OF CALIFORNIA 
 ANGELES
 
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 THE 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL; 
 
 CONTAINING A TREATISE UPON 
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL, 
 
 AND OTHER PAPERS UPON 
 
 THE TEACHEE'S QUALIFICATIONS AND WOKK. 
 
 BY 
 
 HIRAM ORCUTT, M.A., 
 
 PRINCIPAL OF TII.DEN IiADIES* SEMINARY. 
 
 " Discipline la the great educational process." 
 
 BOSTON: 
 THOMPSON, BIGELOW, & BROWN, 
 
 25 & 29 CORNHILL.
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, 
 
 BY THOMPSON, BIGELOW & BROWN, 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 Boston : 
 Stereotyped and Printed by Sand, Avery, & Frye.
 
 Jwuoation 
 library 
 
 LB 
 3011 
 
 TO 
 
 THE ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND LADY TEACHERS 
 
 IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 TO WHOM 
 
 HAVE BEEN INTRUSTED THE MANAGEMENT AND INSTRUCTION 
 OF TWO-THIRDS OF ALL OCR PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 
 
 (Efjts Ufllume, 
 
 WHICH WAS WRITTEN FOR THE AID AND ENCOURAGEMENT OF 
 ALL WHO TOIL IN THE SCHOOLROOM, 
 
 IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 
 
 BY THEIR FRIEND, 
 
 THE AUTHOR.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THIBTEEN years ago, the Author published his 
 " Gleanings from School-Life Experience," which 
 has passed through several editions, and the last 
 one is now exhausted. That little book was sold 
 and read in nearly every State in the Union. 
 
 The present work is the result of a longer ex- 
 perience in the schoolroom (now some thirty-five 
 years), and presents the subjects discussed more 
 fully and in a different form. Yet, like its prede- 
 cessor, this book claims to be eminently practical. 
 
 The treatise upon " The Discipline of the 
 School," which comprises the opening chapter 
 and larger portion of the work, covers the whole 
 ground of school-keeping, and furnishes the young 
 teacher with practical suggestions upon every 
 topic that will be likely to occupy his attention. 
 It treats upon all the disciplinary agencies to be
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 employed in the successful management, govern- 
 ment, and instruction of the public school. 
 
 The other chapters, so far as they are repro- 
 duced from the former treatise, have been re- 
 written, and will, it is believed, be found both 
 practical and profitable to all who aim to rise in 
 their profession. 
 
 The mathematical chapter (it will be sufficient 
 to say) was prepared by EPHRAIM KNIGHT, M.A., 
 Teacher of Mathematics in the New-London In- 
 stitution, New London, N.H., who has earned an 
 enviable reputation as a teacher in that depart- 
 ment. 
 
 TU.DEN SEMINARY, 
 WEST LEBANON, N.H., November, 1871.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 i. 
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL , 
 
 XL 
 
 THE DIGNITY OF THE TEACHER'S WOBX ..... .....184 
 
 m. 
 
 THE TEACHER'S QUALIFICATIONS. ............. 196 
 
 IV. 
 CONCLUDING RBMAPIMI TO TEACHEBB ............ SIT 
 
 V. 
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS THETC HISTORY AND IMFOBTAHOB ... 234 
 
 VL 
 RULES FOB THE DIVISIBILITY OF NUMBERS ......... 360 
 
 7
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 I. 
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF TEE SCHOOL 
 
 " y\ISCIPLINE is not the art of re- 
 - warding and punishing, of mak- 
 ing pupils speak and be silent : it is the 
 art of making them perform, in the most 
 appropriate, easy, and useful manner, 
 all the duties of the school." 
 
 School discipline cannot, therefore, be 
 confined to the government of a school, 
 but applies equally to management and 
 instruction. Schoolmaster, schoolmis- 
 tress, or school-teacher does not fully 
 describe the person who educates our
 
 10 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 children. He is a school disciplinarian. 
 In other words, a good disciplinarian 
 must be a good teacher; for correct 
 teaching is one mode of discipline. And 
 for the same reason, a good teacher is a 
 good disciplinarian. Nor can good dis- 
 cipline or instruction be found in the 
 school that is not managed with ability 
 and skill. 
 
 It is the teacher's duty to call into 
 activity the observation, industry, love 
 of learning, capacity for independent 
 action and self-control, of his pupils; to 
 rouse and direct all their faculties; to 
 discipline them outwardly and inwardly ; 
 to secure order, propriety, morality, good 
 manners, obedience, regularity in com- 
 ing, going, standing, sitting, and in pre- 
 paring and reciting their lessons. This is 
 the work of school discipline ; and these, 
 if accomplished, are the results of man- 
 aging, governing, teaching.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF TEE SCHOOL. 11 
 
 From this stand-point, our subject, ex- 
 pands, and assumes a vast importance. 
 Indeed, lack of discipline is a radical, 
 ruinous defect in any school, and in a 
 large majority of the public schools in 
 every community. 
 
 I shall aim, in the following pages, at a 
 practical presentation of my subject. 
 Teachers in search of professional knowl- 
 edge do not read patiently the discus- 
 sion of mere theories. They want prin- 
 ciples and facts gleaned from the practi- 
 cal life-work of the schoolroom. 
 
 It has been my good fortune, during 
 the last thirty-five years, to have " seen 
 service" in every grade of school, and 
 under varied and complicated circum- 
 stances. I have been compelled, in these 
 relations, to study human nature, and to 
 observe the working of different systems 
 of school government, and all the meth- 
 ods and appliances usually adopted for
 
 12 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 the, accomplishment of the desired ob- 
 ject. 
 
 I may therefore, perhaps, without pre- 
 sumption, view the subject from my own 
 stand-point, and, in a measure, in the 
 light of my own experience. 
 
 Discipline is itself the great edu- 
 cational process. The well disciplined 
 alone are well educated. It is the teach- 
 er's chief business, therefore, to disci- 
 pline his pupils. He cannot "add to their 
 stature one cubit," nor to their mental 
 or moral capacity one new power ; but 
 he can bring them under such a process 
 of training as will subdue their wild and 
 untamed impulses, develop the latent 
 energies of body, mind, and soul, and 
 direct them to a course of right action, 
 so that the future citizen and lawgiver 
 may be fitted for his great work and 
 high destiny. 
 
 School discipline has reference to
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 13 
 
 all the regulations and prohibitions, re- 
 straints and stimulants, which are "calcu- 
 lated to regulate the habits of study and 
 deportment, through the interesting and 
 important period of school life. 
 
 The object to be secured is twofold ; 
 viz., school vices must be prevented or 
 cured, and school virtues must be cul- 
 tivated. 
 
 Among the school vices, as they have 
 been classified, are idleness, whispering, 
 disorderly movements in the school- 
 room, injury to property, and rudeness 
 of speech, or act, in the intercourse of 
 every-day life. 
 
 The school virtues to be cultivated 
 are suggested as the opposites of these; 
 viz., regularity of attendance, prompt- 
 ness, obedience, truthfulness, earnest- 
 ness, diligence, kindness, neatness, and 
 thoroughness in the preparation and 
 recitation of lessons.
 
 14 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 And these are to be secured not only 
 to promote the business of the school- 
 room, but also for their influence in 
 forming habits and character. 
 
 I do not propose here to lay down a 
 series of fixed rules by which all teach- 
 ers must be governed, in the manage- 
 ment of their schools. No one is safe 
 who attempts to treat every case by a 
 specific rule. Yet every act of disci- 
 pline is subject to fixed principles which 
 underlie and regulate the circumstances 
 attending it. And the judicious teacher 
 will adhere to the principle, while he 
 varies the means and appliances to suit 
 the circumstances of the case. 
 
 I will now call the attention of the 
 readers of this Manual, to the discipli- 
 nary agencies to be employed in the 
 successful management, government, and 
 instruction of a school.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 15 
 
 I. THOROUGH ORGANIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 I have seen the school in operation, so 
 perfectly systematized, all its arrange- 
 ments so complete, and its departments 
 so perfectly adjusted, that the working of 
 its machinery not only produced no 
 friction, but created order, interest, and 
 zeal, such as secured the desired object. 
 I have seen these arrangements so per-, 
 feet, as not only to prevent general dis- 
 order, but to punish wrong, without the 
 agency of the teacher. 
 
 And, on the other hand, I have often 
 witnessed the utter failure of apparently 
 competent masters for the want of sys- 
 tem in the arrangement and classifica- 
 tion of their schools. 
 
 Organization is the first business of 
 the schoolroom ; and nothing else should 
 be attempted until this is completely 
 accomplished.
 
 16 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 The pupils should be so arranged upon 
 their seats, that they will present to the 
 eye of a visitor system and uniformity, 
 and will not disturb each other in the 
 necessary movements of the day. The 
 rogues should be separated, and every 
 temptation to idleness and mischief re- 
 moved. 
 
 Irregularities must be provided for. 
 .They will occur in every school,, and 
 hence should be reduced to system and 
 made disciplinary. Recesses should be 
 at regular intervals, when one division of 
 the school, male or female, may be ex- 
 cused for ten or fifteen minutes, to take 
 the open air, and then the other division 
 in its turn. The time of recess in the 
 schoolroom may be spent by the teach- 
 er in attending to individual wants and 
 rendering individual assistance. It is a 
 suitable time also for the practice of 
 school gymnastics, which will, ere long,
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 17 
 
 be required in all our schools, both for 
 recreation and development. 
 
 There should also be an occasional 
 recess from study, say for two minutes, 
 in which pupils may whisper, ask ques- 
 tions, and attend to any necessary irreg- 
 ularities not allowed at other times. 
 
 No general disorder should be toler- 
 ated, even at such recesses ; no loud talk- 
 ing, or leaving of seats, without permis- 
 sion ; but special attention should be giv- 
 en to those disturbing habits which can- 
 not be avoided in the schoolroom. In 
 this way the last excuse is removed for 
 indulgence during the quiet hours of 
 study and recitation. The teacher can 
 now insist upon perfect order while or- 
 der is the law. 
 
 In classification, great pains should be 
 taken to have as few classes as possible, 
 and to have each pupil assigned to his 
 appropriate sphere, where he will work
 
 18 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 easily and successfully, with his time 
 fully occupied; and to have each class 
 control its own specific time and place of 
 recitation, without change or interrup- 
 tion. 
 
 The school, when thoroughly organized 
 and classified, still needs the vigilant 
 care of the master, lest its machinery 
 become disarranged and work mischief. 
 The order and system thus secured will 
 be everywhere felt and appreciated. 
 
 2 THE NEXT NECESSITT OF THE SCHOOL is LAW. 
 
 " Order is Heaven's first law," and this 
 order is the result of law. Indeed, law 
 is the ruling agency in the universe of 
 God. It controls planets and suns, and 
 holds in subjection the very particles of 
 which they are composed. "Withdraw 
 this controlling principle from the ma- 
 terial world, and anarchy, confusion, and 
 chaos would result.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 19 
 
 Law is also a necessity in all organized 
 society. Man, as a social being, could 
 not exist without it. And so, in every 
 community and among every class of 
 men, from barbarism to the highest grade 
 of civilization, we find a code of laws 
 for the regulation and control of indi- 
 viduals in their social capacity. Hence, 
 we have civil government, family gov- 
 ernment, school government, each an 
 absolute necessity for the existence of 
 human beings in these various relations. 
 
 And above all and over all, the su- 
 preme law of God bears sway. 
 
 In the material world, these laws are 
 so definite and exact as to control the 
 smallest particle that floats in the sun- 
 beam, and so comprehensive as to em- 
 brace worlds and systems of worlds that 
 roll in infinite space. 
 
 So human law must be definite and 
 comprehensive. And to be obeyed, it
 
 20 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 must be understood by every child, pupil, 
 and citizen. 
 
 In the government of the school, the 
 regulations necessary to secure order 
 and proper discipline must not only .be 
 fixed and uniform, but fully made known 
 to every pupil, that there may be con- 
 cert of action, and a harmonious work- 
 ing of all its members. 
 
 It will not do to trust a matter of so 
 much importance to the good sense and 
 good intentions of pupils, however much 
 we may confide in them. It will not do 
 to allow each to be " a law unto him- 
 self," and to act alone upon his own 
 responsibility. Every experienced teach- 
 er knows how utterly impracticable such 
 a theory is. And every one should take 
 an early opportunity to announce and 
 explain the principles and facts upon 
 which the school is to be governed. And 
 these necessary school laws must be 
 strict, and promptly enforced.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 21 
 
 Says a practical teacher on this point, 
 " A system of discipline ought to ac- 
 complish completely the object it aims 
 at. It should have no rules that have 
 not been well considered beforehand. 
 It should then admit of no exceptions, 
 but for the most imperative reasons. Let 
 down the bars to-day, and the scholars 
 will leap the fences to-morrow, and snap 
 their fingers at all barriers the day after. 
 
 The system, while it lasts, must be in- 
 flexible, earnest, strong, thorough. It is 
 much easier to govern perfectly than par- 
 tially, to say nothing of the clear gain in 
 temper and comfort. 
 
 If an evil ought to be prevented, let 
 the teacher deliberate and then prevent 
 it. He can, if he will. He must be 
 patient, but determined. If any posi- 
 tive advancement is to be made, the 
 matter should be well considered ; then 
 let the teacher will and act like a Napo-
 
 22 TEACHER 'S MANUAL. 
 
 leon." [The writer, in this quotation, 
 could not be understood to refer to Na- 
 poleon III., but Napoleon I.] 
 
