction, and pride himself in a power of resisting 
 the brightest ligiit, and fighting against the strongest 
 proofs; this will insensibly injure the mind, and tends 
 greatly to a universal scepticism. 
 
 Upon the wliole, therefore, the most proper subjects 
 of dispute seem to be, those very questions which are 
 not of tbe very highest importance and certaint}', nor 
 of the meanest and trifling kind; but rather the interme- 
 diate questions between these two, and there is a large 
 sufficiency of them in the sciences. But this I put as a 
 mere proposal, to be determined by the more learned 
 and prudent. 
 
 4. It would be well if every dispute could be so or- 
 dered as to be a means of searching out truth, and not 
 to gain a triumph. Then each disputant might come 
 to the work without bias and prejudice: with a desire of 
 truth, and not with ambition of glory and victory. 
 
 Nor should the aim and design of the disputant be to 
 avoid artfully and escape the difficulties which the op-
 
 IIG OP ACADEMIC, OR 
 
 ponent offers, but to discuss them thoroughly, and solve 
 them fairly, if they are capable of being solved. 
 
 Again, let the opponent be solicitous not to darken 
 and confound the responses that are given him by fresh 
 subtleties; but let him bethink liimself whether they are 
 not a just answer to the objection, and be lionestly ready 
 to perceive and accept them, and yield to them. 
 
 5. For this end let both the respondent and opponent 
 use the clearest and most distinct and expressive lan- 
 guage in which they can clothe their thoughts. Let 
 them seek and practise brevity and perspicuity on both 
 sides, without long declamations, tedious circumlocu- 
 tions, and rhetorical flourishes. 
 
 If there happen to be any doubt or obscurity on eith- 
 er side, let neither the one nor tiie other ever refuse to 
 give a fair explication of the words they use. 
 
 6. They should not indulge ridicule, either of persons 
 or things, in their disputations. They should abstain 
 from all banter and jest, laughter and merriment. 
 These are things that break in upon that philosophical 
 gravity, sedateness, and serenity of temper which ought 
 to be observed in every search after truth. However an 
 argument on some subjects may be sometimes clothed 
 with a little pleasantry, yet a jest or witticism should 
 never be used instead of an argument, nor should it ev- 
 er be suffered to pass for a real and solid proof 
 
 But especially if the subject be sacred or divine, and 
 have nothing in it comical or ridiculous, all ludicrous 
 turns, and jocose or comical airs, should be entirely ex- 
 cluded, lest young minds become tinctured with a silly 
 and profane sort of ridicule, and learn to jest and trifle 
 with the awful solemnities of religion. 
 
 7. Nor should sarcasm and reproach, or insolent lan- 
 guage, ever be used among fair disputants. Turn not 
 off from tilings to speak of persons. Leave all noisy 
 contests, all immodest clamours, brawling language, and 
 especially all personal scandal and scurrility, to the 
 meanest part of the vulgar world. Let your manner be 
 all candour and gentleness, patient and ready to hear, 
 humbly zealous to inform and be informed: you should 
 be free and pleasant in every answer and behaviour,
 
 SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. 117 
 
 rather like well bred gentlemen in polite conversation, 
 than like noisy and contentious wranglers. 
 
 8. If the opponent sees victory to incline to his side, 
 let him be content to show the force of his argument to 
 the intelligent part of the company, without too impor- 
 tunate and petulant demands of an answer, and witliout 
 insulting over his antagonist, or putting the modesty of 
 the respondent to the blush. Nor let the respondent 
 triumph over the opponent when he is silent and replies 
 no more. On which side soever victory declares her- 
 self, let neither of them manage with such unpleasing 
 and insolent airs, as to awaken those evil passions of 
 pride, anger, shame, or resentment on either side which 
 alienate tiie mind from truth, render it obstinate in the 
 defence of an error, and never suffer it to part with any 
 of its old opinions. 
 
 In sliort, when truth evidently appears on either side, 
 let them learn to yield to conviction. When eitiier par- 
 ty is at a nonplus, let them confess the difficulty, and 
 desire present assistance, or further time and retirement 
 to consider of the matter, and not rack their present in- 
 vention to find out little shifts to avoid the force and evi- 
 dence of truth. 
 
 9. Might it not be a safer practice in order to attain 
 the best ends of disputation, and to avoid some of the 
 ill effects of it, if the opponents were sometimes en- 
 gaged on the side of truth, and produced their arguments 
 in opposition to error? And what if the respondent was 
 appointed to support the error, and defend it as well as 
 he could, till he was forced to yield at least to those 
 arguments of the opponent which appear to be really 
 just, and strong, and unanswerable? 
 
 In this practice, the thesis of the respondent should 
 only be a fair stating of the question with some of the 
 chief objections against the truth proposed and solved. 
 
 Perliaps this practice might not so easily be perverted 
 and abused to raise a cavilling, disputive, and sceptical 
 temper in the minds of youth. 
 
 I confess, in this method which I now propose, there 
 would be one amongst the students, viz. the respondent, 
 always engaged in the supposed error; but all the rest
 
 118 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 
 
 would be exercising their talents in arguing for the sup- 
 posed truth: whereas, in the common methods of dis- 
 putation in the schools, especially where the students 
 are nume^-ous, each single student is perpetually em- 
 ployed to oppose the truth, and vindicate error, except 
 once in a long time, when it comes to his turn to be re- 
 spondent. 
 
 10. Upon the whole it seems necessary that these 
 methods of disputation should be learned in the schools, 
 in order to teach students better to defend truth, and to 
 refute error, both in writing and conversation, where 
 the scholastic forms are utterly neglected. 
 
 But after all, the advantage which youth may gain 
 by disputations depends much on the tutor or moderator, 
 he slioiild manage with such prudence, both in the dis- 
 putation and at the end of it, as to make all the dispu- 
 tants know the very point of controversy wherein it 
 consists; he should manifest the fallacy of sophistical ob- 
 jections, and confirm the solid arguments and answers. 
 This might teach students how to make tiie art of dis- 
 putation useful for the searching out the truth and the 
 defence of it, that it may not be learned and practised 
 only as an art of wrangling, which reigned in the schools 
 several hundred years, and divested tlie growing reason 
 of youth of its best hopes and improvements. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 
 
 I. It has been proved and established in some of the 
 foregoing chapters, that neither our own observations, 
 nor our reading the labours of the learned, nor the at- 
 tendance on the best lectures of instruction, nor enjoying 
 the brightest conversation, can ever make a man truly 
 knowing and wise, without the labours of his own rea- 
 son in surveying, examining, and judging concerning 
 all subjects upon the best evidence he can acquire. A 
 good genius, or sagacity of thought, a happy judgment.
 
 OP STUDY OR MEDITATION. 119 
 
 a capacious memory, and large opportunities of observa- 
 tion and converse, w^ill do much of themselves tovv^ards 
 the cultivation of the mind, where they are well im- 
 proved ; but where, to the advantage of learned lectures, 
 living instructions, and well cliosen books, diligence and 
 study are superadded, this man has all iiuman aids con- 
 curring to raise him to a superior degree of wisdom and 
 knowledge. 
 
 Under the preceding heads of discourse it has been 
 already declared how our own meditation and reflection 
 should examine, cultivate, and improve all other methods 
 and advantages of enriching the understanding. What 
 remains in this chapter is to give some further occasional 
 hints how to employ our own thoughts, what sort of sub- 
 jects we should meditate on, and in what manner we 
 should regulate our studies, and how we may improve our 
 judgment, so as in the most effectual and compendious 
 way to attain such knowledge as may be most useful 
 for every man in his circumstances of life, and particu- 
 larly for those of the learned professions. 
 
 II. The first direction for youth is this — learn betimes 
 to distinguish between words and things. Get clear 
 and plain ideas of the things you are set to study. Do 
 not content yourselves with mere words and names, lest 
 your laboured improvements only amass a heap of un- 
 intelligible phrases, and you feed upon husks instead of 
 kernels. This rule is of unknown use in every science. 
 
 But the greatest and most common danger is in the 
 sacred science of theology, where settled terms and 
 phrases have been pronounced divine and orthodox, 
 which yet have no meaning in them. The scholas- 
 tic divinity would furnish us with numerous instances 
 of this folly ; and yet for many ages all truth and all 
 heresy have been determined by such senseless tests, and 
 by words without ideas : such Shibboleths as these have 
 decided the secular fates of men : and bishoprics or burn- 
 ing mitres or faggots have been the rewards of different 
 persons, according as they pronounced these consecrated 
 syllables, or not pronounced them. To defend them 
 was all piety, and pomp, and triumph ; to despise them, 
 or to doubt or to deny them, was torture and death. A
 
 12U OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 
 
 tliovisand thank-offerings are due to that Providence 
 which has dehvered our age and our nation from these 
 absurd iniquities! O that every specimen and shadow 
 of this madness were banished from our schools and 
 churches in every shape! 
 
 III. Let not young students apply tliemselves to search 
 out deep, dark, and abstruse matters, far above their 
 reach, or spend tiieir labour in any peculiar subjects, for 
 which they have not the advantages of necessary ante- 
 cedent learning, or books, or observations. Let them 
 not be too hasty to know things above their present 
 powers, nor plunge their inquiries at once into the depths 
 of knowledge, nor begin to study any science in the 
 middle of it; this will confound rather tlian enlighten the 
 understanding; sucli practices may happen to discourage 
 and jade the mind by an attempt above its power; it may 
 balk the understanding, and create an aversion to future 
 dilligence, and pcrliaps by despair may forbid the pur- 
 suit of that subject for ever afterwards: as a limb over- 
 strained by lifting a weight above its pov^'cr may never 
 recover its former agility and vigour; or if it does, the 
 man may be frighted from ever exerting its strength 
 again. 
 
 IV. Nor yet let any student, on the other hand, fright 
 himself at every turn with insurmountable difficulties, 
 nor imagine that the truth is wrapt up in impenetrable 
 darkness. These are furmidable spectres which the un- 
 derstanding raises sometimes to flatter its own laziness. 
 Those things which in a remote and confuted view seem 
 very obscure and perplexed may be approached by gentle 
 and regular steps, and may then unfold and explain 
 themselves at large to the eye. The hardest problems 
 in geometry, and the most intricate schemes or diagrams, 
 may be explicated and understood step by step; every 
 great mathematician bears a constant witness to this 
 observation. 
 
 V. In learning any new thing, there should be as 
 little as possible first proposed to the mind at once, and 
 that being understood and fully mastered, proceed then 
 to the next adjoining part yet unknown. This is a slow, 
 but safe and sure way to arrive at knowledge. If the
 
 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 121 
 
 mind apply itself at first to easier subjects, and things 
 near akin to what is already known, and then advance 
 to the more remote and knotty parts of knowledge by 
 slow degrees, it would be able in this manner to cope 
 with great ditficulties, and prevail over them with amaz- 
 ing and happy success. 
 
 Mathon happened to dip into the last two chapters of 
 a new book of geometry and mensuration as soon as he 
 saw it, and was frighted with the complicated diagrams 
 whicli he found there, about the frustums of cones and 
 pyramids, &c. and some deep demonstrations among 
 conic sections; he shut the book again in despair, and 
 imagined none but a Sir Isaac Newton was ever fit to 
 read it. But his tutor happily persuaded him to begin 
 the first pages about lines and angles; and he found such 
 surprising pleasure in three weeks time in the victories 
 he daily obtained, that at last he became one of the 
 chief geometers of his age. 
 
 VI. Engage not tiie mind in the intense pursuit of 
 too many things at once; especially such as have no re- 
 lation to one another. This will be ready to distract 
 the understanding, and hinder it from attaining perfec- 
 tion in any one subject of study. Such a practice gives 
 a slight smattering of several sciences, without any solid 
 and substantial knowledge of them, and without any- 
 real and valuable improvement; and though two or three 
 sorts of study may be usefully carried on at once, to 
 entertain the mind with variety, that it may not be over- 
 tired with one sort of thoughts, yet a multitude of sub- 
 jects will too much distract the attention, and weaken 
 the application of the mind to any one of them. 
 
 Where two or three sciences are pursued at the same 
 time, if one of them be dry, abstracted, and unpleasant, 
 as logic, metaphysics, law, languages, let another be 
 more entertaining and agreeable, to secure the mind from 
 weariness and aversion to study. Delight should be in- 
 termingled with labour as far as possible, to allure us to 
 bear the fatigue of dry studies the better. Poetry, prac- 
 tical mathematics, history. Sic. are generally esteemed 
 entertaining studies, and may be happily used for this 
 purpose. Thus while we relieve a dull and heavy hour 
 
 u
 
 122 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 
 
 by some alluring employments of the mind, our very 
 diversions enrich our understandings, and our pleasure 
 is turned into profit. 
 
 XII. In the pursuit of every valuable subject of knowl- 
 edge, keep the end always in your eye, and be not di- 
 verted from it by every petty triJle you meet with in the 
 way. Some persons have such a wandering genius 
 that they are ready to pursue every incidental theme or 
 occasional idea, till they have lost sight of the original 
 subject. These are the men who, when they are en- 
 gaged in conversation, prolong their story bj' dwelling 
 on every incident, and swell tlieir narrative with long 
 parentheses, till they have lost their first designs; like a 
 man wiio is sent in quest of some great treasure, but he 
 steps aside to gather every flower he finds, or stands still 
 to dig up every shining pebble he meets with in his way, 
 till the treasure is forgotten and never found. 
 
 VIII. Exert your care, skill, and diligence, about 
 every subject and every question, in a just proportion 
 to the importance of it, together with the danger and 
 bad consequences of ignorance or error therein. Many 
 excellent advantages flow from this one direction: 
 
 1. Tliis rule will teach you to be very careful in gain- 
 ing some general and fundamental truth both in philoso- 
 phy, and religion, and in human life; because they are 
 of the highest moment, and conduct our thoughts with 
 ease into a thousand inferior and particular propositions. 
 Such is that great principle in natural philosophy — the 
 doctrine of gravitation, or mutual tendency of ail bodies 
 towards each other, which Sir Isaac Newton has so well 
 established, and from which he has drawn the solution 
 of a multitude of appearances in the heavenly bodies as 
 well as on earth. 
 
 Such is that golden principle of morality which our 
 blessed Lord has given us — Do that to others which you 
 think just and reasonal)le that others should do to you, 
 which is almost sufficient in itself to solve all cases of 
 conscience wliich relate to our neighbour. 
 
 Such are those principles in religion — that a rational 
 creature is accountable to his Maker for all his actions 
 — that the soul of man is immortal — that there is a fu-
 
 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 123 
 
 ture state of happiness and of misery depend ingr on out 
 behaviour in the present life, on which all our religious 
 practices are built or supported. 
 
 We should be very curious in examining all proposi- 
 tions that pretend to this honour of being general prin- 
 ciples: and vie should not without just evidence admit 
 into this rank mere matters of common fame, or com- 
 monly received opinions; no, nor the general determina- 
 tion of the learned, or the established articles of any 
 church or nation, &c. for there are many learned pre- 
 sumptions, many synodical and national mistakes, many 
 established falselioods, as well as many vulgar errors, 
 wherein multitudes of men have followed one another 
 for whole ages almost blindfold. It is of great impor- 
 tance for every man to be careful that these general 
 principles are just and true; for one error may lead us 
 into thousands, which will naturally follow, if once a 
 leading falsehood be admitted. 
 
 2. This rule will direct us to be more careful about 
 practical points than mere speculations, since they are 
 commonly of mucli greater use and consequence: there- 
 fore the speculations of algebra, the doctrine of infini- 
 ties, and the quadrature of curves in matliematical learn- 
 ing, together with all the train of theorems in natural 
 philosophy, should by no means entrench upon our stu- 
 dies of morality and virtue. Ev6n in the science of 
 divinity itself, the sublimest speculations of it are not 
 of that worth and value, as the rules of duty towards 
 God and towards men. 
 
 3. In matters of practice we should be most careful 
 to fix our end right, and wisely to determine" the scope 
 at which we aim, because that is to direct us in the 
 choice and use of all the means to attain it. If our end 
 be wrong, all our labour in the means will be vain, or 
 perhaps so much the more pernicious as they are bet- 
 ter suited to attain that mistaken end. If mere sensible . 
 pleasure, or human grandeur, or wealth, be our chief 
 end, we shall choose means contrary to piety and virtue, 
 and proceed apace towards real misery. 
 
 4. Tliis rule will engage our best powers and deepest 
 attention in the affairs of religion, and things that re-
 
 124 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 
 
 late to a future world: for those propositions which ex- 
 tend only to the interest of the present life, are but of 
 small importance when compared with those that have 
 influence upon our everlasting concernments. 
 
 5. And even in the affairs of religion, if we walk by 
 tlie conduct of this rule, we shall be much more labori- 
 ous in our inquiries into the necessary and fundamental 
 articles of faith and practice, than the lesser appendices 
 of Christianity. The great doctrines of repentance to- 
 wards God, faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, with love to 
 men, and universal holiness, will employ our best and 
 brightest hours and meditations, while the mint, anise, 
 and cummin, the gestures, and vestures, and fiinges of 
 religion, will be regarded no fartlier than they have a 
 plain and evident connexion with faith and love, with 
 holiness and peace. 
 
 6. This rule will make us solicitous not only to avoid 
 such errors, wliose influence would spread wide into the 
 whole scheme of our own knowledge and practice, but 
 such mistakes also whose influence would be yet more 
 extensive and injurious to others as well as to ourselves: 
 porliaps to many persons or many families, to a whole 
 church, a town, a country, or a kingdom. Upon this 
 account, persons who are called to instruct others, who 
 are raised to any eminence either in church or state, 
 ought to be careful ih settling their principles in matters 
 relating to the civil, the moral, or the religious life, lest 
 a mistake of theirs should diffuse wide mischief, sliould 
 draw along with it most pernicious consequences, and 
 perhaps extend to following generations. 
 
 These are some of the advantages wliich arise from 
 the eighth rule, viz. Pursue every inquiry and study in 
 proportion to its real value and iniportance. 
 
 IX. Have a care lest some beloved notion, or some 
 darling science, so far prevail over your mind as to give 
 a sovereign tincture to all your other studies, and dis- 
 colour all your ideas, like a person in the jaundice, who 
 spreads a yellow scene with his eyes over all tiie objects 
 which he meets. I have known a man of peculiar skill 
 in music, and much devoted to that science, who found 
 out a great resemblance of the Athanasian doctrine of
 
 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 125 
 
 the Trinity in every single note, and he thought it car- 
 ried something of argument in it to prove that doctrine. 
 I have read of another who accommodated the seven 
 days of the first week of creation to seven notes of mu- 
 sic, and thus the v/hole creation became harmonious. 
 
 Under this influence, derived from mathematical stu- 
 dies, some have been tempted to cast all tiieir logical, 
 their metaphysical, and their theological and moral 
 learning into the method of mathematicians, and bring 
 every thing relating to those abstracted, or those prac- 
 tical sciences, under theorems, problems, postulates, 
 scholiums, corollaries, &c. whereas, the matter ought 
 always to direct the method; for all subjects or matters 
 of thought cannot be moulded or subdued to one form. 
 Neither the rules for the conduct of the understanding, 
 nor the doctrines nor duties of religion and virtue, can 
 be exhibited naturally in figures and diagrams. Things 
 are to be considered as they are in themselves; their na- 
 tures are inflexible, and their natural relations unaltera- 
 ble; and therefore, in order to conceive them aright, we 
 must bring our understandings to things, and not pre- 
 tend to bend and strain things to comport with our fan- 
 cies and forms. 
 
 X. Suffer not any beloved study to prejudice your 
 mind so far in favour of it as to despise all other learn- 
 ing. This is a fault of some little souls, who have got 
 a smattering of astronomy, chymistry, metaphysics, his- 
 tory, &c. and for want of a due acquaintance with other 
 sciences, make a scofl'at them all in comparison of their 
 favourite science. Their understandings are hereby 
 cooped up in narrow bounds, so that they never look 
 abroad into other provinces of the intellectual world, 
 which are more beautiful, perhaps, and more fruitful 
 than their own: if they would search a little into other 
 sciences, they miglit not only find treasures of new 
 knowledge, but might be furnished also with rich hints 
 of thought, and glorious assistances to cultivate that ve- 
 ry province to which they have confined themselves. 
 
 Here I would always give some grains of allowance 
 to the sacred science of theology, wiiich is incompara- 
 bly superior to all the rest, as it teaches us the knowl- 
 11*^
 
 126 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 
 
 ed^e of God, and the way to his eternal favour. This 
 is that noble study which is every man's duty, and eve- 
 ry one who can be called a rational creature is capable 
 of it. 
 
 This is that science which would truly enlarge the 
 minds of men, were it studied with that freedom, that 
 unbiased love of truth, and that sacred charity which it 
 teaches; and if it were not made, contrary to its own 
 nature, the occasion of strife, faction, malicrnity, a nar- 
 row spirit, and unreasonable impositions on the mind 
 and practice. Let tliis, tlierefore, stand always chief. 
 
 XI. Let every particular study Jiave due and proper 
 time assitrned it, and let not a favourite science prevail 
 with you to lay out sucli hours upon it, as ouo-ht to be 
 employed upon the more necessary and more imp(<rlant 
 atTairs or studies of your profession. When you have, 
 accordinrr to the best of your disci etion, and according- 
 to the circumstances of your life, fixed proper hours for 
 particular studies, endeavour to keep to tiiose rules; not, 
 indeed, with a superstitious preciseuess, but with some 
 good degress of a reo-ular constancy. Order and nietiiod 
 in a course of study saves much time, and makes large 
 improvements. Such a fixation of certain hours will 
 have a happy influence to secure you from trifling and 
 wasting away your minutes in impertinence. 
 
 Xn. Do not apply yourself to any one study at one 
 time longer than the mind is capable of giving a close 
 attention to it without weariness or wandering. Do not 
 over fatigue the spirits at any time, lest the mind be 
 seized with a lassitude, and thereby be tempted to nause- 
 ate and grow tired of a particular subject before you 
 have finished it. 
 
 XIII. In the beginning of your application to any 
 new subject be not too uneasy under present difficulties 
 that occur, nor too importunate and impatient for an- 
 swers and solutions to any questions that arise. Per- 
 haps a little more study, a little further acquaintance 
 with the subject, a little time and experience, will solve 
 those difficulties, untie the knot, and make your doubts 
 vanish: especially if you are under the instruction of a 
 tutor, he can inform you that your inquiries are perhaps
 
 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 127 
 
 too early, and that you have not yet learned those prin- 
 ciples upon which the solution of such a difficulty 
 depends. 
 
 XIV. Do not expect to arrive at certainty in every 
 subject which you pursue. There are a hundred tilings 
 wherein we mortals in this dark and imperfect state 
 must be content with probability, where our best light 
 and reasonings will reach no farther. We must balance 
 arguments as justly as we can, and where we cannot 
 find weight enough on either side to determine the scale 
 with sovereign force and assurance, we must content 
 ourselves, perliaps, with a small preponderation. This 
 will give us a probable opinion, and those probabilities 
 are sufficient for tlie daily determination of a thousand 
 actions in human life, and many times even in matters 
 of religion. 
 
 It is admirably well expressed by a late writer — 
 "When there is a great strength of argument set before 
 us, if we will refuse to do wliat appears most fit for us, 
 till every little objection is removed, we shall never take 
 one wise resolution as long as we live." 
 
 Suppose I had been honestly and long searching what 
 religion I should choose, and yet I could not find that 
 the argument in defence of Christianity arose to com- 
 plete certainty, but went only so far as to give me a 
 probable evidence of the truth of it; thougli many diffi- 
 culties still remain, yet I should think myself obliged 
 to receive and practise that religion, for the God of na- 
 ture and reason has bound us to assent and act according 
 to the best evidence we have, even though it be not abso- 
 lute and complete; and as he is our supreme judge, his 
 abounding goodness and equity will approve and acquit 
 the man whose conscience honestly and willinojy seeks 
 the best light, and obeys it as far as he can discover it. 
 
 But in matters of great importance in religion, let 
 him join all due diligence with earnest and humble 
 prayer for divine aid in his inquiries; such prayer and 
 such diligence as eternal concerns require, and such as 
 he may plead with courage before the judge of all. 
 
 XV. Endeavour to apply every speculative study as 
 far as possible, to some practical use, that both y ourself
 
 128 OF STUDY OR MEDITATION. 
 
 and others may be the better for it. Inquiries even in 
 natural philosophy should not be mere amusement, and 
 much less in tiie affairs of religion. Ptesearches into the 
 springs of natural bodies and their motions should lead 
 men to invent happy methods for the ease and conveni- 
 ence of human life; or at least they should be improved 
 to awaken us to admire the wonderous wisdom and con- 
 trivances of God our creator in all the works of nature. 
 
 If v^e pursue mathematical speculations, they will 
 inure us to attend closely to any subject, to seek and 
 gain clear ideas, to distinguish truth from falsehood, to 
 judge justly, and to argue strongly; and these studies do 
 more directly furnish us with all the various rules of 
 those useful arts of life, viz. measuring, building, sail- 
 ing, &c. 
 
 Even our very inquiries and disputations about vacuum 
 or space, and atoms, about incommensurable quantities, 
 and finite divisibility of matter, and eternal duration, 
 which seems to be purely speculative, will show us some 
 good pi'actical lessons, wnill lead us to see the weakness 
 of our nature, and should teach us liumility in argu- 
 ments of divine subjects and matters of sacred revelation. 
 This should guard us against rejecting any doctrine 
 which is expressly and evidently reveai'^d, though we 
 cannot fully understand it. It is good sometimes lo lose 
 and bewilder ourselves in such studies for this very 
 reason, and to attain this practical advantage, this im- 
 provement in tiue modesty and spirit. 
 
 XVI. Though we should always be ready to change 
 our sentiments of things upon just conviction of their 
 falsehood, yet there is not the same necessity of chang- 
 ing our accustomed methods of reading or study and 
 practice, even though we have not been led at first into 
 the happiest method. Our thought may be true, though 
 we may have hit upon an improper order of thinking. 
 Truth does not always depend upon the most convenient 
 method. There may be a certain form and order in 
 which we have long accustomed ourselves to range our 
 ideas and notions, which may be best for us now, though 
 it was not originally best in itself The inconveniences of
 
 OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 129 
 
 rchemging may be much greater than the conveniences 
 
 )We could obtain by a new method 
 
 As for instance, if a man in his younger days has 
 
 r ranged all his sentiments in theology in the method of 
 Ames's Medulla Theologiae, or Bisliop Usher's Body ot 
 Divinity, it may be much more natural and easy for him 
 to continue to dispose all his further acquirements in 
 the same order, though perhaps neither of those treatises 
 
 I are in tliemselves written in the most perfect method. 
 
 •So when we have long fixed our cases of shelves in a 
 library, and ranged our books in any particular order, 
 viz. according to their languages, or according to their 
 
 • subjects, or according to tiie alpliabetical names of the 
 
 • authors, we are perfectly well acquainted with the order 
 in which they now stand, and we can find any particular 
 book which we seek, or add a new book which we have 
 purchased, with much greater ease than we can do in 
 finer cases of shelves wliere the books were ranged in 
 any different manner whatsoever; any ditferent position 
 of the volumes would be new and strange, and trouble- 
 some to us, and would not countervail the inconveni- 
 ences of a change. 
 
 So if a man of forty years old has been taught to hold 
 his pen awkwardly in his youth, and yet writes suffi- 
 ciently well for all the purposes of his station, it is not 
 wortli while to teach him now the most accurate methods 
 of learnmg tliat instrument; for this would create him 
 more trouble without equal advantage, and perhaps he 
 might never attain to write better after he has placed 
 his fingers perfectly right with this new accuracy. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 
 
 A STUDENT should labour, by all proper methods, to 
 acquire a study fixation of thought. Attention is a very 
 necessary thing in order to improve our minds. The 
 evidence of truth does not always appear immediately.
 
 130 OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 
 
 nor strike the soul at first sight. It is by long attention 
 and inspection that we arrive at evidence, and it is 
 for want of it we judge falsely of many things. We 
 make haste to determine upon a slight and a sudden 
 view, we confirm our guesses which arise from a glance, 
 we pass a judgment while we have but a confused or 
 obscure perception, and thus plunge ourselves into mis 
 takes. This is like a man who, walking in a mist, oi 
 being at a great distance from any visible object (suppose 
 a tree, a man, a horse, or a church,) judges much amiss 
 of the figure, and situation, and colours of it, and some- 
 times takes one for the other; whereas, if he would but 
 withliold his judgment till he came nearer to it, or stay 
 till clearer light comes, and then would fix his eyes longer 
 upon it, he would secure himself from those mistakes. 
 
 Now, in order to gain a greater facility of attention, 
 we may observe these rules: — 
 
 I. Get a good liking to the study of knowledge you 
 would pursue. We may observe, that there is not much 
 difficulty in confining liie mind to contemplate what we 
 have a great desire to know; and especially if they are 
 matters of sense, or ideas which paint themselves upon 
 the fancy. It is but acquiring a hearty good will and 
 resolution to search out and survey the various properties 
 and parts of such objects, and our attention will be en- 
 gaged, if there be any delight or diversion in the study 
 or contemplation of them. Therefore mathematical 
 studies have a strange influence towards fixing the at- 
 tention of the mind, and giving a steadiness to a wander- 
 ing disposition, because they deal much in lines, figures, 
 and numbers, which aflTect and please the sense and im- 
 agmation. Histories have a strong tendency the same 
 way, for they engage the soul by a variety of sensible 
 occurrences; when it hath begun, it knows not how to 
 leave off; it longs to know the final event, through a 
 natural curiosity that belongs to mankind. Voyages 
 and travels, and accounts of strange countries and strange 
 appearances, will assist in this work. This sort of study 
 detains t!ie mind by the perpetual occurrence and ex- 
 pectation of something new, and that which may grate- 
 fully strike the imagination.
 
 OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 131 
 
 II. Sometimes we may make use of sensible things 
 and corporeal images for the illustration of those notions, 
 which are more abstracted and intellectual. Therefore 
 diagrams greatly assist the mind in astronomy and phi- 
 losophy; and the emblems of virtues and vices may hap- 
 pily teach children, and pleasingly impress those useful 
 moral ideas on young minds, which perhaps might be 
 conveyed to them with much more difficulty by mere 
 moral and abstracted discourses. 
 
 I confess, in this practice of representing moral sub- 
 jects by pictures, we should be cautious lest we so far 
 immerse the mind in corporeal images, as to render it unfit 
 to take in an abstracted and intellectual idea, or cause 
 it to form wrong conceptions of immaterial things. This 
 practice, tlierefore, is rather to be used at first, in order 
 to get a fixed iiabit of attention, and in some cases only; 
 but it can never be our constant way and method of 
 pursuing all moral, abstracted, and spiritual themes. 
 
 Ill Apply yourself to those studies, and read those 
 authors who draw out their subjects into a perpetual 
 chain of connected reasonings, wherein the fullowing 
 parts of the discourse are naturally and easily derived 
 from those which go before. Several of the mathemati- 
 cal sciences, if not all, are happily useful for this pur- 
 pose. This will render the labour of study delightful to 
 a rational mind, and will fix the powers of the under- 
 standing with strong attention to their proper operations 
 by the very pleasure of it. Labor ipse voluptas is a happy 
 proposition wheresoever it can be applied. 
 
 IV. Do not choose your constant place of study by the 
 fmery of the prospects, or the most various and enter- 
 taining scenes of sensible tilings. Too much light, or a 
 variety of objects which strike the eye or the ear, espe- 
 cially while they are ever in motion or often changing, 
 have a natural and powerful tendency to steal away the 
 mind too often from its steady pursuit of any subject 
 which we contemplate; and thereby the soul gets a habit 
 of silly curiosity and impertinence, of trifling and wan- 
 dering. Vagario thought himself furnished with the 
 best closet for his studies among the beauties, gaieties, 
 and diversions of Kensington or Hampton Court; but
 
 132 OP FIXING THE ATTENTION. 
 
 after seven years professing to pursue learning, he was 
 a mere novice still. 
 
 V. Be not in too much haste to come to the determi- 
 nation of a difficult or important point. Think it worth 
 your waiting to find out truth. Do not give your assent 
 up to either side of a question too soon, merely on this 
 account, that the study of it is long and difficult. Rather 
 be contented with ignorance for a season, and continue 
 in suspense till your attention, and meditation, and due 
 labour, have found out sufficient evidence on one side. 
 Some are so fond to know a great deal at once, and 
 love to talk of things with freedom and boldness before 
 they truly understand them, that they scarcely ever al- 
 low themselves attention enough to search the matter 
 through and through. 
 
 VI. Have a care of indulging the more sensual pas- 
 sions and appetites of animal nature; they are great ene- 
 mies to attention. Let not the mind of a student be 
 under the influence of any warm affection to things of 
 sense, when he comes to engage in the search of truth, 
 or the improvement of his understanding. A person 
 under the power of love, or fear, or anger, great pain, 
 or deep sorrow, hath so little government of his soul, 
 that he cannot keep it attentive to the proper subject of 
 his meditation. The passions call away the thoughts 
 with incessant importunity towards the object that ex- 
 cited them; and if we indulge the frequent rise and rov- 
 ing of passions, we shall thereby procure an unsteady 
 and unattentive habit of mind. 
 
 Yet this one exception must be admitted, viz. If we 
 can be so happy as to engage any passion of the soul on 
 the side of the particular study which we are pursuing, 
 it may have great influence to fix the attention more 
 strongly to it. 
 
 VII. It is, therefore, very useful to fix and engage the 
 mind in the pursuit of any study by a consideration of 
 the divine pleasures of truth and knowledge — by a sense 
 of our duty to God- -by a delight in the exercise of our 
 intellectual faculties — by the hope of future service to 
 our fellow creatures, and glorious advantage to ourselves 
 both in this world and that which is to come. These
 
 OF ENLARGING THE, &C. 133 
 
 thoughts, though they may move our affections, yet 
 they do it with a proper influence: these will rather as- 
 sist and promote our attention, than disturb or divert it 
 from the subject of our present and proper meditations. 
 A soul inspired with the fondest love of truth, and the 
 warmest aspirations after sincere felicity, and celestial 
 beatitude, will keep all its powers attentive to the inces- 
 sant pursuit of them: passion is then refined and con- 
 secrated to its divinest purposes. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 
 
 There are three things which in an especial manner 
 go to make up that amplitude or capacity of mind which 
 is one of the noblest characters belonging to the under- 
 standing. 
 
 1. When the mind is ready to take in great and sub- 
 lime ideas without pain or difficulty. 
 
 2. Wlien the mind is free to receive new and strange 
 ideas, upon just evidence, without great surprise or 
 aversion. 
 
 3. When tlie mind is able to conceive or survey many 
 ideas a,t.once without confusion, and to form a true judg 
 ment derived from that extensive survey. 
 
 The person wiio wants either of these characters may, 
 in that respect, be said to have a narrow genius. Let us 
 diffuse our meditations a little upon this subject. 
 
 I. That is an ample and capacious mind which is 
 ready to take in vast and sublime ideas without pain or 
 difficulty. Persons who have never been used to con- 
 verse with any thing but the common, little, and obvi- 
 ous affairs of hfe, have acquired such a narrow or con- 
 tracted habit of soul, that they are not able to stretch 
 their intellects wide enough to admit large and noble 
 thoughts; they are ready to make their domestic, daily, 
 and familiar images of things the measure of all tiiat is, 
 and all that can be. 
 12
 
 134 OF ENLARGING THE 
 
 Talk to them of the vast dimensions of the planetary 
 worlds; tell them that the star called Jupiter is a solid 
 globe, two hundred and twenty times bigaer tlian our 
 earth; that the sun is a vast g'lobe of tire, above a 
 thousand times big-ger than Jupiter, that is, two hundred 
 and twenty thousand times bigger than the earth; that 
 the distance from the earth to the sun is eighty-one 
 millions of miles; and that a cannon bullet shot from the 
 earth would not arrive at the nearest of the fixed stars 
 in some hundreds of years: they cannot bear the belief 
 of it; but hear all these glorious labours of astronomy as 
 a mere idle romance. 
 
 Inform them of the amazing swiftness of the motion 
 of some of the smallest or the biggest bodies in nature; 
 assure them, acording to the best philosopliy, that the 
 planet Venus (i. e. our morning or evening star, which 
 is near as big as our earth,) thougli it seems to move 
 from its place but a few yards in a month, does really 
 fly seventy thousand miles in an hour; tell tiiem that 
 the rays of light shoot from the sun to our earth at the 
 rate of one hundred and eighty thousand miles in the 
 second of a minute; they stand aghast at such sort of 
 talk, and believe it no more tlian the tales of giants fifty 
 yards high, and the rabbinical fables of Leviathan, who 
 every day swallows a fish of three miles long, and is 
 thus preparing himself to be the food and entertainment 
 of the blessed at the feast of Paradise. 
 
 These unenlarged souls are in the same manner dis- 
 gusted with the wonders which the microscope has dis- 
 covered concerning tiie shape, the limbs, and motions of 
 ten thousand little animals, whose united bulk would 
 not equal a pepper- corn: they are ready to give the lie 
 to all the improvements of our senses by tlie invention 
 of a variety of glasses, and will scarcely believe any 
 thing beyond the testimony of their naked eye without 
 the assistance of art. 
 
 Now, if we would attempt in a learned manner to re- 
 lieve the minds that labour under this defect: 
 
 1. It is useful to begin with some first principles of 
 geometry, and lead them onward by degrees to the doc- 
 trine of quantities which are incommensurable, or which
 
 CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 135 
 
 will admit of no common measure, though it be ever 
 so small. By tills means they will see the necessity of 
 admitting the infinite divisibility of quantity or matter. 
 This same doctrine may also be proved to their un- 
 derstandings, and almost to their senses, by some easier 
 arguments in a more obvious manner. As the very 
 opening and closing of a pair of compasses will evidently 
 prove, that if tiie smallest supposed part of matter or 
 quantity be put between the points, tiiere will be still 
 less and less distances or quantities all the way between 
 the legs, till you come to the head or joint; wiierefore 
 there is no such thing possible as the smallest quantity. 
 But a little acquaintance with true philosophy and uiathe- 
 matical learning would soon teach them there are no 
 limits eitlier as to the extension of space or to the di- 
 vision of body, and would lead them to believe there 
 are bodies amazingly great or small beyond their present 
 imagination. 
 
 2. It is proper also to acquaint them with the circum- 
 ference of our earth, which may be proved by very easy 
 principles of geometry, geography, and astronomy, to be 
 about twenty-four thousand nhles round, as it has been 
 actually found to have this dimension by mariners, who 
 have sailed round it. Then let them be taught, that in 
 every twenty-four hours either the sun and stars must 
 all move round this earth, or the earth must turn round 
 upon its own axis. If the earth itself revolve thus, then 
 each house or mountain near the equator must move at 
 tlie rate of a thousand miles in an hour: but if, as they 
 generally suppose, the sun or stars move round the earth, 
 then (the circumference of tlieir several orbits or spheres 
 being vastly greater than this earth) they must have a 
 motion prodigiously swifter than a thousand miles an 
 hour. Such a thought as this will by degrees enlarge 
 their minds, and they will be taught even upon their 
 own principles of the diurnal revolutions of the heavens, 
 to take in some of the vast dimensions of the heavenly 
 bodies, tiieir spaces and motions, 
 
 3. To tliis should be added the use of telescopes, to 
 help them to see the distant wonders in the skies; and 
 microscopes, which discover the minutest parts of little
 
 136 OP ENLARGING THE 
 
 animals, and reveal some of the finer and most curious 
 works of nature. Tiiey should be acquainted also with 
 some other noble inventions of modern philosophy, which 
 have a great influence to enlarge the human under- 
 standing, of which I shall take occasion to speak more 
 under the next head. 
 
 4. For the same purpose they may be invited to read 
 those parts of Milton's admirable poem, entitled Paradise 
 Lost, where he describes the armies and power of angels, 
 the wars and the senate of devils, the creation of this 
 earth, together with the description of Heaven, Hell, 
 and Paradise. 
 
 It must be granted that poesy often deals in these 
 vast and sublime ideas. And even if the subject or 
 matter of the poem doth not require such amazing and 
 extensive thoughts, yet tropes and figures, which are 
 some of the main powers and beauties of poesy, do so 
 gloriously exalt the matter, as to give a sublime imagi- 
 nation its proper relish and delight. 
 
 So when a boar is chased in hunting: 
 
 His nostrils flames expire, 
 And his red eyeballs roll with living fire. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 When Ulysses withholds and suppresses his resent- 
 ment. 
 
 His wrath comprest, 
 Recoiling, mutter'd thunder in his breast. 
 Pope. 
 
 But especially where the subject is grand, the poet 
 fails not to represent it in all its grandeur. 
 
 So when the supremacy of a God is described: 
 
 He sees, with equal eye, as God of all, 
 A hero perish, or a sparrow fall; 
 Atoms or systems into ruin hurl'd, 
 And now a bubble burst, and now a world. 
 Pope. 
 
 These sorts of writing have a natural tendency to en- 
 large the capacity of the mind, and make sublime ideas 
 familiar to it. And instead of running always to the 
 ancient heathen poesy with this design, we may with
 
 CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 137 
 
 equal, if not superior advantage, apply ourselves to con- 
 verse with some of the best of our modern poets, as well 
 as with the writiiig-s of the propliets, and the poetical 
 parts of the Bible, viz. the book of Job and the Psalms, 
 in which sacred authors we shall find sometimes more 
 sublime ideas, more glorious descriptions, more elevated 
 language, than tlie fondest critics have ever found in 
 any of the heathen versifiers either of Greece or Rome: 
 for the Eastern writers use and allow much stronger 
 figures and tropes than the Western. 
 
 Now there are many and great advantages to be de- 
 rived from this sort of enlargement of the mind. 
 
 It Vv'ill lead us into more exalted apprehensions of the 
 great God our Creator than ever we bad before. It will 
 entertain our thoughts with holy wonder and amaze- 
 ment, while we contemplate tliat Being who created 
 these various works of surprising greatness, and surpris- 
 ing smallness; who has displayed most inconceivable 
 wisdom in the contrivance of all the parts, powers, and 
 motions of these little animals invisible to the naked eye; 
 wlio has manifested a most divine extent of knowledge, 
 power, and greatness, in forming, moving, and manag- 
 ing the most extensive bulk of the heavenly bodies, and 
 in surveying and comprehending all those unmeasura- 
 ble spaces in which they move. Fancy, with all her 
 images, is fatigued and overwhelmed in following the 
 planetary worlds through such immense stages, such 
 astonishing journeys as these are, and resigns its place 
 to the pure intellect, which learns by degrees to take in 
 such ideas as these, and to adore its Creator with new 
 and sublime devotion. 
 
 And not only are we taught to form juster ideas of 
 the great God by these methods, but this enlargement 
 of the mind carries us on to nobler conceptions of his in- 
 telligent creatures. The mind that deals only in vulgar 
 and common ideas is ready to imagine the nature and 
 powers of man to come something near to God his maker, 
 because wc do not see or sensibly converse with any 
 beings superior to ourselves. But when tlie soul has 
 obtained a greater amplitude of thouglit, it will not then 
 immediately pronounce every thing to be God which is 
 12*
 
 138 OP ENLARGING THE 
 
 above man. It then learns to suppose there may be as 
 man}' various ranks of beings in the invisible world in a 
 constant gradation superior to us, as we ourselves are 
 superior to all the ranks of being beneath us in tliis visi- 
 ble world; even though we descend downward far be- 
 low the ant and the worm, the snail and the oyster, to 
 the least and to the dullest animated atoms which are 
 discovered to us by microscopes. 
 
 By this means we shall be able to suppose what pro- 
 digious power angels, whether good or bad, must be 
 furnished \vith, and prodigious knowledge, in order to 
 oversee the realms of Persia and Graecia of old, or if any 
 .such superintended the affairs of Great Britain, France, 
 Ireland, Germany, &c. in our days: what power and 
 speed is necessary to destroy one hundred and eiglity- 
 five thousand armed men in one night in the Assyrian 
 camp of Sennacherib, and all the first-born of the land 
 of Egypt in another, both which are attributed to an 
 angel. 
 
 By these steps we shall ascend to form more just ideas 
 of the knowledge and grandeur, the power and glory of 
 the man Jesus Christ, who is intimately united to God, 
 and is one with him. Doubtless he is furnislied with 
 superior powers to all the angels in heaven, because he 
 is employed in superior work, and appointed to be the 
 Sovereign Lord of all the visible and invisible worlds. 
 Ut is his human nature in which the Godhead dwells 
 bodily, that is advanced to these honours, and to this 
 empire: and perhaps there is little or nothing in the 
 government of the kingdoms of nature and grace but 
 what is transacted by the man Jesus, inhabited by the 
 divine power and wisdom, and employed as a medium 
 or conscious instrument of this extensive gubernation. 
 
 II. I proceed now to consider the next thing wherein 
 the capacity or amplitude of the miud consists, and that 
 is, wlien the miud is free to receive new and strange 
 ideas and propositions upon just evidence without any 
 great surprise or aversion. Those who confine them- 
 selves within the circle of their own hereditary ideas 
 and opinions, and who never give themselves leave so 
 much as to examine or believe any thing besides the die-
 
 CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 139 
 
 tates of their own family, or sect, or party, are justly 
 charged with a narrowness of soul. Let us survey some 
 instances of this imperfection, and then direct to the 
 cure of it. 
 
 1. Persons who have been bred up all their days with- 
 in the smoke of their father's cliimney, or within the 
 limits of their native town or village, are surprised at 
 every new sight that appears, when they travel a few 
 miles from home. The ploughman stands amazed at 
 the shops, the trade, the crowds of people, the magnifi- 
 cent buildings, the pomp, and riches, and equipage of 
 the court and city, and would hardly believe wliat was 
 told him before lie saw it. On the other hand, the 
 cockney, travelling into the country, is surprised at many 
 actions of the quadruped and winged animals in the 
 field, and at many connnon practices of rural affairs. 
 
 If either of these happen to hear an account of the 
 familiar and daily customs of foreign countries, they 
 pronounce them at once indecent and ridiculous: so 
 narrow are their understandings, and their thouglits so 
 confined, that they know not how to believe any thing 
 wise and proper besides what they have been taught to 
 practise. 
 
 This narrowness of mind should be cured by hearing 
 and reading the accounts of different parts of the world, 
 and the histories of past ages, and of nations and coun- 
 tries distant from our own, especially the more polite 
 parts of mankind. Nothing tends in this respect so 
 much to enlarge the mind as travelling, i. e. making a 
 visit to other towns, cities, or countries, besides those 
 in which we were born and educated: and where our con- 
 dition of life does not grant us this privilege, we must 
 endeavour to supply the want of it by books. 
 
