music liL 
 
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 'Y OF ILLINOIS 
 
 fNE 1908 
 
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THE NIBELUNGEN OF WAGNER 
 
 BY 
 
 KATHERINE ALBERTA W LAYTON 
 
 THESIS 
 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the 
 
 Degree of 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 IN GERMAN 
 
 IN THE 
 
 GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 JUNE 1908 
 
Copyright 1909 
 By the University of Illinois 
 
^ 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 £) 
 
 Preface 
 
 Introduction 7 
 
 1. Rheingold n 
 
 2. Walkuere I9 
 
 3. Siegfried 3I 
 
 4. Goetterdaemmerung 4g 
 
 Conclusion , 7q 
 
 Vita. 
 
 73 
 
 239407 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The following chapters are from a somewhat more exten- 
 sive study made by the writer on the general subjects of "The 
 Nibelungen of Wagner, Fouque, Raupach and Hebbel."' The 
 work was started under the advice and direction of the late Pro- 
 fessor Gustav E. Karsten. When his untimely death deprived the 
 writer of his help, Professor O. E. Lessing undertook the task of 
 adviser, and the work was finished under his direction. The wri- 
 ter is indebted also for help to Professor N. C. Brooks and Dr. 
 •Joseph Wiehr. 
 
 Katherine Layton. 
 
^ 
 
' /) 
 
 '^^: 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Tho the literature upon Wagner's Nibehingen Ring is so ex- 
 tensive that it seems almost preposterous to add anything more, 
 yet we find that most critics have approached it in the spirit of 
 worshipers or of bitter enemies, or if they have chosen a niore 
 moderate course have not, as a rule, made the minute examina- 
 tion of details that I have attempted. Some critics approach 
 the subject from the standpoint of mytholog}' and praise or con- 
 demn everything from that point of view. Others consider the 
 central thought of the story and accept the incidents as bearing it 
 out, without always considering whether that is really the case 
 or whether the means to it are dramatic or epic in their mode of 
 development — or even consistent from any point of view. 
 
 Drews' metaphysical interpretation is ingenious and on the 
 whole impartial. He recognizes the combined influence of Feuer- 
 bach, Hegel and Schopenhauer (as Lichtenberger represents his 
 view of life as a combination of optimism, pessimism, Greekism 
 and asceticism) and notes consequent discrepancies; but on the 
 whole he regards Wagner as a marvelous intuitive philosoplier. 
 He reduces the characters to mere abstract terms, however, ^at- 
 tempting to justify the drama from the standpoint of philoso- 
 phy with more or less success, but his arguments do not justify 
 the Tetralogy as a work of art, nor do his explanations make the 
 characters more appealing, it seems to me. 
 
 Chamberlain {Das Drama Richard Wagners p. 113) in- 
 sists upon the dramatic progress of the tragedy of soul, but while 
 he explains some passages very well, he hardly seems to me to 
 make clear the dramatic progress of the whole. If the drama is 
 not one of action, nevertheless, those actions that occur sliould 
 be consistent with the characters and with each other — witli the 
 general plan — instead of keeping ns in chaos. His explana- 
 
 'cf. Der Ideengehait von Wagner's Ring des NibeJungen. 55-56 ff. 
 
 (131) 
 
8 
 
 tion of musical motivation (pp. 104 '5) as also that of Laviguac, 
 stM'iiis to mo to be merely (Icsci-ijitive without exi»lainiiig the 
 "how" — it is coiitemporaneoiis with the action and docs not show 
 a causal relation, tho it may j>roduce atmosphere or perhaps call 
 up a series of ])ictures. I refer to such a series of motifs as: 
 "jealousy," 'fear" or the "curse motif" (cited by Lichtenberger, 
 J). 331*, in h'ichtinl Wagiicr als Dichtcr und Denkcr) introduced, 
 for example, upon Siegfried's arrival at court, which furnishes 
 only a kind of romantic motivation, or atmosphere. 
 
 Without any preconceived notion of what the result was to 
 be, I have tried to examine the details minutely to see what the 
 investigation would bring forth. ^ly point of view lias been pure- 
 ly that of dramatic development, excluding any ccmsideration of 
 music — a jxiiut of view that may seem unfair to Wagner but 
 grants, nevertheless, his musical genius. Some critics admit that 
 his work has not literary value aside from the music, but not all 
 critics do so, and Wagner himself in his EinlcHunq zu ciner Vor- 
 Icsung der Goetterdactnmerunr/ wished to submit it to the tests 
 of a piece of literature, or rather even of a drama. 
 
 I have tried to be as objective as possible, attempting to de- 
 cide whether Wagner really attained tht results he desired. I 
 have not read into the operas things contained in mythology- or 
 elsewhere or accepted things as dramatically justifiable because 
 they are in mythology or form a ]>art of Wagner's philoso])hy, 
 ivithout having sufficient reason or organic development within 
 the drama itself. Adverse criticism has in cases been i)ainful to 
 me, but I have not avoided it, if it seemed the fair (me. After all, 
 Wagner's fame rests, or should rest, upon his music rather than 
 up<m his literary efforts. As a i)erfectly uncritical reader, some 
 years ago, before the Northern mythology was at all familiar to 
 me. I perused the Tetralogy as a story and felt that some new 
 sources of iiifoi-niatioii concerning the old story in the Xilniinu/cn 
 fJrd were opened to me. I found the muxe and sunny character 
 <»f Siegfried particularly pleasing and the rcdation between Wotan 
 
 (132) 
 
and Briinnhilde lending new charm and comprehension to the 
 story. I was at that time, however, often baffled in interpreting 
 or following the development of the story, and find the same fact 
 is true after close study of the dramas and considerable reading 
 of mythology and of critics. If, however, the work is to stand 
 as an effective drama, it should do so without necessitating resort 
 to mythology or any outside research. It should not lack clear- 
 ness and simplicity — consistency. 
 
 The test that I have applied for the most part lias been that 
 of dramatic motivation, without consideration of other poetical 
 or non-poetical qualities. By motivation I mean the dramatic 
 development of action and of character from cause to effect, with 
 the interdependence and interaction of character and circum- 
 stances or events, requiring the characters to be a logical or con- 
 sistent development, or at least to seem psychologically probable. 
 The action must spring from the characters. It may, for example, 
 be a matter of doubt whether Siegfried is always as naive as his 
 environment would lead one to expect. We find also tliat Wag- 
 ner resorts to miracles or to the interference of a god when the 
 desired results cannot be developed from the course of events or 
 from the characters. Perhaps you may say that a god can make 
 things to suit himself, but the actions of a character should seem 
 natural if the character is to seem human or lifelike; and the 
 character of Wotan is inconsistent. 
 
 Tho Wagner said that the music was to express in another 
 way that expressed in the Avords, yet we find that his conception 
 of motivation placed a heavy burden upon music. He mistakes 
 a series of '^'Motive" for motivation, tho he protests that it it is not 
 necessary to be logical but that he reaches the same end through 
 direct appeal to the feelings. This substitution destroys the val- 
 ue of the Ring as a drama. Schiller, in liis preface to theBraiit 
 von Messina gave to the chorus the function of expressing reflec- 
 tion, as in the Greek drama, to lead the hearer from the specific 
 to the general and by comments on past and future to teach the 
 
 (133) 
 
10 
 
 lessons of wisdom. W'jiiiiici- i^ocs farllicr, liowt'Ncr, tliaii this ami 
 devolves u]»on iiist luiiienlal iiiiisic the function of motivation it- 
 self as well as relleeti(tn. In his preface ( \\'erke IX, ]). 'MV.l) he 
 siiys: "Die Mnsik ist es nnn, was nns, indem sie nnahliissijj; die 
 innersten .Motive del- llandlnni; in ihrem veizwei<;ten Zusam- 
 menhan^e nns znr Mitempfindnnj; l)rin<»t, zujijleicli ermachtij^t 
 ehen diese Handhing in drastischer llestimmthoit vorznfiihrcn : 
 da die Ilandelnden fiber ilire Ueweujiriinde im Sinne des reflok- 
 tirendeu T.ewnsztseins sich iins nicht anszns])i'echen liabon, jjje- 
 winut liiei'durcli ihr Dialojjj jeno naive Priizision, weldie das 
 walire Leben des Dramas ansmaclit, Ilatte die antike Traj^iidie 
 hierjiejien den dramatischen Dialog: zn bescliriinken, weil sie ilin 
 zwiselien die Chor^esimj^e, von (liesen losiietreunt, einstrenen 
 muszte, so ist nnn dieses nrprodnktive Element der Mnsik, wie 
 es in jenen, in der Orchestra anspjefiihrten, Gesangen dem Drama 
 seine lioliere r>edeutnn,u' gab, nnabgescmdert vcmi Dialog im 
 moderneu Orcliester, dieser gniszteu kiinstlerischen Errnngen- 
 schaft nnserer Zeit, der Handhing selbst stets znr Seite, wie es, 
 in eineni tiefen Sinne gefaszt, die Motive aller Handhing selbst. 
 gleichwie in ihrem Mntterschooze verschlieszt." Frinn this, as 
 from his change of original coucei)tion and i)laii of the work, re- 
 sults in part, no donbt, Wagner's lack of clearness to the average 
 hearer, though it mav be a matter of doubt whether in some cases- 
 the ideas in his own mind were clear or consistent. 
 
 (134) 
 
11 
 
 Rheingold 
 Scene I. 
 
 In the first scene of Wagner's Rheingold the motivation of 
 action and character is consistent, the one interacting upon the 
 other. The sensual Alberich gazes at the alluring Rhine maids 
 in their play and is anxious to gain possession of one of iliem. 
 In their playfulness and contempt for him they like to tease him, 
 and they rouse him to such fury by their final spurning that he 
 is in the mood for the renunciation of love. On the other Imnd 
 the vehemence of his pursuit puts the maids off their guard and 
 makes them careless of their secret since they mistake for love 
 his sensual passion — or, indeed, have that conception of love. 
 That the dwarf himself should make a distinction, as lie does, be- 
 tween love and lust is perhaps rather much to expect of his char- 
 acter. However, he is clever enough to do so, even if he has not 
 the nobility we should expect of one who understands love in its 
 higher sense. Tlie final disclosure of the secret is motivated by 
 Alberich's spiteful contempt of their treasure as E. v. Hagen 
 points out. ^ In a bit of pique, or rather to impress the dwarf and 
 make him feel what he is foregoing, the maids tell the secret in- 
 trusted to them by their father: "Der Welt Erbe/ Gewiinne zu 
 eigen,/ wer aus dem Rheingold/ schiife den Ring,/ der maszlose 
 Macht ihm verlieh'." 
 
 I can hardly agree with Meinck's answer (p. 27) ^to Julian 
 Schmidt's objection. '^Schmidt says, "Das Wunderliche ist, dasz 
 der Ring sein Versprechen gar nicht halt : er soil den AYeltbesitz 
 garantieren und garantiert niclit einmal seinen eigenen Besitz," 
 etc. Meinck's answer is this : "Es wird also dem aus dem Golde 
 gefertigten Ringe eine we it hohere Bedeutung beigemessen, als 
 
 ^Die erste Scene cles Rheingold. pp. 59-66. 
 
 -The references to Meinck are to Die sagemvissenschaftlichen Grtmdla- 
 gen unless otherwise stated. 
 
 ^Preuszische JahrMicJier 1876, p. 428. 
 
 (135) 
 
12 
 
 dem (lolde selber, da deiii Scliinit'd dcs Kleiiiodrs die hochste 
 Maelit uiid die Weltlierrschaft in Aiissielit gcstellt wird. Aber 
 woliljreiiuMkt : liloss in Aussiclit j^estellt, niclits welter," etc. To 
 iiic, however, it seems a plain statement of fact. It accords willi 
 Wa^niei-'s own statement in Xih(liin(/('iini//fliii.s, p. 15(1, 'and his 
 letter to Liszt, November 20, 1851, wliere he qnotes the maids in- 
 directly. The imi>r«)bability of the acbievenjent of tbe power 
 is due merely to that of the making of the ring. "Der Vater sagt' 
 es/ und uns befahl er king zn hiit<*n/ den klaren Hort,/ dasz 
 kcin Falscber der Flut ihn entfiilirte," etc. 
 
 Tbis additional evidence would prevent tbe supplying of a 
 uohl that, as Dr, Karsten suggested to me, we migbt perbaps 
 otberwise suppose to be omitted in tbe second line tbr(>ugb poetic 
 license. We can bardly regard tbis revelation as in the nature 
 of an oracle, eitber, from tbe real grief of tbe maids upon tbe 
 loss of the gold — at least tin}/ have understood tbe statement as 
 true and tbeir father would bardly bave bad any motive in de- 
 ceiving tbem. Katber, be lias wisbed to impress tbem witb tbe 
 importance of tbeir watcb. Tbeir own sincerity as far as this is 
 concerned is evidenced by tbeir concern tbruout tbe drama; for 
 tbe empbasis is always placed upon tbe restoration of innocence. 
 Fricka's reproacb : "Von dem Wassergeziicbt/ mag icb nicbts 
 wissen :/ scbon mancben ]\Iann/ — mir zum Leid — / verlockten 
 sie bublend im Had," can bardly destroy tbeir integrity as far 
 as tbeir trust was concerned, especially in as mucli as Fricka 
 speaks at a time when sbe is anxious tbat tbe treasure sball come 
 to the gods. Tbat tbe statement does not seem in keeping witb 
 saga does not disprove it. l^^'or Wagner does not always trouble 
 himself to be true to saga — nor migbt tbat always be necessary — 
 and tbe very point I wish to emphasize is tbat be is not always 
 true to bis idea — does not always give us a coherent connection. 
 
 Tbis i)romise, however, would not necessarily apply to the 
 other po.ssessors of tbe ring (tho it migbt), since only Albericb 
 
 'References to Wagner's works are to the Oesammelte Schriften und 
 Dichtungen. 3. Aufl. Lpz. 1883. 
 
 a36) 
 
13 
 
 produced it, thru the renunciation ; only lie fulfilled the condition 
 for making it. That Alberich never gained this power must re- 
 main a fault in the carrying out of the motivation. On the other 
 hand the destruction that followed in the wake of the ring did 
 not follow from this cursing of love but from the curse placed 
 upon it by Alberich. Some motivation for this destruction is, 
 however, present here in the fact that here Alberich makes dis- 
 tinction between love and desire and is not debarred from the 
 possibility of a son. This destruction, however, would have been 
 inevitable any way to all of the enemies of Alberich in as much as 
 Alberich was desirous of world power and would have overthrown 
 them if he had kept the ring (by enemies we understand the pos- 
 sessors of that power which Alberich was seeking). According to 
 this the fall of Wotan would not rest entirely on his own lust for 
 power but would be from a more external cause — unless it be sup- 
 posed that Wotan's sin, and consequent weakness, is a step in 
 the fulfillment of the promise of Alberich. That this may be one 
 conclusion is supported by Alberich's speech (sc. 3) : "mit gold- 
 'ner Faust/ euch Gottliche fang' ich mir alle !/ Wie ich der Liebe 
 abgesagt,/ Alles was lebt/ soil ihr entsagen:/ mit Golde ge- 
 giert,/ nach Gold nur sollt noch ihr gieren." 
 
 Scene II. 
 
 The motivation of the second scene as it works out in the 
 subsequent progress of the play is not easy to understand, and it 
 may be open to doubt as to whether it was clearly conceived in 
 Wagner's mind. At any rate he fails to be coherent. We have a 
 bewildering crossing of motives that operate part of the time and 
 part of the time fail. 
 
 At the opening of the scene we find Wotan dreaming of a 
 castle that has been built by the giants — a castle that he has de- 
 sired in order that he might gain power, and that Fricka has de- 
 sired in order that she might keep her wayward husband at home. 
 To gain this power Wotan has, thru the advice of Loge and rely- 
 
 (137) 
 
14 
 
 iu«j; upon liiiii for i"nis(nii, (*n(l;mji:«*nMl tlip (Joddoss of Love and 
 Youth and thru her the exist enee of the <i(,(ls. Now that tlie 
 structure is in readiness, however, we h^ani (hat Wotan had no in- 
 tention of beinj; true lo Iiis contract and upon contract his ]»ower 
 and security rest: "NVas du hist, Inst du nur durcli Vertrai^e:/ 
 bedun^en ist,/ wohl bedacht deine Macht,'" Thru this act, tlien, 
 Wotan finds liiniself on the way to destruction whatever the turn 
 of attairs. If he is untrue to contract he destroys confidence in 
 himself, arouses enmity and b>ses ])ower : "all deinem Wissen 
 fiuch' ich,/ riiehe weit deinen Frieden," says Fasolt ; and Fricka : 
 "Sieh, wie dein Leichtsinn/ lachend uns alien/ Schinipf und 
 Schmach erschuf.'' If, on tlie other hand, Wotan jiives up the 
 pfoddess, he sacrifices immortality. -Here then lies the curse u])on 
 the god, for his fate is apparently already sealed without the 
 curse of the ring. The situation, however, brings him into sub- 
 jection to the curse, in tliat he must turn about him for a way of 
 escape and in so doing seeks the very thing that will bring his 
 ruin: illegitimate gain. It is not because of but thru the cursed 
 ring, then, that he is to come to grief, unless some preventing force 
 is brought to bear. (Wagner says in his letter to Koeckel, Jan. 
 25, 1854, that *'Alberich and his ring would have been i)owerless 
 to harm the gods had they not themselves been susceptible to 
 evil.") 
 
 On the otiier liand, (|uite aside from his own predicament, 
 it seems necessary that \V«>tan sjiould gain the ring. Loge tells 
 the gods of Alberich's renunciation of love, of his successful fcu'g- 
 ing of the ring and consecnient ability to gain power over the 
 vrorld. The gods, therefore, as well as the giants see their om n 
 safety threatened: "Zwang uns alien/ schiife der Zwerg/ wiird' 
 ihm der Heif nicht entris.sen." Meinck (p. 27) says that Loge's 
 statement: "doch, ward es zum runden/ Keife geschmiedet,/ 
 hilft cs zu h(')(list('i- Maclil,/ gewinnt dem Manne die Welt,"/ is 
 not to be trusted because of Loge's treacherous character. Why 
 then does Loge advise the return of the ring to the Khine maids? 
 
 (138) 
 
15 
 
 Is it because he feels sure the gods will not return it, any way, or 
 because he realizes that to do so would be futile? For in that 
 case how should Wotan satisfy the giants and regain possession of 
 Freia? Or are we to suppose that the giants would have been 
 satisfied with the gold if only the wonder-working ring were not 
 in the hands of an enemy? We can hardly accejjt that view, 
 knowing the greedy character of the giants and Fafner's remark 
 upon hearing Loge's account of the significance of the ring. Faf- 
 ner says: "Glaub' mir, mehr als Freia/ frommt das gleiszende 
 Gold:/ audi ew'ge Jugend erjagt,/ wer durch Goldes Zauber 
 sie zwingt." True, he showed himself stupid afterwards and put 
 his treasure to no use, but he would not yield an iota of his posses- 
 sion, even killing Fasolt to gain all. ^ 
 
 Scene III. 
 
 In the third scene we see the progress of Alberich's plans, 
 with his subject band collecting for him wealth. He has not only 
 the ring with which he has produced terror and subjection, but he 
 has forced the unwilling Mime to forge for him the Tarnhelm — 
 arousing the terror and envy of the smith and the desire not only 
 to be free but to be master of Alberich. In the meantime Alber- 
 ich's pride in his achievement and desire for display make him un- 
 wary even of the wily Loge whom he instinctively distrusts. The 
 latter plays upon his confidence and vanity by an assumed w<»nder 
 and incredulity and, repeating the scheme of Puss in Boots, cap- 
 tures the dwarf in the form of a toad. 
 
 The scene may perhaps be thought of as symbolical of the 
 power of gold to increase itself, the effect of successful greed upon 
 character and the unwariness that a too rapid success may bring 
 with it — a scene, however, difficult on the stage. 
 
 'cf. also Wagner's letter to Roeckel, Jan. 25, 1854: "But it is only quite 
 at the end that Wotan realizes this (that the curse can be removed only by the 
 restoration of he gold to Nature), when he himself has reached the goal of 
 his tragic career, what Loge had fortold him in the beginning with a 
 touching insistence, the god consumed by ambition had ignored," etc. 
 
 :(i39) 
 
IG 
 
 Scene IV. 
 
 In the last scene of the Vorspirl we have the ('(»inpletion of 
 the tliird, separat(Ml from it for stage reasons: Alberi( h's ransom, 
 as in I he I >i< lri<h-;an\ V6lsunga-su(/(i and l^ilda, and the con- 
 sequent curse of the ring: "Gab sein (lold/ nur — Macht ohue 
 Masz, nun zeug' sein Zauber/ Tod dem — der ihn triigt;/ Dem 
 Tode verfallen,/ feszle den Feigen die Furclit;/ des Kiuges 
 Herr/ als des Kinges Knecht:/ bis in meiner Hand/ den 
 geraubten wieder ich halte!" From a psychological standpoint 
 the curse sliould affect only the one who has provoked it, or if a 
 later owner of the gold, then this owner must hold it as a guilty 
 possession, conscious of an injustice, a wrong that he must make 
 right if he is to free from its effect. For the effect of the curse 
 can be only symbolic of the effect of guilt upon one's mind and 
 destiny. (Concerning Wotan's share in it see p. 14, 1. 13 ff.) 
 The curse of the gold recalls Phryxus' curse of the golden fleece 
 in Grillparzer's Das goldene Vliesz. ^ There, however, the securing 
 of the fleece is connected w^ith a grave crime, and the perpetrator, 
 Aietes, feels the pangs of guilt — horror from the curse overcomes 
 him. The effect of the curse thruout the cycle is c(mnected with 
 inner as well as outer struggle. The curse whicli pursues its vic- 
 tim is in harmony with the act by which the fleece is obtained or 
 with the attitude with which it is regarded because of its asso- 
 ciations (e. g. by Medea:) Wotan, according to our feeling, com- 
 mitted a wrong in taking the ring, but there is a great contrast be- 
 tween the dramatic greatness of the representation by Grillpar- 
 zer and the effect of paltryness in Wagner's scene. The same 
 difference is noticeable, too, in Wagner's representation of guilt 
 (if we accept that interpretation of Erda's appearance.) There 
 the spectator feels only the strangeness of the mystic appearance 
 and is not moved by — cannot in any way adequately grasp, — the 
 moral struggle of Wotan. The method of representation is pure- 
 ly artificial and weak. 
 
 In the latter part of the scene we have the paying of the 
 
 'For a comparison of Grillparzer's Vliesz and Wagner's Ring, see Karl 
 Ivandmann's article In the Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte, 
 1891. 
 
 (140) 
 
17 
 
 ransom in a spectacular manner, and tbe demand of tlie ring to 
 fill the last aperture in the heap, an incident based on the filling 
 of the otter skin in the Edda. Wotan refuses to heed Loge's ad- 
 monition and yields only to the warning of Erda. Her appearance 
 on the scene has been a puzzle to critics. Golther (p. 30 ) ^ says, 
 "Eine dustre, schwtile Schuldstimmung ist durch Erdas Warnung 
 in Wotans Seele gelegt." I can see only a symbolical and artifi- 
 cial representation of Wotan's worry and fear (cf. Siegfried p. 
 155) as an echo of Alberich's curse. The injunction to avoid the 
 ring is useless: "Weiche, Wotan, weiche!/ flieh' des Ringes 
 Fluch !/ Rettungslos/ dunklem Verderben/ Weiht dich sein 
 Gewinn," and again: "Ein dtisterer Tag/ dammert den Got- 
 tern:/ dir rath' ich, meide den Ring." Wotan is not avoiding it, 
 however, when he is giving in payment and its return to the Rhine 
 has been discussed (p. 14, 1. 33 and p. 15, li. 2-8.) This incident 
 serves perhaps, nevertheless, as the first thread in his later re- 
 nunciation. 
 