 Again, the pupil must be taught and 
 made to believe that all school regula- 
 tions and laws are based upon authority, 
 authority vested in the office of the 
 teacher, which is his not to withhold, but 
 to execute. 
 
 This is the very germ and the only 
 foundation of good government. Let it 
 be distinctly understood that persuasion 
 may never take the place of authority. 
 In school management, as a means of 
 preventing evil, we may persuade, invite, 
 and win ; we may allure by kind treat- 
 ment, at any tune, when the necessity of 
 subordination is not questioned by the 
 pupil, or after he has been subdued by 
 authority. 
 
 But kindness cannot supply the place 
 of authority. Obedience is not a volun-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 23 
 
 tary compliance with a request, but a 
 hearty response to acknowledged author- 
 ity, an implicit yielding to a command. 
 The pupil must not wait the dictates of 
 inclination or feeling before he yields, 
 but promptly obey. 
 
 In the words of another, " This is a 
 government, not of persuasion, not of 
 reasons assigned, not of the will of a 
 majority, but of one master. From his 
 decision there may be an appeal, but 
 disobedience never" 
 
 " But may not the master be unreas- 
 onable and unjust in his requisitions ? 
 And if so, may not the pupil refuse to 
 obey ? " I answer, No. Obedience even 
 to an unjust command is better than dis- 
 obedience ; for the right to disobey, in 
 any instance, disarms authority, and 
 leaves the master powerless. Who may 
 decide what is right and proper ? May 
 the rebuked or chastised pupil pronounce
 
 24 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 the law unjust ? Then the government 
 of the school is in the hands of the reck- 
 less. No rebel approves of the laws he 
 has violated ; and, if he may disobey at 
 discretion, all power to govern is over- 
 come. Lawlessness and anarchy pre- 
 vail. There is no remedy for this state 
 of things, but to demand unqualified 
 obedience to the laws of the school. If 
 injustice has been done, the pupil may 
 appeal to higher authority, and have the 
 case faithfully reviewed. This position 
 should be taken and maintained in every 
 public school, academy, seminary, and 
 college in the land. No discipline can 
 be maintained on any other principle. 
 
 But some substitute persuasion for 
 authority, and claim no right to enforce 
 submission. They would persuade the 
 rebel to regard their wishes, or purchase 
 his obedience to law. Sugar-plums, 
 money, or any other desired indulgence,
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 25 
 
 is offered and given on condition of 
 obedience. Now, mark the effect of such 
 discipline upon the child. Who conquers 
 and rule's in this instance ? The child, 
 and not the master. 
 
 And he soon learns that disobedience 
 is the best currency at his command, 
 to purchase the desired reward. And 
 hence his stubbornness becomes more 
 persistent, and his impudence more in- 
 tolerable, as he desires the greater indul- 
 gence. Insubordination becomes a habit ; 
 and he soon loses all respect for authority 
 and those who exercise it over him, and 
 grows up in reckless disregard of the 
 laws of the family, the school, the State, 
 and of high Heaven. 
 
 The present is an age of insubordina- 
 tion. We have fearful illustrations of 
 this fact in the frequent outbreak of the 
 rebellious spirit in our public schools, 
 academies, and colleges, as we have had
 
 2(5 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 in the great Rebellion that deluged our 
 country in fraternal blood, and consumed 
 the wealth of the nation. 
 
 In the town of Canton, Mass., in the 
 summer of 1870, four boys, from nine to 
 eleven years old, who had rebelled 
 against the authority of the school, 
 afterwards assaulted the teacher on her 
 way to her boarding-place, and actually 
 stoned her to death ! In the winter of 
 1871, Curtis A. Wood, a school-teacher 
 in District No. 2, in Dudley, Mass., at- 
 tempted to subdue Erlow Kiblin, in re- 
 bellion in his schoolroom. The next 
 morning he was brutally assaulted, by 
 said Kiblin and his brother, on his way 
 to school. Fearless and defiant rebel- 
 lions are common occurrences in our 
 academies and colleges ; and in some in- 
 stances, within a few years, they have 
 assumed so much importance as to 
 threaten the very existence of the insti- 
 tutions.
 
 TEE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 27 
 
 If these children and youth had been 
 properly trained under law, and the 
 authority rightfully vested in their 
 parents and masters, would such fearful 
 and disgraceful scenes have been wit- 
 nessed, and such crimes committed ? 
 Surely not. Then lack of discipline is 
 an evil to be deplored and corrected. 
 
 School law has its disciplinary power 
 and influence while yet unbroken, and 
 when no penalties appear. As gravita- 
 tion, which controls and directs planets 
 and suns in their orbits, is as really 
 demonstrated while they move on in 
 undisturbed harmony in their wonted 
 course, as it would be if one of these 
 planets which had left its beaten track 
 should, under the discipline of law, be 
 restored to its accustomed sphere. 
 
 Indeed, the very object of school law 
 is to prevent and not to punish evil. 
 The necessity of punishment as often
 
 28 TEACHER'S MANUAL 
 
 results from the absence of rigid authori- 
 ty, as from any other cause. 
 
 Pupils must be subject to the laws of 
 the school at all times and everywhere, 
 in the schoolroom, by the way, and at 
 their homes. I assume it as an axiom, 
 that, so far as the pupil's conduct can 
 affect the welfare of the school, he 
 should be under the control of the mas- 
 ter. Parents should co-operate with 
 the teacher in enforcing school laws ; 
 but, if they fail to do this, the teacher 
 should enforce them by his own authori- 
 ty, whenever and wherever the good of 
 the school requires. 
 
 And to enable him to retain this pow- 
 er, without question, he should never 
 dismiss his pupils from the opening of 
 the term until its close. He may ex- 
 cuse them for recess for a few moments, 
 for an hour, for a night, for a day or 
 two, as the case may be, but not dismiss
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 29 
 
 them. He can, in this way, hold them 
 under his authority and control their 
 actions during the hours of recreation, 
 as well as when they are employed in 
 study and recitation. This control is 
 as important in the one case as in the 
 other ; and that master who is deprived 
 of the right in question has no longer 
 the power to govern his school. 
 
 3. ANOTHER IMPORTANT AGENCY IN SCHOOL, 
 DISCIPLINE is WORK. 
 
 Work is equally important both for 
 master and pupils. Indolence in him 
 begets idleness and recklessness in them. 
 Life, energy, and industry manifested by 
 him will be at once reproduced in them. 
 
 The teacher must work to fit himself 
 for his high calling, and to elevate 
 his profession. He must work for his 
 school, to interest and benefit his 
 patrons, to rouse and inspire his pupils,
 
 30 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 and to prepare himself for his daily 
 teaching. Indeed, the true teacher is 
 always reading, thinking, or acting for 
 his school. He has no other business 
 on hand, and no other object in view, 
 but to perfect himself in the art, and to 
 earn success in practical teaching. 
 
 The good teacher also manages to 
 make his pupils work. 
 
 Study and recitation are their only 
 .business in the schoolroom. But, in 
 a well-governed school, it is not often 
 necessary to enforce industry. Children 
 and youth naturally love work. Among 
 the thousands in our families and public 
 schools, not one indolent child can be 
 found, unless he has been made so 
 by the mismanagement of parents or 
 teachers. Every child of common men- 
 tal and physical ability is full of activity, 
 and not only craves knowledge, but is 
 fond of study.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 31 
 
 And it is the teacher's business to 
 direct and encourage this necessary 
 work. 
 
 The studies pursued must be adapted 
 to the capacity and standing of each 
 scholar. They must not be so difficult 
 as to cause discouragement, nor so easy 
 as to encourage idleness. 
 
 His time must be fully occupied, to 
 keep him out of mischief ; and his ener- 
 gies must be severely tasked, that he 
 may secure the benefit of mental disci- 
 pline. If his lessons could be learned 
 without effort, his school-life would, so 
 far, be without profit. 
 
 But an industrious and laborious 
 school not only requires no outward 
 discipline, but is sure of improvement. 
 The teacher should, therefore, spare no 
 pains to awaken the interest and occupy 
 the time of his pupils, that he may gain 
 these desirable objects.
 
 32 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 4 STILL ANOTHER MOULDING AND CONTROLLING 
 
 POWER ix SCHOOL, is PUBLIC OPINION. 
 
 This must be created and directed by 
 the teacher, or he is powerless. 
 
 And, first; he must create a favorable 
 opinion of himself. By this I mean, he 
 must gain the confidence of his patrons 
 and pupils. 
 
 To this end he must become intimate- 
 ly acquainted with the parents of his 
 pupils and with the pupils themselves, 
 not so much in his official capacity, as 
 in the relations of private life, at home 
 and by the way. 
 
 As the teacher moves round among 
 his patrons, he must interest himself in 
 whatever interests them, and adapt him- 
 self to their varying tastes and employ- 
 
 9 
 
 ments. 
 
 With the farmer he must be interest- 
 ed in crops and animals ; with the me-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 33 
 
 chanic, in works of art ; with the mer- 
 chant, in merchandise and trade ; with 
 the mother, he must not forget the 
 children which constitute their mutual 
 care, nor fail to notice the little darling 
 that occupies the nearest place to that 
 mother's heart. To neglect the young- 
 est children is to incur the mother's dis- 
 pleasure, which may result in unpopu- 
 larity -with the whole family, and per- 
 haps the whole neighborhood. 
 
 The master must be on terms of 
 friendship and in full sympathy with all 
 who are interested in the success of the 
 school, if he would himself achieve the 
 greatest success. He must also gain 
 the confidence and esteem of his pupils. 
 Indeed, the opinion of the teacher en- 
 tertained in the district is generally the 
 measure of his popularity in school. 
 Comparatively few parents ever visit the 
 schoolroom, to learn from their own ob-
 
 34 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 servation either the success or failure 
 of the school. They are in full sympa- 
 thy with their children, and generally 
 reflect their views and feelings in regard 
 to the teacher. 
 
 But the master will not gain the con- 
 fidence of his pupils by an attempt to 
 gratify all their wishes. The reckless 
 are always the first to find fault with 
 loose discipline. If he would be re- 
 spected in his office, he must govern 
 with sternness and vigor. He must act 
 with kindness, magnanimity and justice; 
 must sympathize with childhood and 
 youth, and may sometimes join in their 
 games and share their pastimes. Out of 
 the schoolroom he may throw off the 
 master, and -become a companion with 
 his pupils. This familiarity will not de- 
 tract from his authority, but will give 
 him vastly increased power in that di- 
 rection.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 35 
 
 Public opinion should also be em- 
 ployed to secure good order, control 
 recklessness, subdue rebellion, and crush 
 out the evil tendency of bad habits. 
 Whatever is right and proper, and 
 necessary to make a good school, must 
 be made popular. Whatever is wrong, 
 and of evil tendency, must be made un- 
 popular. This can be done ; but the 
 teacher must have skill, patience, and 
 perseverance. 
 
 Does he desire more punctuality and 
 promptness ? Let him make them pop- 
 ular. Does he desire to abate the nui- 
 sance of whispering ? Let him hurl 
 upon it the full force of public opinion. 
 
 This point is so important, I will 
 illustrate. 
 
 Present the subject of whispering to 
 the school. Lay before them the folly 
 and evils of the habit, and secure a 
 vote, as you easily can, in favor of total
 
 36 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 abstinence. Now call for volunteers 
 who will pledge themselves not to whis- 
 per for a given length of time, and 
 accept such a pledge from all who are 
 quite sure they can keep it. Call this 
 your anti- whispering society ; admitting 
 members by vote of a majority, and 
 holding them to their pledge by an ap- 
 peal to their honor. By such manage- 
 ment and constant encouragement, you 
 will enlist a large majority of your 
 pupils in the enterprise, and awaken a 
 deep interest in its success. And the 
 remaining few will soon beg for admis- 
 sion under the constitution. Public 
 opinion has now perfect control over 
 this vicious habit, and perfect order 
 prevails. 
 
 When Superintendent Philbrick was 
 master of the Quincy School in Boston, 
 he had charge of seven hundred pupils 
 gathered from the district without se- 
 lection.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 37 
 
 The school building had been erected 
 and occupied several years ; and yet I 
 was told by him that not a mark of 
 pencil or knife could be found upon the 
 benches, or walls of the building, or 
 even upon the play-ground fence. 
 
 I inquired how such a remarkable 
 result had been secured ? The reply 
 was, " By piling on motives," by the 
 power of public opinion. 
 
 In my own .experience, I have some- 
 times found my school under the con- 
 trol of rowdyism. The reckless might 
 always be sure of encouragement and 
 support in the violation of law and 
 order. 
 
 And there was no way to govern 
 that school, except by the force of au- 
 thority, backed by pains and penalties. 
 
 I have been able, at other times, to 
 suppress and banish rowdyism by public 
 opinion. In one instance, the necessity
 
 38 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 had arisen to expel two young men for 
 immoral conduct. 
 
 It was desirable that the full force of 
 this act of discipline should be felt upon 
 the school. Hence, public opinion must 
 be created to sustain the necessary se- 
 verity. I must also guard against re- 
 action from sympathy which was sure 
 to follow so severe punishment. 
 
 The case was fully prepared, and 
 treated with deliberation and care, to 
 give time for reflection. And then, in 
 the presence of the school, and in the 
 most solemn manner, the penalty of ex- 
 pulsion was executed. And immedi- 
 ately aftsr, a vote of the school was 
 called for, on the question of approval 
 or disapproval of my severe action. 
 
