Dr. JOSEPH LKMAIRE. (Surgeon - Dentist J FIRST PRACTICING DEXTIST IN AMERICA. THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS BY B. J. CIGRAND. B. S.. D. D. S.^ Professor of Dental Prosthesis and Metallurgy in the American College of Dental Surgery; Lecturer in the Practitioner's Post-Graduate Course of the Same Insti- tution; Member of the Illinois State Dental So- ciety; The Chicago Dental Society; The Chicago Dental Club; The Hayden Dental Society; The Dental Legal Association of Illi- nois; The Columbian Dental Club, and Kindred Dental Societies. FULLY ANNOTATED AND ILLUSTRATED Second Edition, Recised and Enlarged CHICAGO. THE PERIODICAL PUBLISHING CO. 434 waeansia avenue. Entered according to Act of Congress in the years 1892 and 1893, by Dr. B. J. CIGRAND, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. -WLi II To HENRY J. M'KELLOPS, D. D. S , Who has ardently labored in behalf of the dental profession in gathering home the published records extant on dental subjects; and has thus created and established the largest and most complete dental bibliotheke in the world. In these "Archives of Dental Literature" the present volume was evolved, and for the liberal hospitality shown the writer a tribute of gratefulness is mani- fested in this in- scription by the author. THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL CONTENTS. 1. FIRST PREFACE, 2. SECOND PREFACE, 3. SALUTATION, 4. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS, 5. DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 6. EGYPTIAN DENTAL ART, 7. HEBREW 8. CHINESE 9. JAPANESE 10. PHCENICIAN 11. ARABIAN 12. GRECIAN 13. ROMAN 14. ETRURIAN I 5.. FALL and REVIVAL of DENTAL ART, 16. EUROPEAN DENTAL ART, 17. FRENCH 18. DUTCH 19. ENGLISH 20. GERMAN 21. AUSTRIAN 22. AMERICAN 23. - DENTAL EDUCATION, 24. " - LITERATURE, 25. '' - PERIODICALS 26. ARTISTS AND SCIENTISTS, 27. DENTISTRY an ART and SCIENCE, 28. MECHANICAL DENTISTRY, 29. CONCLUSION, - 30. APPENDIX, 31. VALEDICTORY REMARKS, - 32. NAME INDEX, 33. SUBJECT INDEX, 9 12 15 16 21 27 41 46 51 58 64 70 84 102 1 10 125 134 143 145 155 162 164 204 223 224 235 257 263 275 286 290 291 301 PLATE I, Specimer^s of Ancient Dental Art. PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION PROEM TO STUDENTS. The title of this lecture is so fully indicative of its character that scarcely a word of "foretalk," as the Saxons express it, seems necessary. As this is my initiatory talk to you, m}^ lecture"^ will be of a prefatory character in inaugurating the course in Dental Prosthesis. All that is requisite by way of preface here, is to give brief account of the within contained remarks. This proem may, at the same time, serve as an apology for some of the defects of which the author is fully conscious. Believing it necessary that the dental student, in beginning the study of his chosen profession, .should know something of its antique birth, growth and development, I felt it a duty incumbent on myself to open our acquaintance by cordially intro- ducing to you the history of this branch of dental art and science. *The first edition was the outcome of four lectures delivered before the students of the American Colleg-e of Dental Sur^erj-, 1892. lO THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Knowing full well that many of you before coming here had little knowledge relative to this interesting theme, on account of non-access to journals, I am confident we can profitably spend our first hours. In many of our dental schools, during the entire three or more years that the student serves within their walls, not one sentence does he hear concerning the struggles and advancements of his prehistoric-professional-forefathers; and, sorry to say, the worthy college from which I hail was addicted to this apparent neglect. Many months have been spent in gleaning the contents of this lecture, which is the result, rather, of occasional moments of leisure from the duties of an active professional life than of a special devotion to the cultivation of any superb thesis on the subject. Such sources of information were consulted as were deemed advantageous towards compiling and completing the lecture. Among these "help- mates" I gladly mention: Cosmos, Review, Items of Interest and many voluminous references in the various libraries. In conclusion, will add, should this published research merit a dcdicatorial note, I am certain none more worthily deserve the inscription than my many kind and thorough instructors, and more OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. especially Drs. Haskell and Sherwood, whose untiring devotion has placed them in my memory's safe-keeping. Chicago, Sept. 21, 1892. 12 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. The first edition of "The Rise, Fall and Re- vival of Dental Prosthesis " was, with the exception of one hundred copies, entirely exhausted in Chi- cago. This unexpected large sale has agreeabl}- surprised the compiler, and believing that this im- mediate market was a criterion of its popularity, a second edition was the natural outgrowth. Having noted carefull}- the imperfections that revealed themselves on a studious and painstaking review of the former edition, the necessity of a thorough revision ol the whole bod}' of the orig- inal text became apparent; and though this involved extended research and much labor, neither have been spared in the effort to render the present vol- ume a faithful exponent of the evolution of dental art and science. In the work of expurgation and amendment of the first volume I have availed myself of man}- of the suggestions made in various reviews of the original book, and take this opportunity and oc- OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 13 casion to express my sincere thanks for the consid- eration shown toward it, both by the reviewers and readers. The revision it has undergone will, I hope, make it worthy of the continued patronage of those who have hitherto shown it such liberal encour- agement. None knew better than myself how numerous were its imperfections. The manner in which they have been overlooked has served to convince me that those who were judges of the art and science, and could deal authoritatively, were disposed to encourage any attempt at its improv- ment, even though such attempt were marked by numerous shortcomings. Doubtless the kind reviewers saw that the book aimed at much more than was directly expressed upon its pages. At the best, therefore, such undertaking, of embracing the whole history of Dental Prosthesis, as viewed by a single individual, must needs be in some partic- ulars unsatisfactory, if anything like a rigorous criticism be applied. It may be truly said that the interest of the dental profession at the present time requires that the encouragement this work has received, should be extended to every undertaking of its kind. I hope that the success which has in this manner attended my labors may prove a stimulus to others who may devote themselves with possible better results to a similar task. To those two reviewers, who, after having hastily 14 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL scanned the first edition, and then with anxiety sharply criticised its contents, I beg to say: that as professional reviewers, critics, you have done nobly, considering, you have never chanced to read, or presumably forgotten, " Pope's Essay on Criti- cism," in which able treatise are found these few words: " Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see Thinks what ne'er was, ne'er is, nor ne'er shall be." I am fully conscious of existing defects in this work. The word " perfection," as we are aware, occurs in the " Book of Nature" only. So far as facts are concerned, their particulars, and source, I have specifically indicated the proper credit and authority in their appropriate places throughout the body of the Avork. It would be most unjust to conclude this preface without pub- licly acknowledging the great obligations which I owe to scores of eminent men in the profession. Many of these beacon lights have contributed val- uable suggestions, intelligent criticisms, and even several have supplied lengthy correspondence. Trusting the present volume may be found to reflect with reasonable fidelity the present advanced state of this department of Dentistry, I respectfully submit it to the profession in the hope of its con- tinued confidence. Very Sincerely, B. J. C. Chicago, March 24, 1893. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 1 5 SALUTATION. God bless those Surgeons and Dentists! May their good deeds be returned upon them a thousand fold. May they have the felicity in the next world to have successful operations performed upon them through all eternity." Washington Irving. 1 6 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. In Historical Reifiew of Denial Prosthesis. Our happy fortune to live in an age whose masterpieces of accomplishment in art, science, industry and commerce, put to shame the extrav- ao;ant fictions of oriental tales and the wonders ascribed to the gods and heroes of ancient myth- ology, must ever inspire us with grateful satisfaction. The changes produced by recent investigations and discoveries are so vast and appear so rapid that it is impossible to follow them and comprehend the power and thoroughness of the transformations that are daily taking place in the world around us. The ipplication of steam and electricity astonish us by their wide range of influence on the conditions and relations of men; the ease and speed of move- ment and intercourse, constantly increasing, are ever putting us in new and unfamiliar situations. We have hardly accustomed our thoughts and habits to the one, before we are hurried on into the other. The faithful and abundant light shed by OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 17 science and the press does not suffice to keep our minds fully informed of the rapid progress that goes on in all departments of human life. It is plain that we have entered on a new era, the most extraordinary and momentous the world lias ever seen. The old and imperfect is being uninterruptedly torn and cleared away and every- thing thoroughly reconstructed. The explanation is, that we are now setting up the grand temple of civilization, the separate stones and pillars of which each nation and age has been commissioned to hew and carve; and Father Time has requested that all this grand masonry be left at the quarry to await the time when, all the material being ready, the master builder, America, should collect all the scattered parts and raise the whole edifice and designate the gorgeous structure ''The World's Columbian Exposition " — this to the astonishment and joy of mankind. All the institutions and structures of the past may be considered temporary, erected in haste from the material nearest at hand, not for permanence but to serve the present time, while the special task of the nations of this age is being performed. The races nearest the birth of mankind worked on the rougher parts of the ideal edifice that enter into the stable foundations; those grand races, the Egyp- tians, Grecians, Etrurians and Romans, furnished the noble outline which our modern humanity per- 1 8 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL fected by supplying what still lacked completion and adornment. America was reserved, designedly, for so many ages to furnish a suitable and unen- cumbered location for these central halls, mighty pillars and towering mirrors of perfection. We begin to see that time, thought and expe- rience have not wrought in vain ; that progress is not phantom of the imagination ; that the human race is essentially a unit ; that civilization has been growing through all centuries, and is now approach- ing the prime of its manhood. The energies of all the peoples of the earth are prepared to exhibit unheard of achievements. The world was never so completely and so wisely busy as now, and America stands out in bold relief as the hospitable " Goddess of Progress." Within these halls of man is reflected the true status of human accomplishment. In dentistry, the advances in the art and science during the past forty years have certainly surpassed the progress of most, if not all, of the older professions, shall here be most accurately por- trayed and worthily represented. In this upward movement the members of the profession have borne their part. All honor to the skillful practi- tioners who have studied, and thought, and planned to uplift their profession and benefit their patients and themselves by devising improved methods and better instruments and appliances. But what they did, alone could not have caused the rapid pro- OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 19 gress of which dentistry boasts. It needed the co- operation of the merchant and the manufacturer to put the improved methods and appliances where they would benefit the profession at large: com- mercial judgment as to what was likely to be ap- proved and demanded; commercial courage to back up this judgment by investing money freely in what that judgement approved; manufacturing skill to know and enforce the highest attainable standard of excellence in whatsoever passed through its hands; and, last but not least, com- mercial methods to introduce successfully what genius had invented, commercial judgment ap- proved, and manufacturing skill produced. Of the grand strides of progress few branches of science and art deserve a higher rating and garner a more lasting glory than Dental Prosthesis, "the mother of longevity." To the faithful dental student, who is ever yearning for fresh draughts of information, every subject that pertains to the history and progress of dental art and science is fraught with the deepest interest, and probably no feature in the annals of dentistry solicit his attention sooner, and merit such sincere consideration as does the story of the rise, fall and revival of the dental art. The dentist who is ignorant of the beginning of the trials and tribulations of the early surgeon-dentist is not unlike the patriot who glories in the triumphs and 20 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL achievements of the native land, but knows not of the making of the established institution he so fervently loves; such patriotism is but local and su- perficial at that. There is an Arabian maxim of much truth which says: "If you are about to acquaint yourself with a man, first learn where he was born, and next how he was raised." And this good advice in sentiment might well be given to those who are about to acquire a knowledge of the mysteries of the arts and sciences, namely: first learn of the origin of the art or science and next determine its progress. The dental practitioner, on the contrary, usually toward the end of his professional career, learns of the latent beams of dental history while, had he gleaned the information in his initiatory studies of the art and science, he would have more fully appreciated the modern status and advancement of his calling. But the old saw, ''Better late than never," is quite applicable, and hence in this small tome the author solicits the attention of both the already learned, and the ambitious beginner, and trusts these fragmentary parts of the dental history, as presented here in an unbroken chain, may call forth a high admiration for, and sin- cere devotion to, Dental Prosthesis. In order that we may more clearly understand the historic narrative, let us see if we all agree as OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 21 to the meaning of the term Dental Prosthesis. No doubt we are all harmonious when we analyze the first word Dental, and say it is of Latin origin, and, as applied here, is the simple adjective form of the Latin noun "dens," a tooth. But we are apt to differ materially as to the rendering of Prosthesis. Present time dictionaries tell us that this word is of Greek derivation and signifies, add to, replace, affix, or restore."^ Thus the term Dental Prosthesis is a combination of two words, the one of Latin, the other of Greek origin, and when connected in their literal sense designates "tooth addition," "tooth replacement," "tooth affixion" or "tooth restoration." Dental Prosthesis would seem to imply nearly all dental operation, since little else is the dentist called upon to do other than replace, add to, affix and restore dental organs. This would mean that all specialities of dentistry are branches of Dental Prosthesis, t which, in fact, is the case, though not generally so accepted. Hence if the dentist fills a crown cavity with foil or plastics he simply restores the dental organ by ♦These dictionaries: Cenlurj', Encyclopaedic, Webster's, Inter- national, Thomas' Medical, Dungrlison's, Zell's Encyclopaedic and Greek-English. tDental Review, vol. V., p. 438. Proceeding's of Illinois Dental Societ.v, 1891. Address— Magill before Illinois Dental Society, 1891. Dental Cosmos, New Series, vol. XI., p. 315. Ibid, vol. XXVI., pp. 180, 181. Ibid, vol. XXXII., p. 1004. Proceedings of American Dental Association, 1884— "Distinctive Names and Phrases." 22 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL replacement ; if he crowns a root with porcelain or gold-shell crown he again resorts to prosthetic art, and restores by addition ; if he replant or transplant a tooth or teeth, he further follows pros- thesis and restores by replacement ; if he attach to the natural teeth several artificial ones by means of a system of bridgework, he but restores the den- ture by addition ; if he treat with the aid of medic- inal agencies a sore tooth, he similarly labors in a prosthetic sense, since he restores the tooth to its natural health;* if he is sought to relock a jaw or aid in heaHng a fractured maxilla, he replaces and restores, thus again adopting prosthetic principles. There are but few operations of which I now think, that a dentist's services are sought, which are not indirectly prosthetic, and among these are the devi- talization of a nerve, the administration of an anaesthetic and the extraction of a tooth. Latest authorities pronounce the custom of say- ing Prosthetic Dentistry as incorrect, and should be designated Dental Prosthesis; "tooth replacement," not " replacement tooth," as in the former remark, t The antonym of Dental Prosthesis is Dental Aphaerisis, which implies, to "take from," "omit," "remove" or "subtract," i. e,, the extraction of a ^Prosthetic Hygiene— Prof. J. Hall Lewis, pamphlet, 1890. Journal Fuer Zahnheilkunde. vol. VII., p. 180— "Prosthesen Heilung-." fWe shall see the rational reason for this when we study, later in this work, the terms Mechanical Dentistry, viz: Dental Prosthesis. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 23 tooth or removal of an ulcer or tumor. Hence a fair definition for prosthetic dental art would be as given by Dr. Harris : "Dental Prosthesis is that branch of dental science which teaches the art of replacing lost organs of the mouth or any part thereof ; it includes the laws and principles which determine and regu- late the processes employed in the construction of all forms of dental mechanism ; also the properties and relations of all materials used in these processes. Replacement and therapeutics are its distinctive dental peculiarities." "^ Correctly spelled, the word has the following letters — p-r-o-s-t-h-e-s-i-s ; t but of late it seems permissible to render it p-r-o-t-h-e-s-i-s; this latter custom, however, is not in harmony with the true acceptance of its specific use relative to dental art. The Greek preposition "pro" signifies "before" or "forward," and the root word "thesis" in Greek means "to place," hence, according to rules of synthesis, we would determine the word to mean "to place before;" for example, in the science of philology we use the term "prothesis" with such intent, when in synthesising we prefix or "place before" the root word a syllable as be-loved and re-turn. J On the other hand the word "prosthesis" *Harris' Principles and Practice of Dentistry, 1889, p. 715. tUnabridg-ed dictionaries of present time. Medical and Dental catalof^ues of the Columbian World's Fair. tDictionaries; Century, Encyclopaedic and Zell's. 24 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL serves us better, since we find that the prefix "pros" in Greek signifies " to add " or *'toput to;" and hence joined to the substantive, ' 'thesis " (to place), signifies ' ' to put in place "or " replace, " which lat- ter form fully answers the latent meaning. When the word is spelled p-r-o-s-t-h-e-s-i-s, it has three syllables, pros-the-sis, and may be pro- nounced either with primary accent on the first, and secondary accent on the second syllable ; or primary accent on the second, and secondary on the first syllable ; in both instances all vowels ex- cept " e" have the short sound ; the latter pronoun- ciation, by way of euphony, is the favorite. Dental Prosthesis, as an art,^ has been prac- ticed for ages. Dentistry is generally considered a modern science, but on careful investigation we find, on the contrary, that it is ancient, and there is abundant evidence to show that the art is of great antiquity. Although it is less than a century that it has taken the rank of a distinct profession, attention was directed from the earliest period of civilization to the means of preserving and im- proving the beauty of natural teeth. In order that all possible doubt be eliminated, as to its antiquity, we will give it careful consideration, and in no small measure profit by the research. Fortunately, we are not confined to mere tradi- ^Whj- Dental Prosthesis is considered both an Art and a Science will be shown later in this work. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 25 tion nor to ocean-lore for evidences of vanished races, and the wonderful monuments of their accomplishments, or the brilliant stages of civiliza- tion. After carefully perusing the story of the ancients we learn that much credit belongs them as inventors, promoters, students and masters; and that much which we claim to be purely modern conception, on close study proves to be ancient, most ancient. If we seek for historical knowledge of any im- portant invention, discovery or attainment, we must conduct our investigations into the remote past, in which are buried marvelous secrets that ages ago perished with their possessors. A thou- sand illustrations might be introduced in proof of the claim that civilizations rise, fall and revive like the tides of the sea; for "human progress," says J. W. Buel, ''is so intermittent that its mutations are like the motion of a pendulum, swinging now across the valley of benighted barbarism and up the gentle slope toward the pinnacle of exaltation, then driven back by adverse influences, scourges, devastating wars, immortalities, until, gaining mo- mentum, it crosses the shadowy abysses and rises to the peak of human discouragement. Here the pendulum pauses until the gravity of ambition pushes it again forward, thus imparting a recipro- cal impulse which keeps it in perpetual motion." How applicable this quotation is to the pro- 26 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL gress of dental art and science, the following pages we hope may tell. Of the origin of the art of dentistry no one can speak with certainty, as its early history is shrouded in the mists of oblivion, but dental operations we learn, and on most eminent authority, are recorded in very remote times. It is impossible to deter- mine the native home of Dental Prosthesis, but in all probabilities Egypt, the most highly civilized nation of the ancient world, claims the art as a cherished creation. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS, 2J EGYPTIAN DENTAL ART. Before entering into a detailed account of Egyp- tian dental art it is necessary to remind the student of ancient history of a few latent facts, in order that liberal allowance may be given to ancient tra- ditions, narratives and history. In the year 332 B. C. Alexander the Great founded in Upper Egypt a city which he appro- priately named Alexandria, and made it the capitol of Egypt. Alexander had been a faithful student under Aristotle, and it was his ambition to establish in his newly planned city the largest library and museum of the world. He, however, died a few years subsequent to the founding, had he lived a score years longer his anticipations would have been real- ized, for we learn that in 321 B. C. the library and museum contained upward of 700,000 volumes, and as many more rolls of papyri, thus the most remark- able collection of the ancient world, ^ containing the literature, art and science of Greece, Italy, Phoeni- cia, Arabia, India, China and Continental Europe. In connection with this voluminous library was the museum in which, at public expense, all the students of the world gathered and studied under the imme- ♦Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. I., p. 498. American Cyclopaedia, vol. I., p. 291. Peoples' Encyclopaedia, vol. I., p. 58. 28 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL diate instruction of the most eminent scholars of literature, theology, art and science.^ This museum or academy of science was in many respects not unlike a modern university. The Alexandria library at that time was, in truth, the depository of all the written thoughts of man. Money was lavishly spent in order that the library be amply provided with means for acquiring information, and under the watchful eye of "monarchs of learning" the world was enlightened and the progress of civilization was marked by the term, Alexandrian Age. The names of Euclid, Hipparchus, Clement, Origen, Theon, and his daughter Hypatia, and many others of equal distinction, shed their glory upon the literary reputation of grand Alexandria. With such advantages as these is it any wonder that this institution gained a world-wide renown and exerted such an ennobling influence on man- kind ? But what interests us as dentists more in par- ticular is, that Alexandria was especially distin- guished for her medical, dental and optical schools, t *Zeirs Enc^-clopaedia, vol. I., p. 60. Enc3clopaedic Dictionar}-, vol. I., p. 131. Centur}- Dictionar3-, vol. 1., 137. Alexandria and Her Schools — King-slej-, 1854. History- of Alexandrian Schools— Matter, 2 vols., 1844. Alexandrian Schools — Simon, 2 vols., 1845. tHerodotus, vol. II., p. 84. Peoples' Library- of Information— Washburn, 1876, p. 269. Dental Cosmos, vol. X., pp. 346, 347, 348. Items of Interest, vol. XII., p. 253. L. C. Ing-ersoll, Methods of Dental Education, 1890. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 29 Here lived and labored Herophilus, Galen, Aetius, and many others who adorn the early annals of medical science. The splendor and glory of this hospitable seat of learning did not remain unshaken, for in 80 B. C, Ptolemy Alexander, a weak and vicious monarch, bequeathed the city and its valu- able collections to the ambitious Romans, under whom the city as an enlightened educational centre rapidly declined. Notwithstanding the removal of many of the most precious works of art and science to Rome, its greatness continued to grow until 30 B. C, when Julius Caesar waged unrelenting war, and the library and museums were partially destroyed by fire. The final work of de:?truction took place in A. D. 642 by the Saracens. Amrou, the commander of the army of Omar, was dis- posed to spare the library, and wrote to the Caliph to obtain his consent, but the bigoted Moham- medan wrote back his well known reply: *'If these writings of the Greeks agree with the Koran, or book of God, they are useless and need not be pre- served; if they disagree they are pernicious and ought to be destroyed. " The sentence of destruction was executed, and accordingly, it is said, the books were employed to heat the 4,000 baths of the city; such was their number that six months were barely sufficient time for the consumption of the precious fuel.-=^ *The Histories of Alexandria, as quoted in preceding- pages. 30 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Thus the intended legacy was consigned to the angry flames, and the loss is inestimable. This conflagration nearly completely burned the authen- tic history of antiquity and left tradition prime factor on the field of learning. In consequence of this destruction we moderns are much at the mercy of narration and similar weak authorities; but, happy still, the entire records of man were not destroyed, since when the Romans acquired the Alexandrian library they carried multifarious vol- umes, records and works of art and science to Rome. * Through these latter archives, and in addition the minor records found throughout the ancient king- doms and empires, we manage to gather much that proves authentic. From what has been preserved we learn that the Egyptians cultivated the science and art of medicine at an early date, each physi- cian applying himself to some one specialty, t "]\Ian ever since his creation has been subjected *American Cyclopaedia, vol. I., pp. 2'X), 2*91. Peoples' Encyclopaedia, vol, I., p. 85. tHerodotus— Euterpe, p. 84. Travels and Correspondence of Dr. C. A. King-sbury— Pamphlet, 1863. Odontographic Journal, vol. I., pp. 86, 87. Dental Cosmos, vol. X.. p. 348. Items of Interest, vol. XII., p. 253. Dental and Oral Science in America— Dexter, 1876, p. 1. Archives of Dentistry, vol. II., p. 88. Transactions of Odontological Society of Great Britain, vol. YIL, X. S., p. 239. History of Alexandrian Schools, quoted on preceding- pages. Peoples' Library of Information— Washburn, 1876, p. 269. Dental Review, vol. III., p. 435. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 3 1 to disease and that necessity, which has ever been the mother of invention and discovery, must have early taught him to use some means for its allevia- tion or cure, rough and uncouth perhaps, still in a measure answering his purpose. Thus we find ancient writers referring to the practice of dentistry as being coeval with the birth of medicine. Modern research has conclusively demonstrated the fact that dental caries was prevalent in those ancient days, and that this disease also received due and marked attention at the hands of the early specialists of medicine. The Egyptians, as well as their border neighbors, divided the pains and ills that affected different organs and members of the body into different classes, not knowing that many dis- orders originated in the same locality. Thus they began to study human ailments; each practitioner devoted his time to one class of disease having its existence in one portion of the body. Thus there sprung up oculists, aurists and dentists. But in as much as the teeth were not so subject to affection as other organs the dentists were neither so plenti- ful in those days nor so elevated in repute.""^ Thus away back in dim centuries, when myth- ology had its happy reign and historians began to chronicle in their order transpiring events, we find dentistry was studied and practiced with great success. There can be little doubt that sunny ♦New York Dental Journal, vol, I., p. 5. 32 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Egypt was the birthplace of ancient dentistry; at any rate the Greek historian, Herodotus, cites that the Egyptians practiced dental art. In his second book narrating his travels through Egypt he states that the art and practice of medicine was divided among the Egyptian priesthood, each physician or surgeon "applying himself to one class of disease only ; some to the head, others to the eye others to the teeth and even others to internal dis- orders." And although little is known of the attainments of these ancient practitioners of dentistry, judging by the work deposited in some of the tombs of Egypt, one would willingly conclude that the practitioners of that time were comparatively learned and fairly proficient in the science of Dental Prosthesis.- The great Egyptologist, Ebers, has proven that in the Egyptian medical schools they had special teachers of dentistry upwards of three thousand years ago.t Had Egyptian universities their chairs of dental surgery? If so, an added laurel may deck the fame of the "land of science and sacred recollec- tions." The following from the eminent and reli- *Surg-er.v Paulus Aegineta (translated by Francis Adams for the Sj-denham Societ3-;, 3 vols., 1844. Dental Art— Dr. G. Carabelli, 1 vol., 1*44. Dental Review, vol. III., p. 435. Article by Dr. John J. R. Patrick. Archives of Dentistry, vol. II., p. 83. tPaulus Aeg-ineta, vol. VI., p. 10. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 33 able historian, Read,^ goes far to establish these facts: "The physicians were compelled to prescribe for their patients according to rules set down in the standard works. If they adopted a treat- ment of their own, and the patient did not recover, they were put to death. Thus even in desperate cases heroic remedies could not be tried, and ex- periment, the first condition of discovery, was dis- allowed. "It is one of the first axioms of medical science that no one is competent to treat the diseases of a single organ unless he is competent to treat the diseases of the whole frame. The folly of divid- ing diseases of such organs as the head and stom- ach, between which the most intimate sympathy exists, is evident to the unlearned. But the whole structure is united with delicate white threads and innumerable pipes of blood. It is scarcely possible for any complaint to influence one part alone. The Egyptian, however, was marked off, like a chess-board, into little squares, and whenever the pain made a move a fresh doctor had to be called in. "Even their books (now in the library of Thebes), so few in number, were not open to all the members of the learned class. They were the ♦Martyrdom of Man— Read. 34 '^HE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL manuals of the various departments or professions, and each profession stood apart; each profession was even subdivided within itself. In medicine and surgery there were no general practitioners. There vrere oculists, aurists, dentists, doctors of the head, doctors of the stomach, etc., and each was forbidden to invade the territory of his col- leagues. This specialist arrangement has been highly praised, but it has nothing in common with that which has arisen in modern times." The various specialists of medicine and surgery, according to Rev. William Smith, were paid their salaries from the public treasury, and thus indirectly the rich paid for the medical service rendered to the poor. Another writer^ has the following interesting catalogue of evidences: "Some (physicians) made the treatment of the dental organs their special branch of study; and although we are unable from the records that have come down to us to obtain a clear and satisfactory knowledge of the exact con- dition of dental science and art at that early period, we have no difficulty in tracing our profession back to the days of the Egyptians, through the medium of historical records, as well as from the existing evidences and specimens of dental art discovered now and then in the mummified bodies taken from the tombs and catacombs of Egypt. *Travelsand correspondence of Dr. C. A. Kingsbury— pamphlet, 1868. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 35 I have met several gentlemen, whose veracity I could not question, who stated that they had not only seen artificial teeth, but even gold fillings in the teeth found in the sarcophagi of the ancient Egyptians. It will be remembered that the Egyptians attached great value to the dental organs and one of their most severe punishments consisted in having one of the front teeth extracted. It would be natural to suppose that in order to avoid suspicion of guilt, as well to restore the loss, artifi- cial teeth were invented and substituted for the lost organs."^ • Exhumed, from the time worn Egyptian tombs antedating the records of Herodotus, mouldering skeletons present arrays of gold filled teeth ;t and able authority, states that the art of clasp-work was understood to some exactness. *Dental Cosmos, vol. X., p. 348. tDental Cosmos, toI. VIII., p. 607. Dr. C. A. Kinj,'-sbury's Correspondence— 1868. Western Dental Journal, vol. I., p. 294 Archives of Dentistry, vol II., p. 88. American C3-clopaedia, vol. VI., p. 21. Peoples' Library of Information, 1876, p. 270. Dental and Oral Science in America, bA" Dr. Dexter, 1876. pp. 1 and2. British Journal of Dental Science, vol. XXXI., p. 77. Ibid, vol. XXXI., p. 88. Items of Interest, vol. XV., p. 241. Research of Dr. Mellersh. American Journal of Dental Science, vol. IX., N. S., p. 45. Dentistry Amoncr the Ancients— Chap. A. Harris, 1859. Johnstons' Dental Miscellanj-, vol. VIII., p. 80. British Odontolog-ical Societ3'— Ancient Dentistr.v, 1881. Popular Account of the Eg-yptians— Sir Gardener Wilkinson, X). C. S., F. R. S. S„ vol. II., p. 350. Crania Eg-yptiaca— Morton, 1844, pp. 10, 25. t Items of Interest, vol, XV., p. 228. 36 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL In many of our present day medical and dental journals we are informed that in some of the royal mummies'^ taken from the catacombs of Egypt, sets of artificial teeth were discovered t in which the plates were of wood carved to fit the roof of the mouths, v.-hile the teeth, which were of brass, were ingeniously attached. Charles Creighton, the eminent authority on the history of general surgery, says this of the ancient Egyptians, relative to their dental and surgical skill: "Cupping vessels made of cow-horn have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. On monuments and walls of temples are figures of patients bandaged and undergoing opera- tions at the hands of the surgeons. In museum collections of Egyptian antiquities there are lancets, forceps, knives, probes, scissors, surgical instru- ments for the ear are figured, and artificial teeth have been found in the mummies." Gold work was understood by these ancient practitioners. A set of artificial teeth was dis- covered, the base of solid gold and the teeth of ivory.:!: One of the mummified bodies of an Egyp- *"It has been estimated that more than 400,000 human mummies were made in ancient Earypt. Sepulchres have been opened in which thousands of them were found deposited in rows, one on another, without coffins. Shiploads have been transported to Enerland, and ground up for use in fertilizing the soil."' John J. Anderson, historian. + Historical Researches upon the Dentist's Art Among the Ancients —Dr. J. R. Duval, Paris, 1808. ^Narrative of the Operations and Recent Discoveries Within the Pyramids, Temples, Tombs and Excavations in Egypt and Nubia- Battista Belzoni, 2 vols., London, 1822. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 37 tian Pharaoh demonstrates most conclusively that natural teeth were not only well cared for in the way of gold and lead fillings, but that the aged Pharaoh had, perhaps by accident, lost one of his incisors, and the court dentist did the best he could and carved an ivory tooth of similar shape to the lost organ, and by means of silk ligatures fastened it to the adjoining sound ones." Bone and wooden teeth were frequently discovered by Belzoni in his researches in Egypt some years since. A writer in one of our early dental journals f adds: *'The instruments used, appear to have been clumsy and illy fitted to the delicate labor they had to perform. Among the strange frescoes and base reliefs found at Thebes and also at Memphis, are many representing the daily labors, the trades and the professions of the ancient Egyptians ; and one of these portrays a dentist operating on a patient. Although the knowledge of dental science cannot be considered to have greatly advanced among the Egyptians, still there are evidences existing which justify us in giving them credit for a greater degree of skill than we suppose could have existed at that early period. ^ "^^ ^ Some of the mummies which have been exhumed from the ruins of ancient Egypt have presented palpable evidence of having * Papyrus Ebers (1874). Egyptian Medical Art— G. M. Ebers. tNew York Dental Journal, vol. I., p. 6. 38 THE. RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL had their teeth filled with gold and various other substances. W'e do not, however, think that implicit reliance should be placed upon the state- ment that, because these bodies were found with gold and aromatic preparations in the teeth, it follows that filling teeth to preserve them was cus- tomary in life. "The object of the Egpytians in embalming bodies was evidently to arrest decay and, as far as possible, to preserve the existing appearance of the corpse. With this end in view they (the Egpytians) would naturally use particular care with such mem- bers of the body as had already commenced to decay. ^ This appears to us a feasible and probable view of the matter, and we lean toward it rather, that none of the other medicinal operations of the Egyptians are of a nature to induce us to believe that they were far enough advanced in science to undertake the filling of the teeth during the vitality of the body.' This belief does not, however, pre- vent us from giving them their due credit, for knowledge of the chemical properties of the sub- stances they used, a knowledge which in perfection at least is now reckoned among the lost arts, "t Whether these gold fillings were inserted prior *The writer, we perceive, was of the belief that the embalmer and not the dentists filled the teeth with g-old. This view ma}- be rational but we are at a loss as to a strong- critique. tDental Science in Earliest Ages— New York Dental Journal, vol I., p. 4. Ibid, vol. II., pp 2 and 3. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 39 or subsequent to the person's death seems beyond the judgement of present humanity. It is evident that some knowledge of gold foil was extant and that Dental Prosthesis likewise was a familiar art. A wTiter in a recent dental journal says: "While it is true that unmistakable traces exist in the lit- erature and discoveries in Egypt of some valuable observations on the dental system, and the substi- tution of artificial teeth for the absent natural ones, it must be borne in mind that those notions and productions must of necessity have been largely of an empirical and rudimentary character. Indeed, it were a curious contradiction to our established ideas of a more or less systematic evolution of the different sciences to assume otherwise." The museum in Liverpool, England, contains, besides artifical teeth, * ' two teeth of sycamore wood set in gold." Home museums and collections have many specimens of "the mode of fastening by liga- tures or bands of gold or silver wire tying the substitute to its neighbor." It appears that women, too, practiced the art of medicine and dentistry in those ancient days, since we find that "Women, being forbidden to consult with men, received services from their own sex."t At the present time there are scores of women dentists practicing dentistry in Egypt. *Items of Interest, vol. XV., p. 241. tCorrespondence of Dr. Edward Warren — 1874. Scientific American— 1874. 40 THE RISE. FALL AND REVIVAL Egyptologists are still at work deciphering the ancient written rolls of papyri, and much infor- mation remains yet to be derived; the explorations are disclosing many interesting archaeological re- mains and treasures ; the large museum of Egpytian antiquities at Boolak, Egypt, is rapidh* being filled with the treasure-trove, and before another decade the world will be, through the medium of the Egyp- tologist, more definitely informed of the advanced civilization of the " ^Mother of Arts and Sciences." - ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians — Wilkinson, 5 vols., 1847; History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the Conquest by the Arabs — Samuel Birsch, 1846; Medical Papyri of Ancient Egypt — Birsch, 1871; Ueber die Medizinischen Kenntnisse der Alten Aegypter — Brugsch, 1853; Aegyptens Stelle in der Wellgeschichte — Bunson, 5 vols., 1845; Ancient Egypt under the Pharaohs — Kenrick, 2 vols., 1850; Handbuch der Gesammte Aegyptischen Alterthumskunde — Uhlemann, 4 vols, 1857; Rawlinson's Herodotus, 1858; Euterpe, by Herodotus; Zur Aegyptischen Forschung Herod- ots — Buedinger, 1873; Museum of Antiquity — Yaggy, 1885. *See Appendix for additional notes. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 4I HEBREW DENTAL ART. This people hardly deserve a separate chapter, as most of their knowledge of the teeth was borrowed, but since they left testimony of their skill it may be justifiable to record. The ancient Hebrews were not noted for having, at any period of their existence, displayed any great amount of mechanical ingenuity and originality in the arts and sciences and can not with good authority be accredited. These people if at all gifted in this direction they have failed to leave a lasting impres- sion. Language and law were perhaps their great triumphs. In order to learn much of the inner or private life of the Hebrews one must be a Talmud- ist, for in the great Talmud the requisite daily life and habitation can be accurately traced; in this standard record many laws concerning the natural and artificial teeth can be found. The ancient Hebrews too well knevv' the worth of teeth, and the great King Solomon wisely nick- named them the "millstones," and were by his people recognized as the motive power of life. Moses legislated his famous law known as "tooth for tooth,"" an edict which was altered and ex- plained in the Talmud to mean a fine or penalty. *Dentem pro dente— Exode, cli. XXIII. 42 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL The man who broke the tooth of his fellow-man had to pay the unfortunate a sufficient amount of money^ for damage done, or have the substitute placed at the cost of the aggressor, t So highly did the Hebrews value a natural tooth that if a master broke the tooth of a slave the latter was set at liberty on account of his great misfortune. ^losaic law in this respect was in force long after the Christian era, as the following from Talmud says:^ "Rabon Gamliel, who was the teacher of the Apostle Paul, had a slave, Tabi by name, and as he was anxious to set him at liberty forever he broke his slave's tooth that the latter should be free, and the Rabbi was so happy the day of his slave's liberation that he gave a banquet to his friends, besides sending his slave off with a present." The Talmudical Folk-lore says: "If a man dreams that his false teeth have fallen out it is a bad omen that his children will soon die." Indeed the dental profession was in a state of semi-cultivation under the care of the learned sages of the Talmud, and modern dentists would be astonished to learn that the art of replacing false teeth for natural ♦•'That a fine of twelve crowns should be levied against any person who had broken the tooth of his neig-hbor."— Jewish Law, fifteenth cen- tury. tThe Youth's Dentist— Dr. J. R. Duval, Baltimore, 1818, p. 60. Jltems of Interest, vol. XIV., pp. 415, 416. Talmud Babli. Dentistry Among- the Hebrews— Xaphthali Herz Imber, 1892. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 43 ones was practiced among the Hebrews more than two thousand years ago. Samuel, the dentist who lived after the destruc- tion, was the house physician and dentist of the famous Rabbi Jehuda, the Saint. The latter was often afflicted with toothache but was cured by Samuel. What drug this Rabbical dentist used is unknown, but according to the Talmudical narra- tion it must have been chloroform or something with similar qualities, since the Rabbi's suffering was stopped by the use of inhalation of anaesthetic fumes. Among the Hebrews it was strictly forbidden by law to carry jewelry or precious metals or stones on the Sabbath, but the Talmud wisely allowed the Jewish women "to go out on the Sab- bath with her false golden or silver teeth." Some Rabbis allowed their people to wear the silver false teeth since these appeared natural, but the use of golden false teeth on Sabbath were prohibited."^ An authority on Hebrew customs and cere- monies saysit "Among the orthodox Jews, especially of the large cities of Europe, where the Rabbis are regarded as the law givers of Hebrew communities, even now after the Ghetto era, none will submit to a dental operation unless the ingredients used by *Rabbianical Code. tRev. H. J. Sharp. 44 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL the operators are pronounced by their spiritual advisers as 'not prohibited' by the Rabbinical code or the ceremonial law. Anything obtained from the bodies of such animals as swine, hippo- tami, oysters, etc., would be positively forbidden to be used in dentures to be applied to Jewish patrons." In later times the artificial teeth were made of ivory instead of wood, and this statement is sub- stantiated by the curious fact that the Hebrew term tooth is "shen," while the term for an ele- phant is "shenhob." Now it is highly probable that the term for tooth was derived from the word elephant, as they used the latter's white tusks in making false human dentures. Hebrew dental art is so intimately interwoven with the Egpytian that aside from the Talmudical obligations, the dental art was practiced and under- stood by Hebrews and Egyptians alike. ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. Talmudical Commentary — Don. I. Abarbanel ; Research In Antiquity — R. Waller ; Critique on the Talmud — Perl N. Krochmal ; History of the He- brews — Zunz ; Talmudicum et Rabbinicum — Bux- ton ; Hebrew Antiquities — Sully ; Geschichte der OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 45 Israels — Wellhausen ; History of the Hebrew Mon- archy — Newman ; Encyclopaedia der Classischen Alterthumswissenschaft — Pauly ; Egyptian and He- brew Antiquities — Young, Bunsen, Letronne and Champollion ; Transaction of Society of Antiquities of France ; Hebrew Arts and Sciences — Dean Stan- ey.^ For additional notes see appendix. 46 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL CHINESE DENTAL ART. The Chinese, it must be remembered, were in ancient days a persevering people and made won- derful advancements in the arts and especially in the sciences. In medicine and surger)- they were considered fairly advanced. One of the ancient kings of China instituted a free medical school for those citizens who were inclined to study medi- cine or its many branches."^ Although it is very difficult to obtain facts and figures of ancient China it, notwithstanding, fortunately happens that a Chinese MSS., deposited in the French Academy of Science, gives us much information as to Chinese methods of dental practice. In this paper we are told, among other things, ''that the court dentists ever preserved for the royalty the entire natural denture and keep the same 'clean and sweet.' " The paper further states "that the den- tist used a peculiar pitch of a white appearance, and this was used to restore decayed teeth." Of animal physiologyt and medicine the Chinese have very crude notions, as is shown by their various ideas of the human body, and their practice ^^Encyclopaedia Brttaunica, vol. I., 7S'). tPeoples' Encyclopaedia, vol. I., p. 427. American C3-clopaedia, vol. XI., p. 345. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 47 of medicine and surgery must of necessity be em- pirical.^ The practice of dentistry in China is doubtless very ancient, but it has not attained that perfec- tion which characterizes the modern art. It is well known that the Chinese attribute toothache to the gnawing of worms, and that their dentists claim they take these worms from decayed teeth. How this is accomplished is as follows: "When a patient with toothache applies for relief, if the tooth is solid in the socket, the gum is sepa- rated from the tooth with sharp instruments and made to bleed. During this operation the cheek is held to one side by a bamboo spatula, both ends of which are alike, and on the end in the hand some worms are concealed under thin paper pasted to the spatula, the paper being the same color as the spa- tula. When all is prepared this end is adroitly turned and put into the mouth, and the paper, becoming moistened, is easily torn with the sharp instrument used for cutting the gums, gives up its worms, which mix with the bloody saliva, and the dentist leisurely picks them out with a pair of for- ceps. The patient having ocular demonstration that the cause of his disease has been removed, has good reason to expect relief, which, in most cases, would be the result from the bleeding of the gum and the fright of the patient. 'Peoples' Encjclopaedia, vol. I., p. 427 48 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL ' ' When the toothache returns, as it will in almost every case — perhaps within an hour, or maybe not for one or two days — the patient again seeks his dentist for relief, and the same operation is performed, finding more worms, which of course explains the recurring trouble, and this is- continued from time to time until the tooth ceases aching altogether of its own accord from the natural death of the pulp. Another fact might be mentioned : the standard medical books of China teach, and have taught for ages, the idea of worms in a tooth causing it to ache. The above practice is resorted to Vv'hen the tooth is firmly set in the jaw, or is not so loose as to be removed with the fingers or by a slight force or pressure with iron instruments. "The insertion of artificial teeth has been prac- ticed in China for ages before it was introduced into Europe, and has one great recommendation, viz., cheapness. The material used is bone or ivory, and the tooth, having been sawed and filed into the proper shape, is fastened to the adjoining teeth by a copper wire or catgut string. If two or more teeth are required, they are made in one piece, and a hole drilled the whole length, through which a double string or wire is passed, which loops over the natural tooth at one end and is tied to the tooth at the other. This work, although rude in the extreme, is, as to looks, better than the absence of the teeth, and is of some use in mastication. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 49 The cost of a single tooth will be from five to ten cents, and the charge for half a dozen would be from thirty cents to half a dollar. At these low rates all classes may avail themselves of the benefit, and those who practice the art do a thriving busi- ness."^ "The Chinese themselves do not believe in dissection, and there is no body-snatching here. They believe that the heart is the seat of thought, that the soul exists in the liver, and that the gall bladder is the seat of courage. For this reason the gall bladders of tigers are eaten by soldiers to in- spire them with courage. The Chinese doctor or dentist ranks no higher than the ordinary skilled workman. He gets from fifteen to twenty cents a visit, and he often takes patients on condition that he will cure them within a certain time, or no pay. He never sees his female patients except behind a screen, and he does not pay a second visit unless he is invited. His pay is called " golden thanks," and the orthodox way of sending it to him is to wrap it in red paper. The dentists look upon pulled teeth as trophies, t and they go about with necklaces of de- cayed teeth about their necks, or with them strung upon strings and tied to sticks. Toothache is supposed to come from a worm in the tooth, and * Report on Chinese Dentistry, 1877— Drs. J. G. Kerr and G. O. Rogers. Dental Cosmos, vol. XIX., p. 382. China Review, February, 1877. tDental Review, vol. V., p. 360. 50 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL there is a set of female doctors \vho make a business of extracting these worms." - Artificial teeth among the Chinese of medieval times were seldom worn, since the dental surgeon not only seemed skilled enough to preserve them, but the Chinese were known to be the possessors of sound teeth, t We now leave the superstitious Chinaman and wander to his neighbor, the skillful and dexterous Japanese. ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. History of Chinese ^Medical Art — Creighton ; History of Medicine Among the Asiatic — Wise ; Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society ; Resume of the Chinese Culture — Julien ; ^ledical and Surgi- cal Advancement Amone the Chinese — ^ledhurst.t ^Travels of Dr. Frank Carpenter. Dental Advertiser, toI. XX., p. 131. fSt. Louis Dental Quarterly, vol. 1, pp. 13, 1" +See Appendix for additional notes. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 5 1 JAPANESE DENTAL ART. The following interesting- account from one " who lives among the Japanese well illustrates the advancement made in dentistry : "It is a little remarkable that a nation which places the value they do upon their teeth, and who take the care that is everywhere evident of their appearance should be ignorant of everything relat- ing- to them, other than their mere mechanical substitution. "Taken as a race, the Japanese have not good teeth, neither can they be said to be very bad. Caries, with its resulting odontalgia, is quite com- mon ; but the most frequent cause of trouble is the accumulation of tartar. To such an extent is this true that it constitutes the extracting agent of the aged. It is, indeed, rare to find an elderly person with teeth. As might be expected, the principal accumulation is behind the lower orals ; these are frequently entirely cemented together by a dense, dark brown deposit, of a quarter of an inch in thick- ness. But far more dangerous to the integrity of the organs is the gradual deposit around the necks of the teeth far up under the gums. *W. St. Georye Elnott, M. D., D. D. S., Yokohama, Japan. 52 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL " It is one of the peculiarities of this peculiar land that among the females one seldom meets with beauty, either among the very young or the aged; in both cases they are entirely devoid of color, but in early womanhood it is not rare, nor is color wanting to lend its charm. The teeth of the musmies, or daughters of Japan, are objects of envy, but the horrible custom of blacking the teeth after marriage destroys what little beauty time had not yet stolen. "Irrep"ularities are common. Their teeth bein^ large, the jaw is not sufficiently expanded for their proper placement. Considerable care is taken to have the teeth appear white, the native brush con- sisting of tough v\-ood, pounded at one end to loosen the fibres, when it resembles a paint brush; it is used with several kinds of powder, red, ash- color and white ; they are all of a coarse structure, but answer the purpose very well with the soft, wooden brush employed. Owing to its shape, it is im- possible to get the brush behind the teeth. "In mechanical dentistry they rank far above any barbarian or semi-civilized nation. In point of fact, I believe they stand alone. Their denture answers admirably the principal object of one, i.e., the mastication of food. This, however, applies only to full sets. All full upper cases are retained in place by the atmospheric pressure. This princi- ple is coeval with the art. The oldest inhabitant OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 53 does not know when the principle was introduced. ''Owing to the fact that dentistry existed only as a mechanical trade, the status of those who practice it is not high. In a country where class distinctions are so marked, and where the laws prescribe the dress and social position of all, it is graded with carpenters, which fact is shown b\' their word, ' hadyikfsan ' (tooth carpenter;. Den- tistry, to some extent, is practiced as an itinerant business. The carver, taking his seat beside the highway, exhibits his gilded sign, specimens and material. When not engaged in the all important business of gossiping he plies his chisel, shapes a denture, or grinds on a slab, a bit of quartz for a tooth. I have said that dentistry does not give social position, neither does it wealth. In full practice a dentist may get tvro or three cases in a month, and, for some, he may receive as high as five dollars; but that is a price far above the ability of the majority to pa}*, from one to two dollars being the usual rate. "The base is always of wood. On the cheaper sorts the teeth are merely outlined upon the base, but generally they consist of ivory, shark's teeth, or stone, let into the wood, and retained in posi- tion by being strung on a thread, which is secured at each end by a peg driven into the hole where it makes its exit from the base. "Iron or copper tacks are driven into the ridge 54 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL to serve for masticating purposes, the unequal wear of the wood and metal keeping up the desired roughness of surface. "To construct a full upper and lower denture requires about two days' constant work. Generally, however, four or five are taken, as there must be time allowed for the usual smokes and occasional naps which are considered so necessary. The ordinary service of a denture is about five years, but they frequently last much longer. The writer has one in his possession that has been in use fifteen years, and is still quite serviceable. "The process of manufacture is crude in the extreme. A piece of wax large enough to cover the roof of the mouth is heated, introduced, and pushed up in position by the thumbs; it is then removed and placed in cold water to harden. Another piece of wax, large enough to make the model, is then heated and applied to the impres- sion, pressed into every part by the fingers, then chilled by placing in cold water, and separated. A piece of wood is now roughly cut to the desired form, and the model, having been smeared over with a red paint ;'veni), is now applied to the plate; where they touch each other is marked by the paint. This is then cut away and the process repeated until the plate coats uniformly; it is then tried in the mouth and any necessary corrections made. They do not seem to be very particular to get a OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 55 smooth surface, at times not removing the tool marks. "Whether or not these upper or lower den- tures can be worn alone I do not know, never having seen them other than double; nor have I seen a single one carved to antagonize with the natural. "As the teeth are not natural in appearance, and don't add to the beauty of the wearer, they are never used for purely ornamental purposes. I will except, however, those partial dentures which are fastened to the adjoining teeth by a piece of thread, they being used only for appearance sake; from the mode of manufacture there is no reason why one denture might not be made to answer several persons in succession." ^ Some few years ago a young Japanese!' came to this country to study the art and science of den- tistry. He brought with him an example of the plate-work of his own people. The plate was a rim of hard wood, skillfully carved, in which were set pointed pegs of steel. This was one of the sets of teeth which from time immemorial the den- tist of this nation had constructed for the toothless, who still retained an appetite, though the machin- ery for its indulgence had disappeared. This curious form of a denture was used merely for *Dental Cosmos, vol. XIV., pp. 5, 6, 7. tDemorest's Family Magazine, vol. XXIX., p. 82. 56 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL mastication and was removed and scoured as soon as the meai was concluded. The Japanese are a very dexterous people, and if superstitions could be eliminated much in a mechanical sense might be expected. Among them superstition cries loudly — protest- ing at all attempts at frustrating the plans of Him who takes but what He gives. "It were wicked," they claim, "to attempt to 'restore' v/hat our God has taken away.'" Hence, v.ith this belief deeply imbedded, Dental Prosthesis can gain no strong foothold. Prof. \V. E. Grififis, of the Imperial College at Tokio, Japan, says : " The Japanese are admirable workers on metal. Iron, copper and brass are wrought in every part of the country, and the swords of Japan have long been famous. The ornaments- upon their hilts and handles, made of copper, silver or gold, with inlaid work of various metals, are not only curiosities but works of high art. They are most skillful in carving wood and metal ; their lacquering in wood excels that of all other nations. "•■ ^American Cyclopaedia, vol. IX.. p. 5^ Dental Cosmos, vol. XI.. p. lOS. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. $7 ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Land of Art — Japan — M'Clachie ; Manners and Customs of Japanese — Mrs. Busk ; History of Medicine Among the Japanese — Wise ; Transac- tions of the Asiatic Society of Japan ; Glimpse at the Art of Japanese — Jarves. ^' *See appendix for additional notes. 58 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL PHOENICIAN DENTAL ART. Ancient Phoenicia, bordering on the eastern coast of the ^Mediterranean Sea, was particularly noted for its two great cities, Sidon and grand Tyre, and these cities in turn were famous for their man- ufacturers and artists. It was on this soil that King Solomon's temple stood, the grandest structure of antiquity. It was in the time of the Persian mon- archy that Phoenician art reached its highest devel- opment, influencing all the nations around her. With Phoenician art and science the modern world has been little acquainted until the discoveries made by Gen. de Cesnola,* the results of which are in the Cesnola collection at the Metropolitan Museum, New York City. For three years this eminent Italian archaeological explorer employed several hundred men to excavate the ancient Phoenician cities, but principally Cyprus. During this period upward of 8,000 tombs had been opened, and a magnificent collection of antiquities gathered. It is the largest archaeological collection in the world and contains some 13,000 articles, mostly of precious metals. The Phoenicians, we learn, adopted from the Egyptians the custom of depositing their dead *American Cyclopaedia, vol. XIII., p. 779. Ibid, vol. IV., p. 215. Encyclopaedia Britannica., Am. Sap., vol. II., p. 13S. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 59 in sarcophagi.* The oldest examples of anthropoid stone coffins are made after the pattern of the Egyptian mummy cases. Modern excavations show that beside stone coffins, the Phoenicians employed coffins of wood, clay and lead, to which were often attached metal plates. Embalming also seemed to have been frequently practiced as well as covering the body with stucco. Great care was bestowed by the Phoenicians on their burial places, and their cemeteries are the most important mon- uments left to the post-civilization. The .tombs are subterranean chambers of the most varied form. The dead were deposited either on the floor of the chamber in the sarcophagi, or, according to later custom, in niches. The mouths of the tomb were securely walled up and covered carefully. Thus safely stored away from time's ravishing elements, the Phoenician race is preserved for modern research and study. Archaeological societies have begun in earnest to disclose these buried treasures, and the dental profession already have received several encouraging mementoes. A specimen of ancient Phoenician dentistry is accurately described by M. Ernest Renan, in his work entitled "Mission de Phoenicie e le Cam- pangne de Sidon,"t as follows : ♦Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. XVIII., p. 810. Anderson's General Historj-, pp. 62, 63. Museum of Antiquit)-— Haines, pp. 643, 911. McCabe's Pictorial History of the World, pp. 180, 181. tPage of the vol., 472. 60 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL **But that which was most interesting was the upper portion of a woman's jaw showing the two superior cuspids and four incisors, united by gold thread. Two of these incisors seemed to have be- longed to another person, and to have been placed there in order to replace the missing one. This piece, which was found in one of the most ancient vaults, proves that the art of dentistry was pretty far advanced at Sidon, and also proves that the earth scurvy (scorbot de terre) so commonly seen nowadays in Sidon existed already in those ancient times."" This piece of Phoenician dentistry, Dr. Van Marter informs us, can be seen in the museum of the Louvre, Paris. There are scores of specimens of Phoenician dental art in home collections and also at the Columbian World's Fair. Dr. Eames t assures us that * ' One of the earliest records of a dental operation is found upon a Scyth- ian vase, discovered in an immense tumulus or buried mound, situated about four miles to the westward of Kertch, a small town on the Crimean peninsula. Historically we know but little of the Scythians, beyond the meagre facts recorded by Herodotus, but in the almost numberless tumuli which are found upon the Crimean coast are pre- ♦Independent Practitioner, vol., VII. pp. 58, 59. J. G. Van Marter, D, D. S., Rome, 1886. J^Scythian Dental Art— Dr. W. H. Eames, 1886. Independent Practitioner, vol. VII., p. 290. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS^ 6 1 served a most graphic record of their daily lives, manners and customs, in the funeral vases and other objects deposited in the final resting places of their dead. "The richest of the numberless tumuli so far opened is one called the Koul-Oba, which was ex- amined under the direction of the Russian govern- ment, and, although the greatest care was taken to preserve the precious relics, the larger parts were stolen and never recovered. The Koul-Oba was a royal tomb, and in a spacious apartment con- structed of large blocks of stone was found the mouldering remains of the king, his queen or favorite wife, his servants, horses, and surrounded by his treasures. Near the splendid wooden sar- cophagus of the king were the remains of a woman, doubtless his queen. On her head was a mitre- shaped diadem, and at her feet a vase of electrum, upon which is embossed a frieze of characteristic episodes of Scythian life. Upon the vase are four groups in exquisite repousse work, giving incidents in their life. The King is clad in a Scythian cos- tume, a tunic belted at the waist, and full trousers tucked in the boots; in one group he is listening to a report of a warrior kneeling before him; in another he is bending a bow, in a third his wounded leg is being dressed, and the last, as before stated, is one of the earliest known representations of a dental operation. The King is. half sitting, half 62 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL kneelin;^, and the Scvthian dentist is extracting" a tooth from the left side of the jaw. It is reason- able to suppose that this represents an actual inci- dent in the life of the king found in the tomb, for in his skull, now deposited in the museum at Kertch. the first and second left lower molars are missing and the third molar is badly deca}-ed. The presence of an alveolar abscess connected with these lost teeth, at some period of life is shown by the condition of the alveolar process in this region. "The only clue to the identity of the powerful monarch here entombed is an inscription of three letters upon an ornament, in which it is claimed can be recognized the initials of a Bosphorus King, Pairisades, who reicrned about 310 B. C." CD •-' The vase, of which Dr. Eames speaks, was no doubt Phoenician art, for it was about at this same period, 310 B. C.,that Phoenician pottery - claimed the attention of the then ancient world. These people were wonderfulK- skillful in ceramic work and it is highly probable that the Scythian King engaged his Phoenician neighbor to create the vase and other earthen figures which modern research has found within his tomb. J. H. Middleton, an authorit}- on pottery says :" *' Excavations in C}-prus, Rhodes, Thera, Troy, ♦American Cyclopaedia. vol.JXIII.. p. 779. Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. XIX., p. C^S Peoples' Encyclopaedia, vol. III., p. 1413. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 63 Attica and the coast of Italy have revealed the ex- istence of an abundant class of pottery of great antiquity, a large part of which in its forms and decorations appears to have been Phoenician."^ We learn that the Scythians t were not familiar with porcelain and clay work, and this account further proves that the vase containing the portrayal of a dental operation was of Phoenician origin. ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ancients and Their Teeth — Duval ; Historical Research Into the Nations of Antiquity — Heeren ; History of Civilization — Augsbury ; Phoenician Inscriptions at Cyprus — De Vogue ; Die Phoe- nizier — Movers ; History of the Ancient Orient — Maspero ; and Phoenician Arts or Mission de Phoe- nici — Renan.:|: *History of Pottery— Middletoii, ISSO. tHerodotus, vol. IV., pp. 81, 97, 142. Hippocrates, vol., II., pp. 66, 82. Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. XXI., p. 576. American Cyclopaedia, vol. XIV., p. 726. tSee appendix for additional notes. 64 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL ARABIAN DENTAL ART. The rise of the ]\Iohammedan empire which influenced Europe so deeply, both politically and intellectually, made its m.ark also in the history of medicine and surgery. After the Arabian conquest had ceased and the people consolidated, learning began to flourish ; schools of medicine,* surgery and pharmacy were established often in connection with hospitals and colleges, much after the fashion of to-day. Although the Arab thought more of his steed than of his wife, yet he did not fail to appreciate self and give time and attention to the " pillars of the mouth," as he called the teeth. Among the archives of tradition, in Arabia, we are informed that the augur and physician, Navius Aetius,t as early as 300 A. D,, discovered the foramina in the roots through which the nerves and vessels enter the pulp chamber ; and for years subsequent to this discovery the christian world was ignorant of this and other of his important finds. ♦Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. XV., p. S0£. Peoples' Encyclopaedia, vol. II., p. 1133. Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. XXII., p. 675. American Cyclopaedia, vol. XI., p. 348. Dental Cosmos, vol. XII., p. 16-s the credit of the ^.'reater portion of this section. I06 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL library of the Barberini Palace, Rome, most care- fully guarded by lock, key and screw, I found this specimen of early dentistry. Viewed under glass, this case might easily deceive the unprofessional eye, for it was thickly covered with the debris of ages. It took a great deal of persuasion to induce the polite and careful librarian to allow me to remove enough of the dust of centuries to see what the Etrurian relic really was. It proved to be four natural teeth, two superior central incisors, laterals and cuspids, banded together with pure gold bands, and attached to adjoining teeth. This case belongs to the same period as those found at Cornets, and in workmanship was so nearly identical that it might have been made by the same dentist. It was taken from an Etrurian tom.b at Palestrini, near Rome, with numerous fine specimens of gold and bronze work. "The most recently opened and oldest Etrurian tomb yet discovered in Itah', was lately excavated at Capadimonti, near the lake of Bolsena. The entire contents of this tomb included three teeth bound together vrith a band of pure gold, gold spiral springs, silver finger-rings, necklace of amber and glass, arm-band, bronze, vases, etc. This tomb belongs to the sixth century B. C. There is nothing to indicate that these three teeth were attached to any adjoining teeth, and we are left to conjecture whether they were loose natural teeth, OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 10/ supported by the gold band around the lateral and bicuspid. It is not at all improbable that the cuspid may have been a transplanted tooth, for we are sure that in those early days they had very clever surgeons, and slaves were made to serve their lords and masters in any capacity, 'from building grand tem.ples and monuments to supply- ing teeth for transplantation. ' Certainly the spaces between these teeth are wide enough to satisfy the most rabid dental separatist, and the position of the teeth does not indicate that perfect regularity and symmetry were the invariable rule, even in those early days. This is significant, when we consider that the former owner of these teeth was evidently a lady of distinction, judging from the ornaments and contents of the tomb. At least this specimen of early Etrurian dental work is of interest to us as the oldest yet found in Italy, and as supplying one of the missing links of the dental chain we are endeavoring to trace back to the beginning of our profession. It is certain that dentistry must have been extensively practiced in the early history of the world and that gold must have been used largely." In 1884 the great English surgeon. Sir Spencer Wells,* made investigations relative to Etrurian medical and dental science and expressed great interest in the matter; he related to Dr. Van Mar- ♦Independent Practitioner, vol. VI., p. 4. I08 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL ter, D. D. S., of Rome, that he learned that these ancient folks had their teeth filled with a kind of fusible metal. The noted English archaeologist and writer, Mr. Forbes, while in Etruria and Rome, discovered that many of the mummified dead had teeth filled with gold "^ and a peculiar amalgam. Hence we would conclude that few Etrurians suffered or died from toothache. On the contrary, we are inclined to think they had better teeth than we of nowadays have, and that in many respects these people were wiser than we. As a rule they cremated their dead and this custom of theirs renders our task of procuring evi- dence a very dif^cult one. From what I can learn, only great warriors and civilians of distinction were embalmed and laid at rest in the family tomb. Two or three thousand years of time has accom- plished the same end, since nearly all those who were embalmed and laid to rest in state suffered the same result, thus: "Ashes to ashes, dust to dust." This narrows our limits of research to a small territory, and makes it rather surprising that any symbol of dental work should come down to us from those remote times. But in the da}'s of flourishing Etruria, only the elite were fortunate enough to receive the benefits of dental operations, while the low and lowly were ♦Independent Practitioner, vol. VI., p. 4. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. IO9 forced to suffer the tortures which diseases of the teeth and oral cavity entailed. The tombs in which the elite of those days were enshrined were most beautifully finished and their walls were ornamented with frescoes typical of the life at that period. Time has naturally covered these sacred vaults, and the ground above them has been cultivated for ages, while below are human ashes telling unknown legends of the lost art — Dentistry. ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. Antiquities of Etruria — Lanzi; Ancient Etruria — Mueller; Archaeological Discoveries in Etruria — Wachsmuth; Museum of Etrurian Urns and Sar- cophagi — Brunn; Etrurian Jewelry and Metal Ornaments — Murray; Etrurian Arts and Sciences — Murray; History of Ancient Etruria — Deecke; Ancient Artists — Spence; Accomplishments of Ancient Etrurians — Steub."^ *See appendix for additional notes. no THE RISE, FALL AXD REVIVAL FALL AXD REVIVAL OF DENTAL ART. The science of dentistry from the fifth to the eighteenth century was entirel}* neglected, and to the suffering masses lost in oblivion during the long and blank period of human record, historically known as the middle ages. In this time the mere operation of extracting useless and painful teeth was the extent of dental science, thus this dark age not only retarded advancement -in our science, but it produced retrogression ; with but few oc- casional rays of light penetrating its misty veil, only to be immediately swallowed in the dense sur- rounding gloom of superstition and religious intol- erance."^ During these dark days, known as the dark ages, all sciences and arts were completely neg- lected and the born artists, scientists and even the philosophers were, by cruel fate, turned into soldiers, knights and marshals. This gloomy period covered a duration of time estimated by historians to be about one thousand years, t All professions suffered in this reign of terror and the various callings of scientific men fell to the hands of mere artisans and laborers. Dentistr\-, once in *Any complete History of the Middle Ages. Any Unabridg-ed Encyclopaedia. tAny complete History of the World. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. Ill the hands of competent and deserving men, now took a retrograde step and became a branch of the blacksmith's, barber's and jeweler's trade. Oral surgery, or more properly speaking dental surgery, was then practiced by the barbers and blacksmiths exclusively. The following from George Elliot's Romola^ (1492) well illustrates the tonsorial claim on the dental school: "Nay Bratti," said the barber in an undertone, "thy wisdom has mutTh of the ass in it, as I told thee just now ; especially about the ears. This stranger is a Greek, else I'm not the barber who has had the sole and exclusive shaving of the excellent Calcon- dila Demetrio and drawn more than one sorry tooth from his learned jaw." In the same book is found t the following: "The Chirurgic Art! * * ^ Is it your Florentine fashion to put the masters of the science of medi- cine on a level with men who do carpentry on broken limbs, etc., and sew up wounds like tailors, and carve av/ay excrescences as a butcher trims meat.^ 'Via!' A manual art, such as any artificer might learn, and which has been practiced by simple barbers like yourself — on a level with the noble science of Hippocrates, Galen and Avicenna, which penetrates into the occult influences of the *Romola, p. 31. *Ibid, p. 165. 112 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Stars and plants and gems — a science locked up from the vulgar?" Medicine and surgery in all their branches, hav- ing early deviated from their true course, were soon given over to alchemy, necromancy and magic. Men sought not after knowledge where it was to be found, but sat gazing into the "smoke of perchance," dreaming that they might discern a form, or experimented with all manner of devices in search of a panacea. Dentistry fell like all other callings, and what little had been known was doomed and lost. Teeth were no longer considered in the light of organs to be rescued from de- struction, but as amulets for warding off evil, or under varying circumstances as omens of good or bad. Through medieval history the figure of dark- ness so frequently applied to affairs of those times, seems from the dental standpoint more appropriately to apply. Dental defects and de- formities are mentioned in tones of pity, because they were considered without remedy. The familiar proverb which had its origin at that time "that a bad tooth was considered, of all things, the most desirable to be rid of," leads us into the secret of darkness. But the subsequent genera- tions, with their speculations and projects, dispelled the magic smoke and the grand forms that were disclosed we will gladly speak of later in our study. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. I 13 A good deal of the medical and surgical prac- tice of this period was in the hands of religious orders, particularly of the Benedictines,* who made distinguished strides of advancement. In Paris a college was founded by the monks. The college was under the protection of St. Cosmast and St. Damianus, two practitioners of medicine and sur- gery ; the institution was known as the College de St. Come.f From the time Lanfranchi joined the school it attracted many pupils, and it main- tained its independent existence for several cen- turies. { Early in the fourteenth century a council of the Roman churcH, held in Paris, decreed §"that monks and priests be forbidden to perform bloody operations," and surgery was again separated from medicine. By this division the barbers and bathers II fell heir to the art and they continued to be the sole surgeons for several succeeding cen- turies. In those dark ages the barber's craft was dignified with the title of a profession, *[ being joined with the art of surgery. The French bar- ber-surgeons were separated from the perruquiers and incorporated** as a distinct body in the reign of ♦Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. XXII., p. 675. fAny Cyclopaedia. JSee pages 93 and 94 for further notice on the clercry and medical science. §American Cyclopaedia, vol. XV., p. 486. See page 93 for Council of Tours. llZell's Encyclopaedia, vol. I., p. 219. UPeople's Library of Information, p. 416. Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. III., p. 363. **Ibid. 114 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Louis XIV. In England barbers first received incorporation^ from Edward IV. in 1461. During the reign of Henry VIII. the barbers were united with a company of surgeons, it being enacted ''that the barbers should confine themselves to minor operations of blood-letting and tooth-draw- ing while the surgeons were prohibited from barbery or shaving.""^ Some years since, the great American, Dr. Oliver Wendell Homes, in addressing a class of dental students, said:t ''Xo longer ago than when President Holyoke, whose son, the venerable phy- sician, some of us well remember, entered upon the duties of his office, and for years after that time, the London Company of Barber-Surgeons were holding their meetings at their hall in Monk- well street ; and it was not till very near the middle of the last century that the surgeons were incorporated as a separate body. It was about the same time, that is, during the reign of George II., that the question was discussed in open court, before the chief justice of England, whether a sur- geon was an 'inferior tradesman,' vrithin the mean- ing of a certain statute of William and IMary. But we must remember in what contempt other of the most useful occupations v.'ere held so long as society *Encjclopaedia Britannica, vol. III., p. 363. American Cyclopaedia, vol. XI., p. 349. tMissouri Dental Journal, vol. IV., p. 175. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. II5 was enslaved by its feudal traditions. Traffic and agriculture were scorned by the descendants of the Norman robbers, until they were starved into bet- ter views, and more civil language than they had inherited." Early in the seventeenth century a jestiqg poet spoke of the barber-surgeon as: ''His pole with pewter basins hung, With rotten teeth in order strung, And cups that in the window stood Lin'd with red rags, to look like blood. Who shaved, drew teeth and bled a vein.'"* About this same time there was a latent strife which eventually burst forth in an open contest between the surgeon and the barber. We read that the barber surgeons were separated from the mere perruquiers, and that the former were incor- porated as a distinct body in the early part of the reign of Louis XIV. This success of the tonsorial trade gave them eminence in their own eyes, and being ambitious to continue to rise in public favor, made a desperate attempt to capture the dental art, and called themselves barber-chirurgeons;t but, alas, the few dentists who, at this period practiced the various departments of dentistry, saw danger in the barbers' new venture and so thoroughly pro- tested the claim of the tonsors, on the ground ''that the barbers practiced the science of dentistry ♦Items of Interest, vol. XI., p. 556. IPeoples' Library of Information, p. 416. Il6 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL and were not regularly educated," that Louis XIV., in 1 741, separated the barbers and dentists and made two distinct vocations." The same grand change took place in England in 1785, under George II. t The barbers on the one hand reluctantly yielded to the kingly proclamations, and have retained up to date a desire to perform the minor opera- tions. Dr. Hunter says on this interesting strug- gle: "The memorial between the dental profession and the tonsorial art is still seen in the striped pole and basin sometimes seen projecting as a symbol in front of the barber shops. '':J: The same was true with reference to the jewel- ers, but to a less earnest degree. This separation between the humbler calling and the more dignified profession immediately gained for the science of dentistry a high social position, and has made the most marvelous progress known to any science in the annals of man. The following extract from a popular medical journal portraying our art and its progress since the day when blacksmiths§ were its practitioners: "Certainly, a good dentist deserves to be called the friend of man. And therefore we read with pleasure that no branch of surgery has made so ♦Peoples' Library of Information, p. 417. tEncyclopaedia Britannica, vol. III., p. 363. +EncTclopaedic Dictionary, vol. II., p. 420. iltems of Interest, vol. XI., p. 413. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. I 17 much progress as dentistry has done; for, during many dark ages, with respect both to science and to practice, it was in a very backward state. Not very long ago, it is averred, blacksmiths were much in favor as operators in this department — a fact which seems to require explanation. It will per- haps be surmised that they were recommended for their work by their great bodily strength. But the obviousness of this account of the matter is delusive; the true theory must be sought in a more roundabout wa}'. And if, in the first place, we remark that the blacksmith anciently discharged the functions of a * farrier,' perhaps this will be thought not to cast much light upon the subject, but rather itself to need illumination. Remember- ing, however, that to the minds of our forefathers the offices of barber and surgeon seem naturally to go together, we cannot be surprised that to the same minds it should appear part of the fitness of things that the blacksmith who shod a horse should also doctor it. And, now, as Mr. Spencer would say, observe the implication. In doctoring a horse it must sometimes have been necessary to extract a tooth, and it was at once inferred that he who could extract a horse's tooth, a 'fortiori,' could draw a man's. And that he did often draw, to admira- tion, both the tooth and the man, maybe imagined. Figure the blacksmith with his patient careering round and round the forge, emulating the dealings Il8 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL of — Achilles with Hector, and then listened to those who deride what they call the mere material civilization of the present day. Great is the tran- sition from the blacksmith's shop to the modern dentist's ingenious arm chair — we had almost written easy chair. On the other hand, it may be that the need of dentists has much increased with civiliza- tion. It is commonly believed that savages have excellent teeth; and although we are nowadays in the habit of suspecting such beliefs, this one seems probable, if we consider how necessary good teeth are to them. To any one who is anxious to prove 'material civilization' a mistake, the inquiry may be suggested: What effect has the invention of knives and forks had upon the teeth of those nations that have condescended to adopt the use of them? For these pernicious utensils plainly render good teeth less a necessary of life than they were before, so that people with bad teeth now survive, transmit their degenerate natural weapons to their descendants, and so on."- While the surgical portion of dental science v/as being looked after by the barber and blacksmith, the prosthetic branch was cared for by the skilled jewelersf of those times. Jewelers in those early days were far ahead of the modern artists, since all the intricate gold and gem work, as also the *Dental Cosmos, vol. XVI., p. 275. tPreceding references. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. II9 engraving of same, was all done unaided by the numerous machines and appliances at the com- mand of the moderns. On this point Rev. Haines, who has investigated antiquity, says: "Etrurian and Roman jewelers were wonderfully skilled in the rolling, smelting and manipulating of gold and other precious metals in all their various forms. In fact. Etrurian jewelry has been famous for twenty-five hundred (2, 500) years. I have seen some specimens which were more than two thou- sand years old that would be difficult of reproduc- tion to-day by any but the most skilled artificers."^ Hence Dental Prosthesis was in the safe keeping of men who would to-day do credit to their own as well as our profession. But it was not until late in 1700 that the science of Dental Prosthesis was eliminated from the jewelry shopt and put in the hands of men who not only understood the fundamental principle underlying the science, but also thoroughly studied the human mouth and its many adjacent connections. Oral surgery on the other hand had not been com- pletely restored to specialists or even medically- skilled representatives; in every civilized country of the earth the barber had been known to be defi- nately connected with rude surgery, such as blood- *Museuni of Antiquitj', p. 643. titems of Interest, vol. IX., p. 150. Missouri Dental Journal, vol. IV., p, 175. I20 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL letting, dressing of wounds, and extracting of teeth or the lancing of gums. In consequence of their slight acquaintance with the rudiments of surgery, the name barber-surgeon was usually applied to those of the barber trade, who demonstrated some surgical skill. In medieval Etruria the barbers were usually men of liberal education, and hence their intimate association with noted personages gave rise to the Latin remark: "As inseparable as musicus, tuturos et barba " — as inseparable as the musician, teacher and barber. Thus for gen- erations after prosthetic dentistry ceased to be practiced by jewelers and watchmakers, oral sur- gery was firm in the grasp of the aspiring, barber. Years rolled upon years and generations after generations passed beneath the sod, ere again the dental specialist arose from among the down-trod- den trades to rise to his former dignity. The impulse which all departments of intellect- ual activity received from the revival in Europe of Greek literature in the fourteenth century was felt by medicine and its several branches, and their corresponding practice was gradually improved. The basis of medicine and surgery we learned was, during the middle ages, dogmatic. "The medical literature now brought to light," says Dr. Payne, in his able treatise on medical progress, "including as it did the more important works of Hippocrates tAny Unabridg^ed Enc3clopaedia. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 121 and Galen, many of them hitherto unknown, and in addition the forgotton elements of Latin medi- cine and surgery, especially the work of Celsus, was in itself far superior to the second-hand com- pilations and incorrect versiohs which had formerly been accepted as standards. The classical works though still regarded with unreasoning reverence, were found to have a germinitive and vivifying power that carried the mind out of the region of dogma and prepared the way for the scientific movement which has been growing in strength up to our own day. Two of the most important results of the revival of learning were, indeed, the reawakening of anatomy which to a large extent grew out of the study of the works of Galen, and the investi- gation of medicinal plants, to which a fresh impulse was given by the revival of Dioscorides and other ancient naturalists. It was at first naturally imag- ined that the simple revival of classical, and espec- ially Greek literature would at once produce the same brilliant results in medicine as in literature and philosophy. The movement of reform started of necessity with scholars, rather than practicing physicians and surgeons, more precisely with a group of learned men, whom we may be permitted for the sake of a name to call the medical human- ists, equally enthusiastic in the cause of letters and medicine. From both fields they hoped to expel the evils which were summed up in a word — bar- 122 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL barism. Nearly all medieval literature was con- demned under this same name ; and for it the humanists proposed to substitute the originals of Hippocrates and Galen, thus leading back medicine to its fountain-head. Since a knowledge of Greek was still confined to a small body of scholars, and a still smaller proportion of physicians, the first task Vv'as to translate the Greek classics into Latin. To this work Several learned physicians, chiefly Italian, applied* themselves with ardor. Among the earliest v»'ere Xicholus Leonicenus (1428- 1524); Giovanni de ^Nlonte (149S-1552); in northern Europe should be mentioned Gulielmus Copus (1471-1532) and Gunther, of Andernach (1487- 1584). A little later Janus Hagenbut (i 500-1 558) and Leonard Fuchs (i 501-1 566), in Germany; John Kave (15 10-1572), in England, and Symphorien Champier (1472-1539}, in France, carried on the work. "The great Aldine press made an important contribution to the work by 'editions principles' of Hippocrates and Galen in the original. Thus was the campaign opened against medieval (mid- dle age) medical writers, till finally Greek medi- cine assumed a predominant position.""^ In the beginning of the sixteenth century medi- cal, surgical and dental . art and science were *Hislorv of Medicine — Pavne. , . Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. XV., p. 808. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 1 23 revived, but to no marked degree. The ana- tomical research of Vesalius, later on others, and prominent among them Fallopius Eustachius, Pare, Hunter and Fox did much toward recreating the medical art, which for upwards of ten centuries lay dormant and unobserved."^ Indeed it is comparatively of late years that den- tistry has occupied anything like a properly recog- nized position among the different departments of medicine; for we learned that it was practiced to a large extent as a super added means of livelihood by persons engaged in some other pursuit, and without any professional education or discipline whatever. Under the very shadow of the famous European universities, dentistry was professed by the black- smith, barber, bather, jeweler, silversmith, monk and even the cobbler. But matters were not des- tined to so remain, for the hospitable goddess of liberty and enlightenment, whose natal day the world shall ever cherish, unloosened fetters and turned the page of progress. Educational matters began to receive attention and the invention of printing and the discovery of America, lead the way to future triumphs. ^Anj- Coiiiplele Encyclopaedia. 124 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire — Gib- bon ; Revival of Learning — Hallam ; Lost Art — Arnold ; Renaissance — Symonds ; Europe During the Middle Ages — Hallam ; Period of Revival of Learning — Payne ; History of the State of Rome in the Middle *Ages — Gregorovious ; Fall of the Roman Republic — Merival ; Revival of Medicine — ^gineta ; Revival of the Ancient Arts and Scien- ces — Voigt ; Records of the Reformation — Pocock; Ecclesiastical Annals — Raynaldus ; Studies in the History of Renaissance — Symonds ; The Reforma- tion — Dollinger ; History of the Papacy During the Reformation — Creighton ; History of the Roman Catholic Church — Dowling ; Works on Printing and Progress of the Lost Ages — Harper.* *See appendix for additional notes. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 1 25 EUROPEAN DENTAL ART. In the beginning of the seventeenth century dental science in Europe was revived, but to no marked degree; artificial dentures were beginning to receive attention and filling teeth with lead and putty opened the way to future conquests. We will now briefly sketch dental progress among the French, Dutch, English, German and other people. In order to avoid repetition, we will treat in a general manner, the various methods, processes and materials used in the several Euro- pean nations, under the cover of "European Dental Art;" and leave for further mention those inventions, discoveries and personalities as belong particularly to the individual country. To sum up the general status of dentistry as practiced in Europe at the beginning of this cen- tury, we can safely trust in the able writer, Dr. F. Maury, who, in 1840, wrote as follows:^ "We shall not here enter into a detail of the antiquity of Dental Prosthesis, but will merely say of it that the polished people of antiquity paid particular atten- tion at aM times to their teeth, and endeavored to repair their loss by mechanical means. "Whatever may be the origin of odontotechny ♦Dental Surg-ery— Maury, p. 179. 126 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL it is certain that this branch is carried to a greater degree of excellence at this present day (1840), than it ever attained in former times, particularly in our country (France), where this department of dentistry has become so good and so general as to be considered an art; the many advantages of which all classes of society have felt. It was Fauchard, who first in 1728, gave a treatise upon this subject (Prosthesis). Several French and foreign works have appeared since that time, and although incom- plete, they furnish valuable information upon the subject now before us. They appear to us suscepti- ble of important additions, and if we cannot flatter ourselves that we can furnish a perfect treatise up- on this part of the science we can at least hope to point out the various improvements that have recently been introduced. "The materials that have been used in con- structing artificial teeth are the bones and the teeth of oxen, horse, sheep, stag and several other ani- mals; ivory, mother-of-pearl, teeth of the hippopot- amus or sea-horse, of the whale, human teeth, incorruptible teeth, made of mineral paste. Per- sons who have been deprived of their front teeth, have for a long time replaced them with artificial teeth made of white wax. "We shall briefly examine these various sub- stances, the number of which have been greatly reduced. We would however, here remark, that OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 12/ the teeth of the hippopotamus, the human, and the incorruptible teeth, are most generally used at the present time (1840). "Bones of the Ox. — These bones, being entirely- destitute of enamel, bear but little resemblance to the natural' teeth, and are very porous; they become yellow, and decompose very soon. They have, however, for a long time been used for fabricating supports or bases resembling the gums. For this purpose the femur has been used, after having been cleansed in clay and exposed to the dew to whiten. "Teeth of Oxen, Horses, Etc. — As we cannot give these the shape of the human teeth by means of the file, it is easy to detect them otherwise than by the absence of the enamel, which does not cover the surface of these teeth. Their color does not resemble that of the human teeth. If, how- ever, we are obliged to use them from the want o human teeth, we should choose those of animals advanced in age, because of their central cavity being smaller than at a younger period of life ; they are hence more solid and better adapted for the reception of pivots, by which they are to be attached to the artificial base. "Ivory. — Sometimes parts of sets, and some- times complete dentures are manufactured of this substance ; but, like the preceding, it is not a good imitation of the natural organ. Ivory, being void of enamel, becomes yellow very soon in the mouth. 