 2. It is the same narrowness of mind that awakens 
 the surprise and aversion of some persons, when they 
 hear of doctrines and schemes in human affairs, or in 
 religion, quite different from what they have embraced. 
 Perhaps they have been trained up from their infancy 
 in one set of notions, and their thoughts have been con- 
 fined to one single tract both in the civil or religious 
 life, without ever hearing or knowing what other opin-
 
 140 OF ENLARGING THE 
 
 ions are current among mankind: or at least they have 
 seen all other notions besides their own represented in a 
 false and malignant light; whereupon they judge and 
 condemn at once every sentiment but what tlieir own 
 party receives; and they think it a piece of justice and 
 truth to lay heavy censures upon the practice of every 
 sect in Christianity or politics. They have so rooted 
 themselves in the opinions of their party, that tiiey can- 
 not hear an objection with patience, nor can they bear 
 a vindication, or so much as an apology, for any set of 
 principles beside their own; all the rest is nonsense or 
 heresy, folly or blasphemy. 
 
 This defect also is to be relieved by free conversation 
 with persons of different sentiments: this will teach us 
 to bear with patience a defence of opinions contrary 
 to our own. If we are scholars, we should also read 
 the objections against our own tenets, and view the 
 principles of other parties, as they are represented in 
 their own authors, and not merely in the citations of 
 those who would confute them. We should take an 
 honest and unbiassed survey of the force of reasoning 
 on all sides, and bring all to the test of unprejudiced 
 reasoning and divine revelation. Note, this is not to be 
 done in a rasli and self-sufficient manner; but with an 
 humble dependance on divine wisdom and grace, while 
 we walk among snares and dangers. 
 
 By such a free converse with persons of different sects 
 (especially those who diffisr only in particular forms of 
 Christianity, but agree in the great and necessary doc- 
 trines of it) we shall find that there are persons of good 
 sense and virtue, persons of piety and worth, persons of 
 much candour and goodness, who belong to different 
 parties, and have imbibed sentiments opposite to each 
 other. This will soften the roughness of an unpolished 
 soul, and enlarge the avenues of our charity towards 
 others, and incline us to receive them into all tlie degrees 
 of unity and affection wliich the word of God requires. 
 
 3. I might borrow furtlier illustrations both of this 
 freedom and this aversion to receive new truths from 
 modern astronomy and natural philosophy. How much 
 is the vulgar part of the world surprised at the talk of
 
 CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 141 
 
 the diurnal and annual revolutions of the earth! They 
 have ever been taught by their senses, and tlieir neigh- 
 bours, to imagine the eartli stands fixed in tiie centre of 
 tlie universe, and that the sun, with all the planets and 
 fixed stars, are whirled round this little globe once in 
 twenty-four hours: not considering that such a diurnal 
 motion, by reason of tlie distance of some of tiiose Iieav- 
 enly bodies, must be almost infinitely swifter, and more 
 inconceivable, than any which tlie modern astronomers 
 attribute to them. Tell these persons that the sun is 
 fixed in the centre, that the earth, with all the i)la»iets, 
 roll round the sun in their several periods, and tliat the 
 moon rolls round the earth in a lesser circle, while, to- 
 gether with the earth, she is carried round the sun; they 
 cannot admit a syllable of this new and strange doc- 
 trine, and they prououce it utterly contrary to all sense 
 and reason. 
 
 Ac(|uaint tliem that there are four moons also perj)ctu- 
 ally ndling round the planet Jupiter, and carried along 
 with iiiui in his periodical circuit round the sun, which 
 little moons were never known till tlie year 1610, when 
 Galileo discovered them by his telescope: inform them 
 that Saturn has five moons of the same kind attending 
 him; and that the body of that planet is encompassed 
 with a broad ilat circular ring, distant from the planet 
 twenty-one thousand miles, and twenty-one thousand 
 miles broad; they look upon these things as talcs and 
 fancies, and will tell you that the glasses do but dcdude 
 your eyes with vast images; and even when they them- 
 selves consult their own eyesight in the use of these 
 tubes, the narrowness of their mind is such, that they 
 will scarcely believe their senses when they dictate ideas 
 BO new and strange. 
 
 And if you proceed further, and attempt to load them 
 into a belief that all these |)lanetary worlds are habitable, 
 and it is probable they are replenished with intel- 
 lectual beings dwelling in bodies, they v;ill deride the 
 folly of him that informs them; for they resolve to be- 
 lieve there are no habitable worlds but this earth, and 
 no spirits dwelling in bodies besides mankind; and it is 
 well if they do not fix the brand of hertisy on the rnan
 
 142 OF ENLARGING THE 
 
 who is leading them out of their long imprisonment, 
 and loosing the fetters of their souls. 
 
 There are many otlier things relating to mechanical 
 experiments, and to the properties of the air, water, 
 file, iron, the loadstone, and other minerals and metals, 
 as well as the doctrine of the sensible qualities, viz. col- 
 ours, sounds, tastes, &c. which this rank of men cannot 
 believe for want of a greater amplitude of mind. 
 
 Tlie best way to convince them is by giving them 
 some acquaintance with the various experiments in 
 philosophy, and proving by ocular demonstration the 
 multiform and amazing operations of the air-pump, the 
 loadstone, tiie chymical furnace, optical glasses, and 
 mechanical engines. By this means tlie understanding 
 will stretcli itself by degrees, and when they have found 
 there are so many new and strange tilings that are most 
 evidently true, they will not be so forward to condemn 
 every new proposition in any of the other sciences, or 
 in the affairs of religion or civil life. 
 
 III. The capacity of the understanding includes yet 
 anotlier qualification in it, and that is, an ability to re- 
 ceive many ideas at once uitiiout confusion. The am- 
 ple mind takes a survey of several objects with one 
 glance, keeps them all within sight and present to the 
 soul, that tliey may be compared together in their mu- 
 tual respects; it forms just judgments, and it draws prop- 
 er inferences from this comparison, even to a great 
 length of argument, and a chain of demonstrations. 
 
 The narrowness that belongs to human souls in gen- 
 eral is a great imperfection and impediment to wisdom 
 and happiness. There are but few persons who can 
 contemplate or practise several tilings at once; our fac- 
 ulties are very limited, and while we are intent upon' 
 one part or property of a subject, we have but a slight 
 glimpse of the rest, or we lose it out of sight. But it 
 is a sign of a large and capacious mind, if we can with 
 one single view take in a variety of ol)jects; or at least 
 when the mind can apply itself to several objects with 
 so swift a succession, and in so few moments, as attains 
 almost the same ends as if it were all done in tlie same 
 instant.
 
 CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 143 
 
 This is a necessary qualification in order to great 
 knowledge and good judgment; for tliere are several 
 things in human liie, in religion, and in the sciences, 
 which have various circumstances, appendices, and re- 
 lations attending them; and without a survey of all those 
 ideas which stand in connexion with and relation to each 
 other, we are often in danger of passing a false judg- 
 ment on the subject proposed. It is for this reason there 
 are so numerous controversies found among the learned 
 and unlearned world, in matters of religion, as well as 
 in the atiairs of civil government. The notions of sin, 
 and duty to God and our fellow creatures; of law, jus- 
 tice, authority, and power; of covenant, faith, justifica- 
 tion, redemption, and grace; of church, bishop, presby- 
 ter, ordination, &c. contain in them such complicated 
 ideas, that when we are to judge of any thing concern- 
 ing them, it is hard to take into our view at once all the 
 attendants or consequents that must and will be con- 
 cerned in the determination of a single question: and 
 yet, without a due attention to many or most of these, 
 we are in danger of determining that question amiss. 
 
 It is owing to the narrowness of our minds that we 
 are exposed to the same peril in the matters of human 
 duty and prudence. In many things which we do, we 
 ouglit not only to consider the mere naked action itself, 
 but the persons who act, the persons towards whom, the 
 time when, the place where, the manner how, the end 
 for which the action is done, together with the effects 
 that must or that n)ay follow, and all other surrounding 
 circumstances: these things must necessarily be taken 
 into our view, in order to determine whether the action, 
 which is indifferent in itself, be either lawful or unlaw- 
 ful, good or evil, wise or foolish, decent or indecent, 
 proper or improper, as it is so circumstantiated. 
 
 Let me give a plain instance for the illustration of 
 this matter. Mario kills a dog, which, considered mere- 
 ly in itself seems to be an indifferent action: now the 
 dog was Timon's, and not his own; this makes it look 
 unlawful. But Timon bid him do it; this gives it an 
 appearance of lawfulness again. It was done at church, 
 and in time of divine service; these circumstances ad-
 
 144 OF ENLARGING THE 
 
 ded, cast on it an air of irreligion. But the dog flew at 
 Mario, and pat him in danger of his hfe; this reheves 
 the seeming impiety of the action. Yet Mario might 
 have escaped by flying thence; therefore the action ap- 
 pears to be improper. But the dog was known to be 
 mad; tliis further circumstance makes it almost necessa- 
 ry that the dog should be slain, lest he might v/orry the 
 assembly, and do much mischief Ye'„ again, Mario kil- 
 led him with a pistol, which he happened to have in his 
 pocket since yesterday's journey; now hereby tlie whole 
 congregation was terrified and discomposed, and divine 
 service was broken off: this carries an appearance of 
 great indecency and impropriety in it: but after all, 
 when we consider a further circumstance, that Mario, 
 being thus violently assaulted by a mad dog, had no way 
 of escape, and had no other weapon about him, it seems 
 to take away all the colours of impropriety, indecency, 
 or unlawfulness, and to allow that the preservation of 
 one or many lives will justify the act as wise and good. 
 Now all these concurrent appendices of the action ought 
 to be surveyed, in order to pronounce with justice and 
 truth concerning it. 
 
 There are a multitude of human actions in private 
 life, in domestic affairs, in traffic, in civil governments, 
 in courts of justice, in schools of learning, &c. which 
 have so many complicated circumstances, aspects, and 
 situations, with regard to time and place, persons and 
 things, that it is impossible for any one to pass a right 
 judgment concerning them, without entering into most 
 of these circumstances, and surveying them extensive- 
 ly, and comparing and balancing them all ariglit. 
 
 Whence by tlie way I may take occasion to say, how 
 many thousands are there who take upon them to pass 
 their censures on the personal and the domestic actions 
 of others, who pronounce boldly on the affairs of the 
 public, and determine the justice or madness, the wis- 
 dom or folly of national administrations, of peace and 
 war, &c. whom neither God nor men ever qualified for 
 such a post of judgment! They were not capable of en- 
 tering into the numerous concurring springs of action, 
 uor had they ever taken a survey of the twentieth part
 
 CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 145 
 
 of the circumstances which were necessary for such 
 judgments or censures. 
 
 It is the narrowness of our minds, as well as the vi- 
 ces of the will, that oftentimes prevents us from taking 
 a full view of all the complicated and concurring ap- 
 pendices that belong to human actions; thence it cumes 
 to pass that there is so little right judgment, so little 
 justice, prudence, or decency, practised among the bulk 
 of mankind; thence arise infinite reproaches and cen- 
 sures; alike foolish and unrighteous. You see, there- 
 fore, how needful and happy a thing it is to be posses- 
 sed of some measure of this amplitude of soul, in order 
 to make us very wise, or knowing, or just, or prudent, 
 or happy. 
 
 I confess this sort of amphtude or capacity of mind 
 is in a great measure the gift of nature, for some are 
 born with much more capacious souls than others. 
 
 The genius of some persons is so poor and limited, 
 that they can hardly take in the connexion of two or 
 three propositions, unless it be in matters of sense, and 
 which they have learned by experience: they are utterly 
 unfit for s})eculative studies; it is hard for tliem to dis- 
 cern the ditference betwixt right and wrong in matters 
 of reason on any abstracted subjects; these ought never 
 to set up for scholars, but apply themselves to those arts 
 and professions of life which are to be learned at an 
 easier rate, by slow degrees and daily experience. 
 
 Others have a soul a little more capacious, and they 
 can take in the connexion of a few propositix)ns pretty 
 well; but if the chain of consequences be a little prolix, 
 here they stick and are confounded. If persons of this 
 make ever devote tliemselves to science, tliey should be 
 well assured of a solid and strong constitution of body, 
 and well resolved to bear the fatigue of hard labour and 
 diligence in study: if the iron be bent, King Solomon 
 tells us, we must put more strength. 
 
 But, in the third place, tliere are some of so bright 
 and happy a genius, and so ample a mind, that they can 
 take in a long train of propositions, if not at once, yet 
 in a very few moments, and judge well concerning the 
 dependance of them. They can survey a variety of 
 13
 
 146 OF El^LARGING THE 
 
 complicated ideas without fatigue or disturbance; and 
 a number of truths offering themselves as it were atone 
 view to their understanding, doth not perplex or con- 
 found them. Tins makes a great man. 
 
 Now, though there may be much owing to nature in 
 this case, yet experience assures us, that even a lower 
 degree of this capacity and extent of thought may be 
 increased by diligence and application, by frequent ex- 
 ercise, and the observation of such rules as these: 
 
 I. Labour by all means to gaiti an attentive and pa- 
 tient temper of mind, a power of confining and fixing 
 your thoaghts so long on any one appointed subject, till 
 you have surveyed it on every side and in every situa- 
 tion, and run through the several powers, parts, proper- 
 ties and relations, et!ects and consequences of it. He 
 whose thoughts are very fluttering and wandering, and 
 cannot be fixed attentively to a few ideas successively, 
 will never be able to survey many and various objects 
 distinctly at once, but will certainly be overwhelmed 
 and confounded with the multiplicity of them. The 
 rules for fixing the attention in the former chapter are 
 proper to be consulted here. 
 
 II. Accustom yourself to clear and distinct ideas in 
 every thing you think of. Be not satisfied with obscure 
 and confused conceptions of things, especially where 
 clearer may be obtained; for one obscure or confused 
 idea, especially if it be of great importance in the ques- 
 tion, intermingled with many clear ones, and placed in 
 its variety of aspects towards them, will be in danger 
 of spreading confusion over the whole scene of ideas, 
 and thus may have an unhappy influence to overwhelm 
 the understanding with darkness and pervert the judg- 
 ment. A little black paint will shamefully tincture and 
 spoil twenty gay colours. 
 
 Consider yet further, that if you content yourself 
 frequently with words instead of ideas, or witli cloudy 
 and confused notions of things, how impenetrable will 
 that darkness be, and how vast and endless tliat confu- 
 sion which must surround and involve the understand- 
 ing, when many of these obscure and confused ideas 
 come to be set before the soul at once; and how iinpos- 
 
 ;
 
 CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 
 
 m 
 
 sible will it be to form a clear and just judgment about 
 them. 
 
 III. Use all diligence to acquire and treasure up a 
 large store of ideas and notions: take every opportunity 
 to add something to your stock; and by frequent recol- 
 lection fix them in your memory; nothing tends to con- 
 firm and enlarge the memory like a frequent review of 
 its possessions. Then the brain being well furnished 
 with various traces, signatures, and images, will have a 
 rich treasure always ready to be proposed or offered to 
 the soul, when it directs its thought towards any par- 
 ticular subject. This will gradually give the mind a 
 faculty of surveying many objects at once, as a room 
 that is richly adorned and hung round with a great va- 
 riety of pictures strikes the eye almost at once with all 
 that variety, especially if they have been well surveyed 
 one by one at first: tliis makes it habitual and more ea- 
 sy to the inhabitants to take in many of those painted 
 scenes with a single glance or two. 
 
 Here note, that by acquiring a rich treasure of notions, 
 I do not mean only single ideas, but also propositions, 
 observations, and experiences, with reasonings and argu- 
 ments upon the various subjects that occur among 
 natural and moral, common or sacred affairs; that when 
 you are called to j«dge concerning any question, you 
 will have some principles of truth, some useful axioms 
 and observations, always ready at hand to direct and as- 
 sist your judgment. 
 
 IV. It is necessary that we should as far as possible 
 entertain and lay up our daily new ideas in a regular order, 
 and range the acquisitions of oursouls under proper heads, 
 whetlier of divinity, law, physics, mathematics, morality, 
 politics, trade, domestic life, civility, decency, &c. 
 whetlier of cause, effect, substance, mode, power, pro- 
 perty, body, spirit, &c. We should inure our minds to 
 method and order continually; and when we take in any 
 fresh ideas, occurrences, and observations, we should 
 dispose of them in their proper places, and see how they 
 stand and agree with the rest of our notions on the same 
 subjects: as a scholar would dispose of a new book on a 
 proper shelf among its kindred authors; or as an officer
 
 148 OF ENLARGING THE 
 
 at tlie post-house in London disposes of every letter he 
 talies in, placing it in the box that belongs to the proper 
 road or county. 
 
 In any of these cases, if things lay all in a heap, the 
 addition of any new object would increase the confusion, 
 but method gives a speedy and short survey of them 
 with ease and pleasure. Method is of admirable ad- 
 vantage to keep our ideas from a confused mixture, and 
 to preserve them ready for every use. The science of 
 ontology, which distributes all beings, and all the affec- 
 tions of being, whether absolute or relative, under proper 
 classes, is of good service to keep our intellectual acqui- 
 sitions in such order as that the mind may survey them 
 at once. 
 
 V. As method is necessary for the improvement of the 
 mind, in order to make your treasure of ideas most use- 
 ful, so in all your further pursuits of truth and acquire- 
 ments of rational knowledge, observe a regular progres- 
 sive metljod. Begin with the most simple, easy, and 
 obvious ideas; then b)'^ degrees join two, and three, and 
 more of them together: thus the complicated ideas, grow- 
 ing up under your eye and observation, will not give the 
 same confusion of thought as they would do if they were 
 all offered to the mind at once, without your observing 
 the original and formation of them. An eminent ex- 
 ample of this appears in the study of arithmetic. If a 
 scholar, just admitted into the school, observes his master 
 performing an operation in the rule of division, his 
 head is at once disturbed and confounded with tlie mani- 
 fold comparisons of the numbers of the divisor and di- 
 vidend, and the multiplication of the one and subtrac- 
 tion of it from the other; but if he begin regularly at 
 addition, and so proceed by subtraction and multiplica- 
 tion, he will then in a few weeks be able to take in an 
 intelligent survey of all those operations in division, and 
 to practise them himself with ease and pleasure, each 
 of which at first seemed all intricacy and confusion. 
 
 An illustration of the like nature may be borrowed 
 from geometry and algebra, and other mathematical 
 practices: how easily does an expert geometrician with 
 one glance of his eye take in a complicated diagram,
 
 CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 149 
 
 made up of many lines and circles, angles, and arches! 
 How readily does he judge of it, whether the demon- 
 stration designed by it be true or false! It was by de- 
 grees he arrived at this stretch of understanding; he 
 began with a single line or a point; he joined two lines 
 in an angle; he advanced to triangles and squares, poly- 
 gons and circles; thus the powers of his understanding 
 were stretched and augmented daily, till, by diligence 
 and application, he acquired this extensive faculty of 
 mind. 
 
 But this advantage does not belong only to mathe- 
 matical learning. If we apply ourselves at first in any 
 science to clear and single ideas, and never hurry our- 
 selves on to the following and more complicated parts 
 of knowledge, till we thoroughly understand the fore- 
 going, we may practice the same method of enlarging 
 tlie capacity of the soul with success in any one of the 
 sciences, or in tlie affairs of life and religion. 
 
 Beginning witli A, B, C, and making syllables out of 
 letters, and words out of syllables, has been the founda- 
 tion of all that glorious superstructure of arts and sci- 
 ences which have enriched the minds and libraries of 
 the learned world in several ages. These are the first 
 steps by which the ample and capacious souls among 
 mankind have arrived at that prodigious extent of know- 
 ledge, which renders them the wonder and glory of the 
 nation where they live. Though Plato and Cicero, 
 Descartes and Mr. Boyle, Mr. Locke and Sir Isaac New- 
 ton, were doubtless favoured by nature with a genius of 
 uncotnmon amplitude; yet, in their early years, and first 
 attempts of science, this was but limited and narrow, in 
 comparison of what they attained at last. But how vast 
 and capacious were those powers which they afterwards 
 acquired by patient attention and watchful observation, 
 by the pursuit of clear ideas, and a regular method of 
 thinking! 
 
 VI. Another means of acquiring this amplitude and 
 capacity of mind, is a perusal of difficult entangled 
 questions, and of the solution of them in any science. 
 Speculative and casuistical divinity will furnish us with 
 many such cases and controversies. There are some 
 13*
 
 150 OF iMrnoviNG tuk mfmory. 
 
 such i\\(Tu'.\i\\\vn iti io(()iiciliii(rsov(M-;il i)arts(>rtlio I'^pistles 
 of St. l*;nil, nfliiliiiii- to tlic Jtnvisli law and tlio Christian 
 gosjuil; a li;i|)|)y siihitiiiii whciecir will n^quiio such an 
 c.\tt!iisivo view oCthiiijis, and the roadiiiir of thest; happy 
 solutitms will (Milnijiro this faculty in youuo'tM- studiMits- 
 lu moral and |)(dilical subjects, rullcMdorir's Law of 
 Natures and Nations, and several (hUenninations therein.. 
 will promote tlie same am|)litude of mind. An atten- 
 dance on public trials, and ariruments in the civil courts 
 of justice, will In; of j^ood advanta^ii! for this purpose.^ 
 and after a man has studied the fjcni^ral ])rinciples of 
 the law of nature, and the laws of Knijland, in proper 
 books, the reading the reports of adjudired cases, col- 
 le( ted by men of f^reat sa<facity and judjjfnu'nt, will 
 ri(!hly im|)rove his mind toward acquirinir this desirable 
 anjplitude and extent of thouirht, and more es})Ocially 
 in persons of that profession. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 OF IMI'KOVINO THE MKMORY. 
 
 Mf-MOUy is a distinct faculty of the mind of man, very 
 dilVcrent from perception, judi^nient, and rcasonini'', and 
 its other powers. 'I'hen we are said to lemcmber any 
 thinir, when the idea of it arises in the mind with a con- 
 sciousness at the same titne that we have had this idea 
 before. Our memory is our natural power of retaining 
 what we learn, and of recalliiifif it on every occasion. 
 Therefore we can never be said to remend)iM- any thing, 
 wlu^ther it be iilcas or propositions, words or things, 
 notions or arjjuments, of vvliich we have not had s(»ine 
 former idea or i)erception, either by sense or imagina- 
 tion, thought or reflection; but whatsoever we learn from 
 ol)servati(in, books, or conversati(»n, &c. it nuist all be 
 laid up and preserved in the memory, if we would make 
 it really useful. 
 
 So necessary and so excellent a fvculty is the memory 
 of nuin, that all other abilities of the mind borrow from
 
 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 161 
 
 hence tlieir beauty and poifection; for the other capacities 
 of the soul are ahnost useless without this. To what 
 purpose are all our labours in knowledfre and wisdom, 
 if we want memory to preserve and use what we have 
 acquired? What signify all other intellectual and spirit- 
 ual improvements, if tiiey are lost as soon as they are 
 obtained? It is memory alone that enriches the mind, 
 by preservings what our labour and industry daily col- 
 lect. In a word, there can be neither knowledge, nor 
 arts, nor sciences, without memory, nor can there be 
 any improvement of mankind in virtue or morals, or 
 the practice of religion, without tlic assistance and influ- 
 ence of this power. Witliout memory tlie soul of man 
 would be but a poor, destitute, naked being, with an 
 everlasting blank spread over it, except the fleeting 
 ideas of tiie present moment. 
 
 Memory is very useful to those who speak as well as to 
 those who learn; it assists tiie teacher and the orator, 
 as well as the scholar or the hearer. The best speeches 
 and instructions are ahnost lost, if tho.se who hear them 
 innnediately forget them. And those wlio are called to 
 speak in public are much belter heard and accejited, 
 when tiiey can deliver their discourse l)y the help of a 
 lively genius and a ready memory, than when they arc 
 forced to read all that they would connnunicate to their 
 hearers. Reading is certainly a heavier way of the con- 
 veyance of our sentiments; and there are very ihw mere 
 readers who have the felicity of penetrating tlie soul 
 and awakening the passions of tliose who hear, by such 
 a grace and {)ower of or.itory, as the man who seems to 
 talk every word from his very heart, and pours out the 
 riches of his own knowledge upon tlie peo))le round 
 al)out him by the help of a free and coi)ious memory. 
 This gives life and spirit to every thing that is spoken, 
 and has a natural tendency to make a deeper impression 
 on the minds of men: it awakens the dullest spirits, 
 causes them to receive a discourse with more atlection 
 and pleasure, and adds a singular grace and excellency 
 both to tlie person and his oration. 
 
 A good judgment and a good memory are very differ- 
 ent qualilications. A person may have a very strong,
 
 163 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 
 
 capacious, and retentive memory, where the judgment 
 is very poor and weak: as sometimes it happens in those 
 who are but one degree above an idiot, who have mani- 
 fested an amazing strength and extent of memory, but 
 have hardly been able to join or disjoin two or three 
 ideas in a wise and happy manner to make a solid 
 rational proposition. 
 
 There have been instances of others who have had 
 but a very tolerable power of memory, yet their judg- 
 ment has been of a much superior degree, just and wise, 
 solid and excellent. 
 
 Yet it must be acknowledged, that where a happy 
 memory is found in any person, there is one good foun- 
 dation laid for a wise and just judgment of things, where- 
 soever the natural genius has any thing of sagacity and 
 briglitness to make a right use of it. A good judgment 
 must always in some measure depend upon a survey 
 and comparison of several tilings togetlier in the mind, 
 and determining the truth of some doubtful proposition 
 by that survey and comparison. When the mind has, 
 as it were, set all those various objects present before it, 
 which are necessary to form a true proposition or judg- 
 ment concerning any tiling, it then determines that such 
 and such ideas are to be joined or disjoined, to be af- 
 firmed or denied; and this is a consistency and correspon- 
 dence with all those other ideas and propositions wiiich 
 any way relate or belong to the same subject. Now 
 there can be no such comprehensive survey of many 
 things without a tolerable degree of memory; it is by re- 
 viewing things past we learn to judge of the future: 
 and it happens sometimes that if one needful or impor- 
 tant object or idea be absent, tlie judgment concerning 
 the thing inquired will thereby become false or mistaken. 
 
 You will inquire then, How comes it to pass tliat 
 there are some persons wlio appear in the world of 
 business, as well as in the world of learning, to have a 
 good judgment, and have acquired the just character of 
 prudence and wisdom, and yet have neither a very 
 bright genius or sagacity of thought, nor a very happy 
 memory, so that they cannot set before tlieir minds at 
 once a large scene of ideas in order to pass a judgment.''
 
 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 153 
 
 Now we may learn from Penseroso some accounts of 
 this difficulty. You sliall scarcely ever find this man . 
 forward in judging and determining things proposed to 
 him; but he always takes time, and delays, and sus- 
 pends, and ponders things maturely, before he passes his 
 judgment: tiien he practises a slow meditation, rumi- 
 nates on the subject, and thus perhaps in two or three 
 nights and days rouses and awakens those several ideas, 
 one after another, as he can, which are necessary in or- 
 der to judge aright of the thing proposed, and makes 
 them pass before his review in succession: this he doth 
 to relieve the want both of a quick sagacity of thought 
 and of a ready memory and speedy recollection; and 
 this caution and practice lays the foundation of his just 
 judgment and wise conduct. He surveys well before he 
 judges. 
 
 Whence I cannot but take occasion to infer one good 
 rule of advice to persons of higher as well as lower 
 genius, and of large as well as narrow memories, viz. 
 That they do not too hastily pronounce concerning mat- 
 ters of doubt or inquiry, where there is not an urgent 
 necessity of present action. The bright genius is ready 
 to be so forward as often betrays itself into great errors 
 in judgment, speech, and conduct, without a continual 
 guard upon itself, and using the bridle of the tongue. 
 And it is by this delay and precaution that many a person 
 of much lower natural abilities shall often excel persons 
 of the brightest genius in wisdom and prudence. 
 
 It is often found that a fine genius has but a feeble 
 memory: for where the genius is bright, and the imagi- 
 nation vivid, the power of memory may be too much 
 neglected and lose its improvement. An active fancy 
 readily wanders over a multitude of objects, and is con- 
 tinually entertaining itself with new flying images; it 
 runs through a number of new scenes or new pages with 
 pleasure, but without due attention, and seldom suffers 
 itself to dwell long enough upon any one of them, to 
 make a deep impression thereof upon the mind, and 
 commit it to lasting remembrance. This is one plain 
 and obvious reason why there are some persons of very 
 bright parts and active spirits, who have but short and
 
 154 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 
 
 narrow powers of remembrance: for having riches of 
 their own, they are not sohcitous to borrow. 
 
 And as such a quick and various fancy and invention 
 may be some hinderance to the attention and memory, 
 so a mind of a good retentive abihty, and which is ever 
 crowding its memory with things which it learns and 
 reads continually, may prevent, restrain, and cramp the 
 invention itself. The memory of Lectorides is ever 
 ready, upon all occasions, to oifer to his mind something 
 out of other men's writings or conversations, and is pre- 
 senting him with the thoughts of other persons perpetu- 
 ally: thus the man who had naturally a good flowing 
 invention, does not suffer himself to pursue his own 
 thoughts. Some persons who 'have been blessed by na- 
 ture with sagacity and no contemptible genius, have 
 too often forbid the exercise of it, by ty'mg themselves 
 down to the memory of the volumes they have read, 
 and the sentiments of other men contained in them. 
 
 Where the memory has been almost constantly em- 
 ploying itself in scraping together new acquirements, 
 and wliere there has not been a judgment sufficient to 
 distinguish what things were fit to be recommended and 
 treasured up in the memory, and what things were idle, 
 useless, or needless, the mind has been filled with a 
 wretched heap of hodgepotch of words or ideas; and the 
 soul may be said to have had large possessions, but no 
 true riches. 
 
 I have read in some of Mr. Milton's writings a very 
 beautiful simile, whereby he represents the books of the 
 Fathers, as they are called in the Christian Church. 
 Whatsoever, saith he. Old Time with his huge drag-net 
 has conveyed down to us along the stream of ages, 
 whether it be shells or shell-fish, jewels or pebbles, sticks 
 or straws, sea-weeds or mud, these are the ancients, these 
 are the fathers. The case is much the same with the 
 memorial possessions of tlie greatest part of mankind. 
 A few useful things, perhaps, mixed and confounded 
 with many trifles, and all manner of rubbish, fill up 
 their memories and compose their intellectual posses- 
 sions. It is a great happiness therefore to distinguish 
 things aright, and to lay up nothing in the memory but
 
 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 155 
 
 what has some just value in it, and is worthy to be num- 
 bered as a part of our treasure. 
 
 Whatosever improvements arise to the mind of man 
 from the wise exercise of liis own reasoning powers, 
 these maybe called his proper manufactures; and what- 
 soever he borrows from abroad, these may be termed his 
 proper treasures; both together make a wealthy and a 
 happy mind. 
 
 How many excellent judgments and reasonings are 
 framed in the mind of a man of wisdom and study in 
 a length of years! How many worthy and admirable 
 notions has lie been possessed of in life, both by his own 
 reasonings, and by his prudent and laborious collec- 
 tions in the course of his reading! But, alas! how many 
 thousands of tliein vanish away again and are lost in 
 empty air, for want of a stronger and more retentive 
 memory! When a young practitioner in the law was 
 once said to contest a point of debate with that great 
 lawyer in the last age, Serjeant Maynard, he is reported 
 to have answered him, " Alas! young man, 1 have forgot 
 much more law than ever thou hast learnt or read." 
 
 What an unknown and unspeakable happiness would 
 it be to a man of judgment, and who is engaged in the 
 pursuit of knowledge, if he had but a power of stamping 
 all his own best sentiments upon his memory in some 
 indelible characters; and if he could but imprint every 
 valuable paragraph and sentiment of the most excellent 
 authors he has read, upon his rnind, with the same speed 
 and facility with which he read them! If a man of 
 good genius and sagacity could but retain and survey 
 all those numerous, those wise and beautiful ideas at 
 once, which have ever passed through his thoughts upon 
 any one subject, how admirably would he be furnislied to 
 pass a just judgment about all present objects and oc- 
 currences! What a glorious entertainment and pleasure 
 would felicitate his spirit, if he could grasp all these in 
 a single survey, as the skilful eye of a painter runs over 
 a fine and complicate piece of history wrought by the 
 hand of a Titian or a Raphael, views the whole scene 
 at once, and feeds himself with the extensive delight! 
 But these are joys that do not belong to mortality.
 
 156 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 
 
 Thus far T ]iave indulg'ed some loose and unconnected 
 thoughts and remarks with regard to the different powers 
 of wit, memory, and judgment. For it was very diffi- 
 cult to throw them into a regular form or method with- 
 out more room. Let us now with more regularity treat 
 of the memory alone. 
 "Though the memory be a natural faculty of the mind 
 of man, and belongs to spirits which are not incarnate — 
 though the mind itself is immaterial — a principle super- 
 added to matter, yet the brain is the instrument which 
 it employs in all its operations. Though it is not mat- 
 ter, yet it works by means of matter, and its operations 
 are materially affected by the condition of the brain, its 
 principal organ. Through the medium of the brain and 
 nervous system the mind obtains a knowledge of the 
 external world. The memory receives impressions of 
 facts and events, and treasures up their images ; and 
 it also becomes the retentive receptacle of the ideas and 
 conclusions derived from meditation and reflection. 
 
 The immaturity of the brain in early life readers it 
 incapable of becoming the instrument of powerful mental 
 actions, and the images which are then impressed upon 
 the memory are chiefly those of facts and events. The 
 memory grows from the period of infancy, and may be 
 greatly improved by proper exercise, or injured by sloth. 
 
 The improvement of the memory requires the culti- 
 vation of habits of attention, or of intense application of 
 the mind to whatever is, at the time, its more immediate 
 object of pursuit. iSlight impressions are soon forgotten, 
 but whatever is impressed upon the mind by fixed atten- 
 tion and close thought, is indelibly stamped upon the 
 memory, and becomes as durable as the mind itself 
 
 Many persons of advanced age will tell long stories 
 of things which occurred during the early period of their 
 lives, and were so deeply engraven upon the memory 
 as to be retained in their most minute particulars tlirough 
 a long succession of years. 
 
 The memory is more or less affected by various dis- 
 eases of the body ; chiefly from injuries of the iiead, 
 affections of the brain, fever, and diseases of extreme 
 debility. Numerous cases are on record of persons who,
 
 OF IMPROVIVG THE MEMORY. 157 
 
 from the influence of disease, have recovered a know- 
 ledge of things long forgotten ; and of others who have 
 lost all knowledge of persons and things. A man who 
 was born in France, but had spent most of his life in 
 England, and entirely lost the habit of speaking French, 
 received an injury on the head, aud, during the illness 
 which followed, always spoke in the French language. 
 Another, when recovering from an injury of the head, 
 spoke the Welsh language, which he learned in child- 
 hood, but had subsequently entirely forgotten. Another 
 entirely lost his mental faculties during a severe illness. 
 For several weeks subsequent to his recovery he re- 
 membered nothing, and understood nothing ; but at the 
 expiration of two or ihree months he gradually recovered 
 his memory and other faculties. 
 
 Impressions which are deeply engraven upon the 
 mind appear never to be effaced ; but the power of 
 calling them up is sometimes lost, until sickness or some 
 other cause restores that power. The faculties of the 
 mind are greatly assisted or injured by the condition of 
 the brain, which in most aged people relaxes its energies, 
 and a want of close attention to passing events prevents 
 lasting impressions from being made on the memory. 
 
 The brain being the chief instrument of the mind, 
 whatever tends to promote a healthful and vigorous 
 condition of that organ may help to preserve the 
 memory ; but excess of wine, or luxury of any kind, 
 as well as excess in study and application to the biasi- 
 ness of life, may injure the memory by overstraining 
 and weakenin<r the brain." 
 
 A good memory has these several qualifications. 
 
 1. It is ready to receive and admit, with great ease, 
 the various ideas both of words and things which are 
 learned or taught. 2. It is large and copious to treas- 
 ure up tliese ideas in great number and variety. 3. It 
 is strong and durable to retain for a considerable time 
 those words or thoughts which are committed to it. 4. 
 It is faithful and active to suggest and recollect, upon 
 every proper occasion, all those words or tlioughts which 
 have been recommended to its care, or treasured up 
 in it. 
 
 14
 
 158 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 
 
 Now in every one of these qualifications a memory 
 may be injured or may be improved: yet I shall not in- 
 sist distinctly on tliese particulars, but only in o-eneral 
 propose a few rules or directions whereby this noble fac- 
 ulty of memory, in all its branches and qualifications, 
 may be preserved or assisted, and sliow what are the 
 practices that both by reason and experience have been 
 found of happy influence to this purpose. 
 
 There is one great and general direction which be- 
 longs to the improvement of other powers as well as of 
 the memory, and that is, to keep it always in due and 
 proper exercise. Many acts by degrees form a habit, 
 and thereby the ability or power is strengthened, and 
 made more ready to appear again in action. Our mem- 
 ories should be used and inured from childhood to bear 
 a moderate quantity of knowledge let into them early, 
 and they will thereby become strong for use and service. 
 As any limb well and duly exercised grows stronger, the 
 nerves of the body are corroborated thereby. Milo took 
 up a calf, and daily carried it on his shoulders; as the 
 calf grew, his strength grew also, and he at last arrived 
 at firmness of joints enough to bear the bull. 
 
 Our memories will be in a great measure moulded 
 and formed, improved or injured, according to the ex- 
 ercise of them. If we never use them, they will be al- 
 most lost. Those who are wont to converse or read 
 but a few things only, will retain but a few in their 
 memory; those who are used to remember things but for 
 an hour, and charge their memories with it no longer, 
 will retain them but an hour before they vanish. And 
 let words be remembered as well as things, that so you 
 may acquire a copia verhorum as well as rerum, and be 
 more ready to express your mind on all occasions. 
 
 Yet there sliould be a caution given in such cases: the 
 memory of a child or any infirm person should not be 
 overburdened; for a limb or a joint may be overstrained 
 by being too much loaded, and its natural power never 
 be recovered. Teachers should wisely judge of the 
 power and constitution of youth, and impose no more 
 on them than they are able to bear with cheerfulness 
 and improvement.
 
 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORT. 159 
 
 And particularly they should take care that the rnem- 
 orv of the learner be not too much crowded with a tu- 
 rn iltuous heap or overbearing multitude of documents 
 or ideas at one time: this is the way to remember noth- 
 ing", one idea effaces another. An overgreedy grasp 
 does not retain the largest handful. But it is the exer- 
 cise of memory with a due moderation, that is one ge- 
 neral rule towards the improvement of it. 
 
 The particular rules are such as these: 
 
 1. Due attention and diligence to learn and know 
 things, which we would commit to our remembrance, is 
 a rule of great necessity in this case. When the atten- 
 tion is strongly fixed to any particular subject, all that 
 is said concerning it makes a deeper impression upon 
 the mind. There are some persons who complain they 
 cannot remember divine or human discourses which they 
 hear, when, in truth, their thoughts are wandering half 
 the time, or they hear with such coldness and indiffer- 
 ency, and a trifling temper of spirit, that it is no wonder 
 the things which are read or spoken make but a slight 
 impression on the mind, and get no firm footing in the 
 seat of memory, but soon vanish and are lost. 
 
 Tt is needful, therefore, if we would maintain a long 
 remembrance of the things which we read, or hear, that 
 we should engage our delight and pleasure in those sub- 
 jects, and use the other methods which are before pre- 
 scribed in order to fix the attention. Sloth, indolence, 
 and idleness, will no more bless the mind with intellec- 
 tual riches, than it will fill the hand with gain, the field 
 with corn, or the purse with treasure. 
 
 Let it be added also, that not only the slothful and 
 the negligent deprive themselves of proper knowledge 
 for the furniture of their memory, but such as appear 
 to have active spirits, who are ever skimming over the 
 surface of things with a volatile temper, will fix nothing 
 in their mind. Vario will spend whole mornings in 
 running over loose and unconnected pages, and with 
 fresh curiosity is ever glancing over new words and 
 ideas that strike his present fancy; he is fluttering over 
 a thousand objects of art and science, and yet treasures 
 up but little knowledge. There must be the labour and
 
 160 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 
 
 the diligence of close attention to particular subjects of 
 thought and inquiry, which only can impress what wo 
 read or think of upon the remembering faculty of man. 
 
 2. Clear and distinct apprehension of tiie things 
 which we commit to memory is necessary in order to 
 make them stick and dwell there. If we would remem- 
 ber words, or learn the names of persons or things, we 
 should have them recommended to our memory by a 
 clear and distinct pronunciation, spelling, or writing. 
 If we would treasure up the ideas of things, notions, 
 propositions, arguments, and sciences, these should be 
 recommended also to our memory by a clear and dis- 
 tinct perception of them. Faint, glimmering, and con- 
 fused ideas will vanish like images seen in twilight. 
 Every thing which we learn should be conveyed to the 
 understanding in the plainest expressions, without any 
 ambiguity, that we may not mistake what we desire to 
 remember. This is a general rule, whether we would 
 employ the memory about words or things, though it 
 must be confessed that mere sounds and words are much 
 harder to get by heart than the knowledge of things and 
 real images. 
 
 For this reason take heed (as I have often before 
 warned) that you do not take up with words instead of 
 things, nor mere sounds instead of real sentiments and 
 ideas. Many a lad forgets what has been tauglit him, 
 merely because he never well understood it; he never 
 clearly and distinctly took in the meaning of those 
 sounds and syllables which he was required to get by 
 heart. 
 
 This is one true reason why boys make so poor a 
 proficiency in learning the Latin tongue under masters 
 who teach them by grammars and rules written in Lat- 
 in, of whicii I have spoken before. And this is a com- 
 mon case with children when they learn their catechisms 
 in their early days. The language and the sentiments 
 conveyed in those catechisms are far above the under- 
 standing of creatures of that age, and they have no tol- 
 erable ideas under the words. This makes the answers 
 much harder to be remembered, and in truth they learn 
 nothing but words without ideas; and if they are ever
 
 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 161 
 
 SO perfect in repeating the words, yet they know noth- 
 ing of divinity. 
 
 And for this reason it is a necessary rule in teaching 
 children the principles of religion, tliat they should be 
 expressed in very plain, easy, and familiar words, 
 brougiit as low as possible down to their understandings, 
 according to their different ages and capacities, and 
 thereby they will obtain some useful knowledge when 
 the words are treasured up in their memory, because at 
 the same time the}' will treasure up those divine ideas too. 
 
 3. Method and regularity in the things we commit to 
 memory, is necessary in order to make them take more 
 effectual possession of tlio mind, and abide tliere long. 
 As much as systematical learnijig is decried by some 
 vain and humorous triflers of the age, it is certainly the 
 happiest way to furnish tlie mind with a variety of 
 knowledge. 
 
 Whatsoever you would trust to your memory, let it 
 be disposed in a proper method, connected well togeth- 
 er, and referred to distinct and particular heads or clas- 
 ses, both general and particular. An apothecary's boy 
 will much sooner learn all the medicines in his master's 
 shop, when they are ranged in boxes or on shelves ac- 
 cording to their distinct natures, whether herbs, drugs, 
 or I'hinerals, whether leaves or roots, whether chymical 
 or galenical preparations, whether simple or compound, 
 &c. and when they are placed in some order according 
 to their nature, their fluidity, or their consistence, &c. 
 in phials, bottles, gallipots, cases, drawers, &.C.; so the 
 genealogy of a family is more easily learnt when you 
 begin at some great-grandfather as the root, and distin- 
 guish the stock, tlie large boughs, the lesser branches, 
 the twigs, and the buds, till you come down to the present 
 infants of the house. And, indeed, all sorts of arts and 
 sciences taught in a method something of this kind are 
 more happily committed to the mind or memory. 
 
 I might give anotlier plain simile to confirm the truth 
 of this. What horse or carriage can take up and bear 
 away all the various rude and unwieldy loppings of a 
 branchy tree at once? But if they are divided yet fur- 
 therj so as to be laid close, and bound up in a more uni- 
 14*
 
 162 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 
 
 form manner into several faggots, perhaps those lop- 
 pings may be all carried at one single load or burden. 
 
 The mutual dependance of things on each other help 
 the memory of both. A wise connexion of the parts 
 of a discourse, in a rational method, gives great advan- 
 tage to the reader or hearer in order to his remembrance 
 of it. Therefore many matliematical demonstrations 
 in a long train may be remembered much better than a 
 heap of sentences wl)ich have no connexion. The book 
 of Proverbs, at least from the tenth chapter and on- 
 wards, is much harder to remember than the book of 
 Psalms, for this reason; and some Christians have told 
 me that they remember what is written in the Epistle 
 to the Romans, and tliat to the Hebrews, much better 
 than many others of the sacred Epistles, because there 
 is more exact method and connexion observed in them. 
 
 He that would learn to remember a sermon which he 
 hears, should acquaint himself by degrees with tlie 
 method in which the several important parts of it are 
 delivered. It is a certain fault in a multitude of preach- 
 ers, that they utterly neglect method in tlieir ha- 
 rangues; or at least they refuse to render their method 
 visible and sensible to the hearers. One would be tempt- 
 ed to think it was for fear lest their auditors should re- 
 member too much of their sermons, and prevent their 
 preaching them three or four times over: but I iiave can- 
 dour enough to persuade myself that the true reason is, 
 they imagine it to be a more modish way of preaching 
 without particulars: I am sure it is a much more useless 
 one. And it would be of great advantage both to the 
 speaker and hearer to have discourses for the pulpit cast 
 into a plain and easy method, and the reasons or infer- 
 ences ranged in a proper order, and that under the words, 
 first, secondly, and thirdly, however they may be now 
 fancied to sound unpolite or unfashionable; but Arch- 
 bishop Tillotson did not think so in his days. 
 
 4. A frequent review, and careful repetition of the 
 things we would learn, and an abridgment of them in 
 a narrow compass for this end, has a great influence to 
 fix them in the memory; therefore it is that the rules of 
 grammar, and useful examples of the variation of words,
 
 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 163 
 
 and the peculiar forms of speech in any languag-e, are 
 so often appointed by tlie masters as lessons for the schol- 
 ars to be frequently repeated; and they are contracted 
 into tables for frequent review, that what is not fixed in 
 the mind at first, may be stamped upon the memory by 
 a perpetual survey and rehearsal. 
 
 Repetition is so very useful a practice, that Mnemon, 
 even from his youth to his old age., never read a book 
 without making some small points, dashes, or hooks, in 
 the marafui, to mark what parts of the discourse were 
 proper for review: and when he came to the end of a 
 section or chapter; he always shut his book, and recol- 
 lected all the sentiments or expressions he had remark- 
 ed, so that he could give a tolerable analysis and abstract 
 of every treatise he had read, just after he had finished 
 it. Thence he became so well furnished with a rich 
 variety of knowledge. 
 