 In this connection, I wish to observe : 
 I did not consult the school as to the 
 propriety or expediency of expelling 
 these young men. That question was
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 89 
 
 for me alone, as master, to settle. The 
 pupils could have no voice in that mat- 
 ter. Nor did I call upon them to vote 
 until I knew that public opinion would 
 sustain me. 
 
 The master must never betray his^) 
 weakness, nor peril his authority, by [ 
 submitting any question of discipline to \ 
 his school, while in doubt as to their / 
 approval of his decision and action. I 
 But with the assurance of such ap- \ 
 proval, he may with safety play democ- 
 racy to any extent, and thus gain a 
 moral power and influence that will 
 greatly strengthen his government. In 
 the case before us, I secured the full 
 benefit of my severe discipline by this 
 public expression. Every pupil present, 
 including those who had been expelled, 
 rose to sustain me. All had now given 
 their vote in favor of good order and 
 propriety of conduct, and committed
 
 40 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 themselves to abide the decision. And 
 the influence of this discipline was felt 
 upon that school for good for many 
 years afterwards. 
 
 5. STILL ANOTHER IMPORTANT DISCIPLINARY 
 AGENCY is MENTAL AND PHYSICAL RECREATION. 
 
 The mind and body are inseparably 
 connected. Hence, mental culture can- 
 not be successfully carried on without 
 physical culture. Both body and mind 
 must have recreation, and more than 
 the ordinary recesses and holidays 
 afford. 
 
 Moreover, in every teacher's experi- 
 ence, there are certain hours and days 
 when the fiend of Disorder seems to 
 reign in the schoolroom. You cannot 
 assign any reason ; but the very atmos- 
 phere is pregnant with anarchy and 
 confusion. " It would seem," says a 
 distinguished writer, " that the ordi-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 41 
 
 nary laws of unity have been suddenly 
 bewitched ; the whole school is one 
 organized obstruction ; the scholars are 
 half-unconscious incarnations of disin- 
 tegration and contraposition, inverted 
 divisors engaged in universal multiplica- 
 tion. Under these circumstances, what 
 can you do ? 
 
 You may tighten your discipline, but 
 that will not bind the volatile essence 
 of confusion. You may ply the usual 
 energies of your administration, but re- 
 sistance is abnormal. You may flog, 
 but every blow uncovers the needle- 
 points of fresh stings. You may pro- 
 test and supplicate, scold and argue, 
 inveigh and insist : the demon is not 
 exorcised, nor even hit, but is only dis- 
 tributed through fifty fretty and fidgety 
 forms. You will encounter the mis- 
 chief successfully, only when you en- 
 counter it indirectly." And here comes
 
 42 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 the application of the proposed remedy : 
 mental and physical recreation. 
 
 Let an unexpected change divert the 
 attention of the pupils ; let some gen- 
 eral theme be introduced in a familiar 
 lecture or exciting narrative ; or, if 
 nothing better is at hand, let all say, in 
 concert, the multiplication table, or sing 
 " Old Hundred," and the work is ac- 
 complished. " The room is ventilated 
 of its restless contagion, and the furies 
 are fled." 
 
 Now add to this mental the physical 
 recreation of school gymnastics, and 
 you have a still more effective discipli- 
 nary agency. 
 
 I speak of gymnastics not only as 
 indispensable for physical development, 
 but as a means of school government. 
 The exercise operates as a kind of 
 safety-valve to let off the excess of ani- 
 mal spirits which frequently brings the
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 43 
 
 pupil in collision with his teacher. It 
 relieves the school of that morbid 
 insensibility and careless indifference 
 which so often result from the monot- 
 ony and burdened atmosphere of the 
 schoolroom. It sets up a standard of 
 self-government, and forms the habit of 
 cheerful subjection to rightful author- 
 ity ; and, as it is a kind of regulator of 
 the physical system, it becomes such to 
 the conduct, under wholesome laws. 
 
 The gymnastic resembles the military 
 drill, and has the same general influence 
 upon the pupil that the military has 
 upon the soldier, to produce system, 
 good order, and obedience. 
 
 This view of the subject is not only 
 in accordance with my own experience, 
 but is fully sustained by the testimony 
 of college officers who have had a fair 
 opportunity to test the utility of this 
 system of physical culture.
 
 44 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 Still another great advantage of 
 gymnastic exercise is seen in the self- 
 reliance and available power which it 
 creates. This is of more importance in 
 life than brilliant talents or great learning. 
 It is not the mere possession of physical 
 power that gives ability, but the con- 
 scious control -of that power, which is 
 in this way secured. 
 
 And, as we should naturally infer, 
 gymnastics is the legitimate preserver 
 and restorer of health. All the testi- 
 mony that has been taken from the 
 seminaries and colleges in which the de- 
 partment of physical culture has been 
 established goes to show the greatly 
 improved sanitary condition of these in- 
 stitutions. From thirty- three to fifty 
 per cent of the ordinary sickness has 
 been prevented by this means alone. 
 
 "Would we secure to the rising gener- 
 ation, the realization of the old motto,
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 45 
 
 " Mem sana in corpore sano" we must 
 restore to our schools, of every grade, 
 systematic physical culture. 
 
 Indeed, every department of educa- 
 tion is carried on through a system of 
 practical gymnastics. We have mental 
 gymnastics, moral gymnastics, and phys- 
 ical gymnastics which includes vocal 
 gymnastics. The law of development is 
 through exercise. A " sound mind " is 
 one whose faculties and powers have 
 been called into harmonious action by 
 patient and long-continued study. A 
 " sound body " has been developed by 
 the exercise of every one of its four 
 hundred and forty-six muscles. Thus 
 the body grows, and becomes healthy 
 and vigorous. 
 
 And as the mind and body are in- 
 separably connected, neither can be in a 
 sound condition while the other is dis- 
 eased or uncultivated. We must,
 
 46 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 therefore, have physical culture in all 
 our schools, if we would secure the 
 highest degree of improvement. 
 
 Mark the contrast between the vigor- 
 ous gymnast, in her easy and graceful 
 suit, and the indolent belle of fashion, 
 whose muscles have never been released 
 from the bondage of corsets, and whose 
 modesty recoils at the thought of vigor- 
 ous exercise and womanly sports. Observe 
 the ruddy countenance, erect posture, 
 quick and elastic steps of the one, and 
 the sickly complexion and and feebleness 
 of the other. The former has a regular 
 and natural appetite, good digestion, 
 sweet sleep, and great power of mental 
 application and attainment ; the latter is 
 a professional dyspeptic, nervous, rest- 
 less, gloomy, sickly, and pale, with no 
 higher ambition than to spend her life in 
 indolence and novel-reading. 
 
 Free gymnastics is adapted to cor-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 47 
 
 rect awkwardness of manner, and to 
 cultivate gracefulness of bearing. It 
 gives agility, strength, and ready control 
 of the muscles, and thus tends to pro- 
 duce that natural and dignified carriage 
 of the body, and the easy and graceful 
 movements of the limbs, which are called 
 refinement of manners. The gymnas- 
 tic drill also awakes buoyancy of spirits 
 and personal sympathy. Concert of 
 action brings the class into personal 
 contact, in a variety of ways, and tends 
 not only to create mutual good-will, but 
 the greatest interest and enthusiasm. 
 All this promotes improved circulation, 
 digestion, respiration, and that cheer- 
 fulness and hopefulness which dispel 
 despondency, and create new life and 
 vigor. 
 
 And another special advantage of 
 gymnastics in school is its tendency to 
 correct and control the ruinous habit of 
 fashionable female dress.
 
 48 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 The gymnastic garb must leave the 
 limbs free from restraint, and the mus- 
 cles and vital organs free from pres- 
 sure. Hence, under this treatment, the 
 beautiful female form is left as God has 
 made it, to be developed according to 
 his own plan. 
 
 The public taste and popular preju- 
 dice, as they have been manifested on 
 this subject, only illustrate how entirely 
 physical culture has been neglected in 
 our age and country. 
 
 Fashionable culture has taken its 
 place. The natural restlessness and ac- 
 tivity of childhood have saved the little 
 girl from the perils of fashionable life. 
 She will indulge in perpetual gymnas- 
 tics. But a little later her fond mother 
 recalls and restrains her. She becomes 
 delicate, and must not be exposed to 
 the sun or wind or storm. 
 
 As she grows to womanhood, she is
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 49 
 
 confined in badly-ventilated rooms, over 
 airtight stoves, and is so tenderly cared 
 for, and so much indulged in indolence 
 and folly, that she has become compara- 
 tively helpless. 
 
 The next step in this process of fash- 
 ionable culture, is still more ruinous. 
 With the Chinese, it is the compara- 
 tively harmless pressure of the female 
 foot ; with the Indian mother, it is the 
 pressure of the head, to make it long 
 and narrow; but with the American 
 CHEISTIAN mother, it is the tight lacing 
 of the waist, which is sometimes so 
 stringent and constant, that the beauti- 
 ful form which God has given the child 
 has been changed into an inverted cone; 
 and the vital organs are so compressed, 
 that muscular action, blood circulation, 
 and a long breath are hardly possible. 
 
 At home and at school, physical cul- 
 ture is entirely neglected. Is it strange,
 
 50 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 then, that the robust and red-cheeked 
 girl has become the pale, puny, and 
 consumptive young lady, and that ere 
 long that mother must shed bitter tears 
 over her early grave ? 
 
 This is fashionable culture. I rec- 
 ommend, in its place, physical culture. 
 Give our girls and young ladies free air, 
 a free dress, and free gymnastics, and 
 they will come upon the stage of active 
 life with all the physical ability and 
 vigor of the old Spartans. 
 
 And this system of free gymnastics is 
 entirely practicable for both sexes, and 
 should be at once introduced into all 
 our public schools. 
 
 Dr. Dio Lewis of Boston, Prof. Welch 
 of Yale College, Prof. Barlow of Am- 
 herst College, and Mr. Mason of Boston, 
 have written books upon this subject, 
 which will greatly aid the teacher who 
 desires to receive and give instruction 
 in this department of discipline.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 51 
 
 6. KINDNESS is ANOTHER POWERFUL AGENCY 
 
 IN THE MANAGEMENT OF A SCHOOL. 
 
 
 
 By this, as exemplified in the life of 
 the true teacher, I mean his uniform ^ 
 good will, earnest sympathy, and hearty 7 
 generosity, habitually exercised towards 
 his pupils. 
 
 There is no force on earth so potent 
 as love. When it has possession of the 
 
 
 
 human heart, it is all-pervading and 
 overpowering, and especially if brought 
 to bear upon sympathetic childhood and 
 youth. That teacher alone who truly 
 loves his pupils has power to gain their 
 love and confidence, which should be 
 his chief reliance in school manage- 
 ment. 
 
 An affectionate pupil will confide in 
 your judgment, respect your authority, 
 and fear your displeasure. Show him 
 by your personal attention and kindness
 
 52 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 ; that you are his true friend, and that all 
 your efforts are designed to secure his 
 best good, and make him believe this, 
 and you hold him as by the power of 
 enchantment ; you have no further 
 need of the display of physical force. 
 He is held under another and higher 
 law, which induces him to gratify your 
 wishes, and seek the best good of your 
 school. 
 
 You, as a teacher, hold for the time 
 being the place of the parent, and you 
 should, as far as possible, cherish the 
 affection and manifest the interest and 
 zeal of the true mother who spends 
 her life in loving and toiling for her 
 children. 
 
 But do not misunderstand me here, 
 either in what I have said, or may say, 
 touching school discipline. This kind- 
 ness, which is an essential element in 
 every true system of government, is
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 53 
 
 not, and cannot be, a substitute for au- 
 thority, or an obstacle to severity, when 
 the good of the individual or the school 
 demands it. And I wish it distinctly un- 
 derstood by my readers, that the sys- 
 tem of school government which I rec- 
 ommend, is full of love and kindness, 
 and that love is never more truly exer- 
 cised than in administering necessary 
 reproof, or inflicting necessary pain, in 
 the administration of public affairs. 
 
 Of the teacher's heart Shakspeare 
 could not say, " It is too full of the 
 milk of human kindness," if only he 
 has enough of authority, firmness, and ~> 
 
 executive will. "Without these, even ' 
 m ' j 
 
 love as an element of school discipline 
 
 is sometimes powerless. 
 
 God's infinite love fails to win the 
 hearts of wicked men ; and, in the gov- 
 ernment of the world, he has instituted 
 pains and penalties to be inflicted upon
 
 54 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 the incorrigible offender. All the suf- 
 fering that has been endured since the 
 fall of .man is so much corporal punish- 
 ment inflicted by God as a penalty for 
 the violation of law. And can man de- 
 vise a government wiser than His ? 
 
 / 
 
 7. THIS BRINGS ME TO CONSIDER THE DISCI- 
 PLINE OF PUNISHMENT. 
 
 I have considered the power of sys- 
 tem, law, and kindness, in their silent 
 but effective influence upon individuals 
 and the school. I have spoken of the 
 means and methods of preventing evil. 
 I come now to the penalties to be in- 
 flicted when crime has been committed. 
 
 Wholesome laws will be violated 
 under any system of school manage- 
 ment. And the question to be settled 
 is, shall the government of the school 
 be positive and efficient? If so, the 
 master must have the right, disposition,
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 5o 
 
 and power to inflict punishment when 
 necessary. If this right be denied, or 
 this power withheld, the government of 
 the school is at the mercy of circum- 
 stances : it cannot be sustained. 
 