128 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL and the saliva and mucous decompose it, after a time, in spite of the care that may be taken. In case we cannot procure a substance more resisting, as the tooth of the sea-horse, we should prefer the ivory of 'young elephants, and the central part of the tooth near the poijit. The grain at this point is more compact, and the ivory usually lasts longer than that of any other part of the tooth. Green ivory, that is, ivory taken from the teeth of ani- mals that have been recently killed, is preferable. "]\Iother-of-Pearl. — We need merely name this material. It is unfit to be used for this purpose, and has been seldom employed. "Hippopotamus. — The use of the tooth of the hippopotamus in manufacturing teeth is of recent date, as i\-ory was, for a time, almost exclusively used ; but the inconveniences of the latter, already named, and the superiority of the sea-horse tooth, have induced dentists to abandon the use of ivory. At the present- day the tooth of the hippopotamus is much used, both with and without the enamel. "These teeth are obtained in commerce from Africa and the m^ost distant parts of Asia. Such as are least hollowed out are considered best, as their ivory is more compact than those that are hollow. These teeth vary much in size, color, form and enamel. "The incisors of the hippopotamus are short, semi-cylindrical anteriorly, contain a deep furrow, OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 1 29 and are enveloped with enamel, the color of which, when polished, resembles that of the human teeth. Their semi-circular form enables us to carve from the same piece several teeth having enamel upon them. They sometimes contain deep furrows by which we are enabled to carve six or eight teeth thus shielded with this substance. "The tusks of this animal are larger and longer than the incisors, and are curved like those of the wild boar. Their least weight is two pounds and a half. They sometimes weigh nine pounds, but this is uncommon. The teeth are flattened pos- teriorly, and convex anteriorl}-, and are covered with enamel only on the latter side. Their size enables us to form complete dentures of them, not enameled, or bases upon which enameled teeth are afterward to be attached. "We should make use of such as have their internal substance compact, white and smooth. The best are white, round, enameled at their smallest part, and have not large ridges or deep depressions, and are not cracked in the direction of the curvature. To preserve them they should be kept in a humid place. When using them or working them, we should be careful not to expose them to the sun, fire or current air, as such ex- posure will tend to crack them, especially in such places as are not protected by the enamel. "If we cut a hippopotamus' tooth transversely I30 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL through its middle, we will perceive a furrow, whose depth depends entirely upon the age of the animal. We should as much as possible avoid this furrow in manufacturing pieces. If its use cannot be avoided, the piece should be so constructed that this defect may not be perceptible, as this part is yellow, and more easily acted upon by the secre- tions of the mouth. "However perfect and beautiful may be the piece of this material used, its extreme whiteness, which at first pleases the e}-e, sooner or later is lost, and a bluish or yellow hue is assumed. ' 'Artificial bases are generally made of the tooth of the sea-horse, and human teeth are inserted into this; and when these bases are neatly carved and polished, they present a very good appearance. ''The incisors of the inferior jaw of the hippo- potamus are called, improperly, in commerce, the teeth of the sea-cow. These teeth are round, and have no enamel, and when they are of a proper size, complete dentures are manufactured out of a single piece by its being cut lengthwise. "Teeth of the Whale. — These teeth are some- times in commerce mixed with those of the sea- horse. They are as strong as the latter, but differ very much from them in form, and in their dura- bility. They may, however, be used in the manu- facture of the bases when we cannot procure a substance more compact. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 131 "Human Teeth. — Of the various articles used in replacing the lost organs, the human teeth, v/ith- out doubt, merit the preference, since they are such as are given us by nature. We shall indicate the manner in Avhich they should be chosen, and the various preparations they should undergo before insertion. "These teeth are generally obtained from the mouths of persons who die in hospitals, and whose bodies are brought into the amphitheatre for dis- section. The best are such as are not decayed or cracked, and have been taken from subjects between the ages of eighteen and forty years. The teeth at this time of life are firm and of the most desirable consistency, and are capable, for a long time, of resisting the destructive agents to which they are constantly exposed. The teeth of younger sub- jects are too tender, their canal is to large, and they are incapable of resisting deleterious influences. Those of old men are hard, but yellow and much worn, and crack very easily. We should prefer the teeth of adults which have been recently taken from the subjects. We should reject all such as are not entirely sound, or the cavities of which are red or black, as they very soon become black in the mouth and decay. It is true, that if a cavity be found upon the side of a tooth used for this purpose, w^e may drill the decay out, and insert a plug made of the tooth of the hippopotamus; but 132 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL these should not be used if sound ones can be pro- cured. "The teeth being chosen, we should preserve them in such manner as to be able to use them at any moment. They should be extracted from the subject with care, and portions of the alveolar pro- cess, periosteum, gum or tartar, that may adhere to them, should be removed. The extremities of their roots should be pierced, and they should be strung in the order in which they had been placed in the mouth. They should then be steeped for seven or eight days in water, which should be changed =every twenty-four hours. At the expira- tion of this time, they should be again cleaned by being rubbed with a piece of soft wood, as willow or fir, v.'et and dipped in powdered pumice stone. In this manner we can remove all foreign bodies from the teeth. If there should remain any stain or spot, it should be removed with the file or grind- stone. They are next to be washed with soap and water, and the process of cleaning is to be con- cluded by immersing them in alcohol. ''We generally use the eight superior teeth, viz: four incisors, two "cuspidati" and two anterior bicuspids. It will be well, however, to procure the eight corresponding inferior teeth, as they are sometimes required. "The teeth, being thus cleansed and assorted, should be placed in a vase and covered with sand, OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 133 bran, fine grain, saw-dust, or anything capable of excluding the air, heat and cold. "Some dentists preserve them in water or diluted alcohol. This is a bad practice, as they become yellow and crack afterward when exposed to the air. Others preserve them in equal parts of wax, chalk and oil; but this is inferior to the simple mode we have already recommended. When we cannot procure the eight teeth from the same indi- vidual, care should be taken to select such as harmonize well together. We should be cautious in using teeth that have been procured from ceme- teries; for, after having remained in the earth for a time, their enamel is apt to be dull. Their bony substance, also, is likely to be yellow, or of a brown hue, v/hich is the result of decomposition. While preparing teeth of this kind, they often break very easily, and when inserted soon become black and decay. "When we wish to insert two or three of these teeth, we adjust them upon a platina or gold plate, if the alveolar border be not too much absorbed. If this be the case they should be mounted upon a sea-horse base, and secured to it by means of platina-rivets. "Animal substances of which artificial teeth are made possess the inconvenience of being liable to a speedy softening and decomposition; and they tarnish and emit a disagreeable odor. We are 134 "^HE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL therefore obliged to renew them frequently. To obviate this inconvenience, it has been proposed to manufacture artificial teeth of earth, capable of being hardened b}- means of heat, and enameled like por- celain. These teeth are called incorruptible." Such, from the pen of an eminent French den- tist, vras the knowledge of artificial teeth early in this century. FRENCH DENTAL ART. To the French scientists and the people gener- ally is due much credit for having greatly encour- aged dental art. The French system of dentistry made rapid progress, and anon England, Germany and other European nations copied nearly exclu- sively from the French artists. Ambroise Pare, familiarly called the "barber-dentist,'' born 15 17, was an army surgeon, and he educated himself in anatomical science, and in surgery was one of the first great lights. He was surgeon successfully to four kings of France, and was attached to the French armies as surgeon-general as late as i 569. "To Pare" says Sabine, "we owe the revival and improvement in surgical practice." It was while in the army in 1579, that he discovered the possi- bility of success in transplanting teeth. His suc- cess in the ventures proved him capable and he turned his attention largely to this new surgical discovery. He subsequently constructed artificial OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 135 dentures, having as bases gold and silv^er. Pare exerted a great influence on surgical and dental arts. His extensive medical and surgical experience he published in 1562 and later, the editions having been translated into all modern languages. In I 590, Pare died. Following this eminent Frenchman, came others, all of whom contributed to the advancement of dentistry. Thus Hemard, a French dentist, manu- factured, in 1622, ivory dentures. Petrie Torest invented the elevator in 1602. Dupont, a Parisian dentist, in 1633, advertised himself as a specialist on "Implantation of teeth;" in 1735 the French Academy of Science announced the discovery of caoutchouc, which in various forms of preparation was used by dentists as a filling material. In 1728 Dr. Fauchard, proposed as substitute for natural teeth, such as could be made of porce- lain; this, however, was simply a key for some future inventor, as the proposed porcelain teeth were not yet in existence. A curious old book has come to light, pertain- ing to primitive French dental art; that the book in question was popular in its time is demonstrated clearly as, in 18 16, it had reached its fifth edition. It was entitled: '*A Dissertation on Artificial Teeth" by M. De Chemant. The chief point of interest in the book centers in a sheet of engrav- ings illustrating the various types of dentures which 136 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL M. De Chemant, was prepared to supply to his patients. He here clearly portrays a porcelain bridge of ten teeth supported by four pivots, by which it is fastened to the remaining roots of the jaw. A simple tooth from this ingenious bridge, would be a true representation of what we Ameri- cans call a Logan crown. 'SI. De Chemant speaks of these teeth as his invention and records the cir- cumstance ; and to satisfy the curiosity of students of primitive Dental Prosthesis will give his own words on the subject: "In 1788, when I exercised the profession of a surgeon, I was consulted by a lady who had fallen into such a state of weakness as produced consider- able fears of her life. On approaching her I per- ceived a tainted odor which I thought proceeded from her lungs, or her teeth which were black. I examined her mouth and was struck with the bad state of a set of human teeth implanted on the base of a tooth of the hippopotamus. This set of teeth removed, I perceived her mouth to be almost entirely covered with small ulcers, and I had no doubt that her disease was the effect of the putrid exhalations which proceeded from the set of teeth, and which corrupted the air she breathed ; what confirmed this conjecture was, that after having laid these teeth aside her health improved in a few days. Perceiving that this lady would not do ♦Items of Interest, vol. XIII., p. 12. PLATE II. Specimens of Medieval Deqtal Art. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 139 without artificial teeth, I advised her to have several sets of teeth at the same time, so that she might change them often after having washed and let them dry. She did so, and her health became re-established in the course of some months. But as the teeth of this kind required to be renewed frequently they occasioned a great expense, and notwithstanding their frequent renewal they always produced a bad smell. I was induced from that time to reflect on the possibility and means of making teeth and sets of teeth of durable and incorruptible materials. I examined almost all the substances of the mineral kingdom, and at length composed a paste which, when it was baked (por- celain) had every desirable advantage." Now as a matter of fact, porcelain teeth were invented by an apothecary of St. Germain, Ducha- teau^ by name. He himselfwore an artificial denture of ivory and natural teeth, but found they rapidly became tainted by the various disagreeable odors emanating from his mouth, the porous animal sub- stances becoming rapidly impregnated by the efifluvia. This druggist called the attention of Mr. Guerard to the discovery of a paste which, when baked, became very hard. The latter gentleman undertook in 1776 to manufacture the substance and with the aid of a dentist produced a porcelain tooth. ♦Items of Interest, vol. XIII., p. 13. 140 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL But to De Chemant is due the credit of per- fecting the discovery or invention ; he bought the right from the former and managed to attract the attention of the French Academy of Science, which at once appointed a sub-committee to examine the teeth and their merits. The com.mittee reported favorably, at the same time informing M. De Che- mant where improvements were needed, and with the aid of -M. Dubois, dentist, the new substance (porcelain) was considerably improved. In 1805, Professor Lafargue published a book on the practice and art of dentistry. Dr. Debarre is another early dental practitioner who deserves much praise, since he early in the century published a volume called "Prosthetic Dentistry." This is the first book devoted especially to this great branch of dental science. This rare work was considered superb and contained forty-two v.-ell executed plates. Subsequently to Dr. Debarre's volume, many publications appeared in the French book market. In 1808, Fronzi,'^ a French dentist, constructed a single enameled tooth to be eventually arranged together in an entire set; he did great service in improving enameled teeth. It is claimed by modern dentists that Dr. Fauchard, of France, in 1785, was the first doctor to refer to gold-leaf as a filling material; and Dr. tDental Cosmos, vol. XXIII., p. 671. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. I4I Harris,"^ of America, is responsible for the state- ment that gold-leaf was first used for filling pur- poses in the early part of the eighteenth century. This on close investigation proves to be a mistake, as is clearly demonstrated in many pages of this work. The following is a list of French authors, who had contributed to dental literature, prior to the year 1800. Andree, 1784, 1790; Apius, 175 1; Aurivillius, 1757; Auzebi, 1771; Bauhinus, 1660; Eeaupreau, 1764; Botot, 1786, 1789; Bourdet, 1756, 1762, 1764; Brendel, 1697; Bunon, 1741, 1743, 1746; Courtois, 1775, 1778; Cransius, 1681; Cumme, 1716; Delabarre, 1800; Despre, 1720; Dubois De Chemant, 1789, 1790, 1796; Duchmin, 1759; Du- pont, 1633; Fauchard, 1786; Finot, 1799; Fleuri- mon, 1682; Fronzi, 1798; Fouchon, 1775; Frank, 1692; Geraudly, 1737; Gilles, 1622; Grun, 1795; Hemard, 1582; Heslopp, 1700; Hilscher, 1748, 1776; Josse, 1800; Jourdan, 1761, 1766, 1756; Lecluse, 1750, 1753, 1782; Lemaire, 1784; Monier, 1783; Mouton, 1786; Ricci, 1790." These works were purely dental and this por- trays how industrious and persevering the French scientists were relative to dentistry. The French have indeed done much toward establishing dental ♦Harris' Principles and Practices of Dentistrj-. 142 THE RISE. FALL AND REVIVAL literature, and the numerous dental journals pub- lished in France since 1857 go to verify this. The following are the names of the dental periodicals issued in the French language:^ L'Art Dentaire, founded 1857, Paris — Editors, Fowler and Pereterre. Le Progress Dentaire, founded 1874. Paris — • Editor, Stevens. Le Cosmos Dentaire, founded 1876, Paris — Translated from American Dental Cosmos. Gazette Odontologique, founded 1879, Paris — ■ Editor not mentioned. Annuarie Generale Desdenteste, founded 1880, Paris — Editor not mentioned. L'Odontologie, founded 1880, Paris — Editor, Anbeau. Revue Odontologique, founded 1880, Paris — ■ Editors, Andrieu, Brasseur Damain, Gailland, Stevens, Colson and Ouenot. Revue Mensuelle des Maladies de la bouche — Editor, Saran. Revue Odontolgia, founded 1882, Paris — Con- tumation of Gazette Odontologique, edited by Association Committee. Le Monde Dentaire, founded since 1885, Paris — Editor, Rollin. *These g-entlemen have assisted me in getting- a complete list of French journals: E. Kirk, J. Taft, H. J. McKellops, A. W. Harlan, L. Ottofj'. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 1 43 Gazette Odontologique de France, founded 1884, Paris — Editor, Quincrot. Revue International d'Odontolgique, founded 1889, Paris — Editors, Dubois and Committee. L'Avenir Dentarie, founded 1890, Paris-*-Edi- tor, Delannay. France is not noted for the number of her den- tal colleges, but for the high standard of these institutions. The two dental colleges which France has are both located in Paris and their names are: Institut Odontotechnique and Ecule Dentaire de Paris. "^ DUTCH DENTAL ART. The worldly matters of the fifteenth century were largely influenced by the Dutch people, who at this period of time were recognized among the leading spirits of the age. The Dutch territory, though small, exerted a powerful influence on the neighboring countries. Dutch vessels bathed in all the waters of the earth and early bore the honor of having the most formidable maritime power in the world. The people were no less active in educational matters, for we read that her schools of art attracted the attention of civilized Europe. In medicine particularly they stood as authority. These people were the first in modern history to introduce clinical instruction in hospitals, ♦The author is indebted to Dr. A. W. Harlan for information rela- tive to dental education in France. 144 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL and this departure was greatly developed, especi- ally at Leyden in the hands of the celebrated Sylvius, who attracted students from all quarters of Europe. Soon the Dutch medical school be- came the most famous of the century. In den- tistry, too, the already celebrated medical pro- fessors made advances, thus Andre Vesalius, a celebrated physician at Brussels in 1563, was the first to practice scarification of the gums, which he did on himself in order to facilitate the eruption of a wisdom tooth. In 1674 Nicholas Pulpius experi- mented largely with treatments for odontolgia and other dental affecttons. The famous naturalist, Lieuwenhock, in 1678 discovered the tubuli of dentine. And among those who strictly wrote on dental subjects prior to 1800 were: Brauer, 1692; Nicholi, 1799; Van Der Belen, 1782; Van Der Maessen, 1800; Van Veen, 1789; Valentine, 1727. The Dutch people from 1790 until within a gener- ation ago suffered retrogression in educational matters, and the few strides of progress gained in the preceding centuries was forgotten and nearly entirely lost. A new era, however, has dawned, and education and learning is rapidly being revived. Dental societies early in the last century were organized, the Societe Odontologique de Belgique being the senior ; dental journals were late in their appearance, but of late have been founded. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. I45 Revue Odontologique de Bruxells, founded 1884. Revue Odontalogique dc Belgique, founded 1885. Dentistry at the present time receives marked attention, the prosthetic department taking the lead. Their schools of dentistry are institutes rather than colleges. ENGLISH DENTAL ART. The English people who were the prime fac- tors in the medieval and early modern history, not only shaped the destinies of ' men, manners and nations,' but trades, occupations and professions also fell heir to their undaunted power and in- fluence. Although dental art was revived in France it still required English talent to start the same on the highway of a profession. Prominent among the many medical students of the seven- teenth century who devoted much attention to the revival of medicine and surgery are Sydenham Hunter, Fox and Blake. Thomas Sydenham was a graduate from Oxford and early demonstrated his genius. He entered the medical field and was known to be the most accomplished scholar in England on ancient medicines. As his model in medical methods, he repeatedly and pointedly referred to Hippocrates, and he has not unfairly been known as the * ' English Hippocrates. " His influence 146 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL on European medicine was great; his principles were welcomed as a return to nature by those who were weary of theoretical disputes. He was a strong advocate of specific medicine, and on this latter principle rests his fame. His knowledge of anatomy, physiology and therapeutics, inspired others to delve into these sciences, and thus indi- rectly Sydenham deserves much credit for having brought about the revival of ''natural history of diseases." Private dissecting rooms and anatom- ical theatres were established, of which, perhaps, the most noted was Dr. William Hunter's school, London, inasmuch as it attracted students from all parts of the British Empire; it was in this school that the famous John Hunter received his first anatomical instructions. His brother William, with whom he was intimately associated, was one of the most brilliant exponents of medical science in England at that period. Under such eminent care, John made rapid progress, and before a score of years had rolled away he was the most famous physiologist and lecturer on surgery in the world. The dental profession of England particularly cherish his name, since in his work "Natural His- tory of the Human Teeth," a treatise written and published in 1 771, he laid the foundation of the English system of dental practice, from which the known world copied. Hunter, however, treated the subject anatomically and philosophically, rather OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 1 47 than practically; the same may be said of nearly all the writers on this subject of that period. It would require many pages to merely enumerate the items of dental interest which are found in the works of Hunter, and it is doing him but partial justice to call him "Father of Modern Dental Surgery." Subsequent to the writings of Hunter came those of Blake, in 1798; and closely following in the footpath of the latter, came Dr. Fox of 1803. These works, however, were not the first pub- lished in England on Dentistry ; the following are authors who, prior to 1800, furnished material for the English dental literature: Berdmore, 1770; Curtis, 1769; Herbert, 1778; Hurlok, 1742; Lewis, 1772; Ruspin, 1779; Timaeus, 1769; Tolver, 1752; TuUer, 1800; Walkey, 1793 and Woofendale, 1788. We learned in the preceding chapter how and why dental art was revived and also the result of the struggle between the barbers and dentists. We are told that the earliest reference in modern times to the practitioner of dental surgery, as a dentist occurs in the Manchester (England) Times, in the later part of 1600. The following is the complete item in which the word dentist appears: "We are told that a clergyman who had taken temporary duty for a friend among us, and who had the ill luck to injure his false teeth during the week, the plate was sent to the dentist for repairs, a faithful assurance being given that it should be 148 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL duly returned by Sunday's post; but the dentist or the post proved faithless. With the assistance of the clerk the clergyman managed to stumble through the prayers but felt it would be useless to attempt to preach. He therefore instructed the clerk to 'make some excuse ft>r him and dismiss the congregation. ' But the feelings of the Reverend may be better imagined than described when, in seclusion of the vestry, he overheard the clerk in impressive tones, thus deliver the 'excuse:' 'Par- son's very sorry, but it is his misfortune to be obliged to wear a set of artificial teeth. They busted last Wednesday, and he ain't got them back from London to-day as he was promised. I've helped him all I could through the service, but I can't do no more for him. It isn't any use him coming out of there (pointing to vestry) and going into the pulpit, for you wouldn't understand a word he said, so he thinks you may as well go home." Among the first men in England to be recog- nized as a dentist was Thomas Berdmore, dentist to King George III. ; he was an accomplished den- tist, and in 1770 wrote and published his ''Treatise on the Disorders and Deformities of the Teeth and Gums — Illustrated with Cases and Experiments." Dr. Berdmore has the honor of being the first den- tist to be employed as such in the royal family. In his leisure he taught many medical students who desired to practice dentistry as a specialty; OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. I49 the famous John Woofendale having been one of his pupils.* Transplantation of teeth seemed to be a subject in which Dr. Berdmore was deeply inter- ested and he is recorded as having been quite suc- cessful in this departure. He said on the matter that "The surgeons' art has taught that a tooth which has been partially or totally forced out of its socket may again be restored to its former situation and firmness, and may serve for use and ornament to the last period of life." And further *Tn the most favorable circumstances it is more than an equal chance that a tooth once extracted or beat out will fastened again, "t In a work published in 1774 by M. Patence, a dentist of London, there is the following on the same subject: "Of late it has been the practice to extract a tooth from the mouth of some poor per- sons and transplant into the socket of others for a few shillings. ".| Lefoule adds ' 'It is selfishness of the rich who would deprive the poor of their teeth to replace their own.":]: The manner in which the operation was per- formed we gather from' Dr. Hunters' work, "The Natural History of the Teeth:" "A fresh tooth when transplanted from one socket to another, becomes to all appearances a part of that body to ♦Dental and Oral Science— Dexter, p. 5. rDental Cosmos, vol. XIX., p. 261. Johnsons' Dental Miscellan}', September, 1876. tDental Cosmos, vol. XIX., p. 261. 150 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL which it is now attached, as much as it was to the one from which it was taken; while a tooth which has been extracted for some time, so as to lose the whole of its life, will never become firm and fixed; the sockets will also in this case acquire the dispo- sition to fill up, which they do not do in case of the insertion of a fresh tooth. I would recommend to every dentist to have some dead teeth at hand, that he may have a chance to fit the socket. I have known these, sometimes to last for years, especially when well supported by neighboring^ teeth. But even this should not be attempted un- less the socket is sound and pretty large, as the tooth can otherwise have but little hold."* From various advertisements in English papers^ we can get a fair idea of the general status of English dentistry in the latter part of 1700. The following of 1 769 has: "M. Hamelton, Surgeon-Den- tist and Operator for the teeth, from London, who cleans and beautifies the teeth and displaces all superfluous teeth and stumps, with the greatest ease and safety, and makes and sets artificial teeth from one single tooth to a whole set in so nice a manner that they cannot be distinguished from the natural." t We can form some idea how awkward and unbe- coming the dentures of these days were, when we *Hunter, vol. I., p. 58, vol. II., p. 95. tDental Cosmos, vol, XVIII., p. 542. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 151 read in Sheridan's, The Duenna, Act II., Sec, 3, these lines: ''For her teeth, ■^" where there is one of ivory, its neighbor is pure ebony, black and white alternately, just like the keys of the harpsichord." The following from the pen of George C. Chance, t is of interest to those who desire a general idea of dental practice in the sevententh cen- tury: **In a recent visit to London I was permitted to copy from an almanac, now in the possession of James Parkinson, dentist, London, the following advertisement, which appeared in the Stationers' Hall Sheet, in 1709, in the reign of Queen Ann: * Sets of teeth set in so well as to eat withal and be worn years together undiscovered. Also teeth cleaned and drawn by John Watts, operator; he applying himself 'wholly' to the business.' The John Watts of the above advertisement, was a partner of Thomas Berdmore, who held the ap- pointment of dentist to the royal family, which appointment was subsequently held in succession by Mr. Parkinson's grandfather, his son and grand- son, and then the appointment passed away. These all practiced their profession in the same house, in Regent Court. Mr. Parkinson being the last pro- prietor, disproved of the old house in 1858. The entries selected from his ledger of 1789 (in which ♦Popular Quotations and Mythology-— Carleton, p. 170. tDental Cosmos, vol. XVI., p. 107. 152 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL year the gross receipts of the business were ;^2,886 or about $14,430), read: ' ' 'One tooth leaded $ 2. 50 One tooth gold-stopped 4-9^ One new pivot tooth 4-96 Seventeen teeth drawn. Gold plate for lower front teeth. One impression taken. Gold plate one tooth. Two teeth stopped with gold. Tooth drawn and replaced. Four natural teeth put on plate. Upper artifical set complete. . . 52.50 " ' The English dentists early turned their atten- tion to periodical literature, though they may not be able to boast of the number of their journals, yet the standard of what few they have, is par ex- cellence. These are the professional journals of Great Britain -r Quarterly Journal of Dental Science, founded 1843, London — Editor, James Robinson. Discon- tined after .1886. The British Journal of Dental Science, founded 1856, London — Editors, W. Blundell, Tomes, Begg, Harrison, Cartwright, Saunders and Fox. Still issued. The Quarterly Journal of Dental Science (N. S. , ) founded, London, 1857 — Editors, Rhymer, Per- *The following dentists assisted me in completing- this list: Drs. J. Taft, E. Kirk, H. J. McKellops and L. Oltofy. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 153 kins, Thompson and Robinson. Discontinued after 1859. The Dental Review, founded, London, 1858 — Editors, Rhymer and Hockley. Discontinued after 1864. The Dental Review, New Series, founded 1864, London — Editors, Hockley & Rhymer. Discon- tinued after 1886. Archives of Dentistry, founded, 1865, London — Editor E. Truman. Discontinued after 1886. Journal of British Dental Association, founded, 1880 — Editors' names not given. Still regularly issued. The Dental Record, founded 1881, London — Editors' names not mentioned. Still published. There are numerous English dental societies the most noteworthy of which is the well known Odontological Society of Great Britain, founded in 1867. Dental education in England has, and is yet receiving great encouragement. In 1859 a Col- lege of Dentists was established, which was sub- sequently abandoned in favor of the L. D. S. of the Royal College of Surgeons. The nonpareil development of dental art and science in England is forcibly illustrated by the number, generally fair standing and good quality of their dental schools, devoted to educating young men for the profession. Although there are but few 154 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL schools devoted exclusively to instruction in den- tistry, those that deserve a special mention are: Royal College of Surgeons, dental department; King's College, dental department; Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburg, dental department ; Owen's College Victoria University, dental depart- ment; National Dental Hospital and College; Guy's Hospital Dental School ; Dental Hospital of London, and Dental Hospital of London Medical School ; The Queen's College, dental department ; Dublin Dental Hospital ; Edinburg Dental Hos- pital and School ; Exeter Dental Hospital ; Glas- gow Dental Hospital and School ; Liverpool Uni- versity, dental department ; Plymouth Dental Hospital and School. There are also dental infirmaries connected with the following hospitals: Charing Cross, London, Middlesex, St. Bartholomew, St. George, St. Mary, St. Thomas, University College and Westminster. The difficulty in establishing dental colleges in England seems to be their dependence upon the universities on one hand, and the meddling of the government on the other. This at first thought may seem to be detrimental to the rapid progress and advancement of dentistry, yet by reflection we learn that a thorough preliminary education is required before entrance to the several universities, and thus the title of L. D. S. (Scentiate of Dental OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. I 55 Surgery) is conferred on intelligent men only, and this correct method of creating doctors must ever have an ennobling influence on the profession at large.* GERMAN DENTAL ART. The German people it seems, were reluctant about accepting the true worth of dentistry, either as an art or science. Their neighboring people had already acquired the knowledge necessary for the care of the dental organs, and foreign dentists made no impression on the stern teutonics. Ger- many was truly the home of the barber-surgeon, and even up to this late century the tonsors are looked up to as the proper dental surgeons. It is most surprising that a people like the Germans who exerted such a wonderful influence on all the arts and sciences, should so long remain dormant on a subject so highly interesting to humanity as den- tistry. It has been said that the German students, scientists and philosophers devoted their energies in the study of all things foreign to man himself — and when we view the condition of the art of den- tistry in 1 700 we are lead to strongly believe in the charge made. Notwithstanding the fact that the Germans were late in appreciating the laws of den- tal preservation, lost time was seemingly regained through earnest study and German perseverance. ♦We win speak of Canadian dental progress In connection with the advances in the United States of America. 156 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Dental progress in German can be briefly told, since it is of recent development. To a German dentist. Dr. Mesue by name, we should be grateful for re-inventing the process of filling teeth with gold-leaf. A German volume published in Frankfort in 1541, entitled: "Medicine for the Teeth, etc.," conclusively demonstrates this point as follows: " Corrosio is a disease of the teeth when they get holes and hollows, happening mostly to the molar teeth, especially if they do not get cleaned after eating; for the victuals adhere, decay, produce bad, acrid fluids, that eat and itch into the teeth, and keep on doing so, until the teeth are entirely de- stroyed and one piece after another must, not with- out pain, drop off. "This condition," according to Mesue, "is stopped and cured in three different ways : First, by purging ; secondly, by destroying the matter that hollows them out and eats them away ; this is done by boiling cockle, that grows in rye and wheat, with vinegar, and holding it in the mouth, or with vine- gar in which capers-root with ginger is boiled. Thirdly, by getting rid of the hollow, which may be done in two ways: The first is to scratch and clean with a fine chisel, knife, file, or with any other instrument fit for it, the hollow and the parts attacked, and fill with gold-leaves, for the preser- vation of the remaining part of the tooth. The OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. I 57 second is to use medicine, which is done by filling the teeth, after cleaning, with gall-nut and wild gallows-wood. Or, take henbane-seed mixed with gum storax, and make with it a smoke through a funnel into the hollow tooth. Or galbanum laid on hollow teeth mitigates the pains. The pains are also quieted if the hollow teeth are filled with oppoponacum." We learn that Frederick the Great employed the service of what he called a "Zahnarzt " (dentist) and this worthy gentleiiian's name was Pfaff."