 Even when a person is hearing a sermon or a lecture, 
 ho may give his thoughts leave now and then to step 
 back so far as to recollect tlie several heads of it from 
 tlie beginning, two or three times before the lecture or 
 sermon is finished: the omission or the loss of a sentence 
 or two among the amplifications is richly compensated 
 by preserving in the mind the method and order of the 
 whole discourse in the most important branches of it. 
 
 If we would fix in the memory the discourses we hear, 
 or what we design to speak, let us abstract them into 
 brief compends, and review them often. Lawyers and 
 divines have need of such assistances: they write down 
 short notes or hints of the principal heads of what they 
 desire to commit to tlieir memory in order to preach or 
 plead, for sucli abstracts or epitomes may be reviewed 
 much sooner, and the several amplifying sentiments or 
 sentences will be more easily invented or recollected in 
 their proper places. The art of shorthand is of excel- 
 lent use for this as well as for other purposes. It must 
 be acknowledged, that those who scarcely ever take a 
 pen in their hand to write short notes or hints of what 
 they are to speak or learn, wlio never try to cast things 
 into method, or to contract the survey of them in order 
 to commit them to their memory, had need have a
 
 164 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 
 
 double degree of that natural power of retaining and re- 
 collecting what they read, or hear, or intend to speak. 
 
 Do not plunge yourself into other businesses or studies, 
 amusements or recreations, immediately after you have 
 attended upon instruction, if you can well avoid it. Get 
 time if possible to recollect the things you have heard, 
 that they may not be washed all away from the mind 
 by a torrent of other occurrences or engagements, nor 
 lost in the crowd or clamour of other loud or importunate 
 affairs. 
 
 Talking over the things which you have read with 
 your companions on the first proper opportunity you 
 have for it, is a most useful manner of review or repeti- 
 tion, in order to fix them upon the mind. Teach them 
 your younger friends, in order to establish your own 
 knowledge wliile you communicate it to tliern. The 
 animal powers of your tongue and of your ear, as well 
 as your intellectual faculties, will all join together to 
 help the memory. Hermetas studied hard in a remote 
 corner of the land, and in solitude, yet he became a 
 very learned man. He seldom was so liappy as to en- 
 joy suitable society at home, and therefore he talked 
 ov6r to the fields and the woods in the evening what he 
 had been reading in the day, and found so considerable 
 advantage by this practice that lie recommended it to 
 all his friends, since he could set his probatum to it for 
 seventeen years. 
 
 5. Pleasure and delight in the things we learn give 
 great assistance towards the remembrance of them. 
 Whatsoever therefore we desire that a child should com- 
 mit to his memory, make it as j)leasant to him as possi- 
 ble; endeavour to search his genius and his temper, arxl 
 let him take in the instructions you give him or the 
 lessons you appoint him, as far as may be, in a way 
 suited to his natural inclination. Fabellus would never 
 learn any moral lessons till they were moulded into the 
 form of some fiction or fable like tliose of ^Esop, or till 
 they put on the appearance of a parable, like those 
 wherein our blessed Saviour taught the ignorant world; 
 then he remembered well the emblematical instructions 
 that were given him, and learnt to practice the moral
 
 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 166 
 
 sense and meaning of them. Young Speoh/iias was 
 taught virtue by setting before him a variety of exam- 
 ples of tlie various good qualities in human life; and lie 
 was appointed daily to repeat some story of this kind 
 out Valerius Maximus. The same lad was early instruct- 
 ed to avoid the common vices and follies of youth in the 
 same manner. This is akin to the method whereby the 
 Lacedaemonians trained up their children to hate drunk- 
 enness and intemperance, viz. by bringing a drunken 
 man into their company, and showing them what a beast 
 he had inade of himself. Such visible and sensible forms 
 of instruction will make long and useful impressions 
 upon the memory. 
 
 Children may be taught to remember many things 
 in a way of sport and play. Some young creatures 
 have learnt their letters and syllables, and the pronounc- 
 ing and spelling of words, by having them pasted or 
 v^^ritten upon many little flat tablets or dies. Some have 
 been taught vocabularies of different languages, having 
 a word in one tongue written on one side of these tablets, 
 and the same word in another tongue on the other side 
 of them. 
 
 There might be also many entertaining contrivances 
 for the instruction of children in seveial things relating 
 to geometry, geography, and astronomy, in such allur- 
 ing and illusory methods, which v/ould make a most 
 agreeable and lasting impression on their minds. 
 
 6. Tl)e memory of useful things may receive con- 
 siderable aid if they are thrown into verse; for the num- 
 bers and measures, and rhyme, according to the poesy 
 of different languages, have a considerable influence 
 upon mankind, both to make them receive with more 
 ease the things proposed to their observation, and pre- 
 serve tliem longer in their remembrance. How many 
 are there of the common affairs of human life which 
 have been taught in early years by the help of rhyme, 
 and have been like nails fastened in a sure place, and 
 riveted by daily use! 
 
 So the number of the days of each month are engraven 
 on the memory of thousands by these four lines: —
 
 166 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 
 
 Thirty days hath September, 
 June, and April, and November; 
 February twenty-eight alone; 
 All the rest have thirty-one. 
 
 So lads have been taught frugahty by surveying and 
 judghig of their own expences by these three hnes: — 
 
 Compute the pence but of one day's expence, 
 So many pounds, and angels, groats, and pence, 
 Are sj)ent in one whole year's circumference. 
 
 For the number of days in a year is three hundred and 
 sixty-five, which number of pence makes one pound, 
 one angel, one groat, and one penny. 
 
 So have rules of health been prescribed in the book 
 called Schola Salernitani, and many a person has pre- 
 served himself doubtless from evening gluttony, and 
 the pains and diseases conseqiaent upon it, by these two 
 lines: — 
 
 Ex magna coena stomacho fit maxima poena: 
 Ut sis nocte levis, sit tibi coena brevis. 
 
 Englished: — 
 
 To be easy all night 
 Let your supper be light; 
 Or else you'll complain 
 Of a stomach in pain. 
 
 And a hundred proverbial sentences in various lan- 
 guages are formed into rhyme or a verse, whereby they 
 are made to stick upon the memory of old and young. 
 
 It is from this principle that moral rules have been 
 cast into a poetic mould from all antiquity. So the 
 golden verses of the Pythagoreans in Greek; Cato's dis- 
 tiches De Moribns in Latin, Lilly's precepts to scholars, 
 called Qui Mihi, with many otliers; and tbis has been 
 done with very good success. A line or two of this 
 kind, recurring on the nieinory, have often guarded 
 youth from a temptation to vice and folly, as well as 
 put them in mind of their present duty. 
 
 It is for this reason also that the genders, declensions, 
 and variations of nouns and verbs have been taught in 
 verse, oy those who have complied with the prejudice 
 of long custom, to teach English children the Latin
 
 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 167 
 
 tongue by rules written in Latin: and truly those rude 
 heaps of words and terminations of an unknown tongue 
 would have never been so happily learnt by heart by a 
 hundred thousand boys without this smoothing artifice; 
 nor indeed do I know any thing else can be said with 
 good reason to excuse or relieve the obvious absurdities 
 of tliis practice. 
 
 When you would remember new things or words, en- 
 deavour to associate and connect them with some words 
 or things which you have well known before, and which 
 are fixed and establislied in your memory. This asso- 
 ciation of ideas is of great importance and force, and 
 may be of excellent use in many instances of human 
 life. One idea which is familiar to the mind, connected 
 with others which are new and strange, will bring those 
 new ideas into easy remembrance. Maronides had got 
 the first liundred lines of Virgil's ^neis printed upon his 
 memory so perfectly, that he knew not only the order 
 and number of every word, but each verse also; and by 
 this means he would undertake to remember two or 
 three hundred names of persons or things, by some 
 rational or fantastic connexion between some word in the 
 verse, and some letter, syllable, property, or accident 
 of the name or thing to be remembered, even though 
 they had been repeated but once or twice at most in his 
 hearing. Animato practised much the same art of me- 
 mory, by getting the Latin names of twenty-two ani- 
 mals into his head according to the alphabet, viz. asinus, 
 basilicus, canis, draco, elephas, felis, gryphus, hircus, 
 iuvenis, leo, mulus, noctua, ovis, panthera, quadrupes, 
 rhinoceros, simia, taurus, ursus, xiphius, hyaena or yaena, 
 zibetta. Most of these he divided also into four parts, 
 viz. head and body, feet, fins, or wings, and tail, and by 
 some arbitrary or chimerical attachments of each of 
 these to a word or thing, which he desired to remember, 
 he committed them to the care of his memory, and that 
 with good success. 
 
 It is also by this association of ideas that we may 
 better imprint any new idea upon the memory, by join- 
 ing with it some circumstance of the time, place, com- 
 pany, &c. wherein we first observed, heard, or learned
 
 168 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 
 
 it. If v/e would recover an absent idea, it is useful to 
 recollect those circumstances of time, place, &c. The 
 substance will many times be recovered and brought to 
 the thoughts by recollecting the shadow: a man recurs 
 to our fancy by remembering his garment, his size or 
 stature, his office or employment, &c. A beast, bird, or 
 fish, by its colour, figure or motion, by the cage, court- 
 yard, or cistern wherein it was kept. 
 
 To this head also we may refer that remembrarce of 
 names and things which may be derived from our re- 
 collection of their likeness to other things which we 
 know; either their resemblance in name, character, form, 
 accident; or any thing that belongs to them. An idea 
 or word which lias been lost or forgotten, has been often 
 recovered by hitting upon some other kindred word or 
 idea which has the nearest resemblance to it, and that 
 in the letters, syllables, or sound of the name, as well as 
 properties of the thing. 
 
 If we would remember Hippocrates, or Galen, or 
 Paracelsus, think of a physician's name beginning with 
 H, G, or P. If we will remember Ovidius Naso, we 
 may represent a man with a large nose; if Plato, we 
 may think upon a person with large shoulders; if Cris- 
 pus, we shall fancy another with curled hair; and so of 
 other things. 
 
 And sometimes a new or strange idea may be fixed 
 in the memory by considering its contrary or opposite. 
 So if we cannot hit on the word Goliath, the remem- 
 brance of David may recover it; or the name of a Tro- 
 jan may be recovered by thinking of a Greek, &c. 
 
 8. In such cases wherein it may be done, seek after a 
 local memory, or a remembrance of what you have 
 read by the side or page of where it is written or print- 
 ed; whether the right or the left, whether at the top, 
 the middle, or the bottom, whether at the beginning 
 of a cliapter or a paragraph, or the end of it. It has 
 been some advantage, for this reason, to accustom one's 
 self to books of the same edition; and it has been of con- 
 stant and special use to divines and private Christians 
 to bo furnished with several Bibles of the same edition; 
 that wheresoever they are, whether in their chamber,
 
 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 169 
 
 parlour, or study, in the younger or elder years of life, 
 they may find the chapters and verses standing in the 
 same parts of the page. 
 
 This is also a great convenience to be observed by 
 printers in the new editions of grammars, psalms, Tes- 
 taments, &c. to print every cliapter, paragraph, or verse, 
 in the same part of the page as the former, tluit so it 
 may yield a happy assistance to those young learners 
 who find, and even feel, the advantage of a local memory. 
 
 9. Let every thirg we desire to remember be fairly 
 and distinctly written and divided into periods, with 
 large characters in the beginning, for by this means we 
 shall tlie more readily imprint the matter and words on 
 our minds, and recollect them with a glance, the more 
 remarkable the writing appears to the eye. Tiiis sense 
 conveys the ideas to the fancy better than any other; 
 and what we have seen is not so soon forgotten as what 
 we have only heard. What Horace afiirms of the mind 
 or passions may be said also of the memory: — 
 
 Segnius irritant aiiimos demissa per aurem, 
 Q,uain quae sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus, et quae 
 Ipse sibi trad it spectator. 
 
 Applied thus in English: 
 
 Sounds wiiich address the year are lost and die • 
 In one short, hour; but that which strikes the eye 
 Lives long upon the mind; the faithful sight 
 Engrave* the knowledge with a beam of light. 
 
 For the assistance of weak memories the first letters 
 or words, of every period, in every page, may be writ- 
 ten in distinct colours; yellow, green, red, black, &c.; 
 and if you observe the same order of colours in the fol- 
 lowing sentences, it will be still the better. This will 
 make a greater impression, and may much aid the 
 memory. 
 
 Under this head we may take notice of the advantage 
 which tlie memory gains by having the several objects 
 of our learning drawn out into schemes and tables; mat- 
 ters of mathematical science and natural pliilosopliy are 
 not only let into the understanding, but preserved in the 
 memory by figures and diagrams. The situation of the 
 several parts of the earth are better learned by one day's 
 15
 
 170 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 
 
 conversing with a map or a sea-chart, than by merely 
 reading the description of their situation a hundred 
 times over in books of geography. So the constella- 
 tions in astronomy, and their position in tlie heavens, 
 are more easily renoembered by hemispheres of the stars 
 well drawn. It is by having such sort of memorials, 
 figures, and tables, hung round our studies or places of 
 residence or resort, that our memory of these things 
 will be greatly assisted and improved, as 1 have shown 
 at large in the twentieth chapter, of the use of sciences. 
 
 I might add here also, that once wiiting over what 
 we design to remember, and giving due attention to 
 what we write, will fix it more in the mind than reading 
 it five times. And in tlie same manner, if we had a 
 plan of the naked lines of longitude and latitude pro- 
 jected on the meridian printed for tliis use, a learner 
 might much more speedily advance himself in the 
 knowledge of geography by his own drawing tlie fig- 
 ures of all the parts of the world upon it by imitation, 
 than by many days survey of a map of the world so 
 printed. — The same also may be said concerning the 
 constellations of heaven, drawn by the learner on a na- 
 ked projection of the circles of the sphere upon the 
 plane of the equator. 
 
 10. It has sometimes been the practice of men to im- 
 print names or sentences on their memory by taking the 
 first letters of every word of that sentence, or of those 
 names, and making a new word of them. So the name 
 of the Maccabees is borrowed from the first letters of 
 the Hebrew words, which make that sentence Mi Ca- 
 moka Bealim Jehovah, i. e. Who is like thee among 
 the gods? which was written on their banners. Jesus 
 Christ our Saviour has been called a fish, in Greek 
 iXwTij by the fathers, because these are the first letters 
 in those Greek words, Jesus Christ, God's Son, the Sa- 
 viour. So the word Vibgyor teaches us to remember 
 the order of the seven original colours, as they appear 
 by the sunbeams cast through a prism on white paper, 
 or formed by the sun in a rainbow, according to the dif- 
 ferent refrangibility of the rays, viz, violet, indigo, blue, i 
 green, yellow, orange, and red.
 
 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 171 
 
 In this manner the Hebrew irii^mmarians teach their 
 students to remember the letters which change their 
 natural pronunciation by tlie inscription of a dagesh, 
 by gathering these six letters, beth, gimel, daleth, caph, 
 pe, and tliau, into the word Begadchepat; and that they 
 might not tbrgot the letters named Quiescent, viz. a, h, 
 V, and i, they are joined in the word Ahevi. So the uni- 
 versal and particular propositions in logic are remem" 
 bared by the words Barbara, Celarent, Darii, &c. 
 
 Other artificial helps to memory may be just men- 
 tioned here. 
 
 Dr. Grey, in his book called Memoria Technica, has 
 exchanged the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, for some 
 consonants, b, d, t, f, 1, y, p, k, n, and some vowels, a, 
 e, i, o, u, and several diphthongs, and thereby formed 
 words that denote numbers, which may be more easily 
 remembered: and Mr. Lowe has improved his scheme 
 in a small pamphlet called Mnemonics Delineated; 
 whereby in seven leaves he has comprised almost an in- 
 finity of things, in science and in common life, and re- 
 duced them to a sort of measure like Latin verse; though 
 the words may be supposed to be very barbarous, being 
 such a mixture of vowels and consonants as are very 
 unfit for harmony. 
 
 But after all, the very writers on this subject have 
 confessed that several of those artificial helps of mem- 
 ory are so cumbersome as not to be suitable to every 
 temper or person; nor are they of any use for the deliv- 
 , ery of a discourse by memory, nor of much service in 
 ! learnmg the sciences: but they may be sometimes prac- 
 ; tised for the assisting our remembrance of certain sen- 
 tences, numbers, and names. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 
 
 I. When a subject is proposed to your thoughts, con- 
 sider whether it be knowable at all, or no; and then 
 whether it be not above the reach of your inquiry and
 
 172 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 
 
 knowledge in the present state; and remember, that it 
 is great waste of time to busy yourselves too much 
 amongst unsearchables: the chief use of these studies is 
 to keep the mind humble, by finding its own ignorance 
 and weakness. 
 
 II. Consider again whether the matter be worthy of 
 your inquiry at all; and then how far it may be worthy 
 of your present search and labour according to your age, 
 your time of life, your station in the world, your capa- 
 city, your profession, your chief design and end. There 
 are many things worth inquiry to one man, which are 
 not so to another; and there are things that may de- 
 serve the study of the same person in one part of life, 
 which would be improper or impertinent at another. 
 To read books of the art of preaching, or disputes about 
 church discipline, are proper for a theological student 
 in the end of his academical studies, but not at the be- 
 ginning of them. To pursue mathematical studies very 
 largely may be useful for a professor of philosophy, but 
 not for a divme. 
 
 III. Consider whether the subject of your inquiry be 
 easy or difficult; whether you have sufficient foundation 
 or skill, furniture and advantage for tlie pursuit of it. 
 't would be madness for a young statuary to attempt 
 at first to carve a Venus or a Mercury, and especially 
 without proper tools. And it is equal folly for a man 
 to pretend to make great improvements in natural phi- 
 losophy without due experiments. 
 
 IV. Consider whether the subject be any ways useful 
 or no before you engage in the study of it: often put 
 this question to yourselves, Cui Bono? To what pur- 
 pose? What end will it attain? Is it for tli-e glory of 
 God, for the good of men, for your own advantage, for 
 the removal of any natural or moral evil, for the attain- 
 ment of any natural or moral good? Will the profit be 
 equal to the labour? There are many subtle imperti- 
 nences learned in the schools; many painful trifles, even 
 among the mathematical theorems and problems; many 
 difficiles nugae, or laborious follies of various kinds, 
 which some ingenious men have been engaged in. A
 
 OP DETERMINING A QUESTION. 173 
 
 due reflection upon these things will call the mind away 
 from vain amusements, and save much time. 
 
 V. Consider what tendency it has to- make you wiser 
 and better, as well as to make you more learned; and 
 those questions which tend to wisdom and prudence in 
 our conduct among men, as well as piety toward God, 
 are doubtless more important, and preferable beyond 
 all those inquiries which only improve our knowledge 
 in mere speculations. 
 
 VI. If the question appear to be well worth your dili- 
 gent application, and you are furnished witli the neces- 
 sary requisites to pursue it, then consider whether it be 
 dressed up and entangled in more words than is needful, 
 and contain or include more complicated ideas than is 
 necessary; and if so, endeavour to reduce it to a greater 
 simplicity and plainness, vvhich will make the inquiry 
 and argument easier and plainer all the way. 
 
 VII. If it be stated in an improper, obscure, or ir- 
 regular form, it may be meliorated by chancring the 
 phrase, or transposing the parts of it; but be careful 
 always to keep the grand and important point of inquiry 
 the same in your new stating tlie question. Little tricks 
 and deceits of sophistry, by sliding in or leaving out 
 such words as entirely change the question should be 
 abandoned and renounced by all fair disputants and 
 honest searcliers after truth. 
 
 The stating a question with clearness and justice goes 
 a great way many times towards the answering it. The 
 greatest part of true knowledge lies in a distinct percep- 
 tion of things which are in themselves distinct; and some 
 men give more light and knowledge by ihe bare stating 
 of the question with perspicuity and justice, than others 
 by talking of it in gross confusion for wiiole hours to- 
 gether. To slate a question is but to separate and dis- 
 entangle the parts of it from one another, as well as 
 from every thing which does not concern the question, 
 and tlien lay the disentfingled parts of the question in 
 due order and method: oftentimes, without more ado, 
 this fully resolves the doubt, and shows the mind wliere 
 the truth lies, without argument or dispute. 
 
 VIII. If the question relate to an axiom, or first prin- 
 15*
 
 174 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 
 
 ciple of truth, remember that a long- train of consequen- 
 ces may depend upon it; therefore it should not be sud- 
 denly admitted or received. 
 
 It is not enough to determine the truth of a proposi- 
 tion, much less to raise it to the honour of an axiom or 
 first principle, to say that it has been believed through 
 many ages, that it has been received by many nations, 
 that it is almost universally acknowledged, or nobody 
 denies it, that it is established by human laws, or that 
 temporal penalties or reproaches will attend the disbe- 
 lief of it. 
 
 IX. Nor is it enough to forbid any proposition the 
 title of axiom, because it has been denied by some per- 
 sons, and doubted of by others; for some persons have 
 been unreasonably credulous, and others have been as 
 unreasonably sceptical. Then only should a proposition 
 be called an axiom, or a self-evident truth, when, by a 
 moderate attention to the subject and predicate, their 
 connexion appears in so plain a light, and so clear an 
 evidence, as needs no third idea, or middle term, to 
 prove them to be connected. 
 
 X. While you are in search after truth in questions 
 of a doubtful nature, or such as you have not yet 
 thoroughly examined, keep up a just indifference to 
 either side of the question, if you would be led honestly 
 into the truth: for a desire or inclination leaning to 
 either side biasses the judgment strangely: whereas by 
 this indifference for every thing but truth, you will be ex- 
 cited to examine fairly instead of presuming, and your 
 assent will be secured from going beyond your evidence. 
 
 XI. For the most part people are born to their opin- 
 ions, and never question the truth of what^their family, 
 or their country, or their party profess. They clothe 
 their minds as they do their bodies, after the fashion in 
 vogue, nor one of a hundred ever examined their prin- 
 ciples. . It is suspected of lukewarmness to suppose ex- 
 amination necessary; and it will be charged as a ten- 
 dency to apostasj', if we go about to examine them. 
 Persons are applauded for presuming they are in the 
 right, and, as Mr. Locke saith, he that considers and 
 inquires into the reason of things is counted a foe to
 
 OP DETERMINING A QUESTION. 176 
 
 orthodoxy, because possibly he may deviate from some 
 of the received doctrines. And thus men, without any 
 industry or acquisition of their own (lazy and idle as 
 they are) inherit local truths, i. e. the truths of that 
 place where they live, and are inured to assent without 
 evidence. 
 
 This hath a long and unhappy influence; for if a man 
 can brino; his mind once to be positive and fierce for 
 propositions whose evidence he hath never examined, 
 and that in matters of the greatest concernment, he 
 will naturally follow this short and easy way of judg- 
 ing and believing in cases of less moment, and build all 
 his opinions upon insufficient grounds. 
 
 XII. In determining a question, especially when it is a 
 matter of difficulty and importance, do not take up with 
 partial examination, but turn your thoughts on all sides, 
 to gather in all the light you can towards the solution 
 of it. Take time, and use all the helps that are to be 
 attained, before you fully determine, except only where 
 present necessity of action calls for speedy determination. 
 
 If you would know wliat may be called a partial ex- 
 amination, take these instances, viz. 
 
 When you examine an object of sense or inquire into 
 some matter of sensation at too great a distance from 
 the object, or in an inconvenient situation of it, or under 
 any indisposition of the organs, or any disguise whatso- 
 ever relating to the medium or the organ of the object 
 itself, or when you examine it by one sense only, where 
 others might be enjpioyed; or when you inquire into it 
 by sense only, without the use of the understanding, and 
 judgment, and reason. 
 
 If it be a question which is to be determined by reason 
 and argument, then your examination is partial when 
 you turn the question only in one liglit, and do not turn 
 it on all sides: when you look upon it only in its rela- 
 tions and aspects to one sort of object, and not to 
 another; when you consider only the advantages of it, 
 and the reasons for it, and neglect to think of the rea- 
 sons against it, and never survey its inconveniences too; 
 when you determine on a sudden, before you have given 
 yourself a due time for weighing all circumstances, &,c.
 
 176 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 
 
 Again, if it be a question of fact, depending upon the 
 report or testimony of men, your examination is but 
 partial wlien you inquire only what cne man or a few 
 say, and avoid the testimony of others; when you only 
 ask what those report who were not eye or ear witnesses. 
 and neglect those who saw and heard it; wlien you 
 content yourself with mere loose-and general talk about 
 it, and never enter into particulars; or when there are 
 many who deny the fact, and you never concern your- 
 self about their reasons for denying it, but resolve to be- 
 lieve only those who affirm it. 
 
 There is yet a further fault in your partial examina- 
 tion of any question, when you resolve to determine it 
 by natural reason only where you might be assisted by 
 supernatural revelation; or when you decide the point 
 by some word or sentence, or by some part of revelation 
 witliout comparing it with other parts, which might give 
 further light, and better help to determine tlie meaning. 
 
 It is also a culpable partiality, if you examine some 
 doubtful or pretended vision or revelation without the 
 use of reason, or witliout the use of tliat revelation which 
 is undoubted and sufficiently proved to be divine. These 
 are all instances of imperfect examination: and we should 
 never determine a question by one or two lights, where 
 we may have the advantage of three or four. 
 
 XI II. Take heed lest some darling notion, some fa- 
 vourite hypothesis, some beloved doctrine, or some com- 
 mon but unexamined opinion, be made a test of the 
 truth or falsehood of all other propositions about the 
 same subject. Dare not build much upon such a notion 
 or doctrine till it be very fully examined, accurately ad- 
 justed, and sufficiently confirmed. Some persons, by 
 indulging such a practice, have been led into long ranks 
 of errors; they have found themselves involved in a train 
 of mistakes, by taking up some petty hypothesis or 
 principle, either in philosophy, politics, or religion, upon 
 slight and insufficient grounds, and establishing that as 
 a test and rule by which to judge of all other things. 
 
 XIV. For the same reason, have a care of suddenly 
 determining any one question, on which the deterrai-
 
 OF DETERMINI?fG A QUESTION. 177 
 
 nation of any kindred or parallel cases will easily or 
 naturally follow. Take heed of receiving any wrong 
 turn in your early judgment of things; be watchful as 
 far as possible against any false bias, which may be 
 given to the ui>derstanding, especially in younger years. 
 The Indulgence of some one silly opinion, or the giving 
 credit to one foolisli fable, lays the mind open to be im- 
 posed upon by many. The ancient Romans were taught 
 to believe that Romulus and Remus, the founders of 
 their state and empire, were exposed in the woods, and 
 nursed by a wolf: this story prepared tlieir minds for the 
 rece[)tion of any tales of the like nature relating to other 
 countries. Trojns Pompeius would enforce tlie belief, 
 that one of the ancient kings of Spain was also nursed 
 and suckled by a hart, from the fable, of Romulus and 
 Remus. It was by the same influence they learned to 
 give up their hopes and fears to omens and soothsaying, 
 when they were once persuaded that tlie greatness of 
 their empire, and tlie glory of Romulus their founder, 
 were predicted by the happy omen of twelve vultures 
 appearing to him when he souglit where to build the 
 city. They readily received all the following legends, 
 of prodigies, auguries, and prognostics, for many ages 
 together, with which Livy has furnished his huge history. 
 
 So the child who is once taught to believe anv one 
 occurrence to be a good or evil omen, or any day of the 
 month or week to be lucky or unlucky, hath a wide 
 inroad made on the soundness of his imderstanding in 
 the following judgments of his life; he lies ever open to 
 all the silly impressions and idle tales of nurses, and im- 
 bibes many a foolish story with greediness, which he 
 must unlearn again if ever he become acquainted with 
 truth and wisdom. 
 
 XV. Have a care of interesting your warm and re- 
 ligious zeal in those matters which are not sufficiently 
 evident in themselves, or which are not fully and 
 thoroughly examined and proved; for this zeal, v. hether 
 right or wrong, when it is once engaged, will have a 
 powerful influence to establish your own minds in those 
 doctrines which are really doubtful, and to stop up all 
 the avenues of further light. This will bring upon the
 
 178 OF DETERMININ6S A QUESTION. 
 
 soul a sort of sacred awe and dread of heresy, with a 
 divine concern to maintain whatever opinion you have 
 espoused as divine, tliough perhaps you have espoused it 
 without any just evidence, and ought to have renounced 
 it as false and pernicious. 
 
 We oug'ht to be zealous for the most important points 
 of our religion, and to contend earnestly for the faith 
 once dehvered to the saints; but we ought not to employ 
 this sacred fervour of spirit in the service of any article 
 till we have seen it made out with plain and strong con- 
 viction, that it is a necessary or important point of faith 
 or practice, and is either an evident dictate of the light 
 of nature, or an assured article of revelation. Zeal 
 must not reign over the powers of our understanding, 
 but obey thein: God is the God of light and truth, a 
 God of reason and order, and lie never requires mankind 
 to use their natural faculties amiss for the support of 
 his cause. Even the most mysterious and sublime doc- 
 trines of revelation are not to be believed without a just 
 reason for it; nor should our pious affections be engaged 
 in the defence of them till we have plain and convinc- 
 ing proof that they are certainly revealed, though per- 
 haps we may never in tliis world attain to such clear 
 and distinct ideas of them as we desire. 
 
 XVI. As a warm zeal ought never to be employed in 
 the defence of any revealed truth, till our reason be well 
 convinced of the revelation; so neither should wit and 
 banter, jest and ridicule, ever be indulged to oppose or 
 assault any doctrines of professed revelation, till reason 
 has proved they are not really revealed; and even then 
 these methods should be used very seldom, and with 
 the utmost caution and prudence. Raillery and wit 
 were never made to answer our inquiries after truth, 
 and to determine a question of rational controversy; 
 thougli they may sometimes be serviceable to expose 
 to contempt those inconsistent follies wliicli have been 
 first abundantly refuted by argument, they serve indeed 
 only to cover nonsense with shame, when reason has 
 first proved it to be mere nonsense. 
 
 It is therefore a silly and most unreasonable test which 
 some of our deists have introduced to judge of divine
 
 OP DETERMINING A (iUESTION. 179 
 
 rsvelation, viz. to try if it will bear ridicule and laugliter. 
 They are effectually beaten in all their combats at the 
 weapons of men, that is, reason and argument; and it 
 would not be unjust (though it is a little uncourtly) to 
 say that they would now attack our religion with the 
 talents of a vile animal, that is, grin and grimace. 
 
 I cannot think that a jester or a monkey, a droll or a 
 puppet, can be proper judges or deciders of controversy. 
 That which dresses up all things in disguise is not likely 
 to lead us into any just sentiments about them. Plato 
 or Socrates, Cfesar or Alexander, might have a fool's 
 coat clapped upon any of tliem, and perhaps, in this dis- 
 guise, neither the wisdom of the one, nor the majesty 
 of the other, would secure them from a sneer; this treat- 
 ment would never inform us whether they were kings 
 or slaves, whether they were fools or philosophers. The 
 strongest reasoning, the best sense, and the politest 
 thoughts, may be set in a most ridiculous light by this 
 grinning faculty: the most obvious axioms of eternal 
 truth may be dressed in a very foolish form, and vvrapped 
 up in artful absurdities by this talent; but they are truth, 
 and reason, and good sense still. Euclid, with all his 
 demonstrations, might be so covered and overwhelmed 
 with banter, that a beginner in the mathematics might 
 be tempted to doubt whether his theorems were true or 
 no, and to imagine they could never be useful. So 
 weaker minds might be easily prejudiced against the 
 noblest principles of truth and goodness; and the younger 
 part of mankind might be beat off from the belief of 
 the most serious, the most rational and important points, 
 even of natural religion, by the impudent jests of a pro- 
 fane wit. The moral duties of the civil life, as well as 
 the articles of Christianity, may be pamted over with 
 the colours of folly, and exposed upon a stage, so as to 
 ruin all social and personal virtue among t.ie gay and 
 thoughtless part of the world. 
 
 XVII. It should be observed also, that these very men 
 cry out loudly against the use of all severe railing and 
 reproach in debates, and all penalties and persecutions 
 of the state, in order to convince the minds and con- 
 sciences of men, and determine points of truth and error.
 
 180 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 
 
 Now I renounce these penal and smarting methods of 
 conviction as mucli as they do, and yet 1 think still 
 these are every whit as wise, as just, and as good for 
 this purpose as banter and ridicule. Why sliould public 
 mockery in print, or a merry joke upon a stage, be a 
 better test of trutli than severe railing sarcasm, and 
 public persecutions and penalties? Why should more 
 light be derived to the understanding by a song of 
 scurrilous mirth, or a witty ballad, than there is by a 
 rude cudgel? When a professor of any religion is set 
 up to be laughed at, I cannot see how tiiis should lielp 
 us to judge of tl)e trutli of his faith any better than if he 
 were scourged. The jeers of a theatre, the pillor}', and 
 the vvhi})pingpost are very near akin. When the per- 
 son or his opinion is made the jest of the mob, or his 
 back the shambles of the executioner, 1 think tiiere is 
 no more conviction in the one than in the other. 
 
 XVIII. Besides, supposing it is but barely possible 
 that tlie great God should reveal liis mind and will to 
 men by miracle, vision, or inspiration, it is a piece of 
 contempt and profane insolence to treat any tolerable 
 or rational appearance of such a revelation with jest and 
 laughter, in order to find whether it be divine or not. 
 And yet, if this be a proper test of revelation, it may be 
 properly applied to the true as well as the false, in order 
 to distinguish it. Suppose a royal proclamation was 
 sent to a distant part of tlie kingdom, and some of the sub- 
 jects should doubt whether it came from tiie king or no; 
 is it possible that wit and ridicule sliould ever decide the 
 point? Or would the prince ever think himself treated 
 with just honour to have his proclamation canvassed in 
 this manner on a public stage, and become the sport of ' 
 buftbons, in order to determine the question, Whether 
 it is the word of a king or no? 
 
 Let such sort of writers go on at their dearest peril, 
 and sport themselves in theii own deceivings; let them 
 at their peril make a jest at the Bible, and treat the 
 sacred articles of Christianity with scoff and merriment: 
 but then let them lay aside all their pretences to reason 
 as well as religion; and as they expose themselves by 
 such writings to the neglect and contempt of men, so
 
 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 181 
 
 ^et them prepare to meet the majesty and indignation 
 of God without timely repentance. 
 
 XIX, In reading philosophical, moral, or religious 
 controversies, never raise your esteem of any opinion 
 by the assurance and zeal wherewith the author asserts 
 it, nor by the highest praises he bestows upon it; nor, 
 on the other hand, let your esteem of an opinion bo 
 abated, nor your aversion to it raised by the supercilious 
 contempt cast upon it by a warm writer, nor by the 
 sovereign airs with which he condemns it. Let the force 
 of argument alone influence your assent or dissent. 
 Take care that your soul be not warped or biassed on 
 one side or the other by any strains of flattering or 
 abusive language; for there is no question whatsoever 
 but what hath some such sort of defenders and opposers. 
 Lea-ve those writers to their own follies who practise 
 thus upon the weakness of their readers without argu- 
 ment; leave thern to triumph in their own fancied posses- 
 sions and victories: it is ot\entimes found that their pos- 
 sessions are but a heap of errors, and their boasted vic- 
 tories are but overbearing noise and clamour to silence 
 the voice of truth. 
 
 In philosophy and religion the bigots of all parties are 
 generally the most positive, and deal much in this sort 
 of argument. Sometimes these are the weapons of 
 pride, for a haughty man supposes all his opinions to be 
 infallible, and imagines the contrary sentiments are 
 ever ridiculous and not worthy of notice. Sometimes 
 these ways of talking are the mere arms of ignorance: 
 the men who use them know little of the opposite side 
 of the question, and therefore they e.xult in their own 
 vain pretences to knowledge, as thougli no man of sense 
 could oppose their opinions. They rail at an objection 
 against their own sentunents, because they can find no 
 other answer to it but railing. And men of learning, 
 by their excessive vanity, have been sometimes tempted 
 into the same insolent practice as well as the ignorant. 
 
 Yet let it be remembered too, that there are some 
 
 truths so plain and evident, that the opposition to tliem 
 
 is strange, unaccountable, and almost monstrous: and in 
 
 vindication of such truths a writer of good sense may 
 
 1(5
 
 182 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 
 
 sometimes be allowed to use a degree of assurance, and 
 pronounce them strongly with an air of confidence, 
 while he defends them with reasons of convincing force. 
 
 XX. Sometimes a question may be proposed which 
 is of so large and extensive a nature, and refers to such 
 a multitude of subjects, as ought not in justice to be de- 
 termined at once by a single argument or .answer: as if 
 one should ask me, Are you a professed disciple of the 
 Stoics or the Platonists? Do you receive an assent to 
 the principles of Gassendus, Descartes, or Sir Isaac 
 Newton? Have you chosen the hypothesis of Tycho or 
 Copernicus? Have you devoted yourself to the senti- 
 ments of Arminius, or Calvin? Are your notions epis- 
 copal, presbyterian, or independent, &c.? 1 think it 
 may be very proper in such cases not to give an answer 
 in the gross, but rather to enter into a detail of particu- 
 lars, and explain one's own sentiments. Perhaps there is 
 no man, nor set of men upon earth, whose sentiments I 
 entirely follow. God has given me reason to judge for 
 myself; and though I may see sufficient ground to agree 
 to the greatest part of the opinions of one person oJ 
 party, yet it does by no means follow that I should re- 
 ceive them all. Truth does not always go by the lump, 
 nor does error tincture and spoil all the articles of belief 
 that some one party professes. 
 
 Since there are difficulties attend every scheme of 
 human knowledge, it is enough for me in the main to 
 incline to tiiat side which has the fewest difficulties; and 
 I would endeavour, as far as possible, to correct the 
 mistakes or the harsh expressions of one party, by soft- 
 ening and reconciling methods, by reducing tlie ex- 
 tremes, and by borrowing some of the best pnticiples Or 
 phrases from another. Cicero was one of tlie greatest 
 men of antiquity, and gives us an account of the various 
 opinions of philosophers in his age; but he himself was 
 of the eclectic sect, and chose out of each of them such 
 positions as in his wisest judgment came nearest to the 
 truth. 
 
 XXI. When you are called in the course of life or re- 
 ligion to judge and determine concerning any question, 
 and to atfirm or deny it, take a full survey of tlie objec-
 
 OF DETERMINIKG A QUESTION'. 183 
 
 tions against it, as well as the arguments for it, as far 
 as your time and circumstances admit, and see on which 
 side the prepoiideration falls. If either the objections 
 against any proposition, or the arguments for t!ie defence 
 of it, carry in tliem most undoubted evidence, and are 
 plainly unanswerable, they will and ought to constrain 
 the assent, though there may be many seeming proba- 
 bilities on the other side, which at first sight would 
 flatter the judgment to favour it. But where the reasons 
 on both sides are very near of equal weight, there sus- 
 pension or doubt is our duty, unless in cases wherein 
 present determination or practice is required, and there 
 we must act according to the present appearing prepon- 
 deration of reasons. 
 
 XXII. In matters of moment and importance, it is 
 our duty indeed to seek after certain and conclusive ar- 
 guments (if they can be found) in order to determine a 
 question; but where the matter is of little consequence, 
 it is not worth our labour to spend much time in seek- 
 ing after certainties; it is sufficient here, if probable rea- 
 sons otfer themselves. And even in matters of greater 
 importance, especially where daily practice is necessary, 
 and where we cannot attain any sufficient or certain 
 grounds to determine a question on either side, we must 
 then take up with sucii probable arguments as we can 
 arrive at. But this general rule should be observed, 
 viz. to take heed that our assent be no stronger, or rise 
 no higher in the degree of it, than the probable argu- 
 ment will support. 
 
 XXIII. There are many things even in religion, as 
 well as in philosophy and civil life, which we believe 
 with very different degrees of assent; and this is, or 
 should be, always regulated according to the different 
 degrees of evidence which we enjoy: and perhaps there 
 are a thousand gradations in our assent to the things we 
 believe, because there are thousands of circumstances 
 relating to different questions, which increase or dimin- 
 ish the evidence we have concerning them, and that in 
 matters both of reason and revelation. 
 
 I believe there is a God, and that obedience is due to 
 him from every reasonable creature; this I am most fully
 
 184 OP DETERMINING A QUESTION. 
 
 assured of, because I have the strongest evidence, since 
 it is the plain dictate both of reason and revelation. 
 
 Again, 1 beheve there is a future resurrection of the 
 dead, because scripture tells us so in the plainest terms, 
 though reason says nothing of it. I believe also, that 
 the same matter of our bodies which died (in part at 
 least) shall arise; but I am not so fully assured of this 
 circumstance, because the revelation of it is not quite so 
 clear and express. Yet further, I believe that tlie good 
 men who were acquainted here on earth shall know 
 each other in heaven; but my persuasion of it is not 
 absolutely certain, because my assent to it arises only 
 from circumstantial reasonings of men upon what God 
 has told us, and therefore my evidences are not strong 
 beyond a possibility of mistake. Tiiis direction cannot 
 be too often repeated, that our assent ought always to 
 keep pace with our evidence; and our belief of any pro- 
 position should never rise higlier than the proof or evi- 
 dence we have to support it, nor should our faith run 
 faster tlian right reason can encourage it. 
 
 XXIV. Perhaps it will be objected here. Why then 
 does our Saviour, in the histories of the Gospel, so much 
 commend a strong faith, and lay out both his miraculous 
 benefits and his praises upon some of those poor crea- 
 tures of little reasoning who professed an assured belief 
 of his commission and power to heal them? 
 
 I answer, the God of nature has given every man his 
 own reason to be the judge of evidence to himself in 
 particular, and to direct iiis assent in all things about 
 wliich he is called to judge; and even the matters of 
 revelation are to be believed by us because our reason 
 pronounces the revelation to be true. Therefore the 
 great God will not, or cannot, in any instance, require us 
 to assent to any thing without reasonable or sufficient 
 evidence; nor to believe any proposition more strongly 
 than what our evidence for it will support. We have 
 therefore abundant ground to believe, that those persons 
 of whom our Saviour requires such strong faith, or whom 
 he commends for their strong faith, had as strong and 
 certain evidence of his power and commission from the 
 credible and incontestable reports they had heard of his
 
 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 185 
 
 miracles, which were wrought on purpose to give evi- 
 dence to his commission.* Now in such a case, both 
 this strong faith and the open profession of it were very 
 worthy of pubHc encouragement and praise from our 
 Saviour, because of the great and public opposition 
 which the magistrates, and the priests, and the doctors 
 of the age made against Jesus the man of Nazareth, 
 when he appeared as the Messiah. 
 
 And besides all this it may be reasonably supposed, 
 with regard to some of those strong exercises of faith 
 which are required and commended, tliat these believers 
 had some further hints of inward evidence and immedi- 
 ate revelation from God himself; as when St. Peter con- 
 fesses Ciirist to be the Son of God, Matt. xvi. 16, 17, 
 our blessed Saviour commends him saying, "Blessed 
 art tlum, Sitnon Barjona;" but he adds, " Flesh and. 
 blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who 
 is in heaven." 
 
 And the same may be said concerning the faith of 
 miracles, the exercise whereof was sometimes required 
 of the disciples and others, i. e. when by inward and 
 divine intluences God assured them such miracles should 
 be wrought, their obedience to and compliance with 
 these divine illuminations w:is expected and commended. 
 No A' this supernatural inspiration carried sufficient evi- 
 dence with it to tiiem, as well as to the ancient prophets, 
 though we who never felt it are not so capable to judge 
 and distinguish it. 
 
 XXV. What is said before concerning truth or doc- 
 trines, may be also confirmed concerning duties; the 
 reason of both is the same; as the one are truths for 
 our speculation, the others are truths for our practice. 
 Duties which are expressly required in the plain Ian- 
 
 * When our Saviour gently reproves Thonnas for his unbelief, 
 John, XX. 29, he does it m these words, " Because thou hast seen me, 
 Tliomas, thou hast believed: blessed are they who have not seen, 
 and yet have believed," i. e. Blessed are they who, though they 
 have not been favoured with the evidence of their senses as thou hast 
 been, yet have been convinced by the reasonable and sufficient moral 
 evidence of the well grounded report of others, and have believed 10 
 me upon that evidence. Of this moral evidence Mr. Ditton writes 
 exceedingly well in his book of the Resurrection of Christ. 
 
 16*
 
 186 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 
 
 guage of Scripture, or dictated by the most evident 
 reasoning upon first principles, ou.glit to bind our con- 
 sciences more than those wiiich are but dubiously inferred, 
 and that only from occasional occurrences, incidents, 
 and circumstances: as for instance, I am certain that I 
 ought to pray to God; my conscience is bound to this, 
 because there are most evident commands for it to be 
 found in Scripture, as well as to be derived from reason. 
 I believe also, that 1 may pray to God either by a 
 written form or without one, because neither reason nor 
 revelation expressly requires either of these modes of 
 prayer at all times, or forbids the other. I cannot, there- 
 fore, bind my conscience to practise the one so as utterly 
 to renounce the other; but 1 would practice either of 
 them as my reason and other circumstances direct me. 
 
 Again, I believe that Christians ought to ren>ember 
 the death of Christ by the symbols of bread and wine; 
 and I believe there ought to be pastors in a Christian 
 church some way ordained or set apart to lead the wor- 
 ship, and to bless and distribute the elements; but the 
 last of these practices is not so expressly directed, pre- 
 scribed, and required in Scripture as the former; and, 
 therefore, I feel my conscience evidently bound to re- 
 member the death of Christ with some society of Clirist- 
 ians or other, since it is a most plain command, though 
 their methods of ordaining a pastor be very dilferent from 
 other men, or from my own opinion; or whetlier the 
 person who distributes these elements be only an occa- 
 sional or a settled administrator; since none of these 
 things are plainly determined in Scripture. I must not 
 omit or neglect an express command, because some un- 
 necessary circumstances are dubious. And 1 trust 1 
 shall receive approbation from the God of nature, and 
 from Jesus my judge at the last day, if 1 have endea- 
 voured in this manner to believe and pra<tice e\ery 
 thing in proportion to the degree of evidence which God 
 has given me about it, or which he has put me into a 
 capacity to seek and obtain in the age and nation where- 
 in I live. 
 
 Query, Whether the obstinate deists and the fatal- 
 ists of Great Britain will find sufiicient apology from
 
 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 187 
 
 this principle? But I leave them to venture tlie awful 
 experiment. 
 
 XXVI. We may observe these three rules in judging 
 of probabilities which are to be determined by reason, 
 relating either to things past or things to come. 
 
 1. That which agrees most with the constitution of 
 nature carries the greatest probability in it, wiiere no 
 other circumstance appears to counterpoise it: as if I let 
 loose a greyhound within sight of a hare upon a large 
 plain, there is great probability the greyhound will 
 seize her; that a thousand sparrows will fly away at the 
 sight of a hawk among them. 
 