 In the dispensation of penalties, pro- 
 fessional knowledge and wise discrimi- 
 nation are requisite. The circumstances 
 connected with the offence must be 
 carefully studied, and a distinction 
 always made between wilful and un- 
 intentional wrong. The isolated act 
 of transgression does not indicate .the 
 degree of guilt incurred, nor the kind 
 of punishment to be inflicted. The 
 presence or absence of palliating cir- 
 cumstances, the motive which gene- 
 rated the act, the present views and 
 feelings of the offending pupil, must all 
 be taken into the account. The master 
 should never, therefore, threaten a 
 specific punishment for anticipated of-
 
 56 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 fences. No two cases of transgression 
 will be exactly alike ; and hence, the 
 kind and degree of punishment should 
 be varied as the case demands. 
 
 Mark the emphatic sentence which 
 follows. The good disciplinarian sel- 
 dom resorts to severe punishments in 
 the government of his school. Yet, I 
 will add, he never relinquishes his right 
 and power to punish, as circumstances 
 require. Nor does he regard severity, 
 when necessary, as an evil to be 
 deplored. 
 
 It is indeed a sore evil that mortifica- 
 tion has so endangered the life of the 
 patient that amputation of the limb is 
 necessary. But it is not an evil that 
 you have at hand surgical skill and 
 suitable instruments to perform the 
 operation. 
 
 It is indeed a great misfortune that 
 any child or pupil has become so de-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 57 
 
 moralized and reckless as to incur the 
 penalties of the law ; but Solomon's rod, 
 
 which has restored him to obedience 
 
 > 
 
 and duty, is a blessing whose influence 
 will be felt and acknowledged by the 
 offender as long as he lives. 
 
 Nor is severe punishment to be re- 
 garded as " the last resort." When it 
 may be inflicted at all, it is the first 
 resort and the true remedy. Allow me 
 to illustrate : A skilful physician is 
 called to prescribe for a patient who is 
 sick almost unto death. He sees at a 
 glance, that there is only one remedy 
 which can save his life, and even that 
 must be promptly administered. But 
 that is a powerful and dangerous medi- 
 cine, except in scientific and experi- 
 enced hands. Now, the question is, 
 shall it be given at once, or as " the 
 last resort," after every other milder 
 remedy has been tried? If the physi-
 
 58 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 cian resorts to herb-drinks and tonics, 
 in the case supposed, he shows himself 
 to be a quack ; and his patient will 
 die, while he, tender-hearted simpleton, 
 is experimenting upon him ! But the 
 calomel is given, and the patient recov- 
 ers. So with punishment. It may be 
 mild, or it may be severe. Each kind 
 is appropriate, as a remedy for specific 
 evils ; but, if the case is one that re- 
 quires great severity, that kind of pun- 
 ishment must be inflicted, promptly and 
 faithfully. It aims to restore to obedi- 
 ence and fidelity, under aggravating 
 circumstances j and nothing else will se- 
 cure -the object in view. " Spare not 
 the rod," therefore, lest you " spoil 
 the child ; " and delay not its applica- 
 tion. 
 
 Less aggravating and dangerous 
 offences should be treated with milder 
 penalties ; and the point to be estab-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 59 
 
 lished here is, that each offender should 
 be promptly punished as he deserves. 
 
 Much has been said and written upon 
 corporal punishment and moral suasion ; 
 but their appropriate use in school disci- 
 pline is seldom understood, as it seems 
 to me. 
 
 Moral suasion is not the remedy for 
 bold and defiant violations of law, if 
 you mean by that term the persuading 
 of the culprit to return to obedience, or 
 the purchase of his allegiance by a 
 promised reward. 
 
 Rebellion should be met by stunning, 
 crushing blows, such as will vindicate 
 and re-establish authority, and deter 
 others from committing the same crime. 
 
 Mildness is cruelty under such circum- 
 stances. All such cases demand instant 
 and determined action. The time for 
 conciliation is after the rebels are sub- 
 jugated and the authority of the gov- 
 ernment is restored.
 
 60 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 And here allow me to remark, moral 
 influence and kindness should attend 
 every act of severity. Never let the 
 sun go down upon the wrath of a chas- 
 tised pupil. See him alone ; bring to 
 bear upon him all your moral power; 
 treat him now with kindness and confi- 
 dence, as far as possible, and you will 
 restore him to duty and favor. With- 
 out the rod, moral suasion might have 
 been powerless ; or if successful, what 
 was gained by persuasion was lost to 
 authority. It must never be doubtful 
 that the master has supreme control over 
 his little kingdom. 
 
 If his authority is trifled with, it 
 must be restored without delay ; and 
 any punishment is judicious that is 
 necessary to this end. 
 
 But do not offer an angry word or 
 blow for every offence, real or fancied. 
 There is no authority nor wisdom in
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 61 
 
 such . a course. That school-teacher 
 who, in Schenectady, N.Y., in the sum- 
 mer of 1870, " inflicted five hundred 
 and seventy-three punishments on the 
 children of her school," ought to have 
 been tried and convicted of incom- 
 petency, and dismissed from service. 
 Every such teacher should be rejected 
 from the profession. 
 
 The best masters, under this system, 
 punish the least. And the few cases 
 where severity is necessary are treated 
 with great calmness, firmness, and 
 solemnity. The child is made to feel 
 that an abiding love and sense of duty 
 alone prompted the punishment ; and 
 yet he is made to understand that au- 
 thority always controls the school, 
 that it is the master s duty to command, 
 and the pupil's duty to obey. 
 
 Practically, the system of govern- 
 ment here recommended is the only 
 one which has been successful.
 
 62 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 Moral suasion which has abandoned 
 the right, or lost the power, to punish, 
 has proved a failure. In Cambridge, 
 Mass., during the last year, the use of 
 the rod was restored in all the schools, 
 in which it had been previously prohib- 
 ited by universal consent. The trial 
 of the mild system had been made 
 under the most favorable circumstances, 
 but signally failed ; and so it will fail, in 
 every instance where experience is 
 allowed to test the false theory. 
 
 8. THE DISCIPLINE OF THE BIBLE IN OUR SCHOOLS 
 MAY NOW BE CONSIDERED. 
 
 The religious element in our system- 
 of education is of the highest impor- 
 tance to the individual, the school, and 
 the nation. It moulds the character, 
 regulates the conduct, and controls the 
 destiny of those who come under its 
 influence. It is suited to develop the
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 63 
 
 moral mature, to regulate the affections, 
 to enlighten the conscience, and to di- 
 rect and purify the life. Hence, that 
 teacher who fails to bring religious influ- 
 ence to be-ar upon his school is false to 
 the high trust committed to him. And 
 I know of no standard of moral and re- 
 ligious truth but the Bible. 
 
 But shall the Bible be retained in our 
 public schools ? This is the vital ques- 
 tion of the hour, and one full of impor- 
 tance to the public weal. It has already 
 created an open war in our large cities, 
 which has, at times, raged furiously, 
 and with doubtful results ; a war of 
 Christian patriotism against the growing 
 skepticism of the country. Infidels have 
 generally joined in the hue and cry 
 against Bible-reading in our schools. 
 Hence the following testimony in favor 
 of retaining the Bible is particularly 
 gratifying. Professor Huxley, the Eng-
 
 64 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 lish savant, who has the reputation of 
 being nearly or quite an atheist and 
 materialist, has lately come out, very 
 decidedly, in favor of reading the Bible 
 in the common schools. He would 
 have it done " without any theological 
 comments, and judiciously as to selec- 
 tions to be read." The ground of his 
 advocacy of the Bible is, that " there must 
 be a moral substratum to the child's edu- 
 cation, to make it valuable; and that 
 there is no other source from which 
 this can be obtained at all comparable 
 with the Bible" This passage needs 
 no comments. Only let the reader 
 ponder the italicized sentence. 
 
 The truth is conceded by all intelli- 
 gent men of every Christian denomina- 
 tion, as well as by Professor Huxley, 
 that as a text-book of morals the Bible 
 is incomparable. And if we have no 
 right to educate a moral being while
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 65 
 
 wholly ignoring and excluding moral 
 influences, we have a right to claim a 
 prominent place for the Scriptures in 
 every school in the nation. Nor have 
 we any reason to fear that Bible-instruc- 
 tion cannot be given without encour- 
 aging a sectarian bias. 
 
 As a book of literature and law the 
 Bible has no equal. Webster, Carlyle, 
 Coleridge, Chalmers, each has pronounced 
 the Book of Job the most sublime poem 
 in the possession of mankind. The his- 
 torical portions of the Bible are unsur- 
 passed in ancient or modern literature. 
 The stories of the Old Testament excel 
 all others in beauty and pathos. They 
 are always fresh, they never tire. 
 They fascinate the young ; they interest 
 the old. The Bible is the only book 
 ever written whose characters are noi 
 overdrawn and distorted. Indeed, the 
 human race had better spare all other
 
 66 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 books in the process of education than 
 to be deprived of this Book of books. 
 
 Daniel Webster once said, "I have 
 read through the entire Bible many 
 times. I now make it a practice to go 
 through it once a year. It is the book 
 of all others for lawyers, as well as 
 divines ; and I pity the man who cannot 
 find in it a rich supply of thought and 
 of rules for his conduct. It fits a man 
 for .life. It prepares him for death." 
 
 How, then, can there be any question 
 as to the propriety, the desirableness, 
 and the necessity of retaining the Bible 
 in all our public schools? It is surely 
 safe and wise to make our children fa- 
 miliar with the only perfect book of 
 literature in the world, and to bring 
 them under the wholesome influence and 
 moulding power of its pure and sublime 
 truths, while then: hearts are yet tender, 
 and their character is forming.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 67 
 
 It becomes every American teacher 
 to wake up to a consciousness of the 
 danger, and to prepare himself to de- 
 fend the principles and institutions 
 bequeathed to us by our fathers. A free 
 Bible, in free schools, is the birthright 
 of Americans ; and let us not barter it 
 away, or suffer it to be wrested from 
 our hands. 
 
 We yet have the free Bible in our 
 possession, and the inquiries here re- 
 turn to us. Shall it be retained ? And 
 how shall it be used in the management 
 and discipline of our schools ? 
 
 To the first inquiry, let every Amer- 
 ican patriot and Christian respond with 
 an emphatic YEA. 
 
 In answering the last question, I will 
 say, it should not be employed to teach 
 dogmas. .Sectarianism should have no 
 place in the schoolroom. But the 
 Bible, in the hands of the moral and
 
 68 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 religious teacher, should be made the 
 standard of right and duty; and per- 
 sonal obligation to cherish its principles 
 and practise its precepts, should be 
 everywhere inculcated. 
 
 The Bible should not be regarded 
 nor used as a common text-book. It 
 should be read in connection with other 
 religious exercises, either by the pupils 
 or the teacher; more properly by the 
 teacher, as it seems to me. 
 
 If the teacher read the Scriptures 
 himself, he is able to make the exercise 
 more impressive, and to hold and direct 
 this mighty power in the discipline of 
 his school. 
 
 The moral and religious atmosphere 
 of the Bible should pervade the school- 
 room ; it should clothe every thought, 
 direct every motive, and inspire every 
 action. And, so far as this influence is 
 felt, the happiest results are realized.
 
 TEE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 69 
 
 This same agency should also be em- 
 ployed in punishing for falsehood, pil- 
 fering, profanity, and the like. 
 
 The teacher should not forget the 
 Bible doctrine, that " The rod and re- 
 proof give wisdom." Yet the moral 
 treatment of such offences is always 
 appropriate, either with or without se- 
 verity, as the case may be. If the 
 knowledge of the crime is confined to 
 the criminal and the teacher, it may be 
 treated privately, for the good of the 
 individual. But, if it has been made 
 public, the punishment should be in- 
 flicted in the presence of the school, 
 that all similar cases may be reached, 
 and the whole benefited. 
 
 Let the folly, wickedness, and conse- 
 quences of the crime be fully exposed, 
 and brought home, if possible, upon the 
 conscience. 
 
 And, in the settlement of the question,
 
 70 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 never fail to leave a way open for re- 
 pentance and restitution. To illustrate : 
 Fourteen dollars, in bank-bills, had 
 been taken from the drawer in a teach- 
 er's office. It was fully believed that 
 one of the boys, who had been in the 
 school and family for some time, was 
 the guilty party. Two things were now 
 to be done ; viz., to convict the guilty, 
 and punish the crime. To this end, the 
 
 
 
 facts of the case were made public. The 
 nature and criminality of pilfering were 
 explained ; the probability of convicting 
 the offender was urged ; and the disgrace 
 and mortification of friends when the 
 facts should be exposed were classed 
 among the sad consequences of the act. 
 It was presumed that the crime was 
 committed in a thoughtless moment, and 
 that the boy would be glad to restore 
 the money if he had opportunity ; and 
 this was earnestly recommended.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 71 
 
 The next morning, when the school 
 assembled for prayers, the lost money 
 was found carefully folded between the 
 leaves of the teacher's Bible. As he 
 cast his eyes upon- the school before 
 him, the guilt of the boy was so mani- 
 fest upon his countenance, and in his 
 actions, that there could be no longer 
 any doubt as to his identity. 
 
 The teacher now took occasion to 
 commend the noble act of restitution, 
 and spoke of the propriety of placing 
 the stolen money in the Bible, thus 
 correcting conscience by the great 
 standard of right and duty ; and finally 
 alluded to the happy consequences, if 
 the boy should never again yield to 
 such temptations. 
 
 The matter was here dropped, but 
 the sequel has been written. The lad, 
 though a pilferer, as his father said, 
 from his early childhood, was never
 
 72 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 known to repeat the act. When he left 
 school, he took an important position as 
 clerk, was afterwards partner in busi- 
 ness, and is now (twenty-five years 
 afterwards) a successful business man in 
 one of our New-England cities. 
 