 For the progress of the story we have hints of further plans 
 on the part of Wotan, and hints of the approaching fall of the 
 gods and of the true intent of Loge, as also, in the lament of the 
 Rhine maids, a further impression of the effect of the theft and 
 the necessity of its return to the Rhine. 
 
 This motive of the return of the gold to the Rhine is most con- 
 fusing. In the Rheingold while we feel its necessity, it seems 
 fruitless as a means of expiation, while later we have the impres- 
 sion that it will be effective and then thru an arbitrary turn of 
 Wotan's character find that it is not. Wagner in his letter to 
 Roeckel, Jan. 25, 1854, says : "Certainly the downfall of the gods 
 is no necessary part of the drama regarded as a mere contra- 
 punktal nexus of motives. . . .No, the necessity for this downfall 
 had to arise out of our own deepest convictions, as it did with Wo- 
 tan." But should not our convictions be grounded in the play 
 itself, if the play is to have any purpose or value? 
 
 'Unless otherwise stated the reference to Golther are to Die sagegesehicht- 
 lichen Grundlagen. 
 
 (141) 
 
18 
 
 III llic iiiol i\;it ion <»f' WOtJiii's clKii-ictci-, \\';i<iiicr luis de- 
 prived the god of all dignity, of all iiisi)irati(>n of syiiipatliy. 
 There is, of course a mythological basis for his siu and wicked- 
 ness, but we should he very grateful to Wagner if he had elevated 
 the character and made it more worthy of a hero. While Odin's 
 l>lii;lit in the IJdda is ridiculous when he and Loki are held prison- 
 er for the killing of the otter, Odin does not himself descend to 
 the indignity of an}' part in the trapping of the dwarf. Accord- 
 ing to the impression given in the translations of the Edda by 
 Sinirock, Ettmiiller and others, the story does not imply any sin 
 in the killing of the (itter as such, tho to the Germanic mind it 
 njight so appeal. This interpretation is, of course, necessary to 
 the idea of Wagner's dramas. However, it is difficult to see any- 
 thing heroic in Wotan's character, such as one would expect from 
 a god or even a mortal hero who is to inspire our sympathy. He 
 \s not only wicked, but he is petty — small. He is false from the 
 beginning, grasping, indifferent to the rights or feelings of others. 
 And to attain what? A mere selfish end, without noble ideal or 
 purpose. 
 
 (142) 
 
19 
 
 Walkuere 
 
 Act I., ^cciw I. 
 
 Tbe [Togress of the draiiu), WalkuGrc, consists in tlio intr(;(li;(- 
 tion of Siegmund into the liome of Hnnding, and tlie instinctive 
 sympathy between Siegmund and Sieglinde thru tlieir common 
 suffering and thru the former's appearance of valor — for we learn 
 later that Sieglinde has been expecting a deliverer since Wotan's 
 appearance with the sword. 
 
 Scene II. 
 
 In the second scene we feel the approaching collision be- 
 tween Siegmund and Hunding from the latter's hostile recep- 
 tion of the wayfaring man and soon surmise connection between 
 it and Hunding's observation of the resemblance between his wife 
 and his guest. Our dislike of Hunding is instinctive from his 
 manner toward his guest and from his wife's unhappiness. From 
 Siegmund's account of his former life we infer that Wotan has 
 been shaping mortal affairs, is, in fact, the father of Siegmund 
 and Sieglinde. He has evidently separated the two to bring them 
 together here, after preparing his son, as in the Vdlsungamf/a 
 Siegmund did Sinfjotli, thru a life of hardship to free Sieglinde 
 from her husband. We may suppose that Wotan has arranged 
 Sieglinde's affairs, too, and thru their bond of suffering and con- 
 sequent sympathy is preparing them for their love. We, of course, 
 connect the situation with Wotan's thought at the end of Rhein- 
 gold tho we do not yet understand the connection : "Was, mach- 
 tig der Furcht/ mein Muth mir erf and,/ wenn siegend es 'ebt/ 
 leg' es den Sinn dir dar!" 
 
 The occasion for the strife between Hunding and Siegmund 
 is offered by a conflict which the latter has just had with Hund- 
 ing's kin, an account of which excites liis desire for revenge. It 
 would seem like a series of chance incidents if we did not have the 
 
 (143) 
 
20 
 
 foclino: that Wotan as dcMis ex machina is moving the characters 
 around as so many men on a chess board. For examine, it may 
 seem a chance that Siegmund has happened to seek refuge in the 
 home of his kidnapped sister and that, too, at a time when he 
 has just hapjx'ued to c(mie into a conflict witli Hunding's kin. 
 The hitter incident corres])onds, however, witii Siegmund's in- 
 stinct of i)rotection for the weak but the bringing in of so extran- 
 eous a motive now seems forced. 
 
 The story is intense and up to tliis jKnnt holds our sym])athy 
 for the unhappy brother and sister, but the motivaticm seems an 
 external and artificial matter as far as the human characters 
 are concerned. 
 
 The course of action does not grow entirely out of the char- 
 acters themselves. AVotan is adding another link to the chain of 
 sufferings he has caused, .md it arouses our disgust if not our 
 indignation against the god And why is it all necessary an v way? 
 Wotan has paid his debt, has his castle and, as we learn later 
 Fafner, having killed his brother, is idly watching his possessions 
 without threatening the position of the gods. Alberich, t(»o, is 
 helpless. It may, of course, be thought of as a part of the dwarf's 
 curse that those who do not have the ring shall desire it, that AVo- 
 tan is cursed from having had possession of the ring, that, as 
 Fafner is mortal, he must in accordance with the curse some time 
 die and then bring danger to the gods. At least they fear so : for, 
 as Loge tells us, they are blind; and Wotan tells us that fear lias 
 pos.sessed his being. To Wotan, then, this continuation of the 
 plotting seems necessary, but again his character suffers from 
 his ruthless manipulation of his creations — a course that Wagner 
 meant probably to illustrate the effect of love of gold. Wotan, 
 here, as Hebbel's god, sacrifices the individual, but not that good 
 may come to the race, merely to a personal end; or rather he 
 creates the characters for a personal end and saciMfices them when 
 they cannot serve him. 
 
 Tn his Nihelungenmythus Wagner speaks of a servitude un- 
 
 (144) 
 
21 
 
 der which the dwarfs and Alberich himself are suffering in con- 
 sequence of the ring, a servitude which it is Wotan's noble pur- 
 pose to remove by causing the return of the ring to the Rhine. To 
 that end he has been developing the human race to a high state of 
 valor. The whole situati(;n, however, seems a mere arbitrary 
 choice of purpose by Wagner without logical development or con- 
 nection. That the return of the gold to the Rhine should have so 
 sweeping an effect does not groM^ out of the nature of affairs. 
 Wagner means to illustrate the evil effect of the desire for gain, 
 but the taking away of the gain does not restore men's minds to 
 innocence, nor does a righting of wrong to the Rhine maids free 
 others (e, g. all the possessors of the ring) from any stain of 
 guilt unless all who have committed a wrong and come under the 
 curse shall desire this return of the ring. The idea seems to be 
 that the curse must fulfill itself upon all wlio have come into con- 
 tact with the ring and that Wotan must return the ring to stop 
 any further progress of the curse. ^ 
 
 Why, too, should Wotan create men to carry out his pur- 
 pose? Because he must be true to contract? But that has not 
 been his custom. In the Mythns Wagner says: "Wotan selbst 
 kann aber das Unrecht nicht tilgen, ohne ein neues Unrecht zu 
 begehen: nur ein, von den Gottern unabhangiger, freier Wille, 
 der alle Schuld auf sich selbst zu laden und zu btiszen im Stande 
 ist; kann den Zaiiber losen, und in dem Menschen ersehen die Gut- 
 ter die Fahigkeit zu solchem freien Willen." We do not as yet in 
 the drama have any feeling that Wotan is moved by such a desire 
 but connect his action with the fear that came over liim in Rhrin- 
 gold. — Has Wotan come to a realization tliat his falsity weakens 
 his power and resolved to restore confidence by turning over a new 
 
 'From a mythological standpoint, too, Wagner presents a confusing mix- 
 ture. Light (the gold in the Rhine) succumbs to darkness (Alberich) and 
 then brealts forth again (snatched from Schwarz- Alberich by Licht-Alberich). 
 Then we have a similar process again: the giant is overcome by Siegfried (son 
 of Licht-Alberich) who wins the light (gold), tho he is himself the light. 
 Then Siegfried is threatened by Hagen, son of Schwarz-Alberich, and finally 
 thrii death loses the light which is then, nevertheless, restored to the Rhine.). 
 
 (145) 
 
22 
 
 leaf? (This confidence seems to liave been lacking before bis rob- 
 ber}' of the rinj? as we see from Alberich's attitude upon NVotan's 
 arrival in Nibelheim. i lint is he any less false to contract by this 
 indirect method of breaking; it? Suppose, to(N that man does 
 restore the .^obl to the Khine — does that brinj; any credit to Wo- 
 tan or restore to him any respect? lie should now have on his 
 mind the misfortunes his instruments have had to bear to ac- 
 complish his purpose, but that, in the main, does not disturb him. 
 The situation remains as it was in the RJirinr/ohJ and there can be 
 no further development for Wotan. He is ruined if he keeps his 
 contract — for he can keep it only by dishonorable means, "durch 
 Gewalt und List" accordinc: to the Myth us as in the drama. He 
 is ruined, too, if he breaks it. This is evidently the feelinc; that 
 Wagner has when in his last version he has Wotan will his own 
 death. Even that, however, cannot convince one of any greatness 
 in Wotan's character and it does not seem there to correspond 
 with the events. It does not seem to rise from any sense of guilt 
 on the part of Wotan (in spite of Wagner's assertion of it in the 
 MifthuH) but fr<un his inability to cope with fate. On the other 
 hand the correct mood f(U' interpretation on the i)art of the 
 hearer has not been motivated, for the hearer has tlie im])ression 
 that fate at last has been successfully coped with. Hecause of 
 the emphasis laid on the return of the gold to the Rhine; e. g. in 
 Wotan's hope expressed to Waltraute, the naive reader certainly 
 feels surj)rise and disappointment at the termination. He is Xovw 
 asunder by what seems to him the incongruity of the two aims: 
 renunciatiim and rauscmi. The correct mood is to a certain de- 
 gree produced but with lapses — but perhaps this is one of the 
 cases where music motivates I 
 
 ficfue in. 
 
 In tlie last scene of (he first act of Witlkiifir we learn ^Vo■ 
 tan's immediate tho not ultimate purpose in bringing Siegmund 
 to Hunding's home: that he may receive a sword promised to him 
 
 (146) 
 
23 
 
 when lie should be in deepest distress. Wotan, moreover, has not 
 only brought the sword but has created the distressing situation 
 that requires it, — the need on the part of Siegmund and the feel- 
 ing on the part of Sieglinde that it is destined to her rescuer and 
 that the rescuer is Siegmund, as well as her feeling of sympathy 
 for his distress. As the scene progresses, however, in spite (-f the 
 charm of their unrestrained love and the pretty figure of spring- 
 lured by love, our sympathy grows less ; for, tho Hunding has re- 
 ceived Sieglinde from robbers as an unwilling wife, he is now a 
 wronged man after all, and, moreover, the brother and sister 
 knowing their relationship plight their troth. Of course, we 
 know that Wotan is back of the scene and to some critics tliat is 
 sufficient to make the scene acceptable, and they think of these 
 simply as elemental beings who follow their impulses as a matter 
 of course. They do not, however, seem to be naive enough, for 
 there is too much reflection thruout the scene. 
 
 When Siegmund is alone he meditates upon Sieglinde's ef- 
 fect upon himself, analysing his feelings ; e. g. "ein Weib sah' 
 ich,/ wonnig und hehr;/ entziickendes Bangen/ zehret mein 
 Herz." — etc. He speaks of stealing her from her husband, but 
 justifies himself because of what she has to endure. Even if we 
 are willing to accept his motive we cannot grant liim naivete. If 
 we think of him as receiving all ideas from Wotan, the motiva- 
 tion seems artificial, and he remains unnatural. Just one thing- 
 mitigates in some degree Siegmund's attitude. He has been buf- 
 feted cruelly by fortune, and from Sieglinde he receives the first 
 sympathy. 
 
 Sieglinde, too, meditates and even makes advances, but there 
 is motivation, in that she interprets the placing of the sword in 
 the tree as the promise of a hero to rescue her, and she thinks she 
 recognized Waelse, her father: fiind ich ihn heut,'/ und hier, 
 
 den Freund; / was je mich geschmerzt/ in Schaud' und 
 
 Schmach, — / siiszeste Rache/ stihnte dann Alles !..../ fiind' 
 ich den heiligen Freund,/ umfing' den Helden mein Arm I" 
 
 (147) 
 
24 
 
 Siejniiiind's nnising^s about love and sj»riug suggest that he 
 realizes their own situation and do not permit us to regard him 
 as entirely naive. He shows no surprise when Sieglinde discovers 
 their relationship, and thruout meditates ujjon the passion of his 
 love. There is, too, mutli (»f the sj)irit of following their desires 
 in spite of the situation. Sieglinde says at last: "Bist du Sieg- 
 mund,/ den icli hier sehe — / Sieglinde bin ich,/ die dich 
 ersehnt :/ die eig'ne Schwester/ gew^annst du zueins mit dem 
 Schwert !'' 
 
 And Siegmund replies: "Braut und Schwester/ bist du 
 dem Bruder — / so bliihe denn Wiilsungen-Blut !'■ 
 
 That Wagner should have put such a purpose in the mind of 
 Siegmund already, however, seems out of place, and does not make 
 the incident palatable. This truly is not the kind of love we should 
 think of as a factor in the redemption of the world. Wotan's plan, 
 however, as far as the action of the drama shows, is still a selfish 
 one. In view of so much reflection I cannot agree with Meinck 
 (pp. 191-4) who quotes also from v. Hagen:^ "der Liebe zwischen 
 Siegmund und Sieglinde ist durch den hTxhsten (Jrad der Individ- 
 ual isat ion der Walil jede Sinnlichkeit benommen," nor has Wag- 
 ner treated it so skillfully that we may excuse it thru the old na- 
 ture myth. It does not seem to me that the situation is made ac- 
 ceptable by the fact that, according to Meinck, they learn it ''too 
 late," and their heroism in saving the Wiilsungen race is not felt 
 as convincing. 
 
 Act U, Scene I. 
 In the second act we learn definitely that it is Wotan's pur- 
 pose that has lain back of the progress of the affairs of Siegmund 
 and Sieglinde, for he instructs Brtinnhilde to give to Siegmund 
 the victory. 
 
 Scene II. 
 We receive still further light u]>on the situation in Fricka'e 
 accusation and find it as stated above. Why Wotan yields to 
 'Veber d4e erste Rheingoldscene, p. 37. 
 
 (148) 
 
25 
 
 Fricka becomes now a question in our minds. Is his character 
 consistent? He says he has not been wont to disturb her in her 
 rule; but in the second scene of Rhelngold we gatlier that lie 
 considered his own desire in the building of the castle and pawning 
 of Freia first without particular regard for her feelings and again 
 (Walkuere II, 2) where Fricka says: "Die treue Gattin/ 
 trogest du stets." However, we infer that it has been his custom 
 to try to appease her : "denn dein Weib noch scheutest du so," etc. 
 Are we to regard Wotan's submission, then, as the settlement of a 
 family quarrel, in pacification of an angry wife, or does he believe 
 her statement: "Von Menschen verlacht,/ verlustig der Macht, 
 gingen wir Gotter zu Grund," etc. (This is Hunding's attitude 
 toward Siegmund, of Wotan's race, tho we have no reason to sup- 
 pose that he associates the Walsungen race with the gods.) 
 
 From Wotan's general attitude we may believe that he is not 
 troubled much about the sacredness of marriage : "Unheilig acht' 
 ich den Eid/ der Unliebende eint," but that he does wish to 
 pacify the goddess and that he perceives his deceit has been pene- 
 trated and is useless. 
 
 Accordingly he finds that Siegmund is not really the hero he 
 requires : "Noth thut ein Held,/ der ledig gottlich^n Scliutzes,/ 
 sich lose vom Gottergesetz :" etc. 
 
 The situation is certainly a painful one, but seems absurd and 
 Wotan suffers another loss of dignity to say the least (cf. also pp. 
 20-22). 
 
 Scene III. 
 
 In the next scene comes the result of Wotan's reluctant prom- 
 ise to Fricka, in that he remands his former orders to Briinnhilde, 
 betraying, however, his real desire. He reverts to past history, for 
 Wagner wrote his dramas in reverse order, in conse(|uence of which 
 we find more or less repetition. Wotan relates Alberich's curse 
 of love and acquisition of power, his own warning and his creation 
 of the Valkyries, the offspring of his so-called love, to ward off the 
 doom of the gods, his fear of Alberich if the latter should regain 
 
 (149) 
 
26 
 
 llif ring, liis feeling Ihcii of the necessity of regaining the ring 
 himself and his own ]>owerIessness, a sitnation which has been dis- 
 cussed ahuve I pj). Ll4-L'2. ) He states in somewhat different Icnns 
 his requirenicnts for a hero: ''Nnr einer diirfte/ was ich nicht 
 darf:/ ein Held, deni helfen<ly nie ich niich neigte;/ der frenid 
 dem Gotte,/ frei seiner ^'T^nst,/ nnbewnszt, ohne Gtdieisz,/ 
 aiis eigner Noth/ niit der eig'nen Welir/ schiife die That, ' etc. 
 He must find one to fight against himself — "a friendly enemy:" 
 "der in eig'neni Trotze/ der trauteste niir." Why all this limita- 
 tion should he placed upon the hero is not clear; e. g., that it 
 should be ''unbewuszt" and that he should defy Wotan himself, 
 unless that should be a means of ]»roving the hero an indei)end- 
 ent force of will and Wotan in cQusecjuence free from any addi- 
 tional deceit or guilt conce)-ning what he should do. The god ex- 
 presses his despair of finding such a hero: "denn selbst musz der 
 Freie sich schatten,/ Knechte erknet' ich mir nur I" Uut what 
 a ridiculous demand that the free man should create himself! 
 Wotan's reason for yielding has been discussed above (j). 25). As 
 another reason for his dilemma, he gives this: ''Ich lieriihrte Al- 
 berich's Ring — / gierig hielt ich das (i(dd!" Here it seems some- 
 what strange tf> the reader that the curse should hold for Wotan 
 unless he still desires the ring. That he does desire it, however, 
 follows from his fear. 
 
 In this scene we feel more symjiathy for Wotan than in any 
 preceding it, for he says: "unwissend trngvoll libt* ich Tn- 
 treue,/ band durch Vertriige,/ was rnheil barg: listig ver- 
 lockte micli Loge," etc. and ''Was ich liebe musz ich verlassen,/ 
 morden was ich je niinne,/ trfigend ven-atlien wer mir vertraut I" 
 He seems to be more sensible of his own guilt and to have more 
 sympathy for his victims. Howe\'er, his snrrendei* seems sudden 
 and weak." FrcMu the action of tli<' drama (tlio we know from 
 
 'Chamberlain (p. 106) says. "Wotan makes the resolution impulsively, 
 not philosophically and only with faulty consistency and insight carries out 
 this negation and continually int.^rrupts the course of affairs." 
 
 (150) 
 
27 
 
 the Mythus) it is not clear what Wotan means by his work — but 
 we suppose he refers to his dream of power and creation of men. 
 There is nothing here to indicate that he lias wished a dissolution 
 of the curse for any other reason than to free himself from the 
 fear of downfall, witliout any added magnanimity to tlie dwarfs 
 such as suggested in the Nibelii n gemu ytJi ii f^ , tho he has a pleasure 
 in the rearing of man. That, however, was a means to a personal 
 end. 
 
 Wotan's awaiting the end has been commented on above (p. 
 22). He says here: "was fr<mimte mir eigner Wille?/ Einen 
 Freien kann ich nicht wollen." Yet in the next drama we find him 
 rejoicing in the freedom of Siegfried. He says also: "So nimm 
 meinen Segen,/ Nibelungen Sohn !/ Was tief mich ekelt,/ der 
 Gottheit nichtigen Glanz !/ zernage sie gierig dein Neid !" In 
 the Siegfried he has passed his inheritance over to the hero, 
 who has overcome the dragon and obtained the ring: "weihf ich 
 in wiithendem Ekel/ des Nibelungen Neid die Welt,/ dem won- 
 nigsten Walsung/ weis' ich mein Erbe nun an.'' 
 
 Another puzzle is added in this scene, tho suggested in 
 Rheingold. "Wenn der Liebe flnsterer Feind/ zurnend 
 zeugt einen Sohn,/ der Seligen Ende/ silumt dann nicht!" We 
 learn that Alberich is to have this son — but just why this is to 
 have a more direful effect than Alberich's own malice is not clear. 
 It seems to be merely another case of arbitrary motivation, tho 
 perhaps Wagner meant this, as the offspring of liate, to illustrate 
 the spreading of evil. Such an aim would not be a sufficient mo- 
 tivation for a dramatic plot, however. We have no feeling of any 
 dramatic necessity. 
 
 We have in this scene some preparation for the next in 
 Brtinnhilde's attitude toward Wotan's unexpected order. She has 
 always had Wotan's will at heart (mythologically she is thougiit 
 of as the expression of his will) and has been accustomed to the 
 role of affectionate protector of Siegmund. Now, therefore, she 
 would be acting, she feels, contrary to Wotan's real will as well 
 
 (151) 
 
28 
 
 as her personal inclination — would be p;uilty, in fact, of i)erfidy. 
 She is very human in her sympathy fur forsaken valor. 
 
 Scene IV. 
 
 In the fourth scene which brings us back to the lovers we find 
 a feeling of guilt on the part of Sieglinde mingled with de- 
 light in her love and terror for Siegmund. On the part of Sieg- 
 mund we find confidence in his sword and in his role of avenger. 
 The scene is vivid, with a rapid movement befitting it — would be 
 stirring if it were not marred by the revolting situation. Our 
 sympathy stays with the lovers, nevertheless, on the whole, since 
 we feel that Wotan is responsible for their position and now, 
 whether by force or free will, has deserted them. The scene is 
 interrupted by Briinnhilde,. w^ho comes apparently expecting to 
 carry out Wotan's last command. Siegmund's devotion to Sieg- 
 linde and determination to share her unhappy h)t in preference to 
 the delights of Walhalla, however, as also the helplessness of Sieg- 
 linde win our sympathy, together with that of Briinnhilde. Now, 
 then, the Valkyria is moved by love to Siegmund. It was a love, 
 however, that was saving him for another and included pity foi 
 Sieglinde and her child.' 
 
 That Wotan's motive in yielding to Fricka was chiefly that of 
 pacification or submission to law is further shown by his killing 
 of Hunding, tho his immediate participation was made plausible 
 by Briinnhilde's contempt of his authority. The death of Hund- 
 ing is necessary for our feeling of justice, as also Wotan's, for his 
 former wrong to Sieglinde, but it is a somewhat summary and 
 convenient way of becoming rid of him. 
 
 Act III, Scene I. 
 