 2. That which is most conformable to the constant 
 observations of men, or to experiment frequently re- 
 peated, is most likely to be true; as that a winter will 
 not pass away in England without some frost and snow; 
 that if you deal out great quantities of strong liquor to 
 the mob, there will be many drunk; that a large assem- 
 bly of men will be of diiferent opinions in any doubtful 
 point; that a thief will make his escape out of prison if 
 the doors of it are unguarded at midnight. 
 
 3. In,matters of fact, which are past ur present, where 
 neither nature, nor observation, nor custom, gives us 
 any sufficient information on either side of the question, 
 there we may derive a probability from the attestation 
 of wise and honest men, by word or writing, or the con- 
 curring witnesses of multitudes who have seen and 
 known what they relate, &c. This testimony in many 
 cases will arise to the degree of moral certainty. So 
 we believe that the plant tea grows in China; and that 
 the emperor of tlie Turks lives at Constantinople; that 
 Julius Caesar conquered France, and that Jesus our Sa- 
 viour lived and died in Judea; that thousands were con- 
 verted to the Christian faith in a century after the death 
 of Christ; ar]id that the books which contain the Christian 
 religion are certain histories and epistles which were 
 written above a thousand years ago. There is an infi- 
 nite variety of such propositions which can admit of no 
 reasonable doubt, though they are not matters which 
 are directly evident to our own senses or our mere rea- 
 soning powers.
 
 188 OP DETERMINING A QUESTION. 
 
 XXVII. When a point hath been well examined, and 
 our own judgment settled upon just arguments in our 
 manly age, and after a large survey of the merits of 
 the cause, it would be a weakness for us always to con- 
 tinue fluttering in suspense We ought therefore to 
 stand firm in such well established principles, and not bo 
 tempted to change and alter for the sake of every diffi- 
 culty, or every occasional objection. We are not to be 
 carried about with every flying doctrine, like cliildren 
 tossed to and fro, and wavering with the wind. It is a 
 good thing to have the heart established with grace, not 
 with meats; that is, in the great doctrines of the gospel 
 of grace, and in Jesus Christ, who is the same yester- 
 day, to-day, and for ever; but it is not so necessary in 
 the more minute matters of religion, such as meats and 
 drink, forms and ceremonies, which are of less impor- 
 tance, and for which Scripture has not given such ex- 
 press directions. Tliis is the advice of the great apos- 
 tle, Eph. 14; Heb. xiii. 8, 9. 
 
 In short, those truths which are the springs of daily 
 practice should be settled as soon as we can witli the 
 exercise of our best powers after the state of manhood: 
 but those things wherein we may possibly mistake should 
 never be so absolutely and finally established and deter- 
 mined as though we were infallible. If the papists of 
 Great Britain had maintained such a resolute establish- 
 ment and assurance in the days of King Henry VIII. or 
 Queen EHzabeth, there never had been a reformation: 
 nor would any heathen have been converted, even un- 
 der the ministry of St. Paul, if their obstinate settlement 
 in their idolatries had kept their eyes shut against all 
 furtiier light. Yet tiiis should not hinder us from set- 
 tling our most important principles of faith and practice, 
 where reason shines with its clearest evidence, and the 
 word of God plainly determines truth and duty. 
 
 XXVIII. But let us remember also, that though the 
 Gospel be an infallible revelation, we are but fallible in- 
 terpreters when we determine the sense even of some 
 important propositions written there; and therefore, 
 though we seem to be established in the belief of any 
 particular sense of Scripture, and though there may be
 
 OF INCirTP.IVG INTO, &C. 189 
 
 just calls of Providence to profess and subscribe it, yet 
 there is no need that we should resolve or promise, sub- 
 scribe or swear, never to change our mind, since it is 
 possible, in the nature and course of things, we may 
 meet with such a solid and substantial objection as 
 may give us a quite different view of things from what 
 we once imagined, and may lay before us sufficient evi- 
 dence of the contrary. We may happen to find a fair- 
 er light cast over the same Scriptures, and see reason to 
 alter our sentiments even in some points of motnent. 
 Sic sentio, sic sentiam, i. e. so I believe, and so 1 will be- 
 lieve, is the prison of the soul for lifetime, and a bar 
 against all the improvements of the mind. To impose 
 such a profession on other men in matters not absolutely 
 necessary, and not absolutely certain, is a criminal usur- 
 pation and tyranny over faith and conscience, and 
 which none has power to require but an infallible dictator. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 OF INQUIRING INTO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. 
 
 Some effects are found out by their causes, and some 
 causes by their effects. Let us consider both these. 
 
 I. When we are inquiring into the cause of any par- 
 ticular effect or appearance, either in the world of na- 
 ture, or in the civil or moral concerns of men, we may 
 follow tliis method: 
 
 1. Consider what effects or appearances you have 
 known of a kindred nature, and what have been the 
 certain and real causes of them; for like effects have ge- 
 nerally like causes, especially when they are found in the 
 same sort of subjects. 
 
 2. Consider what are the several possible causes which 
 may produce such an effect, and find out by some cir- 
 cumstances how many of those possible causes are ex- 
 cluded in this particular case: Thence proceed by de- 
 grees to the probable causes, till a more close attention 
 and inspection shall exclude some of them also, and 
 lead you gradually to the real and certain cause.
 
 190 OF INQUIRING INTO 
 
 3. Consider what things preceded such an event or ap- 
 pearance, which might have any influence upon it ; and 
 though we cannot certainly determine the cause of any 
 thing only from its going before the effect, yet among 
 the many forerunners we may probably light upon the 
 true cause by further and more particular inquiry. 
 
 4. Consider whetlier one cause be sufficient to pro- 
 duce the effect, or whether it does not require a concur- 
 rence of several causes; and then endeavour as far as 
 possible to adjust the degrees of influence that each 
 cause might have in producing the effect, and the prop- 
 er agency and influence of each of them therein. 
 
 So in natural philosophy, if 1 would find what are 
 principles or causes of tliat sensation which we call heat 
 when I stand near the fire; here I shall find it is neces- 
 sary that there be an agency of the particles of fire on 
 my flesh, either mediately by themselves, or at least 
 by the intermediate air; tiiere must be a particular sort 
 of motion and vellication impressed upon my nerves; 
 there must be a derivation of that motion to tlie brain; 
 and there must be an attention of my soul to this motion; 
 if either of these are wanting, the sensation of heat will 
 not be produced. 
 
 So in the moral world, if I inquire into the revolu- 
 tion of a state or kingdom, perhaps I find it brought 
 about by the tyranny and folly of a prince, or by the 
 disaffection of his own subjects; and this disaffection 
 and opposition may arise either upon the account of 
 impositions in religion, or injuries relating to their civil 
 rights; or tlie revolution may be effected by the invasion 
 of a foreign army, or by the opposition of some person 
 at home or abroad that lays claim to the government, 
 &c. or a here who would guard the liberties of the peo- 
 ple; or by many of these concurring together: then we 
 must adjust the influences of eacii as wisely as we can, 
 and not ascribe tlie whole event to one of tliem alone. 
 
 11. When we are inquiring into the effects of any 
 particular cause or causes, we may follow this method: 
 
 1. Consider diligently the nature of every cause apart, 
 and observe what effect every part or property of it will 
 tend to produce.
 
 CAUSES AND EFFECTS. 191 
 
 2. Consider the causes united together in their seve- 
 ral natures, and ways of operation: inquire how far the 
 powers or properties of one will hinder or promote the 
 effects of the other, and wisely balance the propositions 
 of their influence. 
 
 3. Consider what the subject is, in or upon which tlie 
 cause is to operate: for the same cause on different sub- 
 jects will oftentimes produce different effects; as the sun 
 which softens wax will harden clay. 
 
 4. Be frequent and diligent in nmking all proper ex- 
 periments, in setting such causes at work, whose effects 
 you desire to know, and putting togetner in an orderly 
 manner such things as are most likely to produce some 
 useful effects, according to the best survey you can take 
 of all the concurring causes and circumstances. 
 
 5. Ob>erve carefully all the events which happen 
 either by an occasional concurrence of various causes, 
 or by the industrious applications of knowing nien: and 
 when you see any happy effect certainly produced, 
 and often repeated, treasure it up, together with the 
 known causes of it, amongst your improvements. 
 
 6. Take a just survey of all the circumstances which 
 attend the operation of any cause or causes, whereby 
 any special effect is produced: and find out as far as pos- 
 sible how far any of those circumstances had a tenden- 
 cy either to obstruct or promote or change those opera- 
 tions, and consequently how far the effect might be in- 
 fluenced by them. 
 
 In this manner physicians practise and improve their 
 skill. Tliey consider the various known effects of par- 
 ticular herbs or drugs, they meditate what will be the ef- 
 fects of their composition, and whether tlie virtues of 
 the one will exalt or dim'nish the force of the otlier, or 
 correct any of its nocent qualities. Then they observe 
 the native constitution, and the present temper or cir- 
 cumstances of the patient, and what is likely to be the 
 effect of such a medicine on such a patient. And in all 
 unconmion cases they make wise and cautious experi- 
 ments, and nicely observe the effects of particular com- 
 pound medicines on ditferent constitutions and in differ- 
 ent diseases, and by these treasures of just observations
 
 192 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 they grow up to an honourable degree of skill in the 
 art of healing. So the preacher considers the doctrines 
 and reasons, the precepts, ihe promises and threaten- 
 ings of the word of God, and what are the natural ef- 
 fects of them upon the mind; he considers wliat is the 
 natural tendency of such a virtue, or such a vice; he is 
 well apprized that t[ie representation of some of these 
 things may convince the understanding, some may ter- 
 rify the conscience, some may allure the slothful, and 
 some encourage the desponding mind; he observes the 
 temper of his liearers, or of any particular person that 
 converses with him about things sacred, and he judges 
 what will be the et^ects of each representation on such 
 persons; he reviews and recollects what have been the 
 effects of some special parts and methods of his minis- 
 try; and by a careful survey of all tliese he attains great- 
 er degrees of skill in his sacred employment. 
 
 Note — In all these cases we must distinguish those 
 causes and effects which are naturally and necessarily 
 connected with each other, from those which have only 
 an accidental or contiiioent connexion. Even in those 
 causes where the effect is but continofent, we may some- 
 times arrive at a very high degree of probability; yet we 
 cannot arrive at such certainty as where the causes ope- 
 rate by an evident and natural necessity, and t!ie ef- 
 fects necessarily follow the operation. — See more on 
 this subject, Logic, Part ii. chap. v. sect. 7. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE IN PARTICULAR PRO- 
 FESSIONS. 
 
 I. The best way to learn any science is to begin with 
 a regular system, or a short and plain scheme of tliat 
 science, well drawn up into a narrow compass, omittinrr 
 the deeper and more abstruse parts of it. and that also 
 under the conduct and instruction of so.-ne skilful teach-
 
 AND THEIR USE. 193 
 
 er. Systems are necessary to give an entire and com- 
 prehensive view of the several parts of any science, 
 which may have a mutual influence toward the explica- 
 tion or proof of each other: whereas if a man deals always 
 and only in essays and discourses on particular parts of 
 a science, he will never obtain a distinct and just idea 
 of the whole, and may perhaps omit some important 
 part of it, after seven years reading 'of such occasional 
 discourses. 
 
 For this reason young students should apply them- 
 selves to their systems much more than pamphlets. That 
 man is never so fit to judge of particular subjects relating 
 to any science, who has never taken a survey of the 
 whole. 
 
 It is the remark of an ingenious writer, should a bar- 
 barous Indian, who had never seen a palace or a ship, 
 view tlieir separate and disjointed parts, and observe the 
 pillars, doors, windows, cornices, and turrets of the one, 
 or the prow and stern, tjje ribs and masts, the ropes and 
 shrouds, the sails and tackle of the other, he would be 
 able to form but a very lame and dark idea of eillier of 
 those excellent and useful inventions. In like manner, 
 those who contemplate only the fragments or pieces 
 broken off from any science, dispersed in short uncon- 
 nected discourses, and do not discern their relation to 
 each other, and how they may be adapted, and by their 
 union procure the delightful symmetry of a regular 
 scheme, can never survey an entire body of truth, but 
 must always view it as deformed and dismembered; 
 while their ideas, which must be ever indistinct and of- 
 ten repugnant, will lie in the brain unsorted, and thrown 
 together witiiout order or coherence: such is the knowl- 
 edge of those men who live upon the scraps of the sci- 
 ences. 
 
 A youth of genius and lively imagination, of an ac- 
 tive and forward spirit, may form within himself some 
 alluring scenes and pleasing schemes in the beginning 
 of a science, which are utterly inconsistent with some 
 of the necessary and substantial parts of it wliich ap- 
 pear in the middle or the end. And if he never read 
 and pass through the whole, he takes up and is satisfied 
 17
 
 194 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 with his own hasty pleasing schemes, and treasures 
 these errors up amongst his sohd acquisitions; where- 
 as his own labour and study farther pursued would have 
 shown him his early mistakes, and cured him of his 
 self-flattering delusions. 
 
 Hence it comes to pass that we have so many half- 
 scholars nowadays, and there is so nmch confusion and 
 inconsistency in the notions and opinions of some per- 
 sons, because they devote their hours of study entirely 
 to short essays and pamphlets, and cast contempt upon 
 systems under a pretence of greater politeness; whereas 
 the true reason of this contempt of systematical learn- 
 ing is mere laziness and want of judgment. 
 
 II. After we are grown well acquainted with a short 
 system or compendium of a science, which is written in 
 the plainest and most simple manner, it is then proper 
 to read a large regular treatise on that subject, if we 
 design a complete knowledge and cultivation of it: and 
 either while we are reading this larger system, or after 
 we have done it, then occasional discourses and essays 
 upon the particular subjects and parts of that science 
 may be read with the greatest profit: for in these essays 
 we may often find very considerable corrections and im- 
 provements of what these compends, or even the larger 
 systems may have taught us, mingled witli some mis- 
 takes. 
 
 And these corrections or improvements should be as 
 remarks adjoined by way of note or commentary in 
 their proper places, and superadded to the regular trea- 
 tise we have read. Then a studious and judicious re- 
 view of the whole will give us a tolerable acquaintance 
 witli that science. 
 
 III. It is a great happiness to have such a tutor, or 
 such friends and companions at hand, who are able to 
 inform us what are the best books written on any science, 
 or any special part of it. For want of this advantage 
 many a man has wasted his time in reading over per- 
 haps some *i lole volumes, and learnt little more by it 
 than to know that those volumes were not worth his 
 reading. 
 
 IV. As for the languages, they are certainly best 
 
 I
 
 AND THEIR USE. 196 
 
 learned in the younger years of life. The memory is 
 then most empty and unfurnished, and ready to receive 
 new ideas continually. We find that children, in two 
 years time after they are born, learn to speak their na 
 tive tongue. 
 
 V. The mere abstracted sciences, which depend more 
 upon the understanding and judgment, and which deal 
 much in abstracted ideas, should not be imposed upon 
 children too soon; such are logic, metaphysics, ethics, 
 politics, er the depths and difficulties of grammar and 
 criticism. Yet it must be confessed the first rudiments 
 of grammar are necessary, or at least very convenient 
 to be known when a youth learns a new language; and 
 some general easy principles and rules of morality and 
 divinity are needful in order to teach a child his duty to 
 God and man; but to enter fir into abstracted reasonings 
 on these subjects is beyond the capacity of children. 
 
 VI. There are several of the sciences that will more 
 agreeably employ our younger years, and the general 
 parts of them may be easily taken in by boys. The first . 
 principles and easier practices of arithmetic, geometry, 
 plain trigonometry, measuring heights, depths, lengths, 
 distances, &c. tlie rudiments of geometry and astronomy, 
 togetlier with something of mechanics, may be easily 
 conveyed into the minds -f acute young persons, from 
 nine or ten years old and upward. These studies may 
 be entertaining and useful to young ladies as well as to 
 gentlemen, and to all those who are bred up to the 
 learned professions. The fiiir sex may intermingle those 
 with the operations of the needle and the knowledge of 
 domestic life. Boys may be taught to join them with 
 their rudiments of grammar, and tlieir labour in the lan- 
 guages. And even those who never learn any language 
 but their mother-tongue, may be taught these sciences 
 with lasting benefit in early days. 
 
 That this may be done with ease and advantage, take 
 these three reasons: 
 
 1. Because they depend so much upon schemes and 
 numbers, images, lines, and fingers, and sensible tilings, 
 that the imaginatio^i or fancy will greatly assist the
 
 196 OP THE SCIENCES, 
 
 understanding, and render the knowledge of them much 
 more easy. 
 
 2. These studies are so pleasant that they will make 
 the dry labour of learning words, phrases, and languages 
 more tolerable to boys in a Latin school by this most 
 agreeable mixture. The employment of youth in these 
 studies will tempt them to neglect many of the foolish 
 plays of childhood, and they will find sweeter entertain- 
 ment for themselves and their leisure hours by a culti- 
 vation of these pretty pieces of alluring knowledge. 
 
 3. The knowledge of these parts of science are both 
 easy and worthy to be retained in the memory by all 
 children when they come to manly years, for they are 
 useful through all the parts of human life: they tend to 
 enlarge the understanding early, and to give a various 
 acquaintance witli useful subjects betimes. And surely 
 it is best, as far as possible, to train up children in the 
 knowledge of those things which they should never for- 
 get rather than to let them waste years of life in trifles, 
 or in hard words which are not worth remembering. 
 
 And here by the way I cannot but wonder that any 
 author in our age should have attempted to teach any 
 of the exploded physics of Descartes, or the nobler in- 
 ventions of Sir Isaac Newton in his hypothesis of the 
 heavenly bodies and their motions, in his doctrine of 
 light and colours, and other parts of his physiology, or 
 to instruct children in the knowledge of the theory of 
 the heavens, earth and planets, without any figures or 
 diagrams. Is it possible to give a boy or a young lady 
 the clear, distinct, and proper apprehensions of these 
 things, witliout lines and figures to describe them? Does 
 not ineir understanding want the aid of fancy and im- 
 ages to convey stronger and juster ideas of them to the 
 inmost souP Or do they imagine that youth can pene- 
 trate into all these beauties and artifices of nature, with- 
 out those helps which persons of maturer age find neces- 
 sary for that purpose? I would not willingly name the 
 books, because some of the writers are said to be gentle- 
 men of excellent acquirements. 
 
 VII. After we have first learnt and gone through any 
 of those arts and sciences which are to be explained by 
 
 I
 
 AND THEIR USE. 197 
 
 diagrams, figures, and schemes, such as geometry, ge- 
 ography, astronomy, optics, mechanics, &c. we may best 
 preserve them in memory, by having those schemes and 
 figures in large sheets of paper hanging always before 
 the eye in closets, parlours, halls, chambers, entries, 
 staircases, &c. Thus the learned images will be per- 
 petually impressed upon the brain, and will keep the 
 learning that depends upon them alive and fresh in the 
 mind through the growing years of life: the mere dia- 
 grams and figures will ever recall to our thoughts those 
 theorems, problems, and corollaries, which have been 
 demonstrated by them. 
 
 It is incredible how much geography may be learnt 
 this way by the two terrestrial hemispheres, and by par- 
 ticular maps and charts of the coast and countries of the 
 earth happily disposed round about us. Thus we may 
 learn also the constellations, by just projections of the 
 celestial sphere, hung up in the same manner. And I 
 must confess, for the bulk of learners of astronomy, I 
 like tliat projection of the stars best which includes in 
 it all the stars of our horizon, and therefore it reaches to 
 the thirty-eighth and half degree of southern latitude, 
 thougli its centre is the north pole. This gives us a 
 better view of the heavenly bodies, as they appear every 
 night to us, and it may be made use of with a little in- 
 struction, and with ease, to serve for a nocturnal, and 
 show the true hour of the night. 
 
 But remember, if there be any colouring upon these 
 maps or projections, it should be laid on so thin as not 
 to obscure or conceal any part of the lines, figures, or 
 letters; whereas most times they are daubed so thick 
 with gay and glaring colours, and hung up so high 
 above tlie reach of the eye that should survey and read 
 them as though their only design were to make a gaudy 
 show upon the wail, and they hung there merely to 
 cover the naked plaster or wainscot. 
 
 Those sciences which may be drawn out into tables 
 may be also thus hung up and disposed in proper places, 
 such as brief abstracts of history, chronology, &c,; and 
 indeed the schemes of any of the arts or sciences may 
 be analvzed in a sort of skeleton, and represented upon 
 " 17*
 
 198 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 tables, with various dependencies and connexions of 
 their several parts and subjects that belong to them. 
 Mr. Solomon Lowe has happily thrown the grammar 
 of several languages into such tables; and a frequent re- 
 view of these abstracts and epitomes would tend much 
 to imprint them on the bram, when lliey have been once 
 well learned; this would keep those learned traces always 
 open, and assist the weakness of a labouring memory. 
 In this manner may a sclieme of the Scripture history 
 be drawn out, and perpetuate those ideas in the mind 
 with which our daily reading furnishes us. 
 
 VIII. Every man who pretends to the character of 
 a scholar should attain some general and superficial 
 ideas of most or all the sciences: for there is a certain 
 connexion anjong the various parts of human knowledge, 
 so that some notions borrowed from any one science may 
 assist our acquaintance with any other, either by way 
 of explication, illustration, or proof: though there are some 
 sciences conjoined by a mucli nearer affinity than others. 
 
 IX. Let those parts of every .science be chiefly studied 
 at first, and reviewed afterwards, which have a more 
 direct tendency to assist our proper profession, as men, 
 or our general profession, as Christians, always observ- 
 ing what we have ourselves found most necessary and 
 useful to us in the course of our lives. Age and ex- 
 perience will teach us to judge whicli of the sciences, 
 and which parts of them, have been of greatest use and 
 are most valuable; but in younger years of life we are 
 not sufficient judges of this matter, and therefore should 
 seek advice from others who are elder. 
 
 X. There are three learned professions among us, viz. 
 divinity, law, and medicine. Though every man who 
 pretends to be a scholar or a gentleman should so far 
 acquaint himself with a superficial scheme of all the 
 sciences, as not to stand amazed like a mere stranger at 
 the mention of the common subjects that belong to them; 
 3'et there is no necessity for every man of learning to 
 enter into their difficulties and deep recesses, nor to 
 climb the heights to which some others have arrived. 
 The knowledge of them in a proper measure may be 
 happily useful to every profession, not onl^' because all
 
 AND THEIR USE. 199 
 
 arts and sciences have a sort of communion and connex- 
 ion with each other, but it is an angelic pleasure to grow 
 in knowledge, it is a matter of honour and esteem, and 
 renders a man more agreeable and acceptable in every 
 company. 
 
 But let us survey several of them more particularly, 
 with regard to the learned professions; and first, of the 
 mathematics. 
 
 XI. Though I have so often commended mathemati- 
 cal studies, and particularly the speculations of arithme- 
 tic and geometry, as a means to fix a wavering mind, 
 to beget a habit of attention, and to improve the faculty 
 of reason; yet I would by no means be understood to 
 recommend to all a pursuit of these sciences, to those 
 extensive lengths to which the moderns have advanced 
 them. Tliis is neither necessary nor proper for any 
 students, but those few who shall make tliose studies 
 their chief profession and business of life, or those gen- 
 tlemen whose capacities and turn of mind are suited to 
 these studies, and have all manner of advantage to im- 
 prove in them 
 
 The general principles of arithmetic, algebra, geome- 
 try, and trigonometry, of geography, of modern as- 
 tronomy, mechanics, statics, and optics, have their 
 valuable and excellent uses, not only for the exercise and 
 improvement of the faculties of the mind, but the sub- 
 jects themselves are very well worth our knowledge in 
 a moderate degree, and are often made of admirable 
 service in human life. So much of these subjects as 
 Dr. Wells has given us in his three volumes, entitled The 
 Young Gentleman's Mathematics, is richly sufficient for 
 the greatest part of scholars or gentlemen; tiiough per- 
 haps there may be some single treatises, at least on some 
 of these subjects, wiiich may be better written and more 
 useful to be perused than those of that learned author. 
 
 But a penetration into the abstruse difficulties and 
 depths of modern algebra and fluxions, the various me- 
 thods of quadratures, the mensuration of all manner of 
 curves, and their mutual transformation, and twenty 
 other tilings tliat some modern mathematicians deal in, 
 are not worth the labour of those who design either of
 
 200 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 the three learned professions, divinity, law, or physic, as 
 the business of life. This is the sentence of a considera- 
 ble man, viz. Dr. George Cheyne, who was a very good 
 proficient and writer on these subjects: he affirms tliat 
 they are but barren and airy studies, for a man entirely 
 to live upon, and that for a man to indulge and riot in 
 these exquisitely bewitching contemplations is only pro- 
 per for public professors, or for gentlemen of estates, 
 who have a strong propensity this way, and a genius fit 
 to cultivate them. 
 
 But, says lie, to own a great but grievous truth, though 
 they may quicken and sharpen the invention; strengthen 
 and extend the imagination, improve and refine the 
 reasoning faculty, and are of use botli in the necessary 
 and the luxurious refinement of mechanical arts; yet 
 having no tendency to rectify tlie will, to sweeten the 
 temper, or mend the heart, tliey often leave a stifi'ness, 
 a positiveness, a sufficiency on weak minds, which is 
 much more pernicious to society, and to the interests of 
 the great end of our being, than all their advantages can 
 recompense. He adds further, concerninof the launch- 
 ing into the depths of these studies, that they are apt 
 to beget a secret and refined pride, an overweening 
 and overbearing vanity, the xnosi opposite temper to the 
 true spirit of the Gospel. This tempts them to presume 
 on a kind of omniscience in respect to their fellow crea- 
 tures, who have not risen to their elevation; nor are 
 they fit to be trusted in the hands of any but tliose wlio 
 have acquired an humble heart, a lowly spirit, and a 
 sober and teachable temper. See Dr. Cheyne's preface 
 to his Essay on Health and Long Life. 
 
 Xn. Some of tlie practical parts of geometry, as- 
 tronomy, dialling, optics, statics, mechanics, &c. may 
 be agreeable entertainments and amusements to students 
 in every profession, at leisure hours, if they enjoy such 
 circumstances of life as to furnish them with conveni- 
 ences for this sort of improvement: but let them take 
 great care lest they entrench upon more necessary em- 
 ployments, and so fall under the charge and censure of 
 wasted time. 
 
 Yet I cannot help making this observation, that where
 
 AND THEIR USE. 201 
 
 gtudents, or indeed any young gentlemen have, in theii> 
 early years, made themselves masters of a variety of ele- 
 gant problems in the mathematical circle of knowledge, 
 and gained the most easy, neat, and entertaining ex- 
 periments in natural philosopliy, with some short and 
 agreeable speculations or practices, in any other of the 
 arts and sciences, they have hereby laid a foundation for 
 the esteem and love of mankind among those with whom 
 they converse, in higher or lower ranks of life; they have 
 been often guarded by this means from the temptation 
 of innocent pleasures, and have secured both tlieir own 
 hours and the hours of tlieir companions from running 
 to waste in sauntering and tritles, and from a thousand 
 impertinences in silly dialogues. Gaming and drinking, 
 and many criminal and foolish scenes of talk and action, 
 have been prevented by these innocent and improving 
 elegancies of knowledge. 
 
 XIII. History is a necessary study in the supreme 
 place for gentlemen who deal in politics. The govern- 
 ment of nations, and distressful and desolating events 
 which have in all ages attended the mistakes of politicians, 
 should be ever present on their minds, to warn them to 
 avoid tiie like conduct. Geography and clironology, 
 which precisely inform us of the place or time where 
 such transactions or events happened, are the eyes of 
 history, and of absolute necessity in some measure to 
 attend it. 
 
 But history, as far as relates to the affairs of the Bible, 
 is as necessary to divines as to gentlemen of any profes- 
 sion. It helps us to reconcile many ditticulties in Scrip- 
 ture, and demonstrates a divine Providence. Dr. Pri- 
 deaux's Connexions of the Old and New Testament is 
 an excellent treatise of tliis kind. 
 
 XIV. Among tlie smaller histories, biography, or the 
 memoirs ofthe lives ofgreat and good men, lias a high rank 
 in my esteem, as worthy of the perusal of every person 
 who devotes himself to the study of divinity. Therein we 
 frequently find our holy religion reduced to practice, 
 and many parts of Christianity shining with a trancen- 
 dent and exemplary light. We learn there how deeply 
 sensible great and good men have been of the ruins of
 
 202 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 human nature by the first apostasy from God, and how 
 they have toiled and laboured, and turned tlieinselves 
 on all sides, to seek a recovery in vain, till they have 
 found the Gospel of Christ an all-sufficient relief. We 
 are there furnished with etfectual and unanswerable evi- 
 dences that the religion of Jesus, with all its self-denials, 
 virtues, and devotions, is a very practicable thing, since 
 it has been carried to sucli a degree of honour by some 
 wise and holy men. We have been there assured that 
 the pleasures and satisfactions of the Christian life, in 
 its present practice and future hopes, are not mere rap- 
 tures of fancy and enthusiasm, when some of the strict- 
 est professors of reason have added the sanction of their 
 testimony. 
 
 In short, the lives or memoirs of persons of piety, well 
 written, have been of infinite and unspeakable advantage 
 to the disciples and professors of Cliristianity, and have 
 given us admirable instances and rules how to resist 
 every temptation of a soothing o*: frowning world, how to 
 practice important and difficult duties, how to love God 
 above all, and to love our neighbour as ourselves, to live 
 by the faith of the Son of God, and to die in the same faith, 
 in sure and certain hope of a resurrection to eternal life. 
 
 XV. Remember that logic and ontology or metaphys- 
 ics, are necessary sciences, though they have been greatly 
 abused by scliolastic writers, who have professed to teach 
 them in former ages. Not only all students, whether 
 they design the profession of theology, law, or physic, 
 but all gentlemen should at least acquire a superficial 
 knowledge of them. Tlie introduction of so many sub- 
 tleties, nice distinctions, and insignificant terms, without 
 clear ideas, has brought a great part of the logic and 
 metaphysics of the schools into just contempt. Their 
 logic has appeared the mere art of wrangling, and their 
 metaphysics the skill of splitting a hair, of distinguish- 
 ing without a ditFerence, and of putting long hard names 
 upon common tilings, and sometimes upon a confused 
 jumble of things which have no clear ideas belonging to 
 them. 
 
 It is certain that an unknown heap of trifles and im- 
 pertinences have been intermingled with these useful
 
 AND THEIR USE. 203 
 
 parts of learning, upon which account many persons in 
 this pohte age have made it a part of their breeding to 
 throw a jest upon them; and to rally them well has been 
 esteemed a more valuable talent than to understand 
 them. 
 
 But this is running into wide extremes, nor ought 
 these parts of science to be abandoned by the wise, be- 
 cause some writers of former ages have played the fool 
 with them. True logic teaches us to use our reason well, 
 and brings a light into the understanding: true meta- 
 physics or ontology casts a light upon all the objects of 
 thought and meditation, by ranging every being, with 
 all the absolute and relative perfections and properties, 
 modes and attendants of it, in proper rank and classes, 
 and thereby it discovers the various relations of things 
 to each otlier, and what are their general or special dif- 
 ferences from each other, wherein a great part of liuman 
 knowledge coRsists. And by this means it greatly con- 
 duces to instruct us in method, or the disposition of 
 every thing into its proper rank and class cf beings, 
 attributes, or action. 
 
 XVI. If I were to say any thing of natural philoso- 
 phy, I would venture to lay down my sentiments thus: 
 
 I think it must needs be very useful to a divine to 
 understand something of natural science. The mere 
 natural history of birds, beasts, and fishes, of insects, 
 trees, and plants, as well as of meteors, such as clouds, 
 thunder, lightnings, snow, hail, frost, &c. in all their 
 common or uncommon appearances, may be of consid- 
 erable use to one who studies divinity, to give him wi- 
 der and more delightful views of the works of God, 
 and to furnish him with lively and happy images and 
 metaphors drawn from the large volume of nature, to 
 display and represent the things of God and religion in 
 the most beautiful and affecting colours. 
 
 And if tlie mere history of these things be useful for 
 this purpose, surely it will be of further advantage to be 
 led into the reasons, causes, and effects of these natural 
 objects and appearances, and to know the established 
 laws of nature, matter, and motion, whereby the great
 
 204 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 God carries on his extensive works of providence from 
 the creation to this day. 
 
 I confess tlie old Aristotelian scheme of this science 
 will teach us very little that is worth knowing about 
 these matters; but the later writers, who have explained 
 nature and its operations in a more sensible and geo- 
 metrical manner, are well worth the moderate study of 
 a divine; especially those who have followed the princi- 
 ples of that wonder of our age and nation, Sir Isaac 
 Newton. Tiiere is much pleasure and entertainment 
 as well as real profit to be derived from those admirable 
 improvements which have been advanced in natural 
 philosophy in late years, by the assistance of mathe- 
 matical learning, as well as from the multitude of ex- 
 periments which have been made and are still making 
 in natural subjects. 
 
 XVII. This is a science which indeed eminently be- 
 longs to the physician: he ought to know all the parts 
 of human nature, what are the sound and healthy func- 
 tions of an animal body, and what are the distempers 
 and dangers which attend it; he should also be furnish- 
 ed with a large knowledge of plants and animals, and 
 every thing which makes up the materia medica, or the 
 ingredients of which medicines are made; and many 
 other things in natural philosophy are subservient to his 
 profession, as well as the kindred art of surgery. 
 
 XVIII. Questions about the powers and operations 
 of nature may also sometimes come into the lawyer's 
 cognizance, especially such as relate to assaults, wounds, 
 murders, &c. I remember I have read a trial of a man 
 for murder by drowning, wherein the judge on the 
 bench heard several arguments concerning the lungs 
 being filled or not filled with water, by inspiration or 
 expiration, &c.; to all which he professed iiimself so 
 much a stranger, as did not do him any great honour 
 in public. 
 
 XIX. But I think no divine, who can obtain it, stiould 
 be utterly destitute of this knowledge. By the assistance 
 of this study he will be better able to survey the various 
 monuments of creating wisdom in the heavens, the 
 earth, the seas, with wonder and worship: and by the
 
 AND THEIR USE. 205 
 
 use of a moderate skill in this science, he may commu- 
 nicate so much of the astonishing works of God in the 
 formation and government of this visible world, and so 
 far instruct many of his hearers, as may assist the trans- 
 fusion of the same ideas nito their minds, and raise 
 them to the same delightful exercises of devotion. O 
 Lord, how manifold are thy works! in wisdom hast thou 
 made them all! They are sought out by all that have 
 pleasure in them. 
 
 Besides, it is worthy of the notice of every student 
 in theology, that he ought to have some acquaintance 
 with the principles of nature, that he may judge a little 
 how far they will go; so that he may not be imposed 
 upon to take every strange appearance in nature for a 
 miracle, that he may reason the clearer upon the sub- 
 ject, that he may better confirm the miracles of Moses 
 and of Christ, nor yield up his faith to any pretences of 
 prodigy and wonder, which are either the occasional and 
 uncommon operations of the elements, or the crafty 
 sleights of men well skilled in philosophy and mechan- 
 ical operations to delude the simple. 
 
 XX. The knowledge also of animal nature, and of 
 the rational soul of man, and the mutual influence of 
 these two ingredients of our composition upon each 
 other, is worthy the study of a divine. It is of great 
 importance to persons of this character and office to 
 judge liow far the animal powers have influence upon 
 such and such particular appearances and practices of 
 mankind; how far the appetites or passions of human 
 nature are owing to the flesh and blood, or to the mind; 
 how far they may be moderated, and how far they ought 
 to be subdued; and what are the happiest methods of 
 obtaining these ends. By this science also we ma}' be 
 better informed how far these passions or appetites are 
 lawful, and how far they are criminal, by considering 
 how far they are subject to the power of the will, and 
 how far they may be changed and corrected by our 
 watchfulness, care, and diligence. 
 
 It comes also very properly under the cognizance of 
 this profession to be able in some measure to determine 
 questions which may arise relating to real inspiration oi 
 18 «
 
 206 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 prophecy, to wild enthusiasm, to fits of a convulsive 
 kind, to melancholy or frenzy, &c. and what directions 
 are proper to be given concerning any appearances of 
 this nature. 
 
 XXI. Next to the knowledge of natural things, and 
 acquaintance with the human nature and constitution, 
 which is made up of soul and body, I think that natu- 
 ral religion properly takes its place. This consists of 
 these two i)arts, viz. 1. The speculative or contempla- 
 tive, which is the knowledge of God in his various per- 
 fections and in his relations to his rational creatures, so 
 far as may he known Ijy the light of nature, which Iiereto- 
 fore used to be called the second part of metaphysics. It 
 includes also, 2. Tliat whicli is practical or active, that is, 
 the knowledge of the several duties which arise from our 
 relation to God, and our relation to our fellow creatures, 
 and our proper conduct and government of ourselves; this 
 has been used to be called ethics, or moral philosophy. 
 
 XXII. The knowledge of these things is proper for 
 all men of learning; not only because it teaches them 
 to obtain juster views of the several parts of revealed 
 religion and of Christianity, which are built upon them, 
 but because every brancli of natural religion, and of 
 moral duty, is contained and necessarily implied in all 
 the revealed religions that ever God prescribed to the 
 world. We may well suspect that religion does not 
 come from God which renounces any part of natural 
 duty. 
 
 Whether mankind live under the dispensation of 
 the patriarchs, or of Moses, or the prophets, or of our 
 Lord Jesus Christ, still we are bound to know the one 
 true God, and to practise all that adoration and rever- 
 ence, all that love to him, that faith in his perfections, 
 with that obedience and submission to his will, which 
 natural religion requires. We are still bound to exer- 
 cise that justice, truth, and goodness towards our neigh- 
 bours, that restraint and moderation of our own appe- 
 tites and passions, and that regular behaviour towards 
 ourselves and all our fellow creatures around us, wiiich 
 moral philosophy teaches. There is no sort of revealed 
 religion that will dispense with these natural obligations;
 
 AND THEIR USE. 207 
 
 and a happy acquaintance with the several appetites, 
 inchnations, and passions of human nature, and the 
 best nietliods to rule and restrain, to direct and govern 
 them, are our constant business, and ought to be our 
 everlasting study. 
 
 Yet I would lay down this caution, viz. That since 
 students are instructed in the knowledge of the true God 
 in their lectures on Cliristianity, and since among the 
 Christian duties they are also taught all the moral dictates 
 of the light of nature, or a complete scheme of ethics, 
 there is no absolute necessity of learning these two parts 
 of natural religion, as distinct sciences, separate and by 
 themselves; but still it is of great importance for a tutor, 
 while he is reading to his pupils these parts of the 
 Christian religion, to give them notice how far the light 
 of nature or mere reason will instruct us in these doc- 
 trines and duties, and how far we .a re obliged to divine 
 relation and Scripture, for clearing up and establishing 
 the firm foundations of the one, for affording us superior 
 motives and powers to practice the other, for raising 
 them to more exalted degrees, and building so glorious 
 a superstructure upon them. 
 
 XXII I. The study of natural religion, viz. the know- 
 ledge of God and the rules of virtue and piety, as far as 
 they are discovered by the light of nature, is needful to 
 prove t!ie truth of divine revelation or scripture, in the 
 most effectual mariner: but after the divine authority of 
 Scripture is established, that will be a very sufficient 
 spring from whence the bulk of mankind may derive 
 t.heir knowledge of divinity, or the Christian religion, 
 in order to their own present faith and practice, and 
 their future and eternal happiness. In this sense theology 
 is a science necessary for every one that hopes for the 
 favour of God and the felicity of another world; and it 
 is of infinitely more importance than any of the arts and 
 sciences which belong to any of the learned professions 
 here on earth. 
 
 XXIV. Perliaps it will be thought necessary I should 
 say sometliing concerning the study of the civil law, or 
 the law of nature and nations. 
 
 If we would speak with great justness and propriety,
 
 208 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 the civil law signifies the peculiar law of each state, 
 country, or city; but what we nowadays usually mean 
 by the civil law, is a body of laws composed out of the 
 best of the Roman and Grecian laws, and wliich was in 
 the main received and observed through all the Roman 
 dominions for above twelve hundred years. The Romans 
 took the first grounds of this law from what they called 
 the twelve tables, wliich were the abridgments of the laws 
 of Solon at Athens, and of other cities in Greece, famous 
 for knowledge and wisdom; to which they added their 
 own ancient customs of the city of Rome, and the laws 
 which were made there. These written laws were sub- 
 ject to various interruptions, whence controversies daily 
 arising, they were determined by the judgment of the 
 learned: and these determinations were what tliey first 
 called Jus Civile. All this by degrees grew to a vast 
 number of volumes; and therefore the emperor Justinian 
 commanded his chancellor Tribonian to reduce them to 
 a perfect body, and this is called the body of the civil law. 
 
 XXV. But that which is of most importan* e for all 
 learned men to be acquainted with, is tlie law of nature, 
 or the knowledge of right and wrong among mankind, 
 whether it be transacted between single persons or com- 
 munities, so far as common reason and the light of na- 
 ture dictates and directs. This is what Puffendorft' calls 
 the law of nature and nations, as will appear if you con- 
 sult sect. 3, chap. iii. of that most valuable fulio he has 
 written on the subject; which is well worthy the study 
 of every man of learning, particularly lawyers and di- 
 vines, together with other treatises on the same theme. 
 
 If any question proposed relate to riglit and property, 
 and justice between man and man, in any polite and 
 civilized country, though it must be adjudged chiefly ac- 
 cording to the particular statutes and laws of that 
 country, yet the knowledge of the law of nature will 
 very considerably assist the lawyer and the civil judge 
 in the determination thereof And this knowledge will 
 be of great use to divines, not only in deciding of cases 
 of conscience among men, and answering any difficult 
 inquiries which may be proposed to them on this sub- 
 ject, but it will greatly assist them also in their studies
 
 AND THEIR USE. SJU9 
 
 relating to the law of God, and the performance or vio- 
 ■;iiion thereof, the nature of duty and sin, rewards and 
 ■nmishmenls. 
 
 XXVI. I have spoken something of the languages 
 before; but let me here resume the subject, and put in a 
 few thoughts about tliose studies which are wont to be 
 called philological; such as history, languages, gi'ammar, 
 rhetoric, poesy, and criticism. 
 
 An acquaintance with some of the learned languages 
 at least is necessary for all the three learned professions. 
 
 XXVII. The lawyers, who have the least need of 
 foreign tongues, ought to understand Latin. During 
 many ages past, very important matters in the law were 
 always written and managed in that language by the 
 lawyers, as prescriptions in medicine by the physicians, 
 and citations of the Scriptures in divinity were always 
 made in Latin by the divines. Prayers also were ordained 
 to be said publicly and privately in the Roman tongue; 
 paternosters and ave-marias were half tiie devotions of 
 those ages. These cruel impositions upon the people 
 would not suffer thein to read in their own mother 
 tongue what was done, either to or for their own souls, 
 their bodies, or their estates. I am ready to suspect this 
 was all owing to the craft and policy of the priesthood 
 and church of Rome, which endeavoured to aggrandize 
 themselves, and exalt their own profession into a sove- 
 reign tyranny, and to make mere slaves of the laity 
 among mankind, by keeping them in utter ignorance, 
 darkness, and dependence. And they were willing to 
 compound the matter with the physicians and the law- 
 yers, and allow them a small share in this tyranny over 
 the populace, to maintain their own supreme dominion 
 over all. 
 
 But we thank God the world is grown something 
 wiser; and of late years the British parliament has been 
 pleased to give relief from that bondage in matters re- 
 lating to tlie law also, as in the age of reformation we 
 were delivered from saying our prayers in Latin, from 
 being bound to read the word of God in a tongue un- 
 known to the people, and from living in everlasting 
 
 18*
 
 210 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 subjection to the clergy in matters of this life and the 
 life to come. 
 
 But to return, there are still so many forms of pro- 
 ceedmg in judicature, and things called by Latin names 
 in the profession of the law, and so many barbarous words 
 with Latin terminations, that it is necessary lawyers 
 should understand this language. Some acquaintance 
 also with the old French tongue is needful for the same 
 persons and professions, since the tenures of Lyttleton, 
 which are a sort of Bible to the gentlemen of the long 
 robe, were written in that language: and this tongue 
 has been interwoven in some forms of the English law, 
 from the days of William the Conqueror, who came 
 from Normandy in France. 
 
 XXVllL Physicians should be skilled in the Greek 
 as well as in tlie Latin, because their great master Hip- 
 pocrates wrote in that tongue, and his writings are still 
 of good value and use. A multitude of the names, 
 both of the parts of the body, of diseases, and of medi- 
 cines are derived from the Greek language: and there 
 are many excellent books of physic, both in the theo- 
 retical and practical parts of it which are delivered to 
 the world in the Roman tongue, and of which that pro- 
 fession should not be ignorant. 
 
 XXIX. Such as intend the study of theology should 
 be well acquainted also with the Latin, because it has 
 been for many hundred years the language of the schools 
 of learning: their disputations are generally limited to 
 that language, and many and excellent books of divinity 
 must be entirely concealed from the students, unless 
 they are acquainted with Latin authors. 
 
 But those that design the sacred profession of theolo- 
 gy should make it their labour of chief importance to 
 be very conversant with their Bibles, both in the Old 
 and New Testament: and this requires some knowledge 
 of those original languages, Greek and Hebrew, in 
 which the Scriptures were written. All that will pursue 
 these studies with honour should be able to read the Old 
 Testament tolerably in the Hebrew tongue ; at least they 
 should be so far acquainted with it as to find out the 
 sense of a text by the help of a dictionary. But scarce 
 
 i
 
 AND THEIR USE. 211 
 
 any man should be thought worthy of tlie name of a 
 solid divine, or a skilful teaclier of tiie Gospel, in these 
 days of light and liberty, unless he has pretty good 
 knowledge of the Greek, since all the important points 
 of the Ciiristian religion are derived from the New Tes- 
 tament, wliich was first written in that language. 
 
 XXX. As for the Syriac and Arabic tongues, if one 
 divine in thirty, or in three hundred, travel far into these 
 regions, it is enough. A few learned men skilled in 
 these languages will make sufficient remarks upon them 
 for the service of the whole Christian world ; which re- 
 marks may sometimes happen to be of use to those di- 
 vines who are unacquainted with them in reading the 
 Bible. But the advantage of these tongues is not of so 
 great importance as it lias been too often represented. 
 My reader will agree with me, when he considers that 
 the chief uses of them are these: 
 
 The Arabic is a language which has some kindred 
 and affinity to the Hebrew, and perhaps we may now 
 and then guess at the sense of some uncommon and 
 doubtful Hebrew word, which is found but once or twice 
 in the Bible, by its supposed affinity to the Arabic: but 
 whatever conjectures may be made by some kindred of 
 a Hebrew word to an Arabic root, yet there is no cer- 
 tainty to be gathered from it: for even words of the 
 same language, which are undoubtedly of the same 
 theme or primitive, will give us but very doubtful and 
 sorry information concerning the true sense of kindred 
 words which spring from the same theme. 
 