 Another instance. 
 
 A gold dollar had disappeared from 
 the teacher's table, while she stepped to 
 a neighboring room. Two school-girls, 
 who were the only persons in the room, 
 had disappeared. It was Saturday ; and 
 in the evening the young ladies were 
 assembled for family worship in the 
 public parlor. The principal, who was 
 conducting the services, commenced 
 describing the effects and consequences 
 of having, by accident, deposited a gold 
 dollar upon the human lungs. It would 
 corrode and poison ; produce inflamma- 
 tion, disease, and death, if it could not 
 be removed.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 73 
 
 He then transferred the gold dollar 
 from the lungs to the conscience, and 
 portrayed the consequent guilt, remorse, 
 anguish, and moral death resulting from 
 such a crime, if not repented of. He 
 presumed the young lady would gladly 
 restore the money, and save herself 
 from the disgrace and suffering that 
 must follow. He told her where she 
 could leave the dollar, and that the fact 
 of restoring it would be proof of her 
 penitence, and would save her from 
 exposure. 
 
 But, in her desperation, she had 
 already thrown the gold dollar down 
 the register, and could not restore it. 
 But she did borrow the amount of a 
 teacher, confidentially, to be paid from 
 her sp ending-money, and deposited it 
 as suggested. And so the whole matter 
 was settled, and the most satisfactory 
 results followed. The parents of this
 
 74 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 young lady have never known that any 
 thing of the kind ever occurred. 
 
 These cases indicate the method I 
 would adopt in dealing with school 
 vices. 
 
 9. WE MAY NEXT CONSIDER THE DISCIPLINE OP 
 STUDY. 
 
 Study is mental gymnastics, sys- 
 tematic thinking ; and the end in view is 
 development and culture. One great 
 object of the school is to induce and 
 direct this mental exercise. Study is of 
 the first importance, and, hence, must 
 have the first attention of every practi- 
 cal teacher. In the organization, classi- 
 fication, management, and government 
 of the school, his chief aim is to secure 
 mental application. 
 
 To this end he arranges certain hours 
 of the day which are especially devoted 
 to study. No unnecessary interruptions
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 75 
 
 are allowed. In the selection of studies 
 and arrangement of classes, he has 
 regard to the capacities and standing of 
 each pupil, so that he may work 
 earnestly and successfully. He requires 
 a regular hour to be devoted to each 
 study and recitation, that order and 
 system may everywhere prevail. He 
 enforces rigid discipline, that the school- 
 room may be quiet ; and, most important 
 of all, he inspires his pupils with an 
 enthusiasm that creates a love for the 
 duties of the school, and earnestness in 
 study. He teaches them how to study ; 
 that it is not the number of hours spent 
 with book in hand, but close application, 
 that secures good lessons and thorough 
 discipline, and that self-application is 
 the only condition of sound learning. 
 Hence, he will not allow them to seek 
 assistance from each other, nor often 
 from the teacher.
 
 76 TEACHER '8 MANUAL. 
 
 And the wise teacher always instructs 
 his pupils to study thoughts and sub- 
 jects, instead of words and books. 
 
 Thus correct habits of study are 
 formed, and the foundation is laid for 
 successful training at every future stage 
 of education. 
 
 Study is the exercise of acquiring, and 
 the only means of mental culture. Mind 
 is developed through its agency, and 
 the power of self-control and self-direc- 
 tion sained. 
 
 10. THE DISCIPLINE OF RECITATION COMES NEXT 
 IN ORDER. 
 
 Recitation is the exercise of expres- 
 sion, and, like study, belongs wholly to 
 the scholar. Study and recitation are 
 the principal means of gaining mental 
 power and practical ability. Both are 
 indispensable to the end in view, if not 
 equally important.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 77 
 
 Recitation has some incidental advan- 
 tages of its own. If properly conducted, 
 it induces study. Few lessons would be 
 learned in any school if no recitations 
 were required, or if it was understood 
 beforehand, that the hour of recitation 
 was to be occupied by the teacher in 
 lecturing or asking questions. Let the 
 pupil know that he must stand before 
 his class, and recite and explain inde- 
 pendently of his teacher, and earnest 
 application to study will be the result. 
 
 Again, recitation gives distinctness 
 and vividness to acquired knowledge. 
 No lesson is fully learned and fixed in 
 the memory until it is carefully recited. 
 It follows, therefore, that every pupil 
 must recite at every recitation or suffer 
 a loss. Classes should never be too 
 large to allow this thorough personal 
 drill. That teacher who claims ability 
 to educate classes numbering from fifty
 
 78 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 to seventy-five is either a novice or a 
 quack. Such arrangements and such 
 teaching are fruitful sources of indolence 
 and superficial scholarship. 
 
 Recitation in concert conies under the 
 same head. This may sometimes be a 
 profitable exercise, when the whole 
 school can engage in it, for relief, recrea- 
 tion or improvement. But class reci- 
 tation in concert, as a habit, creates 
 disorder in the schoolroom, prevents 
 quiet study, destroys individual self- 
 reliance, affords a hiding-place for the 
 idle and reckless, and removes the 
 strongest motive for earnest application. 
 
 But the relation of recitation to study 
 is not its most important use. All that 
 is practical in education, in every 
 department of life, is developed by reci- 
 tation. The power of action no less 
 than the power of expression is gained 
 by this alone. The child learns to walk
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF TEE SCHOOL. 79 
 
 and talk by walking and talking. It 
 could learn in no other way. The 
 mechanic learns to use his tools by 
 using them. He could never gain the 
 power to build a house, construct an 
 engine, or manufacture a watch, by 
 reading or hearing lectures on the sub- 
 ject. In each department he learns his 
 trade by reciting. 
 
 The skilled musician has gained his 
 wonderful ability to use the voice and 
 the instrument by years of patient reci- 
 tation. 
 
 The statesman and orator, whose elo- 
 quence moves the senate and attracts 
 the attention of an admiring nation, has 
 gained his power of influence by the 
 practice of oratory. And so the art of 
 easy, graceful, and intelligent conversa- 
 tion, and elegant composition, is ac- 
 quired by conversing and writing. 
 These examples, drawn from the theatre
 
 80 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 of busy life, serve to illustrate the rela- 
 tive importance of school recitations, 
 and to indicate the manner in which 
 they should be conducted. I come, 
 then, to consider 
 
 11. THE DISCIPLINE OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 We may here distinguish between 
 instruction and recitation. The former 
 is the business of the teacher, the latter 
 belongs exclusively to the pupil. The 
 object of the one is to impart informa- 
 tion, induce study, and to awaken 
 thought; the object of the other is to 
 express the thoughts which the scholar 
 has gained by study, observation, and 
 reflection. School instruction should 
 aim to interest and aid the mind in self- 
 application ; school recitation serves, as 
 has been suggested, to render acquired 
 knowledge more definite, and concep- 
 tions more vivid, and cultivates the
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 81 
 
 power and habit of expression. And all 
 these exercises study, recitation, and 
 instruction have one common end to 
 accomplish, viz., discipline. 
 
 In speaking further of the discipline 
 o instruction, I shall naturally consider 
 the different methods which have been 
 adopted. 
 
 I will first examine the natural method, 
 beginning with the elementary. 
 
 The untrammelled child in the nur- 
 sery has a happy way of acquiring 
 knowledge and discipline. His home, 
 the little world in which he lives, is now 
 his school. The domestic animals, his 
 playmates, and his toys occupy his 
 attention and awaken his interest. His 
 mind is alive to every object his eyes 
 behold. Full of inquiries and reflection, 
 he pursues his investigations, and makes 
 rapid progress in his studies.
 
 82 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 And how does he learn in this school 
 of nature ? 
 
 I answer, he first observes the object, 
 then learns its name ; afterwards he 
 studies its nature and uses. 
 
 The child never deals in abstractions, 
 nor troubles himself about the unmean- 
 ing elements of which that object is 
 composed. He cares nothing for the 
 etymology of the name, nor the sounds 
 which combined give it expression. He 
 knows it at sight, and speaks it without 
 hesitation. Its utility he soon discovers, 
 and values it only as he can turn it to 
 some practical account. 
 
 Now, transfer this child from the nur- 
 sery to the district school. How shall 
 we deal with him and instruct him 
 there ? In his home school he has been 
 free, and has had constant employment. 
 Shall he now be imprisoned, and confined 
 hard benches for six long hours
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 83 
 
 of the day, and for five days of the week ? 
 In the first place, this child should not 
 be sent to school until six or eight years 
 old. And then he should spend only a 
 part of the time in the schoolroom, 
 with frequent and longer recesses in the 
 open air. While in school, special pains 
 should be taken to interest the pupil, 
 and occupy his time. While too young 
 to study, he should always have slate 
 and pencil, or chalk and blackboard, to 
 occupy his leisure moments in drawing 
 and writing. 
 
 But the child has come to school to 
 learn to read, first of all. How shall he 
 be taught ? By the word method, in 
 distinction from the alphabetic., if we 
 are to follow the natural process, and 
 keep alive the interest and zeal which 
 he manifested while at home. 
 
 The word-method begins with words 
 found in the book, and the child learns
 
 84 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 to read correctly and fluently a hun- 
 dred pages in " Webb's First Reader," 
 before he is expected to know the name 
 or sound of a single letter. 
 
 But this method contemplates some- 
 thing more than learning words. That 
 series of books by which this system is 
 taught abounds in pictures which rep- 
 resent the objects described. The at- 
 tention of the child should first be 
 directed to the picture, and then to the 
 object which that picture indicates. 
 Next comes the word; and, if that word 
 cannot be represented by an object or 
 picture, its meaning should always be 
 explained. The thing before the sign is 
 the rule, in teaching by this method, 
 even with familiar objects. 
 
 Now suppose, for example, you open 
 the book to the picture of a dog. Ask 
 the child some such questions as these : 
 Did you ever see a dog ? Can you tell
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 85 
 
 me the name of a dog ? Is Ponto 
 black, or white, or speckled ? Can he 
 do any thing ? What can he do ? 
 Talk? Sing? No. Hear? See? Feel? 
 Eat ? Run ? Walk ? Yes. Look at this 
 picture of a dog. Is this a dog ? A 
 real dog ? No, a picture dog. Can this 
 dog hear, see, feel, or eat ? No. Is he 
 like the real dog in any respect ? Yes, 
 he has eyes, ears, feet, and tail, and 
 looks like the real dog. 
 
 By this time the child has become 
 deeply interested in the object of the 
 lesson. Now point him to the word 
 dog. Let him print it on his slate, as 
 soon as he is able. Tell him that this 
 word dog means the same as the pic- 
 ture dog, and that both represent the 
 real dog. 
 
 As far as practicable, teach each word 
 in the same way. Particles and connec- 
 tives, and other words not represented
 
 86 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 by objects, should be learned with their 
 meaning, so as to be recognized at 
 sight. Words descriptive of color and 
 actions should be illustrated by ex- 
 amples. 
 
 When spelling comes to be taught 
 with reading, and the alphabet to be 
 learned, it should be by the analysis of 
 the words found in the reading-lesson, 
 instead of the old method of learning 
 the A, B, C's, and spelling columns of 
 unmeaning words from the spelling- 
 book. 
 
 The advantages of the word-method 
 are many, some of which may here be 
 mentioned. 
 
 1st. The child knows the word by its 
 looks, as he knows the object. 
 
 2d. Not being obliged to spell out 
 the word, he can speak it without hesi- 
 tation or drawling. 
 
 3d. He learns the meaning of every
 
 TEE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 87 
 
 word in the lesson, and is able to read 
 with naturalness, as he would talk. 
 
 4th. The child avoids the use of 
 those symbols and sounds which the old 
 method compels him to study, many 
 months, before he can read at all, and 
 which tend to create disgust both for 
 books and the school. 
 
 By the use of this method, much, 
 therefore, is gained every way. Time 
 is saved, the child's interest is kept 
 alive, and school life becomes a pastime 
 instead of a burden. 
 
 And, as his education advances, the 
 same method of instruction should be 
 carried into all departments of study. 
 
 Denning and explaining should, as far 
 as possible, be done by the use of ob- 
 jects, and should be extensively re- 
 quired in spelling, reading, and every 
 other department of the school. The 
 free use of the " English Dictionary "
 
 88 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 should be encouraged. No school-book 
 is so much neglected by our pupils, and 
 yet no one is so important. The study 
 of our own language should be made a 
 prominent object in every grade of 
 school and by every pupil. 
 
 In teaching spelling, punctuation, and 
 the use of capitals, direct the attention 
 of pupils to the printed page. They 
 will then see correct forms and uses, and 
 thus acquire the habit of criticism and 
 correctness in their own practice. Why 
 these capitals are so used should be ex- 
 plained ; and what variations of the 
 voice the punctuation marks indicate 
 should be illustrated by the teacher's 
 living voice. These can never be prac- 
 tically learned from the spelling-book in 
 the old way of teaching. Such abstract 
 definitions are wholly unmeaning to the 
 child ; and he should never be required 
 to learn them, without practical illustra- 
 tions.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 89 
 
 What do the punctuation marks indi- 
 cate ? They are points in an oration, 
 where the reader or speaker may pause, 
 for a longer or shorter time, to relieve 
 his voice, as the traveller may stop for 
 rest, at the hospitable inns that mark 
 the country turnpike en route to the 
 city. And where are these inns lo- 
 cated ? Not as chance may dictate, but 
 at suitable distances for the conve- 
 nience of those who travel. So the 
 punctuation marks are placed where 
 the voice needs rest, to indicate the 
 time and nature of the pause, and to 
 enable the reader to proceed without 
 weariness. Now let the pupil hear the 
 sentence correctly read, while he ob- 
 serves the marks that indicate the varia- 
 tions and suspensions of the voice, and 
 then let him read it correctly himself, 
 and he will know more of punctuation, 
 than by six months of study upon the 
 rules in the spelling-book.
 