 The imjmrtance of the first scene of Act III in the action of 
 
 'cf. also Meinck's discussion, pp. 244-7, and Wagner's statement {Bay- 
 reuther Blotter 1881, p. 206) that she feels "sich von einem neunen, ihr 
 bisher fremden Element bervihrt, das den hehren Gleichmut in ihrer Seele ins 
 Wanken bringt. Dr. Meinck compares the incident to that in Schiller's Jting- 
 frau in which the maid spares the life of Lionel. 1 find more motivation 
 here, however, in the appeal to Briinnhilde's sympathy and in the fact that Wo- 
 tan has taught her to love the hero. 
 
 (152) 
 
29 
 
 the drama lies in the information that Sieglinde receives from 
 Brtinnhilde concerning her son's future greatness, in the preserva- 
 tion and giving to her of the broken sword and the sending of 
 Sieglinde to the forest inhabited by Fafner, for purposes of safety 
 from Wotan in a place avoided by him. We are to suppose that 
 Wotan feels disgust at the place from his inability to take the ring. 
 — This incident makes it possible and natural for Mime to come 
 to the aid of Sieglinde and have charge of Siegfried at the open- 
 ing of the following drama. 
 
 Scene II. 
 
 As a natural punishment for Brtinnhilde ( for she is no longer 
 Wotan's will since she l\as violated it) she is condemned to take 
 on !he mortal nature and fall to the lot of whoever should 
 waken her. The tragic guilt, or necessity, in Brtinnhilde here 
 seems to me to be somewhere between that of Schiller and that of 
 Hebbel. She has not a sense of guilt as, for example, Johanna 
 felt it. She felt that she was carrying out her mission even in 
 disobeying instructions and she was following her noblest im- 
 pulse of pity and sacrifice for what seemed to her a noble hero 
 and a worthy cause. On the other hand, the god's command was 
 not to be defied and by the nature of her human view and human 
 feeling she no longer fits into her surroundings nor may she be the 
 trusted servant of the god. 
 
 Wotan, of course, has a tragic guilt in the sense in which 
 Schiller conceived it, a guilt which has brought him into further 
 entanglement, so that now he is the creature of circumstances and 
 is forced to deal injustice to those he loves, as well as those he 
 has not thought it worth while to consider. He gives here the 
 impression of a more noble purpose tho it has not been intro- 
 duced before and is not now clear. When we recall the end of 
 Rheingold we may wonder whether he is not deceiving him- 
 self. Otherwise we must think that the chief growth in his char- 
 aracter has taken place ofP the stage. There has been lapse of 
 time, to be sure, to allow for this, but not even a narrative to ac- 
 
 (153) 
 
30 
 
 connt f<n' it, nor lias liis modo of n(*ti()n since his icappenranco 
 Idvpai'cd ns. Tlic new motive lo wliicli I refer is sn<;«ieste(l in the 
 lines: "So h'ichi wahntest du/ Wonne <ler Welt erwoi-hen, wo 
 hrenneiur Weh', in das llerz mil' hraeh, wo sz;raszliehe 
 
 Xoth; den (Jrimm mir schuf,/ eiuei' Well zii laehe/ der 
 Liehe C^n*'" '"' ^ecinalten Herzen zii liemmen?" Ho\v 
 does he think he is beuelilinji, the world liv the death of Sieji;- 
 nmnd? Are we to believe that he lias in his heart accepted 
 Fricka's view of the order of things, or that he foresees the events 
 and ontcome of the two following dramas? His foresi<i;ht, in tlie 
 latter case, varies iireatly, and we <lo not have the feeling that he 
 has any more inclination toward the conventional order than for- 
 merly, tho he sees himself forced to, submit to it. We may per- 
 hai)s think that he has C(mie to believe that fJiis law, or conven- 
 tion, is necessary, that he cannot esca])e it and ninst, therefore, 
 give place to others: "Wo gegen micli selbst/ ich sehrend niich 
 waudte,/ ans Ohnmacht, Schmerzen/ schiiiimend ich anfschosz, 
 etc. Concerning this attitude ccnnment has been made (]). 22). 
 
 That Briinnhilde should demand a fearless hero is in kee])- 
 ing with our conception of her and our feelings concerning her 
 deserts. Wotan's speech : "W^^r meines Speeres/ S])itze 
 ftirchtet,/ durchschreite das Feuer nie" prepares us for the later 
 encounter with Siegfried. 
 
 (154) 
 
81 
 
 Siegfried 
 
 Act I, Scene I. 
 
 In the first scene of Siegfried we find Mime forging for 
 the youth a sword, in despair, however, as Siegfried has broken 
 the preceding masterpiece. Mime has been unsuccessful in liis at- 
 tempt to weld the broken sword while (in part presumably from 
 Sieglinde's disclosure to him, tho we find in his later conversation 
 with Wotan that he knows the whole progTess of events) he feels 
 sure that this sword in the hands of Siegfried would accom])lisli 
 his purpose. That is, he hopes thru Siegfried to overcome Fafner 
 and thru him to gain possession of the Nibelungen ring (a desire 
 ar(msed in the third scene of RheingohL) That only this 
 sword should accomplish ^he deed is an arbitrary motivation, 
 taken from mythology, but has justification in that Siegfried, of 
 semi-divine parentage, should find any mortal sword too fragile 
 for his superhuman strength. 
 
 Scene II. 
 
 The second scene of Siegfried is expositional, giving us 
 the characterization of Mime and Siegfried, their attitude toward 
 each other with the reasons for it. We find that Mime has come 
 to the aid of the unhappy Sieglinde and has received into his 
 charge the infant Siegfried and the sword pieces. In the hope of 
 overcoming Fafner and winning thru the boy the power-giving 
 ring he has tried without any feeling of real affection himself to 
 win that of Siegfried. From his very lavishness and reiteration of 
 his care, however, the latter feels an instinctively strong antipathy, 
 reading his character aright, as is common among children (Dr. 
 Karsten's suggestion, in a conversation about these scenes. ) By 
 instinct they discern the difference between a real interest and a. 
 pretense. Mime has evidently fostered the lad's desire for a 
 
 (155) 
 
32 
 
 sword, a desire aroused easily because of the latter's own desire 
 for activity and dissatisfaction with his surroundings. We find 
 the voutli inipationt, boisterous, craviug deeds, feeling sympathy 
 with nature of which he has been a most interested observer. The 
 breaking of swords on the stage serves the purpose of showing 
 this boisterousness and feeling of necessity for action while the re- 
 peated failure increases Mime's chagrin and anxiety and forms a 
 contrast to the climax of the successful sword. The receiving of 
 the sword pieces and the learning of his parentage lead to Sieg- 
 fried's determination to leave Mime for a new and active life, 
 a fact which increases Mime's haste to make use of him. The 
 bear incident is episodical, tho it illustrates the lad's daring, his 
 discontent (from which springs in part his longing to be up and 
 away) and serves to increase Mime's fear of Siegfried and anx- 
 iety to make the sword. Mime's dilemma prepares for the next 
 scene. 
 
 Scene III. 
 
 The value of the third scene lies, of course, in Wotan's dis- 
 closure of the secret of the welding of the sword and his an- 
 nouncement of the death of Mime at the hands of Siegfried. This 
 scene has its prototype in the Edcla but the introduction of this 
 Germanic custom of winning shelter thru wit in giving and ans- 
 wering questions seemed to me at first to be merely episodical. It 
 does not lead to Mime's determination to kill Siegfried, for that, 
 we may suppose, he already intended for the purpose of gaining 
 the ring. However, it seems plausible to regard the scene, as Dr. 
 Karsten suggested, as preparatory to Mime's silly conduct in the 
 following scene and in the sixth scene of the second act. 
 
 That the fact "that he had not learned fear" should enable 
 an ignorant youth to forge the weapon that had batHed the skilled 
 smith seems at first glance absurd. However, it is not unnatural 
 that ]\Iime's excessive eagerness and fear at so colossal a project 
 as the killing of Fafner sliould only thwart his purpose, while 
 Siegfried's confidence comes to his aid — only the daring ones 
 
 (156) 
 
accomplish what seems impossible. Siegfried has also had some 
 instruction. The incident of Siegfried's making the sword himself 
 is doubtless suggested by Uhland, but not the requirement that 
 the swordmaker should be without fear, Tlie requirement is, of 
 course, in keeping with that of the whole career of Siegfried, but 
 the fact that it comes from outside instead of developing from 
 Siegfried's own needs and desire to surmount them seems again to 
 be rather the epic style of motivation. Whether the hero's whole 
 career is not, from the drainatic standpoint, somewhat artifically 
 motivated may be questioned; for while Wotan refrains from all 
 direct interference, do we not, nevertheless, have the impression 
 that he gives indirect suggestion, such as that to Mime and that 
 in the messages from the birds; that is, the prompting of those 
 feelings or motives in Siegfried for which Wotan disclaims the re- 
 sponsibility and which he later combats? 
 
 The fact that the hero's career is so in harmony with Wotan's 
 wishes leads us to expect their consummation in him. 
 
 Scene IV. 
 
 Frantic at the prospects of his own doom and yet eager that 
 Siegfried shall win for him the ring. Mime thinks of the plan of 
 teaching him fear in the encounter with Fafner, ostensibly to pre- 
 pare the youth to go out into the world, tho he has already said 
 to the latter: "verfallen, verlor ich's (das Haupt) an den,/ 'der 
 das Fiirchten nicht gelernt.' '' Tho Siegfried after Mime's descrip- 
 tion of it naively consents to try to learn this feeling we are not 
 to suppose him to be utterly stupid. He has no expectation of 
 learning fear, regards Mime as a mere bungler, and thinks of this 
 as only some more of his nonsense. We have in the lad an amus- 
 ing mixture of apparent boyish docility and innate antipathy, cor- 
 rect intuition — a queer but charming combination. He distrusts 
 the smith instinctively, in general, and we may feel that he has 
 in a measure understood some of Mime's stupidly open remarks. 
 He says "was er kocht, ich kost' es ihm nicht," tho, to be sure, 
 
 (157) 
 
34 
 
 his ruiitempt for his foster- fat h<'r would be suflBcient reason for his 
 attitude without auj' specific fear of Mime's treachery. We may 
 think of the lad jjs not knowing fear but nevertheless knowing how 
 to avoid harm. 
 
 The si)littiug of the anvil is merely episodical, tlio, together 
 w itii the other episodes, it gives us an impression of the youth's 
 extraordinary strength and spirit. This boistcrousness has, how- 
 ever, been relieved by his joyonsness and the tenderness of his at- 
 titude toward nature and toward his mother. 
 
 Act II, Scene I. 
 The second act presents a second meeting between Wotan and 
 Alberich. (p. T(> ) (lolther sa3's concerning the scene: "Ernst 
 und erhaben schreitet eine (Jestalt durch dies Drama, der Wand- 
 erer," and quotes Wagner's explanation: ''Wotan ist nach dem 
 Abschied von Briinnhild in Wahrheit nur noch ein abgeschieden- 
 er Geist: seiner hochsten Absicht nach kann er nur noch gewiihrcn 
 lassen,'- etc. As far as any effect, then, on the following action 
 is concerned the scene is purely episodical. We have already been 
 told, too, of Wotan's determination to lay down his work, so that 
 his attitude "zu schauen und nicht zu schaffen" affords no further 
 exposition of character. It is a question whether the god rises in 
 our esteem thru this scene, tho he no longer tries to do anything 
 in his own interest, and ostensibly his object is in a measure to re- 
 pair the wrong he has done by directing Alberich now in plans 
 that mcui aid the latter in regaining his lost property. In spite 
 of his suggestions to the dwarf, however, we feel conscious that 
 Wotan knows all the time A'hat the outcome will be and that Al- 
 berich's efforts are vain. By giving these directions, the god seeks, 
 perhaps, to clear his conscience in the matter, but with Alberich 
 we must regard him as showing his real feeling in his laugh at 
 Alberich's failure to persuade Fafner. He cannot, then, to me 
 seem so "ernst und erhaben." 
 
 It may be said that he is rightfully i)leased at the failure of 
 the power (»f evil, but why this mockery, then, of pretending to 
 
 (158) 
 
35 
 
 further its power? Is this <iUother example snch as ITebbel speaks 
 of when he says: "Es giebt Falle, wo Pfliclit-Erfiillen siindigen 
 heiszt?"^ There seems to me to be no dramatic necessity for this 
 scene, however. 
 
 If Wotan had here succeeded in returning the ring to Al- 
 berich and righting the wrong he had done, it would, of course, 
 have meant his own downfall in accordance with Alberich's pur- 
 pose of revenge. But the case would not luive been otherwise if 
 Wotan had not done this wrong, from tlie consequence of Al- 
 berich's vow, a matter which has been discussed.^ 
 
 In regard to Wotan's weakness, of which Alberich taunts 
 him, in that he is bound bv his bargains because of the runes on 
 his spear, discussion has been offered above.=^ His spear with the 
 runes must, naturally, be only symbolical of his power and con- 
 tract. A new impression is produced here, however -.^ / "was mit 
 den Trotzigen/ einst du vertragen/ dess' Runen wahrt noch 
 heuty deines Speeres herrischer Schaft./ Nicht du darfst/ was 
 als Zoll du bezahlt/ den Riesen wieder entreiszen:/ du selbst 
 zerspelltest/ deines Speeres Schaft;/ in deiner Hand/ der 
 herrische Stab,/ der starke zerstiebte wie Spreu." Does not this 
 imply that Wotan could ninv maintain his power as long as he is 
 true to the runes, provided that Alberich is not able to take 
 advantage of his inability by gaining the ring himself? If, then, 
 Alberich is circumvented at last, can we say that the plot is con- 
 sistent or logical? Has not Wotan, then, expiated by his torment 
 of mind? Do we not now expect better things of him in compen- 
 sation for his wickedness than mere surrender? Is it enough 
 simply to put an end to the curse? Do we not expect him now, 
 without the aim of his own happiness or power, to carry on the 
 work of the world? Judging from his past, however, he is perhaps 
 not capable of it, so that to rise to the height of the philosophy 
 
 'Tgb. I, 805, Friedrich Hebbel. Sfinitliche Werke. (Werner's edition) Ber- 
 lin, 1907. 
 
 -cf. on Rheingohl. pp- 12-14. 
 ■'cf. on Walkiire, p. 22. 
 "cf. on Walkiire, p. 22. 
 
 (159) 
 
36 
 
 of negation was the best he could do. Whatever philosophy Wag- 
 ner nionnt to (»xj)((uii(l, his oliief god certainly lacks virility and 
 lessens thus our sympathy with his tragic end.^ 
 
 Still another statement in the scene is worthy of considera- 
 tion : "Wen ich lieb/ lass'ich fiir sich gewahren ;/ Helden nur 
 konnen mir fronimen." This, too, produces the impression that 
 Siegfried's achievements will be of use to Wotan, tho he may re- 
 fer only to the removal of the curse. It may refer back to "dem 
 wonnigsten Walsung/ weis' ich mein Erbe nun an...."/ con- 
 cerning which Wagner says: *'Das Schopfungwerk dieses hoch- 
 sten selbst vernichtenden Willens, ist der endlich gewonnene 
 furchtlose, liebende Mensch, Siegfried." 
 
 Does it mean that Wotan intends, then, to renounce his power 
 in favor of Siegfried? — This view is held by Robert.- Toncern- 
 ing Siegmuud Kostlin-^ says Wotan's aim was "die ErAvecknng 
 eines Helden, welcher. . . .selbst aus eigenem Trieb dieses Werk 
 unternehmen wird ohne Gefahr oder jedoch jedenfalls ohne so 
 grosze Gefahr fiir die Gotter, wie sie von den Riesen sowol als 
 von Zwergeu droht" aud^ "er will. . . .bewirkeu, dasz....der 
 Herrschaftsring an einen Menchen, welcher den Gottern nicht 
 feind ist, welchem vielmehr Wotan, wenn es niclit anders mehr 
 gehen sollte, die Weltherrschaft abzutreten nicht ungeneigt ware, 
 da er seines eigenen Stanmies und Geschlechtes ist." Kostlin - 
 points out that this hero could not be a god because they were 
 all involved in the contract. It would be absurd, however, to think 
 
 •Wagner's view (in a letter to Roeckel Jan. 25, lSr)4): "Dies ist alles. was 
 wlr aus der Geschichte der Menschhelt zu lernen haben: das Notwendige zu 
 wollen und selbst zu voUbringen." suggests a similar view of Hebbel's (Tgb. 
 II, 2504) : "Der Mensch hat freien Wlllen — d. h. er kann einwilllgen in's Noth- 
 wendige!" Since, then, Wotan seems "in's Nothwendige nicht einwilligen zu 
 konnen," the only thing left for him is "die Verneinung des Willens." Wotan, 
 in accord with Wagner's view of tragic exaltation, however, goes a step farther 
 in not only seeming to will his submission but to bring on his doom himself 
 after it has been warded off, a situation that seems very much forced. 
 
 'Robert. Gustave: Philofiophie et Drame. Paris, 1907. 
 
 'Kostlin, Karl: Richard Wagners Tondranio.: Der RUig des Nibelumgen 
 p. 41. 
 
 *Id. pp. 45-46. 
 
 (160) 
 
37 
 
 of the rule of the universe as placed in the hands of a mortal. We 
 must surely think of Siegfried as AVotan's heir only in so far as he 
 takes up Wotan's work of returning the gold to the Rhine. Tho 
 Wotan did intend the later encounter with Siegfried, he did not 
 expect the breaking of his spear. We have a feeling of disap- 
 pointment on his part then — certainly no feeling of exaltation 
 in his submission to his fate. 
 
 Alberich's last speech in the scene prepares for his schemes 
 in Gdtterddmmerung: "Doch lacht nur zu,"/ ....So lange das 
 Gold/ im Lichte glanzt,/ halt ein Wissender Wacht :/ triigen 
 wird euch sein Trotz." 
 
 Scene II. 
 
 The second scene prepares for the later ones in bringing 
 Siegfried and Mime to the place of action and in Mime's vain ef- 
 forts to produce the sensation of fear in Siegfried's heart. It 
 may perhaps be a question whether Mime really wishes to in- 
 spire fear as yet since that would defeat the very purpose for 
 which he had come; on the other hand because of Wotan's pro- 
 phecy, he does hope to produce it at the same time that Siegfried 
 shall kill the monster. However that may be, whether from his 
 shrewdness or his stupidity. Mime's apparent efforts to inspire 
 fear have the opposite effect. 
 
 There is further preparation for the later scenes in Sieg- 
 fried's feeling which causes him to warn the smith to depart if 
 he values his life. His disgust at Mime becomes insupportable, 
 since the hero has learned his own parentage and made his own 
 sword, while Mime's eagerness for the ring leads the smith to 
 his death. 
 
 Scene III. 
 
 The third scene is episodical but presents again the tenderer 
 side of Siegfried's nature — his longing for his mother, (together 
 with his joy at separation from Mime) and sympathy with nature, 
 whicli prepares for his later understanding of the birds. It ends 
 with the blast from his horn which rouses Fafner. 
 
 (161) 
 
38 
 
 Scene IV. 
 Tn scene 4, Sie<::fi'i(Ml fulfills the curse iiimn Fafiier, his own 
 spirit pi'oiujjtiug him to kill the monster that threatens him. The 
 creature warns him of the curse upon the gold and of the inten- 
 tions of Mime — a warning which, tlio the youth seems to pay lit- 
 tle heed to it, heli)s to make that of the birds unnecessary. The 
 transcendental element, in that the forest bird tells him of the 
 treasure is not inharmonious with the prom])tings of his own cur- 
 iosity — his instinct to explore. (It recalls also the coiiiuninion of 
 the innocent Donatelh* — in Hawthorne's MdrhJc Faini — with the 
 creatures about him.) That Siegfried- is not influenced by the 
 bird's promise concerning the ring: "der macht ihn zum Walter 
 der Welt/" is shown by his words upon securing the booty as also 
 by his later attitude in the scene with the Rhine maids. There, 
 too, it is shown that he was conscious of the dragon's warning but 
 regarded it as part of the attempt to teach him fear. He was 
 committing no wrong and needed not therefore to fear a curse. 
 Thruout the scene he has a mixtui'c of naivete, that keeps him fr«)m 
 the comprehension of the meaning of these things, together with 
 a confidence, a self-sufficiency, that gives him rightfully the feeling 
 of indifference and security. 
 
 Scene V. 
 
 The fifth scene is merely episodical — a mere wrangling be- 
 tween Alberich and Mime regarding their respective rights to the 
 booty, and an expression of disa])]M)intmcnt at finding it in the ])OS- 
 scssioii of Siegfried. W'hih' .Mime has hope for himself, Alberich 
 merely disappears with the words: "T'ud doch seinem Herrn/ 
 soil er noch gehoren"/ — without any attempt to gain his desires, 
 another case of arbitrary motivation, it seems to me. There was, 
 however, good reason to suppose that Siegfried would not cousider 
 any assertions (►f ownership on the ])art of the dwarf, nor could 
 the latter <'ope with tin* youth's strength. 
 
 Srcnr 17. 
 
 In this scene teiror and eagerness lead ^lime, as Dr. Kar- 
 
 (162) 
 
3D 
 
 sten expressed it, to use the language of self-expression instead 
 of that of impression, or communication, as he intended, thus re- 
 vealing the very plot he Avished to conceal and bringing about 
 his speedy death. This foolishness on the part of ^lime makes 
 the warning of the birds unnecessary or only symbolical of the 
 lad's own understanding of human nature, a use of symbolism 
 quite in keeping with Hebbel's idea. 
 
 The slaying of Mime marks the third tragic ending due to 
 desire for gold, Mime meeting the same fate as Fasolt and Faf- 
 ner. 
 
 The story at this point (as also in Siegfried's obtaining of 
 ring and Tarnhelm) is epic, rather than dramatic in its manner 
 of progress, as the prompting to seek Briinnhilde has no other 
 motivation than the following of the forest bird in quest of an- 
 other adventure. The use of the symbolical again is not offensive 
 as it is in accord with Siegfried's feeling of loneliness and desire 
 for companionship — some critics call it an undefined desire for 
 love, in which case one should lay the emphasis on "undefined." 
 It does not seem natural that the inexperienced Siegfried should 
 so suddenly have so definite a desire as for a bride and tlie sugges- 
 tion from the birds is decidedly epic rather than dramatic. The 
 incident does not grow out of any previous action or plot other 
 than the impulse supposedly caused by Wotan. From this point 
 of view, what follows is a part of the Wotan-drama but it is very 
 loosely connected as far as the course of the human characters is 
 concerned — is of the same type of motivation as that in the case 
 of Siegmund and Sieglinde. 
 
 Siegfried's setting out leads, of course, to the next act. 
 
 Act III J Scene I. 
 The conversation between Wotan and Erda is purely episodi- 
 cal. It consists largely of a narrative of past events, due again 
 no doubt to Wagner's reverse order of writing the dramas. It 
 seems absurd, however, that Wotan should summon Erda at all, 
 simply to tell her of his attitude toward liis approaching doom. 
 
 (163) 
 
40 
 
 Reference has been made to his speech : ^ "Urwissend/ stachest 
 du einst/ der Sorge Stachrl/ in Wotan's wagendes Herz:" etc. 
 One critic sjieaks of it as ]»art of the result of his guilt that he 
 should be engaged in a continued vain endeavor to evade a fate 
 that he knows beforehand he cannot escape: "sage mir nun:/ 
 wie besiegt die Sorge der Gott?" The scene may i)erhaps lend ad- 
 ditional color to his despair but it adds notliing to the action of the 
 drama and for that reason even detracts from the expected concen- 
 tration of the dramatic form. 
 