 Let me give a plain instance or two of this uncertain- 
 ty. The word strages signifies slaugiiter; stratum is 
 Latin for a bed ; stramen is straw ; and stragiUum is a 
 quilt or coverlid : they are all drawn and derived from 
 sterno; which signifies to throw down, to kill, or to 
 spread abroad. Let the critics tell me what certain 
 sense they could put upon either of these four words by 
 their mere cognation with each other, or their deriva- 
 tion from one common verb. Again, who can tell me 
 the certain meaning and precise idea of the word honest 
 in English, and assure me that it signifies a man of in- 
 tegrity, justice, and probity, though it is evidently
 
 212 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 derived from honestus in Latin? Whereas honeslus has a 
 very different idea, and signifies a man of some figure 
 in the world, or a man of honour. Let any man judge 
 then how httle service toward explaining the Hebrew 
 tongue can be furnished from all the language of Arabia. 
 Surely a great part of the long learned fatigues and 
 tiresome travels of men through this country is almost 
 vain and useless to make the Hebrew Bible better un- 
 derstood. 
 
 As for the Syriac language, it is granted there may 
 be some small advantage drawn from the knowledge of 
 it, because there is a very ancient translation of the New 
 Testament in that tongue; and perhaps this may some- 
 times give a proper and apposite meaning to a difficult 
 and doubtful text, and offer a fair hint for recovering 
 the true meaning of the Scripture from the perverse 
 glosses of other writers. But there are several com- 
 mentators and lexicographers who have been acquainted 
 witli the Syriac language, and have given us the chief 
 of these hints in their writings on Scripture. 
 
 And after all, since none of these assistances can yield 
 us a sufficient proof of a true interpretation, and give a 
 certain sense of a text, who would be persuaded to waste 
 any great number of his better hours in such dry studies, 
 and in labours of so little profit? 
 
 XXXL The Chaldean language, indeed, is much 
 nearer to the Hebrew, and it is proper for a divine to 
 have some acquaintance with it, because there are several 
 verses or chapters of Ezra and Daniel which are written 
 in that language: and the old Jewish targums or com- 
 mentaries, which are written in the Chaldean tongue, 
 may sometimes happen to cast a light upon a little 
 doubtful Scripture of the Old Testament. 
 
 But it must be still owned that the knowledge of 
 these Eastern tongues does not deserve to be magnified 
 to such a degree as some of the proficients in them have 
 indulged; wherein they have carried matters beyond all 
 reason and justice, since scarce any of the most impor- 
 tant subjects of the Gospel of Christ and the way of 
 salvation can gain any advantage from them. 
 
 XXXII. The art of grammar comes now to be men-
 
 AND THEIR USE. 213 
 
 lioned. It is a distinct thing from the mere knowledge 
 of the languages; for all mankind are taught from their 
 infancy to speak their common tongue, by a natural 
 imitation of their mothers and nurses, and those who 
 are round about them, without any knowledge of the art 
 of grammar, and tlie various observations and rules that 
 relate to it. Grammar indeed is nothing else but rules 
 and observations drawn from the common speech of 
 mankind in their several languages; and it teaches us to 
 speak and pronounce, to spell and write with propriety 
 and exactness, according to the custom of those in every 
 nation who are or were supposed to speak and write 
 their own language best. Now it is a shame for a man 
 to pretend to science and study in any of the three 
 learned professions, who is not in some measure ac- 
 quainted with the propriety of those languages with 
 which he ought to be conversant in his daily studies, 
 and more especially in such as he may sometimes be 
 called upon to write as well as read. 
 
 XXXIII. Next to grammar, we proceed to consider 
 rhetoric. 
 
 Now rhetoric in general is the art of persuading, 
 which may be distinguished into these three parts; viz. 
 
 1. Conveying the sense of the speaker to the under- 
 standing of the hearers in the clearest and most intelli- 
 gible manner, by the plainest expressions and the most 
 lively and striking representations of it, so that the mind 
 may be thoroughly convinced of the thing proposed. 
 
 2. Persuading the will effectually to choose or refuse 
 the thing suggested and represented. 3. Raising the 
 passions in the most vivid and forcible manner, so as to 
 set all the soul and every power of nature at work, to 
 pursue or avoid the thing ia debate. 
 
 To attain this end there is not only a great deal of 
 art necessary in the representation of matters to the 
 auditory, but also in the disposition or method of intro- 
 ducing these particular representations, togetlier with 
 the reasons which might convince, and the various 
 methods which might persuade and prevail upon the 
 hearers. There are certain seasons wherein a violent 
 torrent of oration, in a disguised and concealed method.
 
 ^I'i OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 may be m.ore elTectual than all the nice forms of logic 
 and reasoning. The fig^ures of interrogation and excla- 
 mation have sometimes a large place and happy effect 
 in tliis sort of discourse, and no figure of speech should 
 he wanting here where the speaker has art enough hap- 
 pily to introduce it. 
 
 There are many remarks and rules laid down by the 
 teachers of this art to improve a young genius in those 
 glorious talents whereby Tully and Demosthenes ac- 
 quired tliat amazing influence and success in their own 
 age and nation, and that inmiortal fame through all 
 nations and ages. And it is with great advantage these 
 rules may be perused and learned. But a happy genius, 
 a lively imagination, and warm passions, together with 
 a due degree of knowledge and skill in the subject to be 
 debated, and a perpetual perusal of the writings of the 
 best orators, and hearing the best speakers, will do more 
 to make an orator, than all the rules of art in the world, 
 without these natural talents, and this careful imitation 
 of the most approved and happiest orators. 
 
 XXXIV. Now you will presently suppose that plead- 
 ers at the bar have great need of this art of rhetoric; but 
 it has been a just doubt, whether pleading in our British 
 courts of justice, before a skilful judge, should admit of 
 any other aid from rhetoric than that which teaches to 
 open a cause clearly, and spread it in the most per- 
 spicuous, complete, and impartial manner, before the 
 eyes of him who judges: for impartial justice being the 
 thing which is souglit, there should be no artifices used, 
 no eloquence or power of language employed to per- 
 suade the will or work upon the passions, lest the de- 
 cisive sentence of the judge should be biased or warped 
 into injustice. For this reason Mr. Locke would banish 
 all pleaders in the law for fees out of his government of 
 Carolina, in his posthumous works, though that great 
 man might possibly be too severe in so universal a cen- 
 sure of tlie profession. 
 
 XXXV. But the case is very different with regard to 
 divines: the eloquence of the pulpit, beyond all contro- 
 versy, has a much larger extent. 
 
 Their business is not to plead a cause of right and wrong{
 
 AND THEIR USE. 216 
 
 before a wise and skilful judge, but lo address all the 
 ranks of mankind, the high and low, the wise and the 
 unwise, the sober and the vicious, and persuade thern 
 all to pursue and persevere in virtue with regard to them- 
 selves, m justice and goodness with regard to their 
 neigh-bours, and piety towards God. These are affairs 
 of everlasting importance, and most of the persons to 
 whom these addresses are made are not wise and skilful 
 judges, but are influenced and drawn to tlie contrary side 
 by their own sinful appetites and passions, and bribed 
 or biased by the corrupt customs of the world. 
 
 There is therefore a necessity not only of a clear and 
 faithful representation of tiungs to men, in order to con- 
 vince their reason and judgment, but of all the skill and 
 force of persuasion addressed to the will and the passions. 
 So Tully addressed the whole senate of Rome, and De- 
 mosthenes the Athenian people, among whom were ca- 
 pacities and inclinations of infinite variety; and tlierefore 
 they made use of all the lightning and thunder, all the 
 entreaties and terrors, all the soothing elegancies and 
 the flowery beauties of language, which their art could 
 furnish them with. Divines in tiie pulpit have much 
 the same sort of hearers, and therefore they should imi- 
 tate those ancient examples. The understanding indeed 
 ought to be first convinced by the plainest and strongest 
 force of reasoning; but when this is done, all the 
 powerful motives should be used which have any just 
 influence upon human nature; all the springs of passion 
 should be touched, to awaken the stupid and tlie thought- 
 less into consideration, to penetrate and n>elt the hard- 
 est heart, to persuade the unwilling, to excite the lazy, 
 to reclaim the obstinate, and reform the vicious part of 
 mankind, as well as to encourage those who are humble 
 and pious, and to support their practice and tlieir hope. 
 The tribes of men are sunk into so fatal a degeneracy 
 and dreadful distance from God, and from all that is 
 holy and happy, that all the eloquence which a preacher 
 is master of should be employed in order to recover the 
 world from its shameful ruin and wretchedness by the 
 Gospel of our blessed Saviour, and restore it to virtue 
 and piety, to God and happiness, by the divine power
 
 216 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 of this Gospel. O may such glorious masters and sacred 
 oratory never be wanting in the pulpits of Great Britain! 
 
 XXXVI. Shall I now speak something of my senti- 
 ments concerning poesy? 
 
 As for books of poesy, whether in the learned or in 
 the modern languages, they are of great use to be read 
 at hours of leisure by all persons, that make any pre- 
 tence to good education or learning; and that for several 
 reasons. 
 
 1. Because there are many couplets or stanzas writ- 
 ten in poetic measures, which contain a variety of mor- 
 als or rules of practice relating to the common pruden- 
 tials of mankind, as well as to matters of religion; and 
 the poetic numbers (or rhyme, if there be any) add very 
 considerable force to the memory. 
 
 Besides, many an elegant and admirable sentiment or 
 description of things which are found among the poets 
 are well worth committing to memory, and the partic- 
 ular measures of verse greatly assist us in recollecting 
 such excellent passages, wiiich might sometimes raise 
 our conversation from low and grovelling subjects. 
 
 2. In heroic verse, but especially in the grander lyrics, 
 there are sometimes such noble elevations of tliought 
 and passion as illuminate all things around us, and 
 convey to the soul most exalted and magnificent images 
 and sublime sentiments: tliese furnish us with glorious 
 springs and mediums to raise and aggrandize our con- 
 ceptions, to warm our souls, to awaken the better pas- 
 sions, and to elevate tliem to a divine pitch, and that 
 for devotional purposes. It is the lyric ode which has 
 shown to tlie world some of the happiest examples of 
 this kind, and I cannot say but this part of poesy has 
 been my favourite amusement above all others. 
 
 And for this reason it is that I have never thought 
 the heroic poems, Greek, Latin, or English, which have 
 obtained the highest fame in the world are sufficiently 
 diversified, exalted, or animated, for want of the intersper- 
 sion of now and then an elegiac or lyric ode. This 
 miglit have been done with great and beautiful proprie- 
 ty, where the poet has introduced a song at a feast, or 
 the joys of a victory, or soliloquies of divine satisfac-
 
 AND THEIR USE. 217 
 
 tion, or the pensive and despairing agonies of distressing 
 sorrows. Why should that which is called the most 
 glorious form of poesy be bound down and confined to 
 such a long and endless uniformity of measures, when 
 it should kindle or melt the soul, swell or sink into all 
 the various and transporting chances which human na- 
 ture is capable of? 
 
 Cowley, in his unfinished fragment of the Davideis, 
 has shown this way to improvement; and whatever 
 blemishes may be found in other parts of that heroic 
 essay, this beauty and glory of it ought to be preserved 
 for imitation. I am well assured that if Homer and 
 Virgil had happened to practise it, it would have been 
 renowned and glorified by every critic. I am greatly 
 mistaken if this wise mixture of numbers would not be 
 a further reach of perfection than they have ever attain- 
 ed to without it: let it be remembered, that it is not na- 
 ture, and strict reason, but a weak and awful reverence 
 of antiquity, and the vogue of fallible men, that has 
 established these Greek and Roman writings as absolute 
 and complete patterns. In several ages there have been 
 some men of learning who have very justly disputed 
 this glory, and have pointed to many of their mistakes. 
 
 3. But still there is another end of reading poesy, and 
 perhaps the most considerable advantage to be obtained 
 from it by the bulk of mankind, and that is, to furnish 
 our tongues with the richest and the most polite variety 
 of phrases and words upon all occasions of life or reli- 
 gion. He that writes well in verse will often find a 
 necessity to send his thoughts in search through all the 
 treasure of words that express any one idea in the same 
 language, that so he may comport with the measures 
 or the rliyme of the verse which he writes, or with his 
 own most beautiful and vivid sentiments of the thing 
 he describes. Now by much reading of this kind we 
 shall insensibly acquire the habit and skill of diversify- 
 ing our ideas in tiie most proper and beautiful lan- 
 guage, whether we write or speak of the things of God 
 or men. 
 
 It is a pity that some of these harmonious writers 
 have ever indulged any thing uncleanly or impure to 
 19
 
 218 OF THE SCIENCES, 
 
 defile their paper and abuse the ears of their readers, 
 or to offend against the rules of the nicest virtue and 
 politeness: but still amongst the writings of Mr. Dry den, 
 and Mr. Pope, and Dr. Young, as well as otiiers, there 
 is a sufficient choice in our own language, wherein we 
 shall not find any indecency to shock the most modest 
 tongue or ear. 
 
 Perhaps there has hardly been a writer \n any nation, 
 and I may dare to aflirm there is none in ours, has a 
 richer and happier talent of painting to the life, or has 
 ever discovered such a large and inexhausted variety of 
 description, as the celebrated Mr. Pope. If you read 
 his translation of Homer's Iliad, you will find almost 
 all the terms or phrases in our tongue that are needful 
 to express any tiling that is grand or magnificent; but 
 if you peruse his Odyssey, which descends much more 
 into common life, there is scarce any useful subject of 
 discourse or thought, or any ordinary occurrence, which 
 he has not cultivated and dressed in the most proper 
 language; and yet still he has ennobled and enlivened 
 even the lower subjects with the brightest and most 
 agreeable ornaments. 
 
 I should add here also, that if the same author had 
 more frequently employed his pen on divine themes, his 
 short poem on the Messiah, and some part of his letters 
 between Abelard and Eloisa, with that ode on the Dy- 
 ing Christian, &c. sufiSciently assure us that his pen 
 would have honourably imitated some of the tender 
 scenes of penitential sorrow, as well as the sublimer 
 odes of the Hebrew Psalmist, and perhaps discovered 
 to us, in a better manner than any other translation 
 has done, how great a poet sat upon the throne of Israel. 
 
 After all that I have said, there is yet a furtlier use 
 of reading poesy; and that is. when the mind has been 
 fatigued with studies of a more laborious kind, or when it 
 is any ways unfit for the pursuit of more difficult sub- 
 jects, it may be as it were unbent, and repose itself 
 awhile on the flowery meadows where the muses dwell. 
 It is a very sensible relief to the soul, when it is over- 
 tired, to amuse itself with the numbers and the beauti- 
 ful sentiments of the poets; and in a little time this
 
 AND THEIR USE. 
 
 219 
 
 agreeable amusement may recover the languid spirits to 
 activity and more important service. 
 
 XXXVII. All this I propose to the world as my best 
 observations about reading of verse. But if the ques- 
 tion were offered to me, Shall a student of a bright ge- 
 nius never divert himself with writing poesy.' I would 
 answer, Yes, when he cannot possibly help it; a lower 
 ffenius, in mature years, would heartily wish that he 
 had spent much more time in reading the best authors 
 of this kind, and employed much fewer hours in wri- 
 ting. But it must be confessed or supposed at least, that 
 there may be seasons when it is hardly possible for a 
 poetic soul to restrain tlie fancy or quench the flame, 
 when it is hard to suppress the exuberant flow of lofty 
 sentiments, and prevent the imagination from this sort 
 of style or language: and that is the only season I think 
 wherein this inclination should be indulged, especially 
 by persons who have devoted themselves to professions 
 of a different kind; and one reason is, because what they 
 write in that hour is more likely to carry in it some ap- 
 pearance above nature, some happy imitation of the dic- 
 tates of the muse." 
 
 XXXVIII. There are other things besides history, 
 grammar and languages, rhetoric and poesy, which had 
 been included under the nameof pliilological knowledge; 
 such as an acquaintance with the notions, customs, man- 
 ners, tempers, polity, &c. of the various nations of the 
 earth, or the distinct sects and tribes of mankind. This 
 is necessary in order to understand history the better; 
 and every man who is a lawyer or a gentleman ought 
 to obtain some acquaintance with these things, without 
 which he can never read history to any great advantage, 
 nor can he maintain his own station and character in 
 life with honour and dignity, without some insight into 
 them. 
 
 XXXIX. Students in divinity ought to seek a larger 
 acquaintance with the Jewish laws, polity, customs, &c. 
 
 *The rnuse,in the ancient heathen sense, is supposed to be a god- 
 dess; but in the philosophic sense, it can mean no more th^n a bright 
 genius, with a warm and strong imagination elevated to an uncom- 
 mou degree.
 
 220 OF THE SCIENCES, &C. 
 
 in order to understand many passages of the Old Testa- 
 ment and the New, and to vindicate the sacred writers 
 from the reproaclies of infidels. An acquaintance also 
 with many of the Roman and Grecian affairs is needful 
 to explain several texts of Scripture in the New Testa- 
 ment, to lead sincere inquirers into the true and genuine 
 sense of the evangelists and apostles, and to guard their 
 writings from the unreasonable cavils of men. 
 
 XL. The art of criticism is reckoned by some as a dis- 
 tinct part of philology; but it is in truth nothing else 
 than a more exact or accurate knowledge or skill in the 
 other parts of it, and a readiness to apply that knowledge 
 upon all occasions, in order to judge well of what re- 
 lates to these subjects, to explain what is obscure in the 
 authors which we read, to supply wliat is defective, and 
 amend what is erroneous in manuscripts or ancient 
 copies, to correct the mistakes of authors and editors in 
 the sense of the words, to reconcile the controversies 
 of the learned, and by this means to spread a juster 
 knowledge of these things among the inquisitive part of 
 mankind. 
 
 Every man who pretends to the learned professions, 
 if he doth not arise to be a critic himself in philological 
 matters, he should be frequently conversing with those 
 books, whether dictionaries, paraphrasts, commentators, 
 or other critics, which may relieve any difficulties he 
 meets with, and give him a more exact acquaintance 
 with those studies which he pursues. 
 
 And whensoever any person is arrived to such a de- 
 gree of knowledge in these things as to furnish him well 
 for the practice of criticism, let him take great care that 
 pride and vanity, contempt of others, with inward wrath 
 and insolence, do not mingle themselves with his re- 
 marks and censures. Let him remember the common 
 frailties of human nature, and the mistakes to which the 
 wisest man is sometimes liable, that he may practise this 
 art with due modesty and candour.
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The chief design of the former part of this book is to 
 lead us into proper methods for the improvement of our 
 own knowledge. Let us now consider what are the 
 best means of improving the minds of others, and of 
 communicating to them the knowledge which we have 
 acquired. If the treasures of the mind should be hoard- 
 ed up and concealed, they would profit none besides the 
 possessor; and even his advantage by the possession 
 would be poor and narrow in comparison of what the 
 same treasures would yield, both to himself and to the 
 world, by a free communication and diffusion of them. 
 Large quantities of knowledge acquired and reserved by 
 one man, like heaps of gold and silver, would contract 
 a sort of rust and disagreeable aspect by lying in 
 everlasting secrecy and silence; but they are burnished 
 and glitter by perpetual circulation through the tribes 
 of mankind. 
 
 The two chief ways of conveying knowledge to others 
 are that of verbal instruction to our disciples, or by 
 writing and publishing our thouglits to the world. 
 
 Here therefore I shall propose some observations 
 which relate to the conveyance of knowledge to others, 
 by regular lectures of verbal instruction, or by conver- 
 19*
 
 222 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 sation: I shall represent several of the chief prejudices 
 of which learners are in danger, with directions to guard 
 against then); and then mention some of the easiest and 
 most effectual ways of convincing persons of their mis- 
 takes, and of dealing with their understanding when 
 they labour under the power of prejudice. I shall after- 
 wards add, by way of appendix, an essay, written many 
 years ago, on the subject of Education, when 1 designed 
 a more complete treatise of it. 
 
 I
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING, &C. 223 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING AND READING LECTURES. 
 
 He that has learned any thing thoroughly, in a clear 
 and methodical manner, and has attained a distinct per- 
 ception, and an ample survey of the whole subject, is 
 generally best prepared to teach the same subject in a 
 clear and easy method: for having acquired a large and 
 distinct idea of it himself, and made it familiar to him 
 by frequent meditation, reading, and occasional dis- 
 course, lie is supposed to see it on all sides, to grasp it, 
 with all its appendices and relations, in one survey, and 
 is better able to represent it to the learner in all its views, 
 with all its properties, relations, and consequences. He 
 knows which view or side of the subject to hold out first 
 to his disciple, and how to propose to his understanding 
 that part of it which is easiest to apprehend; and also 
 knows how to set it in such a light as is most likely to 
 allure and to assist his further inquiry. 
 
 But it is not every one who is a great scholar that 
 always becomes the happiest teacher, even though he 
 may have a clear conception, and a methodical as well 
 as an extensive survey of the branches of any science. 
 He must also be well acquainted with words, as well as 
 ideas, in a proper variety, that when his disciple does 
 not take in the ideas of one form of expression, he may 
 change the phrase into several forms, till at last he hits 
 the understanding of his scholar, and enlightens it in the 
 just idea of truth. 
 
 Besides this, a tutor should be a person of a happy 
 and condescending temper, who has patience to bear 
 with a slowness of perception or want of sagacity in 
 some learners. He should also have much candour of 
 soul, to pass a gentle censure on their impertinences, 
 and to pity them in their mistakes, and use every mild 
 and engaging method for insinuating knowledge into 
 tb'^r^ who are willing and diligent in seeking truth, as 
 well as reclaiming those who are wandering into error. 
 
 But of this I have spoken somewhat already in a
 
 224 METHODS OF TEACHING, 
 
 chapter of the former part, and shall have occasion to 
 express somewhat more of it shortly. 
 
 A very pretty and useful way to lead a person into 
 any particular truth is, by qtiestions and answers, which 
 is the Socratical method of disputation, and therefore I 
 refer the reader to that chapter or section which treats 
 of it. On this account dialogues are used as a polite 
 and pleasant mode of leading gentlemen and ladies into 
 some of the sciences, who seek not the most accurate 
 and methodical measure of learning. 
 
 But the most useful, and perhaps the most excellent 
 way of instructing students in any of the sciences, is by 
 reading lectures, as tutors in the academy do to their 
 pupils. 
 
 The first work is to choose a book well written, 
 which contains a short scheme or abstract of that science, 
 or at least it should not be a very copious and diffusive 
 treatise. Or if the tutor knows not any such book al- 
 ready written, he should draw up an abstract of that 
 science himself, containing the most substantial and im- 
 portant parts of it, disposed in such a method as he best 
 approves. 
 
 Let a chapter or section of this be read daily by tlie 
 learner, on which the tutor sliould paraphrase in this 
 manner, namely, — 
 
 He should explain both words and ideas more largely; 
 and especially what is dark and difficult should be 
 opened and illustrated, partly by various forms of speech, 
 and partly by apt similitudes and examples. Where the 
 sense of tlie author is dubious, it must also be fixed and 
 determined. 
 
 Where the arguments are strong and cogent, they 
 should be enforced by some further paraphrase, and the 
 truth of the inferences should be made plainly to appear. 
 Where the arguments are weak and insufficient, they 
 should be either confirmed or rejected as useless; and 
 new arguments, if need be, should be added to support 
 that doctrine. 
 
 What is treated very concisely in the author should 
 be amplified; and where several things are laid closely
 
 AND READING LECTURES. 225 
 
 together, they must be taken to pieces and opened by 
 parts. 
 
 Where the tutor differs from the author which he 
 reads, he should gently point out and confute his mis- 
 takes. 
 
 Where the method and order of the book is just and 
 happy, it should be pursued and commended: where it 
 is defective and irregular, it should be corrected. 
 
 The most necessary, the most remarkable and useful 
 parts of that treatise, or of that science, should be pecu- 
 liarly recommended to the learners, and pressed upon 
 them tliat they would retain it in memory; and what is 
 more necessary or superfluous should be distinguished, 
 lest the learner should spend too much time in the more 
 needless parts of a science. 
 
 The various ends, uses, and services of that science, 
 or of any part of it, should also be declared and exem- 
 plified, as far as the tutor hath opportunity and furni- 
 ture to do it; particularly in mathematics and natural 
 philosophy. 
 
 And if there be any thing remarkably beautiful or de- 
 fective in the style of the writer, it is proper for the 
 tutor to make a just remark upon it. 
 
 While he is reading and explaining any particular 
 treatise to his pupils, he may compare the different 
 editions of the same book, or different writers upon the 
 same subject: he sliould inform them where that subject 
 is treated by other authors which they may peruse, and 
 lead his disciples thereby to a further elucidation, con- 
 firmation, or improvement of that theme of discourse in 
 which he is instructing them. 
 
 it is alluring and agreeable to the learner also, now 
 and then, to be entertained with some historical remarks 
 on any occurrences or useful stories which the tutor has 
 met with, relating to the several parts of such a science; 
 provided he does not put off his pupils merely with such 
 stories, and neglect to give them a solid and rational in- 
 formation of the theme in hand. Teachers should en- 
 deavour, as far as possible, to join profit and pleasure 
 together, and mingle delight with their instructions; 
 but at the same time they must take heed that they do
 
 226 METHODS OF TEACHING, 
 
 not merely amuse the ears and gratify the fancy of their 
 disciples without enriching their minds. 
 
 In reading lectures of instruction, let the teacher be 
 very solicitous that the learners take up his meaning; 
 and therefore he should frequently inquire wliether he 
 expresses himself intelligibly? whether they understand 
 his sense, and take in all his ideas as he endeavours to 
 convey them in his own forms of speech? 
 
 It is necessary that he who instructs otliers should 
 use the most proper style for the conveyance of his ideas 
 easily into the minds of those who hear him; and though 
 in teaching the sciences, a person is not confined to the 
 same rules by which we must govern our language in 
 conversation, for he must necessarily make use of many 
 terms of art and hard words, yet he slioiild never use 
 them merely to show his learning, nor affect sounding 
 language witliout necessity, a caution which we shall 
 further inculcate anon. 
 
 I think it very convenient and proper, if not abso- 
 lutely necessary, that when a tutor reads a following 
 lecture to his pupils, he should run over the foregoing 
 lecture in questions proposed to them, and by tliis means 
 acquaint himself with their daily proficiency.* It is in 
 vain for the learner to object, Surely we are not school- 
 boys, to say our lessons again: we came to be taught, 
 not to be catechised and examined. But, alas! how is 
 it possible for a teacher to proceed in his instructions, 
 if he knows not how far the learner takes in and remem- 
 bers what he has been tauglit? 
 
 Besides, I must generally believe it is sloth or idle- 
 ness, it is real ignorance, incapacity, or unreasonable 
 pride, that makes a learner refuse to give his teacher an 
 account how far he has profited by his last instructions. 
 For want of this constant examination young gentle- 
 men have spent some idle and useless years, even under 
 
 * Tills precaution, though never to be neglected, is of especial 
 importance when a pupil is entering on any new branch of learning, 
 where it is absolutely necessary that the fundamental definitions and 
 principles should not only be clearly understood, but rendered very 
 familiar to the mind; and probably most tutors have found young 
 persons sadly bewildered as they have gone on in their lecture*, for 
 wautof a little more patience and care in this respect.
 
 AND READING LECTURES. 227 
 
 daily labours and inspections of a learned teacher; and 
 they have returned from the academy without the gain 
 of any one science, and even with tlie shameful loss of 
 their classical learning, that is, the knowledge of Greek 
 and Latin, which they had learned in the grammar- 
 school. 
 
 Let the teacher always accommodate himself to the 
 genius, temper, and capacity of his disciples, and prac- 
 tise various methods of prudence to allure, persuade, 
 and assist every one of them in their pursuit of 
 knowledge. 
 
 Where the scholar has less capacity, let the teacher en- 
 large his illustrations; let him search and find out where 
 the learner slicks, what is the difficulty, and thus let 
 him help the labouring intellect. 
 
 Wliere tlie learner manifests a forward genius and a 
 sprightly curiosity by frequent inquiries, let the teacher 
 oblige such an inquisitive soul by satisfying those ques- 
 tions as far as may be done with decency and conveni- 
 ency; and wliere these inquiries are unseasonable, let 
 him not silence the young inquirer with a magisterial 
 rebuff', but with much candour and gentleness postpone 
 those questions, and refer them to a proper hour. 
 
 Curiosity is a useful s))riug of knowledge: it should 
 be encouraged in children, and awakened by frequent 
 and familiar methods of talking with them. It should 
 be indulged in youth, but not without a prudent mode- 
 ration. In tliose who have too much, it should be 
 limited by a wise and gentle restraint or delay, lest by 
 wandering after every tiling, they learn nothing to per- 
 fection. In those who have too little, it should be ex- 
 cited, lest they grow stupid, narrow-spirited, self-satis- 
 fied, and never attain a treasure of ideas, or an ampli- 
 tude of understanding. 
 
 Let not the teacher demand or expect things too sub- 
 lime and difficult from the humble, modest, and fearful 
 disciple: and where such a one gives a just and happy 
 answer, even to plain and easy questions, let him have 
 words of commendation and love ready for him. Let 
 him encourage every spark of kindling light, till it grow 
 up to bright evidence and confirmed knowledge.
 
 228 METHODS OF TEACHING, &C. 
 
 When he finds a lad pert, positive, and presuming, 
 let the tutor take every just occasion to show him his 
 error ; let him set tlie absurdity in complete light before 
 him, and convince him by a full demonstration of his 
 mistake, till he sees and feels it, and learns to be modest 
 and humble. 
 
 A teacher should not only observe the different spirit 
 and humor among his scholars, but he should watch the 
 various efforts of their reason and growth of tlieir un- 
 derstanding. He should practise in his young nursery 
 of learning as a skilful gardener does in his vegetable 
 dominions, and apply prudent methods of cultivation to 
 every plant. Let him with a discreet and gentle hand 
 nip or prune the irregular shoots; let him guard and en- 
 courage the tender buddings of the understanding, till 
 they be raised to a blossom, and let him kindly cherish 
 the younger fruits. 
 
 The tutor should take every occasion to instil know- 
 ledge into his disciples, and make use of every occur- 
 rence of life to raise some profitable conversation upon 
 it; he should frequently inquire something of his disciples 
 that may set their young reason to work, and teach 
 them how to form inferences, and to draw one proposi- 
 tion out of another. 
 
 Reason being that faculty of the mind which lie has 
 to deal with in his pupils, let him endeavour by all pro- 
 per and familiar methods to call it into exercise, and to 
 enlarge the powers of it. He should take frequent oppor- 
 tunities to show them when an idea is clear or confused, 
 when the proposition is evident or doubtful, and when 
 an argument is feeble or strong. And by tliis means 
 their minds will be so formed, tiiat whatsoever he propo- 
 ses with evidence and strength of reas(m they will 
 readily receive. 
 
 "When any uncommon appearances arise in the natu- 
 ral, moral, or political world, he should invite and in- 
 struct them to make their remarks on it, and give them 
 the best reflections of his own for the improvement of 
 their minds. 
 
 He should by all means make it appear that he loves
 
 OF AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. 229 
 
 his pupils, and that he seeks nothing so much as their 
 increase of knowledge, and their growth in all valuable- 
 acquirements; this will engage their affection to Ids 
 person, and procure a jiLst attention to his lectures. 
 
 And indeed there is but little hope that a teacher 
 should obtain any success in his instructions, unless those 
 that hear him have some good degree of esteejji aiul re- 
 spect for his person and character. And here I cannot 
 but take notice by the way, that it is a matter of infinite 
 and unspeakable injury to the people of any town or 
 parish where tlie minister lies under contempt. If he 
 has procured it by his own conduct he is doubly crimi- 
 nal, because of the injury he does to the souls of tliem 
 that hear him: but if this contempt and reproach be cast 
 upon him by the wicked, malicious, and unjust censures 
 of men, they must bear all tlie ill consequences of re- 
 ceiving no good by his labours, and will be accountable 
 hereafter to the great and divine Judge of all. 
 
 It would be very necessary to add in this place (if 
 tutors were not well apprized of it before) that since 
 learners are obliged to seek a divine blessing on their 
 studies by fervent prayer to the God of all wisdom, their 
 tutors should go before them in this pious practice, and 
 make daily addresses to Heaven for the success of their 
 instructions. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. 
 
 The most necessary and most useful character of a 
 style fit for instruction is that it be plain, perspicuous, 
 and easy. And here I shall first point out all those 
 errors in a st) ?e which diminish or destroy the perspicuity 
 of it, and then mention a few directions how to obtain 
 a perspicuous and easy style. 
 
 The errors of style, which must be avoided by teach- 
 ers, are these that fullow: 
 
 20
 
 230 OF AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. 
 
 1. The use of many foreign words, which are not 
 sufficiently naturalized and mingled with the language 
 which we speak or write. It is true, that in teaching 
 the sciences in English, we must sometimes use words 
 borrowed from the Greek and Latin; for we have not in 
 English names for a variety of subjects which belong 
 to learning; but when a man atfects, upon all occasions, 
 to bring in long-sounding words from the ancient lan- 
 guages, witliout necessity, and mingles French and 
 other outlandish terms and plirases, where plain English 
 would serve as well, he betrays a vain and foolish genius, 
 unbecoming a teaclier. 
 
 2. Avoid a fantastic learned style, borrowed from the 
 various sciences, where the subject and matter do not 
 require the use of them. Do not affect terms of art on 
 every occasion, nor seek to show your learning by sound- 
 ing words and dark phrases; this is properly called ped- 
 antry. 
 
 Young preachers, just come from the schools, are 
 often tempted to fill their sermons with logical and meta- 
 physical terms in explaining their text, and feed their 
 hearers with sonorous words of vanity. This scholastic 
 language perhaps may flatter their own ambition, and 
 raise a wonderment at their learning among the staring 
 multitude, without any manner of influence toward the 
 instruction of the ignorant, or the reformation of the 
 immoral or impious: these terms of art are but the tools 
 of an artificer, by which his work is wrought in pri- 
 vate: but the tools ought not to appear in the finislied 
 workmanship. 
 
 There are some persons so fond of geometry, that 
 they bring in lines and circles, tangents and parabolas, 
 theorems, problems, and postulates, upon all occasions. 
 Others who have dealt in astronomy, borrow even their 
 nouns and their verbs in their common discourse from 
 the stars and planets. Instead of saying Jacob had 
 twelve sons, they tell you Jacob had as many sons as 
 there are signs in the zodiac. If they describe an in- 
 constant person, they make a planet of him, and set 
 him forth in all his appearances, direct, retrograde, and 
 Btationary. If a candle be set behind a screen,
 
 op AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. 231 
 
 they call it eclipsed; and tell you fine stories of the or- 
 bit and the revolutions, the radii and the limb or cir- 
 cumference of a cart-wheel. 
 
 Otliers again dress up their sense in chymical lan- 
 guage. Extracts and oils, salts and essences, exalt and 
 invigorate their discourses: a great wit with them is sub- 
 limated spirit, and a blockhead is a caput mortuum. A 
 certain doctor in his bill swells in his own idea, when 
 he tells the town that he has been counsellor to the 
 counsellors of several kings and princes; that he has 
 arrived at the knowledge of the green, black, and 
 golden dragon, known only to magicians and hermetic 
 philosophers. It would be well if the quacks alonp had 
 a patent for this language. 
 
 3. There are some fine affected words that are used 
 only at court; and some peculiar phrases that are sound- 
 ing or gaudy, and belong only to the theatre; these 
 should not come into the lectures of instruction; the 
 language of poets has too much of metaphor in it to 
 lead mankind into clear and distinct ideas of things: the 
 business of poesy is to strike the soul with a glaring 
 light, and to urge the passions into a flame by splendid 
 shows, by strong images, and a pathetic vehemence of 
 style: but it is another sort of speech that is best suited 
 to lead the calm inquirer into just conceptions of things. 
 
 4. There is a mean vulgar style, borrowed from the 
 lower ranks of mankind, the basest characters, and 
 meanest affairs of life: this is also to be avoided; for it 
 should be supposed, that persons of liberal education 
 have not been bred up within the hearing of such lan- 
 guage, and consequently they cannot understand it; be- 
 sides that it would create very offensive ideas, should 
 we borrow even similes for illustration from the scul- 
 lery, the dunghill, and the jakes. 
 
 5. An obscure and mysterious manner of expression 
 and cloudy language is to be avoided. Some persons 
 have been led by education, or by some foolish preju- 
 dices, into a dark and unintelligible way of thinking and 
 speaking; and this continues with them all their lives, 
 and clouds and confounds their ideas, perhaps some of 
 these may have been blessed with a great and compre-
 
 232 OF AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. 
 
 hensive genius, with sublime natural parts, and a tor- 
 rent of ideas flowing in upon them; yet for want of 
 clearness in the manner of tlieir conception and lan- 
 guage, they sometimes drown their own subject of dis- 
 course, and overwhelm their argument in dari^ness and 
 perplexity: such preachers as have read much of the 
 mystical divinity of tiie papists, and imitated their man- 
 ner of expression, have many times buried a fine under- 
 standing under the obscurity of such a style. 
 
 6. A long and tedious style is very improper for a 
 teacher, for this also lessens the perspicuity of it. Some 
 learned writers are never satisfied unless they fill up 
 every'sentence with a great number of ideas and senti- 
 ments; tlicy swell their propositions to an enormous 
 size by explications, exceptions, and precautions, lest 
 they should be mistaken, and crowd tiiem all into the 
 same period: they involve and darken their discourse by 
 many parentheses, and prolong their sentences to a tire- 
 some extent, beyond the reach of a common compre- 
 hension: such sort of writers or speakers may be rich 
 in knowledge, but they are seldom fit to communicate 
 it. He that would gain a happy talent for the instruc- 
 tion of otliers must know how to disentangle and divide 
 his thoughts, if too many of them are ready to crowd 
 into one paragraph; and let him tather speak three sen- 
 tences distinctly and perspicuously, which tlie hearer 
 receives at once with his ears and his soul, than crowd 
 all the tlioughts into one sentence, which the hearer 
 has forgot before he can understand it. 
 
 But this leads me to the next tiling I proposed, which 
 was to mention some methods whereby such a perspi- 
 cuity of style may be obtained as is proper for in- 
 struction. 
 
 1. Accustom yourself to read those authors who 
 think and write with great clearness and evidence, such 
 as convey their ideas into your understanding as fast as 
 your eye or tongue can run over their sentences: this 
 will imprint upon the mind a habit of imitation: we 
 shall learn the style with which we are very conver- 
 Bant, and practise it with ease and success. 
 
 2. Get a distinct and comprehensive knowledge of
 
 OF AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. 233 
 
 the subject which you treat of, survey it on all sides, and 
 make yourself perfect master of it; then you will have 
 all the sentiments that relate to it in your view and un- 
 der your command; and your tongue will very easily 
 clothe those ideas with words which your mind has first 
 made so familiar and easy to itself. 
 
 Scribendi recte sapere est et principium et foris: 
 Verbaque provisam rem non invita sei}ueiitur. 
 
 Hor. de Art Poetiea. 
 
 Good teaching- from good knowledge springs; 
 Words will make haste to follow things. 
 
 3. Be well skilled in the lanfl^uage which you speak; 
 acquaint yourself with all the idioms and special plirases 
 of it, which are necessary to convey the needful 
 ideas on the subject of which you treat in the most va- 
 rious and most easy manner to tlie understanding of 
 the hearer: the variation of a phrase in several forms is 
 of admirable use to instruct; it is like turning all sides 
 of the subject to view; and if the learner happen not to 
 take in the ideas in one form of speech, probably anoth- 
 er may be successful for that end. 
 
 Upon this account I have always thought it a useful 
 manuer of instruction, which is used in some Latin 
 schools, which they call variation. Take some plain 
 sentence in the English tongue, and turn it into many 
 forms in Latin; as for instance, A wolf let into the 
 slieepfold will 'devour the sheep: If you let a wolf into 
 the fold, the sheep will be devoured: The wolf will de- 
 vour the sheep, if the slieepfold be left open: if the fold 
 be not shut carefully, the wolf will devour tiie shuep: 
 The sheep will be devoured by the wolf, if it find the 
 way into the fold open: There is no defence of the sheep 
 from the wolf, unless it be kept out of the fold: A slaugh- 
 ter will be made among the sheep, if the wolf can get 
 into the fold. Thus, by turning the active voice of 
 verbs into the passive, and the nominative case of nouns 
 into the accusative, and altering the connexion of short 
 stintences by ditTerent adverbs or conjunctions, and by 
 ablative cases with a preposition brought instead of the 
 nominative, or by particles sometimes put instead of 
 the verbs, the negation of the contrary instead of tho 
 20*
 
 234 OF AN INSTRUCTIVE STYLE. 
 
 assertion of the thing first proposed, a great variety of 
 forms of speech will be created which shall express the 
 game sense. 
 
 4. Acquire a variety of words, a copia verbonim. Let 
 your memory be rich in synonymous terms, or words 
 expressing tlie same thing: this will not only attain tiie 
 same happy effect with the variation of phrases in the 
 foregoing direction, but it will add a beauty also to your 
 style, by securing you from an appearance of tautology, 
 or repeating the same words too often, which sometimes 
 may disgust the ear of the learner. 
 
 6. Learn the art of shortening your sentences by 
 dividing a lorig complicated period into two or three 
 small ones. When others connect and join two or tiiree 
 sentences in one by relative pronouns, as, which, where- 
 of, wherein, whereto, &c. and by parentheses frequently 
 inserted, do you rather divide them into distinct periods; 
 or at least, if they must he united, let it be done rather 
 by conjunctions and copulatives, that tliey may appear 
 like distinct sentences, and give less confusion to the 
 hearer or reader. 
 
 I know no method so effectually to learn wliat I 
 mean, as to take now and then some page of an author, 
 who is guilty uf such a long involved parentlietical style, 
 and translate it into plainer English, by dividing the ideas 
 or the sentences asunder, and multiplying the periods, 
 till the language become smooth and easy, and intelli- 
 gible at first reading. 
 
 6. Talk frequently to young and ignorant persons 
 upon subjects which are new and unknown to them, 
 and be diligent to inquire whether they understand 
 you or no: this will put you upon changing your phrases 
 and forms of speech in a variety, till you can hit 
 their capacity, and convey your ideas into their under- 
 standing.
 
 OF CONVINCING OF TRUTH, &C. 286 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF CONVINCING OTHER PERSONS OF ANT TRUTH, OR DE- 
 LIVERING THEM FROM ERRORS AND MISTAKES. 
 
 When we are arrived at a just and rational establish- 
 ment in an opinion, whether it relate to religion or 
 common life, we are naturally desirous of brinoring all 
 the world into our sentiments; and this proceeds from 
 the affectation and pride of superior influence upon the 
 judgment of our fellow creatures, much more frequent- 
 ly than it does from a sense of duty, or a love of truth; 
 so vicious and corrupt is human nature. Yet there is 
 such a thing to be found as an honest and sincere de- 
 light in propagating truth, arising from a dutiful regard 
 to the honours of our Maimer, and a hearty love to man- 
 kind. Now, if we would be successful in our attempts 
 to convince men of their errors, and promote the truth, 
 let us divest ourselves, as far as possible, of that pride 
 and affectation which I mentioned before; and seek to 
 acquire that disinterested love to men, and zeal for the 
 truth, vvhicii will naturally lead us into the best meth- 
 ods to promote it. 
 
 And here the following directions may be useful: 
 1. If you would convince a person of his mistake, 
 choose a proper place, a happy hour, and the fittest con- 
 current circumstance for this purpose. Do not unsea- 
 sonably set upon him when he is engaged in the midst 
 of other affairs, but wlien his soul is at liberty and at 
 leisure to hear and attend. Accost him not upon that 
 subject when his spirit is ruffled or discomposed with 
 any occurrences of life, and especially when he has 
 heated his passions in the defence of a contrary opinion; 
 but rather seize some golden opportunity, when some 
 occurrences of life may cast a favourable aspect upon 
 the truth of which you would convince him, or which 
 may throw some dark and unhappy colour or consequen- 
 ces upon that error from whicli you would fain deliver 
 him. There are in life some mollissima tempora fandi, 
 some ver}' agreeable moments of addressing a person, 
 which, if rightly managed, may render your attempts
 
 236 OF CONVINCING OF TRUTH, OR 
 
 much more successful, and his conviclion easy and 
 pleasant. 
 
 2. Make it appear, by your whole conduct to the 
 person you would teach, that you mean him well; that 
 your design is not to triumph over his opinion, nor to 
 expose his iijnorance, or his incapacity of defending 
 what he asserts. Let him see that it is not your aim to 
 advance your own character as a disputant; nor to set 
 yourself up for an instructor of mankind; but that you 
 love him, and seek his true interest; and do not only as- 
 sure him of this in words, when you are entering on an 
 argument witii liim, but let the whole of your conduct 
 to him at all times demonstrate your real friendship for 
 him. Truth and argument come with particular force 
 from the mouth of one whom we trust and love. 
 
 3. The softest and gentlest address to the erroneous 
 is the best way to convince them of their mistake. 
 Sometimes it is necessary to represent to your opponent 
 that he is not far from tlie truth, and tliat you would 
 fain draw liim a little nearer to it. Commend and es- 
 tablish whatever he says that is just and true, as our 
 blessed Saviour treated the young scribe, when he an- 
 swered well cojicerning the two great commandments, 
 "Thou art not far," says our Lord, "from the kingdom 
 of heaven," Mark, xii. 34. Imitate the mildness and 
 conduct of tiie blessed Jesus. 
 
 Come as near your opponent as you can in all your 
 propositions, and yield to him as much as you dare in a 
 consistence with trutli and justice. 
 
 It is a very great and fatal mistake in persons who 
 attempt to convince and reconcile others to their party, 
 when they make the ditlerence appear as wide as possi- 
 ble; this is siiocking to any person who is to be convin- 
 ced; he will ciioose rather to keep and maintain his own 
 opinions, if he cannot come into yours without renoun- 
 cing and abandoning every thing that he believed be- 
 fore. Human nature must be flattered a little as well 
 as reasoned with, that so the argument may be able to 
 come at his understanding, which otherwise will be 
 thrust off at a distance. If you charge a man with 
 nonsense and absurdities, with heresy and self-contra-
 
 DELIVERING FROM ERROR. 237 
 
 diction, you take a very wrong step toward convincing 
 him. 
 
 Always remember that error is not to be rooted out 
 of the mind of man by reproaches and raihng, by flash- 
 es of wit and biting jests, by loud exclamations of sharp 
 ridicule: long declamations, and triumph over our neigh- 
 bour's mistake, will not prove the way to convince him; 
 these are signs either of a bad cause, or a want of argu- 
 ments or capacity for the defence of a good one. 
 