 90 TEACHER'S MANUAL, 
 
 Object- teaching is Nature's method. 
 Through the eye the most permanent 
 impressions are made upon the mind. 
 Hence, there should be, in every school- 
 room, extensive blackboards, globes, 
 maps, blocks, and such other apparatus 
 as can illustrate the subjects of thought 
 and study before the school; and the 
 teacher should make free use of them 
 in all_ departments of instruction. He 
 should train his pupils to critical obser- 
 vation, and direct their attention not 
 only to the subject of the lesson and the 
 objects which illustrate, but also to kin- 
 dred subjects and objects in the exter- 
 nal world. He should insist upon 
 accuracy, and encourage the correction 
 of errors, and thorough investigation of 
 every theme that comes before the 
 class. 
 
 And, while dealing with the thoughts 
 of others, the child should be early
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 91 
 
 taught to express his own, and, as soon 
 as he is capable, to write on slate or 
 paper his own expressions of thought. 
 This is called the Department of Compo- 
 sition, the most neglected of all depart- 
 ments, and hence the most dreaded by 
 almost every grade of scholars. If the 
 habit of composing was practised from 
 early childhood, the writing of composi- 
 tions would be as easy and pleasant as 
 any other school exercise. 
 
 I therefore insist that the teacher 
 should give early and constant attention 
 to this subject. 
 
 And first, the child should be taught 
 to express the thoughts found in his 
 book or lesson, in his own language. 
 For instance : a class in reading is upon 
 the floor. A story, or an item of history, 
 is the lesson of the hour. Let these 
 children be told, that, after that story is 
 read, one and another of the class will
 
 92 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 be called upon to recite what has been 
 read in his own way. Few will be able, 
 or will undertake, to remember the lan- 
 guage of the author; but the thoughts 
 in their connection will be retained, 
 and expressed with wonderful accuracy. 
 Let this habit be cultivated at every 
 opportunity, and the child will not only 
 acquire the power of accurate expres- 
 sion, but the power of thought, and will 
 soon gain the ability to compose and 
 write with ease and propriety. 
 
 Now assign to him such simple sub- 
 jects as he can fully understand, and 
 such as especially interest him, and 
 require short but frequent exercises in 
 composition, under criticism. Direct 
 his attention especially to spelling, 
 punctuation, use of capitals, and the 
 correct arrangement and expression of 
 his thoughts, and encourage neatness 
 and legibility in his penmanship.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 93 
 
 And, as the pupil advances in his 
 course, let this exercise be varied so as 
 to secure practice in the various styles 
 of writing. Encourage epistolary cor- 
 respondence, and familiarity with all 
 business forms, that the scholar may 
 acquire a practical knowledge of the 
 branches which he studies. 
 
 THE THREE METHODS 
 
 of instruction may now occupy our 
 attention. The more common method 
 adopted in our public schools is by ques- 
 tioning. Many teachers know of no 
 other way; and some have so little 
 knowledge of the subjects to be taught, 
 that they demand to have questions 
 prepared for themselves, as well as for 
 the pupils. 
 
 And book-makers, wise always in 
 securing their own pecuniary interest 
 (but not so often in promoting the best
 
 94 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 good of our schools), adapt their books 
 to the condition of the market, and line 
 the margin with questions to be used in 
 study and in the recitation. This is all 
 wrong, and is one of the indications of 
 the superficiality of our age. The ten- 
 dency, in all departments of learning, is 
 to skim the surface, and to remove the 
 necessity of thoroughness in preparing 
 and reciting lessons. 
 
 Questioning is not the best method of 
 instruction, nor can it ever be safely 
 adopted as the only method. Yet, it 
 has its appropriate place and usefulness. 
 
 1st. The teacher may, by questions, 
 direct the attention of the pupil to 
 special topics or thoughts, which have 
 been overlooked and omitted in the 
 recitation. This will aid in directing 
 future study, and tend to awaken 
 new thought and secure thoroughness. 
 Questioning for this purpose may be
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 95 
 
 more or less practised in connection 
 with each recitation, as the topics, one 
 after another, come under re view; but it 
 may never be substituted for recitation, 
 nor made prominent as a method of 
 instruction. 
 
 2d. Questioning is proper and useful 
 also in conducting reviews and exami- 
 nations. It enables the teacher to bring 
 out, and fix attention upon, the promi- 
 nent points in the lesson, and to explain 
 and remove difficulties as they come in 
 the way. And it gives him power to 
 ascertain the standing of the scholar, his 
 attainments and defects, and to direct 
 and control his course of study. 
 
 But, when questioning is allowable, 
 the teacher must exercise special care 
 as to the manner of conducting this 
 exercise. 
 
 He should never ask leading ques- 
 tions. This is forbidden in the exami-
 
 96 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 nation of witnesses, and it is never 
 allowable in the school. 
 
 By leading questions, I mean such as 
 suggest the answer, and require no 
 special knowledge of the subject to ena- 
 ble one to give it correctly. Such ques- 
 tioning tends to cultivate the habit of 
 indolence, and is destructive of sound 
 scholarship whenever it is indulged. 
 
 Again, when questioning a class, 
 always put the question before calling 
 upon the scholar to recite. 
 
 This habit leaves all in doubt who 
 will be called upon to recite, and makes 
 it necessary for all to be fully prepared, 
 and to give undivided attention, an 
 object which is indeed worth securing, 
 and which can be secured in no other 
 way. And while the teacher should have 
 special regard to the matter, form, and 
 mode of his questions, he should give 
 equal attention to the matter, form, and 
 mode of the answers.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 97 
 
 He should see that the answer is con- 
 fined to the question ; that it is concise 
 and logical; that it is given in correct 
 language. This habit of criticism will 
 secure accuracy of thought and expres- 
 sion, and impart positive knowledge. 
 It is opposed to that loose and vague 
 method of study and expression which 
 results in mental anarchy and confusion. 
 Written answers have the advantage 
 over verbal, as they bring the scholar 
 under rigid examination in other de- 
 partments of primary instruction. He 
 must expose in the written answer his 
 style of penmanship, his deficiency in 
 orthography, use of capitals and punctu- 
 ation, and his want of accuracy and 
 conciseness in the form of expression. 
 Hence, the teacher should practise writ- 
 ten examinations as often as time will 
 allow, and should apply his criticisms to 
 all the departments involved.
 
 98 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 Lecturing is another method of in- 
 struction which has its uses and abuses. 
 
 A lecture by the teacher should never 
 be substituted for a recitation by the 
 class. These exercises are separate and 
 distinct in their aim and results. Many 
 teachers suppose that the measure of 
 their ability as instructors is the power 
 they have to explain and talk before 
 their classes; and hence, spend the most 
 of the hour assigned to recitation, in 
 the display of their own gift of speech. 
 But, in the recitation-room, the good 
 teacher has but little to say. His ability 
 is tested by his silence more than his 
 loquacity; by his power to rouse and 
 direct the activity of his pupils, more 
 than by his own actions. 
 
 But there are times and places for 
 familiar and studied lectures ; and the 
 object to be gained is two-fold. 
 
 First, like reading and travelling, lee-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 99 
 
 tures impart instruction. They present 
 the truths of science in an attractive 
 manner, and in their logical connection. 
 They serve for variety, and fill up the 
 vacant hours that might otherwise be 
 wasted. 
 
 Secondly, lectures should be em- 
 ployed to accomplish another object; 
 viz., to discipline the pupil in the habit 
 of listening. He may acquire correct 
 habits of study, and accuracy and flu- 
 ency in recitation, and yet be a listless 
 hearer. He must, therefore, be edu- 
 cated to listen, as well as to study and 
 recite. Why do so many of those who 
 attend divine service on the sabbath, 
 come away very little interested and 
 profited, hardly remembering the text, 
 and much less the theme of the sermon 
 as discussed by the preacher ? 
 
 The answer is obvious. The audience 
 have not been educated to listen. The
 
 100 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 habit of fixed attention has not been 
 formed. Hence, this department of 
 education demands special attention in 
 our schools. Let the teacher require 
 the scholar to repeat whatever may be 
 communicated or explained ; let him be 
 required to take notes, and recite after 
 every formal lecture, and he will soon 
 acquire the power and habit of following 
 the speaker and comprehending his dis- 
 course. Whole subjects may be profita- 
 bly studied and thoroughly learned in 
 this way, if the teacher requires a care- 
 ful recitation after every lecture ; but the 
 greatest advantage to be gained from 
 the public lecture is the habit of listen- 
 ing with fixed attention. 
 
 But neither questioning nor lecturing 
 is the true method of instruction, but 
 independent Topical Recitation. This 
 should be required of every class, in 
 every school, whenever the subject will
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 101 
 
 admit of it. No other method can 
 secure the end to be accomplished. 
 This will appear in the answer to the 
 inquiry ; what is the end of study, reci- 
 tation, and instruction ? 
 
 Not the attainment of knowledge, but 
 discipline. The results of education are 
 illustrated, not by the golden cup filled 
 to the brim, but by the swelling buds 
 developed into blossoms and ripe fruit, 
 through the genial influences of light, 
 heat, and moisture. Education, then, is 
 not the storing of knowledge, but the 
 development of power ; and the law of 
 development is through exercise. And 
 study and recitation are the principal 
 agencies to be employed in this process 
 of training. Instruction is useful and 
 important only so far as it secures, 
 directs, and controls earnest study and 
 careful recitation. Any system of in- 
 struction, therefore, which weakens the
 
 102 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 motive, or removes the necessity of 
 laborious thinking and independent 
 expression, is false in theory and ruin- 
 ous in practice. Hence, I condemn the 
 " drawing-out " and the " pouring-in " 
 systems, if either is the only or princi- 
 pal one adopted. 
 
 The scholar must learn to think by 
 thinking. No book or teacher can 
 think for him. And he must learn the 
 power of expression by reciting ; and 
 this is the only practical power that is 
 gained by him, in the whole process of 
 education. 
 
 Allow study-hours to be interrupted, 
 and you, in the same degree, rob your 
 scholars of mental discipline, and toler- 
 ate among them, mental dissipation. 
 Deprive them of the privilege of in- 
 dividual and daily recitations, and you 
 rob them of half the benefit of the 
 school. The lesson must be learned by
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 103 
 
 patient and earnest study, but this is 
 not enough : it must be recited again 
 and again, under the criticism of the 
 accurate teacher, to make available 
 the knowledge and discipline attained. 
 And, as a means of developing practical 
 ability in different departments of life, 
 school recitation can hardly be over- 
 estimated. 
 
 As recitation is wholly the work of the 
 scholar, he should recite independently, 
 and, as intimated, topically, as far as 
 possible. If the lesson contains cap- 
 tions, mathematical definitions and 
 tables, or fixed rules, they should be 
 accurately recited in the words of the 
 author ; but, in every other kind of reci- 
 tation, the expression of the thoughts 
 which the pupil has acquired by study 
 should be embodied in his own lan- 
 guage. The mind should be the deposi- 
 tory of thoughts, and not of mere words
 
 104 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 and signs. The object of the recitation 
 is not only to express these thoughts in 
 their logical order, but to acquire an 
 accurate and free use of language. 
 
 Like the parrot, the scholar may re- 
 cite the words of the author, with little 
 or no knowledge of the subject, and 
 without interest or profit ; but, by the 
 expression of thoughts in his own lan- 
 guage, he makes them his own, and 
 acquires the power of using them. 
 
 In the class-recitation the pupil 
 should be required to stand while recit- 
 ing. He will thus be brought out 
 prominently before the class, and will 
 acquire the habit of thinking and speak- 
 ing in that exposed position. This will 
 give him confidence and self-control. 
 It should never be known beforehand in 
 what order the class will be called upon 
 to recite ; or I may as well say, no order 
 of recitation should be adopted by the
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 105 
 
 teacher. He will then be at liberty to 
 call up the idle and inattentive, and to 
 vary his process as circumstances re- 
 quire. And, if it cannot be known by 
 the members whose "turn comes next," 
 each will be obliged to learn the whole 
 lesson, and will be prepared to recite 
 any part of it. 
 
 Language furnishes the chief means 
 of expression ; hence, topical recitation 
 is the true method of instruction. But 
 some thoughts cannot be expressed in 
 words. They must be drawn out in 
 figures, diagrams, and maps. Whole 
 chapters of history may be written out 
 in a finely-executed picture ; and some- 
 tunes even words are better expressed 
 in silence than by sounds. All these 
 are methods of recitation, and each has 
 its own place and utility. 
 
 Again, the skilful teacher will adapt 
 his instruction to the capacity, attain-
 
 106 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 ments, and dispositions of his pupils. 
 He finds in every school a great va- 
 riety, and cannot properly include all 
 under the same process of training. 
 Some have enjoyed better advantages 
 than others, at home and abroad ; some 
 are bright, and others stupid ; some 
 are timid, and others bold and self- 
 sufficient. 
 
 Now, each of those classes requires 
 special treatment, and that teacher is 
 wise, and will be eminently successful, 
 who is able to adapt his treatment and 
 instruction to the wants of each and all. 
 