 I have already discussed (p. 33) Wotan's statement: "Ein 
 kiihnster Knabe,/ meines Kathes bar,/ errang des Nibelungen 
 Ring."/ It was thru Wotan, indirectly, that it was possible for 
 Siegfried to have the instrument with which to kill Fafnor, tho 
 it is true that the youth's course of action was wholly in keeping 
 with his own instinct. The drama of gods and men is a some- 
 what complicated matter. In the preceding drama, it seemed an 
 artificial motivation to think of Wotan as giving the human char- 
 acters impulses and bringing them into conditions to suit his will, 
 while on the other hand here it seems a preposterous state of af- 
 fairs that the god should stand aside and leave the world to take 
 care of itself — tho the situation is made necessary by Wotan's new 
 attitude and his stipulation for the effective hero. It was a diffi- 
 cult problem and it does not seem to me that Wagner has solved it 
 in any convincing way, from the dramatic standpoint at least. 
 Wotan's relation to Siegfri('d reminds one of a current conception 
 of free will and divine guidance wliicli tries to assort botli, a com- 
 mon Phristian idea being that of divine guidance in man's good 
 acts — of course, as here, in accord with man's character — and 
 man's own res])onsibi lity f(/r the wrongs he commits.- 
 
 'ff. on Rhenigold. p. 17. 
 
 'It is interesting in passing to recall Hebbel's view (Tgb. I. 973): "Nicht 
 seine Wirkungen nach auszen, der Einflusz, den er auf Welt und Leben ausiibt. 
 nur seine Wirkungen nach innen. seine Reinigung und Lauterung. hangt von 
 dem Willen des Menschen ab. Er ist d'e von unsichtbarer Hand geschwungene 
 Axt, die sifh selbst schleift. Tn diesem Sinne konnte man sagen: der Mensch 
 thut sein Schlimmes selbst; sein Gutes wirken Gott und Natur durch ihn. Dies 
 Alles ist so wahr, dasz gerade, was unbewuszt als Wirkung von ihru ausgeht, 
 alles Andere bei weitem iibertriff!." 
 
 (164) 
 
41 
 Scene II. 
 
 Siegfried's conduct in the second scene is quite in harmony 
 with that of the scenes with Mime. In the earlier scenes his 
 conduct, however, was relieved by his sympathy with nature and 
 feeling for his mother, but his treatment of Wotan reminds us of 
 the common, summary treatment of vagrants — tho it was provok- 
 ed by Wotan and is in accord with the independence of the youth's 
 heroic spirit, and Siegfried's ind'ependence of Wotan is what Wag- 
 ner is trying to show. Nevertheless, his impudence and use of 
 abusive epithets help to produce a scene of low-comedy that re- 
 minds one of the degenerate type of the sixteenth century. It is 
 the more striking since — tho, of course, unconsciously — Siegfried 
 is speaking to the chief of the gods. A scene of this type is, how- 
 ever, found in Harharthsjoth of the Eclda, tlio between two gods, 
 Thor and Odin. 
 
 The encounter was prepared for at the end (^f Walkuere and 
 was commented upon above. ( cf . pp. 26 & 37. ) 
 
 The lines: "Mit dem Auge,/ das als and'res mir fehlt,/ 
 erblickst du selber das eine/ das mir zum Sehen verblieb" seem 
 to me oracular und highly absurd even from tlie point of view of 
 a myth, in spite of H. v. Wolzogen's explanation, ^ quoted by 
 Meinck (p. 88) : "Wotan erlangt das Wissen nur um die Hingabe 
 der Halfte seiner Kraft, d.h. durch seine Selbstteilung, worin di^ 
 Doppelseitigkeit seines Wesens besteht;'' etc. Meinck's own ex- 
 planation is : "dasz Wotan zur Erlangung der hochsten Weisheit, 
 seiner Gemahlin Fricka und endlich des freien Helden Siegfried, 
 der ein verjtingtes Abbild von Wotan's Wesen darstellt, ein Auge 
 dahingegeben, d.h. einen Toil seines Selbst geopfert hat." ^ 
 
 ^Bai/reuther Blatter 1878, S. 357 Anm. 
 
 ^cf. also Robert (p. 62): "La premiere faute de Wotan. es' d'avoir cesse 
 d'etre un instinctif, d'avoir voulu posseder la science," etc. Wagner in bis let- 
 ter to Roeckel, Jan. 25, 1854, speaks of Wotan's relation to Fricl^a as the "root 
 of the mstter," i. e. the fact that Wotan was susceptible to evil, and says: 
 "The necessity of prolonging beyond the point of change the subjection to the 
 tie that binds them — a tie resulting from an involuntary illusion of love, the 
 duty of maintaining at all costs the relation into which they have entered 
 and so placing themselves in hopeless opposition to the universal law of change 
 and renewal, which governs the world of phenomena — these are the condi- 
 tions which bring the pair of them to a state of torment and mutual lo\eless- 
 ness." Wagner does not develop this motivation with any clearness or con- 
 sistency, however, and Robert's interpretation would make of Wotan only a 
 blind force. Was he not following instinct when he sought reason? 
 
42 
 
 The speech seems to me, however, to have no further value 
 than to jjive the impression that this wise god knows something 
 beyond the com])relionsion of mortals. There is perhaps some at- 
 tempt to rouse symi)ath3' on the part of Siegfried, of course. 
 
 Critics have been greatly puzzled about the scene. Kostlin 
 (04) speaks of Wotan's attitude "wie wenn es ihn reute, Siegfried 
 so mjichtig werden zu lassen, ihm den Weg zu Rriinnliilden ver- 
 sperren will." Wagner himself in liis letter to Koeckel, Jan. 25, 
 1854^ says of Wotan : "In the presence of his impending destruc- 
 tion, the god has at last become completely human that — contrary 
 to his high resolve — there is once more a stirring of his ancient 
 pride, brought about by his jealousy for IJriinnhilde — his vulner- 
 able point, as it has now become. He will, so to speak, not allow 
 himself to be merely thrust aside; he chooses rather to fall be- 
 fore the conquering might of Siegfried. Rut this part is so little 
 premeditated and intentional, that in a sudden burst of passion 
 the longing for victory overDowers him, a victory, moreover, which 
 he admits could only have made him more miserable." 
 
 The speech : "Ftirchtest das Feuer du nicht,/ so sperre mein 
 Speer dir den Weg!" etc. precipitates the encounter and the break- 
 ing of his spear, by appealing to the youth's feeling of loyalty to 
 his father and consequent instinct of revenge. — The fact that the 
 youth should be able to break the spear, too, has been the subject 
 of much criticism. ^ The encounter explains itself most naturally 
 on tlie whole if we think of Wotan as having succeeded better than 
 he wished (since Siegfried's heroism excludes respect or sympathy 
 for others I and again as unable to throw off his habit of governing 
 and in his effort to prove Siegfried fearless inciting him to a dis- 
 play of disrespect that he cannot himself tolerate, causing thus the 
 encounter. 
 
 Such motivation as: ''Yerschlossen halt meine ]\racht die 
 schlafende Maid/ wer sie erweckte,/ wer sic gowiinne,/ macht- 
 los maclit' er inicli ewigl" seems to me again purely capricious mo- 
 
 'Cf. Drews (pp. 91-2). 
 
 066) 
 
43 
 
 tivation. Wotan had sunk Briinnhilde into sleep, saying that only 
 he who feared not his spear should waken her but that did not 
 necessarily involve the breaking of the spear, as this fearlessness 
 was sufficiently evinced by Siegfried's display of spirit. 
 
 Another incident that seems inexplicable is : "Es [das Vog- 
 lienjfloh dir zu seinem Heil,/ den Herrn der Raben/ errieth er 
 hier:/ weh ihm, holen sie 's ein!" What other bird is this sup- 
 posed to be, then, if not one of Wotan's birds? Or are we to look 
 upon this as an attempt to deceive Siegfried, thus putting him 
 more fully upon his own responsibility? 
 
 The hero's explanation : "Strahlend offen/ steht mir die 
 Strasze. . ./ Im Feuer zu flnden die Braut," appeals to me as too 
 rapid development to be natural (cf. p. 39). The suggestion by 
 the bird affords motivation but it does not make plausible, from a 
 dramatic point of view. It would have seemed more convincing 
 if the youth had referred to the maid in such a way after finding 
 her; for we do not think of Siegfried as a medieval knight going 
 out in search of a lady but only as a naive youth in quest of ad- 
 venture and desirous of companionship. It may, as Dr. Wiehr has 
 suggested, be a matter of wonder as to where Siegfried obtained 
 his concept of "bride." He did form the concept of "mate" from 
 the observation of birds and animals and was striving for the con- 
 cept of "mother," That would hardly explain, however, his idea 
 of a "bride." 
 
 Scene III. 
 
 In the last scene of Siegfried the light myth comes into 
 prominence and we think of Siegfried as bringing the joyousness 
 of the sunlight. The wakening of Briinnhilde is very pretty, tho 
 the scene grows later into one of sensual passion. The young hero 
 seems at first, however, to have forgotten the promise of a bride 
 and, because of the armor, thinks he has found a man. ^ 
 
 'His recognition of the fact that she is a woman may not be within the 
 limit of his experience but may be thought of as having some connection with 
 his longing for his mother and his perception that this creature, while a hu- 
 man being, is different from those he has seen before 
 
 (167) 
 
44 
 
 When he has awakened the maid, too, he believes her at first 
 to be his mother for whom he has had such hinging — a very 
 charming touch, as also the fact that he now learns fear. Such 
 reflection as in the last thought would be out of keeping with his 
 naivete were it not for the fact that this idea of his learning fear 
 has been so impressed upon him. 
 
 Briinnhilde's greeting of Siegfried as the light is pretty, but 
 her dwelling on it brings the mythical interpretation rather too 
 much into the foreground. It is, however, in accord with her own 
 mythical character and her joy over her renewed life. 
 
 Some consideration of Briinnhilde's speeches may be profit- 
 able: "noch eh' du geboren/ barg dich mein Schild:/ so lang* 
 lieb' ich dich, Siegfried !"/ and again : "Dich liebt' ich immer :/ 
 denn mir allein/ erdiiukte Wotan's Gedanke./ Der Gedanke, den 
 nie/ ich nennen durf te ; ...... weil ich nicht ihn dachte/ und 
 
 nur empfand./ Denn der Gedanke — / dtirftest du's losen — / 
 mir war er nur Liebe zu dir."/ To think of Briinnhilde, from the 
 motive of loving pity and a knowledge of Siegfried's worth, as pro- 
 tecting the unborn hero is a beautiful thought, but to speak now of 
 this love as that to a future bridegroom does not seem agreeable or 
 plausible. Rather it lowers the character of Briinnhilde. If we 
 think of her pity tlien as preparatory to her new feeling now, con- 
 necting it with her hope expressed to Wotan, it seems natural 
 enough and pleasing. It does not seem to me, however, that Wag- 
 ner was just happy in his expression here, in referring us back 
 rather to the scene with Siegmund where we were led to think, 
 as also in her confession to Wotan, that lier feeling of love was for 
 Siegmund, tho for the Walsungen race in general. 
 
 The second speech does not seem entirely compreliensible, 
 either. In the first place it would seem that Wotan's thouglit be- 
 came clear to lier before it was clear to Wotan himself (cf. Walk- 
 uere III.) as far as the means to his purpose was concerned. Only 
 in so far ns this motive for her protection and strife referred to the 
 Walsungen race in general, thus including Siegfried, to be sure, 
 
 (168) 
 
45 
 
 can her attitude seem plausible. That she should at that time, 
 semi-divine tho she was, have felt love for him as now seems pre- 
 posterous and incomprehensible. 
 
 That Brtinnhilde should resist Siegfried's love as completing 
 her isolation from and punishment by the god seems convincing 
 and awakens our sympathy. — It reminds one of the same situation 
 in Hebbel, but her struggle here while more pleasing is less tragic. 
 ■ — Knowing, however, that it is her fate to yield, she does so gradu- 
 ally but entirely, attracted by the vehemence and beauty in Sieg- 
 fried's personality. Her new feeling then becomes so intense that 
 it prepares us here for her attitude in the scene with Waltraute in 
 Gdtterddmmerung. For her wider world view vanishes: "Trau- 
 riges Dunkel/ triibt mir den Blick," etc. and her interest be- 
 comes limited and so centered in Siegfried that she becomes indif- 
 ferent to the weal of the gods, as to her own fate : "Lachend musz 
 ich dich lieben;/ lachend will ich erblinden;/ lachend lass' uns 
 verderben" etc. The motivation here is by no means clear. One 
 would be inclined to take the passage simply to mean that the 
 heavens might fall for all she cared, for she was happy in her love. 
 It seems, however, to imply that the fall of the gods is connected 
 with her yielding to love, an interpretation that seems uuAvarrant- 
 ed as far as any motivation is concerned. (Or does she refer to 
 the breaking of the sword?) There is no reason to suppose that 
 her surrender of the ring would have been more effective before the 
 death of Siegfried than it proved later. Or are we to think that 
 the prevention of Siegfried's death by her surrender of the ring 
 would have made possible a new and better era? There is no de- 
 velopment that shows that to be the case — there is certainly again 
 a lack of clearness in motivation. 
 
 (169) 
 
46 
 
 GOETTERDAEMMERUNG 
 
 Vorspiel. Scene I. 
 
 Wagner lias been criticised for the introduction of the Norn 
 scene, a scene based in part npon the Edda. The style is certain- 
 ly' undramatic from the modern point of view; for the Norns do 
 not further the action, nor do they, indeed, make it much clearer. 
 Tho more mystic than the Greek chorus, and not philosophic, 
 they })erform in a way the function of the chorus. They give us 
 the impression of the absolute certainty' of Wotan's fall, relating 
 again past events (some of them only hinted before) and suggest- 
 ing those to come. The scene is, however, more strictly a recount- 
 ing of the events of the drama than is true of the Greek chorus 
 (which rather comments upon than recounts the events of the 
 drama) and is more in the epic manner. 
 
 We have another mention of Wotan's sacrifice of an eye at 
 the well of wisdom ^ and the Norn tells of the making of the spear 
 from the Welt-Esche, a tree supposed to sustain the world. ^ Wag- 
 ner, then, has changed the myth by having the spear made from 
 the ash and connecting with this incident the downfall (►f the 
 world. — In the Edda, it is true, some connection is suggested be- 
 tween the fall of the tree and Nibelheim: "die dritte ( Wurzel) 
 steht uber Niflheim, und diese Wurzel ist Hwergelmir und Nid- 
 hoggr nagt von unteu auf an ihr."-' In Wagner, however, this 
 connection is not brought out, tho the tree falls thru Wotan. and 
 Wotan's fall is supposed to be precipitated by the robbery of Al- 
 berich, and suggestion is made of Alberich's previous distrust.^ 
 In Rheingold Wotan's guilt began earlier than his robbery of the 
 dwarf; that is, with the pawning of Freia. Now Wagner 
 breaks the unity of action further by connecting his guilt, 
 
 'cf above, pp. 41-42. 
 
 'cf. Simrock's translation of the Edda, p. 258. There we are told: 
 "n langer Zeiten Lauf \ zehrte die W'unde den Wald;" etc. 
 'Simrock's translation, p. 258. 
 *RheingoM, Sc. 3. 
 
 (170) 
 
47 
 
 or at least the ultimate cause of his fall, with the attainment of 
 his power — we were told before that his doom was due to the 
 breaking of contract, tho it really went back of that to the sacri- 
 fice of the Goddess of Love for power. The thought of the two in- 
 cidents is similar but has, nevertheless, this difference : that the 
 later incident represents an unfair acquision of power while 
 nothing of the sort is implied in the earlier (unless we think of 
 wantonness in his doing violence to the ash. Then the question 
 suggests itself, "What kind of gods were these before without any 
 power? Does an age of innocence imply that there was no need 
 of guidance?" On the contrary the runes on the spear are spoken 
 of as "Treu berath'ner/ Vertrage Runen." The making of the 
 spear, then, which insured Wotan's power, made his downfall ine- 
 vitable and its cause previous to any specified guilt. (We have 
 no reason to believe that the wound would not have killed the 
 tree even if he had been true to contract.) 
 
 The withering of the ash makes questionable the value of all 
 the struggle of the dramas ; for, since it is the "all-nourishing," its 
 fall implies not only that of the gods but of the whole world, tho 
 we do not know how long a time might elapse before that event. 
 Such is the case in the Edda, altho the new world is to arise and 
 Baldur to return. In the case of the end of the world ( and it is 
 suggested in Brtinnhilde's speech, "Enden sah ich die Welt,") 
 Brtinnhilde's sacrifice and the return of the ring to the Rhine 
 would seem to be rendered useless. If, however, we understand 
 the destruction of only the gods, as implied in the earlier speech : 
 "Verging wie Hauch/ der Gotter Geschlecht,/ lass' ohne Wal- 
 ter/ die Welt ich zurtick,"/ then the return of the gold would 
 have a value as far as Wotan's conscience is concerned in stopping 
 the progress of the wrong tho it cannot repair all the wrong that 
 was done. ^ The world has a more hopeful outlook, perhaps, with 
 the death of each one — except Alberich — who has craved the gold.^ 
 
 'cf. above p. 21. 
 =cf. below p. 67. 
 
 (171) 
 
48 
 
 The comprehension, then, of Wotau's fall depends upon the 
 epic prolog, rather than upon the development of the action of 
 the drama — an account of an incident before the drama began. 
 We may look upon his connection with Loge and subsequent pre- 
 dicaments as only a means, iKM-lmps, of liastening the catastrophe, 
 his own will then hastening it still more hy the cutting down of the 
 ash and the preparation of the pyre. (The time of Wotan's con- 
 nection with Loge is subsequent to the making of the spear.) 
 
 The connection between the curse and the end of the world : 
 "Aus Neid und Noth/ ragt mir des Nibelungen Ring:'' etc./ has 
 been discussed above (pp. 14, 17, 46). Kostlin (pp. 55/6 justly 
 objects that the fall of the gods should not depend upon a little 
 ring; that is, that the ring story should be apart of that of the fall 
 of the gods instead of the reverse order of affairs. He questions 
 the sufficiency of the guilt of the gods, having in mind the robbery 
 of the dwarf, to which he adds Wotan's subsequent course; e.g. 
 the manipulation of Siegmund and Sieglinde to afford sufficient 
 justification for the gods' doom. In part I agree with him but 
 think he has failed to notice the previous guilt in the forfeiture 
 of the Goddess of Love and Youth. With Golther (p. 34) I should 
 grant to the story a certain unity of thought — with lapses ' — in 
 that Wotau's career and downfall are in harmony with his selfish 
 desire for power and disregard of the spirit of love. I should not, 
 as Kostlin, characterize it merely as lack of proportion in the 
 two stories but rather an incongruity with facts, since Wotan's 
 fall does not really depend upon the curse. The emphasis is placed 
 there, however, by the reiterated statement of such a fact and, as 
 pointed out (p. 22) the reader does receive such an impression. 
 
 Scene II. 
 
 The epic element is again predominant when Briinnhilde 
 sends Siegfried out merely to seek new deeds. Some excuse is 
 found perhaps in the fact that this is a prolog rather than a part 
 
 •cf. p. 17. 
 
 (172) 
 
49 
 
 of the drama proper, but nevertheless, it is to be presented on the 
 stage in close connection with the rest. We find here essentially 
 a beginning rather than a motivation of events. 
 
 Another step in the ring tragedy is made, however, in Sieg- 
 fried's presentation to Brtinnhilde of the fateful ring. There is 
 also a hinted motivation for Siegfried's later misfortunes in his 
 inability to benefit by her advice : "nicht ziirne, wenn dein Lehren/ 
 mich unbelehret liesz !"/ This was characteristic of him in Sieg- 
 fried in his attitude toward learning fear, tho there his aversion to 
 Mime must have aided his resistance, conscious or unconscious, 
 to the feeling. Here, if we may judge by the older accounts as re- 
 gards the amount Brtinnhilde tried to impart, it is no wonder that 
 Siegfried felt burdened. Wagner showed good judgment in omit- 
 ting the runes, as the incident is essentially undramatic and un- 
 appealing. 
 
 Act I, Scene I. 
 
 The motives for the following action lie in the characters of 
 Gunther and Hagen — in Gunther's vanity or desire for fame, 
 which Hagen is not slow to make use of and has no doubt been in 
 the habit of cultivating : ^'deinem Kath nur red' ich Lob,/ frag 
 ich dich nach meinem Ruhm."/ Hagen's purpose is, of course, re- 
 vealed later. His knowledge of the outside world is traditional 
 tho here we may suppose him to have obtained it from his father. 
 
 The plan to win Siegfried, and thru him Brtinnhilde, is, 
 naturally, pure intrigue and redounds little to the credit of Gu- 
 trune, as w^ll as of Gunther and Hagen. 
 
 The arrival of Siegfried is motivated to a certain extent in 
 his desire to perform deeds and his apparent knowledge of Gun- 
 ther's strength. To Hagen's question as to where he is going, 
 he replies: "Zu Gibich's starkem Sohne."/ Hebbel because of 
 his different plan is able to offer a more definite motivation in 
 Siegfried's knowledge of Kriemhild's beauty and his desire to 
 win her. 
 
 (173) 
 
50 
 
 Scene II. 
 
 The second scene brings the entrance of Siegfried, demanding 
 combat or friendship. The former request seems more in keeping 
 with his character as we have seen it, tho he is supposed to be a 
 peaceful, or at any rate good-natured, hero, and in the preceding 
 drama was desirous of friendship. Their exchange of oaths 
 seems, nevertlieless, precipitate, th(^ we understand Gunther's 
 motive and are familiar with Siegfried's impetuosity: "Des 
 Schatzes vergasz ich fast :/ so schatz' ich sein musz' ges Gut !' '/ 
 may illustrate his impetuosity, tho the second line seems to me 
 rather forced. The fact of his passing such a judgment hardly 
 implies naivete, tho it shows his independence and his freedom 
 from the influence of the common opinion. Siegfried's knowledge 
 of the form of the oath, etc. implies some lapse of time and some 
 experience since his parting from Brtinnhilde, too. 
 
 The use of the potion here, to me, as to many critics, ^ 
 seems an artificial and inconsistent motivation, and is so from 
 a psychological standpoint, since the result is in immediate 
 and direct contrast to the feeling Siegfried has just expressed 
 and to his pledge of fidelity to Brtinnhilde. Wagner introduced 
 purely magic interference without any consideration of harmony 
 with character, thinking by that means to save the nobility of 
 Siegfried's character, but he does not succeed in making the 
 scene or Siegfried's character in this respect convincing. The 
 effect of the potion is, of course, not in harmony with our con- 
 ception of his character, nor does time elapse to account for 
 any change. Tlie incongruity is, moreover, made more pro- 
 nounced by the later potion. Or are we to think of Siegfried as 
 a conceited fickle fellow who can at any time change his mind and 
 become faitliless without mental ])ain or struggle? Wagner, of 
 course, does not intend us to think so. Or may we say that in 
 his inexperience or naivete he unconsciously follows the impulse 
 of the moment, unthinking as far as wrong to others is con- 
 
 'cf. Drews (p. 100). 
 
 (174) 
 
51 
 
 cerned? The return of his feeling thru the .second potion makes 
 this, too, improbable. Wagner does not trouble himself to make 
 the action grow out of the characters but contents himself witli 
 miracles. 
 