^ He was not educated in the purely prosthetic depart- ment and an appropriate name would have been "mechanical-dentist." The only thing Herr Pfaff can be remembered for is the fact that he is the first dentist to describe a plaster-model of the mouth, and occurs among his private papers dated 1756. Prior to the year 1800 there were published scores of works devoted to dental science, and among these the following: Naehere Pruefung der Etiologie der Zahnarbeit — Blumenthal, 1799; Ein- leitung zu den Wissenschaften eines Zahnarztes — Brunner, 1771; Zahnschmerzen — Glaubrecht, 1766; Praktische Darstellung aller Operationen der Zahnarzneikunst — Jeron, 1800; Sicherer Augen- und Zahnarzt — Krautermann^ 1793 ; Belehrungen von der Wirkung electrischer Erschuetterung im *Dental Cosmos, vol. XXIII., p. 671. 158 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Zahnweh — Lentin, 1756; Abhandlung von den gewoehnlichen Zahnkrankheiten — Meyer, 1778 ; Zahnfleisches und der Kiefer Krankheiten und Heilart — Pasch, 1767; und Behandlung der Zaehne — Mesue, 1541.^ When the German people did wake up to the usefulness of the dental organs they seemed over anxious to demonstrate to the world that although last to acknowledge dentistry as a healing art they like the Holy book tells **the last shall come first." Dental journals immediately sprung into existence and did eminent service to the dental profession in Europe. A list of their periodicals reads : Der Zahnarzt, founded 1855, Leipzig — Editor, Schmedicke. Discontinued in 1856. Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift, founded in 1861 — Editors, Xedden and Heider. Discontinued in 1862 and published as: Deutsche INIonatsschrift fuer Zahnheilkunde, founded in 1862, Leipzig — Editors, Baume and Stolper. Correspondenz-Blatt fuer Zahnaerzte, founded in 1 87 1 — Editors' names not given. Still pub- lished. Zahnaertzlicher Almanach, founded in 1876 — Editor, A. Peterman. Notizen-Kalender,fuer Zahnaerzte, founded in 1877 — Editor, Safford. Discontinued in 1880. •Maury's Dental Art, p. 267. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 1 59 Der ZahnaerztHche Bote, founded in 1879 — Editor's name not given. Discontinued after 1886. Die Zahntechnische Reform, founded in 1881 — Editor, Pawelz. Still issued. Vierteljahrsschrift des Vereins Deutcher Zahn- kuenstler, founded in 1881 — Editor, Jantsch and Polscher. Discontinued in 1883 and published as: Deutsche Monatsschrift fuer Zahnheilkunde, founded in 1883 — Editor, Parreidt. Centralblatt fuer Zahnheilkunde, founded in 1883 — Editor, Goldstein. Discontinued in 1886. Zahnaerztliches Wochenblatt, weekly, founded — Editor Andreae. Still published. Journal fuer Zahnheilkunde, weekly, founded in 1889 — Editor, Richter. Relative to their schools the eminent dentist, Prof. Miller, of Berlin, says:- "In 1869 a law was enacted in Germany which in effect entitled any one to practice medicine or any specialty of medi- cine without any qualification whatever. While this law did not affect the practice of medicine, it had a marked effect upon the practice of dentistry. A class of 'teeth-artists' appeared who entered upon the practice of dentistry from the standpoint of the mechanic. At the present time, while there are not more than one thousand qualified practi- tioners, there are four or five times that many who have no qualifications except such chance informa- ♦Dental Cosmos, vol. XXXII., p. 992. l6o THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL tion as had been picked up. Some of these men become skillful in mechanical directions and com- pete successfully with men who have graduated from dental colleges. It is only within recent years that dental students received instruction in practical dentistry. Formerly they were launched upon the world utterly unprepared, and therefore the 'teeth-mechanics' were able to compete with the graduates. This has had the effect of stimu- lating the dentists to better qualify themselves for intelligent practice. Of course many German den- tists made for themselves enviable positions in practical as well as in scientific dentistry, although the mass of the profession, as already set forth, was in practical dentistry far below the standard reached in America. Four or five years ago a few American dentists located in Germany and have exerted a marked influence for good. Within the last six years schools of dentistry have been estab- lished as departments of several German universi- ties, and in the school, in which I am connected, an earnest endeavor has been made to emulate the thoroughness of instruction in American schools." After alluding to the accomplishments in bacteri- ology by Koch, others and himself he concluded by saying: ''The physicians in Germany are taking greater interest in dental matters, but a higher standard of education is needed to develop a more intelligent appreciation of the importance of such OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. l6l facts as have been alluded to. At present there is virtually a three years' course instead of a two years' course which prevailed a few years ago. Physicians as well as dentists have recognized the fact that medicine meets upon common grounds with dentistry, and that it would be as impossible to separate medicine from dentistry as to separate the mouth from the alimentary tract." The other European nations modeled after the French and English dental art with the exception of Germany, which land of learned physicians and surgeons made additional progress in dental science. Perhaps the only item pertaining to the German art of Dental Prosthesis is the mysterious discov- ery near Bologna, Germany.^ Some years since while some workmen were at work digging a ditch through an old God's acre, were obliged to exca- vate many graves. The dead of course had differ- entiated to earth, but dozens of artificial dentures still remained and were in good repair. The den- tures were made of ivory and bone, while the plates were of solid gold. The superintendent of the excavations, thinking little of the find, sold the old dentures to a goldsmith, who in turn thought slightly of his purchase and remelted and refined the precious metal. Whether these gold dentures were the workmanship of ancient dentists or the ♦Independent Practitioner, vol. VI., p. 4S. 1 62 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL production of medieval jewelers, is beyond the power of this generation to prove. AUSTRIAN DENTAL ART. The first dental school on the continent of Europe was opened in Vienna on the 14th day of December, i S74. It bore the modest name of ' 'First Dental School of Vienna."- The course was divided into a preliminary one of four weeks and a regular course of six months. "Students and doctors of medicine will be admitted," say their catalogue, "to the lectures, and doctors only to the labratory. The fee is 300 flourins. The school will not confer degrees, the government gives the title '^lagis- trate of Dentistry.'" In 1885 a dental journal was founded called, Oesterreichisch-Ungarishe Vierteljahrsschrift fuer Zahnheilkunde — Editors, Schmid and Weiss. It is still published. Aside from a few dental organ- izations of Austria, the dental progress is similar to the countries already described. The following countries have one or more dental schools and journals: Switzerland. — Schweizerische Vierteljahrs- schrift fuer Zahnheilkunde, Zuerich — Editors, Red- ard and Frick. Italy. — L'Odontologia, Palermo — Editor, Rib- alla Xicodemi. Giornal di Correspondenza pei ^Dental Cosmos, vol. XVII., p. 222. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 1 63 Dentisti, Milan — Editors, Dott and Coulliaux. La Scienza Dentaria Revista, Florence — Editor, Cian- chi. La Progress Dentistico, Milan — Editor, Plat- schick. La Reforma Dentistica, Naples — Editor, Cali. Spain. — Le Odentologia, Cadiz — Editor, Aguilar. Russia. — Messager Odontologique, St. Peters- burg — Editor Sinitzin (A. P.) Suboviachebny Vestnick, St. Petersburg — Editor, Sinitzin (H). Hungary. — Odontoskop, Budapest — Editor, Iszlai. Scandinavia. — Skandinavisk Tandlaegefore- nings Tidskrift, Copenhagen — Editor, Christen- sen. Den Norske Tandlaegeforenings Tidende, Christiana — Editor, Seel. Nordisk Kvartalskrift for Tandlaegekunst — P^ditor's name not given. Tidskrift for Tandlaeger — Editor, Carstens. 1 64 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL AMERICAN DENTAL ART. Dentistry had as yet received no great impetus, nor had the art met the people who were to restore it to its ancient professional dignity, and later in their acquaintance introduce the mere art to its superior companion the science. But latent beams of the science were destined to appear and we can be proud to say that the initial steps toward pro- gress and attainments were taken in our own dear native land. It was during the period covered by our war for independence, something over one hundred years ago that dentistry was introduced into America; but it was yet in its crude state and absent of mature modern development. Believing it appropriate to make some particu- lar allusion to those dentists who were the pioneers of the profession in this country, and who laid, solidly and durably, the foundations of the present superstructure of dentistry, we shall briefly treat of these patriarchs. In October of the year of 1766, there arrived in the United States, from England, Mr. John Woofendale. * This gentleman was a regularly edu- cated dentist, having been instructed by Dr. Thomas Berdmore, whom we learned was the den- tist to King George III. He is the first dentist, so ♦Dental and Oral Science— Dexter, p. 7. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 165 called and practicing as such, of whom any record can be found, as having visited this country. Mr. Woofendale commenced practice in New York soon after he arrived. He also practiced for a short period in the city of Philadelphia. While in this country he did dental work for many prominent Colonial-Americans, among them Mr. William Walton of New York, for whom he constructed an entire double set of artificial teeth, which is believed to be the first full set inserted in America. But the doctor did not long remain in the colonies; either because he did not receive sufficient practical encouragement, or from some other unexplainable cause he returned in March, 1768, to England his native home. He divided his time between New York and Philadelphia for a period of eighteen months. In 1785 he returned from London to America and having purchased a farm in New Jer- sey, retired, and in 1828, at the age of Sy years, died. From the time when John Woofendale left for England until late in the colonial confederacy there was not, as far as can be determined, a reg- ularly practicing dentist in this country. Such, in brief, was the general status of dentistry at the birth-time of our grand republic. " When we look back to that condition of the science," says Dr. Dexter,"^ "we may and do experience, a just feeling *Dental and Oral Science, Dexter, p. 6. 1 66 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL of pride and perceive matter for gratulation in the giant strides of improvement made manifest by the slightest comparison of ' then ' and ' now.' Such a retrospect is the best and surest means of encourage- ment to continue in the path by which we have so rapidly and agreeably advanced, and will insure, it is certain, a further and equally great elevation of our profession among the liberal sciences in the future.'' In the month of July, 1778, perhaps the darkest period of the American revolution, the French fleet with reinforcement reached our shore. Among the proud French soldiers was one named Dr. Joseph Lemaire, " who came expressly to this coun- try to battle for American independence. This patriotic Frenchman, Lamaire, soon became an intimate associate of both Washington and Lafay- ette, and while fighting with them for the inde- pendence of the colonies he often relieved the suffering soldiers of the pangs of odontalgia. Not only did he exercise his skill to secure for the revolutionary veterans freedom from physical suf- fering, but he too seized his sword and shouldered his gun and played an active part in that memora- able strife for human liberty. While the French and American armies, in 178 1-2, were in winter *Annals of Philadelphia— Watson, vol. I., p. 179. Dental and Oral Science, Dexter, p. 7. Dental Advertiser, vol. II., p. 2. Western Dental Journal, vol. I., p. 995 OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 167 quarters, side by side, near Providence, Rhode Island, Dr. Joseph Lemaire, by permisssion of Count Rochambeau, the commanding general, taught the dental art to Josiah Flagg, then eigh- teen years of age, and James Gardett aged twenty- five. Lemair's practice was not limited to the ■soldiers only, but he did dental operations for the people in the immediate vicinity. Dr. Hayden speaks of him as follows:^" *'The first hints that were afforded or opportunities offered to any person to obtain a knowledge of the profession were, we believe, through a French den- tist, by the name of Lamaire, who offered his services to the public during the revolutionary war. ^ '■"■ "" He was not without some pretentions to skill in practical operations, especially in trans- planting teeth. -5^ ^ -3^ He likewise undertook to instruct some two or three persons in the pro- fession, which may be considered as the origin or commencement of dentistry in this country." In the winter of 1785-6, Lemaire transplanted one hundred and seventy teeth, and not one succeeded; however this practice of his fell into disfavor, whether from lack of skill on the part of the French- man or from the very wide prevalence of infectious diseases liable to be transplanted, we cannot say. Watson in his ' 'Annals of Philadelphia," say, that "Dr. Lamaire arrived in this city in 1784, and ♦Dental and Oral Science, Dexter, p. 8. 1 68 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL here continued the practice of dentistry. From all accounts of the Frenchman, we are led to believe that he was a polished gentleman and had received an excellent schooling in France. ''^ He certainly- must be remembered as a painstaking and studious professional, since in the year 1812 he published his first dental work, entitled "Le dentiste des Dames, " Paris, 1 8 1 2. This work was published in four editions, namely, 1812, 1818, 1824 and 1833. He issued *'Deux Observations d'anatomiepathologique sur les dents, " Paris, 1 8 1 6 ; he wrote a volume known as ''Histoire naturelle des maladies des dents de I'espece humaine" (translated from the English work of Joseph Fox, Paris, 1821); following this he con- tributed to the early dental literature a book in three volumes entitled *'Traite sur les dents physi- ologic, Pathologic," Paris, 1822 and 1824. About the same time Dr. Isaac Greenwood f emigrated from Great Britain and settled in Boston, where he did an extensive business until his death. How or of whom he learned the dental art does not appear on record. ' He had two sons, Clark and John, who learned of him, and of these two dentists we will read later. Shortly after the establishment of the United States as an independent nation, an Englishman, ♦American Journal of Dental Science, vol. II., p. 20. tDental Dictionary- — Harris, 1st ed., p. 333. Dental and Oral Science— Dexter, p. 8. Dental Advertiser, vol. II., p. 1. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 1 69 Dr. Whitelock"^ by name, emigrated to our shores and practiced dentistry in the New England states. How long he continued is not known, but positive evidence can be obtained that he landed in 1784. Of him Dr. Hayden says: "Dr. Whitelock is a gentleman of polite address and accomplished manners, who, about the same time as Lemair, or shortly after, entered this country as one of a company of theatrical performers who were induced to come here through a rage for theatrical per- formances." Josiah Flagg,t we learned in the preceding pages, obtained his knowledge of dentistry from Joseph Lemaire. Both Lemaire and Flagg were soldiers in the American cause, the one in the French army and the other holding a major's com- mission in the American. Thus, while in winter quarters in 1781, in his leisure time, Flagg was under the immediate instruction of the French surgeon-dentist. Upon the close of the war Dr. Jossiah Flagg settled in Boston, where he practiced dentistry. When the second war opened with England in 1812 he again became a strong advo- cate for the Union cause and enlisted in the army. But early in this struggle Dr. Flagg was taken prisoner and taken to England, where, on parole, ♦Encj'clopaedia Britannica, Am. Sup., vol. III., p. 78. Dental and Oral Science, Dexter, p, 8. tibid, p. 9. I70 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL he made the acquaintance of Sir Ashley Cooper and assisted him in surgical operations at Guy's Hos- pital, London. After staying in England several years he returned to America to resume his prac- tice in Boston. An extract from a circular which Dr. Flagg distributed in the city of Boston and its environs is interesting since it portrays fairly the dental practice of 1785 and later. W'e have before us this interesting document which gives quite acurately the degree of profi- ciency which had -been reached in dentistry to- wards the close of the last century. It consists of an advertisement issued by Dr. Josiah Flagg, sur- geon-dentist, who informs the public "that he practices in all the branches with improvements [i. e.], Transplants both live and dead teeth with great conveniency, and gives less pain than here- tofore practiced in Europe or America. '^' ^ * Sews up hare lips, -5^ ^- ^ cures ulcers. * * "^ Extracts teeth and stumps, or roots with ease. -^ ^ * Reinstates teeth and gums that are much depreciated by nature, carelessness, acids, or corroding medicine. ^ ^ * Fastens those teeth that are loose (unless wasted at the roots), regulates teeth from their first cutting to prevent fevers and pain in children, assists nature in the extension of the jaws, for the beautiful arrangement of the second set, and preserves them in their natural whiteness entirely free from all OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 171 scorbutic complaints, and when thus put in order and his directions followed (which are simple) he engages that the further care of a dentist will be wholly unnecessary. * ^' * Eases pain in teeth without drawing. -^ ^- * Stops bleeding in the jaws, gums, or arteries. * •?«• >5- Lines and plumbs teeth with virgin gold, foils or leads. * * * Fixes gold roofs and palates and arti- ficial teeth of any quality without injury to any independent or natural ones, greatly assisting the pronunciation and the swallow when injured by natural or other defects. A room for the practice with every accommodation at his house, where may be had dentifrices, tinctures, teeth and gum brushes, mastics, etc., warranted approved and adapted to the various ages and circumstances ; * * "^ also chew-sticks, particularly useful in cleansing the fore teeth and preserving a natural and beautiful whiteness ; which medicine and chew-sticks are to be sold wholesale and retail that they may be more extensively useful. t.* -K- ^ L)j. josiah Flagg has a method to furnish those ladies and gentlemen or children with artificial teeth, gold gums, roofs, or palates that are at a distance and cannot attend him per- sonally. "Cash given for handsome and healthy live teeth at No. 47 Newburg Street, Boston (1796)."-^' *Dental Cosmos, vol. XVII., p. 669. 172 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL The document is ornamented in one corner by- formidable and antiquated instruments, while in the other are to be seen tooth-brushes quite of the modern pattern. It has been preserved by a de- scendent of one who, as may be seen on the back, purchased a brush and tincture from Josiah Flagg in the year 1800. In 1785 Dr. Flagg issued an advertisement which also portrays a few hidden items as to early American dental practice. It reads: "Dr. Flagg transplants teeth, cures ulcers and eases them from pain without drawing; fastens those that are loose; mends teeth with foil or gold to be as lasting and useful as the sound teeth, and without pain in the operation; makes artificial teeth and secures them in an independent, lasting and serviceable manner. Sews up hair-lips, and fixes gold roofs and palates, greatly assisting the pronunciation and the swol- low. ^ ^ ^ Cuts the defects from the teeth and restores them to whiteness and soundness, without saws, files, acids and such abusives as have shame- fully crept into the profession, and which have de- stroyed the confidence of the public. Sells, by wholesale and retail, dentifrices, tinctures, chew- sticks, mastics, teeth and gum brushes, suitable for every age, complaint and climate, with direc- tions for their use." Dr. Josiah Flagg died in Boston at the age of fifty-two. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 173 James Gardette* was born in France in 1756, He studied medicine for two years in Paris (1773— 1775), and immediately afterward spent two years in the hospital practice at Foulon; he was commis- sioned as surgeon in the French navy in 1777. He was instructed in dental art by M. Taudinier, a den- tist of high standing in Paris. He came to America in 1778, landing at Plymouth, Mass. He subsequently resigned his commission in the French navy and adopted this country as his home. When the French fleet and army under Count Rochambeau arrived at Newport, 178 1, Gar- dette visited that town and made the acquaint- ance of Lemaire, of whom he received further instructions in dentistry. Both he and Lemaire found occasion to do dental services for many revolutionary generals and their subordinates. In the autumn of 1783, he went to New York where his professional success appears to have been but slight. In 1774 he removed to Philadelphia, where he continued in a very successful dental practice until 1829, when he returned to France. *' Dr. Gardette's name," says Chapin A. Harris, "will always be prominent among those of the best American detists. As an operator Mr. Gardette displayed great judgment, care and dexterity." He was the first to substitute flat clasps for liga- *Dental and Oral Science— Dexter, p. 9. Dental Advertiser, vol. II., p. 2. 174 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL tures or wires in artificial dentures. He invented the '* mortise plate" to which the teeth are secured by means of gold pins, and which permits the tooth to rest upon the gums instead of the gold plate. The first application of the principle of suction or atmospheric pressure has been attributed to him. He was also an earnest advocate of the practice of substituting gold-foil for lead in filling teeth and related that he had at one period prepared gold- foil for his own use from Dutch ducats, when no sufficiently skilled gold-beater could be had. So far as can be learned he published but one work, titled ''Transplantation of Human Teeth." In 1829 he sailed home to France and in August, 1 83 1, at the old age of seventy-five, he died. CLARK AND JOHN GREENWOOD. These two gentlemen were the sons of Dr. Isaac Greenwood, and both learned their father's chosen profession. Little indeed is known of Clark; it is claimed he was born in England and when a lad accompanied his father to America. After having acquired a fair knowledge of dentistry he left Boston and journeyed to New York City where, in 1778, he opened an office and continued the practice. John Greenwood was born in Boston and from -all accounts was the first native born dentist. Young Greenwood, at the early age of fifteen OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 1 75 enlisted in the American army and fought in the battles of Bunker Hill and Trenton, and was also in the expedition to Canada under Gen. Arnold. He afterwards entered the naval privateer service. in which he remained until the close of the revolu- tionary war; when finding himself out of employ- ment, he applied to his brother Clark, who was in New York City practicing dentistry, but here we learn he received no encouragement. He then embarked in the business of nautical and mathemati- cal instrument making. Soon after having engaged in this business Dr. Gamage of New York requested young Greenwood to extract a tooth for one of his patients, which he did very successfully. This was the commencement of his practice as a dentist. He, however, continued at the manufacture of instruments and added ivory turning to the trade ; he practiced dentistry as opportunities afforded,, the demand for his services, however, in this last departure soon increased to such an extent that he was compelled to abandon his other occupations. His practice grew rapidly and was obliged to pro- cure assistance, which he did; Dr. William Pitt and his brother Clark acted in the capacity of pro- fessional assistants. Dr. John Greenwood was well informed in the surgical department of his profession, as an example of which is quoted the fact "that during his practice in the treatment of a diseased maxillary sinus, he perforated this 176 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL cavity from the socket of an upper molar and effected a cure."* It has been said that he was the first in the United States to strike up gold-plates to serve as bases for artificial dentures, without a knowledge of it having been done across the sea. During his professional career while in New York he immortalized himself and profession as well by carving from the tusk of the hippopotamus a full set of artificial teeth for the great American "who was first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." This set of teeth was secured by spiral-springs and was intricate in its appearance as compared with our later den- tures. The denture in fact caricatured the lower portion of his noble face, and they gave him much discomfort, and as Senator William Maclay of that time said,t "his voice is hollow and indistinct, owing, I believe, to artificial teeth." The material used in the set was hippopotamus ivory. The lower plate was made of one solid piece, teeth and base being carved together; the upper denture required greater skill, and was made with the plate separate and the teeth riveted to it with fine gold rivets. The General had sev- eral sets of teeth, but the only one that gave him any comfort were those made by Greenwood. A Swiss artist of New York City also produced den- *Deatal and Oral Science— Dexter, p. 11. titems of Interest, vol. XIII., p. 183. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 177 tal substitutes for Washington, as the following recently written regarding this mechanism ob- viously tells: "The plate or framework which held the teeth in his mouth was made of iron, and after Washington's death were sent to the New York Loan Exhibition in aid of Washington's memorial arch, but was deemed by the committee too horri- ble to display; so they locked it up in a safe. No one could have dreamed what it was unless it had been labeled; most spectators believed it to be a colonial rat trap."* Probably had it not been for the ingenuity of the first American dentist, Dr. Greenwood, the basic structure of this glorious country would have lacked completeness by having at an early date lost its most devoted father. A block of marble might with propriety have been cemented into the monument reared in memory of Washington, and in it carved in glittering letters the name of Dr. John Greenwood. The following letter of Dr. John Greenwood to Gen. George Washington, as an historical treasure is fully worthy of space. It reads :t ''New York, Dec. 28, 1798. "Sir: I send you enclosed two setts of teeth, one fixed on the old barrs in part, and the sett you sent me from Philadelphia, which, when I received ♦Items of Interest, vol. XIII., p, 183. tMag-azine of American History, vol. XVI., p, 294. 178 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL was very black, occasioned either by your soaking them in port wine, or by your drinking it. Port wine being sour takes off all polish and all acid has a tendency to soften every kind of teeth and bone. Acid is used in coloring every kind of ivory, therefore it is very pernicious to the teeth. I advise you to either take them out after dinner and put them in clean water and put in another sett, or clean them with a brush and some chalk scraped fine. It will absorb the acids which col- lect from the mouth and preserve them longer — I have found another and better way of using the sealing-wax when holes are eaten in the teeth by acid, etc. First observe and dry the teeth, then take a piece of wax and cut it into small pieces as you think will fill up the whole; then take a large nail or any other piece of iron and heat it hot into the fire, then put your piece of wax into the hole and melt it by means of introducing the point of the nail to it. I have tried it and found it to con- solidate, and do better than the other way, and if done proper it will resist the saliva. It will be handier for you to take hold of the nail with small plyers than with tongs thus, the wax must be very small, not bigger than this (*). If your teeth grow black take some chalk and a pine or cedar stick, it will rub off. If you want your teeth more yellow, soak them in broth or pot liquor, but not in tea or acids. Porter is a good OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 179 thing to color them, and will not hurt but preserve them, but it must not be in the least pricked — you will find I have altered the upper teeth you sent me from Philadelphia. Leaving the enamel on the teeth don't preserve them any longer than if it was off, it only holds the color better, but to pre- serve them they must be very often changed and cleaned, for whatever attacks them must be re- pelled as often, or it will gain ground and destroy the works. The two setts I repaired is done on a different plan than when they are done when made entirely new, for the teeth are screwed on the barrs, instead of having the barrs cast red hot on them, which is the reason, I believe, they destroy or dissolve so soon near the barrs. "Sir, after hoping you will not be obliged to be troubled very soon in the same way, "I subscribe myself, "Your very humble servant, "John Greenwood. "Sir, the additional chare is fifteen dollars. "P. S. — I expect next spring to move my family into Conneticut State. If I do I will write and let you know, and whether I give up my pres- ent business or not I will, as long as I live, do any- thing in this way for you if you require it." The following is Washington's reply :^ ♦Magazine of American History, vol. XVII., p. 438. Dental and Oral Science— Dexter, p. 11. l8o THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Mount Vernon, 6th Jan., 1799. *'Sir: Your letter of the 28th ult., with the parcel that accompanied it, came safe to hand, and I feel obliged for your attention to my requests, and for the directions you have given me. "Enclosed you have bank-notes for fifteen dol- lars, which I shall be glad to hear has got safe to your hands. If you should remove to Connecticut, I should be glad to be advised of it; and to what place, as shall always prefer your services to that of any other, in the line of your present profession. — I am, sir. Your Very H'ble Servant, "Go. Washington." He carved one in 1790 and another set in 1795. In a letter which has been preserved, "The Father of his Country" complains, in a dignified way, that his teeth hurt him and do not very satis- factorily serve the purpose for which they were designed. He complains of their "bulging out the upper lip," and "causing the jaw line to protrude, giving the face an unnatural appearance.""^ Thus Dr. Greenwood is best known to the pro- fession of to-day through the fact of his having been the dentist of the first President of the United States. As near as can be learned Dr. John Greenwood died in New York City in 18 16. ♦Demorest Family Magazine, December, 1893. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. l8l Horace H. Hayden'^ was born Oct. 13, 1768, in Winsor, Conn. At the age of fourteen he v/ent to sea as a cabin-boy, voyaging to the West Indies. In 1784 he abandoned sailing, and being thrown on his own resources by the poverty of his parents, he became apprenticed to an architect, which busi- ness he followed until his twenty-fourth year, when, being in New York, and having occasion for the professional service of a dentist, he visited the office of Dr. Greenwood. While under treatment he determined to study dentistry. He soon pro- cured the few dental books then in existence, and not apprehending any deficiency in the mechanics he directed his undevided study to the calling. He settled in Baltimore in 1804 with little practical knowledge of the art and science. Dr. Hayden's previous education was hardly calculated to further his professional career, but being a man of con- siderable energy and ability, he, by dint of hard study, soon mastered his text-books, applying himself sincerely to anatomy, physiology, surgery and general medicine. His proficiency in these studies soon attracted the attention of the medical profession, both locally and generally, and secured him a recognition in the latter profession; having merited the honorary degree of ''Doctor of Medi- cine" by both the University of Maryland and the ♦Dental Advertiser, vol. II., p. 3. Dental and Oral Science— Dexter, p. 13. 1 82 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Jefferson College of Philadelphia. In 1825 he was invited by the former institution to read a course of lectures on dentistry before its medical class; he accepted the invitation and thus inaugurated the first move in the direction of oral teaching in den- tistry in a college. He was one of the founders of the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery and alsa of the American Society of Surgeon-Dentists; and one of the editors of the American Journal of Den- tal Science, the first dental periodical ever issued. Besides having written many articles on dentistry and medicine, he contributed valuable theses on geology. He was surely a man of unusual strength of character and few pioneers in dentistry did more to shape the future profession. He died Jan. 26, 1844, at the age of seventy-five. Edward Hudson,^ who was born in Ireland in 1772, had been thoroughly educated by his cousin and adopted father, a dentist of the highest posi- tion in Dublin. At the age of thirty-three he emi- grated to America and settled in Philadelphia, where he enjoyed the reputation of being one of the first operators of his time. Though Dr. Hud- son is not credited with any writings relative to the profession, yet he contributed many devices and inventions which make his name dear to those ♦Dental Advertiser, vol. II., p. 3. Dental and Oral Science— Dexter, p. 13. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 183 who love the profession. He died in 1833 at the Fouke. 1 860- 1 862. The Vulcanite, New York. Editor,. B. W. Franklin. 1 860- 1 86 1. The Dental Instructor, New York. Editor, E. A. L. Roberts. 1862-1867. The Dental Quarterly, Philadel- phia. Editors: A. Tees, F. N. Johnson, G. R. Weden. Continued as Dental Office and Labor- atory. 1863-1864. The People's Dental Journal, Chi- cago. Editors, W. W. Allport and T. T. Creigh- ton. 1 863- 1 873. The Dental Times, Philadelphia. Editors: G. T. Barker, E. Wildman, J. Tyson. 1865-1865. The Dental Circular and PLxam- iner, Albany, N. Y. Editor, B. Wood. 1867 . The American Journal of Dental Science, Baltimore. Third series. 1868.* The St. Louis Dental Journal, St. Louis. Editor, J. Payne. 1 868-1 872. The Dental Office and Laboratory, Philadelphia. Editors, Johnson & Lund. New series in 1877. *Could not determine date of discontinuance. 2 30 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL 1 869- 1 869. The Vicksburg New Era, Vicks- burg, Miss. Editor, \V. S. Young. 1869.'^ The Missouri Dental Journal, St. Louis. Editors: H. Judd, H. S. Case, C. W. Spalding, R. S. Pearson. Resuscitated as the Archives of Dentistry. 1 869-1 870. Houghton's Dental Annual, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Editor, C. L. Houghton. 1869 . The Dental Advertiser, Buffalo, N. Y. Editors, T. G. Lewis, W. C. Barrett. 1872-1872. The Dental Mirror, St. Louis. Edited by committee from St. Louis Dental Society. iS6S-iS/y. The Canadian Journal of Dental Science, Montreal. Editor, W. G. Beers. 1 874-1 877. The Pennsylvania Journal of Den- tal Science, Lancaster, Penn. Editor, S. Welchens. 1 874- 1 88 1 . Johnston's Dental Miscellany, New York. Editors, Johnston Bros. 1877-1878. The St. .Louis Dental Quarterly, St. Louis. Editors, C. W. Spalding and H. S. Case. 1 877 . Dental Office and Labratory, Phila- delphia. Editors, Johnson and Lund. 1 878- 1 878. The Dental News, Knightstown, Ind. Editor, T. P. Wagoner. 1 878-1 878. The Dental and Oral Science Magazine, New York. Editor, R. S. Williams. ♦Could not determine date of discontinuance. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 23 1 1878 . Items of Interest, Philadelphia. Editor, T. B. Welch. 1879 . The Dental Summary, Macon, Ga. Editor, J. P. and W. R. Holmes. 1880-1891. The Independent Practitioner, New York. Editors: W. C. Barrett, H. T. Byrd, B. M. Wilkerson, G. H. Rohe, G. W. Field, W. C. Barrett. Continued as the International Dental Journal. 1880-1884. The Dental Jairus, Sacramento, Cal. Editor, W. O. Thailkill. 1881-1884. The Pacific Dental Journal, Sac- ramento, Cal. Editor, W. O. Thrailkill. 1880 . The Dental Headlight, Nashville, Tenn. Editor's name not mentioned. 1881-1885. The Herald of Dentistry, Brook- lyn. Editor, T. O. Oliver. 1 88 1 . Ohio State Journal of Dental Science, Toledo, O. Editors, G. Watt and L. P. Bethel. 1882 . The Southern Dental Journal, At- lanta, Ga. Editors, B. H. Catching and Holliday. 1882-1883. The Dentist's Beacon Light, La Crosse, Wis. Editor, Edgar Palmer. 1 882-1 884. New England Journal of Dentistry, Springfield, IVfass. Editor, Charles Mayr. 1882 . The Dental Record, Baltimore. Editor's name not given. Since discontinued. 2 32 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL jS82 . Health and Home, Toledo. Edi- tor, J. Munson. 18S3 . The Dental Practitioner, Philadel- •delphia. Editors, C. E. Pike and L. A. Faught. 1883 . The Texas Dental Journal, Dallas, Texas. Editor, Newman and Storey. 1883-1890. The Practical Dentist, Elgin, 111. Editors, Truesdell and Underwood. 1883."^ Caulk's Dental Annual, Camden, Del. Editor, Caulk. 1884-1886. The Dental Student, Warren, Ind. Editor. C. A. Rigdon. 1884-1885. The Dental Review, Charlotte, JMich. Editor, \V. G. Ashton. 1 884- 1 89 1. The Archives of Dentistry, St. Louis. Editors: C. \V. Spalding, T. P'uller and Eames. 1885-1887. The Dental p:clectic, Knoxville, Tenn. Editor, S. S. Willard. 1 88 5- 1 886. Facts, Chatanooga, Tenn. Edi- tor, E. M. Martin. 1885 . Cincinnati Medical and Dental Journal, Cincinnati. Editor, F. W. Sage. 1888-1890. The Practical Dentist, Toledo, O. Editors: C. W. :Munson, W. E. Blakeney, F. O. Brake. 1889 . The Dominion Dental Journal. 1 891 , Pacific Dental Journal. "^Could not determine date of discontinuance- OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 233 1887 . Dental Office and Labratory, Philadelphia. Editor, Chupein. 1886 . Dental Review, Chicago. Edi- tors: A. W. Harlan, C. N. Johnson, L. Ottofy. 1889 . International Dental Journal, Phil- adelphia. Editors: W. X. Sudduth, James Tru- man, Joseph Head, G. W. Warren. 1892 . The Dental Journal, Ann Arbor, Mich. Editor, C. A. Hawley. 1889-1892. American Journal of Oral and Dental Science, Chicago. Editors: I. Clendenen, G. A. Thomas, G. North, G. A. Stevenson, O. P. Bennett. 1 890- 1 89 1. The Dental Mirror, New York. Editor, R. Ottolengui. 1 891 . Dental and Surgical Microcosm, Chicago and Pittsburg. P^ditor, S. J. Hayes. 1 892- 1 893. The Dental World, Chicago. Editors, E. L. Clifford and B. J. Cigrand. 1 892-1892. The Dentist Himself, New York. Editor, Kimble. 1892 . The Chicago Medico-Dental Bul- letin, Chicago. Editors: W. H. Brittle, J. J. M. Angear, G. North, G. Frank Lydston. The Dental Tribune, Chicago. Editor, Louis Ottofy. " While many of these had an ephemeral exist- *The author is indebted to the following g-entlemen for the com- pleteness of the list of American dental journals: Drs. J. Taft, H. J. McKellops, Allen Lund, James Truman and E. Kirk. 234 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL ence, others have lived well and do worthy service in their strict devotion to the profession. These various journals did eminent service, in my research, and the records of dentistry contained in these monthly educators are the safe archives of the profession, where we may trace the present dental progress back to those traditional ages, when, too, our favorite vocation prospered and attained that semi-state of perfection. The following from the pen of the eminent Dr. G. V. Black is appended to the subject of dental periodicals, in the hope that it may cheer the editors and as well the readers of the various dental journals: "W'e should not condemn journals because some of the articles are of little value. Much of the thought presented in journals is simply placed on trial, and that which my judgment or the indi- vidual judgment of the editor might condemn may prove to be valuable. Many of the better things in literature have been condemned at first reading by learned critics, and have afterward been recog- nized by the world as models of thought and expression. Neither should we drop the reading of a journal because a number or two fails to interest us. The next number may contain a single article that will be worth a dozen years' sub- scription, besides compensation for much uninter- esting readincr. Anvone who fails to read the OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 235 journals will be behind, not only in his thoughts, but also in his practice." ARTISTS AND SCIENTISTS. The days of unwieldy instruments and rude operators are now in oblivion, and in their stead we find instruments and appliances complete in every respect, and practitioners who are as mild a class of men as ever played the lute or sung the songs of love. It was in the spirit of advancement and a love for the beautiful that the dental infant was taken from the barber shop and raised to the high and ennobling position it now occupies. And who has wrought this most desirable change.'* None else than the ingenious and persevering modern dentist. The dental office is no longer a prison of torture, but on the other hand is a welcome resort for suf- fering humanity. To accomplish this good end has cost the burning of much midnight oil, and many of the energetic men who have labored vigorously in this most beneficent cause are now slumbering in the cities of the dead. It is said that "a poet is born, not made," and this old saw is, in a certain sense, applicable to the dentist. In order to advance and be successful in the dental profession the practitioner must have certain definite qualifications and inclinations. And these essentials must be his or her natural bent of character. Among the requisites of a model dentist 236 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL the most important are: That peculiar quality which makes the successful surgeon, coupled with mechanical ingenuity, dexterity, studiousness, and last, but far from least, the patience of Job. Per- haps the reason why there are so many lamentable failures among the practitioners of dentistry at the present time is because so many enter the profes- sion with the sole and whole purpose of gathering the supposed hoards of money which are believed to be accessible to its votaries. But how soon are the plans and anticipations of these empirics frus- trated when they find they are not adapted to their chosen work; unfitted for the science, they drop by the way. They are allowed admission into the labyrinthal highway, but soon are lost and bewil- dered among the "ologies" and "isms" of the pro- fession. Dentistry is too great a science for the gross and unskilled to appreciate the aesthetic beauties of its art. The modern dentist must be in the full sense of the words a "facial sculptor,'* for to his tender care and consideration is left the moulding of many a scowl or smile. He must appreciate the lines of beauty in expression and discern at a glance the changes necessary in the different physiognomy to make them charming and inviting, rather than repellent and false. In dental prosthesis and dental surgery the sculptoral genius is certainly afforded an oppor- tunity to exercise his art, since it is in these OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 237 departments of dentistry that the study of the face is most essential. The face is divine territory which solicits the prosthetic dentist's sincerest con- sideration. The face to him is the window to the brain, the avenue to mind and character. The face is the servant of the emotions; it mirrors the feelings, and gives expression to impulses. It is the visible record, the map of the heart proclaim- ing the character of the individual to all who can read. The symbols of character, which are unmis- takably in the face, are not occult and secret, but are open and plain, that even a child may read and know distinctly the heart of its owner. Now, since the distinctive feature of dental prosthesis is "restoration, "you can readily comprehend why the dentist who is continually sought to restore faces, must of necessity be thoroughly prepared to restore the lost features, and rebuild the symbols of indi- viduality and character. He must have a clear conception of the outlines of that which is to be established, and constantly have the imaginary ideal vividly before him. In all grand works of man the ideal was ever the basis of the real. In our own modern city take for example the mag- nificent Auditorium, with all its halls, porticoes, entrances, pillars, stairways, arches, balconies and tower, all was designed by the architect in all its grand proportions and arrangements before the foundation stone was laid. The sculptor who 238 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL chiseled from the huge misshapen block the almost living and breathing figure of Abraham Lincoln in a park by his name saw in the rough stone the ideal statue. Dr. Allport once said: *'He who has but moder- ate ideas of symmetry, harmony of expression and color, is constantly pained by lack of that artistic selection and arrangement of artificial teeth which serve to restore to the face the shape and expres- sion left upon it by the Creator, the absence of which in artificial dentures stamps him who should be an artist an artisan — a mere mechanic — a libeler of the soul — a deformer of the humane face divine." We can only know how thoroughly scientific, artistic and technical the restoration of the face is when we hearken to that great lecturer Fuseli, who says: "If the nose of Apollo be shortened one- sixteenth of an inch the 'god of physical beauty' would be destroyed." If this be true, which it certainly is, it should lead us to be very cautious as to the duty of our calling, and ever remember that the perfect restoration of the countenance with the original power of expression by art, as to •defy detection, is one of the crowning glories of dental prosthesis. This branch of dental science is as a general thing underestimated, inasmuch as those who have made a specialty of it have failed to bring to light the many grand principles that underlie this OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 239 most deserving specialty. I can do no fairer justice to the subject of prerequisite qualifications of the student of Dental Prosthesis than by quot- ing the able scholar, Dr. W. W. Allport, who said: "It is in Dental Prosthesis the dentist has the greater field for the use of art. It is for him to so construct substitutes for the natural teeth that they will harmonize with the works of the Creator that surrounded them, and be so true to nature in size,, shape, color and position that they will not pro- duce discord in the facial expression. There is arb individuality in everything that God has made. There are no two blades of grass, no two flowers,, two faces, two eyes, nor are there any two sets of teeth that are alike. They may be similar in type,, but not in detail, and it is this detail that gives the specific individuality by which we are enabled to tell one from the other. Between these details; there is a harmony that makes any one part a fit companion of its surroundings. Any important change in any of these details would, to the ex- tent of the change made, alter the individuality- of the original. As there are no two things, exactly alike in nature, there can be no exact rules. by which anything in nature can be imitated.. There are, however, rules which may be aids in. producing general outlines, but it is the soul and feeling of the artist that works out the details which gives life to the substitute. A mechanic. 240 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL pure and simple, may construct a set of teeth and make them serviceable to the wearer, inasmuch as they will fit and be strong- and useful in mastica- tion, but only he who has the artistic feeling and skill will be able to select his materials and so adapt them in the mouth that they will harmonize with the complexion and anatomy of the face and be true to nature. From infancy to old age there is harmony in contour, as well as in color, and there is change and adaptation of one to the other at every stage of life. The hair that would be becoming to a girl of sixteen, would not be suited to the same person at sixty. Hence nature changes the color of the hair to be in keeping with the face as age advances. The same is true of the teeth; all change and grow old together, and there is beauty in age only as there is harmony. To attempt, therefore, to make the face look younger or more attractive by making any one part of it appear younger than is natural is a great mistake, for the other parts suffer by an inharmonious con- trast which always unpleasantly attracts attention. "In applying this idea to the selection and adaptation of artificial teeth, it will at once be seen how very important it is that he who gives his attention to this branch of industry should not only be a good mechanic, but should possess that art feeling that will enable him to appreciate the importance of physical harmony. If he does not OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 24 1 possess this quality, he will be a mechanical dentist only. His work may be useful for mastication, but the face will be apt to look 'toothy.' To produce this appearance the teeth need not of necessity be too large for the face. In fact, arti- ficial teeth are usually smaller than were the nat- ural, and yet they give the appearance of which I have spoken, as it is usually the inharmonious color, rather than the size of the teeth that is at fault. The first as well as the most lasting impres- sion made on the beholder of the individual will be the teeth, whereas they should be so thoroughly in keeping with the rest of the face that they will attract no more attention than any other feature. ''One of the prerequisites to the study and prac- tice of this specialty is a talent for and a knowledge of art. The proportion of good artists who could have made good mechanics is very large, while the proportion of good mechanics who could have made good artists is very small. A person may have great mechanical ability, but little or no artistic sense. There are few dentists who have any idea of proportion or feeling for color. This is why we see so many mouths filled with abom- inably unnatural looking artificial teeth, and this condition of things will never be greatly improved till more attention is given to art in this depart- ment of practice. It would be useless to attempt to develop this talent in every dental student, for 242 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL probably not more than one in twenty-five, or per- haps fifty, could respond to the demand should they be encouraged to follow dental prosthesis as a calling. * 'Artistic ability, therefore, should be among the first requisites to the study and in the practice of dental prosthesis. It would be far better for those who engage in its practice to-have acquired a theo- retical, as well as a practical, knowledge of the leading ideas of proper proportions, modeling, drawing and harmony of colors, rather than to have studied so much of medicine as is usually taught in dental colleges." On this same subject Dr. Joseph Richardson, one of the beacon-lights of dental prosthesis, says: * 'Among the unnumbered millions of human beings who have peopled the earth since the dawn of time, it may be affirmed that no two have been created with faces exactly alike. There is the same aggregate of features and a pervading general resemblance of one person to another, but there will be found as infinite a multiplication of distinct shades of facial expression as there are human faces, and each separate shade of expression char- acteristic of each one, and distinguishing him or her from all others, constitutes facial individuality. Each separate feature — as the eye, the nose, the mouth, the teeth, facial contour, complexion, tem- perament, etc. — contributes to this individuality, OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 245 and no one special feature more, perhaps, than the teeth. There are few more repulsive deformities^ than those inflicted by the loss of these organs,, and none more fatal to the habitual and character- istic expression of the individual. It is the special mission, as it is the first and highest duty, of the dentist to preserve this individuality intact, and am equally imperative duty to restore it as perfectly as possible when impaired. To fuUfil in the most perfect manner possible this most difficult of all the requirements of prosthetic practice implies an art culture that is competent to interpret the distinct play of features associated with individual physi- ognomies, to differentiate individual temperaments^ and make available the sculptor's and painter's per- ceptions of the subtile harmonies of form and color. To the failure or inability to properly com- prehend the practical import or significance of individual characteristics, so far as the fixed expres- sion in the teeth and the consequent failure to con- form our methods of replacement to the imperative requirements of art, may be fairly ascribed the deserved reproach into which prosthetic practice- has fallen, and not, as is generally charged, to the employment of any particular material or methods concerned in the mechanical execution of the work."^ The grandest thesis on the "art in dentistry" is. the following most able article by Dr. Kingsley:^ ♦American Journal of Dental Science, vol. I., 3d series, p. 72. 244 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL ''That 'Dentistry is a Science and an Art' is A statement that at this day seems hardly neces- sary to reiterate. "The phrase has a royal sound, and its frequent repetition shows that it is a favorite expression; and yet among the multitudes who earn their livli- hood by practicing dentistry, how few know the full meaning of the words, and how little there is in their practice to justify the assertion. "To judge by its fruits, how much more there is of empiricism than of science, and how much more of rude and bungling mechanism than of art. Nevertheless, dentistry is a science and an art, and the researches of the past four years alone, to- gether with the contributions to its literature, give a legitimate claim to the first part of the proposi- tion. Months and years have been spent in the. prosecution of it as a science and volumes record its results, but as an art, capable of taking rank as one of the fine arts, dentistry has rarely, if ever, found in our journals an advocate — has rarely found else than a flippant consignment to the workshop, where the very idea of art compre- hends only ordinary mechanics. "As a consequence artistic dentistry has never risen, except in rare individual cases, to anything above mechanical dentistry. The very term by which the department is known is often used as one of reproach, and the productions of these OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 245 dental mechanics are a standing disgrace. In every assemblage, public or private, on the street, in the drawing-room, or wherever we may turn, we see displayed their hideous deformities. It be- comes a serious question, whether the art of den- tistry, aside from operations upon the natural teeth, has, with all the inventions and 'improve- ments' of the last decade, advanced one iota. "The operative department has assumed to be the department, par excellence and per se, and we see the results in the education of the new profes- sional generation, who ignore as unworthy their exalted talents any knowledge of mechanical den- tistry, not realizing that a mastery of all its ele- ments will do more to educate and qualify them for perfection, even in the one department, than any other course that could be pursued. We be- lieve that it can be demonstrated beyond a perad- venture that the ignored and despised branches of dental science can lay a well-grounded claim to be considered as a fine art, capable of the highest idealization, ranking side by side with poetry, music, painting and sculpture, capable of appeal- ing, though in a more limited manner, to the same sentiments and emotions, and requiring for their expression the identical talent and same imagina- tion which characterize the votaries of her prede- cessors. "With the ancient Greeks all works which ex- 246 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL hibited skill were called works of art, and to the present day the term art, in its broad signification, is applied to every skillful, physical, or intellectual performance, from the making of a shoe to the modeling of a statue, from the pantomime of the stage to the oratory of the forum. But as the arts have multiplied, terms of distinction have be- come necessary, as fine arts and mechanical arts with all their subdivisions. *'The distinguishing characteristic of the fine arts is their ideality. In this the line of demarka- tion between them and the mechanical and all other arts is unmistakably distinct. "It is for this feature we look in any work that claims this high rank, and by this standard we judge of its pretension. The mechanical arts are distinguished for their physical utility. They may demand consummate skill for their execution; they may require for their development rare inven- tive faculties, and their combinations of mechanical principles may be truly wonderful, but their indi- vidual works require but little effort of the brain in their reproduction; education in skillful manual labor without the capacity to originate a single new idea is all that is required. The laws which gov- ern their reproduction are those of mathematics, and to be able to copy a given form with exactness is the sum of the talent required. "They maybe directly of more practical value OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 247 to mankind, but they can make no appeal to the iiner emotions of our being. In all that excites the imagination, that calls into action the affec- tions, or leads the mind away from the contempla- tion of the material and sensual, they are dumb. "In like manner the feats of the acrobat and jyggler excite our wonder and admiration, but like the true mechanical arts, have not an element of ideality in them. "The ideal or fine arts, therefore, may include poetry, music, painting and sculpture. These require for their development the possession and •exercise of the same mental faculties, are governed by the same general rules, and have one common, 'ultimate object. "Poetry, of all the arts, stands deservedly at the head, because the most subtle and at the same time the most potent in its influence. It is the least material of all, the farthest removed from sensible objects; it has the greatest scope, admit- ting the treatment of all subjects, and its power 'Over the imagination is the most complete. In regard to the objects of the visible world, one can not conceive a greater distance between what it -depicts and the manner of depicting. By the com- binations of words used alone, used as language, ■poetry gives full expression to every idea, from the most powerful to the most delicate, and presents :scenes so vividly as well as so variedly to the mind 248 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL of the reader that the impressions are both pleas- ing and permanent. "Music takes precedence over painting and sculpture in the order of the fine arts, its claim to superiority being based upon inherent qualities of humane nature, by whose control all that appeals to our emotions is more regarded than what appeals to our understanding. Objects of sight, while they please the eye by their color, form an arrange- ment, affect mainly the mind, and only indirectly approach the heart. '•But music speaks directly to the soul. Its notes are the reproduction and the refinement of natural tones of pleasure, anger, fear, distress, etc. These tones music cultivates, and by pro- longing and combining them expresses feelings and awakens every variety of emotion into sympa- thetic activity. Thus the tender pipings of the flute call forth the love of enjoyment; the clear bugle notes find responsive echoes in the hearts of mountaineers and huntsmen; the orchestral over- tures send thrills and throes through fancy-loving souls, and the choruses of Mendlesohn and Mozart fill man's spirit with ecstasy of joy or wonder, or with solemn awe. "More than any other art is music universal. A language without words, music addresses the feelings by tone, everywhere understood and un- mistakable; and it leads forth the emotions to an OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 249 enjoyment which words can not give nor can even express. "Painting, in the order of the ideal arts, holds the third rank. It is more limited in its scope than either of its predecessors, and expresses its sentiments or tells its story by the color and lineal appearance of bodies. But while it can not under- take the relation of a succession of events in one representation, it has the advantage over poetry, in that its language is universal, easily recognized, and needs no interpreter or translator of its mean- ing. " 'A true picture its own story,' and in no way does a common mind receive more vivid and last- ing impressions of portrayed events than by the production of this art. *'Many pictures there are whose sentiment is sacrificed to that which merely pleases the eye, the gratification of the senses by the harmony of forms and color being the highest aim of the artist. It is this degeneracy into mere physical represen- tation and the limited nature of its power that places it as an ideal art in the rank that it occupies. "The art of sculpture, while requiring for its execution the very highest order of mental fac- ulties, is generally placed in the scale of ideal arts, below that of painting, because, represented solely by form and without the aid of color, it is more 2 50 THE RISE. FALL AND REVIVAL limited in its subjects and more material in its ^exhibition. "In the selection of the human figure, the most perfect of all forms, it finds its grandest achieve- ments in depicting all gradations of intelligence, affection, sentiment, action, or passion, sublime, iheroic, or tender, and in all orders of beings, from the exhalted supernatural to the lower gradations bordering on the brutes. ^ Although the most limited in its scope, it is not so liable to degen- •eracy as its sister art of painting. To be success- ful its delineations must be above that of simply- copying nature, and its power over the beholder is •often greater than any other art could give to the same subject. ''It is the most enduring of all arts, the material ohosen for its medium being the most independent of all the mutations of time. Of the peoples of the by-gone ages, the only records left to us that give even a passing glimpse of their existence are their sculptured monuments. **Like painting and music, its language is uni- versal, and like painting, when it ceases to appeal to the imagination and seeks only to please the :senses by the beauty of form, it degrades its char- acter and fails of its true mission. " 'Nothing brings people of other nations so vividly before us as their works of art. They tell US of their religion, of their social dwellings and OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 2$ I customs, of their advance in civilization and religious culture. To the study of ancient history a knowledge of the arts as practiced by different nations is indispensible. Language is more or less subject to change and decay, and the significance of many expressions is lost to those who do not use it as a vernacular tongue. Many nations have existed with no written language, but the Almighty in blotting them out from the face of the earth has permitted their works of art to live, from which something may be learned of their rise, pro- gress and character. ''Architecture is very commonly regarded as one of the fine arts, and ranked next to sculpture and painting. Modern architecture is addressed to the eye and the intellect alone, and not to the imagination, and the ideal character necessary to distinguish a fine from a mechanical art is wholly wanting. Wherever this element does exist in buildings of the present day it has borrowed it from sculpture. But architecture among the ancients was one of the earliest of symbolic lan- guages. The pattern shown to Moses on the mount by God, as the model for the building of the tabernacle, embodied the very highest order of ideal art. "Every post, every board and every bar, every ring and every curtain, were typical of man's redemption from sin, and spoke a language unmis- 2-5- THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL ttakable and clearly comprehended by the Jews; and so with every monument of the ancient heathen connected with their religion, every temple, every tdol, and every altar appealed to the imagination and spoke an ideal language. "Architecture was then emphatically a 'fine ■art,' but at the present day it is but an imitation of the dead past. The powers that called it into ^existence are gone, and the emotions to which it gave birth have died out. We imitate its corporeal iform, but the spirit that gave it life is forever departed. "We have been thus specific in our description of the fine arts for a more thorough understanding 'of grounds upon which we shall base the claim of dentistry to be ranked with them. No perform- ance of the dentist can make any pretension to be a fine art, separate and distinct from all others, but as a subdivision or speciality of one of the arts dentistry is entitled to a consideration which it has never received. We shall endeavor to show this alliance, and prove that, so far as its scope will allow, it is governed by the same general rules •.which control its allied arts. "Dental practice, by an inherent law and by '.common consent, is divided in the main into two departments, the one commonly termed the ^Operative,' which is made to include all efforts for ±he preservation of the natural teeth and all sur- OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 253 gical operations in the buccal cavity; the other, called 'Mechanical,' which includes the making of all appliances for the correction of deformities of the buccal cavity, but practically the making and inserting of artificial teeth. *'In the practice of operative dentistry, as has been before inti;nated, there has grown up an un- warrantable assumption that all that was refined and cultivated, all that was worthy the exercise of our noblest faculties in the pursuit of our profes- sion, was to be found in this department, and mere mechanics, wholly unqualified by education in science and art, were deemed capable of practicing the other. The only performance of the operative dentist which requires a talent and skill equal to the mechanical arts is the introduction of fillings into the cavities of decay, and this skill is mere manual dexterity guided by good judgment. Its highest achievements at the present day are in the so-called contour fillings made of gold, in which an attempt is made to restore the form of a tooth injured by accident or decav. "Contour fillings, when carried to its highest state of perfection in restoring the actual or the typical form of the lost organ, can present no stronger argument to be considered an artistic performance than that of a copy or an imitation. If a copy it is purely mechanical; if an imitation of the typical it may lay a faint claim to ideality. 