 And let him never forget the cardinal 
 principle in education, that each mind 
 must be tasked. This is necessary for 
 the easy scholar, as really as for the 
 dull. It is discipline, and not talent 
 alone, that gives mental power. Genius 
 even cannot supply the place of disci- 
 pline. Every teacher, therefore, must
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 107 
 
 see to it that each pupil is so classified as 
 to be required to perform a full amount 
 of mental labor. Let his time be fully 
 occupied by earnest application, if you 
 expect him to become successful in 
 school, or in life. 
 
 Mere scholarship does not make the 
 man. Every experienced educator in 
 the nation can bear testimony to this 
 truth. No teacher in the academy, 
 seminary, or college, has failed to see all 
 his calculations as to the comparative 
 ability of different members of his class, 
 when measured by class-recitation, en- 
 tirely subverted. In active life, the 
 brilliant scholar who has spent but little 
 time over his lessons, yet claims to bear 
 off all the honors of his class, is often 
 compelled to step aside, and see his less 
 scholarly but more industrious and labo- 
 rious companion upon whom he may 
 have looked with contempt, outstrip
 
 JOS TEA CHER '8 MANUAL. 
 
 him, and come up to occupy positions 
 which he could not fill. College marks 
 made the boasting genius a " Phi-Be- 
 tian," and gave him the valedictory ; 
 but the world has reversed the decision, 
 and awarded the merit and the honor to 
 him who has paved his way to distinc- 
 tion and usefulness by toil and sweat 
 and tears. The college will never 
 abandon its own marking, as the stand- 
 ard of honorable position, nor fail to 
 withhold merited honor from all who 
 were not found among its favored few 
 in the days of " Greek roots " and Latin 
 terminations. And still there is no 
 other standard of greatness in the 
 world, no other test of honorable 
 distinction, except that ability which 
 has been tested by successful action. 
 The ablest man in any sphere of life is 
 he who has accomplished the most in 
 that sphere. He may have marked low,
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 109 
 
 but he stands high, in spite of the false 
 judgment which had been passed upon 
 him. 
 
 It has been stated that " Gen. Grant 
 graduated at the middle of his class." 
 Some one has commented upon this 
 statement as follows : " And Lee gradu- 
 ated well up toward the head. That 
 was many years ago. Subsequently at 
 Appomattox, Grant passed to the head, 
 and Lee went to the foot. One began 
 moderately, and ended well ; the other 
 commenced admirably and finished ill." 
 This example serves to illustrate. 
 
 I would not intimate that scholarly 
 ability is not desirable, but this is not 
 always tested by college marks. Nor 
 would I deny that cultivated scholarship 
 is one condition of obtaining high pro- 
 fessional distinction. But it often hap- 
 pens that the brilliant scholar is sadly 
 deficient in those manly qualities which
 
 110 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 are the guarantee of success in life, 
 common sense, untiring industry, energy, 
 and perseverance. And, when these are 
 wanting, mere scholarship fails to make 
 him great. Even brilliant talents are 
 developed only by culture. Long and 
 patient toil is the price of merited 
 honor. He who has gained the high- 
 est walks of professional life has risen, 
 step by step, not by genius, but by 
 labor. 
 
 Hence, we see the reason why the 
 comparatively dull and timid scholar 
 outstrips the easy and self-sufficient. 
 He relies upon his industry, while his 
 companion relies upon talent; he toils 
 while his fellow-student is idle ; and, 
 therefore, when the two come into the 
 world, to meet its trials and endure its 
 hardships, the man who has boasted of 
 his scholarship, and wasted his time in 
 ease and sport, fails ; while his less
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. Ill 
 
 gifted but better disciplined companion 
 succeeds. 
 
 Each mind must, therefore, be tasked 
 to be educated. The kind and number 
 of studies assigned to these two classes 
 must be determined by the ability and 
 attainments of each. If one individual 
 has power to learn only one or two les- 
 sons well, that is all that should be 
 required of him. But his fellow, who 
 can accomplish twice as much in the 
 same time, should have two or four les- 
 sons, as the case may be. Compel each 
 scholar to do all he is able to do, and 
 then all will be equally benefited by 
 the discipline of school life. Require 
 the easy scholar to do only what the 
 dull can accomplish, and you rob him 
 of half the benefit. 
 
 Treat the dull scholar with stimulants, 
 and such encouragement, help, and pres- 
 sure as he needs to secure earnest
 
 112 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 application. Instruct the easy scholar 
 as little as may be, but task him as 
 much as he will bear. You will thus 
 develop in both whatever of ability they 
 possess, and prepare them for some 
 sphere of honor and usefulness. 
 
 The self-sufficient will boast that they 
 have no need of study ; that they know 
 by intuition all that is worth knowing. 
 They will try the teacher with hard 
 problems ; and, if he refuses or fails to 
 solve them, they will report him incom- 
 petent to instruct the school. They are 
 noisy and impudent, and a nuisance in 
 the school, as they will be in life, unless 
 they are cured while under school disci- 
 pline. Now, it is the teacher's duty to 
 adopt a special process of training for 
 this class of scholars. 
 
 Put them under rigid treatment in 
 the school, and under severe pressure in 
 the class-room. Try them with hard
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 113 
 
 questions. Hold them at the black- 
 board, and in independent recitations, 
 until they have exposed their ignorance 
 and measured their ability and attain- 
 ments by the true standard. In a word, 
 humble such scholars, and show them 
 their place and the necessity of study 
 and good behavior. 
 
 The timid scholar deserves the special 
 interest and attention of the teacher. 
 
 He has been neglected at home, and 
 abused at school. He has been the butt 
 of ridicule and the sport of fools, until 
 he has lost all self-respect and self-reli- 
 ance, and dares not even call his soul 
 his own. This class of pupils needs the 
 sympathy and protection of the teacher, 
 and should have his special encourage- 
 ment. Rebuke and punish every in- 
 sult offered them. Treat them kindly 
 and with attention. Assure them of 
 their ability to succeed, and encourage
 
 114 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 them to make application. Convince 
 them that brilliant scholarship is not 
 the only condition of success in life ; 
 that hard study alone educates ; that a 
 failure to overcome difficulties, if at- 
 tended with sufficient effort, may prove 
 more beneficial than success ; and that 
 thorough discipline of mind, industry, and 
 perseverance have elevated many timid 
 and obscure boys to positions of emi- 
 nence and usefulness. Be faithful to 
 this neglected and abused class of 
 pupils, and you will deserve and obtain 
 the lasting gratitude of many who will 
 rise from obscurity to eminence through 
 your encouragement and influence. 
 
 The tree of knowledge that grows in 
 the educational garden is also a tree of 
 discipline. Its stately and well -formed 
 trunk, its symmetrical limbs, its flowing 
 leaves, its beautiful flowers, and its rich 
 fruit are charming to the eye and to the
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 115 
 
 taste, and form a refreshing shade for 
 the weary pilgrims of science. Gushing 
 springs flow forth from its roots to 
 quench their thirst. Singing birds pour 
 forth their richest music from its 
 branches. 
 
 But the ease and pleasure here to be 
 enjoyed are for those only who come to 
 toil, and whose weariness is the result of 
 successful efforts to pluck the fruit of 
 that tree. 
 
 By this comparison may be illustrated 
 not only the nature and end of educa- 
 tion, but the methods of instruction 
 adapted to the different grades of schol- 
 arship and attainments found in our 
 schools. 
 
 The fruit of our tree is knowledge ; 
 but this, though desirable, is not the 
 end of education. The greatest benefit 
 to be derived is from the discipline in 
 plucking the fruit. If knowledge could
 
 116 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 be obtained by intuition, or without 
 effort, it would avail but little as a prep- 
 aration for the stern duties of life. 
 
 Hence, special care must be exercised 
 by the teacher lest the easy scholar gain 
 only knowledge. He can reach the 
 highest branches, and pluck the fruit 
 without aid. He needs no instruction; 
 would be injured by having it. Such a 
 scholar may be directed and encouraged, 
 but not assisted so long as he is able to 
 gain his object by his own effort, even 
 though it may cost him much toil and 
 pain. This rule holds good with all 
 grades of scholars. No one should be 
 helped while he has power to help 
 himself. 
 
 But some need more instruction than 
 others. They can reach only the lower 
 branches on the tree of knowledge. 
 These should be encouraged to make 
 the greatest possible effort, and then be
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 117 
 
 assisted to reach and climb still higher, 
 but never lifted while they have the 
 power of climbing. 
 
 The third class of scholars of which 
 we have spoken can pluck no fruit at 
 all. They cannot reach even the lowest 
 branches ; or, at least, they think they 
 cannot. Deal gently and kindly with 
 such. Perhaps an encouraging word, or 
 inspiring thought, will give them this 
 power. They may need nothing more. 
 If they do, bend down the limbs, but 
 only so far as to enable them to reach 
 the fruit by earnest effort. You will 
 thus inspire them with courage and 
 self-reliance, and lead them to make 
 successful efforts for their own improve- 
 ment. They will thus be educated. All 
 these different classes will be tasked, 
 and gather fruit only as they are disci- 
 plined. Some general suggestions upon 
 the subject of instruction will now be 
 made.
 
 118 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 And, first, teach subjects and not 
 books. School-books are convenient 
 and useful only so far as they present 
 the subjects under discussion in a suita- 
 ble form for study and recitation. They 
 are often inaccurate, and ill adapted to 
 the schoolroom. They are not unfre- 
 quently, in these days, so simplified by 
 illustrations and explanations, that all 
 necessity for hard study is removed, and 
 hence, superficial habits of scholarship 
 are induced. In such cases, school- 
 books become a positive injury, and 
 hinderance to sound learning. 
 
 Again, books are soon exhausted, while 
 the subjects of which they treat are inex- 
 haustible. They should, therefore, never 
 be studied as books, and only as helps in 
 the thorough examination of the sub- 
 ject. Let the science of arithmetic, 
 geography, or grammar be presented to 
 the scholar or the class, with the un-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 119 
 
 derstanding that the principles and the 
 facts upon which that science is based 
 are the theme for investigation. The 
 blackboard, the text-book, and the 
 book of reference, are to be used and 
 studied by 'the teacher and the scholar, 
 until the subject is fully understood and 
 mastered. Used in this way, the book 
 is forgotten, while the principles, with 
 their practical application, become a 
 part of the mental capital stored away 
 in the scholar's mind for future use. 
 As a banker, he can add his column of 
 figures, cast his interest, make his in- 
 dorsement, balance his account, with no 
 thought of the authors he has studied, 
 whether Adams, Greenleaf, or Eaton ; 
 as a speaker and writer, he uses cor- 
 rectly the English language, without a 
 thought of old Murray, or " Gould 
 Brown's Grammar of Grammars ; " as a 
 geographer, he understands latitude
 
 120 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 and longitude, the location of cities, 
 the boundary, climate, productions, gov- 
 ernment and religion of countries, and 
 all the important principles and facts 
 connected with this science ; but he has 
 forgotten the author whose well-drawn 
 maps and pictures aided him 'in the 
 study of the subject. 
 
 So the " well-read " physician be- 
 comes entirely familiar with disease, in 
 all its forms, and its remedies, but does 
 not need to consult his books before he 
 can amputate a limb, or prescribe for a 
 fever. 
 
 But books, and books only, are taught 
 in a large majority of our common 
 schools ; and so superficially taught, that 
 our scholars leave the school with but 
 little definite and practical knowledge 
 of the subject. This crying evil should 
 be corrected. 
 
 Again, allow me to suggest, teach
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 121 
 
 classes. By this, I mean that all the 
 important principles and difficult exam- 
 ples, should be brought out and ex- 
 plained before the class, but to individ- 
 uals only by way of repetition, as the 
 circumstances of the case require. This 
 should be done as a matter of economy 
 of time. It costs no more to explain a 
 principle to a class of ten, than to an in- 
 dividual ; hence, the class-system will 
 give ten times as much instruction in 
 the six hours of the day as the individ- 
 ual system. Besides, class instruc- 
 tion creates more interest, ambition, 
 and rivalry. And as still another ad- 
 vantage, class-instruction enables the 
 teacher to cultivate in his pupils the 
 habit of self-reliance. He should ex- 
 plain no principle until the class have 
 failed to understand it. One fails, and 
 another, and perhaps still another; but 
 the fourth is able to explain. Let him
 
 122 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 take the floor, and then submit the 
 question again to the class. The 
 teacher's time to instruct is after all 
 have toiled in vain to see the light. 
 
 Another idea : instruct only so much 
 as is necessary to show the pupil how to 
 study, and keep him from discourage- 
 ment. Let him do the work, while you 
 point out the way, and encourage his 
 application. And, if he asks for light, 
 give him only twilight. This is Nature's 
 method of imparting light to the world. 
 First, in the morning, the darkness is 
 relieved by the glimmering twilight ; 
 and by imperceptible degrees it steals 
 upon us, more and more, until we bask 
 in the full blaze of noon-day. The anx- 
 ious scholar sees but dimly the principle 
 and the fact. He longs for more light. 
 Encourage him to struggle for it, and 
 let it in upon him slowly, and only as he 
 needs it.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 123 
 
 Let it here be written in italics, 
 though it be a repetition of the thought 
 elsewhere expressed, never remove a 
 difficulty which the scholar has the 
 power to remove. If this golden rule 
 be adopted and adhered to by the 
 teacher, discipline will be secured, and 
 the habit of self-reliance cultivated. 
 