 Menick (p. 268) supports Moritz Wirth^ in speaking of Sieg- 
 fried's death as due to his failure to recall Brtinnhilde's rune for 
 the protection against magic. All that is a sufficient explanation 
 for a fairy story of epic style but does not seem to me a convinc- 
 ing motivation for a drama. As far as this circumstance is con- 
 cerned at least, Siegfried's death is due to his misfortune rather 
 than his fault, and is sad but not tragic. — Brtinnhilde says in 
 Siegfrieds Tod: "was du mir nahmst, niitzest du nicht,/ 
 deinem muthigen Trotz vertrautest du nur."/ in the final ren- 
 dering we have no attitude of disrespect for her knowledge, but 
 it would be more natural for Siegfried to depend upon his 
 strength and courage, ratlier than to try to learn a long list of 
 rules for his protection. In mythology and in Fouque we find rules 
 against magic also, advice concerning fidelity to friends and oaths 
 and association with women, etc. ad infinitum. The rune against 
 magic is, of course, the one needed as all his misconduct is de- 
 pendent upon that rather ihan upon himself, — and that motiva- 
 tion we have just discussed. 
 
 His desire to win Gutrune at once, as soon as he is conscious 
 of his new feeling, is in accord with his impetuosity, but the form 
 that it takes — exactly in keeping with Gunther's wishes — would 
 seem deliberate on the part of the author, were it not for the 
 fact that we may regard Siegfried as so filled with this desire 
 himself that it is the most natural question : "Hast du, Gunther, 
 ein Weib?"/ The question, of course, leads at once to Gunther's 
 disclosure of his desire and Siegfried's offer of assistance. 
 
 Kostlin (p. 58) justifies Siegfried's death on the plea, 
 "Einmal ist Siefried von Scluild nicht frei, vertibte Gewalt- 
 that und List gegen Brtinnhilde, als er sie durch den Tarnhelm 
 
 ^Musicalisches Wochenblatt 1885, Nr. 17-23. 
 
 (175) 
 
52 
 
 fur Gunther zii gewinnen iinternalim," as also from the fact that 
 it is common in life that people die as victims of deceit. The 
 latter statement is true enough (and sad tho not tragic) but the 
 former needs a little further consideration. It is true that he 
 did exercise violence and the affair is not in accordance with 
 modern ideas. It is true that in both Wagner and Hebbel Sieg- 
 fried in this affair had blunt sensibilities as far as Brtinnhilde 
 was concerned, but it is also true that in both cases the youth 
 had no feeling of guilt in tlie matter (in AVagner we may sup- 
 pose him in his simplicity to have no criterion of right and wrong 
 in the matter,) and his motive was commendable — that of service 
 to one to whom he had made the vow of friendship, at a period, 
 too, when we may suppose such service from friend to friend to 
 have occupied a more important part in life than now. In both 
 the hero has held an attitude of honor toward her as far as his 
 own consciousness is concerned — in Hebbel from tlie fact that he 
 does not greet where he cannot woo and in Wagner in liis use of 
 his sword to preserve his faith to Gunther. In Hebbel Siegfried 
 has more contempt for Briinnhilde's personality tho he does not 
 appeal to this as a reason for his willingness to perform the deed. 
 The deed, the employment of strength, is in both cases a matter 
 of course. There is, however, a decided difference in the motiva- 
 tion in the two poets. In Wagner this episode is the pretext for 
 Hagen's act and that in part is true in Hebbel — to a certain ex- 
 tent he is a victim in botli cmscs. In the latter, however, his tirst 
 act which was voluntary — not motivated by magic — leads inevit- 
 ably to his second. There lie does have a certain feeling of guilt, 
 some consideration for Brtinnhilde as well as for Kriemhilde, but 
 now is forced by a tragic necessity to perform in liis second con- 
 test a deed that leads to his own destruction — a tool again per- 
 haps but not without his own mental struggle. 
 
 The fact that Hagen refrains from the oath leaves him free 
 to perform his wicked docd from motives ostensibly good — to the 
 
 (176) 
 
53 
 
 mind of Gunther and Briinnliilde — without breaking a faith 
 sacred to the Germanic mind. 
 
 At the close of the scene we find Gutrun^ rejoicing in the 
 prospect of winning Siegfried, unashamed of the means, and Ha- 
 gen glorying in the success of his schemes and in the hope of the 
 ring and of consequent power. 
 
 Scene III. 
 
 Waltraute's account t) Rriiunhilde presents once more the 
 situation of Wotan (his career is presented in the epic manner 
 thruout this drama, tho here a natural opportunity is offered for 
 the account). Wotan is solemnly awaiting, or even hastening, 
 the end, smiling only once — presumably when Siegfried wakened 
 Briinnhilde — indifferent to all supplication, filling all with fear. 
 Again, however, a glimmer of hope comes to him as he whispers 
 to Waltraute : "des tiefen Eheines Tochteru/ giibe den Ring sie 
 zurlick,/ von des Finches Last/ erlost war', Gott und Welt."/ 
 What then does Wotan mean? Is he still trying to escape his 
 fate, or does he mean that a peaceful end would then be possible? 
 Concerning the effectiveness of release from the curse, comment 
 has been made above^. 
 
 The demand made upon Briinnhilde is to her, however, im- 
 possible of fulfillment. She cannot see the value or justice of 
 it. She seems no longer to have comprehension of the impending 
 fall of the gods. In fright she asks: "Was ist's denn mit den 
 ewigen Gottern?"/ Whatever the situation, however, she cannot 
 rise to the sacrifice of her love and selfishly refuses to consider 
 others, to perform the mission assigned her — not out of greed for 
 gold, nor for any power it might bring, but for the personal hap- 
 piness, including nevertheless, a feeling of loyalty to Siegfried. 
 In being true to her love, then, she sins against the broader con- 
 ception of love,^ and we find the individual in clash with the gen- 
 eral weal. It is similar to the case of Johanna where a laudable 
 
 ^cf. p. 45 and pp. 20-21. 
 
 Vf. also Drews (p. 84, Anm.). i. 
 
 (177) 
 
54 
 
 personal feeling is regarded as wrong in conflict with a mission 
 — with this difference: that liriinnliilde has not accepted the mis- 
 sion, tho she is in a measure ccmscious of it. She defends her 
 positioa by ])la(ing the blame on others (and it belongs there), 
 regarding the demand as the taking away of something rightfully 
 belonging to her. 
 
 What she does not perform of her own free will, however, 
 she performs later from force of circumstances, or rather she 
 gives up ring and life when they no longer have any charm for 
 her. But is that any credit to her, is that self-sacrificing or re- 
 deeming love? has been asked^ 
 
 The latter part of the scene presents the carrying out of Sieg- 
 fried's promise to Gunther in the conquest of Briinnliildo, and 
 the transfer of the ring to Siegfried again. Are Ave to regard 
 this as the fulfilment of the curse upon Briinnhilde? True, she 
 has desired the ring, but plan was made for her comiuest before 
 her refusal to give it up — tlio not before slie has desired it. The 
 surrender of the ring would probably not have prevented the 
 conquest tho it might have prevented the catastrophe to the hu- 
 man characters. The scheme was concocted before Hagen knew 
 that Briinnliilde had the ring but was, of course, a pretext for 
 Siegfried's death tliru which he hoped to secure the ring. Slie 
 would, then, probably have been overcome without ever having 
 had the ring. That she did have it, however, and thereby learned 
 from Waltraute Wotan's need forms motivation for her final re- 
 turn of the ring to the Rhine maids. 
 
 Bninnhilde's view of the matter : "Wotan, ergrimmter,/ 
 grausamer Gott !/ Weh'! Nun erseh' iclv/ der Strafe Sinn:/ 
 zu Holin und Jammer/ jag'st du mich hini"/ would not be 
 consistent with Wotan's attitude of inactivity. 
 
 'Wagner in his letter to Roeckel, Jan. 25, 1854, in speaking of Briinnhilde's 
 loyalty to her love does not think of it as selfish (consciously or unconsciously) 
 In any degree, but this is the love thru which, together with Siegfried, she be- 
 comes the redeemer of the world! His own interpretation is a lower ideal of 
 love, and his ideal here seems in conflict with his gospel of renunciation (in- 
 serted, of course, later). 
 
 (178) 
 
55 
 
 Siegfried gives evidence of his intended good faith in his 
 speech: "Nun, Nothung, zeuge du,/ das ich in Ztichten warb, 
 etc."/ 
 
 The use of the magic Tarnhelm does not make the deed seem 
 improbable, for we are even told that it concealed most of the 
 hero's face, or rather that the hero feared it had not entirely con- 
 cealed his face. 
 
 The fact that the fire still surrounded the rock has been ob- 
 jected to as untrue to mythology. The same case is found, how- 
 ever, in the Volsungasaga and may be thought of as symbolical 
 of the protection of Briinnhilde's maidenhood — as well as a part of 
 the nature myth. 
 
 Act IT. Scene L 
 
 In the first scene of the second act the conversation between 
 Alberich and Hagen makes clear Hagen's superior knowledge, his 
 true feeling toward the Gibichungen and desire for the ring. 
 Wagner has chosen to represent Hagen as in sleep, from the old 
 superstition that the elf comes to one asleep causing nightmare^ 
 Alberich relates Wotan's absurd defeat by a mortal and conse- 
 quent helplessness. He relates, too, Siegfried's conquests and 
 says: "jede Gewalt/ hat er gewonnen;/ Walhall und Nibel- 
 heim/ neigen sich ihm — "/ a fact that is true to this extent, 
 that he has a possession they are seeking. 
 
 Alberich's assertion: "an dem furchtlosen Helden/ erlahmt 
 selbst mein Fluch:/ denn nicht weisz er des Kinges Werth," 
 etc./ seems consistent with the facts of the case as they should 
 be but not as they are represented in Siegfried's conversation 
 with the Bhine maids. Siegfried relates there the prophecy con- 
 cerning the ring, but still does not value it and should remain 
 free from the curse. As regards the result of his knowledge of 
 the baneful effect of the ring discussion will be offered later. 
 
 We receive further hint as to Hagen's plan "Zu seinem 
 Verderben/ dient er mir schon,"/ as also concerning Alberich's 
 
 'ct. Meinck, pp. 311-312. 
 
 (179; 
 
56 
 
 machinations. He has managed to have in the midst of the en- 
 emy in the j^uise of a friend an instrument, a son of brave lineage 
 thru his mother and shrewdness thru liis father — a son into 
 whom he has instilled a desire to accomplish his (Alberich's) 
 purpose, so that Hagen in turn uses tliose about him to come 
 into contact, thru them, with Siegfried. We may imagine that 
 he would have accomplished this, even if the hero had not of his 
 own accord arrived on the scene. If, then, we regard the sug- 
 gestion that Alberich should not remain helpless if he could have 
 a son as a prophecy of events, it may be accepted. To accept, 
 however, the mere fact of the dwarf's having a son as a proper 
 motivation would still seem forced. In addition was needed the 
 right environment to make that fact of value. 
 
 Scene II. 
 
 The second scene is for the most part episodical, tho it gives 
 the author a chance to relate naturally the manner of transfer 
 of Brtinnhilde from Siegfried to Gunther. Gutrunc has same 
 natural scruples about Siegfried's part in the conquest, hut her 
 suspicions are allayed by his explanations and, as in the other 
 accounts, her admiration for his prowess is enhanced. 
 
 Preparations are ordered for the reception of the bridal pair, 
 Gutrune's attitude suggesting that of Hebbel's Kriemhild. Gu- 
 trune says : "Laszt sie uns hold empfah'n,/ dasz Ueiter und gem 
 sie weile!"/ In Hebbel we have a more vivid impression in a 
 charming scene representing the welcome. 
 
 Scene III. 
 Hagen's summons of Gunther's men provides witnesses for 
 the following scene and increases the necessity for revenge and 
 the restoration of Gunther's honor. Nevertheless the manner of the 
 summons and the effect upon the men seem incongruous in view 
 of the occasion, as does also liis characterizaticui of Briinniiilde 
 as "freisliches Weib" (unless recalling her career as Valk^ria). 
 His manner, however, has consistency with his fnithless char- 
 
 (180) 
 
57 
 
 acter. His seeming joke changes to quite the opposite in the fol- 
 lowing scene. Already he suggests the expected turn of affairs: 
 "Hold seid der Herrin,/ helfet ihr treu :/ traf sie ein Leid,/ rasch 
 seid zur Rache."/ His revelation of Siegfried's having lent as- 
 sistance makes his only plea that of disloyalty and places Sieg- 
 fried entirely in the position of a wronged man (cf. pp. 51-52), 
 
 Scene IV. 
 
 The catastrophe is greatly hastened by Briinnhilde's imme- 
 diate discovery of the ring on Siegfried's finger and her conse- 
 quent accusation. That he had not removed the ring from sight is 
 not surprising, in view of the rapid course of events and his ab- 
 sorbing interest in his own love— tho this absorption is merely 
 suggested in his swift return and immedate inquiry for Gu- 
 trune. Why Siegfried is not puzzled at receiving his own ring 
 from Briinnhilde becomes a query. He should be conscious of 
 two facts: that he has a ring which he took from her and that 
 the ring he has is one which he won with the Tarnhelm. Why 
 he never expresses any consciousness of the mystery is surprising. 
 There is, of course, little time given for reflection and he might 
 naturally refrain from expression of surprise in Briinnhilde's 
 presence, but he seems later on, too, to take the ring as a m.atter 
 of course. The potion does not seem quite to settle the difficulty 
 since it was supposed to make him forget merely his earlier rela- 
 tion with Briinnhilde. 
 
 If we accept, however, a second lapse of memory as well as 
 a first, we find a highly dramatic scene filled with contrasts — 
 or intended contradictions. The courses of tAvo people are made 
 to cross each other and bring about the annihilation of both — 
 both characters in the right as in Hebbel but with this difference, 
 that here the conflict does not grow out of their characters — is 
 not inevitable, but is arranged by the author as deus ex machina. 
 It is true that in life a wicked intriguer may force each of two 
 innocent people thru mutual misunderstanding to destroy the hap- 
 piness of the other, but we then expect mental suffering on the 
 
 (181) 
 
58 
 
 j»art of l)(»tli. The conflict cannot but soom liere unnatural and 
 forced from its very superabundance of contradictions. 
 
 liriinnliilde has ample evidence of Siegfried's guilt in her re- 
 membrance of their former relation and in (Junther's confusion 
 when she asks: "Wo biirgest du den King,/ den du von mir 
 erbeutest,/" Siegfried, however, conscious of his sincere intent ad- 
 mits his part in the contest, pleading innoc^ence, however, of per- 
 fidy. Hagen's mention of Siegfried's part in the contest above was 
 not in any way to Siegfried's discredit — a variation fr in Tlaupacli, 
 with whom Hel)bel in a measure agrees, wliere the wliole matter 
 comes as a vivid shock to the public within the drama. In each 
 case the charge hinges upon his loyalty to Brunnhilde and toward 
 Gunther. Here he has only an unconscious guilt, in Hebbid a 
 guilt forced u])on him by circumstances but one that he cannot 
 entirely shake off, and in Kaupach a guilt that we will all admit 
 from his low ideal of morality, a guilt that does not, however, 
 make the story more palatable. 
 
 Here Siegfried exclaims: "Nothung, mein werthes 
 Schwert,/ wahrte der Treue Eid ;/ mich trennte seine Schjirfe/ 
 von diesem traurigen Weib."/ while Brunnhilde, having in mind 
 his earlier visit, makes reply: "Wohl kenu' ich auch die 
 Scheide./ darin so wonnig ruht' an der Wand/ Xothung, der 
 treue Freund,/ als die Traute sein Herr sich gefreit."/ The 
 hero is put on the defensive here before Gutrune a second time — 
 in Raupach and Hebbel only before the (piarrcl : "Treulos. Sieg- 
 fried,/ sannest du Trug? P.ezeuge, dasz falsch/ jene dich 
 zeiht!"/ 
 
 The scene results in an oath, as in Kanpach and Hebbel. and 
 in Siegfried's relation to Hagen we have a touch of tragic irony 
 that reminds one slightly of the situation in Hebbel. Here Sieg- 
 fried says, taking oath on Hagen's sjiear : "wo der Tod mich trifft,/ 
 treffe du mich;/ klagte das Weib doch wahr," etc./ and it is 
 all only too terribly brought to pass. In Hebbel the tragic irony 
 is yet more striking in that Hagen skilfully leads Siegfried t(^ 
 
 (182) 
 
59 
 
 characterize himself unconsciously as a villain deserving of the 
 death that soon comes to him. 
 
 In Wagner, as in Hebbel, the first suggestion of Siegfried's 
 death comes from Hagen, tho in the latter Briinnhilde assumes 
 that outcome as absolutely a matter of course. In Wagner she is 
 dimly conscious that the hero does not recognize her : "Siegfried 
 
 kennt mich nicht?"/ and her desire for revenge is mingled 
 
 with something of pathos, since she regards the situation as part 
 of her punishment inflicted by the gods: "Heilige Gotter!/ 
 Lehrt ihr mich Leiden/ wie keiner sie litt?- '/ Her feeling of the 
 inexplicability of the situation — a feeling that there was some- 
 thing needing explanation — is not unnatural from her earlier 
 acquaintance with Siegfried and in view of her relation to the 
 gods. That she should reflect upon this and still resolve upon his 
 death seems less natural, but it is made reasonable by Hagen's 
 interpretation of the case. 
 
 Siegfried has not here the understanding of human nature 
 that served liim in his relation to Mime, but there doubtless he 
 had learned to judge thru his years of association with the smith. 
 He says noAV : "Gonnt ihr WeiP und Ruh,'/ der wilden Felsen- 
 Frau,/ dasz die frcshe Wuth sich erlege. . . ./ Doch Frauen- 
 groll/ friedet sich bald."/ His judgment is, of course, clouded, too, 
 by his f jrgetfulness of past events. His characterization of the 
 scene as "Weiber-Gekeif" recalls Fouque and Raupach and sug- 
 gests Hebbel. 
 
 That he still docs not recall any compunctions of conscience 
 concerning the deceit is sliown in his speech to Gunther : "Glaub', 
 mehr ztirnt's mich als dich,/ dasz schlecht ich sie getauscht."/ 
 
 Scene V. 
 In Brtinnhilde's attitude toward the proposed death of Sieg- 
 fried we do not have such a feeling of absolute necessity as in 
 Hebbel. As suggested above, she feels conscious of some ex- 
 ternal force. She feels, however, helpless in her effort to solve 
 the problem, and not having any way to establish Siegfried's in- 
 
 (183) 
 
60 
 
 nocence she is obliged to believe his shameless deceit and to de- 
 mand revenge. 
 
 Tliat the fact that Briinnliilde has imparted her knowledge 
 to SieglricHl should dojn-ive her of her wisdom might at first 
 seem purely mythical motivation (and it has mythical basis) 
 but it seems reasonable that new interests should make old ones 
 grow dim. 
 
 She expresses an idea similar to that expressed by Hagen 
 in Hel)l»el, but with a some\vhat ditferent turn: 'Mn seiner Macht 
 iiiilt er die Magd:/ in seinen Banden/ faszt er die Beute, 
 die, jammernd ob ihrer Schmacli,/ jauchzend der Reiche ver- 
 schenkt!"/ (In the Entwurf and in Siegfrieds Tod she says: 
 "Du ubermiithiger Held,/ wie' hieltest du mich gebannt!" 
 She refers, however, to her helplessness in taking revenge, while 
 Hagen refers rather to Siegfried's irresistible attraction for her, 
 a feeling tliat luid to be satisfied by tlie hero's death since her 
 love was spurned. The idea that she has been transferred as a 
 chattel is present here too as in Hebbel where she regards her- 
 self as the despised "Pfennig." 
 
 Her admiration for Siegfried remains in spite of her bitter- 
 ness and causes her to be contemptuous of Hagen's plan. Briiun- 
 hilde's speech : "Niclit eine Kunst/ war mir bekannt,/ die zum 
 Heil nicht half seinem Leib."/ etc. is another use of magic mo- 
 tive, not out of harmony with the hero's own spirit, however. 
 We feel that it is not necessary, but is made acceptable by the 
 fact that Briinnliilde was Wotan's warrior maid, and also by its 
 incompleteness: "Niemals — das wuszt' ich — / wich er dem 
 Feind,/ nie reicht' er ihm fliehend den Kiicken:/ an ihm d'rum 
 spart' ich den Segen."/ This solution makes the hero more at- 
 tractive to me than that of Hebbel, but the latter was more suit- 
 able for Hebbel's purpose and gave opportunity to make a more 
 plausible hero of Hagen, while here the latter is a miserable in- 
 triguer. In Hebbel, too, Siegfried's invulnerability was in ac- 
 cord with his character. 
 
 (184) 
 
61 
 
 The character of Gunther is, it is true, weak in all accounts 
 but here his morality suffers more than elsewhere. In Fouqu6, 
 and in IJaupach in the earlier scenes he is by no means 
 attractive, and in the former quite unattractive since he becomes 
 eager for Siegfried's death, but it is after a long and hopeless 
 struggle to pacify Brtinnhilde. In Hebbel, as in Raupach, he 
 protests vigorously against the sacrifice of his friend and feels 
 his own humiliating part. In Hebbel he never really consents 
 tho he feels compelled by circumstances and does not hinder. In 
 Wagner he is not the champion of his benefactor, but while he 
 recognizes his own guilt, regards himself as the victim of deceit, 
 accepting the assertion of Hagen and Brtinnhilde rather than be- 
 lieving Siegfried's oath. In rhetorical phrases he even appeals 
 to Ilagen for aid: "Betrtiger ich — und betrogen!/ Verrather 
 icli — und vorra then!/ Zermalmt mir das Mark,/ zerbrecht mir 
 die Brust/ Hilf, Ilagen! Hilf meiner Ehr!"/ In Fouque, too, he 
 was distrustful of Siegfried at the home of the conquest, but un- 
 successful himself lie entered into the arrangement with Sieg- 
 fried only under protest, at his mother's instigation, and feels the 
 strange effect of the magic exchange of form. 
 
 In Wagner Gunther shudders at the breaking of the oath. 
 ( In Fouque too he on that account, as in the Northern mythology, 
 finds a substitute.) It is chiefly the oath which troubles him 
 here, moreover, and when Hagen plays upon his desire for gain — 
 a desire that the latter has already suggested to him in the 
 first scene — he yields without much protest. Wagner, of course, 
 illustrates again the central thought of the drama by bringing 
 Gunther under the curse, but lowers his character. In the Nibe- 
 ungen Lied Hagen suggests to him that he could have more 
 power if Siegfried were out of the way, but we do not look upon 
 that as an important influence. 
 
 In all renderings of the story the wonder is that so weak a 
 character should enjoy so much fame, but in Fouque, Raupach 
 and Hebbel we have more idea of his own love of conquest and 
 
 (185) 
 
62 
 
 liear more of his prowess in contest with otliers of mere mortal 
 strength. His fame was doubtless augmented, too, by his posi- 
 tion of i)0wer and l\y the support of Hagen. In Wagner he ac- 
 knowledged his indebtedness to Hagen in the opening scene, and 
 we find the same situation, due to a nobler motive, in Raapach 
 and Hebbel, on Hagen's part. 
 
 The deception of Gutrune furnishes the pretext for the hunt. 
 
 Act III, Scene I. 
 