 4. Set therefore a constant watch over yourself, lest 
 you grow warm in dispute before you are aware. The 
 passions never clear the understanding, but raise dark- 
 ness, clouds, and confusion in the soul: human nature is 
 like water which has mud at the bottom of it, it may 
 be clear when it is calm and undisturbed, and the ideas, 
 like pebbles, appear bright at tlie bottom; but when once 
 it is stirred and moved by passion, the mud rises upper- 
 most, and spreads confusion and darkness over all the 
 ideas: you cannot set things in so just and so clear a light 
 before the eyes of your neighbour, wliile your own con- 
 ceptions are clouded with lieat and passion. 
 
 Besides, when your own spirits are a little disturbed, 
 and your wrath is awakened, this naturally kindles the 
 same fire in your correspondent, and prevents him from 
 taking in your ideas, were they ever so clear; for his 
 passions are engaged all on a sudden for the defence of 
 his own mistakes, and they combat as fiercely as yours 
 do, which perhaps may be awakened on the side of 
 truth. 
 
 To provoke a person whom you would convince, not 
 only arouses his anger, and sets it against your doctrine, 
 but it directs its resentment against your person, as well 
 as against all your instructions and arguments. You must 
 treat an opponent like a friend, if yon would persuade 
 him to learn any thing from you; and this is one great 
 reason why there is so little success on either side be- 
 tween two disputants, or controversial writers, because 
 they are so ready to interest their passions in the sub- 
 ject of contest, and thereby to prevent the mutual light 
 that might be given and received on either side: ambi- 
 tion, indignation, and a professed zeal, reign on both
 
 238 OF CONVINCING OF TRUTH, OR 
 
 sides: victor)' is the point designed, while truth is pre- 
 tended; and truth oftentimes perishes in the fray, or re- 
 tires from the field of battle: the combatants end just 
 where they began, their understandings hold fast the 
 same opinions, perhaps witli this disadvantage, that they 
 are a little more obstinate and rooted in them, without 
 fresh reason; and they generally come off with the loss 
 of temper and cliarity. 
 
 5. Neither attempt nor hope to convince a person of 
 his mistake by any penal methods or severe usage. 
 There is no light brought into the mind by all the fire 
 and sword, and bloody persecutions, that were ever in- 
 troduced into the world. One would think both the 
 princes, the priests, and the people, the learned and the 
 unlearned, the great and the mean, should have all by this 
 time seen the folly and madness of seeking to propagate 
 the truth by tiie laws of cruelty: we compel a beast to the 
 yoke by blows, because tiie ox and the ass have no under- 
 standing: but intellectual powers are not to be feUered and 
 compelled at this rate. Men cannot believe what they 
 will, nor change their religion and tlieir sentiments as 
 they please: they may be made hypocrites by the forms 
 of severity, and constrained to profess what they do not 
 believe; they may be forced to comply with external 
 practices and ceremonies contrary to their own con- 
 sciences; but this can never please God, nor profit men. 
 
 6. In order to convince another, you should always 
 make choice of those arguments that are best suited to 
 his understanding and capacity, his genius and temper, 
 his state, station, and circumstances. If I were to per- 
 suade a ploughman of the truth of any form of church 
 government, it should not be attempted by the use of 
 Greek and Latin fatljers; but from tlie word of God, the 
 light of nature, and the common reason of things. 
 
 1. Arguments should always be proposed in such a 
 manner as may lead the mind onward to perceive the 
 truth in a clear and agreeable light, as well as to con- 
 strain the assent by the power of reasoning. Clear 
 ideas, in many cases, are as useful towards conviction 
 as a well formed and unanswerable syllogism. 
 
 8. Allow the person you desire to instruct a reasonable
 
 DELIVERING FROM ERROR. 239 
 
 time to enter into the force of your arguments. When 
 you liave declared your own sentiments in the brightest 
 manner of illustration, and enforced them with the 
 most convincing arguments, you are not to suppose that 
 your friend should be immediately convinced, and re- 
 ceive the truth: habitude in a particular way of think- 
 ing, as well as in most other things, obtains the force of 
 nature; and you cannot expect to wean a man from his 
 accustomed errors but by slow degrees, and by his own 
 assistance; entreat him therefore not to judge on the 
 sudden, nor determine against you at once; but that he 
 would please to review your scheme, reflect upon your 
 arguments with all tlie impartiality he is capable of, 
 and take time to think these over again at large; at 
 least, that he would be disposed to hear you speak yet 
 further on this subject without pain or aversion. 
 
 Address him therefore in an obliging manner, and 
 say, I am not so fond as to think I have placed the sub- 
 ject in such lights as to throw you on a sudden into a 
 new track of thinking, or to make you immediately lay 
 aside your present opinions or designs; all that I hope 
 is, that some hint or other which I have given is capa- 
 ble of being improved by you to your own conviction, 
 or possibly it may lead you to such a train of reasoning, 
 as in time to effect a change in your thoughts. Which 
 hint leads me to add, — 
 
 9. Labour as much as possible to make the person 
 you would teach his own instructor. Human nature 
 may be allured, by a secret pleasure and pride in its own 
 reasoning, to seem to find out by itself the very thing 
 that you would teach; and there are some persons that 
 . have so much of this natural bias toward self rooted in 
 them, that they can never be convinced of a mistake by 
 the plainest and strongest arguments to the contrary, 
 though the demonstration glare in their faces; but they 
 may be tempted, by such gentle insinuations, to follow 
 a track of thought which you propose, till they have 
 wound themselves out of their own error, and led 
 themselves hereby into your own opinion, if you do but 
 let it appear that they are under their own guidance 
 rather than yours. And perhaps there is nothing which
 
 240 OF CONVINCING OF TRUTH, OK 
 
 shows more dexterity of address than this secret influ- 
 ence over the minds of others, which they do not discern 
 even while they follow it. 
 
 10. If you can gain the main point in question, be 
 not very solicitous about the nicety with which it shall 
 be expressed. Mankind is so vain a thing, that it is not 
 willing to derive from another; and though it cannot 
 have every thing from itself, yet it would seem at least 
 to mingle something of its own with wliat it derives 
 elsewhere: therefore, when you have set your sentiment 
 in the fullest light, and proved it in the most effectual 
 manner, an opponent will bring in some frivolous and 
 useless distinction, on purpose to change the form of 
 words in the question, and acknowledge that he re- 
 ceives your propositions in such a sense, and in such a 
 manner of expression, though lie cannot receive it in 
 your terms and phrases. Vanillus will confess he is 
 now convinced, that a man who behaves well in the 
 state ought not to be punished for his religion, but yet 
 he will not consent to allow a universal toleration of 
 all relinions which do not injure the state, which is the 
 proposition T had been proving. Well, let Vanillus, 
 therefore, use his own language; I am glad lis is con- 
 vinced of the truth; he shall have leave to dress it in his 
 own way. 
 
 To these directions I shall add two remarks in the 
 conclusion of this chapter, which would not so properly 
 fall under the preceding directions. 
 
 I. Remark. — When you have laboured to instruct a 
 person in some controverted truth, and yet he retains 
 some prejudice against it, so that he doth not yield to 
 the convincing force of your arguments, you may some- 
 times have happy success in convincing him of that 
 truth, by setting him to read a weak author who writes 
 against it: a young reader will find such pleasure in 
 being able to answer the arguments of the opposer, that 
 he will drop his former prejudices against the truth, and 
 yield to the power and evidence of your reason. I confess 
 this looks like setting up one prejudice to overthrow 
 another; but where prejudices cannot be fairly removed
 
 DELIVERING FROM ERROR 241 
 
 by the dint of reason, the wisest and best of teachers 
 will sometimes find it necessary to make a way for 
 reason and truth to take place, by this contrast of pre- 
 judices. 
 
 II. Remark. — When our design is to convince a 
 whole family or community of persons of any mistake, 
 and to lead them into any truth, we may justly suppose 
 there are various reigninor prejudices among them; and 
 therefore it is not safe to attempt, nor so easy to effect 
 it, by addressing the whole number at once. Such a 
 method has been often found to raise a sudden alarm, 
 and has produced a violent opposition even to the most 
 fair, pious, and useful proposal; so that he who made the 
 motion could never carry his point. 
 
 We must therefore first make as sure as we can of 
 the most intelligent and learned, at least the most lead- 
 ing persons amongst them, by addressing them apart 
 prudently, and offering proper reasons, till they are con- 
 vinced and engaged on the side of truth; and tiiese may 
 with more success apply themselves to others of the 
 same community: yet the original proposer should not 
 neglect to make a distinct application to all the rest, so 
 far as circumstances admit. 
 
 Where a thing is to be determined by a number of 
 votes, he should labour to secure a good majority; and 
 then take care that tiie most proper persons should move 
 and argue the matter in public, lest it be quashed in 
 the very first proposal by some prejudice against the 
 proposer. 
 
 So unhappily are our circumstances situated in this 
 world, that if truth, and justice, and goodness, could 
 put on human forms, and descend from heaven to pro- 
 pose the most divine and useful doctrines, and bring 
 with them the clearest evidence, and publish them at 
 once to a multitude whose prejudices are engaged 
 against them, the proposal would be vain and fruitless, 
 and would neither convince nor persuade; so necessary 
 it is to join art and dexterity, together with the force 
 of reason, to convince mankind of truth, unless we 
 21
 
 242 USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY 
 
 came furnished with miracles or omnipotence to create 
 a conviction.* 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF AUTHORITY. OF THE ABUSE OF IT: AND OF ITS REAL 
 AND PROPER USE AND SERVICE. 
 
 The influence which other persons have upon our 
 opinions is usually called authority. The power of it 
 is so great and widely extensive, that there is scarce any 
 person in tlie world entirely free from the impressions 
 of it, even after their utmost watchfulness and care to 
 avoid it. Our parents and tutors, yea, our very nurses, 
 determine a multitude of our sentiments,, our friends, 
 our neig-libours, the custom of tlie country where we 
 dwell, and the establislied opinions of mauliind, form 
 our belief: the great, the wise, the pious, the learned, 
 and the ancient, the king, the priest, and the philoso- 
 pher, are characters of mighty efficacy to persuade us to 
 receive what they dictate. These may be ranked under 
 ditferent heads of prejudice, but they are all of a kindred 
 nature, and may be reduced to this one spring or head 
 of authority. 
 
 I have treated of these particularly in Logic, Part ri. 
 Chapter iii. Section 4; yet, a few other remarks occurring 
 among my papers, I thought it not improper to let them 
 find a place here. 
 
 Cicero was well acquainted with the unhappy influ- 
 ences of authority, and complains of it in his first book 
 De J^atnrd Deorum: " In disputes and controversies 
 (says he) it is not so much the authors or patrons of any 
 opinion, as the weight and force of argument, which 
 should influence the mind. The authority of those who 
 
 * Tlie conduct of Christ and his apostles, armed as they were with 
 supernatural powers, in the gradual openings of truths, against which 
 tiie minds of their disciples were strongly prejudiced, may not only 
 secure such an address from the imputation of dishonest craP.but 
 may demonstrate the expediency, and in some cases the necessity, of 
 attending to it.
 
 USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. 243 
 
 teach is a frequent hinderance to those who learn, be- 
 cause they utterly neglect to exercise their own judg- 
 ment, taking for granted whatsoever others whom they 
 reverence have judged for them. I can by no means ap- 
 prove what we learn from tlie Pythagoreans, that if any 
 tiling asserted in disputation was questioned, they were 
 wont to answer, Ipse dixit, that is, He himself said so, 
 meaning Pythagoras. So far did prejudice prevail, that 
 authority without reason was sufficient to determine 
 disputes, and to establish truth." 
 
 AH human authority, though it be never so ancient, 
 though it hath had universal sovereignty, and swayed 
 all the learned and the vulgar world for some thousands 
 of years, yet has no certain and undoubted claim to 
 truth: nor is it any violation of good manners to enter a 
 caveat with due decency against its pretended dominion. 
 What is there among all the sciences that has been 
 longer established and more universally received ever 
 since the days of Aristotle, and perhaps for ages before 
 Jie lived, than this, that all heavy bodies whatsoever 
 tend toward the centre of the earth? But Sir Isaac 
 IVewton has found, that those bulky and weighty bodies, 
 the earth and all the planets, tend toward the centre of 
 the sun, whereby the authority of near three tliousand 
 years or more is not only called in question, but actually 
 refuted and renounced. 
 
 Again: Was ever any thing more universally agreed 
 among the nation of poets and critics, than that Homer 
 and Virgil are inimitable writers of heroic poems? and 
 whoever presumed to attack their writings, or their 
 reputation, was either condemned for his malice or de- 
 rided for his folly. These ancient authors liave been 
 supposed to derive peculiar advantages to aggrandize 
 their verses from the heathen theology, and tliat variety 
 of appearances in which they could represent tiieir gods, 
 and mingle tiiem with the affairs of men. Yet within 
 these few years Sir Richard Blackmore (whose prefaces 
 are universally esteemed superior in their kind to any 
 of his poems) has ventured to pronounce some noble 
 truths in that excellent preface to liis poem called Alfred, 
 and has bravely demonstrated there, beyond all possible
 
 244 USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. 
 
 exception, that both Virgil and Homer are often guilty 
 of very gross blunders, indecencies, and sliameful im- 
 proprieties; and that they were so far from deriving any 
 advantage from the rabble of heathen gods, tiiat their 
 theology almost unavoidably exposed them to many of 
 those bhmders; and tiiat it is not possible upon the foot 
 of gentile superstition to write a perfect epic poem: 
 whereas the sacred religion of the Bible would furnish a 
 poem with much more just and glorious scenes, and a 
 nobler machinery. 
 
 Mr. Dennis also had made it appear in his essays 
 some years before, that there were no images so sublime 
 in the briirhtest of tiie lieathen writers as those with 
 which we are furnished in the poetic parts of the Holy 
 Scripture; and Rapin, the French critic, dared to pro- 
 fess the same sentiments, notwithstanding the world of 
 poets and critics had so universally and unanimously 
 exalted the heathen writers to the sovereignty for so 
 many affes. If we would find out the truth in many 
 cases, we nmst dare to deviate from the loiifr-beaten 
 track, and venture to think with a just and unbiassed 
 liberty. 
 
 Though it be necessary to guard against the evil in- 
 fluences of authority, and the prejudices derived thence, 
 because it has introduced thousands of errors and mis- 
 chiefs into the world, yet there are three eminent and 
 remarkable cases wherein autliority or the sentiments 
 of other persons must or will determine the judgment 
 and practice of mankind. 
 
 I. Parents are appointed to judge for their children 
 in their younger years, and instruct them what they 
 should believe, and what tliey should practise in civil 
 and religious hfe. This is a dictate of nature, and 
 doubtless it would have been so in a state of innocence. 
 It is impossible that children should be capable of judg- 
 ing for themselves before their minds are furnished with 
 a competent number of ideas, before they are acquainted 
 with any principles and rules of just judgment, and be- 
 fore their reason is grown up to any degrees of matu- 
 rity and proper exercises upon such subjects. 
 
 I will not say that a child ought to believe nonsense
 
 rSE AND ABUSE OP AUTHORITY. 245 
 
 and impossibility because his father bids him; for so far 
 as tlie iinpossibihty appears he cannot beheve it: nor 
 uiil I say he ouglit to assent to all the false opinions of 
 his parents, or to practise idolatry and murder, or mis- 
 chief, at their command; yet a cliild knows not any bet- 
 tor way to find out what he should believe, and what he 
 should practise, before he can possibly judge for him- 
 self, than to run to his parents and receive their senti- 
 ments and their directions. 
 
 You will say this is hard indeed, that the child of a 
 heathen idolator, or a cruel cannibal, is laid under a 
 sort of necessity by nature of sinning against the light 
 of nature; I grant it is hard indeed, but it is only owing 
 to our original fall and apostasy: tlie law of nature con- 
 tinues as it was in innocence, namely, That a parent 
 should judge for his child; but if the parent judges ill, 
 tlie child is greatly exposed by it, through that univer- 
 sal disorder that is brought into the world by the sin of 
 Adam our common father; and from the equity and 
 goodness of God, we may reasonably infer, that the 
 great Judge of all will do right: he will balance the ig- 
 norance and incapacity of the child with tiie criminal 
 nature of the otiience in those puerile instances, and will 
 not punish beyond just demerit. 
 
 Besides, what could God, as a Creator, do better for 
 children in tlieir minority, than to commit them to the 
 care and instruction of parents? None are supposed to 
 be so much concerned for the happiness of cliildren as 
 tlieir parents are; therefore it is the safest step to happi- 
 ness, according to the original law of creation, to fol- 
 low their directions, their parents' reason acting for 
 them before they had reason of their own in proper ex- 
 ercise; nor indeed is there any better general rule in our 
 fallen state by which cliildren are capable of being gov- 
 erned, though in many particular cases it may lead them 
 far astray from virtue and happiness. 
 
 If children by Providence be cast under some happier 
 instructions, contrary to their parents' erroneous opin- 
 ions, I cannot say it is the duty of such children to fol- 
 low error when they discern it to be error, because their 
 father believes it: what I said before is to be interpreted 
 21*
 
 246 USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. 
 
 only of those tliat are under the iiDmediate care and 
 education of their parents, and not yet arrived at yeara 
 capable of examination. 1 know not how these can be 
 freed from receiving the dictates of parental authority 
 in their youngest years, except by immediate or divine 
 inspiration. 
 
 It is hard to say at what exact time of life the child is 
 exempted from the sovereignty of parental dictates. 
 Perhaps it is much juster to suppose that this sovereign- 
 ty diminishes by degrees, as the ciiild grows in under- 
 standing and capacity, and is more and more capable 
 of exerting his own intellectual powers, than to limit 
 this matter by months and years. 
 
 When childhood and youth are so far expired that 
 the reasoning faculties are grown up to any just mea- 
 sures of maturity, it is certain tliat persons ought to be- 
 gin to inquire into the reasons of their own faith and 
 practice in all the affairs of life and religion: but as rea- 
 son does not arrive at this power and self-sufficiency in 
 any single moment of time, so there is no single mo- 
 ment wiien a child should at once cast ofl'all his former 
 beliefs and practices; but by degrees, and in slow suc- 
 cession, he should examine them, as opportunity and 
 advantage offer, and either confirm, or doubt of, or 
 change them, according to the leading of conscience 
 and reason, with all its advantages of information. 
 
 When we are arrived at manly age, there is no per- 
 son on earth, no set or society of me.n wliatsoever, that 
 have power and authority given them by God, the cre- 
 ator and governor of the world, absolutely to dictate to 
 others their opinions or practices in moral and religious 
 life. God has given every man reason to judge for 
 himself, in higher or lower degrees. Where less is given, 
 less will be required. But we are justly chargeable 
 vvitli criminal sloth and misimprovement of the talents 
 with which our Creator has intrusted us, if we take all 
 things for granted which others assert, and believe and 
 practise all things which they dictate witliout due ex- 
 amination. 
 
 II. Another case wherein authority must govern our 
 assent is in many matters of fact. Here we may and
 
 USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. 247 
 
 ought to be determined by the declarations or narratives 
 of other men; though I confess this is usually called tes- 
 timony rather tlian authority. It is upon this foot that 
 every son or daughter among mankind are required to 
 believe that such and such persons are their parents, 
 for they can never be informed of it but by the dictates 
 of others. It is by testimony that we are to believe 
 the laws of our country, and to pay all proper deference 
 to the prince and to magistrates in subordinate degrees 
 of authority, though we did not actually see them cho- 
 sen, crowned, or invested with their title and character. 
 It is by testimony that we are necessitated to believe 
 there is such a city as Canterbury or York, though per- 
 haps we have never been at either; that there are such 
 persons as papists at Paris and Rome, and that there 
 are many sottish and cruel tenets in their religion. It is 
 by testimony that we believe that Christianity, and the 
 books of the Bible, have been faithfully delivered down 
 to us through many generations; that there was such a 
 person as Clirist our Saviour, that he wrought miracles, 
 and died on the cross, that he rose again and ascended 
 to heaven. 
 
 The authority or testimony of men, if they are wise 
 and honest, if they had full opportunities and capaci- 
 ties of knowing the truth, and are free from all suspicion 
 of deceit in relating it, ought to sway our assent; espe- 
 cially when multitudes concur in the same testimony, 
 and when there are many other attending circumstan- 
 ces which raise the proposition which they dictate to 
 the degree of moral certainty. 
 
 But in this very case, even in matters of fact and af- 
 fairs of history, we should not too easily give into all 
 the dictates of tradition, and the pompous pretences to 
 the testimony of men, till we have fairly examined the 
 several things which are necessary to make up credible 
 testimony, and to lay a just foundation for our belief. 
 There are and have been so many falsehoods imposed 
 upon mankind with specious pretences of eye and ear 
 witnesses, that should make us wisely cautious and 
 justly suspicious of reports, where the concurrent signs 
 of truth do not fairly appear, and especially where the
 
 248 USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. 
 
 matter is of considerable importance. And the less 
 probable the fact testified is in itself, the greater evi- 
 dence justly we may demand of the veracity of that 
 testimony on which it claims to be admitted. 
 
 III. The last case wherein authority must govern 
 us is when we are called to believe what persons under 
 inspiration have dictated to us. This is not properly 
 the authority of men, but of God himself; and we are 
 obliged to believe what that authority asserts, though 
 our reason at present may not be able, any other way, 
 to discover the certainty or evidence of the proposition; 
 it is enough if our faculty of reason, in its best exercise, 
 can discover the divine authority which has proposed it. 
 Whero doctrines of divine revelation are plainly pub- 
 lished, together with sufficient proofs of their revela- 
 tion, all mankind are bound to receive them, though 
 they cannot perfectly understand them, for we know 
 that God is true, and cannot dictate falsehood. 
 
 But if these pretended dictates are directly contrary 
 to the natural faculties of understanding and reason 
 which God has given us, we may be well assured these 
 dictates were never revealed to us by God himself. 
 When persons are really influenced by authority to be- 
 lieve pretended mysteries in plain opposition to reason, 
 and yet pretend reason for what they believe, this is but 
 a vain amusement. 
 
 There is no reason whatsoever that can prove or es- 
 tablish any authority so firmly, as to give it power to 
 dictate in matters of belief what is contrary to all the 
 dictates of our reasonable nature. God himself has 
 never given any such revelations: and I think it may be 
 said with reverence, he neither can nor will do it, unless 
 he change our faculties from what they are at present. 
 To tell us we must believe a proposition which is plain- 
 ly contrary to reason, is to tell us that we must believe 
 two ideas are joined, while (if we attend to reason) we 
 plainly see and know them to be disjoined. 
 
 Wliat could ever have established the nonsense of 
 traiisubstantiation in the world, if men had been fixed 
 in this great truth, That God gives no revelation con- 
 tradictory to our own reason? Things may be above
 
 USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. 249 
 
 our reason, that is, reason may have but obscure ideas 
 of them, or reason may not see the connexion of those 
 ideas, or may not know at present the certain and ex- 
 act manner of reconciHng sucli propositions, either with 
 one another or with other rational truths, as I have ex- 
 plained in some of my logical papers: but when they 
 stand directly and plainly against all sense and reason, 
 as transubstantiation does, no divine authority can be 
 pretended to enforce tlieir belief, and human authority 
 is impudent to pretend to it. Yet this human authori- 
 ty, in the popish countries, has prevailed over millions 
 of souls, because they have abandoned their reason; they 
 have given up the glory of human nature, to be tram- 
 pled upon by knaves, and so reduced themselves to the 
 condition of brutes. 
 
 It is by tiiis amusement of authority (says a certain 
 author) that a horse is taught to obey the words of com- 
 mand, a dog to fetch and carry, and a man to believe 
 inconsistencies and impossibilities. Whips and dun- 
 geons, fire and the gibbet, and the solemn terrors of 
 eternal misery after this life, will persuade weak minds 
 to believe acrainst their senses, and in direct contradic- 
 tion to all their reasoning powers. A parrot is taught 
 to tell lies with much more ease and more gentle usage: 
 but none of all tliese creatures would serve their masters 
 at the expense of their liberty, had they but knowledge 
 and the just use of reason. 
 
 I have mentioned three classes wherein mankind 
 must or will be determined in their sentiments, by au- 
 thority; that is the case of children in their minority, in 
 regard of the commands of tlieir parents; the case of all 
 men, with regard to universal, and complete, and suffi- 
 cient testimony of matter of fact; and the case of every 
 person, with regard to the authority of divine revela- 
 tion, and of men divinely inspired; and under each of 
 these I have given some such limitations and cautions 
 as were necessary. I proceed now to mention some 
 other cases wlierein we ought to pay a great deference 
 to the authority and sentiments of others, though we 
 are not absolutely concluded and determined by their 
 opinions.
 
 250 USE AND ABUSE OF AUTHORITY. 
 
 I. When we begin to pass out of our minority, and 
 to judge for ourselves in matters of civil and religious 
 life, we ought to pay very great deference to the sen- 
 timents of our parents, who in the time of our minority 
 were our natural guides and directors in these matters. 
 So in matters of science, an ignorant and unexperienced 
 youth should pay great deference to the opinions of his 
 instructors; and though he may justly suspend his judg- 
 ment in matters whicli his tutors dictate till he perceives 
 sufficient evidence for thejn, yet neither parents nor tu- 
 tors should be directly opposed without great and most 
 evident reasons, such as constrain the understanding or 
 conscience of those concerned. 
 
 II. Persons of years and long experience in human 
 affairs, when they give advice in matters of prudence 
 or civil conduct, ought to have a considerable deference 
 paid to tfieir authority by those that are young and have 
 not seen the world, for it is more probable that the elder 
 persons are in the right. 
 
 III. In the affairs of practical godliness there should 
 be much deference paid to persons of long standing in 
 virtue and piety. I confess, in the particular forms and 
 ceremonies of religion, tliere may be as much bigotry 
 and superstition among the old as the young; but in 
 questions of inward religion, and pure devotion or 
 virtue, a man who has been long engaged in the sincere 
 practice of these tilings, is justly presumed to know 
 more than a youth with all his ungoverned passions, 
 appetites, and prejudices about him. 
 
 IV. Men in their several professions and arts in which 
 they have been educated, and in which they have em- 
 ployed themselves all their days, must be supposed to 
 have a greater knowledge and skill than others; and 
 therefore there is due respect to be paid to their judg- 
 ments in those matters. 
 
 V. In matters of fact, where there is not sufficient testi- 
 mony to constrain our assent, yet there ought to be due 
 deference paid to the narratives of persons wise and sober, 
 according to the degrees of their honesty, skill, and op- 
 portunity, to acquaint themselves therewith. 
 
 1 confess, in many of these cases, where the proposi-
 
 OP MANAGING THE, &C. 251 
 
 tion is a mere matter of speculation, and doth not neces- 
 sarily draw practice along with it, we may delay our 
 assent till better evidence appear; but where the matter 
 is of a practical nature, and requires us to act one way 
 or anotlier, we ought to pay much deference to authority 
 or testimony, and follow such probabilities where we 
 have no certainty; for this is the best light we have; and 
 surely it is better to follow such sort of guidance, where 
 we can have no better, than to wander and fluctuate in 
 absolute uncertainty. It is not reasonable to put out 
 our candle, and sit still in the dark, because we have 
 not the light of sun-beams. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF TREATING AND MANAGING THE PREJUDICES OF MEN.* 
 
 If we had nothing but the reason of men to deal with, 
 and that reason were pure and uncorrupted, it would 
 then be a matter of no great skill or labour to convince 
 another person of common mistakes, or to persuade him 
 to assent to plain and obvious truths. But alas! man- 
 kind stands wrapped round in errors, and entrenched 
 in prejudices; and every one of their opinions is support- 
 ed and guarded by something else besides reason. A 
 young bright genius, who has furnished himself with a 
 variety of truths and strong arguments, but is yet unac- 
 quainted with the world, goes forth from the schools, 
 like a knight-errant, presuming bravely to vanquish the 
 follies of men, and to scatter light and truth through all 
 his acquaintance: but he meets with huge giants and 
 enchanted castles, strong prepossessions of mind, habits, 
 customs, education, authority, interest, together with all 
 the various passions of men, armed and obstinate to de- 
 fend their old opinions; and he is strangely disappointed 
 m his generous attempts. He finds now that he must 
 
 * For the nature and causes of prejudices, and for the preventing 
 or curing of thenj in ourselves, see the Doctor's excellent system of 
 Logicj Part ii. Chapter iii. Of the spnngsof false judgment, or the 
 doctrine of prejudices.
 
 252 OF MANAGING THE 
 
 not trust merely to the sharpness of his steel, and to the 
 strength of his arm, but he must manage the weapons 
 of his reason with much dexterity and artifice, with skill 
 and address, or he shall never be able to subdue errors, 
 and to convince mankind. 
 
 Wliere prejudices are strong, there are these several 
 methods to be practised in order to convince persons of 
 their mistakes, and make a way for truth to enter into 
 their minds. 
 
 1. By avoiding the power and influence of the preju- 
 dice without any direct attack upon it: and this is done 
 by choosing all the slow, soft, and distant methods of 
 proposing your own sentiments and your arguments for 
 them, and by degrees leading the person step by step 
 into those truths whicli his prejudices would not bear 
 if they were proposed all at once. 
 
 Perhaps your neighbour is under the influence of 
 superstition and bigotry in the simplicity of his soul: 
 you must not immediately run upon him with violence, 
 and show Jiim the absurdity or folly of his own opinions, 
 though you might be able to set them in a glaring light; 
 but you must rather begin at a distance, and establish 
 his assent to some familiar and easy propositions wliich 
 have a tendency to refute his mistakes, and to confirm 
 the trutli; and then silently observe what impression this 
 makes upon him, and proceed by slow degrees as he is 
 able to bear, and you must carry on the work, perhaps 
 at distant seasons of conversation: the tender or diseased 
 eye cannot bear a deluge of light at once. 
 
 Therefore we are not to consider our arguments 
 merely according to our own notions of their force, and 
 from thence expect the immediate conviction of others; 
 but we should regard how they are likely to be re- 
 ceived by the persons we converse with; and thus man- 
 age our reasoning, as the nurse gives a child drink by 
 slow degrees, lest the infant should be choked, or return 
 it all back again, if poured in too hastily. If your wine be 
 ever so good, and you are ever so liberal in bestowing 
 it on your neiglibour, yet if his bottle, into which you 
 attempt to pour it with freedom, has a narrow mouth, 
 you will sooner overset the bottle than fill it with wine.
 
 PREJUDICES OP MEN. 253 
 
 Overhasliness and vehemence in arguing is often- 
 times the effect of pride; il blunts the poignancy of the 
 argument, breaks its force, and disappoints the end. If 
 you were to convince a person of the falsehood of the 
 doctrine of transubstantiation, and you take up the con- 
 secrated bread before hiin, and say — "You may see, and 
 taste, and feel, this is nothing but bread; therefore while 
 you assert that God commands you to believe it is not 
 bread, you most wickedly accuse God of commanding 
 you to tell a lie." This sort of language would only 
 raise the indignation of the person against you, instead 
 of making any impressions upon him. He will not so 
 much as think at all on the arguments you have brought, 
 but he rages at you as a profane wretch, setting up your 
 sense and reason above sacred authority; so that though 
 what you atfirm is a truth of great evidence, yet you lose 
 the benefit of your whole argument by an ill manage - 
 ment, and the unseasonable use of it. 
 
 II. We may expressly allow and indulge those preju- 
 dices for a season which seem to stand against the truth, 
 and endeavour to introduce the truth by degrees, while 
 those prejudices are expressly allowed, till by degrees 
 the advanced truth may of itself wear out the prejudice. 
 Thus God himself dealt with his own people the Jews 
 after tlie resurrection of Christ; for tiiough from the 
 following days of Pentecost, vvlien the Gospel was pro- 
 claimed and confirmed at Jerusalem, the Jewish cere- 
 monies began to be void and ineffectual for any divine 
 purpose, yet the Jews who received Christ tlie Mepsiah 
 were peruiitted to circumcise their cliildren, and to prac- 
 tise many Levitical forms, till that constitution, wiiich 
 then waxed old, should in time vanish away. 
 
 Where the prejudices of mankind cannot l3e conquered 
 at once, but they will rise up in arms against the evi- 
 dence of truth, there we must make some allowances, 
 and yield to them for the present, as far as we can safely 
 do it without real injury to truth: and if we would have 
 any success in our endeavours to convince tlie world, 
 we must practise this complaisance for the benefit of 
 mankind. 
 
 Take a student who has deeply imbibed the princi- 
 22
 
 254 OF MANAGING THE 
 
 pies of the Peripatetics, and imagines certain imma- 
 terial beings called substantial forms to inhabit every 
 herb, flower, mineral, metal, fire, water, &c. and to be 
 the spring of all its properties and operations; or take a 
 Platonist, who believes an aniina mundi, a universal 
 soul of the world to pervade all bodies, to act in and by 
 them according to their nature, and indeed to give them 
 their nature and their special powers; perhaps it may 
 be very hard to convince these persons by argument, 
 and constrain them to yield up these fancies. Well 
 then, let the one believe his universal soul, and the other 
 go on with his notion of substantial forms, and at the 
 same time leach them how by certain original laws of 
 motion, and the various sizes, shapes, and situations of 
 the parts of matter, allowing a continued divine con- 
 course in and with all, the several appearances in nature 
 may be solved, and the variety of effects produced, ac- 
 cording to the corpuscular philosophy improved by 
 Descartes, Mr. Boyle, and Sir Isaac Newton; and when 
 they have attained a degree of skill in this science, they 
 will see these airy notions of theirs, these imaginary pow 
 ers, to be so useless and unnecessary, that they will drop 
 them of their own accord: the Peripatetic forms will 
 vanish from the mind like a dream, and the Platonic 
 soul of tlie world will expire. 
 
 Or suppose a young philosopher, under a powerful 
 persuasion that there is nothing but what has three 
 dimensions, lengtli, breadth, and thickness, and conse- 
 quently that every finite being has a figure or shape 
 (for shape is but the term and boundary of dimension:) 
 suppose this person, through the long prejudices of sense 
 and imagination, cannot be easily brought to conceive 
 of a spirit or a tliinking being without shape and dimen- 
 sions; let him then continue to conceive a spirit with 
 dimensions; but be sure in all his conceptions to retain 
 the idea of cogitation, or a power of thinking, and thus 
 proceed to philosophize upon the subject. Perhaps in a 
 little time he will find that length, breadth, and shape 
 have no share in any of the actions of a spirit, and that 
 he can manifest all the properties and relatious of such 
 a being, with all its operations of sensation, volition,
 
 PREJUDICES OF MEN. 265 
 
 &c. to be as well performed without the use of this sup- 
 posed shape or these dimensions; and that all these 
 operations and these attributes may be ascribed to a 
 spirit considered merely as a power of thinking. And 
 when he further conceives that God, the infinite Spirit, 
 is an almigiity, self-consistent, tliinking power, without 
 shape and dimensions of length, breadth, and depth, he 
 may tlien suppose the human spirit may be an inferior 
 self-subsisting' power of thought; and he may be inclined 
 to drop tlie ideas of dimension and figure by degrees, 
 when he sees and is convinced they do nothing toward 
 thinking, nor are they necessary to assist or explain the 
 operations or properties of a spirit. 
 
 I may give another instance of the same practice, 
 where there is a prejudicate fondness of particular words 
 and plirases. Suppose a man is educated in an unhap- 
 py form of speech, whereby he explains some great doc- 
 trine of the gospel, and by the means of tins phrase he 
 has imbibed a very false idea of that doctrine: yet he is 
 so bigoted to his form of words, that he imagines if 
 those words are omitted, the doctrine is lost. Now if I 
 cannot possibly persuade him to part with his improper 
 terms, I will indulge them a little, and try to explain 
 them in a scriptural sense, rather than let him go on in his 
 mistaken ideas. 
 
 Credonius believes that Christ descended into hell: I 
 think tlie word hell, as now commonly understood, is 
 very improper here; but since the bulk of Christians, 
 and Credonius amongst them, will by no means part 
 witli the word out of tlieir English creed, 1 will explain 
 the word hell to signify the state of the dead, or the sepa- 
 rate state of souls; and thus lead my friend into more 
 just ideas of the truth, namely, that the soul of Christ 
 existed three days in the state of separation from his 
 body, or was in the invisible world, which might be ori- 
 ginally called hell in English, as well as hades in Greek. 
 
 Anilla has been bred a pap st all her days, and though 
 she does not know much of religion, yet she resolves 
 never to part from the Roman catholic faith, and is ob- 
 stinately bent against a change. Now I cannot think it 
 unlawful to teach her the true Christian, that is, the
 
 256 OF MANAGING THE 
 
 protestant religion, out of the Epistle to the Romans, 
 and show her that the same doctrine is contained in the 
 catholic epistles of St. Peter, James, and Jude: and thus 
 let her Jive and die a good Christian in the belief of the 
 religion 1 teach her out of the New Testament, while 
 she imagines she is a Roman catholic still, because she 
 finds tlie doctrines she is taught in the catholic epistles 
 and in that to tiie Romans. 
 
 I grant it is most proper there should be different 
 words (as far as possible) applied to different ideas; and 
 this rule should never be dispensed with, if we had to 
 do only with the reason of mankind; but their various 
 prejudices and zeal for some party phrases sometimes 
 make it necessary that we should lead them into truth 
 under the covert of their own beloved forms of speech, 
 rather than permit them to live and die obstinate and 
 unconvincible m any dangerous mistake: whereas an 
 attempt to deprive them of their old established words 
 would raise such a tumult within Ihem, as to render their 
 conviction hopeless. 
 
 III. Sometimes we may make use of the very preju- 
 dices under which a person labours in order to convince 
 him of some particular truth, and argue with him upon 
 his own professed principles as though they were true. 
 This is called argumentum ad Iw7ninem^ and is another 
 way of dealing with the prejudices of men. 
 
 Suppose a Jew lies sick of a fever, and is forbid flesh 
 by his physician; but hearing that rabbits were provided 
 for the dinner of the family, desired earnestly to eat of 
 them; and suppose he became impatient because his 
 physician did not permit him, and he insisted upon it 
 that it could do him no hurt. Surely rather than let 
 him persist in that fancy and that desire, to the danger 
 of his life, 1 would tell him that those animals were 
 strangled, which sort of food was forbidden by tlie Jew- 
 ish law, though I myself may believe that law is now 
 abolished. 
 
 In the same manner was Tenerilla persuaded to let 
 Damon her husband prosecute a thief who broke open 
 their house on a Sunday. At first she abhorred the 
 thoughts of it, and refused it utterly, because, if the
 
 PREJUDICES OF MEN. 257 
 
 thief were condemned, according to the Enghsh law he 
 must be hanged, whereas (said she) the law of God, in 
 the writings of Moses, doth not appoint death to be the 
 punishment of such criminals, but tells us, that a thief 
 should be sold for his theft. — Exod. xxii. 3. But when 
 Damon could no otherwise convince her that the thief 
 ought to be prosecuted, he put her in mind that the 
 theft was committed on Sunday morning: now the same 
 law of Moses requires that the sabbath-breaker shall 
 surely be put to deatii. — Exod. xxxi. 15; Numb. xv. 35. 
 This argument prevailed with Tcnerilla, and she con- 
 sented to the prosecution. 
 
 Encrates used the same means ot conviction when 
 he saw a Mahometan drink wine to excess, and heard 
 him maintain the lawfulness and pleasure of drunken- 
 ness; Encrates reminded him that his own prophet Ma- 
 homet had utterly forbidden all wine to his followers, 
 and tlie good man restrained his vicious appetite by this 
 superstition, when he could no otherwise convince him 
 that drunkenness was unlawful, nor withhold him from 
 excess. 
 
 When we find any person obstinately persisting in a 
 mistake in opposition to all reason, especially if the 
 mistake be very injurious or pernicious, and we know 
 this person will hearken to the sentiment or authority 
 oi^ some favourite name, it is needful sometimes to use 
 the opinion and authority of that favourite person, since 
 tiiat is likely to be regarded much more than reason. I 
 confess I am almost ashamed to speak of using any influ- 
 ence of autliority while I would teach the art of reasoning. 
 But in some cases it is biitter that poor, silly, perverse, 
 obstinate creatures should be persuaded to judge and act 
 ariglit, by a veneration for the sense of others, than to 
 be left to wander in pernicious errors, and continue 
 deaf to all argument, and blind to all evidence. They 
 are but children of a larger size; and since they persist 
 all their lives in their mmority, and reject all true rea- 
 soning, surely we may try to pereuade them to practise 
 what is for their own interest by such childish reasons 
 as they will hearken lo: we may overawe them from 
 pursuing their own ruin by the terrors of a solemn sha- 
 22*
 
 258 OF MANAGING THE 
 
 dow, or allure them by a sugar-plum to their own hap- 
 piness. 
 
 But after all, we must conclude that wheresoever it 
 can be done, it is best to remove and root out those 
 prejudices wiiich obstruct the entrance of truth into the 
 mind, rather tlian to palliate, humour, or indulge tliem; 
 and sometimes this must necessarily be done before you 
 can make a person part with some beloved error, and 
 lead him into better sentiments. 
 
 Suppose you would convince a gamester that gaming 
 is not a lawful calling or business of life to maintain 
 one's self by it, and you make use of this argument, 
 namely, " That which doth not admit us to ask the 
 blessing of God that we may get gain by it, cannot be 
 a lawful employment; but we cannot ask the blessing of 
 God on ga.ming, therefore," &c. The minor is proved 
 thus: " We cannot pray that our neighbour may lose; 
 this is contrary to the rule of seeking our neiglihour's 
 welfare, and loving him as ourselves; this is vvisiiing 
 mischief to our neighbour. But in gaming we can gain 
 but just so much as our neighbour loses: therefore in 
 gaming we cannot pray for tlie blessing of God that we 
 may gain by it." 
 
 Perhaps the gamester shrugs and winces, turns and 
 twists tiie argument every way, but he cannot fairly 
 answer it, yet he will patcli up an answer to satisfy 
 himself, and will never yield to the conviction, because 
 he feels so much of the sweet influence of gaming, 
 either toward the g-ratification of his avarice, or the sup- 
 port of his expenses. Thur. he is under a strong preju- 
 dice in favour of it, and is not easily convinced. 
 
 Your first work therefore must be to lead him by de- 
 grees to separate tlie thoughts of his own interest from 
 the argument, and show him that our own temporal in- 
 terests, our livelihood, or our loss, hath nothing to do to 
 determine this point in opposition to the plain reason 
 of things, and that he ought to put that consideration 
 quite out of the question, if he would be honest and 
 sincere in his search after truth or duty; and that he 
 must be contented to hearken to the voice of reason 
 and truth, even though it should run counter to his
 
 PREJUDICES OF MEN. 259 
 
 secular interest. When this is done, then an argument 
 may carry some weight or force with it towards his con- 
 viction. 
 
 In like manner if the question were, whether Matris- 
 sa ought to expose herself and her other children to pov- 
 erty and misery in order to support the extravagances 
 of a favourite son? Perhaps the mother can hear no ar- 
 gument against it; she feels no conviction in the most 
 cogent reasonings, so close do her fond prejudices stick 
 to her heart. The first business here is to remove this 
 prejudice. Ask her therefore, Whether it is not a pa- 
 rentis duty to love all her children so as to provide for 
 their welfare? Whetlier duty to God and her family 
 ought not to regulate Iier love to a favourite? Whether 
 her neiglibour Floris did well in dressing up her daugh- 
 ters with expensive gaudery, and neglecting the educa- 
 tion of lier son till she saw his ruin? Perhaps by this 
 method she may be brought to see that peculiar fond- 
 ness for one child should have no weight or force in de- 
 termining the judgment in opposition to plain duty: and 
 she may then give herself up to conviction in her own 
 case, and to the evidence of truth, and thus correct her 
 mistaken practice. 
 
 Suppose you would convert Rominda from popery, 
 and you set all the errors, absurdities, and superstitions 
 of that church before her in the most glaring evidence: 
 she holds them fast still, and cannot part with them, 
 for she hath a most sacred reverence for the fiith and 
 the church of her ancestors, and cannot imagine that 
 they were in the wrong. The first labour must be 
 therefore to convince her that our ancestors were falli- 
 ble creatures; that we may part with their faith without 
 any dishonour done to them; that all persons must 
 choose their religion for themselves; that we must an- 
 swer for ourselves in the great day of judgment, and 
 not we for our parents, nor they for us; that Christiani- 
 ty itself liad never been received by her ancestors in 
 this nation, if they had persisted always in the religion 
 of their parents, for they were all heathens. And when 
 she has by these methods of reasoning been persuaded 
 that she is not bound always to cleave to the religion
 
 260 OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 of her parents, she may then receive an easier convic- 
 tion of the errors of Rome.* 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OP INSTRUCTION BY PREACHING. 
 
 Section I. 
 Wisdom better than Learning in the Pulpit. 
 
 Tyro is a young preacher just come from the schools 
 of logic and divinity, and advanced to the pulpit; he 
 was counted a smart youngster in the academy for ana- 
 lysing a proposition, and is full even to the brim with 
 the terms of his art in learning. When he has read 
 his text, after a short flourish of introduction, he tells 
 you in how many senses the cliief word is taken, first 
 among Greek heathen writers, and then in tlie New 
 Testament, he cites all the chapters and verses exactly, 
 and endeavours to make you understand many a text 
 before he comes to let you know fully what he means 
 by his own. 
 
 He find? these things at large in the critics which he 
 has consulted, where this sort of work is necessary and 
 beautiful, and therefore he imagines it will become his 
 sermon well. Then he informs you very learnedly of 
 the various false expositions which have been given by 
 divines and commentators on this part of scripture, and 
 
 * But perhaps of all these different methods of curing prejudices 
 none can be practised with greater pleasure to a wise and good 
 man, or with greater success, where success is most desirable, than 
 attempting: to turn the attention of well meaning people from some 
 point in whicli prejudice prevails, to some other of greater impor- 
 tance, and fixing their thoughts and heart on some great truth which 
 they allow, and which leads into consequences contrary to some other 
 notion which they espouse and retain. By this means they may 
 be led to forget their errors while attentive to opposite truth, and in 
 proportion to the degree in which their minds ojjcn, and their tem- 
 pers grow more generous and virtuous, may be induced to resign it. 
 And surely nothing can give a benevolent mind more satisfaction 
 than to improve his neighbour iu knowledge and in goodness at the 
 Game time.
 
 BY PREACHING. 2G1 
 
 it may be the reasons of each of them too; and he re- 
 futes them with much zeal and contempt. Having thus 
 cleared his way, he fixes upon the exposition which bis 
 judgment best approves, and dwells, generally, five or 
 ten minutes upon the arguments to confirm it: and tfiis 
 he docs not only in texts of darkness and difficulty, but 
 even when scarce a ciiild could doubt of his meaning. 
 