2 54 '^HE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL This is true when carried to its ultimate; but prac- tically nine-tenths of what are called contour fillings are not entitled to any such distinction. Nuggets of gold they are, built on to deformed teeth, carried in many instances far beyond the borders of decay; lapping over and building upon sold enamel to a general level, obliterating all inequalities and all character, and failing most completely to illustrate the possession of any other talent than the skillful manipulation of gold; excellent advertisements of the craft they undoubtedly are, but are certainly of very questionable taste. "Every tooth has an individual character and expression, not only in harmony with every other in the same mouth, but by the same divine law, in harmony with the features and the character of the creature, be he animal or man. "The ph\'sical characteristics are so marked and prominent that the merest novice has no diffi- culty as a rule in locating any human tooth that has been removed from its fellows, and yet of the attempts at restoration of any large portion of the crown of teeth by dentists how few there are that bear any very close resemblance to the original form of the lost part. "If a cast were taken of the restoration and examined separately, how few would identify it as being any portion of any tooth. The cusps, the depressions, the sutures, the easy and graceful out- OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 255 lines, and all that marks the individual tooth are wanting. * -^^ x- ^ jf sculpture necessarily ranks below painting in the scale of fine arts be- cause more limited in its range, and painting for the same reason below poetry, we must therefore place all operations on the natural teeth, as artistic performances in rank, below that of the substitu- tion of artificial ones. "As an art it is but a department of sculpture. Form in individual members, form in grouping and arrangement, and form as a medium of expression are equally the distinguishing characteristics of both sculpture and dentistry." Thus a good dentist should, indeed, be a man of great refinement, of artistic conception, with a true sense of the proportion of things and of the harmony of colors. We have only to look at the teeth people often wear to notice that this is not very often the case. It must be remembered that in nature there is a great beauty in the irregulari- ties, in what is often called the ugliness of shape and color. Because an even row of very white teeth is the ideal, it does not prove that such teeth suit everybody. What can be more ghastly than an old, decrepit personage, with a bad complexion, who wears a double row of splendid white teeth.-* What is more rediculous than one white, spotless artificial tooth standing in the midst of yellow and partially decayed real teeth.-* Or, again, what a 256 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL lobsided effect is produced if natural teeth on one side of the mouth grew irregularly, while on the other side artificial teeth have been fixed up in regimental order. Yet how few people are there who, having artificial teeth, have the good sense to ask that these.teeth should be just as imperfect in shape, position and color as the real teeth were they are destined to replace? If we have not ideal teeth the probabilities are that there are many other things in feature and complexion which also are far from being ideal. And the introduction of one or more ideal teeth where the surroundings are anything but ideal is no improvement. It creates a discordant note, destroys the harmony which prevails even in ugli- ness, and renders that ugliness more evident and more unpleasant. But it requires a high concep- tion of true art to thoroughly appreciate these principles and apply them successfully in practice. It is, therefore, not surprising to find that distin- guished dentists are the constant and appreciated friends of men of art and letters. Nothing but careful study and experience can develop the artistic sense to a degree that will enable one to forecast the shades of expression that it may be desirable to give the patient by well- considered alteration in the length and edge-shape of dental organs. In short, he must be, as Dr. ];Iarshall says. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 257 * 'thoroughly conversant with physics^ with me- chanics and with metallurgy. He must acquire a delicacy of touch and a manipulative skill oi the very highest order; his eye must be trained! to ai keen perception of form, color and harnraony^ and his hand to execute the thoughts of his bradia — in other words he must be an artisan, artist aindl phy- sician all in one." DENTISTRY AS AN ART AND SCIENCF. These two words seem to be used by thie large majority of writers and speakers regardless oi true diction. Authors often use the former word when the meaning of the latter is inferred and vice versa, There is an art of dentistry and a science of den- tistry. This confusion does not only exist m the dental literature, but is also present in other de- partments of scientific research, and is especially found in German works of art and science- With the German writers the etymology of the wo^vd for art secured a long continuance for this ambrgi?ity. The word "Kunst" was employed indiscrisni^Mately in both the senses of the primitive 'Tchkaon," to signify *'I can," and later the word "Wisseiisclaaft"' came to use, and designated 'Teh kenn;,"' or "I know." But the word **Wissenschaft," o-r science, was not coined until late in the 17th cesitury,. and it is largely due to the recent use of this word that the loose interchange exists between ^t and the 258 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL « word kiinst or art. On this interesting subject the following:^ "The term dentistry is appropriately used to denote the business or the place of business. As a business it includes both the science and the art of treating, preserving, and artificially substitu- ting teeth. Dentistry is both a science and an art, while it evolves much that is purely mechanical. Science is the architect, mechanical art the builder; science discovers the want and the means of sup- ply, art attains the ends. Science prevails, art avails. Science, like 'charity, seeketh not her ov\'n, vaunteth not herself;' but art is fond of pecuniary reward. Hence the scientific are few, the artists many. Consulting ease of enunciation, we say 'arts and sciences'; but in fact science occupies the foreground; art following reaps the harvest. Sci- ence acquaints herself with the whole economy of animal teeth, with their matter and their manner, their origin and their end, with all their facts, in all their forms and in all their varieties, their con- nection with and adaptation to the varied modes of animal existence; and why properly formed teeth are unnecessary to some forms of existence and indispensable to others; why wanting in rep- tiles, creeping things, and flying fowl; why the hig"b.er order of animals scarcely subsist without *25sejBiaJ Cosmos, Vol. XI., p. 314-315. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 259 them; why, with many, the duration of the teeth is the measure of their existence. "Science would know w^hy the infinite variety of form and size, from the thistly jaw of the smaller aquatics, to the movable envenomed fang of the serpent, up to the powerful war weapon of the tiger, the lion, the bear, the whale, and the mas- todon; and why the peculiarity in number, in structure, and form of the human teeth; why both deciduous and permanent; why come in the time and order they do; why partly vital and partly not; why incapable of extension and growth and of repairing their fractures or abrasions; why sub- ject to decomposition and rottenness; why the medium of so much pain; and what are remedies for their diseases? Science, too, must understand the chemical as well as vital organism of the teeth; the matter and the manner of their composition and formation, the arteries, veins and nerves, and all the ramifying capillaries and nerve-fibrils, as well as the corpuscles, tissues, and granules that enter into their composition and organism. Sci- ence would understand the entire functions of the teeth and the means of securing them in their nor- Tnal condition and appropriate use. "Mechanical dentistry, as such, has little or nothing to do with the animal economy; but as an art dentistry seeks the hand of science, and by her would be led and guided. It would supply the 26o THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL artificial remedies and mechanical appliances-- agreeably to the teachings of science, adopt and adjust all her fixtures and mechanical powers and agents, remove all obstructions to the health of teeth, and supply losses in accordance with the laws of nature as discovered by science. "The dentistry of the operating chair is no less mechanical, though more artistic, than that of the laboratory. Indeed, mechanical skill and artistic display make their happiest efforts in perfecting the form and external condition of the natural teeth. While some operations are more strictly surgical, the whole class of operations of the dentist, when performed in accordance with scien- tific principles, deserve, as they have received, the appellation of dental surgery." "There is a science* of medicine and there is an art; and it is possible for a scholar to be deeply interested and highly cultivated in the grand science without pretending to be even a tyro in the art. He may have spent years in his labra- tory in the investigation of the supposed origin of disease without having the slightest skill in detect- ing or distinguishing the simplest malady at the bedside. He may, in short, be a deep student of the science without being an expert in the art. The science and the art are to this extent divided. *C. M. Wright. D. D. S., Ohio State Journal of Dental Science vol. III., p. 17. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 261' A physician might, in his leisure hours, acquire an intimate knowledge of the science of dentistry; he might become expert in making preparations of dental tissues for histological studies, for the investi- gation of the theories in regard to dental caries; he might become well versed in a knowledge of the general pathological conditions of the teeth, and yet, if called to the dentist's operating chair, could not diagnosticate an incipient alveolar abscess, nor an inflamed pulp, nor a pulp chamber filled with gas; not to mention the excavating of a carious cavity and replacing with any dentist's materials. He does not possess the Art of Den- tistry. "The science of dentistry is a part of the science of medicine. I wish to say this distinctly and 'dogmatically. It is a fact not affected by the dis- putes of doctors or dentists. The science of den- tistry is a branch of the science of medicine in its broadest signification; it springs from the same- root; it is nourished from the same fluid that circu- lates in the parent trunk and all the other branches. I refer only to the science, so-called, and not at all to the art. Here we must make a distinction. The art of medicine and the art of dentistry have- but very little in common as generally practiced in this country. And the art itself is so distinct from the science in dentistry and medicine that men do become skillful and successful doctors and 262 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL dentists with but a limited capital of general science — but, in its stead, cultivated perceptions and trained fingers. The }-oung graduate of sev- eral native and foreign schools and universities may really possess very much more knowledge of what is called the science of medicine than the old practitioner, and yet you and I would prefer to trust the man of art rather than the man of science. The old practitioner, if possessed of natural talent (and this, however important, is like beaut}' — possessed only by a few, though desired by the many), has his senses cultivated to the point of intuition. He sees at a glance — he arrives at a correct conclusion instantaneously — by an unknown-and unregarded mental process, that only experienced observations, practiced judgment, cultivation and habit can give. The art is the im- portant part. The science has no other object, finally, than the practice of the art." Dr. Bonwill even goes further into the analysis of the etymology of the use of art or science in connection with dentistry and says:^ "Every year there is fresh vennom hurled against it,t or any reference thereto, and it would seem to have fallen from the high eminence which it had in the early days. The good old name has a very strange synonym (prosthesis), which might ♦Western Dental Journal, vol. II., p. 11. tMechanical Dentistry. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 265 be well if it were confined to the supply alone of artificial dentures. A moment's reflection, how- ever, will show that when we attempt to divide dentistry into operative and prosthetic or mechan- ical, we do injustice to our profession, and we assume a false position for our great art, which is founded almost exclusively on our abililty as mechanicians, and without which, to a great degree, we would be helpless. "What is science.'* * 'Science is a systematic and orderly arrangement of knowledge. "Facts and truths are the ultimate principles. "Pure science is a knowledge of forms, causes^ or laws. "While both science and art are synonymous, as they investigate truth, science is restricted to- the inquiry for knowledge and art for the sake of production. "The most perfect state of science will be the high and accurate inquiry, and the perfection of art the most apt and efficient system of rules, art always throwing itself into the form of rules. "What are the sciences which have been so- long recognized as seven in number? "Grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geom- etry, astronomy, and music. "You perceive that medicine, law, and theology- are not mentioned. They are professions." 264 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL MECHANICAL DEXTISTRV VIS. DENTAL PROSTHESIS. In 18S3 the American Dental Association ap- -pointed a committee on dental literature and no- menclature, and the committee's report in the following year read in part as follows: "In the art and science of the dental profession there are many distinctive names and phrases. For the most part, perhaps, these are well chosen, and as expressive as is possible in the present state of our language. There are, however, quite a .number of nominations of very questionable pro- •priet}-. To a few of these we now propose to call attention. "Mechanical Dentistrv. — This phrase has long been used to designate that part of dental science and art which has to do with the manufac- ture and insertion of artificial teeth and all that pertains to it. So far as the needs of mechanical skill are concerned this name may be sufficiently distinctive, but it is not sufficiently extended in its reach. Some may execute well in a mechanical aspect, and yet signally fail in the production and application of substitutes for lost teeth and the restoration of adjacent parts. The name that will embrace both these ideas, namely, that of mechan- ism and of art, that sjaall enable the application of .it to the parts here indicated, is that which should ibe employed, and in a search of some extent no :better term occurs .far this jiam^ than 'dental pros- OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 265 thesis.' Some have been disposed to change the form of the phrase 'prosthetic dentistry,' The other is a better phrase, we think. This nomi- nation is slowly but surely making its way into the literature of our profession. It will probably be used ere long to the exclusion of the phrase 'me- chanical dentistry.' ' 'Operative Dentistry. — This name or phrase is usually employed and properly so to designate operations upon the natural teeth for their preser- vation, or rescuing them from the ravages of disease. It embraces operations upon and treat- ment of the natural teeth, and is sufificiently clear and distinctive. There has been a little disposi- tion in some quarters to drop this name and em- brace everything done in the mouth upon both the hard and soft tissues in the name of 'oral surgery.' This may with great propriety be applied to all •operations upon the soft and hard parts in and im- mediately about the mouth, but the nature of the operations upon the teeth is so different from those performed upon the other parts of the mouth as to justly entitle them to a distinctive name. There is sometimes an effort made to have a name em- brace too much, and this would seem to be a case of that kind." The committee are to be congratulated for having partially shown why the term mechanical • dentistry is not properly applied, and their recom- 266 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL mendation of the term "dental prosthesis" should receive a more general regard, especially by the dental colleges and dental authors. But the report is not without grave mistakes, and the primary one looms up in the term "operative dentistry." On close investigation I fail to learn of the real difference between the terms dental prosthesis and operative dentistry, as suggested by the committee. Does the committee infer that the dentist prac- ticing dental prosthesis does not operate? and also, that the doctor who makes a specialty of operative dentistry does not practice and follow the prin- ciples of prosthetics? In both of these grand divisions of dentistry the dentist operates. For example, in prosthesis, if when the dentist sets a Richmond or other crown does he not operate; does he not prepare the root of the tooth; does he not operate on organic matter? And, on the con- trary, when the so-called operative dentist inserts a large gold filling, does he not "add to," "re- place," "affix," or "restore?" If so, he is purely practicing dental prosthesis. The terms dental prosthesis, as now recommended by this national committee, is correct, but we are obliged to have a future committee which will coin a proper term for the now so-called operative dentist. The following from the Dental Cosmos is interesting on this confusion of dental nomenclature and reads: "We have divided dental art into medical, OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 26/ surgical and prosthetic. The two first connect it with a healing art and demand a medical education; but the characteristic element of dentistry is its prosthetics — just as therapeutics is the specific function of the physician. To remove diseased structure and replace it with gold — to remove diseased organs and replace them with porcelain — is the work which demands nine-tenths of the den- tist's time; success in which gives him his reputa- tion. "You may call the one operative dentistry and the other mechanical dentistry, if you choose; but each consists in a series of operations and both are purely mechanical manipulations of material, by means of instruments; both, also, are acts of re- placement. I think it, therefore, more exact and descriptive to subdivide the peculiar work of den- tistry into — structural and organic prosthesis. ''Both are so difficult that highest excellence in either department is rare, and scarcely ever do we meet with a double 'first-class.' Hence the prac- tice of dentistry is itself subdivided, following the example of its parent art. But subdivision does not imply less honor in the pursuit, so long as we recognize, in preparing for it, the necessity of a knowledge of the whole art of which it forms a part."^ That the term mechanical is and should be ♦Dental Cosmos, vol XVI., p. 500. 268 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL obsolete, as used to designate dental prosthesis, this clipping from an able treatise by the famous Dr. John Allen is of worth:* "It is generally conceded that America has bet- ter dentists, and more of them in proportion to population, than any other nation on the globe; they are doing all in their power to stay the pro- gress of the loss of human teeth with which we are afflicted, and their timely aid has been crowned with unparalled success. But still, the immense number of teeth that are annually lost causes a great demand for artificial dentures — a large and important branch of dental practice. "In the construction of these substitutes we should approximate as nearly as possible to the natural organs, keeping the mind's eye upon at least three important points to be attained, viz. : mastication, enunciation and restoration of the natural form and expression of the teeth, mouth and face. But how to attain these ends under all the different circumstances we meet with in this department is a problem not so easily solved as many suppose; for artificial dentistry differs widely from any other branch of business pertaining to mechanism. "For example, the mechanic works by well- known rules and laws that have been long and well established, and he follows the same routine with ♦Dental Cosmos, vol. XI., p. 485. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS.- 269 his rule, compass and square that thousands of others did who preceded him, all producing the same practical results. The architect of the pres- ent day has the same well-established principles to guide him now that were employed by the ancients. *'The different styles of architecture known as Doric, Ionic and Corinthian were the favorite orders among the Greeks and Romans in their most palmy days, and these orders, with slight modifications, have been transmitted with mathe- matical precision to the present time. "Watchmaking is all done by fixed rules which the workmen have only to follow in order to pro- duce good time-pieces. Thousands of those little wheels are made just alike, and placed in cases in precisely the same relative position to each other, and all will serve exactly the purposes intended. Numerous branches of mechanism are successfully pursued by men of moderate capacity, by simply adhering to certain fixed rules and principles in executing their work. ''But, in the construction of artificial dentures, there are no fixed rules to guide the dentist, for he has no two cases alike; therefore a rule that would apply in one instance would not hold good in another. If he should make a thousand sets of teeth, all just alike, upon one model, he would find but one set out of that whole number that could 2/0 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL be worn, and that only by the one person from whose mouth the model was taken. Therefore, instead of working by rule and scribe, as the me- chanic does, the skillful dentist is ever devising ways and means to meet the various requirements of each particuliar ease. "The teeth give character to the physiognomy of persons; therefore as great a variety of ex- pressions should be given them as there are indi- viduals for whom they are intended. Here the skill of the artist is required in order to avoid an unnatural contrast, that would lead to detection; for }-ou will recollect it is the height of art to con- ceal art. " 'The dentist who is a true artist is not am- bitious to have his work bear the impress of arti- ficial teeth, but on the contrary, that they should possess that depth of tone, natural form, and. truth- ful expression which characterized the natural organs. " 'Varying the position of the teeth will change the appearance of the mouth, just in proportion as they differ from the natural teeth. Hence, in many persons, their former expression is entirely lost and distortion has taken the place of sym- metry. " 'A want of taste and skill in the construction and adaptation of artificial teeth results in rude and graceless work, which contrasts widely with OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 2/ 1 that of the true artist, who carefully studies the tone, position, and expression of every tooth, and restores the harmony which nature had originally stamped upon the features of his patient. ** *A few slight touches of the brush in the hands of a skillful artist, will change the \^^hole expression of his picture. So with the teeth; a slight inclination, outward or inward, or variation in length, will change the entire expression of the mouth.' "Again, the deflection of the various muscles of the face, consequent upon the loss of the natural teeth, presents another class of physiognomical defects, which also comes within the range of dental practice; and the time has come when the dentist is expected to raise the sunken portion of the face to their original contour by artificial means. "Whether this could be done without injury to the muscles thus raised remained a problem to be solved by an American dentist. This question being settled for all coming time that no injury results from wearing properly constructed dentures with attachments for this purpose, it has now be- come a practical and important feature in dental prosthesis. The sunken portions of the face can be raised by means of attachments or prominences made upon the denture of such form and size as to meet the requirements of the various cases that are presented to the practitioner. 2/2 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL "In view of the facts here presented, and of what is required of the dentist of the present day we would urge the importance of a higher standard of qualifications in this department than seems to have been attained by a majority of those who are engaged in this branch of our profession. "The face, as }-ou are aware, is formed of dif- ferent bones and muscles which give it shape and ex- pression. When the teeth are lost and a consequent absorption of the alveolar processes takes place, several of these muscles are liable to fall in or be- comn sunken, in a greater or less degree, accord- ing to temperament. And. in order to restore them to their former position, the dentist should be familiar with the form and position of every bone of the face, and know the origin and inser- tion of every muscle, what ones to raise, and where to apply attachments to the denture; otherwise he may produce distortion instead of restoration, by underlaying other muscles than those intended to be raised. Here again the artistic skill of the dentist is brought into requisition. He should study the face of his patient as the artist studies his picture, for he displays his talents not upon canvass, but upon the living features of the face; and of how much more importance is the living picture which reflects even the emotions of the heart than the lifeless form upon canvas.' In rais- ing the different muscles of the face the true artist OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 273 will carefully avoid producing a stiff, restrained, or puffed appearance. He will place the prominences upon the dentures in their proper position, and make them of such form and size as to allow the muscles to rest, move or play upon them with per- fect ease, that they may again reflect those sensi- tive emotions which tell of the inner workings of the mind. Or, to use the language of Shake- speare, 'Your face, my Thane, is as a book where men may read strange matters.' ''Another important consideration in the con- struction of artificial dentures is, that the materials of which they are formed should be incorrodible or chemically pure. ■'" ^^ ~ ~ y~ "This purity of materials we have in the con- tinuous gum work, when properly made, as none of the materials used are corrodible in the slightest degree in the mouth. Again, all the essential points here referred to can be attained by this mode of constructing artificial dentures. But too much reliance should not be placed upon the mode, for however perfect this may be in itself, artistic taste, skill and judgment are necessary to direct the operator in his manipulations. "Two artists (so called) may employ the same method, use the same paint, brushes, canvas, etc., in painting a picture. One will produce a perfect prototype of nature, with all the delicate shades and tints peculiar to their art, while the other makes 2 74 '^HE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL a mere daub that is worthless. The same differ- ence exists among men in various other branches of art and science. In conclusion, allow me again to urge upon our brethren the great importance of bringing into requisition a much higher order of talent in the artificial branch of our profession than has heretofore been employed by a large number of dentists, whose ambition prompts them to do the cheapest, not the best work." OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 275; CONCLUSION. In the last few years many women were initi- ated into the scientific mysteries of dentistry, and this profession is prominent among the many new occupations opened to women. In keeping with' the enlightened spirit of the age the question of sex in labor is being lost sight of, in the vast more- important consideration of the quality of labor. It is the work per se, not the work per sex, that is-- commanding the attention of an educated and dis- criminating public. The question naturally arises,, is women fitted for this new field.^ Is she endowed' by nature with those qualifications necessary for the labor in the vocations; is she physically and intellectually adapted, and can she attain pro- ficiency in mechanical skill and mathematical pre- cision.-* These questions are open to debate, yet, if we permit the general public to be the jury and allow the suffering masses, who have received pro- fessional care at the woman's hand, to plea, I am confident that the decision would be a general and grand triumph for the ladies of our profession. The following sentiment on this interesting- subject, from the Dental Cosmos, is fully corrobo- rated by the liberal representatives of our profes- sion : 2/6 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL "The time has long since passed," says the editor, Dr. Edward Kirk, "when the availability and fitness of woman for the practice of dentistry can be successfully questioned, and whatever may have been the difference of opinion as to her quali- fications, both physical and mental, for this work when measured by the standard of male require- ments; the fact remains that in dentistry, as in all branches of the great healing art, Avomen has found and successfully occupied a field of usefulness in which the sum total of those distinctively feminine qualities, which go to make up an ideal woman- hood, have been invaluable, and are, after all, the essential factors of her success in these depart- ments. The question," continues the editor, "is not whether she is capable of doing her work from a man's standpoint and by masculine methods, but, is there a sphere of usefulness in our profession which she can pursue and properly fill by virtue of her womanhood, and achieve success as woman.-' The affirmation of this has been demonstrated by experience and we believe that the ennobling in- fluence of her activities in dentistry will be in- creasingly felt in the course of time to the whole dental profession." In this memorable American year, 1892, the Woman's Dental Association was organized in Philadelphia, and like the man}- similar organiza- tions, its object is to promote the professional OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 2/7 interests of its members through the advantages which association confers. Dr. Truman introduced the lady dentists in a valedictory delivered March i, 1866. As a mat- ter of history the following extracts from the vale- dictory are subjoined:- "When the professions cease to be objects of interest to the human intellect, that intellect may be said to be in its decadence, if it has not already lapsed into barbarism. The professions lead the civilizations of the world; as they advance the nations advance to higher intellectual attainments. I, therefore, welcome all (who feel they have some- thing to do therein) to the profession to which I belong, and gladly would I welcome still more than the world generally concedes have a right to be there. "The recognition of the right of every human being to an equal share in the privilege we enjoy has not yet become a principle of faith and prac- tice as I think it should. We say to one-half of the human family stitch, stitch, darn stockings, make shoes for a shilling, stand behind counters for two or three dollars a week, do anything, but don't enter the sacred precinct that v/e have marked out for our peculiar benefit. Every human soul has certain qualities; these should mark its pathway through life. Talent is of no sex, color *Itenis of Interest, vol . XI., p. 530, 18S9. 