 Shortly before hjs death Siegfried is given a chance to return 
 the ring to the Rhine and thus remove Hagen's motive for killing 
 him — tho not Briinnhilde s unless Hagen should arrange the 
 diflSculties. Now he is represented, as subjected to the curse, from 
 which Alberich told us he was free. He did remember and 
 quotes now the promise concerning the ring, but it did not al- 
 lure him. He does not covet the ring for itself or what it will 
 bring — was even about to give it up until he was threatened. 
 He was conscious before of the curse upon the gold — tho not es- 
 pecially upon the ring — but had no reason to fear it since he 
 had not deserved it, and he has not yet, as far as he knows (and 
 IS there unconscious guilt?). It does not alter the situation, as 
 far as his deserts are concerned or his occasion for fear, that he is 
 told more specifically that the one who made the ring and lost it 
 had cursed it: "zu zeugen den Tod/ dem, der ihn triig'."/ 
 There is nothing said here of a wrong done to the Rhine maids 
 and his opportunity and consequent duty of restoring it to its 
 rightful owners. The remark is made that it was of Rhine gold 
 but nothing is said about the vow thru which it was taken. The 
 only wrong implied is one to the maker of the ring, and one who 
 did not understand the whole story would naturally suppose that 
 to him restitution should be made. Only an artificial and enig- 
 matic motivation is given : "Nur seine Fluth/ stihnet den Finch."/ 
 How should Siegfried know that this is not merely a scheme to ob- 
 tain the ring? That Fafner's speech has not caused him to pay at- 
 tention to this warning is explained below (pp. 63-5^1). I can see 
 
 (186) 
 
63 
 
 no reason why Siegfried, should not have the same feeling of se- 
 curity as formerly. 
 
 Meinck (p. 63) says the maids did not at first receive the 
 ring, "weil nur ein Wissender den Ring vom Fluche befreien 
 kann." This success in freeing from the curse has been discussed^ 
 But he must be a knower of what? is a pertinent question. Is 
 not a consciousness of guilty possession necessary, in order that 
 such a curse may really be a curse — or prove efficacious? That 
 he has no reason to feel. He obtained the ring fairly (he seems 
 to have in mind only the first time he won the ring), does not 
 know of the robbery and can justly cast aside threats even indig- 
 nantly. There is, however, an element in his character that seems 
 to suggest love of power — or rather of independence — not because 
 of any ring but because of his own merit. He goes farther than 
 the mere defiance of the maids and a superstition which they are 
 trying to impose. Siegfried says in Siegfrieds Tod: "Eurem 
 Fluche fliehe ich nicht,/ noch weich' ich der Nornen Gewebe!/ 
 Wozu mein Muth mich mahnt,/ das ist mir Urgesetz, — / und 
 was mein Sinn mir ersieht,/ das ist mir so bestimmt," in reply 
 to the mermaid's warning: ''Ihn (den Fluch) flochten webende 
 Nornen/ m des Urgesetzes Sell." That warning is omitted m 
 the last rendering in this connection, however, tho it would or 
 should, have come nearer to giving him some feeling of responsi- 
 bility. The attitude is preserved, however, since he seems in some 
 way to have become conscious of the spear which he shattered and 
 is willing to pit himself against fate (but does not even that 
 rest upon a consciousness, in reference to the curse at least, of an 
 innocence that justifies him?) : "Mein Schwert zerschwang einen 
 Speer :/ des Urgesetzes/ ewiges Sell,/ flochten sie wilde/ Flti- 
 che hinein,/ Nothung zerhaut es den Nornen !"/ Again, in speak- 
 ing of Fafner's warning against the curse, Siegfried seems to con- 
 sider the world in conspiracy to teach him fear and says: "doch 
 das Fiirchten lehrt er mich nicht."/ His attitude toward Fafner 
 
 ^cf. p. 21. 
 
 (187) 
 
64 
 
 and fear in general is consistent tliruout. The fact that the first 
 suggestion came from Mime, of whom he had a profound distrust, 
 was sufficient to impress upon his mind tlie importance of resis- 
 tance to any such feeling — his resistance was of course innate 
 anyway. I can see no guili, or reason for his being subjected to 
 the curse, other than a courage that tends perhaps toward pre- 
 sumption. 
 
 Life that was saved thru fear would be, moreover, contempti- 
 ble, intolerable to him. In Siegfrieds Tod he says: "Nun sollt' 
 ich selbst mich entmannen,/ mit dem Ring verthun meinen 
 Muth'V and in the last rendering: "Denn Leben und Leib/ 
 sollt' ohne Lieb/ in der Furcht Bande/ bang ich sie fesseln — / 
 Leben und Leib — / seht ! so/ werf ich sie weit von mir !"/ 
 
 The connection of the second line is by no means clear. It 
 seems to fall out of a clear sky. Siegfried has not given evidence 
 of any high conception of love. Indeed, his attitude toward the 
 Rhine maids has lowered our opinion of his conception. Wagner, 
 of course, ^ regarded the union of man and wopian thru love as 
 forming the perfect human being, in that each is a complement to 
 the other, and making possible, thus, the redemption. But he 
 certainly does not present his idea in any convincing light. 
 
 If, however, one accepts the Rhine maids' warning as suffi- 
 ciently clear, then Siegfried may perhaps, as Brtinuhilde, be re- 
 garded as declining a mission that it was his duty to perform. 
 Meinck (p. 62) takes a view similar to this: "Allein der Finch 
 hat an ihm nur so lange keine Macht, als der Held von der unheil- 
 vollen Bedeutung des Ringes noch keine Kenntnis hat. So- 
 bald er aber diese Bedeutung des Ringes weisz und 
 ihn trotzdem nicht fortgiebt, macht er sich dadurch 
 derselben Schuld teilhaftig wie friiher seine Braut Brtinu- 
 hilde." I should not lay the stress on the "unheilvolle 
 Bedeutung" as far as he himself was concerned, however, 
 for the ring has i)roved powerless to rouse in him any passion of 
 
 'Letter to Roeckel, Jan. 25, 1854. 
 
 (188) 
 
65 
 
 covetousness and that woul<l then be au external motivation. His 
 case is not similar to that of Brunnhilde, since she was conscious 
 of the necessity of the gods. Siegfried interprets the maids' warn- 
 ing as referring to himself, not to mankind that he is to save. It 
 appeals to him therefore not as a mission but as a threat to yield 
 to which would be a disgrace to his bravery, and to defy which 
 would prove his courage. Wagner in his Entwurf says concerning 
 this point : "Er hat schuldlos die Schuld der Gotter iibernommen, 
 ihr Unrecht biiszt er an sich durch seinen Trotz, seine Selbst- 
 standigkeit." But how can one expiate a thing of which one is not 
 guilty, and if it is truly expiation must one not be conscious of it 
 as such? Siegfried has been compared to Christ, but the latter 
 felt burdened with a mission for others. 
 
 The further accusations of the mermaids Siegfried naturally 
 cannot understand, and as the maids approached him in a some- 
 what piquant manner as if trying to inveigle him into granting 
 their wish, he thinks them not worth heeding. 
 
 The end of his speech : "trtig' ich nicht Outrun' Treu',/ der 
 zieren Frauen eine/ hatt' ich mir frisch gezahmt!"/ impresses 
 one as being rather common, and lends a little color to a strain of 
 fickleness in his disposition. 
 
 Scene II. 
 The second potion ^ administered by Hagen furnished to the 
 spectators within the play some justification as avenging a per- 
 jury confessed, and to a certain extent responds to a feeling on 
 the part of the reader that Siegfried should not die in a false re- 
 lation. Yet this second potion from a dramatic point of view 
 makes Siegfried's character improbable as it has no psychological 
 consistency. Again his conduct is directly contradictory to his 
 feeling shortly before. 
 
 Scene III. 
 The third scene represents Gutrune's anxiety about Sieg- 
 fried's failure to return and her fear of Brunnhilde, then the re- 
 
 *cf. Drews (p. 105.) 
 
 (189) 
 
66 
 
 turn of the hunting party and Hagen's cruel announcement, Gut- 
 rune's reproach of Gunther, the latter's reproacli of Hagen, with 
 Hagen's confession. His only justification is: "Meinem Speer 
 war er gespart,/ bei dem er Meineid spracli,"/ a pretext which he 
 uses also to gain possession of the ring, killing Gunther who tries 
 to prevent it. Siegfried's uplifted arm then solves the plot in an 
 artificial way, preventing Hagen from securing the ring. That 
 such incidents are well known in folk lore does not make this 
 convincing. On the other hand how is this interference to be re- 
 garded? — Other than from Wotan? And in that case why is he 
 more justified now than before in interfering?^ Why could he 
 not have avoided all this sacrifice of others and returned the ring 
 earlier as well as now? Two contradictions of earlier motivation 
 are added, then, in that Wotan ceases to be inactive and Alberich's 
 son proves useless after all. 
 
 The use of the transcendental here differs from HebbeFs use 
 of the superstition concerning the flowing wounds, in that, in the 
 latter case, the subsequent action, or solution of tlie plot, is not 
 made to depend upon it. Kriemhild already believed in tlie guilt 
 of Hagen, and we are not to imagine that her desire for revenge 
 was based on this incident, tho it may be counted as one of the 
 things perhaps adding to her bitterness. 
 
 The summary dismissal of Gutrune has been criticised and 
 her submissive withdrawal is weak. It has justification, however, 
 in her own feeling of guilt in the previous consciousness that she 
 was causing Siegfried to forget some one. It is excused by some, 
 moreover, on the ground that Wagner for tlie sake of unity had to 
 sacrifice one heroine. He does not, however, succeed as well as 
 Hebbel in preserving the mythological strength of character com- 
 mon to both women, altho Hebbel drops Briinnhilde early from 
 the scene, as Wagner does Wotan. From the very fact that Heb- 
 
 *0r may we think that Wotan has risen to the height of breaking his con- 
 tracts and thus his power to rule the world? Wagner has not seemed to imply 
 this, however. 
 
 (190; 
 
67 
 
 bel does remove her from the stage he is the better able to preserve 
 this strength thru suggestion without at all taking the chief in- 
 terest from Kriemhilde. 
 
 The situation gives Wagner again the opportunity for the 
 presentation of a series of contradictions: "Aechter als er/ 
 schwur keiner Eide;/ treuer als er/ hielt keiner Vertrage ;" etc./ 
 
 Briinnhilde's speech : -'Durch seine tapferste That,/ dir so 
 tauglich erwtinscht, — / weihtest du den,/ der sie gewirkt,/ des 
 Verderbens dunkler Gewalt:"/ etc. makes us wonder still more 
 about Wotan's inactivity, tho it is natural that she sould interpret 
 later events in the light of Wotan's need of which Waltraute had 
 told her. We have nevertheless the feeling that Wagner is speak- 
 ing thru the whole of Briinnhilde's last speech, as he certainly is 
 when she expounds his philosophy. 
 
 The symbolism in the purification of the ring by fire is very 
 pretty tho Briinnhilde's return of the ring to the Rhine maids 
 when she is conscious of the significance ought to be sufficient to 
 remove from her the curse and to take away from others the pos- 
 sibility of appropriating it to wrong uses. ^ 
 
 Briinnhilde's speech does not relieve the confusion in which 
 we have found ourselves many times. In both the Entwurf and in 
 Siegfrieds Tod she declares not only the curse resolved but the 
 servitude of Alberich and the other dwarfs at an end and conducts 
 Siegfried to Walhalla. The change in the last rendering shows, 
 of course, the influence of Wagner's later ideas, but in no state of 
 clearness. ^ We are in doubt as to whether the whole world is 
 involved as in the Edda but have the impression that only the gods 
 are to be destroyed — a fact that is in conflict with the idea in the 
 destruction of the ash but is more in accord with the action of the 
 drama. (All who have been subjected to the curse have died un- 
 
 'cf. pp. 21, 47. 
 
 ^cf. pp. 22, 47. Drews (p. 108) says: "Kein Zweifel, dasz heirmit nicht 
 blosz das Reich der Gotter untergeht, sondern dasz die Gotter dammerung zu- 
 gleicli das Ende das Realen iiberhaupt bedeutet Briinnhilde's words, then: 
 "des bliihenden Lebens bleibend-Geschlecht" he accepts as a relic of the earlier 
 conception, tho now inconsistent. 
 
 (191) 
 
68 
 
 less we interpret the wording of the curse to include everyone since 
 all who did not have the ring should desire it.) The idea that a 
 world that has been accustomed to guidance, of whatever sort it 
 was, should be left to take care of itself, even with the additional 
 message, seems absurd. Are we to suppose now an age of inno- 
 cence that needs no guide? That does not seem possible.^ 
 
 Her next message is : "Nicht Gut, nicht Gold,/ selig in Lust 
 und Leid/ liiszt — die Lichc nur sein,'- — / tlie conclusion of 
 whicli seems hardly to imply negation of the will. Critics have 
 objected to thinking of Briinnhilde as the embodiment of redeem- 
 ing love, an opinion that seems reasonable. It seems ratlier that 
 her death is neither necessary nor beneficial — the aim is accom- 
 plished with the return of the ring to the Khine, and she does not 
 need to die in order to give it back. Her death is due imly to the 
 desolation which makes her life no longer worth living. She is 
 enabled, therefore, to carry out the principle of the negation of 
 the will to live, but it does not involve special heroism or spirit 
 of sacrifice for others. She rises to exultation in her death, but 
 it is from her love to Siegfried. 
 
 A still more complete destruction than in the Edda is iuiplied 
 in the later ending given by Wagner as the epitome of the whole: 
 "des ew'gen Werdens/ off-ne Thore/ schliesz' ich hinter mir zu :/ 
 nach dem wunsch — und wahnlos/ heiligstem Wall Hand,/ der 
 Welt-Wanderung Ziel,/ von Wiedergeburt erlos't,/ zieht nun 
 die Wissende hin./ Alles Ew'gen/ sel'ges Ende/ wiszt ihr, 
 wie ich's gewann?/ Trauernder Liebe/ tiefstes Leiden/ schlosz 
 die Augen mir auf :/ enden sah ich die Welt."/ This seems to 
 suggest the end of everything and in nothing, a fact that would 
 make the preceding message useless. We are by no means sure 
 how to interpret the last message. What is this of re-birth, and 
 how extensive is this freedom? What is to become of the rest of 
 mankind? Does she imply a new world to begin, as prophecied in 
 the Edda, and this ideal of self-annihilation ending in nothingness 
 
 •cf. pp. 36-37, 40. 
 
 (192) 
 
69 
 
 to be attained thru unhappy love as in her case? Truly, I cannot 
 find any healthful or even clear philosophy. Nor has there been 
 preparation thruout the drama for this philosophy of re-birth or 
 freedom from it. It is simply appended, and leaves us in a state 
 of hopeless confusion. 
 
 Brtinnhilde's last message, as the one preceding it, is, of 
 course, omitted in the stage production, in accordance with Wag- 
 ner's theory of the function of music to solve the action of the 
 drama thru reflection. He tliinks to appeal thru intuition rather 
 than intellect. He does not "pose as a dialectician" and his "only 
 language is Art," he writes to Roeckel, Aug. 23, 1856, concerning 
 this message. He admits that in Brtinnhilde's first speech tho 
 "she declares that in love alone is blessedness to be found" she 
 "does not make quite clear what the nature of that Love is, which 
 in the development of the myth we find playing the part of de- 
 structive genius." He thinks then that Schopenhauer's philosophy 
 furnishes the keystone of his poem and understands thru Schopen- 
 hauer the "difference between intellectual conceptions (Begriff) 
 and intuitions (Anschauung)" and that which he realizes as a 
 truth he does not attempt "to force on others by means of dialec- 
 tic." He himself cannot be convinced "unless his deepest intui- 
 tions have been satisfied" and he thinks, then, that if the truth of 
 what he has spoken is to be brought home to any one, he, the hear- 
 er, must have "felt it intuitively before he grasp it intellectually." 
 Musicians do not, however, agree upon the clearness of Wagner's 
 ideas as set forth by the music here but say that confusion has be- 
 come chaos. 
 
 (198, 
 
70 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 If we compare the Nibelungen dramas of Wagner and Hebbel, 
 we notice certain similarities of aim. P>otli make their dramas 
 the vehicle of philosophical ideas, but Wagner leaves us in confu- 
 sion since he does not succeed in harmonizing his earlier and later 
 conceptions and besides leaves mucli to the music to perform. 
 Both represent the downfall of a race, but in Wagner we feel it is 
 fortunate that that race is no more; in Hebbel we cannot but re- 
 gret the departed heroism. Both attempt a conclusion leading the 
 world toward a better state, but 'Wagner does not convince us 
 that nothingness is a better state (or if we do not accept tliat in- 
 terpretation, we do not feel that the world's prospects are more 
 hopeful) ; in Hebbel we have a definite conception of better things 
 to come. Both make use of the mystical element, Wagner as a 
 means of motivation or as a solution, Hebbel as a background in 
 harmony with the human characters, not always happy as a color- 
 ing but never employed as an interference in tlie plot. 
 
 Hebbel's introduction of Christian ideas is not just agreeable 
 to me, but the conflict resulting is consistently carried thru tlie 
 dramas, while Wagner's philosophical ideas are not clearly or 
 consistently developed. We at first think there is in the person 
 of Wotan a conflict between selfishness and love, then see no re- 
 sult in the victory of the latter (e. g. the redemption of the God- 
 dess of Love). We have no clear idea of where his career of self- 
 ishness ends and that of renunciation, or rather negation of will 
 (cf. Chamberlain's Das Drama Richard Waf/nrr's, p. 107) begins. 
 Wotan's self conquest in the second act of Rheingold ( tho due to 
 fear) ought to lead to son>.ething but cannot on account of the 
 situation. But what, then, is the dramatic struggle or develop- 
 ment? We find rather a series of scenes and are forced to fill in 
 the development for ourselves. The stages of Wotan's "soul-de- 
 
 (194) 
 
71 
 
 velopment" are these: He is lost to begin with, fears, realizes 
 that his fear is well grounded (scene with Briinnhilde) and de- 
 spairs, but finds apparent outlet (in Siegfried), resigns himself 
 to defeat, hopes (in speech to Waltraute), intervenes and defeats 
 Alberich, by the lifted arm. Yet his voluntary fall is from a dis- 
 satisfaction with his work (i. e, failure, according to Chamberlain 
 and others, to reconcile love and power ) . Nevertheless the wrong 
 feeling has been produced on our part, for the outAvitting of Albe- 
 rich would seem to be the first step in the solution of the problem. 
 The fall of Wotan is made necessary thru the epic motivation in 
 the fall of the ash, but this has no vital, at least evident, connec- 
 tion with Wotan's state of mind within the drama. 
 
 Wagner's attitude of regarding Siegfried, or Siegfried and 
 Briinnhilde together, as performing the function of a redeemer 
 seems unwarranted. They fill that place only mechanically and 
 not because they rise to any height of unselfish love for the com- 
 mon good. Siegfried's ideal of love is not an exalted one (cf. p. 
 64) and Briinnhilde gives up her life only when it has no more 
 sweetness. The return of the ring does not involve her death, and 
 the return of the ring seems to have been brought about by Wotan 
 himself who w^as supposed to be inactive. 
 
 We do not feel convinced, moreover, that Wotan in his deatli 
 has reached any tragic height. He dies only as a despairing crimi- 
 nal, and the work he was too weak and miserable to perform is 
 in just as sad a state as before. Wagner has not succeeded in mak- 
 ing nothingness seem a desirable or plausible goal, yet unless that 
 is the solution the world has little to hope. For tho the ring is 
 returned, Alberich lives and the principle of evil is not eliminated 
 from men's minds. What a contrast Wotan presents to such a 
 character as Faust, or to Gyges and Dietrich who do rise to tragic 
 renunciation, who resolve to live, not for the joy of living but 
 without that to spend themselves for others !^ 
 
 Tho in some details Hebbel is not happy, we find carried out 
 
 ^Robert's explanation (Philosophie et Drame, p. 105) hardly seems satis- 
 factory. 
 
 (195) 
 
72 
 
 in liis Nibehnigcn the broad outlines of a drama of tremendous 
 proportions, an action moving majestically toward a climax of 
 coinpollinfj grandeur and dignity that carries one with it whether 
 one will or not. It j^resents again a c()ntrast to the plan of Wag- 
 ner who do('s not have in view from the beginning the end toward 
 which he may consistently work. 
 
 (196) 
 
73 
 
 VITA 
 
 The writer was born July 17, 1878, near Canton, Illinois, was 
 a graduate of Canton High !r5chool in 1896, remained for one year 
 of post-graduate work there 1896-7, spent the years 1897-1901 at 
 the University of Illinois and received the A. B. degree with first 
 honors in 1901, in the German-Latin course. She was a teacher 
 of English and German in the high school at Lincoln, Illinois, in 
 1901-2 and of English at the East Side High School of Aurora, 
 Illinois in 1902-4. She spent eight months of the year 1904-5 in 
 Germany studying at the University of Leipsig during the winter 
 semester. There she attended lectures in German literature by 
 Professors Koster, Witkowski and Holz. In September 1905 she 
 returned as a graduate-assistant in German to the University of 
 Illinois, taking work in German under Prof. N. C. Brooks. She 
 received the degree of A. M. in June 1906, presenting a thesis en- 
 titled "The Influence of Fouque's Sigurd upon Wagner's Nibe- 
 lungen Ring," In 1906-8 she was fellow in German at the Univer- 
 sity of Illinois pursuing the study of German literature under 
 Prof. O. E. Lessing and Prof. N. C. Brooks, of Germanic Philology 
 under the late Prof. G. E. Karsten and Dr. J. Wiehr, and of Latin 
 under Prof. H. J. Barton and Dr. Edward Hope. 
 
 (197) 
 
BOOKS AND ARTICLES PUBLISHED BY THE CORPS OF INSTRUC- 
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 " "The Test of Efficiency in Supervision." School and Home Education, 
 
 Bloomington, 27:10, June, 1908. (2500) (Reprinted from N. Y. 
 
 Education Dep't. Bulletin.) 
 
 " "The Pedagogy of Morality and Religion as Related to the Periods of 
 
 ♦Reprinted from the University Studies Vol. Ill, No. 4, May, 1909 
 
 (199) 
 
76 
 
 Baglev, W. C— 
 
 Development." Address before the Xortliern Illinois Teacherr 
 Association, Nov. 7, 1908. Printed by the Association. (5000) 
 Also reprinted in Religious Education, Chicago, 4:1, April, 1909. 
 " "Waste in Education : Remedies." Address before Military Tract 
 
 Teachers' Association, Oct. 23, 1908. Printed by the Association. 
 (4000) 
 " "Elective Subjects in the High School Curriculum." School Review, 
 
 Chicago, 16:9, November, 1908. (3500) 
 " "The Psychology of School Practice." Psych. Bull., Lancaster. Pa., 
 
 6:3, March 15, 1909. (2500) 
 " "The Educative Process." pp. xix, 358. Macmillan, N. Y., 7th im- 
 
 pression, 1908. 
 " "Classroom Management." pp. xvii, 322. Macmillan, N. Y., 8th im- 
 
 presion, 1909. 
 Baird, J. \V.— 
 
 "The Problems of Color Blindness." Psych. Bull., Baltimore, V, 
 1909. (3200) 
 Baker, Ira O. — 
 
 "Cement Laboratory Practice." Proc. Soc. for Promotion Eng'g 
 Education, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1908. (5800) 
 " "Making Mortar Impervious." The Technograph, U. of 111. (2600) 
 
 Balke, C. W. and Smith, Edgar F. — 
 
 "Observations on Columbium." Amer. Chem. Soc, 30, pp. 1638-1668, 
 November, 1908. 
 Ballenger, William L. — 
 
 "Diseases of the Nose, Throat and Ear." pp. 905. Lea, Febiger Co., 
 Philadelphia, April, 1908. 
 Barto, D. O.— 
 
 "Problems in Secondary School Agriculture." School Science and 
 Mathematics, Chicago, 9:3, March, 1909. (3800) 
 Bartow. Edward — 
 
 "Surface Water Supplies of Illinois." Twenty-Third Annual Report 
 of the Illinois Soc. of Engineers and Surveyors, Chicago, 1908. 
 (1750) 
 " "Normal Waters of Illinois." Public Health Papers and Reports of 
 
 the American Public Health Association. Vol. XXXIII, Part II, 
 B. Also Amer. Jour, of Hygiene, Boston, May, 1908. (1000) 
 " and Sellards, A. W., Bain, W. G. and Lindgren, J. M. — 
 
 "Chemical and Biological Survey of the Waters of Illinois." Report 
 ^ from Sept. i, 1906, to Dec. 31, 1907. Bull. Univ. of 111., Water 
 
 Survey Series No. 6, September, 1908. (88 pp.) 
 