 This grammatical exercise being performed, he applies 
 himself to his logic. The text is divided and subdivi- 
 ded into many little pieces; he points you precisely to 
 the subject and predicate, brings you acquainted with 
 the agent and the object, shows you all the properties 
 and the accidents which attend it, and would fain make 
 you understand the matter and form of it as well as he 
 does himself When he has thus done, two-thirds of 
 the hour is spent, and his hearers are quite tired; then 
 he begins to draw near to his doctrine or grand theme 
 of discourse, and having told the audience with great 
 formality and exactness in what method he shall man- 
 age it, he names you one or two particulars under the 
 first general head; and by this time finds it necessary to 
 add, *' He intended indeed to have been larger in the il- 
 lustration of his subject, and he should have given you 
 some reasons for the doctrine, but he is sorry that he is 
 prevented: and then he designed also to have brought 
 it down to the conscience of every man by a warm ad- 
 dress, but his time being gone he must break off." He 
 hurries over a hint or two which should have been 
 wrought up into exhortation or instruction, but all in 
 great haste, and thus concludes his work. The obsti- 
 nate and careless sinner goes away unawakened, un- 
 convinced; and the mourning soul departs uncomfort- 
 ed: the unbeliever is not led to faith in the gospel, nor 
 the immoral wretcii to hate or forsake his iniquities: the 
 hypocrite and the man of sincerity are both unedified, 
 because the preacher had not time. In short, he hath fin- 
 ished his work, and hath done nothing. 
 
 When I hear this man preach it brings to my remem- 
 brance the account which I have heard concerning the 
 Czar of Muscovy, the first time his army besieged a 
 town in Livonia: he was then just come from his trav-
 
 262 OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 els in Great Britain, where he and his ministers of state 
 had learned the mathematics of an old acquaintance of 
 mine: the Czar took great care to begin the siege in 
 form; he drew all tlie lines of circumvallation and con- 
 travallation according to the rules of art; but he was so 
 tedious and so exact in these mathematical performan- 
 ces, that the season was spent, he was forced to break 
 up the siege, and retire without any execution done 
 upon the town. 
 
 Ergates is another sort of preacher, a workman that 
 need not be ashamed: he had in his younger days but 
 few of these learned vanities, and age and experience 
 have now worn them all off. He preaches like a man 
 who watches for our souls, as one that must give an 
 account; lie passes over lesser matters with speed, and 
 pursues his great design, namely, to save himself and 
 them that hear him, 1 Tim. iv. 16, and by following 
 this advice of St. Paul, he happily complies with that 
 great and natural rule of Horace, always to make haste 
 towards the most valuable end: — 
 
 Semper ad eventutn festinat. — 
 
 He never affects to choose a very obscure text, lest he 
 should waste too much of the hour in explaining the lit- 
 eral sense of it: he reserves all those obscurities till they 
 come in course at his seasons of public exposition. For 
 it is his opinion, that preacliing the gospel for the salva- 
 tion of men carries in it a little different idea from a 
 learned and critical exposition of the difficult texts of 
 scripture. 
 
 He knows well how to use his logic in his composi- 
 tions; but he calls no part of the words by its logical 
 name, if there be any vulgar name that answers it: read- 
 ing and meditation have furnished him with extensive 
 views of his subject, and his own good sense hath taught 
 him to give sufficient reasons for every thing he asserts; 
 but he never uses one of them till a proof is needful. 
 He is acquainted with the mistaken glosses of exposi- 
 tors, but he thinks it needless to acquaint his hearers 
 with them, unless there be evident danger that they 
 might r"in into the same mistake. He understands very
 
 BY PREACHING. 263 
 
 well what his subject is not, as well as what it is; but 
 when he would explain it to you he never says, first, 
 negatiA'ely, unless some remarkable error is at hand, and 
 which his hearers may easily fall into, for want of such 
 a caution. 
 
 Thus, in five or ten minutes at the most; he makes 
 his way plain to the proposition or theme on which he 
 designs to discourse; and being so wise as to know well 
 what to say and what to leave out, he proportions every 
 part of his work to his time; he enlarges a little upon 
 the subject by way of illustration, till the truth becomes 
 evident and intelligible to the weakest of his hearers; 
 then he confirms the point with a few convincing argu- 
 ments where the matter requires it, and makes haste to 
 turn the doctrine into use and improvement. Thus the 
 ignorant are instructed, and the growing Christians are 
 established and improved: tlie stupid sinner is loudly 
 awakened, and the mourning soul receives consolation: 
 the unbeliever is led to trust in Christ and his Gospel, 
 and the impenitent and immoral are convinced and sof- 
 tened, are melted and reformed. The inward voice of 
 the holy Spirit joins v.'ith the voice of the minister; the 
 good man and the hypocrite have their proper portions 
 assigned them; and tlie work of the Lord prospers in his 
 hand. 
 
 This is the usual course and manner of his ministry; 
 this method being natural, plain, and easy, he casts 
 many of his discourses into this form; but he is no slave 
 to forms and methods of any kind; he makes the nature 
 of his subject, and the necessity of his hearers, the great 
 rule to direct hiin in what method lie shall choose in 
 every sermon, that he may the better enlighten, con- 
 vince, and persuade. Ergatos well knows that wliere 
 the subject itself is entirely practical, he has no need 
 of the formality of long uses and exhortations: he knows 
 that practice is the chief design of doctrine; therefore 
 he bestows most of his labour upon this part of hig of- 
 fice, and intermingles much of the pathetic under every 
 particular. Yet he wisely observes the special dangers 
 of his flock, and the errors of the times he lives in, and 
 now and then (though very seldom) he thinks it necea-
 
 264 OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 sary to spend almost a whole discourse in mere doctri- 
 nal articles. — Upon such an occasion he thinks it proper 
 to take up a little larger part of his hour in explaining 
 and confirming the sense of his text, and brings it down 
 to the understanding of a child. 
 
 At another time perhaps he particularly designs vo 
 entertain the few learned and polite among his auditors, 
 and that with this view, that he may ingratiate his dis- 
 courses with their ears, and ma)' so far gratify their cu- 
 riosity in this part of his sermon as to give an easier en- 
 trance for the more plain, necessary, and important parts 
 of it into their hearts. Then he aims at, and he readies 
 the sublime, and furnishes out an entertainment for 
 tiie finest taste; but he scarce ever finishes his sermon 
 without compassion to the unlearned, and an address 
 that may reach their consciences with words of salvation. 
 
 I have observed him sometimes, after a learned dis- 
 course, come down from the pulpit as a man ashamed 
 and quite out of countenance: he has blushed, and com- 
 plained to his intimate friends, lest he should be thought 
 to have preached himself, and not Christ Jesus his Lord; 
 he has been ready to wish he had entertained the audi- 
 ence in a more unlearned manner, and on a more vul- 
 gar subject, lest tiie servants and the labourers and 
 tradesmen there should reap no advantage to their souls, 
 and the important hour of worship should be lost as to 
 their improvement. Well he knows, and keeps it upon 
 his heart, that the middle and the lower ranks of man- 
 kind, and people of unlettered character, make up the 
 greater part of the assembly; therefore he is ever seek- 
 ing how to adapt his thoughts and his language, and far 
 the greater part of all his ministrations, to the instruc- 
 tion and profit of persons of common rank and capacity; 
 it is in the midst of these that he hopes to find his tri- 
 umph, his joy, and crown, in the last great day, for not 
 many wise, not man}"^ noble are called. 
 
 There is so much spirit and beauty in his common 
 conversation, that it is sought and desired by the ingeni- 
 ous men of his age; but he carries a severe guard of 
 piety always about him, that tempers the pleasiuit aii 
 of his discourse, even in his brightest and freest hours;
 
 BY PREACHING. 265 
 
 and before he leaves the place (if possible) he will leave 
 something of the savour of heaven there: in the parlour 
 he carries on the design of the pulpit, but in so elegant 
 a manner, that it charms the company, and gives not 
 the least occasion for censure. 
 
 His polite acquaintance will sometimes rally him for 
 talking so plainly in his sermons, and sinking his good 
 sense to so low a level: but Ergates is bold to tell the 
 gayest of them, — " Our public business, my friend, is 
 chiefly with the weak and the ignorant; that is, the bulk 
 of mankind: The poor receive the gospel: The mechan- 
 ics and day-labourers, the women and the children of 
 my assembly have souls to be saved: I will imitate my 
 blessed Redeemer in preaching the gospel to the poor, 
 and learn of St. Paul to become all things to all men, 
 that I may win souls, and lead many sinners to heaven 
 by repentance, faith, and holiness." 
 
 Sect. II. A Branching Sermon. 
 I HAVE always thought it a mistake in the preacher 
 to mince his text or his subject too small, by a great 
 number of subdivisions; for it occasions great confusion 
 to the understandings of the unlearned. Where a man 
 divides his matter into more general, less general, spe- 
 cial, and more particular heads, he is under a necessity 
 sometimes of saying, firstly or secondly, two or three 
 times together, which the learned may observe; but the 
 greater part of the auditory, not knowing the analysis, 
 cannot so n)uch as take it into their minds, and much 
 less treasure up in tlieir memories, in a just and regular 
 order; and when such liearers are desired to give some 
 account of the sermon, they throw the thirdlies and 
 secondlies into heaps, and make very confused work in 
 a rehearsal, by intermingling the general and the spe- 
 cial heads. In writing a large discourse this is much 
 more tolerable,* but in preaching it is less profitable and 
 more intrit^te and offensive. 
 
 * Especially as words may be used to number the generals and fig. 
 ures of different kinds and forms to marshal the primary or secon- 
 dary ranks of particulars under them. 
 
 23
 
 286 OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 It is as vain an afFectalion also to draw out a long 
 rank of particulars in the same sermon under any one 
 general, and run up the number of them to eighteenthly 
 and seven-and-twentiethly. Men that take delight in 
 this sort of work, will cut out all their senses into 
 shreds; and every thing tiiat they can say upon any topic 
 shall make a new particular. 
 
 This sort of folly and mistaken conduct appears 
 weekly in Polyramus's lectures, and renders all liis dis- 
 courses lean and insipid. Whether it proceeds from a 
 mere barrenness of thought and native dryness of soul, 
 that he is not able to vary his matter and to amplify 
 beyond the formal topics of analysis; or wliether it ari- 
 ses from affectation of sucli a way of talking, is hard to 
 say: but it is certain that the chief part of his auditory 
 are not overn)uch profited or pleased. When I sit un- 
 der his preaching, I fancy myself brought into the val- 
 ley of Ezekiel's vision; it was full of bones, and behold, 
 there were very many in the valley, and lo, tliey were 
 very dry. — Ezek. xxxvii. 1, 2. 
 
 It is tlie variety of enlargement upon a few proper 
 heads that clothes the dry bones witli flesh, and ani- 
 mates them with blood and spirits: itis this that colours the 
 discourse, makes it warm and strong, and renders the 
 divine propositions brigiit and persuasive; it is this brmgs 
 down the doctrine or the duty to the understanding or 
 conscience of the whole auditory, and commands the 
 natural affections into the interest of the gospel: in 
 short, it is this that, under the influence of the Holy 
 Spirit, gives life and force, beauty and success to a ser- 
 mon, and provides food for souls. A single rose-bush, 
 or a dwarf-pear, with all their leaves, flowers, and fruit 
 about them, have more beauty and spirit in themselves, 
 and yield more food and pleasure to mankind, tiian the 
 innumerable branches, boughs, and twigs of a long 
 hedge of thorns. The fruit will feed the hungry, and 
 the flower will refresh the fainting, which is more than 
 can be said of the thickest oak in Bashan, when it has 
 lost its vital juice; it may spreadiits limbs indeed far and 
 wide, but they are naked, withered, and sapless.
 
 BY PREACHING. ZQl 
 
 Sect. III. The Harangue. 
 
 Is it. not possible to forsake one extreme without run- 
 ning into a worse? Is there no medium between a ser- 
 mon made up of sixty dry particulars, and a long loose 
 declamation without any distinction of the parts of it' 
 Must the preacher divide liis work by the breaks of a 
 minute-watch, or let it run on incessant to the last word, 
 like the flowing stream of the hour-glass that measures 
 his divinity? Surely Fluvio preaches as though he knew 
 no medium; and having taken a disgust heretofore at 
 one of Polyramus's lectures, he resolved his discourses 
 should have no distinction of particulars in them. His 
 language flows smoothly in a long connexion of periods, 
 and glides over the ear like a rivulet of oil over polished 
 marble, .and, like that too, leaves no trace behind it. 
 The attention is detained in a gentle pleasure, and (to 
 say the best thing possible of it) the hearer is soothed 
 into something like divine delight; but he can give tlie 
 inquiring friend scarce any account of what it was that 
 pleased him. He retains a faint idea of the sweetness, 
 but has forgot the sense. 
 
 Tell me, Fluvio, is this the most effectual way to in- 
 struct ignorant creatures in the several articles of faith, 
 and the various duties of the Cliristian life? Will such a 
 long uniform flow of language imprint all the distinct 
 parts of Christian knowledge on the mind in tiieir best 
 form and order! Do you find such a gentle and gliding 
 stream of words most powerful to call up the souls of 
 sirmers from their dangerous or fatal lethargy? Will this 
 indolent and moveless species of oratory make a thought- 
 less wretch attend to matters of infinite moment? Can a 
 long purling sound awaken a sleepy conscience, and 
 give a perishing sinner just notices of his dreadful ha- 
 zard? Can it furnish his understanding and his memory 
 with all the awful and tremendous topics of our religion, 
 when it scarce ever leaves any distinct impression of 
 one of them on his soul? Can you make the arrow wound 
 where it will not stick? Where all the discourse vanishes 
 from the remembrance, can you suppose the soul to 
 be profited or enriched? When you brush over the clo-
 
 2ba OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 sed eyelids with a feather, did you ever find it give 
 hght to the blind: Have any of your soft harangues, 
 your continued threads of silken eloquence, ever 
 raised the dead? I fear your whole aim is to talk over 
 the appointed number of minutes upon the subject, or 
 to practise a little upon the gentler passions, without 
 any concern how to give the understanding its due im- 
 provement, or to furnish the memory with any lasting 
 treasure, or to make a knowing and a religious Christian. 
 
 Ask old Wheatfield, the rich farmer, ask Plowdown, 
 your neighbour, or any of his family, who have sat all 
 their lives under your ministry, what they know of the 
 common truths of religion, or of the special articles of 
 Christianity? Desire them to tell you what the gospel is, 
 or what is salvation? wiiat are their duties toward God, 
 or what they mean by religion' who is Jesus Christ, or 
 what is the meaning of his atonement, or redemption 
 by his blood? Perhaps you will tell me yourself, that 
 you have very seldom entertained them with these sub- 
 jects. Well, inquire of them then, what is heaven; 
 which is the way to obtain it; or what hope they have 
 of dwelling there? Entreat them to tell you wherein 
 they have profited as to holiness of heart and life, or 
 fitness for death? They will soon make it appear, by 
 their awkward answers, that they understood very lit- 
 tle of all your fine discourses, and those of your prede- 
 cessor; and have made but wretched improvement of 
 forty years attendance at church. They have now and 
 then been pleased perhaps with the music of your voice, 
 as with the sound of a sweet instrument, and they mis- 
 took that for devotion; but their heads are dark still, and 
 their hearts earthly; they are mere heathens with a 
 Christian name, and know little more of God than their 
 yokes of oxen. In short, Polyramus's auditors have 
 some confusion in their knowledge, but Fluvio's hear- 
 ers have scarce any knowledge at all. 
 
 But you will tell me your discourses are not all made 
 up of harangue; your design is sometimes to inform the 
 mind by a train of well connected reasonings, and that 
 all your paragraphs, in their long order, prove and sup- 
 port each other; and though you do not distinguish
 
 BY PREACHING. 269 
 
 your discourse into particulars, yet you have kept some 
 invisible method all the way; and by some artificial gra- 
 dations you have brought ycur sermon down lo the 
 concluding sentence. 
 
 It may be so sometimes, and I will acknowledge it; 
 but believe me, Fluvio, this artificial and invisible method 
 carries darkness with it instead of light; nor is it by 
 any means a proper way to instruct the vulgar, that is, 
 the bulk of your auditory: their souls are not capable 
 of so wide a stretch, as to take in the whole chain of 
 your long-connected consequences; you talk reason and 
 religion to them in vain, if you do not make the argu- 
 ment so sliort as to come within their grasp, and give a 
 frequent rest for their thoughts; you must break the 
 bread of life into pieces to feed children with it, and 
 part your discourses into distinct propositions to give the 
 ignorant a plain scheme of any one doctrine, and enable 
 them to comprehend or retain it. 
 
 Every day gives us experiments to confirm what I 
 say, and to encourage ministers to divide their sermons 
 into several distinct heads of discourse. Myrtilla, a 
 little creature of nine years old, was at church twice 
 yesterday: in tlie morning the preacher entertained his 
 audience with a running oration, and the child could 
 give her parents no other account of it, but that he 
 talked smootlily and sweetly about virtue and heaven. 
 It was Er_gates' lot to fulfil the service of the afternoon; 
 he is an excellent preacher, both for the wise and for 
 the unwise: in tlie evening Myrtilla very prettily enter- 
 tained her mother with a repetition of the most consid- 
 erable parts of the sermon; for " Here (said she) I can 
 fix my thoughts upon first, secondly, and thirdly; upon 
 the doctrine, the reasons, and the inferences; and I knov^ 
 what I must try to remember, and repeat it when my 
 friends shall' ask me; but as for the morning sermon, I 
 could do nothing but hear it, for I could not tell what I 
 should get by heait," 
 
 This manner of talking in a loose harangue has not 
 
 only injured our pupils, but it makes several essays and 
 
 treatises that are written now-a-days less capable of 
 
 improving the knowledge or enriching the memory of 
 
 23*
 
 270 OP INSTRUCTION 
 
 the reader. I will easily grant, that where the whole 
 discourse reaches not beyond a few pages, there is no 
 necessity for the formal proposal of the several parts 
 before you handle each of them distinctly; nor is there 
 need of such a set metliod: the unlearned and narrow 
 understanding can take an easy view of the whole, 
 vv'ithout the author's pointing to the several parts. But 
 where the essay is prolonged to a greater extent, confu- 
 sion grows iipon the reader almost at every page, with- 
 out some scheme or method of successive heads in the 
 discourse to direct the mind and aid the memory. 
 
 Jf it be answered here. That neither such treatises 
 nor sermons are a mere heap, for there is a just method 
 observed in the composure, and the subjects are ranked 
 in a j)roper order, it is easy to reply. That this method 
 is so concealed, that a common reader or hearer can 
 never find it; and you must suppose every one that pe- 
 ruses such a book, and much more that attends such a 
 discourse, to have some good knowledge of the art of 
 logic before he can distinguish the various parts and 
 branches, the connexions and transitions of it. To an 
 unlearned eye or ear it appears a mere heap of good 
 things, without any method, form, or order; and if you 
 tell your young friends they should get it into their 
 heads and hearts, they know not how to set about it. 
 
 If we inquire how it comes to pass that our modern 
 ingenious writers should affect this manner, I know no 
 juster reason to give for it, than a humorous and wanton 
 contempt of the customs and preaching of our forefa- 
 thers: a sensible disgust taken at some of their mistakes 
 and ill conduct at first tempted a vain generation into 
 the contrary extreme near sixty years ago; and now, 
 even to this day, it continues too much in fashion, so 
 that the wise, as well as the weak, are ashamed to 
 oppose it, and are borne down with the current. 
 
 Our fathers formed their sermons much upon the 
 model of doctrine, reason, and use: and perhaps there 
 is no one method of more universal service, and more 
 easily applicable to most subjects, though it is not neces- 
 sary or proper in every discourse; but the very names 
 of doctrine and use are become now-a-days such stale and
 
 BY PREACHING. 271 
 
 old fashioned things, that a modish preacher is quite 
 ashamed of them; nor can a modish hearer bear the 
 sound of those syllables. A direct and distinct address 
 to the consciences of saints and sinners must not be 
 named or mentioned, though these terms are scriptural, 
 lest it should be hissed out of the church like the garb 
 of a roundhead or a puritan. 
 
 Some of our fathers have multiplied their particulars 
 under one single head of discourse, and run up the tale 
 of them to sixteen or seventeen. Culpable indeed, and 
 too numerous! But in opposition to this extreme, we 
 are almost ashamed in our age to say thirdly; and all 
 fourthlies and fifthlies are very unfashionable words. 
 
 Our fathers made too great account of tlie sciences 
 of logic and metaphysics, and the formalities of defini- 
 tion and division, syllogism and method, when they 
 brought them so often into the pulpit; but we hold those 
 arts so much in contempt and defiance, that we had 
 rather talk a whole hour without order, and without 
 edification, than be suspected of using logic or method 
 in our discourses. 
 
 Some of our falliers neglected politeness perhaps too 
 much, and indulged a coarseness of style, and a rough 
 or awkward pronunciation; but we have such a value 
 for elegancy, and so nice a taste for what we call polite, 
 that we dare not spoil the cadence of a period to quote 
 a text of Scripture in it, nor disturb the harmony of 
 our sentences to number or to name the heads of our 
 discourse. And for tliis reason I have heard it hinted, 
 that the name of Christ has been banished out of polite 
 sermons, because it is a monosyllable of so many conso- 
 nants and so harsli a sound. 
 
 But after all, our fathers, with all their defects, and 
 with all their weaknesses, preached the gospel of Christ 
 to the sensilde instruction of whole parishes, to the con- 
 version of sinners from the errors of their way, and the 
 salvation of multitudes of souls. But it has been the 
 late complaint of Dr. Edwards, and other worthy sons 
 of the establislied church, that in too many pulpits now- 
 a-days there are only heard some smooth declamations, 
 while the hearers that were ignorant of the gospel
 
 272 OF WRITING CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 abide still without knowledge, and the profane sinners 
 are profane still. O that divine grace would descend, 
 and reform what is amiss in all the sanctuaries of the 
 nation!* 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF WRITING BOOKS FOR THE PUBLIC. 
 
 In the explication and distinction of words and things 
 by definition and description, in the division of things 
 into their several parts, and in the distribution of things 
 into their several kinds, be sure to observe a just me- 
 dium. We must not always explain and distinguish, 
 define, divide, and distribute; nor must we always omit 
 it: sometimes it is useless and impertinent, sometimes it 
 is proper and necessary. There is confusion brought 
 into our argimient and discourse by too many or by too 
 few of these. One author plunges his reader into tlie 
 midst of things without due explication of them; another 
 jumbles together, without distinction, all tliose ideas 
 wliicli have any likeness; a tliird is fond of explaining 
 every word, and coining distinctions between ideas wiiicli 
 have little or no difference; but each of these runs into 
 extremes, for all tiiese practices are equal liinderances 
 to clear, just, and useful knowledge. It is not a long 
 train of rules, but observation and good judgmenr can 
 teach us wlien to explain, define, and divide, and when 
 to omit it. 
 
 In the beginning of a treatise it is proper and neces- 
 sary sometimes to premise some prfficognita, or general 
 principles, which may serve for an introduction to the 
 
 * It appears by the dale at the bottom of this paper, in the manu- 
 script, that it was written in the year 1718. The first and perhaps 
 the denond section of it may seem now to be grown, in a great mea- 
 sure, out of date; but whether the third is not at least as seasonable 
 now as ever, may deserve serious consideration. The autlior has, 
 since this was drawn up, delivered his sentiments more fully in the 
 hrst i>art of that excellent piece, entitled " An Humble Attempt for 
 the Revival of Religion," &.c.
 
 OF WRITING CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 273 
 
 subject in hand, and give light or strength to the fol- 
 lowing discourse; but it is ridiculous, under a pretence 
 of such introductions or prefaces, to wander to the most 
 remote or distant themes, which have no near or neces- 
 sary connexion with the thing in hand; this serves for 
 no other purpose but to make a gaudy show of learn- 
 ing. There was a professor of divinity who began an 
 analytical exposition of the Epistle to the Romans with 
 such prcBcognita as these: first he showed the excellence 
 of man above other creatures, who was able to declare 
 the sense of his mind by arbitrary signs: then he haran- 
 gued upon the origin of speech; after that he told of 
 the wonderful invention of writing, and inquired into 
 tlie author of that art which tauglit us to paint sounds; 
 when he had given us the various opinions of the learn- 
 ed upon this point, and distributed writing into the sev- 
 eral knids, and laid down definitions of them all, ut 
 last he came to speak of epistolary writing, and distin- 
 guished epistles into familiar, private, public, recom- 
 mendatory, credential, and what not: tlience he descend- 
 ed to speak of the superscription, subscription, &c.; and 
 some lectures were finished before he came to the first 
 verse of St. Paul's Epistle. Tlie auditors, being half 
 starved and tired with expectation, dropped away one 
 by one, so that the professor had scarce any hearer to 
 attend the college or lectures which he had promised on 
 that part of Scripture. 
 
 The rules whicli Horace has given in his Art of Poe- 
 try would instruct many a preacher and professor of 
 theology, if they would but attend to them. He informs 
 us that a wise antlior, such as Homer, who writes a 
 poem of the Trojan war, would not begin a long and 
 far distant story of Jupiter, in the form of a swan, im- 
 pregnating Leda with a double egg; from one part 
 whereof Helen was hatched, who was married to Mene- 
 laus, a Greek general, and then stolen from him by 
 Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy; v/hich awakened the 
 resentment of the Greeks against the Trojans: 
 
 Nee gemino bellum Trojaiuun orditur ab ovo. 
 
 But the writer, says he, makes all proper haste to the 
 event of things, and does not drag on slowly, perpetu-
 
 274 OF WRITING CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 ally turning aside from his point, and catching at every 
 incident to prolong his story, as though he wanted matter 
 to furnish out his tale: 
 
 Semper ad eventum festinat. 
 
 Though I must confess I cannot think Homer has always 
 followed this rule in either of his two famous epic poems; 
 but Horace does not hear wliat I say. There is also 
 another rule near akin to the former. 
 
 As a writer or speaker should not wander from his 
 subject to fetch in foreign matter from afar, so neither 
 should he amass together and drag in all that can be 
 said, even on his appointed theme of discourse; but he 
 should consider wliat is his chief design, wliat is the 
 end he liath in view, and then to make every part of 
 his discourse subserve tiiat design. If he keep liis great 
 end always in his eye, he will pass hastily over those 
 parts or appendages of his subject whicli have no evi- 
 dent connexion with his design; or he will entirely omit 
 them, and hastefn continually toward his intended mark, 
 employing his time, his study, and labour, chiefly on 
 the part of liis subject whicli is most necessary to attain 
 his present and proper end. 
 
 This might be illustrated by a multitude of examples; 
 but an author who would iieap them together on such 
 an occasion miglit be in danger of becoming himself an 
 example of the impertinence he is cautioning others to 
 avoid. 
 
 After you have finished any discourse whicli you de- 
 sign for the public, it would be always best, if other cir- 
 cumstances would permit, to let it sleep some time be- 
 fore you expose it to the world, that so you may have 
 opportunity to review it with the indifference of a 
 stranger, and to make the whole of it pass under a new 
 and just examination: for no man can judge so justly of 
 his own work, while tlie pleasure of his invention and 
 performance is fresh, and has engaged his self-love too 
 much on the side of what he has newly finished. 
 
 If an author would send a discourse into the world 
 which should be most universally approved, he should 
 consult persons of very different genius, sentiment, and 
 party, and endeavour to learn their opinions of it: in 
 
 \
 
 OF WRITING CONTROVERSIES. 276 
 
 the world it will certainly meet with all these. Set it 
 therefore to view among several of your acquaintance 
 first, who may survey the argument on all sides, and 
 one may happen to suggest a correction which is en- 
 tirely neglected by others; and be sure to yield yourself 
 to the dictates of true criticism and just censure where- 
 soever you meet with them, nor let a fondness for what 
 you have written blind your eyes against the discovery 
 of your own mistakes. 
 
 Wiien an author desires a friend to revise his work, it 
 is too frequent a practice to disallow almost every cor- 
 rection which a judicious friend shall make. He apolo- 
 gizes for this word, and the other expression; he vindi- 
 cates this sentence, and gives his reasons for another 
 paragraph, and scarcely ever submits to correction; and 
 thus utterly discourages the freedom that a true friend 
 would take in pointing out our mistakes. Such writers, 
 who are so full of themselves, may go on to admire 
 their own incorrect performances, and expose their 
 works and their follies to the world without pity.* 
 
 Horace, in his Art of Poetry, talks admirably well on 
 this subject: 
 
 Quintilio si quid recitares, Corrige, sodes, 
 
 Hoc, aiebat, et hoc: melius te posse negares, 
 
 Bis terque expertum frastra, delere jubebat, 
 
 Et male lornatos incudi reddere versus. 
 
 Si defendere delictum, quam vertere, malles; 
 
 Nullum ultra verbum, aut operam insuraebat inanem, 
 
 Q.uiu sine rivali teque et tua solus amares. 
 
 Let good Q,uintilius all your lines revise, 
 
 And he will freely say. Mend this, and this. 
 
 Sir, I have often tried, and tried again, 
 
 I'm sure I can't do better; 'tis in vain. 
 
 Then blot out ev'ry word, or try once more, 
 
 And file these ill turn'd verses o'er and o'er. 
 
 But if you seem in love with your own thought, 
 
 More eager to defend than mend your fault, 
 
 He says no more, but lets the fop go on, 
 
 And rival-free admire his lovely own. Creech. 
 
 * To cut off such chicanery, it may perhaps be the most expe- 
 dient for a person consulted on such an occasion, to note down in a 
 distinct paper, with proper references, the advised alterations, re 
 ferriug it to the author to make such use of them as he, ou due de- 
 liberation, shall think fit.
 
 276 OP WRITING CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 If you have not the advantage of friends to survey 
 your writirurs, then read them over yourself, and all the 
 way consider what will be the sentence and judgment 
 of all tiie various characters of mankind upon them: 
 think what one of your own party would say, or what 
 would be the sense of an adversary: imagine what a 
 curious or malicious man, what a captious or an envious 
 critic, what a vulgar or a learned reader would object, 
 either to tlie matter, the manner, or the style; and be 
 sure and think with yourself what you yourself could 
 say against your own writing, if you were of a ditferent 
 opinion or a stranger to the writer: and by these means 
 you will obtain some hints whereby to correct and im- 
 prove your own work, and to guard it better against the 
 censures of the public, as well as to render it more use- 
 ful to that part of mankind for whom you chietly de- 
 sign it. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF WRITIKG AND READING CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 Sect. I. Of writing Controversies. 
 
 When a person of good sense writes on any contro- 
 verted subject, he will generally bring the strongest ar- 
 guments that are usually to be found for the support of 
 his opinion; and when that is done, he will represent 
 the most powerful objections against it in a fair and can- 
 did manner, giving them their full force; and at last will 
 put in such an answer to those objections as he thinks 
 will dissipate and dissolve the force of the.n: and herein 
 the reader will generally find a full view of thvi contro- 
 versy, together w ith the main strength of argument on 
 both sides. 
 
 When a good writer has set forth his own opinion at 
 large, and vindicated it with its fairest and strongest 
 proofs, he shall be attacked by some pen on the other 
 side of the question: and if his opponent be a wise and
 
 OF WRITING CONTROVERSIES. 277 
 
 eensib'e writer, he will show the best reasons why tJie 
 former opinions cannot be true; that is, he will draw out 
 the objections against them in their fullest array, in 
 order to destroy what he supposes a mistaken opinion; 
 and here we may reasonably suppose tiiat an opponent 
 will draw up his objections against the supposed error 
 in a brighter light, and witli stronger evidence than the 
 first writer did. who propounded his opinion, which was 
 contrary to those objections. 
 
 If, in the third place, the first writer answers his op- 
 ponent with care and diligence, and maintains his own 
 point against the objections which were raised in the 
 best manner; the reader may then generally presume, 
 that in these three pieces he has a complete view of 
 the controversy; together with the most solid and pow- 
 erful arguments on both sides of the debate. 
 
 But when a fourth, and fifth, and sixth volume appears 
 in rejoinders and replies, we cannot reasonably expect 
 any great degrees of light to be derived from them, or 
 that much further evidences for truth should be found 
 in them; and it is sufficiently evident, from daily expe- 
 rience, that many mischiefs attend this prolongation of 
 controversies among men of learning, which, for the 
 most part, do injury to the truth, either by turning the 
 attention of the reader quite away from the original 
 point to otlier matters, or by covering the truth with a 
 multitude of occasional incidents and perplexities, which 
 serve to bewilder rather than guide a faithful inquirer. 
 
 Sometimes, in these latter volumes, the writers on 
 both sides will hang upon little words and occasional 
 expressions of their opponent, in order to expose them, 
 which have no necessary connexion with the grand point 
 in view, and which have nothing to do with the debated 
 truth. 
 
 Sometimes they will spend many a page in vindica- 
 ting their own character, or their own little sentences 
 or accidental expressions, from the remarks of their 
 opponent, in which expressions or remarks the original 
 truth has no concern. 
 
 And sometimes again you shall find even writers of 
 igood sense, who have happened to express themselves 
 24
 
 278 OP WRITING CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 in an improper and indefensible manner, led away by 
 the fondness of self-love to justify those expressions, 
 and vindicate those little lapses they were guilty of, 
 rather than they will condescend to correct those little 
 mistakes, or recall those improper expressions. O that 
 we would put off our pride, our self-sufficiency, and 
 our infallibility, when we enter into a debate of truth! 
 But if the writer is guilty of mingling these things with 
 this grand argument, happy will that reader be who has 
 judgment enough to distinguish them, and to neglect 
 every thing that does not belong to the original theme 
 proposed and disputed. 
 
 Yet here it may be proper to put in one exception 
 to this general observation or remark, namely, When 
 the second writer attacks only a particular or collateral 
 opinion which was maintained by the first, then the 
 fourth writing may be supposed to contain a necessary 
 part of the complete force of the argument, as well as 
 the second and third, because the first writing only oc- 
 casionally or collaterally mentioned that sentiment which 
 the second attacks and opposes; and in such a case the 
 second may be esteemed as the first treatise on tliat con- 
 troversy. It would take up too much time should we 
 mention instances of tliis kind which might be pointed 
 to in most of our controversial writers, and it mijrht be 
 invidious to enter into the detail.* 
 
 * Upon this it may be remarked farther, that there is a certain spi- 
 rit of modesty and of benevolence, which never fails to adorn a wri- 
 ter on such occasions, and which generally does him much more ser- 
 Tice in the judgment of wise and sensible men, than any poignancy 
 of satire with which he might be able to animate his productions; 
 and as this always appears amiable, so it is peculiarly charming when 
 the opponent shows that pertness and petulaiicy which is so very 
 common on such occasions. When a writer, instead of pursuing 
 with eager resentment the antagonist that has given him such provo- 
 cation, calmly attends to the main question in debate, with a noble 
 negligence of those little advantages which ill nature and ill manner* 
 always give, he acquires a glory far superior to any Iropliies whicii 
 wit can raise. And it is highly probable that the solid instruction 
 his pages may contain will give a continuance to his writings far be- 
 yond what tracts of peevish controversy are to expect, of which the 
 much greater part are borne away into oblivion by the wind they 
 raise, or burned in their own flame.
 
 OF READING CONTROVERSIES. 279 
 
 Sect. II. Of reading Controversies. 
 
 When we take a book into our hands wherein any 
 doctrine or opinion is printed in a way of argument, we 
 are too often satisfied and determined beforehand whether 
 it be right or wrong; and if we are on the writer's side, 
 we are generally tempted to take his arguments for solid 
 and substantial. And thus our own former sentiment 
 is established more powerfully, without a sincere search 
 after truth. 
 
 If we are on the other side the question, we then take 
 it for granted that there is nothing of force in these ar- 
 guments, and we are satisfied with a short survey of 
 the book, and are soon persuaded to pronounce mistake, 
 weakness, and insufficiency concerning it. Multitudes 
 of common readers, who are fallen into any error, when 
 they are directed and advised to read a treatise that 
 ! would set them right, read it with a sort of disgust 
 which they have before entertained; they skim lightly 
 over the arguments, they neglect or despise the force 
 of them, and keep their own conclusion firm in their 
 assent, and thus maintain their error in the midst of 
 light, and grow incapable of conviction. 
 
 But if we would indeed act like sincere searchers of 
 j the truth, we should survey every argument with a care- 
 ful and unbiassed mind, whether it agree with our for- 
 mer opinion or no: we should give every reasoning its 
 I full force, and weigh it in our sedatest judgment. Now 
 ' the best vay to try what force there is in the arguments 
 which are brought against our own opinions, is to sit 
 down and endeavour to give a solid answer, one by 
 one, to every argument which the author brings to sup- 
 port his own doctrine: and in this attempt, if we find 
 there some arguments which we are not able to answer 
 fairly to our own minds, we should then begin to be- 
 think ourselves whether we have not hitherto been in 
 a mistake, and whether the defender of the contrary sen- 
 timents may not be in the right. Such a method as 
 I this will effectually forbid us to pronounce at once 
 ' against those doctrines and those writers which are con- 
 trary to our sentiments; and we shall endeavour to find
 
 260 OP READING CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 solid arguments to refute their positions, before we en- 
 tirely establish ourselves in a contrary opinion. 
 
 Volatilis had given himself up to the conversation 
 of the freethinkers of our age, upon all subjects; and 
 being pleased with the wit and appearance of argu- 
 ment, in some of our modern deists, had too easily de- 
 serted the Christian faith, and gone over to the camp 
 of the infidels. Among other books which were recom- 
 mended him, to reduce him to the faith of the Gospel, 
 he had Mr. John Reynolds's three Letters to a Deist put 
 into his hand, and was particularly desired to peruse 
 the third of them with the utmost care, as being an un- 
 answerable defence of the truth of Christianity. He 
 took it in hand, and after having given it a short sur- 
 vey, he told his friend he saw nothing in it but the com- 
 mon arguments which we all use to support the religion 
 in whicii we had been educated; but tliey wrouglit no 
 conviction in him; nor did he see sufficient reason to 
 believe that the Gospel c? Christ was not a piece of 
 enthusiasm, or a mere imposture. 
 
 Upon this, the friend who recommended Mr. Rey- 
 nolds's three letters to his study, being confident of the 
 force of truth which lay there, entreated Volatilis that 
 he would set himself down with diligence, and try to 
 answer Mr. Reynolds's third letter in vindication of the 
 Gospel; and that he would show under every head how 
 the several steps which were taken in the propagation 
 of the Christian religion might be the natural effects 
 of imposture or enthusiasm, and, consequently, that it 
 deserves no credit amongst men. 
 
 Volatilis undertook the work, and, after he had en- 
 tered a little way into it, found himself so bewildered, 
 and his arguments to prove the apostles either enthusi- 
 asts or impostors so muddled, so perplexed, and so in- 
 conclusive, that, by a diligent review of this letter to 
 the deists, at last he acknowledged himself fully con- 
 vinced that the religior' of Jesus was divine: for that 
 Christian author had made it appear it was impossible 
 that that doctrine should have been propagated in the 
 world by-sinipiicity or forty, by fraud or falsehood; and
 
 OF READING C OKTROVERSIES. 281 
 
 accordingly he resigned his soul up to the gospel of the 
 blessed Jesas. 
 
 I fear there have been multitudes of such unbelievers 
 as Volatilis; and he himself has confessed to me, that 
 even his most rational friends would be constrained to 
 yield to the evidence of the Christian doctrine, if they 
 would honestly try the same method.
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 TJPOJf 
 
 AVATTS» 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND. 
 
 Y J. S. DENMAN. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Page. 
 
 5— Why are all persons under 
 some olilJL'ations to improve 
 their undersMndingl What 
 will overspread the uncultiva- 
 ted mind ? How can know- 
 ledge and skill be acquired? 
 What do the various relations 
 of life impose upon all per- 
 sons? 
 
 S— In what have all persons an 
 important concern ? What 
 appears to be the necessary 
 duty and interest of all |)er- 
 sons? What is the conse- 
 quence of acting without 
 thought or reason ? 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 '—What does the first chapter 
 contain ? What is required 
 by the first rule? What 
 should we review ? What 
 would be the result? What 
 should we consider as causes 
 of the frailties and mistakes 
 of the mind ? Why should 
 we read works which treat of 
 the doctrine of prejudices,&c.? 
 ^Why should we realize our 
 own ignorance ? What me- 
 thods are mentioned in the 
 third rule as sTiited to impress 
 the mind with its imperfect 
 degrees of knowledge 1 
 
 Paffp.. 
 
 9— What would be the conse- 
 quence of i)ri(ling ourselves oa 
 account of superficial attain- 
 ments? What is the substance 
 of the ftmrth rule ? 
 
 10— What is said, in the fifth 
 rule, of reading? What gives 
 good sense to the reader, and 
 im|)roves his un<!erstanding? 
 
 11 — Should we imagine a life of 
 learning to be one of idleness 
 and ease ? What is said of So- 
 brino, and Languinos? 
 
 12 — What should incite us to 
 constant industry in the pur- 
 suit of knovvledsre ? What is 
 said of the perfertinn of learn- 
 ing and science ? Is it i)roba- 
 ble that theologians have ar- 
 rived at a full understanding 
 of all scriptural truths which 
 can he known ? What is said 
 of every man who shall aid in 
 the introduction of an age of 
 light and love ? 
 
 13— What is taught in the 
 eighth rule ? What is the 
 effect of judging from a super- 
 ficial view ? Should we form 
 any decided judgment of our 
 own on sul^jects which we 
 understand very imperfectly 1 
 What counsels are given in 
 the ninth rule ? 
 
 14 — What spirit should we con- 
 stantly guard against ? What
 
 284 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 is a dogmatical spirit 1 What 
 is said of forming unalterable 
 opinions'? Mention some of 
 the inconveniences attending 
 a dogmatic spirit. 
 
 16 — What do frequent changes 
 of opinion indicate? What 
 is said of judging falsely l 
 What of confessing mistakes 
 and renouncing errors 1 What 
 of humorous conduct and fan- 
 ciful temper of mind 1 What 
 is the character of a humor- 
 ist ? What is said of trifling 
 with important things, and 
 sporting with those which are 
 sacred 1 What of a spirit ol 
 ridicule 1 
 
 17— What is the effect of indul- 
 ging in any evil habit 1 Why 
 should we maintain a virtuous 
 and pious frame of spirit ? 
 What effect does sensuality 
 and the indulgence of appe- 
 tite produce upon the mind 1 
 Who is in a fair way to wis- 
 dom "? What is said of piety, 
 and those who abandon reli- 
 gion ? 
 
 18— What does the fifteenth nile 
 warn us to watch against? 
 What is said of self-sufficien- 
 cy in theattainment of know- 
 ledge 1 What of those who 
 neglect religion, and depend 
 wholly upon their own rea- 
 son ? 
 
 11>— What are the teachings of 
 the sixteenth rule 7 Mention 
 some of the reasons and argu- 
 ments given in this rule, for 
 uniting industry, study, and 
 devotion, in the pursuit of 
 knowledge and true wisdom. 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 SI- What five methods are men- 
 tioned by which the mind 
 is improved in knowledge? 
 What is observation? What 
 
 Pntre. 
 do we gain In' observation 
 from infancy ? Mention some 
 fects which we know by ob- 
 servation. When is observa- 
 tion called experience ? Hovr 
 do we know we have the 
 power of thinking. fearingi&c? 
 
 22 — What does observation in- 
 clude ? When is it called ex- 
 periment? What is said of 
 reading? What of lectures 1 
 What of conversation ? Is 
 conversation always nuitually 
 beneficial ? 
 
 23 — What does nieditation in- 
 clude ? Mention some of the 
 results of meditation. What | 
 furnishes the mind with its 
 first ideas ? On what does 
 the foundation of knowledge 
 deiiend ? What is said of the 
 impossibility of being taught 
 by n)en and books, if we had 
 gained no knowledge, by ob- 
 servation, of external objects, 
 and the operations of our own 
 minds ? 
 
 24 — What is the second advan- 
 tage mentioned of obtaining | 
 knowledge by observation? 
 Why are ideas gained by ob- 
 servation generally clearer and 
 more distinct than those ac- 
 quired by reading, conversa- 
 tion, &c. Mention the third'* 
 advantage of acquiring know- 
 ledge by observation. What 
 is said of the advantages of dj! 
 reading ? 
 
 26 — Mention some of the advan- 
 tages of gaining knowledge by 
 means of lectures. 
 
 27— What of the advantages of 
 conversation ? 
 
 28 — What is the second ad-K 
 vantage mentioned? Third! %. 
 Fourth? Fifth? 
 
 29— Sixth? Seventh? 
 
 30— Mention some of the bene- 
 fits derived from meditation.
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 285 
 
 CEIAPTER III. I 
 
 Paffe. 
 
 >2— What is the subject of this 
 chapter? Does observation, 
 strictly speaking, include any 
 reasonings of the mind "? Why 
 are thoughts relating to rea- 
 son included in the rules for 
 observation 1 What should 
 be our constant design in 
 life? 
 '3 — How can we acquire know- 
 ledge by observation, when 
 alone, in darkness and si- 
 lence 1 How, when in compa- 
 ny ? In the country 1 Whence 
 should we derive instruction ? 
 4 — What should we learn from 
 , the vicissitudes of individuals 
 I and nations'? What from the 
 coffin and funeral? The vices 
 and follies of others 1 Their 
 virtues? Deformity, distress, 
 &c. ? What from our natural 
 powers and faculties ? From 
 our p:iins and sorrows? Sins 
 and follies? Why should the 
 laudable curiosity of the young 
 be gratified ? 
 
 i — What opportunities for ob 
 servation should be given to 
 the young? What observa 
 tions should be written down, 
 and for what purpose? What 
 will be the effect of such prac- 
 tice ? Should we ever neglect 
 toimpr<ive our minds by ob- 
 servation? 
 
 — What is said of the obser- 
 T vations of Theobaldino and 
 ; Puteoli ? Why should we 
 I guard against passions and 
 j prejudices, when making ob- 
 \ 5ervations ? What is said of 
 |j false judgments, envy, and 
 
 self-flattery ? 
 I —What is the substance of 
 . he fifth rule ? Of the sixth ? 
 iVhat is said of observations 
 •oncerning j.ersons ? Wliat 
 f the conduct observed is 
 lighly culpable ? What rule 
 
 Pa^e. 
 should be observed in conver- 
 sation ? 
 
 38— What is the apostolic pre- 
 cept relative to evil speaking 1 
 What is a false induction 1 
 What is said of general ob- 
 servations which have beea 
 drawn Irom many particulars 1 
 What of hastily determining 
 universal principles? What 
 causes scandal to be cast upon 
 a whole nation ? 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 38— Of what does this chapter 
 treat? What is said of books? 
 