2/8 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL or clime; but is an inheritance from the Creator, given to be fully cultivated in the direction it leads. Hence, in my judgement, any attempt to cripple the aspiration of a God-implanted intelli- gence is unworthy the age in which we live and is but little short of blaspheming against the Creator himself. As we keep any number of the human race in a condition lower than ourselves, just in that proportion will the degradation be a mill-stone around our necks. The reserve of the proposition is also true; as we advance the masses in intelli- gence and the means of acquiring information and pecuniary reward for labor, will the civilization of all be increased. Hence, as an individual, I wel- come all classes to the profession of which I am a member, and would make but one requirement: Do you believe you are qualified for it and can do better in it than any other position in life.' "Entertaining these views, I rejoice that den- tistry, though the youngest of the professions, has welcomed women to two of our State organizations to full membership and have recognized her as a co-laborer in a field full of interest, and one in my judgment to which she is well adapted. ^ ^ ^ Have not all parents who fail to give their daugh- ters a profession or trade neglected one of the plainest requirements of life.' Certainly. The world is full of misery on that account. I am sick of that can't and hypocracy that would prevent OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 2/9 women doing anything to earn her daily bread, and then call it a dispensation of Providence when she is left to support a family by spending her days and nights over the needle. Let your daughters enter the professions on anything they can earn a livlihood at, and regard it as a dispensation of Providence that he has in His wisdom given your daughters brains enough to take a position in life superior to that you, possibly, have ever been able to fill." In consequence of the liberal advantages offered in dentistry to artists, scientists and students, we to-day, as a profession, stand almost alone in the realization of our imagination, the equal of any, the superior of almost any other specialty in point of success. But because of the fact we must not permit the thought to become lethargic and assume an attitude indifferent to our surroundings. For, if we stop to sleep, others with that assiduity of purpose and labor will excel us in their pursuits, while we then will assume a position of mediocrity. Man is too often deluded with false ideas of great- ness; to cease to labor is a dead-lock to progress, and to stop thinking, but another form or name for imbecility. During the last two decades the im- proved methods, larger range and more exact style of inquiry, and the assistance and hints which one branch of study has given to others has produced the most satisfactory results. The inquiries are 2 80 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL not yet complete; they seem on the contrary to have only commenced, and promise ultimately to satisfy all the useful purposes and legitimate curi- osity of the many spectators. Kind advice can be found in Dr. John S. Marshall's address recently delivered before a class of dental students. He said: "Knowledge proved and classified becomes science. The sciences underlie the intelligent practice of all the professions; consequently, to be educated for a profession means that you shall have knowledge of those sciences upon which it is based, and upon which it must depend for its intel- ligent practice. The dental student who com- mences his practice with the idea of obtaining his degree with just as little expenditure of time and energy as is possible under the rules of the insti- tution with which he is connected, will make a dismal failure of both student and professional life. Justice will repay him in the same coin to the very last decimal, and in the same spirit with which they were meted out by him during his student days." The doctor continued by saying: "To be suc- cessful in any profession in these times the indi- vidual must be well grounded in the fundamental sciences that underlie the superstructure of special professional knowledge; he must begin at the very foundation stones, and step by step go over every OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 28 1 principle taught until he arrives at a correct under- standing of their application and their individual and mutual relationship and dependencies." Thus, cherishing these well-worded sentiments, and knowing full well that you, too, agree with these worthy remarks, I began the history of dental prosthesis with the study of the subject at the very foundation stone, and step by step have gone over every principal taught. To perfect yourself in this branch should be an upper thought of mind, and in order to accomplish this you will have no easy task, for, as Dr. Harris says, "Prosthetic dentistry constitutes by far the largest and most difficult part of dentistry, and thus makes it a distinct branch of the Art of Medi- cine and gives to it the power to add, as it does to health, comfort and the enjoyrnent of life." As regard the benefit derived from an histori- cal review of dental prosthesis, such as I have earnestly endeavored to portray, I am of the same mind as Dr. Patrick, who once said: "I have been of the opinion that there is a growing desire in our profession to be more conversant with the ancient as well as the modern history of dentistry in its several departments — that there is a conviction that the literature of dentistry has been neglected. It is to be hoped that the time is not far distant when our profession everywhere will be convinced that the importance of becoming more intimately -2 82 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL acquainted with the researches and the views enter- tained on the subject of dentistry by some of the most intellectual men the world has ever produced. It is to be hoped that the profession will see the advantages and necessity of a dental encyclopaedia or summary of dental knowledge; not a system, but a work that would rescue valuable purposes relative to dentistry that are now resting in com- parative obscurity in the archives of dental society, and that are now in a manner lost to the profes- sion. One great advantage the profession would have in the possession of such a work would be, that when a new theory is advanced, it could be tested by comparing it with doctrines of a similar nature advanced in former times. Certainly every age should profit by the experience of the preced- ing one; but without a record of history of what has been accomplished, each investigator com- mences a new series of trials and wanders over the same ground in research of truths which have long ago been discovered. The views of our prede- cessors may be justly regarded as beacon lights set up to guide our footsteps from pitfall of error. "'^ One of the most gratifying evidences of the progress of modern dentistry is the ever increasing interest manifested in historical research and study of the various branches of the science. The pro- fession is gradually comprehending that the proper ♦Dental Revieu-, voL III., p. 436. PLATE III Specimens of Modern Dental Art. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 285 way to learn lessons of wisdom for the uncertain future is, to give immediate attention to events of the past. All down the "long avenues of time" the voice of the departed are calling, giving us words of warning to avoid the errors which wrecked their successes and attempts. But how can we prevent a similar sad fate for our cherished plans and sail free from threatening perils if we heed not the advices of our forefathers, and remain ignorant of their accomplishments and the general status of our profession. I confidently hope that those of you who have earnestly followed my remarks on the evolution of dental science will have enjoyed as much pleasure, and reaped a similar volume of information, as I have in the compilation of these historic facts; and I trust that my words shall have awakened in you the latent admiration for the profession, that you will from now on earnestly and persistently labor to "establish for our chosen profession a land- mark" among all sciences and vocations that future generations, instead of yielding but reluctant con- fidence, will then pour forth a full measure of respect and devotion. 286 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL APPENDIX. Japanese. — His excellency, the Japanese Min- ister at Washington, explains that it was formerly an almost universal custom in Japan for women to signify their marriage by blackening their teeth. There is a tradition that the practice was intro- duced by the wife of a famous Tycoon, who thus destroyed her beauty as a token of devotion to her lord and master. The tradition is silent as to the husband's sentiments at thus exchanging a beauti- ful bride for an ugly wife. Another origin for this strange custom, which at first prevailed with both sexes, is supposed to have been the contract of the people of Japan with the natives of Annam, who chew the betal-nuts and leaves for the purpose of discoloring their teeth. This effect the Japanese were said to have imitated by other means. Whatever the origin, the custom has now almost disappeared except among old fashioned people and in remote parts of the Empire.* *The author is obliged to Dr. J. Littlefield, who has charge of the S. S. White Dental Manfg. Co.'s exhibit at the Columbian Exposition, for the above information. A grand display of Japanese dental instruments and workman- ship can be seen at the Chicago branch of the S. S. White Dental Manufacturing Co. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 287 288 A work has recently been issued in the Japan- ese characters on operative dentistry by the emin- ent Japanese dentist Dr. J. Watanabe of Tokio. The Japanese have also a dental' journal published in native characters and is issued in Tokio. American. — The following are appended, to more fully complete the list of dental journals: Southern Journal of Medicine and Dentistry. Published in 1853-1854. Brown's Dental Advertiser, Cincinnati. Edi- tor, J. M. Brown, 1854- 185 5. New York Dental Journal and Reporter, New York City. Editor, F. H. Norton. 1 858-; 860. Dental Science and Quarterly Art Journal, New York City. Editor, A. P. Merrill. 1875-1876. Odontographic Journal, Rochester, N. Y. Edi- tor, J. E. Line. 1879 ^. The Dental Brief, St. Louis. Editor, F. T. Grimes. 1881-1882. The Western Dental Journal, Kansas City. Editor, J. D. Patterson. 1886 . The Southern Dental Journal and the Dental Luminary have consolidated under the name of the Southern Dental Journal and Luminary. Editor, H. H. Johnson. Published at Macon, Ga. Errata. — Hippopotami instead of hippotami; line 4, p. 44. Deutsch instead deutch; foot-note, p. 91. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 289 Josiah instead Jossiah; line 21, p. 169. Licentiate instead scentiate; line 20, p. 154. Charge instead chare; line 21, p. 179. One million instead 100,000; line 23, p. 194. Maryland Dental College is defunct; line 9, p. 216. Jefferis instead Jefferies; line 20, p. 218. Chase instead Case; line 4, p. 230. Luminary instead Summary; line 3, p. 231. The Dental Record was edited by F. W. Leonard and was discontinued in 1882; line 28, p. 231. Kimball instead Kimble; line 21, p. 233. 290 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL VALEDICTORY REMARKS. 'The dental profession has established and pro- longed the reign of beauty; it has added to the charms of social intercourse, and lent per- fection to the accents of eloquence; it has taken from old age its most un- welcome feature, and length- ened enjoyable human life far beyond the limit of the years when the toothless and pur- blind patriarch might ex- claim: — I have no pleasure in them." — Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 291 NAME INDEX. Abbott, 214. Achiles, 118. Adams, 32, 222. Adkinson, 204. ^gineta, 32. JEglG, 88. ^sculapius, 70, 71, 75, 79, 85. ^tius, 29, 65. Aguilar, 163. Albacasis, 65. Alcock, 192. Alexander the Great, 27, 78. Alexander, Ptolemy, 29. Allen, 195, 212, 222, 223, 227, 268. Allport, 229, 238, 239. Ames, 218, 220. Amrou, 29. Anderson, 36, 59. Andree, 141. Andrieu, 142. Andreae, 159. Andromache, 81, 91. Angear, 222, 233. Ann, Queen, 151. Anthony, St., 85. Apius, 141. Apollonia, St., 85. Apollo, god, 75. Arcagathus, 90. Arculaus, 94. Aristotle, 27, yj, yS. Aristocrates, 81. Argus, 87. Arnold, Gen., 175. Arthur, 210. Ashton, 232. Aubeau, 142. Aurelius, 79. Aurivillius, 141. Austen, 211, 212. Austin, 218. Auzebi, 141. Avicenna, in. B Bailey, 220, 221. Baker, 216, 225, 227. Bandy, 211. Barnes, 82. Bartleson, 215, 221. Barrett, 95, 96, 97, 222, 223, 230, 231. Bates, 79. Bauhinus, 141. Baume, 158. Bean, 158. Beaupreau, 141. Beers, 230. 292 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Beggs, 152. Belzoni, 36. Bell, 212. Bennett, 203, 233. Bentley, C. E., 204. Berdmore, 147, 148, 149, 151, 164. Bethel, 231. Bing, 203. Bishop, 216. Black, 234. Blandy, 228. Blake, 145. Blakeney, 232. Blumenthal, 157. Blundell, 152. Boice, 202. Bond, 211. Bondwill, 202, 262. Bostwick, 224. Botot, 141. Bourdett, 141. Bratti, iii. Brasseur, 142. Brauer, 144. Brendel 141. Brewer, 66. Bridges, 227. Briggs, 67. Briarious, 87. Brophy, 188, 217. Brown, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 286. Buckingham, 212, 213. Buel, 25. Bunon, 141. Burdell, 224. Buttner, 26, 222. Byrd, 231. Caesar, 29. Cali, 163. Calvert, 213. Canidia, 88. Carabelli, 32. Carleton, 99, 151. Carman, 202. Carpenter, 50, 220. Carstens, 163. Cascellius, Sy. Case, 203, 218, 230. Cartwright, 152. Catching, 231. Caulk, 232. Celsus, 89, 91, 92, 93, 121. Cesnola, Gen., 58. Champier, 122. Chance, 151. Chandler, 215. Chauliae, 94. Charon, 99, 100. Chase, 214, 287. Chewning, 224. Christensen, 163. Chupein, 233. Cianchi, 163. Cicero, 79, 88. Cigrand, B. J., 11, 14, 72, 219, 233. Clark, 215, 228. Clarkson, 218. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 293 Clawson, 222. De Chemant, 135, 136, Clayton, 216. 140, 141. Clement, 28, 94. Delebarre, 141. Clendenen, 218, 219, Delannay, 143. 233. Dembrest, 55. Clifford, E. L., 233. Demosthenes, 200. Colson, 142. Dennis, 220. Cook, 212. Despre, 141. Cone, 211. De Vigo, 94. Copus, 122. Dewey, 220. Cooper, 170. Dexter, 30, 35, 64, 65, Cosmas, St., 1 13. 71, 75, 78, 80, 81, CouUiaux, 163. 88, 92, 149, 164, i6s, Courtois, 141. 166, 167, 168, 169, Coyk, 211. 173. 176, 179, 181, Cravens, 216. 183, 184, 212, 216, Cransius, 141. 225. Crawford, 221. Discorides, 68, 121 Creighton, 36, 229. Diocletian, 81. Crenshaw, 220. Dwindelle, 214. Crissman, I., 219. Domitian, 89. Crito, 81. Dott, 163. Curtis, 147. Dubois, 143. Cumme, 141. Dunglison, 'jd. Cushing, 217, 220. Du Chaillu, 67. Duchateau, 139. D Duchmin, 141. Daily, 216. Dunn, 219. Dalrymple, 213. Dunning, 214. Damain, 242. Dupont, 141. Damianus, 113. Du Pre, 241. Demetrio, iii. Duval, 36, 42, 66, 68, Darby, 213, 217. 75> 89. Dasti, 204. E Davenport, 219. Davis, 202. Eames, 60, 62, 214, 215, Debarre, 140. 232. 294 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Ebers, 32, 37. Ebu Sina, 68. Edwards, 219. Elliot, III. Ellis, 214. Erasistratus, 78. Estes, 228. Essig, 213, 217. Euclid, 28. Eustachius, 123. Evans, 88, 202. Fallopius, 123. Fauchard, 126,135,140, 141. Faught, 232. Field, 222, 231. Fillebrown, 215. Finney, 212. Finot, 141. Fitch, 224. Flagg, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 224. Fleurimon, 141. Follett, 215, 216. Foster, 202. Fouchon, 141. Fouke, 229. Foulon, 173. Fowler, 142. Fox, 123, 145, 147, 152, 168. Frank, 141. Franklin, 229. Frederick, King, 157, Frederick, 215. Freeman, 217. Frick, 162. Fronzi, 140, 141. Fuller, 214, 215, 228, 232. Gaddens, 221. Gailland, 142. Galen, 29, 68, 81, 92, 93, 1 1 1, 121, 1.22 Galla, 88. Gamage, 175. Gamliel, 42. Gardett, 167, 173. Gargantua, 66. Garretson, 213. George, Kings, 1 14, 1 16, 148, 164. Germanus, St., 85. Geraudly, 141. Gilles, 141. Glaubrecht, 157. Goldstein, 159. Goodyear, 195, 196. Gorgas, 211, 216, 218, 227. Gould, 85. Gray, 221. Griffs, 56. Greenwood, Clark, 168, 174, 175- Greenwood, Isaac, 168, 174- Greenwood, John, 168^ 174, 175, 176, 177. 179, 180, 181, 188. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 295 Griswald, 221. Grun, 141. Guearard, 139. Guilford, 214. Gunther, 122. H Hacker, 217. Hagenbut, 122. Haines, 59, 99, 102, 119. Hall, 215, 219. Handy, 211. Hamelton, 150. Harlan, 142, 143, 233. Harper, 215. Harris, 23, 35, 141, 168, 173, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211, 212, 218,225,226,227,281. Harrison, 152. Hartung, 221. Haskell, 11, 195, 218, 220. Haven, 218. Hawley, 233. Hay, 202. Hayden, 167, 169, 181. Hayes, 233. Head, 233. Heider, 158. Hemard, 135, 141. Herbert, 85, 147. Herodotus, 28, 30, 32, 35, 36, 60, 63, 71. Herophilus, 29, 78. Heslopp, 141. Hill, 222. Hilscher, 141. Hippocrates, 65, 68, 71, 72, -Ji, 74, 75, 76, TJ, 1 1 1, 120, 122. Hitchcock, 215. Hockey, 153. Hodgkins, 212. Hoff, 216. Holmes, 1 14, 227, 231, HoUiday, 231. [290. Homer, 70. Horace, 88. Houghton, 230. How, 202. Howard, 223. Howe, 219. Hubbard, 221. Hudson, 182. Hunt, 218. Hunter, 116, 123, 145, 146, 149, 150, 195, 202, 212. Hurlok, 147. Hurty, 216. Hygia, 75. Hypatia, 28. I Imber, 42. IngersoU, 218. Innocent, 94. Irving, Washington, 15, Iszlai, 163. [288 Jackson, 220. 296 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL James, 224. Jantsch, 159. Jefferis, 183, 218, 287. Jehuda, St., 43. Jeron, 157. Johnson, 204, 217, 221, 229, 230, 233. Johnson & Lund, 194. Johnston, 35. Josephs, 198. Josse, 141. Joubert, 94. Jourdan, 141. Judd, 214, 215, 230. Justi & Sons, 188, 194. K Kave, 122. Keep,. 215. Keech, 216. Keith, 215. Keightley, 85. Kettig. 219. Kells, 215. Kerr, 49. Kimball, 233, 287. Kingsbury, 30, 34, 35, 65, (^T, 214. Kingsley, 28, 214, 243. Kirk, 142, 152,229,233, Knight, 216. [276. Koch, 160. Koecker, 184, 185, 224. Krauterman, 157. Lafayette, 166. Laf argue, 140. Land, 202. Landerer, 79. Lawrence, 202, 216. Lazuer, 222. Lecania, 88. Lecluse, 141. Lees, 221. Lefaule, 150. Lelius, 88. Lemair, 141, 166, 167, 169, 173. Leonard, F. W., 287. Leonicenus, 122. Leslie, 228. Leutin, 158. Levy, 84. Lewis, 22, 147, 230. Line, 286. Litch, 213. Littig, 214. Littlefield, 284. Logan, 136, 202. Longbotham, 223. Louis, King, 114, 115, 116. Lucy, St., 85. Ludwig, 203. Lund, 229, 230, 233. Lydston, 233. M Mackall, 203. Maclay, 176. Magill, 21. Marcus, St., 85. Marshall, 219, 220, 256, OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 297 280. Martial, 87, 88. Martin, 232. Maury, 125, 158. Matter, 28. Mary, Queen, 1 14. Marvin, 214. Maynard, 211. Mayr, 231. McCabe, 59. McCurdy, 227. McDaugall, 216. McKellops, 7, 142, 15: 233- McLain, 215. McQuillen, 213, 229. Mellersh, 35. Menavius, 66. Mensue, 156, 158. Mellotte, 203. Metrodorous, 75. Meyer, 1 15. Middleton, 62, 63. Miller, 159. Mingledorff. Mohamed, 6y. Moffatt, 215. MoUyneaux, 212. Momier, 141. Monte, 122. Morton, 35. Morgan, 217. Morrison, 215. Moses, 41. Mouton, 141. Mudd, 214. Munson, 232. N Nedden, 158. Newman, 218, 232. Nicholi, 144. Nicodemi, 162. Norman, 221. Nortan, 228. North, 233. Noyes, 216, 217. O O'Connor, 85. Oliver, 217, 231. Omar, 29. Origen, 28. Ottofy, 142, 152, 204, 233. Ottolengui, 204, 233. Overfield, 224. Ovid, 95. Palmer, 231. Parmly, 205, 206, 224, 226, 227. Panaca, 75. Pare, 123, 134, 135. Parkhurst, 185. Parkinson, 151. Pasch, 158. Patence, i 59. Patrick, 32, 72, 75, 85, Paul, 42. [282. Pawelz, I 59. Parreidt, 159. Payne, 68, 72, 120, 122, 229. 298 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Peabody, 219. Peale, 192. Pearson, 230. Peebles, 214. Pergamus, 78. Perreterre, 142. Peterman, 158. Pierce, 204, 213. Piggott, 227. Pike, 232. Pitt, 175. Plantou, 192. Platschick, 163. Plough, 224. Plutarch, 102. Poeller, 85. Pope, 14. Porter, 221. Pliney, 84, 86, 90. Prittie, 222, 233. Q Quincrot, 143. Quinet, 142. Rabelais, 66. Randall, 183. Read, 33. Redard, 162. Reese, 217. Renan, 59. Rhazes, 68. Rhymer, 152,153- Ricci, 141. Richardson, 202, 217, 242. Richmond, 202. Richter, 159. Rigdon, 232. Rivers, 214, 215. Rix, 219. Robinson, 152,253,220, 222. Robbins, 221. Roberts, 219, 229. Rochambeau, 173. Rodgers, 49. Rohe, 231. Rolliu, 142. Romola, 1 11. Ross, 217. Ruspin, 147. Russell, 221. Sabine, 134. Sagana, 88. Sage, 232. Saran, 142. Saunders, 152. Seel, 163. Schmedicke, 158. Schmid, 162. Shakespeare, 96, 273. Sharp, 43. Shattuck, 222. Sherwood, 1 1. Sheridan, 151. Sibley,. 194- Simon, 28. Singleton, 221. Sinitzin, 163. Skinner, 223. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 299 Smith,34, 212, 213,214, 219, 221, 227, 228. Snowdin, 228. Spalding, 230, 232. Spencer, 1 17. Spooner, 224, 225. Stafford, 158. Starr, 203. Steel, 82, 100. Stellwagen, 213, 214. Stevens, 142. Stevenson, 233. Stockton, 192, 227. Stolper, 158. Storey, 232. Sudduth, 220, 233. Swain. 220. Taft, 95, 142, 152, 212, 216, 227, 233. Talbot, 95, 97. Tandinier, 173. Taylor, 212, 227. Tees, 229. Thailkill, 231. Thais, 88. Theon, 28. Thomas, 202, 219, 222, 233- Thompson, 153, 204, 220. Tiberius, 92. Timaeus, 147. Toland, 228. Tomes, 152. Tover, 147. Townsend, 212, 213. Trenor, 224. Truesdell, 232. Truman, 153, 213, 217, 233, 277. Tuller, 147. Turnefort, 66. Tyson, 229. U Ulrich, 216. Underwood, 232. Urban V., Pope, 94. Van Antwerp, 212. Van Der Belen, 144. Van Der Maessen, 144. Valentine, 144. Van Marter,6o, 95, 104, 105, 106. Van Rhyn, 103. Vesalius, 123, 144. Virgil, 89, 95. W Wagoner, 230. Walker, 71, y6, 90, 222. Walkins, 221. Walton, 160. Wardle, 214. Warren, 39, 233. Washburn, 28, 30. Washington, 166, 177 179, 180, 188, 192. Watling, 216. Watson, 166, 167. 300 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Watt, 157, 231. Webb, 202. Webster, 200. Weden, 229. Weeks, 220. Weiss, 162. Welchens, 230. Welch, 186, 231. Wello, 107. Weston, 202. Westcoat,2ii,2i2,2i3. Wetherbee, 216. White, 193, 194, 227, 229. Whitelock, 169. Whitmore, 219. Whistlar, 222. Wildman,i93, 213, 229. Wilkerson, 231. William, King, 1 14. Williams, 202, 230. Willard, 232. Wilson, 220, 222. Winder, 21 1, 212, 216 Wood, 229. Woodward, 214. Woofendale,- 147, 149 164, 165, 200, 223. Wright, 260. Young, 230. Ziegler, 229. OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 301 SUBJECT INDEX. A ^sculapea, family of, - *' snakes, 77 86 Additional Bibliography, Arabian, 69 ' Chinese, - 50 Egyptian, ' Etrurian, - 40 109 * Grecian, 83 * Hebrew, - 44 * Japanese, * Phoenician, 57 63 * Rise and Fall, 124 " " Roman, _ lOI Alexandrian Library, 27, 28, 29, 30, 65, 78, School, 79,9 1,92 28 Amalgam fillings, Etrurian, American College of Dental Surgery, Cyclopaedia, 27, 30, 35, 46, 56, 62, 63, 64, 71, 72, 78, 82, 85, 86, 93, 9, 58, 77> 94, 108 219 99, American Dental Art, 113, 164, 114 289 1 Association, 21 " Journal of Dental Science, 35, 82, 168, 182, 204, Ancient dentures, 35, 36, 39, 42, 48, 50, 52, 65, 'iZ, 92, 102, Ancient fillings, cement, _ - _ clay, - - - 206 105 80 302 THE RISE. FALL AND REVIVAL A ncient fillings, gold, 35, 37, 38, 79, 80, 81, - 90, 92, 94, 98, 99, 108, 152 lead, - 3 7, I 52, 171, 174 lime, - - - 80 silver, - > - - 81 thriac, - - - 91 " " wax, - - 65 ** instruments, dental, - 36, 37 '* tooth-brushes. - - 66 '' women-dentists. - - - 39 Arabian Bibliography, Additional, - 69 Dental Art, - - 64-70 Colleges, - - 64, 65 Aphaerisis, dental, - - 22 Archives of Dentistry, 30, 32, 35, 75, 76, 104 Art, Dental, Arabian, 64-70 ' American, - - 164-300 ' Austrian, - - - 162-164 ' Chinese, - - 46-51 Dutch, - - 143-145 ' Egyptian, - - 27-41 ' English, - - 145-155 Etrurian, - - 102-1 10 ' European, - - 123-164 ' French, - - 134-143 * German, - - 155-162 ' Grecian, - - 70-84 ' Hebrew, - - 41-45 ' Japanese, - - 51-58 ' Phoenician, - - 58-64 ' Rise and Fall of. - 1 10-124 * Roman, - - 84-102 ' Scythian, - - 60-63 ' Fall ofDental, - II 0-125 * Revival, " - - 1 10-125 Artificial dentures, brass, - - 36 ( ( *' copper. - - - 53 OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 303 Artificial dentures, gold. 36, 39. 43. 135. 176 ' '* iron, 55. 177 ' " ivory, 36 , 53, 65, 88. 135, 176, 177. 178 ' " silver. - 43, 135 steel. - 55 ' " stone, 53 * " wood. 36, 53 * teeth, bone. - 37. 48 ' " brass, - 36 ' " ebony, - 157 " gold. - 43 * '' ivory, 37, 44, 48. 53, 60 ' *' silver, - 43 * " wood. 37, 39, 44, 53, 55, 89 Artist, dental. - 235 Aust rian Dental Art, 162-164 B Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, 182, 205, 207, 21 1, Barbers and dentistry, 102, iii, 113, 114, 115, I 16, I 17, 1 18, 1 19, 120, 123, - 113, 114, 115, 117, 119, Bathers and dentistry, - - 113, Bibliography, Additional, Arabian, ' Chinese, - Barber-surgeons Egyptian, Etrurian, Grecian, Hebrew, - Japanese, Phoenician, Rise and Fall Roman, Bone dentures. 65, 88, 223 134 134 123 69 50 40 109 83 44 57 63 124 lOI i6r 304 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Bone teeth, . . _ 3^^ ^g Blacksmiths and dentistry, 11 1, 116, 117, 118, 123, 147 Brass artificial teeth, - - - 36 Bridgework, - 60, 102, 104, 105, 136, 202 Britannica, Encyclopaedia, 27, 46, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 68, 71, 72, -jj, 78, 82, 84, 90, 93^94,99, 113, 114. 116, 122, 169 British Journal of Dental Science, - 35, 79 Odontographic Society, Trans., - 35 C Canadian Dental Art. - - - 80 Cement fillings, ancient. - - - 80 Chinese Bibliography, Additional - 57 Dental Art, - - 46-51 Celluloid dental base-plate, - - 196 Century Dictionary, - 21, 22, 23, 28 Clasp, gold, . - . ^-j^ 88, 89 Clay fillings, - - - - 81 Columbian World's Fair,- - 17, 23, 60, 98 Council of Tours, _ _ _ 93^ 113 Cosmos, Dental, 10, 21, 28, 30, 35, 49, 55, 56, 64, 65, 6-], 6S, 75, 79. 80, 88, 89, 91, 92, 95, 96, 104, 118, 140, 149, 150, 151, 157, 159, 162, 171, 203, 261, 267, 268, 275 Crowns, - - - - 136, 202 Demorest's Family Magazine, - 55, 180 Dental Aphaerisis, - - - 70 Advertiser, 50, 166, 168, 173, 181, 182, OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 305 Dental Advertiser, 166, 168, 173, 181, 184, 185 ' Art, Arabian, 64-70 ' '* American, - - - 164-300 * ** Austrian, 162-164 ' •' Chinese, _ . _ 46-51 '* Dutch, - 143-145 *' Egyptian, - 27-41 ' *' English, 145-155 ' ** Etrurian, 102-110 ' *' European, 123-164 - Fall of 1 10-125 * '' French, 134-143 * '' German, _ . - 155-162 * ** Grecian, 70-84 ' '' Hebrew, _ - - 41-46 * ** Japanese, 51-58 ' *' Phoenician, 58-64 * *' Revival of - - 110-125 ' '* Roman, - . . 84-102 ' '* Scythian, 60-62 Dental Colleges: ■ Alabama College of Dental Surgery, 222 American " " *' - 219 Baltimore, *' 182, 205, 207, 211, 223 Boston Dental College, 215 Buffalo University, dental department, 222 Columbian " " ^' 223 Dental Hospital of London, 154 *' " and School of London, 154 Detroit Dental College 222 Denver University, dental department, 220 Dublin Dental Hospital, - 154 Ecule Dentaire de Paris, - 143 Edinburg Dental School, - 154 Exter Dental Hospital, 154 306 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Dental Colleges, continued : First Dental School of Vienna, - 162 Glasgow Dental School - - 154 Guy's Hopital Dental School - - 154 Harvard University, dental department, 215 Homeopathic Hospital College, - 220 Indiana Dental College, - - 216 Institute Odontolechnique, - 143 Iowa University, dental department, - 218 Kansas City Dental College, - - 223 Kentucky University, dental department, 219 King's College, dental department, - 154 Lake Forest University, dental dept. , 217 Liverpool University, dental department, 154 Maryland Dental College, - - 216 Maryland University, dental department, 218 Meharry Dental School, - - 221 Michigan L^niversity, dental department, 216 Minnesota L^niversity, dental department, 220 Missouri Dental College, - 214 National Dental Hospital College, - 154 New Orleans Dental College, - -215 New York Dental College, - 223 Northwestern College of Dental Surgery, 218 " L^niversity, dental dept., 214 Ohio Dental College, - - 212 Owen's College of Dentistr}-, - 154 Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery, 213 L^niversity, dentel dept., 217 Philadelphia College of Dental Surgery, 212,213 Plymouth Dental School, - 154 Queen's College, dental department, - 154 Royal College of Surgeons, - 154 Edinburg, 154 Southern Medical College, dental dept., 219 Tennessee University, dental dept., 221 L'nited States Dental College, - 222 OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 307 Dental Colleges, continued : University Dental School, - - 220 Vanderbilt University, dental dept., 217 Western Reserve University, dental dept., 224 Dental Depots, - - - 194, 199 " Education, - - 204, 223 Dental Journals: American Dental Review, - 228 " Journal of Dental Science, 225, ** " 227, 229 Oral & Dental Science, 233 " *' and Library of Dental Science, - 226 Annurie Generale Desdenteste, - 142 Archives of Dentistry, - - 230 " - - - 153 ( ( ( < _ _ 2 "^2 British Journal of Dental Science, - 152 Brown's Dental Advertiser, - 288 Canadian Journal of Dental Science, 230 Caulk's Dental Annual, - - 232 Centralblatt fuer Zahnheilkunde, - 159 Chicago Medico-Dental Bulletin, - 233 Cincinnati Dental Lamp, - 228 " Medical and Dental Journal, 232 Correspondenz Blatt fuer Zahnaerzte, 188 " pei Dentisti, - 162 Dental Advertiser, _ - - 230 Brief, - - - 288 Circular and Examiner, - 229 Cosmos, - _ - 229 Eclectic, - - - 232 Enterprise, _ _ - 228 Headlight, - - 231 Instructor, _ . - 229 Intelligencer, - - 227 3o8 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Dental Journals, continued: Dental Jairus, Journal, The, Luminar}-, Mirror, " and Brooklyn Visitor, ^Messenger and Visitor, Monitor and Quarterly Miscellany, News, _ . _ Observator, and Oral Science ^lagazine, Office and I>aboratory, 229, Practitioner, Quarterly, _ _ - Record, . _ _ « < _ _ _ Register, _ . > Reporter, Review, _ _ _ Science and Art Journal, Student, and Surgical ^Microcosm, Times, Times and Advertiser, Tribune, Visitor, World, Dentist Himself, Dentist's Beacon-Light, Der Zahnarzt, " Zahnaerztliche Bote, - *' Zahntechnische Reform, Den Norske Tandlaegeforenings, 231 233 231 227 230 233 227 227 228 230 228 230 230 232 229 153 231 227 228 153 232 233 288 232 233 229 228 233 227 233 233 231 158 163 OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS^ 309 Dental Journals, continued: Deutsche Monatschrift fuer Zahnaerzte, i 59 Dominion Dental Journal, - - 163 Facts, - - - - 232 Family Dental Journal, - - 228 Family Dentist, . - - 228 Forceps, . _ _ _ 228 Gazette, Odontologique de France, 142 - - 142 Health and Home, _ . . 232 Herald of Dentistry, - - 231 Houghton's Dental Annual, - - 230 Independent Practitioner, - 231 International Dental Journal, - 231, 233 Items of Interest, - - - 231 Johnston's Dental Miscellany, - 230 Journal of British Dental Association, 153 " fuer Zahnheilkunde, - 159 L'Art Dentaire, ... 142 L'Avenir Dentaire, - - 143 Le Cosmos Dentaire, - - - 142 Le Monde Dentaire, - - 142 L'Odontologie, _ - . 142, 162 Le Odontoloxia, - _ . 163 Le Progress Dentaire, - - 142 La Progress Dentistico, - - 163 La Reform Dentistico, - - 163 La Scienza Dentaire Revista, - 163 Merritt's Dental Messenger, - - 228 Messager Odontologique, - 163 Missouri Dental Journal, - - 230 Nordisk Kvartalskrift, - - 163 New England Journal of Dentistry, 231 '' York Dental Recorder, - 227 Journal, - - 288 Odontographic Journal, - - 288 Odontascop, . - - - 163 3IO THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Dental JoiLvnalSy continued: Oesterreichesche Vierteljahrsschrift, 162 Ohio State Journal of Dental Science, 291 Pacific Dental Journal, - - 232 Practical Dentist, - - 228, 232 People's Dental Journal, - - 229 Pennsylvania Journal of Dental Science, 230 Quarterly Journal of Dental Science, 152 Revue International, - - 143 ** Mensuelle des Maladies, - 142 " Odontalgia, - * - 142 " Odontologique de Bruxells, 145 Belgique, - 145 Schweitzersche Vierteljahrsschrift, 162 Semi-Annual Dental Expositor, - 228 Skandinavisk Tidskrift, - - 163 Southern Dental Examiner, - - 229 *' *' Journal, - - 229 *' '* Luminary, - - 187 Southern Journal of Medicine and Dentistry, 288 St. Louis Dental Quarterly, - 230 Journal, - ^231 Suboviachebny Vestnick, - 163 Texas Dental Journal, - - 232 Tidskrift for Tandlaeger, - - 163 Vicksburg New Era, - - 230 Vierteljahrsschrift fuer Zahnkuenstler, 159 Vulcanite, _ _ _ _ 229 Western Dental Journal, - - 288 Zahnaerztliches, Wochenblatt, - 159 Zahnaerztlicher, Almanach, - - 158 Dental Periodicals, _ _ - 225 Prosthesis, definition, - - 21 " derivation, - - 22 ** implication, 21, 22, 23 ** pronunciation, - 24 ** syntax, - 2 1, 22, 23, 24 OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 3II Dental Prosthesis, syllabrlcation, - 23, 24 Dental Prothesis, - - 21, 22, 23 Dentists' Art, . _ . 257 Dentists, Women, ancient, - - 39 Dentistry and Bathers, - - 113, 123 " Barbers, 102, 1 1 1, 1 13, 1 14, 1 15, *' '' 1 16, 1 17, 1 18, 1 19, 120, 123, 134, 147 ** Blacksmiths, 1 1 1, 116, 117, 118, 123, 147 ** Cobblers, - - 123 ** Jewelers, iii, 116, 118,119,120, 123, 162 Priests, 72, 73, ^6, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 93, 104, 113 " Science, . _ _ 257 " Fall of, - - 16, 1 10 " made a profession, - 116 " Revival of - - -no Dentures, bone, - - 65, 88, 161 gold, - - 36, 39, 134 ivory, 36, 65, Z'^, 135, 176, 177, 178 iron, - - - 53, i77 silver, - - - 135 stone, . - . 53 Dunglison's Dictionary, - - - 21 Dutch Dental Art, . _ _ 134-145 Ebony artificial teeth, - - 151 Edict, '* tooth for teeth," - - - 41 Education, dental, _ _ _ 204, 223 Egyptian Bibliograpey, Additional, - 50 Dental Art, - - 27-41 " " profession, - - 34 " " schools, - - - 32 312 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Egyptian dentures, artificial, - 35, 36, 39 fillings, gold, - 35, 37, 38 lead, - 37, 152, 171, 174 Encyclopaedic Dictionary, - 21, 23, 28 English Dental Art, - - 145-155 " Hippocrates, - - - 145 European Dental Art, - - 125-164 Etrurian Bibliography, Additional, - 109 '' Bridge work, - 95, 102, 104, 105 " Dental Art, - - 102-110 Exposition, Columbian World's, 17, 23, 60, 98 Fall of Dentistry, - - ^6, 11 0-125 Father of Modern Surgery, - 147 Fillings, ancient, amalgam, - - 108 " " cement, - - 80 clay, - - - 81 '' gold, 35, 37, 38, 79, 80, 81, '' 90, 92, 94, 98, 99, 108, 152 lead, - 37, 152, 171, 174 lime, - - 80 silver, - - - 81 •' *' thrice, - - 91 wax, - - - 65 French Dental Art, _ _ _ 134-143 German Dental Art, . - _ 1155-162 Gold clasps, - - - 6y, 88, 89 dentures, - 36, 39, 43, 135, 176 fillings, 35, 37, 38, 79, 90, 92, 94, 98, 99, 108, 152 foil, - 140, 141, 171, 172, 174 leaves, - - - - 156 Grecian Dental Art, _ _ _ 70-84 OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 31 3 God of Medicine, Goodyear Rubber Company, H Harvard Dental Company, Hebrew Bibliography, Additional, Hebrew Dental Art, Historical Review, Hygiene Prosthetic, Illinois State Dental Society, Introductory Remarks, Independent Practitioner, Instruments, *' dental, ancient. International dictionary. Iron artificial teeth. Items of Interest, 10, 28, 30, 35, 39, 42, 115, 116, 119, 137, 138, 176, 177, 186, 277 Japanese Bibliography, Additional, - 57 Japanese Dental Art, - - 51-58 Jewelers and Dentistry, iii, 116, 118, 119, 120, 123, 162 Johnson & Lund, - - - 194 Johnston's Dental Miscellany, - 35, 67, 149 Journal of British Dental Association, 82, 89 Lead fillings, - - 37, 152, 171, 174 Library, Alexandrian, 27, 28, 29, 30, 64, yS, 79. 91, 92 - 70 196 _ 194 - 44 41-46 - 16 22 21 16 99, 103, 104 07, 108, 161 37 - 21 53, 177 314 THE RISE, FALL AND REVIVAL Lime filling, _ _ _ Logan Crown, Lost Art, dentistry, 80 - 136 109, 1 10, 125 M ^Magazine of American History, Mechanical Dentistry, - . Medical practice prohibited, Temples, Medicine, god of, Missouri Dental Journal. 177. 179 264 90 72, 84, 85, 104 70 - 114. 119 N New York Dental Journal, 37, 38, 80, 94 o Odontographic Journal, - - - 30 Penalty, surgeon's, - - - Sy People's Encyclopaedia. 27, 30, 46, 47, 62, 64, J2, yS, 113 Library of Information, - 28, 30, 35 Periodicals, dental, Phoenician Bibliography, Additional, Bridgework, Dental Art, Phrenological Journal, Pivoting teeth. Porcelain Art. _ _ _ '* Bridgework, Dental, Powder, tooth, Priesthood and dentistry, 72, 73, y6, S^,, 84, 85, S6, 8y, 93, 104, 113, 123 _ 225 63 59. - 58 71. y6, 95 ;-64 90 201. 202 198, 199 136 80, 135 81 OF DENTAL PROSTHESIS. 315 Prohibition of medical practice, _ 90 Prosthesis, dental, definition. - 21 *' '' derivation, 21, 22 , 23 ** " implication, 2i , 22, 23 24 •' '* syntax, - 21 , 22, 23 , 24 •* '' syllabrication, - 24 '* " pronunciation, - 24 " vis. Mechanical Dentistry, - 264 Prothesis, dental, - 23 24 R Remarks, Introductory, - 16 Review, Dental, 10, 30, 32, 49, yz, 75. 85. 282 Review, Historical, - 16 Revival of Dental Art, 1 10- 125 Roman Bibliography, Additional, - lOI *' Dental Art, 84- 102 8 Salutation, _ _ _ - 15 School, Dental, Egyptian, - 32 Scientists, dental. - 235 Scythian Dental Art, 60-63 Sibley Dental Company, - 194 Silver artificial teeth. - 43 " dentures. - 135 '' fillings. - 81 Speakman Dental Company, - 194 Surgeon, Barber, 113, 114. 115, 117, I 19, 120, 134 Surgeon's company, - 114 Surgeon's penalty. - 87 Surgery, Doctor of Dental, - 210 St. Louis Dental Quarterly, - 50 Steel artificial teeth, - 55 Stone artificial teeth, - 53 3i6 THE RISE, FALL AXD REVIVAL Teeth , artificial bone, 37, 48 •' *' brass, 36 ( ( *' copper. . 53 << *♦ human. - 60 * i ( < iron. 53, 177 i < (• ivory, 37, 44, 53, 60, 72, 127, 151 i ( ( < silver. _ _ _ 43 « t i < steel, - 55 ( i ( « stone, - - 53 i i " wood, 37^ 39^ 44. 53, 55, 89 Tooth brush, ancient, - 66 i « for tooth,' ' edict, - - 41 < ( powder, ancient, 80, 81 Tours , Council of, - 93, 113 Vulcanite, first, 195 W Washington's artificial dentures, 176, 177, 178, 179 *' letter to dentist, - 180 Wax fillings, - - - - 65 Webster's Dictionary, - - - 21 Western Dental Journal, - - 35, 166 W^hite, S. S., Dental Mnfg. Co., - 194, 286 W'ilmington Dental Mnfg. Co., - - 194 Women dentists, ancient, - - 39 Women's Dental Association, - - 276 Wooden artificial dentures, - - 36 teeth, 37, 39, 44, 53, 55, 89 World's Columbian Exposition, - 17, 23, 6c UNIVERSITi' OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. ■ 2 19S7 ikoU MAY 1 6 RBCB MftR 2 1969 Otb :A. URECl BMA^iSilBl977 'ay 2 7 RtC'O MED LIB FEB 2 8 1988 Mf\Yin57|iFEB011989 ^^y^a-- MAR 05 1989 810ME0. LIB. ^o^jLV— |(^^j5^5 (F6439s8)4939 J^..r^^^ Ill III nil mill II I 3 1158 01236 4757 m mm