 (200) 
 
77 
 
 Bayley, W. S.— 
 
 "Pre Cambriam Rocks" (In the Passic Quadrangle N. J. N. Y.)- Folio 
 
 No. 157, Geologic Atlas of the United States, U. S. Geol. Survey, 
 
 Washington, 1908. (12000) 
 
 " "Structure of the Highlands Area." Folio No. 157, Geologic Atlas 
 
 of the United States, U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, 1908. (iioo) 
 
 " "Economic Geology." Folio No. 157, Geologic Atlas of the United 
 
 States, U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, 1908. (3600) 
 " "Preliminary Account of the Geology of the Highlands in New Jer- 
 
 sey." The University Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2; Univ. of 111., Bull., 
 Vol. 6, No. 17, pp. 5-19, 1909. (4000) 
 " "The American Association for the Advancement of Science, Sec. E." 
 
 Geology and Geography (Report), Science N. S., Vol. XXVII, 
 No. 697, pp. 721-733- (6500) 
 " "Note on the Occurrence of Graphite Schist in Tuxedo Park, N. Y." 
 
 Economic Geology, Vol. 3, No. 6, p. 535. (350) 
 " and Clapp, F. C. — 
 
 "Underground Waters of Southern Maine." pp. 267. Water Supply 
 Paper 223, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1909. 
 Bevier, Isabel, and Usher, Susannah — 
 
 "Food and Nutrition, Laboratory Manual." pp. 75. Whitcomb & 
 Barrows, Boston, Mass., 1908. (Revised Edition) 
 Brooks, N. C. — 
 
 "Neue Lateinische Osterfeiern." Zeitschrift fuer deutches Altertum, 
 Berlin, 50 :297, December, 1908. (4000) 
 Brown, Edward M. — 
 
 "Internal Intestinal Strangulation." Lancet Clinic, Cincinnati, O., 
 October, 1908. (1500) 
 Byford, Henry T. — 
 
 "Vaginal Hysterectomy for Carcinoma of the Cervix." Southern Med. 
 Jour., Vol. II, No. 2, February, 1909; Trans. Southern Surgical 
 and Gynecological Soc, 1908. 
 " "The Significance of Peritoneal Adhesions." Surgery, Gynecology and 
 
 Obstetrics, May, 1909; Trans. Amer. Gynecological Soc, April, 
 1909. (1500) 
 Carpenter, F. W. — 
 
 "Some Reactions of Drosophila, with Special Reference to Convulsive 
 Reflexes." Jour, of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, Phil., 
 18:5, November, 1908. (3000) 
 Case, J. W.— '."i'^^i 
 
 "Design at the University of Illinois." American Architect, N. Y., 
 Vol. XCIV, No. 1707, illustrated, September, 1908. (500) 
 " "Description of Prize Design for Residence." Beautiful Homes, St. 
 
 Louis, Vol. I, No. 6, illustrated, March, 1909. (600) 
 
 (201) 
 
78 
 
 Case, J. W.— 
 
 " "Design at the University of Illinois." Architectural Annual, Phila- 
 
 delphia, illustrated,, April, 1909. (400) 
 Center, O. D. — 
 
 "Distance Between Hills for Corn in the Illinois Corn Belt." Exp. 
 Sta. Bull., No. 126, July, 1908. 
 
 ' "Quantity of Oat Seed per Acre." Breeders' Gazette, Chicago, 53 ^M. 
 
 April, 1908. (1200) 
 
 " "Spring Wheat in Illinois." Breeders' Gazette, Chicago, 54:22, No- 
 
 vember, 1908. (900) 
 
 " "Cow Peas and Soy Beans in Illinois." Breeders' Gazette, Chicago, 
 
 54:5, February, 1909. (1200) 
 
 " "Red Clover and Oats." Breeders' Gazette, Chicago, 54:8, February, 
 
 1909. (800) 
 
 " "Permanent Pasture." Breeders' Gazette, Chicago, February, 1909. (500) 
 
 " "Weevil in Clover Seed." Breeders' Gazette, Chicago, 54:10, March, 
 
 1909. (300) 
 
 " "Canada Field Peas in Illinois." Breeders' Gazette, Chicago, 54:13, 
 
 March, 1909. (700) 
 
 " "Adulterated Clover Seed." Breeders' Gazette, Chicago. 54:14. .'Kpril 
 
 1909. (1000) 
 
 " "Seed and Hay from 1907 Clover." Breeders' Gazette, Chicago, 54:i5, 
 
 April, 1909. (200) 
 
 " "Surface Cultivation." The Furrow, Moline. (2000) 
 
 Chiles, J. .\. — 
 
 "Ueber den Gebrauch des Beiwortes in Heine's Gedichten." pp. 112. 
 Dissertation, University of Illinois, 1908. 
 Clark, A. H. See Puckner, W. A. 
 Ci.AKK, Thomas Arkle — 
 
 "On College Discipline." The Spectator, Madison, Wis., February, 1909. 
 "The Fraternity in the State University." Proc. of Religious Education 
 Assn., February, T909. Republished in University .Alumni Quar- 
 terly, April, 1909, and in Phi Alpha, May, 1909. 
 " "Democracy in College." Alpha Tau Omega Palm, March. 1909. 
 
 " "Democracy at Illinois." Alunmi Quarterly, Univ. of 111., October. 1908. 
 
 Coffey, W. C. — 
 
 "Market Classes and Grades of Sheep." Illinois Station Bulletin, 129. 
 ' "The Sheep Industry from the Market Standpoint." Illinois Station 
 
 Circular 125. 
 Crashaw, F. D. and Ben.vett, Charles A. — 
 
 "Problems in Mechanical Drawing." pp. XI, 106. Manual Arts Press. 
 Peoria, 111., 1908. 
 
 (202) 
 
79 
 
 CuRTiss, Richard S., and Tarnowski, Paul T. — 
 
 "Methyl Mesoxalate and some of its Reactions." Jour. Amer. Chem. 
 Soc, Vol. XXX, August, 1908. (3000) 
 " and Koch, Alfred R., and Bartells, E. J. — 
 
 "The Action of Hydrazin on Ethyl Mesoxalate." Jour. Amer. Chem. 
 Soc, Vol. XXXI, January, 1909. (2500) 
 " and Spencer, F. Grace — 
 
 "Additional Reactions on Methyl Oxomalonate." Abstract of Paper 
 Given Before the American Chemical Society, New Haven Meet- 
 ing, June, 1908. Science 28, August 7, 1908. (250) 
 Davenport, Eugene — 
 
 "Education for Efficiency." Univ. of Tenn., Nashville, Tenn., May 
 28, 1909. (8000) 
 " "Industrial Education With Special Reference to the High School," 
 
 Univ. of 111., November 20, 1908. (7000) 
 " "Development and Its Effect Upon Transmission." American Horse 
 
 Breeder, Boston, Mass., December, 1908. 
 " "Relation of Nature-Study and Agriculture in Elementary Rural 
 
 Schools." Nature-Study Review, December, 1908. 
 " "The Development of American Agriculture : What It Is and What 
 
 It Means." Univ. of Main, Orono, Me., January 20, 1909. (12000) 
 " "Industrial Education a Phase of the Problem of Universal Education." 
 
 National Education Assn., Chicago, February 25, 1909. (5500) 
 " "Outline of Four Years' Work in High School Agriculture." Univ. 
 
 of 111., January, 1909. 
 " "Light Thrown Upon Eugenics by the Experiences of Animal Breed- 
 
 ing." The Medical Reporter, Chicago, January, 1909. (1200) 
 
 Davidson, Charles — 
 
 "The Sequelae of Acute Diffuse Suppurative Peritonitis." 111. Med. 
 Jour., May, 1909. (1000) 
 Dietrich, William — 
 
 "Food Requirements of Growing and Fattening Swine." Illinois Ex- 
 periment Station, Circular No. 126. (18 pp.) 
 Drury, F. K. W.— 
 
 "On Making Signs." Library Journal, N. Y., 33 ;8, August, 1908. (600) 
 " "The Care of Maps." Bull, of the Amer. Library Assn., Boston, 2 :5, 
 
 September, 1908. (Proceedings of the Minnetonka Conference.) 
 (5000) 
 
 DUFOUR, F. O. — 
 
 "Bridge Engineering-Roof Trusses." pp. 350. American School of 
 Correspondence, Chicago, 1909. 
 Duncan, J. C. — 
 
 "Property Accounting for Fire Losses." Jour, of Accountancy, N. Y., 
 April, July and December, 1908. (loooo) 
 (203) 
 
80 
 
 Duncan, J. C. — 
 
 " "A Definition of Accounting." Jour, of Accountancy, N. Y., Feb- 
 
 ruary, 1909. Also in the American Economics Association Quar- 
 terly of April, 1909, among Papers and Discussions of Twenty-first 
 Annual Meeting, December, 1908. 
 
 ECKELMANN, E. O. — 
 
 "Dr. Alberts, Hebbels Stellung zu Shakespeare." The Journal of 
 English and Germanic Philology, 7 :3, July, 1908. 
 
 ElSENDRATH, D. N. — 
 
 "Surgical Diagnosis." pp. 750. W. B. Saunders Co., Phila., 1908. 
 
 ElSENDRATH, D. N. — 
 
 "Renal Calculi." Southern Med. Jour., 1909. 
 " "Acute Forms of Abdominal Tuberculosis." Jour, of the Amer Med. 
 
 Assn., 1909. 
 
 Emmett, a. D. — 
 
 "The Chemistry of Animal Feces." Second Paper. Jour. Amer. Chem. 
 Soc, 31 :6, 1909. (1400) 
 " and Grindley, H. S. — 
 
 "Chemistry of Flesh." Sixth Paper. Jour. Biol. Chem., 3:6. 
 " "The Chemistry of Animal Feces." First Paper. Jour .Amer. Chem. 
 
 Soc, 31 :s, 1909. ("4500) 
 " "Chemistry and Its Relation to Animal Nutrition." Illinois Agricul- 
 
 turist, 13:9, 1909. (1600) 
 
 Enger, M. L., — 
 
 "Discussion on Pressure Fluctuations in Turbine Pipe Lines." Jour, 
 of the Assn. of Engineering Societies, March, 1909. (1500) 
 
 FOLSOM, J. W. — 
 
 "The Golden Snow-flea, Aphorura cocklei n.sp." Canadian Entomolo- 
 gist, 40:6, June, 1908. (1300) 
 " "Insects Injurious to Clover and Alfalfa." Thirteenth Ann. Report 
 
 Illinois Farmers' Inst., 1908. (7500) 
 Forbes, S. A. — 
 
 "The Mid-summer Bird Life of Illinois : A Statistical Study." Ameri- 
 can Naturalist, N. Y., Vol. XLII, No. 500, August, 1908. (4500) 
 "Grierson's Cavalry Raid." Trans., 111. State Hist. Soc, 1908. (15000) 
 " "Twenty-fourth Report of the State Entomologist on the Noxious and 
 
 Beneficial Insects of the State of Illinois." Thirteenth Report of 
 S. A. Forbes, pp. 184, 11 pi., 1908. 
 " "Experiments with Repellents Against the Corn Root-aphis. 1905 and 
 
 1906." Bull. 130, 111. Agr. Exp. Sta., Urbana, December, 1908. 
 (13000) 
 " "Habits and Behavior of the Corn-field Ant, Lasius niger amcricanus." 
 
 Bull. 131, 111. Agr. Exp. Sta., Urbana, December, 1908. (7000) 
 " "Aspects of Progress in Economic Entomology." (Address as Presi- 
 
 (204) 
 
81 
 
 dent of American Association of Economic Entomologists.) Jour, 
 of Economic Entomology, Vol. 2, No. i, 1909. (4500) 
 " "On the General and Interior Distribution of Illinois Fishes." Bull. 
 
 111. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII, Art. 3, February, 1909. 
 (18000) (Reprinted from the following.) 
 " and Richardson, R. E. — 
 
 "The Fishes of Illinois." pp. 488, 60 pi. (41 colored). Published by 
 the State, February, 1909. 
 Fuller, William — 
 
 "Intra-abdominal Rotation of the Great Omentum, Unaccompanied by 
 Herina." Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, August, 1908. (3000) 
 Garner, James W. — 
 
 "La Vie Politique et Parlementaire dans les Etats-Unis." (11 pp.). 
 Revue Politique et Parlementaire, October, 1908. Ibid, 14 pp., 
 April, 1909. 
 " "News and Notes, Personal and Bibliographical." (28 pp.). American 
 
 Political Science Review. November, 1908. Ibid, 23 pp., February, 
 1909. Ibid, 14 pp.. May, 1909. 
 " "Courts, Congress and the Executive." The Dial, March, 1909. 
 
 " "Problems of Race Friction." The Dial, January i, 1909. 
 
 Gilbert, Barry and Mechem, Floyd — 
 
 "Cases on the Law of Damages." pp. XIII, 626. West Pub. Co., St. 
 St. Paul, Minn., 1909. 
 Gill, J. H.— 
 
 "Heat Treatment of Carbon Steel." Amer. Machinist, N. Y., p. 844, 
 December 10, 1908. (1300) 
 Girault, a. a. — 
 
 "Texas, Virginia and Maryland Notes on the Catalpa Sphinx, Cerato- 
 mia catalpae Boisduval." Entomological News, Phila., pp. 197-199. 
 1908. 
 " "Demonstration Spraying in Ohio in 1907." Bull. No. 68, Bureau En- 
 
 tomology, U. S. Dep't of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, pp. 75-76. 
 1908. 
 " "Further Biological Notes on the Colorado Potato Beetle, Leptino- 
 
 tarsa decemlineata (Say), Including Observations on the Number 
 of Generations and Length of the Period of Oviposition." Annals 
 Ent. Soc. Amer., Columbus, O., I, pp. 155-178. 1908. 
 " "Encarsia versicolor Species Nova, An Eulophid Parasite of the Green- 
 
 house Whitefly, Aleyrodes vaporarioruni Westwood." Psyche, 
 Boston, pp. 53-57. 1908. 
 " "Notes on the Feeding Habits of Cimex lectularius, Linnaeus. Psyche, 
 
 Boston, pp. 85-87. 1908. 
 " "A Monographic Catalogue of the Mymarid Genus Alaptus Haliday, 
 
 with Descriptions of Three New North American Forms and of 
 (205) 
 
82 
 
 Alaptus iceryae Riley from Type Material." Annals Ent. Soc. 
 Amer., Columbus, O., I, pp. 179-195; text-figs, 1-5. 1908. 
 "A Peculiar Case of Parasitism with Hemerocampa leucostigma Smith 
 & Abbot, with Description of a New Genus and Species of Ptero- 
 malidae." Psyche, Boston, XV, pp. 89-96. 1908. 
 "The Oviposition of Chilocorus bivulnerus Mulsant." Jour. Economic 
 Ent., Concord, N. H., I. pp. 300-302. 1908. 
 " "Descriptions of Three New North American Chalcidoidea of the Sub- 
 
 families Mymarinae and Aphelininae." Psyche, Boston, XV, pp. 
 115-121. 
 " "A Bibliography of the Bedbug, Cimex lectularius.", II Errata. Zoo 
 
 logische Annalen, Wuerzburg, III. 1908. 
 GiRAULT, A. A. — 
 
 "A Monographic Catalogue of the Mymarid Genus Camptoptera 
 Foerster, with Description of One New North American Form." 
 Annals Ent. Soc. Amer., Columbus, O., pp. 22-29; text-figs, 1-2. 
 1909. 
 " "A New Chalcidoid of the Eulophid Genus Aphelinus Dalman, Parasi- 
 
 tic on Schizoneura crataegi Oestlund." Psyche, Boston, XVI, pp. 
 29-31. 1909. 
 " "The Future of Nomenclature." Science, April 30, 1909. 
 
 Goodman, F. M. — 
 
 "Plant Classification and Conspectus of Natural Orders and Their Of- 
 ficial Products." pp. 36. Frank I. Miller, Bloomington, 111., 1908. 
 " "Pharmacal Names." Bull, of Pharmacj', Detroit, Mich., February, 
 
 1909. (1600) 
 Goss, W. F. M.— 
 
 "At the Head of the Fastest Train in Prussia." Technograph No. 22, 
 Univ. of 111., Urbana, May, 1908. 
 " "Report of the Standing Committee on Brake Shoes of the Master Car 
 
 Builders' Association." Proc. of the Assn., June, 1908. 
 " "Comparative Tests of Run-of-Mine and Briquetted Coal on Locomo- 
 
 tives." U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. No. 363, Washington, D. C, Septem- 
 ber, 1908. 
 " "High Steam-Pressures in Locomotive Service." (.\ Review of a Re- 
 
 port to the Carnegie Institution of Washington). Univ. of 111. 
 Engineering Exp. Stat. Bull. No. 26, Urbana, September, 1908. 
 " "The Debt of Modern Civilization to the Steam-Engine." Proc. of 
 
 the Amer. Soc. of Mechanical Engineers, N. Y., April, 1909. 
 Greene, E. B. — 
 
 "Letters to Gustav Koerner, 1837-1863 (edited with introductory 
 note)." Trans, of the 111. State Hist. Society for 1907, pp. 222-246, 
 Springfield, 1908. 
 
 (206) 
 
83 
 
 Greenough, C. N. — 
 
 "Some Prerequisites 'or Research in Literature." Univ. of 111. Alumni 
 Quarterly, Urbana, 111., 3 :2, April, 1909. (2000) 
 Grindley, H. S. See Emmett, A. D. 
 
 Harker, Oliver A. — 
 
 "The Contempt Cases Against the Labor Leaders and the Power of 
 the President to Pardon." Statutory Appeal in Illinois. Ill Law 
 Report. 
 Harris, F. G. and Corbus, B. C. — 
 
 "The Value of the Spirochaeta Pallida in the Diagnosis and Treat- 
 ment of Syphilis." Jour. Amer. Med. Assn., Chicago, Dec. 1908. 
 
 Haskins, C. N. — 
 
 "On the Second Theorem of the Mean." Annals of Mathematics, 
 Cambridge, July, 1908. (2400) 
 
 Haskins, C. N. — 
 
 "On the Numerical Computation of Reaction-velocity Constants." Bul- 
 letin No. 30, Engineering Exp. Stat., Univ. of 111., February, 
 1909. (2000) 
 Hawk, P. B.— 
 
 "Practical Physiological Chemistry." pp. XVI, 447. Blakiston's Sons 
 & Co., Philadelphia., February, 1909. 
 " "On the Diuresis Following Ether Narcosis." The Journal of Medical 
 
 Research, Boston, XIII :2, May, 1908. (15000) 
 " and Hanzlik, P. J. — 
 
 "The Uric Acid Excretion of Normal Men." The Journal of Biol. 
 
 Chemistry, N. Y., V:4, December, 1908. (4000) 
 and Howe, P. E.— 
 
 "Comparative Tests of Spiro's and Folin's Methods for the Determina- 
 tion of Ammonia and Urea." The Journal of Biol. Chemistry, 
 N. Y., V, S and 6, February, 1909. (3500). 
 " and Rehfuss, M. E. — 
 
 "A Study of Nylander's Reaction." Proc. of Amer. Soc. of Biol. 
 Chemists, April, 1909. 
 " and Howe, P .E. and Rutherford, T. A. — 
 
 "On the Preservation of Feces." Proc. of Amer. Soc. of Biol. Chemists, 
 April, 1909. 
 
 Hayes, E. C. — 
 
 "Sociology and Psychology; Sociology and Geography." Amer. Jour, 
 of Sociology, Chicago, 14:3, November, 1908. (13000) 
 Hollenbeck, F. D. — 
 
 "Placenta Previa." Read before the Illinois State Society at Peoria, 
 May, 1908. III. State Med. Jour., November, 1908. 
 
 (207) 
 
84 
 
 HOLLISTER, H. A. — 
 
 "Some Results from the Accrediting of High Schools by State Uni- 
 versities." Education, Boston, November, 1908. 
 " "What Can the High School Do to Give a Better Preparation for Life 
 
 Than It Is Now Giving?" School and Home Education, Novem- 
 ber, 1908. 
 Howe, P. E. See Hawk, P. B. 
 Howe, R. B.— 
 
 "Power Sprayers." Trans, of 111. Horticultural Society, Vol. 42, New 
 Series, 1908. (5300) 
 IsHAM, Helen and Aumer, Joseph. — 
 
 "Direct Combustion of Steel for Carbon and Sulphur." Jour, of the 
 Amer. Chem. Societ}', 30:1236, August, 1908. (1200) 
 
 Irish, H. E. — 
 
 "Should Druggists Manufacture and Dispense Mixtures of Their Own, 
 And Is It Adsivable That Doctors Dispense Their Own Drugs." 
 111. Med. Jour., June, 1908. (1500) 
 
 Jones, Grinnell. — 
 
 "An Explanation of the Negative Coefficient of Expansion of Silver 
 Iodide." Jour of the Amer. Chem. Soc, 31 :2, February, 1909. 
 (4000) 
 " and Richards, T. W. — 
 
 "The Compressibilities of the Chlorides, Bromides and Iodides of 
 Sodium, Potassium, Silver and Thallium." Jour of the Amer. 
 Chem. Soc, 31:2, February, 1909. (14000) 
 
 Jones, H. S. V. — 
 
 "The 'Cleomades' and Related Folk Tales." Pub. of the Modern 
 Language Assn. of America, XXIII 4 December, 1908. (12300) 
 Kerr, J. E. See MacNeal, W. J. and Latzer, L. L. 
 
 Kinley, David — 
 
 "Democracy and Scholarship." Science, N. Y., Oct. 16, 1908. 
 " "Movement of Population from Country to City." Cyclopedia of Amer. 
 