 39— What advantage would the 
 young derive from having pro- 
 per books reconimended for 
 their reading ? What is said 
 of reading books of impor- 
 tance in a cursory manner 1 
 What of the preface and table 
 of contents? How should a 
 good book be read a second 
 time ? What is said of pas- 
 sages which contain ideas or 
 truths previously unknown to 
 the reader? Mention a se- 
 cond reason for a superficial 
 survey of a new book ? 
 
 40 — What plan is recommended 
 for several persons reading the 
 same book ? What if they 
 are perusing ditlerent works 
 on the same subject ? What 
 should be our chief object in 
 reading ? How should we 
 deal with everj' author ? 
 When yield our assent 1 
 What is sufficient evidence to 
 demand our assent to truths 
 of the bible ? 
 
 41 — Whose reason should guide 
 us when reading the produc- 
 tions of uninspired men 1 
 What is recommended in the 
 sixth rule ? To what, beside 
 reading, may many directions 
 given in this chapter apply?
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 Patre. 
 
 What is the substance of the 
 seventh rule 1 
 
 42^VVhat should we recollect 
 when we have finished any 
 book ■? What is said of books 
 which have no index ? What 
 will compensate for the pains 
 which such method of read- 
 ing will ct)<t ? What of wri- 
 ters who have peculiar excel- 
 lencies or defects 1 What 
 benefit will be derived from 
 reading one book in this labo- 
 rious manner 1 
 
 43— Will such course of reading 
 improve the reasoning powers? 
 Why do some diligent readers 
 fail to make any advances 
 In true knowledge 1 To whom 
 is such a reader compared 
 What is the efltct of entering 
 Into the sense of all the argu 
 ments, and examining all the 
 proofs of the authors read ? 
 
 44— What is said of Studentio, 
 Plumbinus, and Plunieo ? 
 What of those whose readin 
 is designed to fit them i i 
 much talk, and little know 
 ledge 1 What of those of 
 much reading, a retentive 
 memory, and but Uttle med 
 tation ? Whit of reading 
 with a predetermination to be 
 lieve or disbelieve ? To what 
 should the mind always be 
 open ? 
 
 45 — What ciution is given ii 
 the twelfth rule? What book 
 should we read with freedom 
 of thought after our principles 
 are well established "? How 
 should we read works which 
 defend our sentiments ? Those 
 that oppose them ? 
 
 46 — To wliat class of books do 
 the preceding remarks on read 
 ing chiefly relate ? What 
 should we do when reading 
 works which wi're written to 
 direct our practice? What, 
 
 Paffe, 
 when folly and vice are re- 
 presented 1 What should we 
 remember in all our pursuits 
 of knowledge? What is said 
 of history, poesy, &c. 
 
 47 — What paragraphs and senti- 
 ments deserve remark ? What 
 histories, poems, &.c. should be 
 reviewed and closely studied ? 
 What is said of miscellaneous 
 essays, the Spectator, &c. 
 
 48 — What is said of dictionaries, 
 &c. ? What of pernntting an 
 unknown word to pass in read- 
 ing ? What is reconunended 
 when reading where we can- 
 not consult books which would I 
 explain what we do not under- 
 stand ? Should we seek a 
 knowledge of the best authors 
 on a subject, or of the subject 
 itself? 
 
 49 — Mention the follies which 
 those are apt to practice, who 
 desire to increase their know- 
 ledge of books, but are con- 
 tent with the title pages 1 
 Who is said to be deplorably 
 poor in understanding ? 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 49 — What may assist us in 
 judging of books we have not 
 seen before ? 
 
 50 — Wh it shall we ascertain by 
 selecting and reading a few 
 chapters ? What is the sub- 
 stance of the second rule for 
 judging of new books ? How 
 are we apt to judge of books 
 which support our opinions ? 
 Of those which oppose them 1 
 
 51 — How should books be judg- 
 ed ? What is said of several 
 works called Characteristics 1 
 
 52— What is said of the mis- 
 
 , takesof those who read works 
 on subjects with which they 
 have but little acquaintance? 
 
 I How are we in danger of
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 287 
 
 Page. 
 judging of treatises on sub- 
 jects with which we are fa- 
 miliar ? 
 
 S3 — Are the prejudices which 
 warp our judgment few or 
 many ? What is said of those 
 who are fond of meddling 
 with all appearances of know- 
 ledge ? Of Divito and his 
 companions 1 
 
 54 — What is said of those who 
 form judgment^ from hearsiy] 
 What of Sonillus 1 Of Pro- 
 bus 1 
 
 55— What feelings usually in- 
 fluence those who severely 
 censure valuable books on 
 account of trifling mistakes 
 and errors 1 Mention the pre- 
 cept of Horace on this sub- 
 ject. 
 
 56— What is said of envy, and 
 envious persons 1 How may 
 an envious person correct his 
 feelings 1 What is nmch 
 more amiable than accusation? 
 
 57 — Why is it easy to find mis- 
 takes in all human produc- 
 tions'? What is said of au- 
 thors who ridicule divine wri- 
 tings and sacred things, and 
 exalt the writings of the an- 
 cient pigans? Whose wri 
 tings are mentioned as difler- 
 ing from nature ? What is 
 said of the writings of Steele, 
 St. Paul, Moses, and David ? 
 What course is recommended 
 to little critics ? What is the 
 world said to love ? What 
 may teach us to judge more 
 favorably of the performances 
 of others ? 
 
 58— Who may cavil at the no- 
 blest productions ? Mention 
 another fault in passing judg- 
 ment upon books? What eifect 
 does this fault produce on the 
 minds of others ? Did Florus 
 judge correctly of the writings 
 of Feiielon, Archbishop of 
 
 Page. 
 Cambray? What is said o( 
 the writings of Feneloni 
 
 59 — Are there many such au- 
 thors as the Archbishop of 
 Cam bray? What is said of 
 the judgment of Altisono, and 
 the writings of Casimire ? 
 
 60— Wliat is said of Milton? Of 
 Paradise Lost? How must 
 the reader be influenced who 
 admires every line of that 
 poem ? What should we 
 consider when we hear others 
 pronounce judgment upon a 
 book ? Can every man of 
 good sense judge correctly of 
 the merits of a particular 
 book? 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 61 — Do most persons need the 
 assistance of living teachers? 
 Why is it advisable to have 
 more than one instructor ? 
 
 62— What should instructors 
 possess in addition to compe- 
 tency in the sciences they 
 teach ? What pupils grow 
 lean in their understanding? 
 Why are some very learned 
 men incompetent instructors? 
 What is the character of a 
 good tutor ? 
 
 63 — What is said of the exam- 
 ple and spirit of a tutor? 
 What of the duty of the learn- 
 er to his teacher? Why 
 should the student review 
 lectures and note important 
 results? Should we be satis- 
 fied with a bare attendance 
 on lectures ? What opinion 
 should the learner maintain of 
 his instructor ? 
 
 64— When may the learner dif- 
 ler from his tutor ? What is 
 said of young persons who 
 fancy themselves wiser than 
 their teachers ? Are teachers 
 infallible ? Mention the two
 
 288 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 Paffe. 
 extremes to which youth are 
 exposed ? Should the pupil 
 receive opinions on the au 
 thority of his tutor, without 
 exaniininfj iheui for himself? 
 When should we receive an 
 opinion 1 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 65 — What is of first importance 
 in reading and hearing; lee 
 tures ? How are llvin}; Ian 
 puages most easily learned ' 
 Dead lanfiuages ? 
 
 66 — What advice is given in rule 
 third to those who have just 
 commenced learning a lan- 
 guage ? 
 
 67 — What is said to be the liv 
 ing language of the learned 
 world ? 
 
 68 — What inference may be 
 drawn from the fact that 
 small children learn by con 
 versation to speak their mo 
 ther tongue 1 
 
 69 — What should always be 
 carefully observed in commit- 
 ting rules and lessons to mem- 
 ory? What is said of re- 
 quiring children to memorize 
 lessons which contain un- 
 known words and phrases, 
 and convey no ideas to their 
 minds ? 
 
 72— How may we retain a lan- 
 guage? Should we content 
 ourselves with a doubtful 
 translation ? 
 
 73 — What are languages said to 
 be? What is their chief de- 
 sign ? What is said of learn- 
 ing the words and phrases of 
 a language, without obtaining 
 corresponding ideas? What 
 is in danger of pulling up the 
 mind with vanity? 
 
 CHAPTER Vin. 
 
 Page. 
 
 73--Of what does this chapter 
 treat? Is it sometimes diffi- 
 cult fully to understand a wri- 
 ter or speaker ? 
 
 74 — What is the substance of 
 the first rule for determining 
 the sense ? Second rule ? 
 With what should we com- 
 pare the words and phrases 
 of an author? Why should 
 we make such comparisons ? 
 Who is the best interpreter of 
 any writer? Why are con- 
 cordances valuable in the 
 interpretation of scripture 1 
 Substance of fourth rule ? 
 
 75— Of fifth rule ? Ol sixth rule 1 
 What is necessary to enable 
 us to interi)ret scri|)ture weVL 1 
 Substance of eighth rule ? 
 
 76 — How may we judge of ob- 
 scure passages which occur in 
 controversies ? Substance of 
 tenth rule ? Of eleventh rule 1 
 How should we treat every 
 author, writer, and speaker ? 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 77— Of what does this chapter 
 treat ? With whom is it well 
 to be acquainted ? What ad- 
 vice is here given ? Substance 
 of second rule? Of third 
 rule ? 
 
 78 — In what sense is a me- 
 chanic wiser than a philo- 
 sopher ? Why should we not 
 always confine ourselves to 
 one sort of company ? Why 
 did the king of Siam dis- 
 believe the European mer- 
 chants ? What is said of con- 
 versation with foreigners 1 
 
 79— How should we hear? Of 
 what should we be cautious? 
 What divine rule is here giv- 
 en ? Whence does it come? 
 Substance of the sixth rule? 
 Should we imagine there is
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 289 
 
 Paffc. 
 no certain truth but in the 
 sciences we study ? 
 
 80 — Why do we frequently fail 
 to form correct conclusions? 
 What is here said of corres 
 pendents? What method is 
 recommended for reviving con- 
 versation in company ? 
 
 81 — How may social visits be 
 prevented from running to 
 waste ? What is here said of 
 young ladies ? What general 
 rule should we observe, when 
 it is in our power to lead in 
 conversation ? How should 
 we hear the arguments of 
 others? What is said to be 
 an unhappy temper and prac- 
 tice? 
 
 82 — What is the substance of 
 the eleventh rule? Repeat 
 the quotation from Horace. 
 What is recommended in 
 cases of obscurity in the lan- 
 guage of those with whom we 
 are conversing? 
 
 83 — When we cannot assent to 
 the expressed opinions of oth- 
 ers, how should we present 
 our objections ? What should 
 we impress upon the mind of 
 the speaker? Mention Solo- 
 mon's rule. What is said of 
 confessing our ignorance, and 
 asking for information ? 
 
 84 — What counsels are given to 
 the young in the fifteenth 
 rule? 
 
 85 — Of what are weak minds 
 ready to persuade themselves? 
 How may a wise and modest 
 person act when confronting 
 a bold pretender, and innocent 
 vilifier? What is here s;iid to 
 be a pity? What advice is 
 given in the seventeenth rule ? 
 
 86— Should we introduce a warm 
 party spirit into conversations 
 designed for mutual improve- 
 ment? What is said to bar 
 the doors of the understand- 
 
 Paffe. 
 ing against the admission of 
 new sentiments? What of 
 new discoveries, &c. ? What 
 is the substance of the nine- 
 teenth rule? Of the twen- 
 tieth ? Of the tvveniy-first ? 
 
 87 — Whose ignorance and preju- 
 dices should we be most ready 
 to suspect? How should we 
 bear contradiction ? What 
 might induce others to con- 
 clude that our opinions are 
 not based upon the evidences 
 of truth? What should be 
 banished from conversation? 
 What are the enemies of 
 friendship, and tend to ruin 
 free conversation ? What 
 does the impartial search for 
 truth require? 
 
 88— What is the substance of 
 the twenty-fourth rule? Of 
 the twenty-fifth ? What mle 
 is given for selecting compan- 
 ions ? Should we always re- 
 gard their moral chamcter? 
 
 88-89 — Mention the several in- 
 firmities which are said to 
 make some moral, intellectual, 
 and scientific persons undesi- 
 rable associates in our inqui- 
 ries after truth. 
 
 90 — Against what should we 
 constantly watch ? What 
 should we do after retiring 
 from compiny? What in- 
 struction should we draw from 
 the thirtieth rule ? 
 
 91— How may we learn to avoid 
 the follies which injure or 
 destroy good conversation ? 
 What may we acquire by 
 pursuing such course ? Where 
 may we make the highest in- 
 tellectual acquisitioBS which 
 can be gained by conversing 
 with mortals ? W^ith whom 
 may we hope to converse here- 
 after ?
 
 290 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Pasre. 
 
 92 — Of what does this chapter 
 treat? What is iiere consid- 
 ered disputes ? Do all dispu- 
 tants believe in the proposi- 
 tions they support? Do all 
 disputes result in discovering 
 or uiainfciiniiig truth ? What 
 should be ol)served in com- 
 mencing a debate? 
 
 93 — How ujay di^putants avoid 
 running into remote propo- 
 sitions and axioms? How 
 should every que tion be ex- 
 pressed? What advice is here 
 given to a certain class of per- 
 sons ? 
 
 94— What should be distinctly 
 settled between disputants? 
 What i)revents their running 
 from the (irtcise point of in- 
 quiry? What is the chief 
 cause of the dishonest artitice 
 which is said to give endless 
 length to disputes? 
 
 95 — What frequently prevents 
 us from yielding our assent 
 to the convictions of truth? 
 What is said to be the bane of 
 all real improvement, and to 
 work with a secret influence 
 in all disputes? To what 
 does the mind often resort to 
 ward ort" the convictions of 
 truth ? How should we enter 
 upon every debile? 
 
 06 — What is a more vnluable 
 acquisition than a victory over 
 an opponent? What should 
 we narrowly watch in every 
 dispute ? How did Cautio ex- 
 tricate himself from the ditli- 
 culty in which he was invol- 
 ved by too readily yielding 
 his assent to the proposition 
 of Polonides ? 
 
 97 — Wh a was the argument of 
 Fatalio to induce Fidens to 
 leave off prayer? What argu- 
 ment is used to induce Fideus 
 to continue daily prayer ? 
 
 Page. 
 
 98 — What inquiry is made rela- 
 tive to Sodom and (iomorrah, 
 the Deluge, fee? What cau- 
 tion is given in relation to the 
 subtle errors of men ? What 
 course should we pursue 
 when an opponent makes a 
 concession which may be ser- 
 viceable to us in maintaining 
 the truth? 
 
 99— Mention the entire argu- 
 ment of Rhapsodus in attempt- 
 ing to detract from the honor 
 of Christianity ? What con- 
 cessions does he subsequently 
 make? Can Christi;tnity be 
 supported by this concession? 
 Repeat the argument given. 
 
 100 — Mention the three ques- 
 tions here put to Rhapsodus ? 
 What good m.iy have been 
 accomplished trom preaching 
 the doctrines held by Rhapso- 
 dus? Is it probible that en- 
 vy, revenge, and the secret 
 vices of the muid have been 
 subdued, and men been induc- 
 ed to forsake their sins and 
 love God with hearts devoted 
 to true piety, fiom the preach- 
 ings of such doctrines ? What 
 has the gospel accomplished? 
 
 101 — Who understands human 
 nature better than Rhapso- 
 dus ? WMiat further conces- 
 sion does Rha|)sodus make? 
 What does he term a liberal 
 education, and a liberal ser- 
 vice? Mention the argument 
 in favor of Christianity which 
 is drawn from this concession? 
 What course may we some- 
 times pursue when engaged 
 with a disputant of very dif- 
 ferent principles from our 
 own ? 
 
 102— What is said of holding an 
 argument with a stoic, philos- 
 opher, or a Jew? Mention 
 what is said of some of the 
 arguments of St. Paul ? What
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 291 
 
 Page. 
 shoald we g:uard against with 
 great care? What frequent- 
 ly causes personal brawls ? 
 What is usually the result of 
 such brawls? 
 
 103— What is said of those who 
 guard them-elves as to pre- 
 vent evil influences from dis- 
 turbing the superior operations 
 of their minds ? In what de- 
 bates are the preceding direc- 
 tions useful ? 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 103 — Whence does the Socratic 
 method of disputation derive 
 its name ? 
 
 104 — How is it managed ? 
 
 105— What is the first class of 
 advantages mentioned of the 
 Socratic method ? Second 
 class ? Third class ? Fourth 
 class? What is said of a 
 method nearly akin to this? 
 
 106 — What advantage would be 
 derived from framing Chris- 
 tian catechisms in the manner 
 of a Socraiical dispute ? What 
 inconvenience would arise 
 from such catechisms ? 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 106 — Of what does this chapter 
 treat ? What was the former " 
 From what do Forensic dis 
 putes derive their name ? 
 What may be properly classed 
 under this heud? 
 
 107— Where are these disputes 
 practised? Do persons in a 
 forensic dispute usually suc- 
 ceed each other on the same, 
 or opposite sides of a ques- 
 tion? After all have spoken, 
 what course is frequently pur- 
 sued by the speakers? How 
 is the controversy decided ? 
 When the matter in debate 
 
 Page. 
 consists of several parts, what 
 is frequently done? 
 
 108 — What is usually practised 
 before the final decision is 
 given ? Would it be advisa- 
 ble to introduce forensic de- 
 bates into academies and 
 other schools ? 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 109 — Mention the substance of 
 the several steps in scholastic 
 disputation given on this page? 
 Of what should the first part 
 of the writer's discourse con- 
 sist? What should be giveu 
 in the second part? 
 
 110 — Why should not respond- 
 ents indulge in reproaches, 
 &c. ? How are scholastic dis- 
 putations conducted ? 
 
 Ill — What is the most useful 
 and best sort of disputation ? 
 
 113 — What advantages are here 
 mentioned as arising from ac- 
 ademical disputations? What 
 inconveniences may overbal- 
 ance these advantages? 
 
 114 — What inconveniences are 
 here mentioned as being lia- 
 ble to arise from scholastic 
 disputations? 
 
 115— Is it advisable to dispute 
 about mere trifles ? Why 
 should we not dispute about 
 infinite and unsearchable 
 things ? Why should we not 
 dispute about obvious and 
 known truths ? What would 
 be the consequence, if every 
 dispute could be made the 
 means of searching out truth ? 
 What should be the aim and 
 design of ever>' disputant? 
 
 116— Of what should every op- 
 ponent be solicitous? How 
 should' all disputants clothe 
 their thoughts ? What is here 
 said of indulging in ridicule, 
 jest, and merriment? What
 
 292 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 of sarcasm, insolent language, 
 personal scandal, &c. ? 
 
 117 — What is here recommend- 
 ed to both vanquished and 
 victorious disputants ? 
 
 118 — Why does it seem neces- 
 sary tliat these methods of 
 disputation should be learned 
 in schools ? 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 118— What has been establish- 
 ed in some of the foregoing 
 chapters? 
 
 119— What will do much of 
 themselves toward the cult 
 vation of the mind? Who 
 has ail human aids concurring 
 to raise him to a superior de- 
 gree of wisdom and know- 
 ledge ? What direction is 
 here given to the young? 
 With what would scholastic 
 divinity furnish us ? 
 
 120 — Mention the substance of 
 the third rule? What effect 
 is liable to be produced on the 
 mind, by its attempting to 
 search out and comprehend 
 matters far above its power " 
 What is the substance of the 
 fourth rule 1 What should 
 be observed in learning any 
 thing new ? 
 
 121 — How may the mind cope 
 with great difficulties ? What 
 is said of Mathon ? What of 
 engaging the mind in too many 
 things at once 1 What of a 
 variety of studies ? Mention 
 some studies which are es- 
 teemed entertaining ? 
 
 122 — In the pursuit of know 
 ledge what should we alway; 
 keep in view ? In what man 
 ner should we exert our skill 
 and diligence ? Why are the 
 fundamental truths of phi 
 losophy and religion of the 
 
 Page. 
 highest importance ? Mention 
 some of these prit;ciples? 
 
 123 — Why should we be very 
 careful in examining all pro- 
 positions which claim to be 
 general principles ? Which 
 are most important in the pur- 
 suit of knowledge, practical 
 points, or mere speculations? 
 Of what should we be most 
 careful in matters of practice ? 
 What will advance us apace 
 toward real misery? 
 
 124 — In what comj)arison are 
 the interests of this world of 
 small importance? Mention 
 what is here stated relative 
 to our religious inquiries? 
 What is the substance of the 
 eighth rule? Of the ninth 
 rule ? 
 
 125 — How must things be con- 
 sidered ? To what must 
 we bring our understanding? 
 What is here said of becom- 
 ing strongly prejudiced in fa- 
 vor of one study, and despis- 
 ing others? 
 
 126 — What science shotild al- 
 ways be regarded as of first 
 importance? What will be 
 secured by order and method? 
 Mention the substance of the 
 twelfth rule. Of the thir- 
 teenth. 
 
 127 — Should we expect to arrive 
 at certainty in every subject 
 we pursue ? How should we 
 balanceourarguments? What 
 would prevent our ever form- 
 ing a wise resolution ? To 
 what are we bound to assent 
 and act ? How should we ap- 
 ply every study, however spe- 
 cula tive? 
 
 128 — To what should researches 
 in Natural Philosophy lead us? 
 What advantage may be se- 
 cured by pursuing nmthemat- 
 ical speculations ? W^hat 
 should guard us against re-
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 2d3 
 
 hage. 
 jecting any revealed doctrine, 
 though we cannot fully un- 
 derstand it? When should 
 we change our sentiments ? 
 Is there equal necessity of our 
 changing methods of study 
 and practice? How is this 
 illustrated ? 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 129 — What is highly necessary 
 in order to the improvement 
 of the mind ? 
 
 130 — Why do we judge falsely 
 of many things ? For what 
 should we obtain a liking ? 
 What is said of the study of 
 mathematics ? Of history ? 
 
 131 — Mention the substance of 
 the second rule. What is the 
 objection to representing moral 
 subjects by pictures? What 
 authors should we read ? 
 What is the substance of the 
 fourth rule ? 
 
 132 — What counsel is given in 
 the fifth rule ? In the sixth ? 
 What considerations should 
 serve to engage and fix the 
 mind in the pursuit of know- 
 ledge ? 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 1 133— Of What does this chapter 
 I treat ? Mention the three 
 ' things which go to make up 
 that amplitude of mind which 
 constitutes the noblest char- 
 acter of the understanding? 
 What is said of the mind 
 which can readily take in vast 
 and sublime ideas ? What is 
 said of those whose minds 
 have been confined to the 
 connuon affairs of hfe ? 
 j 134--Ho\v do persons who have 
 I acquired such contracted hab- 
 ' its of thought regard tlie most 
 glorious and sublime truths? 
 
 Page. 
 What is the first step recom- 
 mended to be taken for the re- 
 lief of such minds ? 
 
 135— What might lead them to 
 believe there are bodies ama- 
 zingly great or small? How 
 may such minds be taught to 
 take in some of the vast di- 
 mensions, spaces, and motions 
 of the heavenly bodies ? 
 
 136— What writings are men- 
 tioned as having a natural 
 tendency to enlarge the ca- 
 pacity of the mind, and famil- 
 iarize it with sublime ideas? 
 
 137 — Where may some of the 
 most exalted ideas, elevated 
 language, and glorious descrip- 
 tions be found? Of whom 
 does this enlargement of mind 
 lead us to form exalted concep 
 tions? When will it entertain 
 our thoughts with holy won- 
 der and amazement ? Of 
 whom beside God does this 
 enlargement of mind enable 
 us to form more just concep- 
 tions ? 
 
 138— What ideas are here ad- 
 vanced of the various ranks 
 of beings ? Of whom shall 
 we thus obtain more just 
 ideas? What is a second evi- 
 dence of the amplitude of the 
 mind ? 
 
 139 — Who are justly charged 
 with a narrowness of soul ? 
 What is here said of those 
 who have never travelled? 
 How may this narrowness of 
 mind be cured ? What causes 
 the religious prejudices of ma- 
 ny people ? 
 140— Who think it just to cen- 
 sure all those severely whose 
 religious opinions are difierent 
 from their own ? How is this 
 defect to be relieved? To 
 what test should we bring all 
 doctrines ? What will enlarge 
 our charity toward others ?
 
 294 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 142 — Mention a third qualifica- 
 tion of the ani|ililiule of mind ? 
 How does the ample mind 
 survey subjects? What is a 
 great im|)ediment to wisdom 
 and ha|)i)iness? What is a 
 sign of a large and capacious 
 mind ? 
 
 143 — When are we in danger of 
 passing a false judgment ? 
 What things nuist necessarily 
 be taken in view in order to 
 determine whether an action 
 is wise or fooUsh, good or 
 evil? 
 
 144 — Do incompetent jjersons 
 frequently pass judgments up- 
 on |>rivate and public affairs? 
 
 145 — Why is it needful to i)OS- 
 sess a capacious mind? Wh it 
 is here said of the natural ca- 
 pacity of mind V Who should 
 apply themselves to arts and 
 professions which are easily 
 learned ? What of those 
 whose minds are a little more 
 capacious ? 
 
 146 — What makes a great man ? 
 What should we labor to g i in ? 
 To what should we accustom 
 ourselves ? Mention what is 
 said of one obscure idea ? 
 What should we further con- 
 sider? 
 
 147 — For what should we use 
 all diligence ? How may we 
 furnish ourselves with useful 
 truths, axioms, and observa- 
 tions to assist and direct our 
 judgment ? To what should 
 we continually inure our 
 minds ? 
 
 148— W^hat is here said of the 
 science of ontology ? How 
 should we commence, and in 
 what manner should we ad- 
 vance in the acquisition of 
 knowledge 1 
 
 149-By what process does the ge- 
 ometrician obt iin that know- 
 ledge and skill which enables 
 
 Pacre. 
 him to judge at one glance of 
 the most complicated diagram? 
 Is the advantage of this pro- 
 gressive method confined to 
 mathematical learning? What 
 is here said of Plato, Locke, 
 and others? Mention another 
 means of acquiring amplitude 
 of mind. Where may such 
 difficult questions be found ? 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 150 — When are we said to re- 
 member a thing ? Can we re- 
 men)ber that of which we 
 never had any knowledge ? 
 What must be done in order 
 to make our learning really 
 u-eful ? What is here said of 
 the excellency of the memory? 
 
 151 — How does the memory en- 
 rich the mind ? What would 
 the soul of man be without 
 memory ? What is here said 
 of the memory of hearers? 
 Of speakers? What is said 
 to give life and spirit to every- 
 thing spoken ? 
 
 152 — Is a good memory- always 
 united with a good judgment? 
 Upon what does a gwid judg- 
 ment in some measure de- 
 pend ? How do we learn to 
 judge of the future ? 
 
 153 — What is said of Penseroso? 
 What advice relative to hasty 
 judgment is here given to all? 
 How are some persons of mod- 
 erate abilities enabled to excel 
 those of the brightest genius? 
 Why is it that persons of a 
 bright genius are often found 
 to have but a feeble memory? 
 
 154 — What is here said of crowd- 
 ing the memory and thus abus- 
 ing other faculties of the 
 mind? When may the mind 
 be said to have large posses- 
 sions but no true riches ? Men- 
 tion Milton's simile of the
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 295 
 
 books of the Fathers. What 
 are said to compose the intel- 
 lectual possessions of the 
 greatest purt of mankind ? 
 
 155— What constitute a wealthy 
 and h.ippy mind ? What joys 
 are mentioned as not belong- 
 ing to mortality? 
 
 156 — What does the mind em- 
 ploy in all its operations? How 
 does it obtain a knowledge of 
 external objects? What is 
 here said of the memory ? 
 Of the brain in early life? 
 Whatdoes the improvementof 
 the memory require? What 
 is said of impressions made 
 upon the mind ? What of 
 persons of advanced agp ? 
 How is the memory atfected ? 
 
 157 — What three cases are here 
 mentioned of the influence 
 of disease upon the mind ? 
 What of impressions which 
 are deeply engraven on the 
 mind? Whnt prevents last- 
 ing impressions from being 
 made on the minds of aged 
 persons ? Wh<;t may help to 
 preserve the memory ? Whn t 
 excesses may impair it ? Men- 
 tion the four qualifications of 
 a good memory? 
 
 158 — What general direction is 
 here given for the improve- 
 ment of the mental faculties ? 
 How will the memory be im- 
 proved or injured ? Why 
 should words be remembered 
 as well as things? What 
 caution is here given ? 
 
 159— Should the memory be 
 crowded with many ideas at 
 one time? Why do those 
 things which are read or heard 
 make but a slight impression 
 upon many minds ? Will 
 sloth and indolence bless the 
 mind with intellectual riches? 
 Why does Vario treasure up 
 but little knowledge ? 
 
 Pnfre. 
 
 160— Why is it necessary to 
 have distinct ideas of things ? 
 How should everything we 
 learn be conveyed to the un- 
 derstanding ? Why do many 
 forget what has been taught 
 them ? 
 
 161 — What is essential in teach- 
 ing the principles of religion 
 to children ? What is the hap- 
 piest way to furnish the mind 
 with a variety of knowledge? 
 
 162 — Does the nmtual dei)end- 
 ence of things aid the memo- 
 ry? Why are some writings 
 more easily learned than oth- 
 ers? What is said to be a 
 fault in some preachers ? 
 What is here said of reviews 
 and abridgments ? 
 
 163 — Mention the practice of 
 Mnemon. In what particular 
 is the art of short-hand useful? 
 
 164 — What are we here coun- 
 selled to avoid ? What is a 
 mostuseful manner of review? 
 Mention the practice of Herme- 
 tas. What is said greatly to 
 assist the memory? What 
 of the natural inclination of 
 the learner? 
 
 165-How was Spectorius taught? 
 What is said of teaching child- 
 dren in rhyme and in way of 
 play? 
 
 166 — Why have moral rules and 
 precepts been written in 
 rhyme ? 
 
 167— What is of great import- 
 ance in aiding the memory? 
 Mention the practice of Ma- 
 ronides. OfAnimato. What 
 is said of associating a new 
 idea with time and place ? 
 
 168— What is said of associating 
 kindred or similar ideas « 
 What of contraries? Wha 
 of local memory? What 
 meant by local memory ? 
 
 169— What sense conveys th» 
 most perfect ideas to the miiid
 
 296 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 Page. 
 Mention what Horace affirms 
 of the si<,'ht. What is here 
 said of the use of tables, dia- 
 grams, maps, charts, &.C.? 
 
 170 — What is here said of wri- 
 ting, map drawing, &.c. ? 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 171 — Of what does this chapter 
 treat ? What should we con- 
 sider when a question is pro- 
 posed V 
 
 172 — What should constitute a 
 second suhjoct to be consider- 
 ed? A third? A fourth ? 
 
 173— A fifth ? How may some 
 questions be rendered less ob- 
 scure ? What caution is given 
 relative to new statements? 
 What frequently goes a great 
 way towiird answering a ques- 
 tion ? In wliat does the great- 
 est part of true knowledge 
 He ? What often shows the 
 mind where the truth lies? 
 
 174 — What caution is here giv- 
 en relative to questions which 
 relate to axioms, or first jirin- 
 Ciples? What is insufficient 
 to determine the truth of a 
 proposition ? When may a 
 proposition be considered an 
 axiom? What should we 
 observe in searching after 
 truth in questions of a donbt- 
 ful nature ? What is here 
 said of inheriting opinions ? 
 
 175— What is the effect of in- 
 heriting local truths, and be- 
 coming i)ositive on proposi- 
 tions whose evidence we have 
 never examined? What is 
 said of determining questions 
 of difficulty and importance ? 
 In examining objects of sense, 
 when is the examination par- 
 tial? When, in the examina- 
 tion of those which are to be 
 determined by reason ? 
 .tye — When are examinations 
 partial is ciestiooa depending 
 
 Page. 
 on human testimony? What 
 is SHid of determining ques- 
 tions by natural reason, where 
 we might be assisted by reve- 
 hition ? What of determining 
 questions by doubtful revela- 
 tions? What is the substance 
 of the thirteenth rule? Of 
 the fourteenth ? 
 
 177 — Of what should we take 
 heed, and be watchful ? What 
 is here related of the ancient 
 Romans? What is said of the 
 belief in good and evil omens, 
 unlucky days, &.c.? What will 
 tend to establish our minds in 
 doubtful doctrines, and close 
 theavenuesof future light? 
 
 178— Of whnt should we be 
 zealous ? To what should our 
 zeal be subject? What is 
 here said of jest and ridicule ? 
 What of raillery and wit? 
 What of a silly practice? 
 
 17»— How may the strongest 
 reasoning, the best sense, and 
 the most obvious axioms be 
 made to appear foolish and 
 absurd? Does this deprive 
 them of their real character? 
 What is said of Euclid ? Of 
 the moral and religious duties? 
 
 180 — To what is banter and rid- 
 icule here compared ? What 
 is here said to be a piece of 
 contempt and profane inso- 
 lence ? 
 
 181- What should alone influ- 
 ence our opinions in contro- 
 versies? What is oftentimes 
 found to be true ? Who are 
 usually most positive ? Whal 
 has sometimes tempted men 
 of learning to adopt these 
 practices of the haughty and 
 ignorant? When may wri- 
 ters of good sense be allowed 
 to use a degree of assurauco 
 and confidence? 
 
 182 — Should we decide all ques- 
 tions with one answer ? What
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 ^97 
 
 Page. 
 is here said of Cicero ? What 
 is the substance of the twen- 
 ty-first rule ? 
 
 183 — Substance of the twenty- 
 second rule? What general 
 rule should be observed ? 
 
 184 — What direction cannot be 
 too often repeated ? Should 
 we be required to give our as- 
 sent where we have not suffi- 
 cient evidence? 
 
 186 — What duties should exert 
 most influence over our minds'? 
 
 " What is here said of prayer 
 and other Christian duties ? 
 
 lb" — What is the substance of 
 the fir-t rule for judging of 
 probabilities ? Of the second ? 
 Of the third ? 
 
 188 — What is here said of stand- 
 ing firm in well established 
 principles? Should we de- 
 termine, positively, things 
 wherein we may possibly 
 mistake 1 Why are we lia- 
 ble to err in our interpreta- 
 tions of passages of scripture ? 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 189 — Of what does this chapter 
 tcegnil What should first be 
 considered in tracing effects 
 to their causes 1 What shtnild 
 be the second point of inquiry 1 
 
 .90— The third! The fourth 1 
 What should be the first 
 point of inquiry in tracing 
 causes to their effects 7 
 91— The second 1 The third ? 
 The fourth 1 The fifth ? The 
 sixth ? What is here said of 
 
 \ the practice of physicians ? 
 
 r92 — What is said of causes 
 and effects which are neces- 
 sarily connected ? 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 )2— What is the best way to 
 le:irn any science '! 
 
 Png-e. 
 
 193— To what should studenfe 
 apply themselves? Are we 
 cipable of judging^correclly of 
 a science until we have taken 
 a survey of the whole? Men- 
 tion the illustration ? 
 
 194 — Why do some persons cast 
 contempt on systematic learn- 
 ing? What should be done 
 after learning a short compen- 
 dium of a science? When 
 sliould we take a judicious 
 review of the whole 1 Why 
 do some persons waste their 
 time in reading scientific 
 treatises which are of little 
 value? 
 
 195 — When are languages most 
 easily learned .? W hat is here 
 said of abstract sciences 1 
 Mention some of the sciences 
 wliich are considered suitable 
 for3'oung children ? Mention 
 the first reason for considering 
 that these sciences may be 
 pursued by those of tender 
 age with ease and advantage. 
 What is the second reason 1 
 The third ? How is it best to 
 train up children 1 What is 
 here said of the use of dia- 
 grams, &c. ? 
 
 196 — How may knowledge thtis 
 obtained be retained in the 
 memory ? 
 
 198 — Who should gain some 
 idea of most of the sciences ? 
 What parts of science should 
 be chiefly studied at first? 
 Of whom should the young 
 ask advice? Name the three 
 learned professions. Who 
 should have some knowledge 
 of each of these 1 
 
 199— What is said to be an an- 
 gelic pleasure? Mention some 
 of the advantages of mathe- 
 matical studies. What are 
 often made of admirable ser- 
 vice iii human life? 
 
 200— What are the remarks of
 
 298 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 PaffC. 
 
 Dr. Cheyne in relation to the 
 Hhstruse dei)ths and ditticul- 
 ties of niatheiiiatics 7 What 
 iiiiiy be made agreeable anmse- 
 nients to all young persons? 
 201— How have many young 
 persons secured their time 
 from running to waste, pre 
 vented foolish scenes and 
 actions, and laid a foundation 
 for the esteem and love of 
 mankind? What is said of 
 the study of history ? What 
 are called the eyes of history V 
 What is said of biography 1 
 Mention some of the l)enetits 
 to be derived from reading 
 biography. 
 202— What is here said of chris- 
 tian biographies ? Uf what 
 sciences sliould all persons 
 have some knowledge ! 
 203— What does true logic teach 
 us ? Metaphysics ? What 
 is here said of the benefits to 
 be derived from the study of 
 natural philosophy, and na- 
 tural liistory 1 
 204 — From what may much 
 pleasure and profit be deriv- 
 ed { What science eminent- 
 ly belongs to physicians 1 
 What is here said of lawyers 1 
 Of divines? 
 205 — What science is here re- 
 presented as worthy the study 
 of a divine? Of what may 
 we be irtformed by this sci- 
 ence 1 
 206— What is the first part of 
 natural religion V Second 
 part 1 What is contained 
 and necessarily implied in 
 revealed religions .' Whom 
 should we know, and what 
 are we bound to jjractice un- 
 der whatever dispensation we 
 live? 
 207— What is said to be needful 
 to prove the truth of divine 
 revelation most eflectually ? 
 
 Paffe. 
 What science is of most im 
 porlance ? 
 208— Strictly speaking, what 
 does the civil law signify 1 
 Whence did the Romans ob- 
 tain their laws ? What was 
 called the body of the civil 
 law ? With what law is it 
 most important we should be 
 acquainted ? Who (kfined 
 the law of nature to be " the ■ 
 knowledge of right and wrong ' 
 among men" ? 
 
 210— Who is said to be the great 
 master of physicians ? With 
 what book should theologians 
 be most conversant ? 
 
 213 — How are all mankind 
 taught to speak their common 
 tongue ? What is granunar 1 
 Rhetoric? Mention the first 
 part of rhetoric. The second. 
 The third. 
 
 214— What rules may be peru- 
 sed and learned with great 
 advantage ? What will do 
 more to make an orator than 
 all the mles of art ? 
 
 215— What is the business of 
 divines ? How should the 
 understanding be convinced 1 
 When that is done what mo- 
 tives should be used ? How 
 may the world be restored to 
 virtue and happiness ? 
 
 210 — Mention the first reason 
 for reading poetry. The se- 
 cond. What is said of the 
 lyric ode ? 
 
 217 — Mention a third reason for 
 reading jwetry ? 
 
 218— What is here said of Pope? 
 Mention a fourth reason for 
 reading poetry. 
 
 219— Wiiat is here said of wri- 
 ting poetry ? What is the 
 meaning of muse 7 What is 
 necessary to enable us to read 
 historv to advantage ? 
 
 220— What is criticism ? What 
 
 I should all critics remember ?
 
 PART n 
 
 INTRODUCTIOxV. 
 
 Page. 
 
 821— What has been the chief 
 design of the first part of this 
 book ? What is to be consid- 
 ered in the second parti Do 
 those who hoard up their in- 
 tellectual treasures enjoy the 
 greatest advantage their pos- 
 session is capable of yielding? 
 How may intellectual treas- 
 ures be made to giitter 1 Men- 
 tion the two chief ways of 
 conveying knowledge to oth- 
 ers. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 223 — Who is generally best pre- 
 pared to teach 1 Are all good 
 scholars successful instruc- 
 tors 1 W h y must a com pe te n t 
 teacher have a good command 
 of language 1 What is said 
 of the disposition of the teach- 
 er 1 
 
 225— What is here said of his- 
 torical remarks, and of joining 
 profit and pleasure 1 
 
 226— What should be the style 
 of instructors ? What is here 
 said of questioning learners ? 
 
 !J27— To what should teachers 
 accommodate themselves 1 
 What is here said of curiosi- 
 
 Pa^e. 
 ty 1 Of commendatory' words 1 
 
 228 — What course should be 
 pursued with positive and pre- 
 suming pupils ? What should 
 the teacher watch ? How 
 shocld he strive to instil know- 
 ledge into the minds of his 
 pupils 1 What faculties of 
 the mind should the teacher 
 endeairor to call into exercise! 
 What of uncommon occur- 
 rences ? 
 
 229 — How may the affections 
 and attention of pupils be se- 
 cured 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 229 — Of what does this chapter 
 treat 1 What style is most fit 
 and useful for instrnction ? 
 
 230— What is the first error of 
 style to be avoided 1 The 
 second 1 What is said of 
 learned terms ? What of the 
 lovers of geometry and astron- 
 omy 1 
 
 231— Mention a third error to be 
 avoided, A fourth. Fifth. 
 
 232— A sixth. What is the first 
 method mentioned for acquir- 
 ing a perspicuity of style suit- 
 able for instruction 1 The 
 second ?
 
 800 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. Poi 
 
 Page. 
 
 233— The third ? 
 
 234— The fourth ? Fifth 1 Sixth ? 
 
 235— Of what should we divest 
 ourselves in order to iiroiiiote 
 truth ? What should we seek 
 to acquire ? What is the first 
 thing to be observed ? 
 
 236— The second ? The third ? 
 What must be flattered ? 
 Why ? 
 
 237— VVhat should we always 
 reiueniber? Why should we 
 set a constint w.itch over our- 
 selves? To what is human 
 nature likened? What does 
 a wrathful spirit beget in oth- 
 ers? How sh ,uld we treat 
 opponents? Why is there sf) 
 little success in convincing 
 disputants ? 
 
 238 — May we reasonably hope 
 to convince others of their 24 
 
 mistakes or errors by persecu 
 tion or severe usage ' Car 
 men believe what they will? 
 Mention the sixth direction to 
 be observed in convincing oth- 
 ers of any truth. The seventh. 
 The eighth. 
 
 23»— The ninth. 
 
 240— The tenih. What is the 
 substance of the first conclu- 
 ding remark? 
 
 241— Of the second ? 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 242— Of what does this chapter 
 treat ? From what sources do 
 we derive our sentiments and 
 belief? To what head may 
 these influences be reduced ? 
 
 843- What is frequently a hin- 
 drance to learners? Why? 
 Has human authority any cer- 
 tain and undoubted claim to 
 truth? What ancient andi 
 long established doctrine was 
 refuted by Sir Isaac Newton ?| 
 
 What is here said of the 
 poems of Homer and Virgil ? 
 
 244 — What would furnish a 
 poem of jnst and glorious 
 scenes ". What must we do 
 in many cases in order to find 
 out the truth ? What is here 
 said of three eminent cases of 
 authority? What is the case 
 first mentioned ? 
 
 245 Are children bound toadopt 
 all the opinions of their pa- 
 rents? 
 
 246 — Is any individual or society 
 commissioned with authority 
 to dictate opinions toothers of 
 mature years? In what cases 
 may we be justly charged 
 with criminal sloth ? Men- 
 tion a second case of author- 
 ity which must govern our as- 
 sent? 
 
 What is this usually call 
 
 ed ? When shfuild testimony 
 operate most forcibly on our 
 minds ? Should we readily 
 yield our assent to the most 
 forcible testimony without 
 fairly examining its claims to 
 credibility ? 
 
 248-Mention a third case where- 
 in authority nuist govern us. 
 Of whom is this properly the 
 authority? When are all man 
 kind bound to receive the doc 
 trines of divine revelation? 
 Has God ever given any reve 
 lations which are contrary to 
 the dictates of reason ? 
 
 249 — Mention, again, the three 
 cases wherein authority must 
 determine our sentiments. 
 
 250— What is the first case in 
 which we should pay great 
 deference to the authority and 
 sentiments of others ? The 
 second ? Third ? Fourth ? 
 Fifth ? 
 
 251 — Under what circumstances 
 should we follow probabili- 
 ties?
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 801 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Page. 
 
 251— Why is it so difficult to 
 convince otiiers of common 
 mistakes, or to persuade tliem 
 to assent to plain and obvious 
 truths 1 
 
 252— What is the first method 
 to be practised in order to 
 convince those whose preju- 
 dices are strong 1 
 
 253— The second 1 
 
 254 — What were the principles 
 of the Peripatetics ? What 
 was the belief of the Platon- 
 istsl How may these be- 
 lievers in substantial forms 
 and a universal soul, be led to 
 give up their notions 1 How 
 may a person be convinced of 
 his error, who is fully per- 
 suaded there is nothing but 
 what has length, breadth, and 
 thickness 7 
 
 256— Why may we ever dis- 
 pense with the rule which 
 requires different ideas to be 
 expressed by different words ? 
 What is the third method to 
 be practised ? 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 260 — Mention the principal ideas 
 advanced in the first section 
 of this chapter. 
 
 265— What are the chief ideas 
 advanced in the second sec- 
 tion ? 
 
 267 — What ideas are advanced 
 in section third 1 
 
 CHAPTER Vn. 
 272 — Of what should every wri- 
 ter observe a just mediiun?! 
 
 Paffe. 
 What will teach us when to 
 explfin, define, &c. ? 
 
 273 — What rule of Horace is 
 here given 7 
 
 274 — On what should the study, 
 time, and labor of every wri- 
 ter be chiefly employed ? 
 What is here said of consult- 
 ing the opinions of others, 
 and reviewing our own pro- 
 ductions 1 
 
 276 — How may we obtain hints 
 for improving our own wri- 
 tings ? 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 276— What should be the first 
 thing done by a good writer on 
 any controverted subject ? 
 The second ? The third ? 
 What will be the course of an 
 able opponent ? 
 
 277 — If the first writer answers 
 his opponent in an able man- 
 ner, what may the reader gen- 
 erally presume ? What is 
 usually the eflect of greatly 
 prolonged controversies ? 
 
 278 — What exception is here 
 given ? Substance of note ? 
 
 279 — How should the sincere 
 searcher for truth survey 
 every argument 1 What is 
 the best way to try the force 
 of arguments which are 
 brought against our opinions 1 
 What if we find arguments 
 which we are not able to an- 
 swer 1 
 
 280— What is here said of Vola- 
 tilis?
 
 ( 
 
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 Los Angeles 
 This book b DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
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 f'OCT 
 
 i999 
 
 OCT 3 2000 
 
 315
 
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