 Agriculture, Vol. IV, 1909. 
 " "The Center of Agricultural Production." Ibid. (5000) 
 
 KoLLOCK, Lily G. and Smith, Edgar F. — 
 
 "Determination of Zinc with Aid of the Mercury Cathode and Rctatm^ 
 Anode." Proc. of the Electro-Chemical Society, N. Y., 1909 (2300) 
 
 KUHLMANN, F. — 
 
 "The Present Status of Memory Investigation." Psych. Bull.. Balti- 
 more, Vol. V, No. 9, September, 1908. (3500) 
 " "On the Analysis of Auditory Memory Consciousness." Amer. Jour, 
 
 of Psych., Worcester, Mass., Vol. XX, March, 1909. (9500) 
 
 (208) 
 
85 
 
 Lacy, B. S. — 
 
 "Einige VersucKe ueber das Leuchten der Bunsenflamme." Zeitschrift 
 fuer Physikalische Chemie, 64:633, November, 1908. (3000) 
 Larson Laurence M. — 
 
 "A Financial and Administrative History of Milvi^aukee." pp. 1S2. 
 Madison, Wis., 1908. (Bulletin of the Univ. of Wisconsin, No. 242) 
 Latzer, L. L. See MacNeal, W. J. and Kerr, J. E. 
 Lessing, O. E. — 
 
 "In Memoriam Gustaf Karsten." The Journal of English and Ger- 
 manic Philology, Urbana, April (Sept.), 1908. (870) 
 " "Kuno Francke, German Ideals of To-day." The Journal of English 
 
 and Germanic Philology, Urbana, July, (Dec), 1908. (1600). 
 Litman, Simon — 
 
 "San Francisco as a Foreign Shipping Port." Univ. of California 
 Chronicle, Berkeley, X :3, July, 1908. (2700) 
 Lloyd, John W. — 
 
 "The Story of the Gem Melon." Trans. 111., State Horticulaural Soc, 
 42:140, 1908. (4000) 
 ** "Factors Influencing the Quality of Vegetables." Trans. 111., State 
 
 Horticultural Soc. 42:202, 1908. (1600) 
 "The Tomato Situation in Southern Illinois." Trans. 111. State Horti- 
 cultural Soc, 42:390, 1908. (1800) 
 " "Directions for Laboratory Studies of Spraying Materials." pp. 16. 
 
 Dept. of Horticulture, Univ. of 111., Urbana, 1909. 
 McMaster, C. L. — 
 
 "Notes on Practical Mechanical Draw^ing." pp. VII, 160. Wilson and 
 McMaster, Lansing, Mich., 1908. 
 MacNeal, W. J.— 
 
 "An Improved Thermoregulator." Anatomical Record, Vol. 2, pp. 
 205-207, August, 1908. 
 " and Latzer, L. L. and Kerr, J. E. — 
 
 "The Anaerobic Bacteria of the Human Intestine." Abstract in Proc. 
 loth Ann. Conf. on Home Economics, Lake Placid, pp. 137-138, 
 July 6-10, 1908. 
 " "The Fecal Bacteria of Healthy Men. Part I. Introduction and Di- 
 
 rect Quantitative Observations." Jour, of Infectious Diseases, 
 Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 123-169, April i, 1909. 
 Marquis, F. W. — 
 
 "Dynamometer Car of the University of Illinois and the Illinois Cen- 
 tral Railroad Company." Railroad Age Gazette, Feb. 19, 1909. 
 (3000) 
 Miller, G. A. — 
 
 "Transitive Groups of Degree p = 2q + i, p and q Being Prime Num- 
 
 (209) 
 
86 
 
 bers." Quarterly Jour, of Mathematics, Cambridge, England, Vol. 
 39, May, 1908. 
 
 " "Generalization of Positive and Negative Numbers." American 
 
 Mathematical Monthly, Springfield, Mo., Vol. 15, July, 1908. 
 
 " "On Multiple Holmorphs of a Group." Mathematische Annalen, Leip- 
 
 zig, Germany, Vol. 66, August, 1908. 
 
 " "Definitions of the Term Mathematics." American Mathematical 
 
 Monthly, Vol. 15, November, 1908. 
 
 " "Ansv^rer to a Question Raised by Cayley as Regards a Property of 
 
 Abstract Groups." Bull, of the Amer. Mathematical Soc, N. Y., 
 Vol. 15, November. 1908. 
 
 " "On the Groups Generated by Two Operators Satisfying the Condi- 
 
 tion Si S2=S2"^ 81-^. ibid, J^nnarv. 1009. 
 
 " "The Sixtieth meeting of the American Association for the Advance- 
 
 ment of Science." Bull, of the Amer. Mathematical Soc, March, 
 1909. 
 
 " "Groups in Which the Subgroups Which Involve All the Substitutions 
 
 Omitting a Given Letter are Regular." Prace Matematyczno- 
 Fizycgne, Warsaw, Russia, 1908. 
 
 " "On the Definition of an Angle." School Science and I^L^thematics, 
 
 Chicago, Vol. 9, January, 1909. 
 
 Miller, G. A. — 
 
 "The American Association for the Advancement of Science; Section 
 
 A — Mathematics ind Astronomy." Science, N. Y., January, 1909. 
 " "On the Central of a Group." Trans, of the Amer. Mathematical 
 
 Soc, N. Y., January, 1909. 
 " "Method to Determine Primitive Roots of a Number." Amer. Jour. 
 
 of Mathematics, John Hopkins University, January. 1909. 
 " "Groups of Subtraction and Division and Hyperbolic Functions." Math- 
 
 matical Gazette, London, December, iqaS. 
 " "Classification of Mathematics." Popular Science Monthly, N. Y., Vol. 
 
 73, October, 1908. 
 " "The Possible Abstract Groups of the Ten Orders 1909-1919." .\mcr. 
 
 Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 16, February, 1909. 
 " "Finite Groups Which May Be Defined by Two Operators Satisfying 
 
 Two Conditions." Amer. Jour, of Mathematics, Vol. 31. April, 1909. 
 
 Moore, H. F. — 
 
 "Autographic Recorder for Rapid Tension Testing." Amer. Soc for 
 Testing Materials, June, 1908. 
 
 MOOREHEAD, FREDERICK B., 
 
 "The Teaching of Oral Surgery in the Modern College of Dentistry." 
 Proc Amer. Inst, of Dental Pedagogies for 1908-1909. 
 MOSIER, J. G. — 
 
 "Washing of Soils and Methods of Prevention." Circular 119. 16 pp. 
 
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87 
 
 MOSIER, J. G. — 
 
 " "Laboratory Manual for Soil Physics." (Revised Edition) pp. 64. 
 
 College of Agriculture. 
 MuMFORD, Herbert W. — 
 
 "Beef Production in *he Argentine Republic." Bull, of the Interna- 
 tional Bureau of the American Republics, Washington, D. C, 
 August, 1908. 
 
 "Beef Production in the Argentine." The Breeders' Gazette, Decem- 
 ber, 1908. 
 NOYES, W. A. — 
 
 "Openings for Chemists." Science, June 5, 1908. (900). 
 
 "Chemical Publications in America in Relation to Chemical Industry." 
 Science, Aug. 21, 1908; also in Chemical News, Aug. 14, 1908. 
 (1400) 
 
 "The Next Step in Publication for the American Chemical Society." 
 Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem., March, 1909. (iioo) 
 
 and HoMBERGER, A. W. — 
 
 "Molecular Rearrangements in the Camphor Series, I. Hydroxy- 
 lauronic Acid and Isocampholactone." Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 
 February, 1909. ;Soo) 
 
 OCHSNER, A. J. — 
 
 "Organization, Construction and Management of Hospitals." Second 
 Edition, pp. 654. Cleveland Press. Chicago, 1909. 
 " "Symposium upon Pancreatitis." Jour, of Surgery, Gynecology and 
 
 Obstetrics, Chicago, December, 1908. 
 " "Practical Notes on Malaria." The Plexus, Chicago, January, 1908. 
 
 " "Exophthalmic Goitre from the Standpoint of the Clinical Surgeon." 
 
 Trans, of the Academy of Medicine, Cleveland, O., April, 1909. 
 " "Surgical Treatment of Gastric Ulcer." Trans, of the South Dakota 
 
 State Med. Soc, September, 1908. 
 Paetow, Louis J. — 
 
 "The Neglect of the Ancient Classics at the Early Medieval Univer- 
 sities." Trans, of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and 
 Letters, Madison, W^is., 16:311, December, 1908. (3000) 
 Parr, S. W.— 
 
 "Ueber die Parrsche Methode zur Bestimmung der Verbrennungs- 
 wasrme von Steinkohlen." Zeitschrift fuer angewandte Chemic, 
 June, 1908. 
 " "Weight of Carbon Dioxide with a Table of Calculated Results." 
 
 "Jour, of Amer. Chem. Soc, 31 :2, February, 1909. 
 " and Wheeler, F. W.— 
 
 "An Initial Coal Substance Having a Constant Thermal Value." Bull. 
 8, 111. State Geo). Survey, 1908. 
 " "Alterations of the Composition of Coal During Ordinary Laboratory 
 
 Storage." Bull. 8, 111. State Geol. Survey, 1908. 
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88 
 
 Parr, S. W.— 
 
 " "The Deterioration of Coal." Jour, of Ainer. Cliem. Soc, 30:6, June, 
 
 1908. 
 " and Francis, C. K. — 
 
 "Artificial Modification of the Composition of Coal." Bull. 8, 111. 
 State Geol. Survey, 1908. 
 " "The Modification of Illinois Coal by Low Temperature Distillation." 
 
 Bull. 24, Eng. Exp. Sta., University of 111., June, 1908. 
 " and Hamilton, N. D. 
 
 "Weathering of Coal.' Bull. 8, 111. State Geol. Survey, 1908. 
 Pi r< COMB, Helena M. — 
 
 "Household Arts in the Public Schools." School News, Taylorville, 
 111., Sept. 1908-April, 1909. 
 Porter, J. L. — 
 
 "Why Operations for Bunion Fail, with a Description of One That 
 Does Not." Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, Chicago, Janu- 
 ary, 1909. (900) 
 
 Powell, T. R. — 
 
 "Judicial Review of Administrative Action in Immigration Pioceed- 
 ings." Harvard Law Review, Cambridge, XXII, pp. 360-366. 
 March, 1909. (3000) 
 Provine, L. H. — 
 
 "A Power House Foundation." Technograph, Univ. of 111., May, 
 1909. (2500) 
 Puckner, W. a. — 
 
 "Unofficial Preparations of Hydrastis (Golden Seal)." Jour. .A.M. .A., 
 Vol. 51, No. I, July 4. 1908. (2500) 
 " "The Use of Mercuric lodid Solutions for Intramuscular Injections." 
 
 Ibid, Vol. 52, No. 7, Feb. 13, 1909. (600) 
 " and Clark, A. H. — 
 
 "Estimation of Phenol." Proc. of the Amer. Pharmaceutical .Assn. ji. 
 824, 1908. (3000) 
 
 " "Examination of Tablets of Bismuth, Opium and Phenol." Jour. A. 
 
 M. A., Vol. 51, No. 4, July 25, 1908. (1000) 
 " "LTnguentine." Ibid. Vol. 52, No. 13, March 2-j, 1909. (1400) 
 
 " "Sodium Perborate." Ibid, Vol. 31, No. 10, September 5, (1600) 
 
 " and lliM'KRT. W. S. — 
 
 " "The Detection of Hexamethylenamine in Pharmaceutical Mixtures." 
 
 Jour. Amer. Cheni. Soc, Vol. 30, No. 9, September, 1908. (1200) 
 " "Zyme-oid." Jour. A. M. A., Vol. 50, No. 21, May 2^, 1908. (1200) 
 
 " "Uriseptin." Ibid., Vol. 51, No. 9, Aug. 29, 1908. (2000) 
 
 " "The Presence of Sulphite in Commercial Solutions of Superarenal 
 
 Alkaloid." Ibid., Vol. 51, No. 18, Oct. 31, 1908. (750) 
 (212) 
 
89 
 
 PUCKNER, W. A. — 
 
 " "Veronal-Sodium and Medinal." Ibid., Vol. 52, No. 4, Jan. 23, 1909. 
 
 (350) 
 " "Zinc Permanganate." Ibid., Vol. 52, No. 6, Feb. 6, 1909. (1500) 
 
 Reitz, H. L.— 
 
 "Blaschke's Vorlesungen iiel^er Mathematische Statistik (Die Lehre 
 von den Statistiscben Masszahlen)." Bull. Amer. Matb. Soc, N. 
 Y., Dec. I, 1908. (700) 
 " "Is the Situation in Regard to tbe Teaching of Algebra in the High 
 
 Schools of Illinois Satisfactory?" School Science and Mathe- 
 matics, Chicago, June, 1908. (2700) 
 " and Shade, Imogene — 
 
 "Correlation of Efficiency in Mathematics and Efficiency in Other Sub- 
 jects : A Statistical Study." The University Studies, Urbana, 111., 
 November, 1908. 20 pp, 3 figs. 
 Roberts, S. S. — 
 
 "Report on Track — Appendix A, 'Properties of the Split Switch.' " 
 Bull. No. 108, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of 
 Way Association, Chicago, February, 1909. (2250) 
 " "Theoretical vs. Practical Switch Leads." Bull. No. 109, American 
 
 Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association, Chi- 
 cago, March, 1909. (1800) 
 Robinson, Maurice H. — 
 
 "The Legal Economic and Accounting Principles Involved in the 
 Judicial Determination of Railway Passenger Rates." Railroad 
 Age Gazette, N. Y., XLV, Nos. 19, 20, 21, 22, Oct. 9, 16, 23, 30, 
 1908. (Reprinted from Yale Review, February, 1908.) (18000) 
 Also in Railway Gazette, London, XLV, Nos. 17, 18, 19, 20, Oct 
 23, 30, Nov. 6, 13, 1908. 
 " "Accounting in its Relation to Economics." The Jour, of Accountancy, 
 
 VII :4, February, 1909. Also in American Economic Association 
 Quarterly, Boston, April, 1909. (4000) 
 " "Accountancy Education." Amer. Assn. of Public Accountants' Year 
 
 Book, N. Y., 1908. (1000) 
 Savage, T. E. — 
 
 "Lower Paleozoic Stratigraphy of Southwestern Illinois." Bull. No. 8, 
 State Geol. Survey, Urbana, Ill.j 1908. (6000) 
 Sherman, S. P. — 
 
 "Forde's Contribution to the Decadence of the Drama." Materialien 
 zur Kunde des alteren Englischen Dramas. j3and XXIII, Lou 
 vain, 1908. (6070) 
 " "A New Play by John Ford." Modern Language Notes, Vol. XXIII 
 
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90 
 
 Sherman, S. P. — 
 
 " "Literature and the Graduate School." Nation, Vol. LXXXVI, No. 
 
 2237, May 14, 1908. (1400) 
 "The Academic." Nation, Vol. LXXXVI, No. 2242, June 25, 1908. 
 (1200) 
 " "Aspects of Individualism." Nation, Vol. LXXXVI, No. 2244, July 2, 
 
 1908. (1200) 
 " "Cosmopolitanism and Decadence." Nation, Vol. LXXXVII, No. 2245, 
 
 July 9, 1908. (1200) 
 "Literature and Crime." Nation, Vol. LXXXVII, No. 2246, July 16, 
 
 1908. (1200) 
 "Lessons from a French Novel." Nation, Vol. LXXXVII, No. 2247, 
 
 July 23, 1908. (1200) 
 "The Tragic Sense." Nation, Vol. LXXXVII, No. 2248. July 30, 1908. 
 (1200) 
 " "Concerning Orators." Nation, Vol. LXXXVII, No. 2249, Aug. 7, 
 
 1908. (1200) 
 "The Old Jena and the New." Nation, Vol. LXXXVII, No. 2252, Aug. 
 
 27, 1908. (1200) 
 "The Reading of Oiildren." Nation, Vol. LXXXVII, No. 2257, Oct. i, 
 
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 "The Autobiography of Josiah Flynt." Nation, Vol. LXXXVII I. No. 
 2278, Feb. 25, 1908. (3500) 
 " "The Liqueur Magazines." N. Y. Evening Post, June 22, 1908. (1200). 
 
 " "The Financial Status of the 'College Professor." N. Y. Evening Post, 
 
 July 3, 1908. (1200) 
 "Border Warfare of the Arts." N. Y. Evening Post, July 13, i9aS. 
 (1200) 
 " "Making a New Poet." N. Y. Evening Post, July 10, 1908. (1200) 
 
 " "The Higher Foolishness." N. Y. Evening Post, Aug. 6, 1908. (1200) 
 
 " "A Reaction Against Coeducation." N. Y. Evening Post, Aug. 10, 1908. 
 
 Slippy, Ralph B. — 
 
 "The Establishment of Street Grades." Proc. Iowa Engineering Soc, 
 
 1909. (1500) 
 
 " "The Surface Temperature of Asphalt Pavements." Engineering 
 
 News, N. Y., 61:161, February 2, 1909. (300) 
 
 " "Some Notes on Rail Bending." Engineering Contracting, Ciiicago, 
 
 31 :I97, March 10, 1909. Also in Road Master and Foreman, Chi- 
 cago, 24:54, March, 1909. (400) 
 
 Smith, Frank — 
 
 "Place-modes for the Sacrum and the First Haemal Arch of Necturus.'" 
 Science, N. Y., June 12, 1908. (350) 
 
 (214) 
 
91 
 
 Smith, George McPhail — 
 
 "Ueber die relative Bestaendigkeit bzw. die Konstitution der verduennten 
 Amalgame der Alkali-bzw. Erdalkalimetalle." Zeitschrift fuer an- 
 organische Chemie, Leipzig, 58:381, June, 1908. (5000) 
 " "On a Phenomenon Otbcrved in the Action of Hydrochloric Acid on 
 
 Very Dilute Alkali Amalgams." Jour, of the Amer. Chem. Soc, 
 hias'on. Pa., 31 :.-i, January, 1909. (1500) 
 Smith, Kenneth G. — 
 
 "The Work of the Engineering Experiment Station in 1908." Proc. 
 of the 111. Soc. of Engineers and Surveyors, 24th Annual Report, 
 1909- (1500) 
 " "Illinois Coal." Ice and Refrigeration, Chicago, 36:4, April, 1909. (1200) 
 
 Smith, Louie H. — 
 
 "Ten Generations of Corn Breeding." Bull. No. 128, Univ. of 111. Agr. 
 
 Exq. Sta., Urbana, 111., September, 1908. 
 
 " "The Effect of Selection Upon Certain Physical Characters in the Corn 
 
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 February, 1909. 
 
 " "Corn Improvement." 13th Annual Report of the Illinois Farmers' 
 
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 " "Improvement of Farm Crops." Ibid. pp. 269-274. 
 
 " "Selection for Crop Improvement." The Farmers' Voice, Evanston, 
 
 September, 1908. 
 SwEzEY, Anne D. — 
 
 "Binding Records." Public Libraries, Chicago, 14:5, January, 1909. 
 (1300) 
 Talbot, A. N. — 
 
 "A Test of Large Reinforced Concrete Beams." Engineering News, 
 Aug. 6. 1908; Engineering Record, Aug. i, 1908; Engineering Con- 
 tracting, July 29, 1908; Railroad Age Gazette, July 31, 1908. (6600) 
 " and Abrams. Duff A. — 
 
 " "Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams : Resistance to Web Stresses." 
 
 27 of the Univ. of 111. Eng. Exp. Station. (50 pp.) 
 " A Test of Three Large Reinforced Concrete Beams." Bull. No. 28 
 
 of the Univ. of 111. Eng. Exp. Station. (25 pp.) 
 "Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams ; Resistance to Web Stresses." 
 Series of 1907-1908. Bull. No. 29 of the Univ. of 111. Eng. Exp. 
 Station. (85 pp.) 
 " and MooRE, H. F. — 
 
 "Tests of Built-up Steel and Wrought Iron Compression Pieces." 
 Proc. of the Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, April, 1909. (18900) 
 " "Tests of Cast Iron and Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe." Jour, of 
 
 the Western Soc. of Engineers, June, 1908. (45600) 
 
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92 
 
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 Students?" Science, August, 1908. (1650) 
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 " "Methods of Measuring Water." Proc. of the 111. Water Supply Assn., 
 
 1909. (1750) 
 TowxES, J. K. — 
 
 "Factory Legislation of Rhode Island." pp. VII, 119. Publications of 
 the Amer. Economic Assn., October, 1908. 
 Waldo, E. H. — 
 
 "Effect of Cost on Design." Technograph, Univ. of 111., 1907-1908. 
 (2000) 
 Washburn, E. W. — 
 
 "An Improved Apparatus for the Measurement of Transference Num 
 bers in Solutions of the Halogen Acids and Their Salts." Tech 
 nology Quarterly, 21:2, June, 1908. (1200) 
 " "Determination of the Hydration of Ions by Transference Experiments 
 
 in the Presence of a Non-Electrolyte." Technology Quarterly, 21 13, 
 September, 1908. (3000) 
 " "Hydrates in Solution: A Review of Recent Experimental and Theore 
 
 tical Contributions." Technology Quarterly, 21 14, December. 1908. 
 (90,000) 
 " "Die Neueren Forschungen uber die Hydrate in Loesungen." Jahrbuch 
 
 der Radioaktivitat und Elektronik, I Teil, 5 14, December, 1908 ; II 
 Teil, 6:1, March, 1909. (92000) 
 " "The Hydration of Ions Determined by Transference Experiments in 
 
 the Presence of a Non-Electrolyte." Jour of the Amer. Chem Soc, 
 31:3, March, 1909; Zeitschrift fur physikalische Chemie, 1909. 
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 Watkins, O. S. — 
 
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 ton, Pa., XXX : 1240, August, 1908. (600) 
 "Rex Lime and Sulphur with Lead Arsenate." Trans. 111. Horticul- 
 tural Soc, N. S., 42:119, 1908. (800) 
 " "Laboratory Studies of Bordeaux Mixture." Ibid., 42 : 179, 1908. (800) 
 
 Weeks, Raymond — 
 
 "Allgemeine Phonetik." Kritischer Jahresbericht ueber die Fortschritte 
 der Romanischen Philologie, Dresden, 9, December, 1908. (2700) 
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 don, 4, May, 1909. (200) 
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93 
 
 Weeks, Raymond — 
 
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 " "Bengalese Analog of Pierre Pathelin." Le Maitre Phonetique, Paris, 
 
 29, March-April, 1909. (700) 
 White, James M. — 
 
 "Requirements of the Modern House." Proc. of the Lake Placid 
 Conference on Home Economics, Vol. 10, 1908. (3000) 
 Wiehr, Josef 
 
 "Hebbel und Ibsen." pp. 183. Stuttgart, 1908. 
 " "The Relations of Grabbe to Byron." Journal of English and German 
 
 Philology, Vol. Vll, No. 3. (5000) 
 
 WiLCZYNSKI, E. J. — 
 
 "Projective Differential Geometry of Curved Surfaces." (Third 
 
 Memoir) Trans, of the Amer. Math. Soc, pp. 293-315, July, 1908. 
 
 " "Projective Differential Geometry of Curved Surfaces." (Fourth 
 
 Memoir) Trans, of the Amer. Math. Soc, pp. 176-200, April 1909. 
 
 " "Appointments in Colleges and Universities." Science, Feb. 26, 1909. 
 
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 " "Review of Hesse's 'Vorlesungen aus der analytischen Geometric." etc. 
 
 Bull, of the Amer. Math. Soc, pp. 186-188, January, 1909. 
 Williamson, A. S. — 
 
 "Tie Treatment with Crude Oil on the Mexican Central." Railroad 
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 Young, J. W.— 
 
 "A Fundamental Invariant of the Discontinuous Groups Defined by 
 a Normal Curve of Order m in a Space of n Dimensions." Bull, 
 of the Amer. Math. Soc, N. Y., 14 -.363 -368, May, 1908. 
 " "A Set of Assumptions for Projective Geometry." Amer. Jour, of 
 
 Math., Baltimore, 30:347-381, October, 1908. 
 Zeitlin, Jacob — 
 
 "The Accusative with Infinitive and Some Kindred Constructions in 
 English." pp. XI, J77. The Columbia University Press, N. Y, 1908. 
 
 (2171 
 
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