 Allow no interruptions during the 
 time of recitation, except in indispensa- 
 ble cases. When this rule is departed 
 from by the teacher, as it often is, 
 the school becomes a scene of unmin- 
 gled confusion. The teacher is at the 
 mercy of circumstances ; study in the 
 school-room is impossible ; the recitation 
 becomes a farce. 
 
 In such a school, the call for a class to 
 come to recitation is the watch-word for 
 the general rally, for all the little urchins 
 to supply their numerous wants. Tom 
 has left his slate on a distant bench, and
 
 124 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 wishes to go for it; Sam is cold, and 
 wants to go to the stove and warm him- 
 self; Dick asks to speak, that he may 
 find where his lesson begins ; Harry 
 wants to go out ; Peter comes to the 
 teacher to ask for the pronunciation of a 
 word, the solution of an example, or to 
 tell him that Sam has pulled his hair. 
 So question upon question is asked, and 
 movement upon movement is inaugu- 
 rated, until the school becomes a Bed- 
 lam where anarchy reigns. And all this 
 time the teacher is attempting to hear a 
 recitation ! 
 
 We want no other evidence of the 
 incompetency of a teacher, or assurance 
 of his utter failure, than the fact that 
 he allows such interruptions during the 
 hours assigned to recitation. 
 
 Have it distinctly understood from 
 the beginning of the school, that the 
 time devoted to recitation must be
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 125 
 
 sacred to that purpose ; that no ques- 
 tions or other interruptions can be 
 allowed. It has already been suggested 
 that a time be set apart for irregulari- 
 ties which must occur in every school, 
 that good order and quiet may be main- 
 tained in study and recitation hours. 
 This is indispensable. 
 
 I have said, allow no questions during 
 recitation hours. As a substitute, allow 
 the raising of the hand, as a signal of 
 want. You can easily tell at a glance 
 whether the child needs your attention 
 or not. If it is evident that the signal 
 indicates only mischief or restlessness, 
 as it generally does, give it no attention, 
 and weariness of muscles will soon settle 
 the difficulty. If the case is really an 
 exception, it should, of course, have 
 your attention. 
 
 Another practical suggestion in this 
 connection is, strive to make the reci-
 
 126 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 tation attractive and interesting. This 
 requires thought and professional skill. 
 The teacher should carefully study each 
 lesson before meeting the class, not 
 merely to enable him to understand 
 what he teaches, but to be able so to 
 conduct the recitation that he will 
 awaken and keep alive the interest of 
 his pupils. He must make himself 
 familiar with illustrations drawn from 
 kindred subjects and from the external 
 world, and adopt new and varied 
 methods of instruction. He will gain 
 much reputation and power in the 
 schoolroom, by preparing himself to 
 conduct recitations without the use of 
 the text-book ; and he should never 
 allow the scholars to use their books, 
 except when, under his direction, they 
 are needed for reference in solving 
 examples or explaining principles. 
 Independence in this regard will serve
 
 THE DISCIPLINE' OF THE SCHOOL. 127 
 
 to awaken confidence and new interest 
 in the minds of the pupils, and enable 
 the teacher to make the class recitation 
 much more attractive. 
 
 But, after all, the grand test of the 
 teacher's ability, and the secret of his 
 success, is found in his power to inspire 
 his pupils with earnestness and enthu- 
 siasm in the business of the school. To 
 wake up mind is his first and most im- 
 portant work. And, if successful in this, 
 he is at once master of his situation. A 
 school w^holly absorbed in study has no 
 time nor disposition for idleness or mis- 
 chief. Good order is secured without 
 external appliances ; cheerfulness and 
 industry everywhere prevail ; study and 
 recitation are no longer a task, but a 
 pastime ; in a word, the grand object of 
 school life is attained. Hence it be- 
 comes a matter of great importance to 
 learn the art of inspiration.
 
 128 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 And, first, it may be here remarked, 
 " as is the teacher," in this and every 
 other respect, " so is the school." A 
 noisy teacher makes a noisy school ; a 
 rude and clownish teacher imparts his 
 rudeness to his pupils ; an indolent and 
 stupid teacher begets indolence and 
 stupidity, which brood like a cloud of 
 darkness over the school. So will life, 
 energy, and enthusiasm in the teacher 
 serve to awaken thought, to encourage 
 application, and to inspire zeal in all 
 who come under his influence. And 
 inspiration is what the pupil needs more 
 than help. 
 
 The true teacher is alive and in ear- 
 nest ; his heart throbs with tenderness 
 and emotion ; his blood flows freely 
 through his veins, and imparts fresh- 
 ness, cheerfulness, and vigor to his whole 
 being. Enthusiasm speaks out in his 
 voice, glows in his countenance, flashes
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 129 
 
 from his eye, streams from his fingers, 
 and infuses itself like leaven through 
 the whole school. 
 
 And this animating influence of the 
 earnest teacher is not confined to the 
 schoolroom. It is felt in the neighbor- 
 hood ; it is manifest in the families 
 where the children spend their evening 
 hours in study instead of playing in the 
 streets, and where parents interest them- 
 selves in the school more than in the 
 training of animals or raising of crops. 
 In a word, the enthusiasm of the true 
 teacher has a power for good that has 
 not yet been estimated. It brings order 
 out of confusion, light out of darkness, 
 and awakes to activity the slumbering 
 powers of intellect, as it were life from 
 the dead. 
 
 If we had in active service more of 
 these live teachers, we should have 
 better schools and much more general
 
 130 TEACHER'S MANUAL, 
 
 interest manifested in the cause of edu- 
 cation. 
 
 I may here suggest that there is much 
 incorrect instruction given in our schools. 
 Many teachers know only what they find 
 in books, and even that is but partially 
 understood ; and they impart only what 
 they know. They neither investigate 
 themselves, nor encourage their scholars 
 to inquire as to the correctness of the 
 assumed facts, as found in text-books. 
 Hence, fiction is received for fact, and 
 theory for principle. 
 
 For instance, the book says, and a 
 majority of teachers believe, that the 
 axis of the earth is " an imaginary line 
 extending from pole to pole." But 
 what is a real line ? Simply distance, 
 or the extension of a point. And is 
 there not real distance between the 
 north and south poles of the earth ? It 
 must be so ; and hence, the axis of the
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 131 
 
 earth is a real line, not an imaginary 
 one. Often we are told by both teachers 
 and scholars, that simple subtraction is 
 " taking one number from another." 
 But in the process of subtraction noth- 
 ing is taken away from the larger num- 
 ber in the example. It is simply a 
 comparison between the two numbers to 
 find their difference. 
 
 We inquire how many fundamental 
 rules in arithmetic ? The answer given 
 is, " Six." But what is arithmetic ? 
 A science of number. What is num- 
 ber ? " That which admits of being 
 counted or reckoned." What can we 
 do with numbers ? Put them together 
 (add), and take them apart (subtract). 
 We can do the same with broken num- 
 bers ; we can do nothing more with 
 numbers, whether whole or broken. 
 Hence, there is, there can be, but two 
 fundamental rules in arithmetic. Nota-
 
 132 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 tion and numeration teach the language 
 of arithmetic. Multiplication and divis- 
 ion are only shorter methods of adding 
 and subtracting. 
 
 Fractions are sometimes said to be 
 " broken numbers." But this definition 
 gives a very imperfect idea of what a 
 fraction is. Broken numbers are as 
 really whole numbers as the unit which 
 they composed. Each of the one hun- 
 dred and two asteroids is as really a 
 whole number, as was the original 
 planet before it was broken. Every 
 fractional part of every unit, however 
 small it may be, is itself a unit when 
 considered alone, and " all are but parts 
 of one stupendous whole." There is 
 then, properly speaking, but one unit in 
 the universe, and that is the universe 
 itself. Adhere to the correct definition, 
 and you are safe in giving instructions 
 on this subject, "PARTS OF ONE AEE 
 
 CALLED FRACTIONS."
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 133 
 
 It is not enough to explain principles : 
 you should also give facts in all depart- 
 ments of instruction. Thoroughness in 
 giving instruction requires special atten- 
 tion to first principles. In nothing are 
 our public schools so deficient. It is a 
 rare thing to find a scholar in the rural 
 districts who is really a good speller and 
 reader, and who understands thoroughly 
 the principles of mental arithmetic and 
 grammar, and the facts in geography 
 and history. Yet the common school 
 is the very place where these branches 
 should be mastered. Go to our higher 
 seminaries of learning, and you will 
 find a multitude of students who are 
 pursuing the higher mathematics, natu- 
 ral and mental sciences, the living and 
 dead languages, music and painting, 
 and yet they could not explain simple 
 subtraction, nor write a respectable let- 
 ter of business or friendship, to save
 
 184 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 their lives. In penmanship, orthog- 
 raphy, punctuation, the use of capitals, 
 and in forms of expression, they are 
 sadly deficient. These defects are all 
 exposed in a single letter. 
 
 In a recent examination at West 
 Point Academy, several cadets who had 
 come well recommended from the acad- 
 emies of the country, and had made 
 commendable attainments in academic 
 studies, were found so deficient in ele- 
 mentary branches, that they were re- 
 jected. Such facts illustrate the in- 
 efficiency of our common schools, and 
 show the importance of special attention 
 to this department of instruction. To 
 meet the evil, our teachers must have 
 a thorough training in the primary 
 branches. This should be given them 
 in our academies and seminaries ; and 
 especially may we depend upon our 
 normal schools to impart this thorough 
 instruction.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 135 
 
 And, in the second place, the first and 
 chief attention of our teachers, in the 
 district school, must be given to the ele- 
 mentary branches. . No teacher has any 
 right to allow the higher English 
 branches or languages a place in these 
 schools, to the neglect of reading, spell- 
 ing, arithmetic, grammar, and geogra- 
 phy. We are sometimes told that the 
 common-school teacher is not qualified 
 for his position, and ought to be ashamed 
 of himself, if he is not prepared to 
 teach such studies as algebra, geometry, 
 and surveying. It is true that the 
 study of these subjects would give him 
 more discipline, and enable him to 
 teach more successfully the elementary 
 branches. So far, very well ; but he 
 need not blush to say to his pupils, " I 
 cannot teach you surveying, or the 
 dead languages." He is not there for 
 that purpose ; and, if he can teach well
 
 136 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 what is required of him by the laws of 
 the State, he has no occasion to be mor- 
 tified, and has no right to do more if 
 he could. 
 
 Thoroughness requires that each 
 pupil shall be drilled daily in those 
 branches which are adapted to his 
 standing and attainments. Class-drills 
 must be followed up by the special drill 
 of each individual, to be modified by the 
 circumstances and peculiarities of each 
 scholar. 
 
 Again, thoroughness contemplates 
 frequent and accurate reviews. No re- 
 view can be well recited unless the les- 
 son has been carefully studied ; and 
 hence, reviews serve to make up all 
 losses and deficiencies. They serve also 
 to fix in the memory what would other- 
 wise be lost. There should be daily 
 reviews of all that was recited the pre- 
 vious day ; weekly reviews of the les-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 137 
 
 sons of the previous week ; monthly 
 reviews of each month's work, and at 
 the close of each term and year, such 
 reviews as will insure thoroughness in 
 all departments of the school. 
 
 Review, review, review, if you would 
 prepare your classes for examination 
 and for business life ; not for two or 
 three weeks near the close of the term, 
 but from its beginning and during its 
 continuance. Review until all have 
 mastered the whole subject. 
 
 The most important suggestion, after 
 all, is reserved for the last, viz., that the 
 instruction in every department of the 
 school should be made practical. 
 
 Discipline, the grand object of all 
 study, recitation, and instruction, is 
 always available. The physical vigor 
 acquired by the practice of gymnastics 
 serves its possessor in whatever sphere 
 of life his strength is needed.
 
 138 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 Mental ability, the result of long and 
 patient study, is, at all times and every- 
 where, useful. And that moral power 
 gained by the proper exercise of the 
 moral faculties gives character and influ- 
 ence to all who possess it. 
 
 So the professional knowledge gained 
 in the process of education should be 
 made practical. What avail the study 
 of medicine, for example, if the physi- 
 cian is not able to detect and cure dis- 
 ease ? or the study of surgery, if he can- 
 not skilfully amputate a limb or bind up 
 a wound ? 
 
 The scholar who has graduated from 
 the common school ought to be able to 
 apply his knowledge of arithmetic and 
 grammar in the common business of life, 
 and to become intelligent in regard to 
 the history and geography of the world. 
 
 But this is not the result of common- 
 school education in this country, in our
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 139 
 
 day. Good reading is the exception, 
 and not the rule, among all grades of 
 scholars. And why do professional men 
 so seldom acquire this art ? I answer, 
 because of the wretched habits formed 
 in their early school-days. These habits 
 become so fixed, that years of discipline 
 fail to correct them. 
 
 And why does not the study of spell- 
 ing and grammar qualify our children 
 to apply these simple principles in the 
 use of written language? Because each 
 department is learned as an abstraction 
 and as a task, and is only partially 
 learned at all. 
 
 Oral spelling of columns of unmean- 
 ing words as found in the spelling-book, 
 the study of capitals and punctuation in 
 fine print, and daily recitations of the 
 formal rules of grammar, do not educate ; 
 such instruction fills the mind with trash, 
 but imparts no practical knowledge.
 
 140 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 Correct instruction in these different 
 departments would qualify the scholar 
 to compose and write correctly. As it 
 is, he spends his school life in studying 
 grammar, and the remainder of his days 
 in speaking and writing false syntax ; 
 is sure to violate every rule and princi- 
 ple which he has learned. 
 
 Correct spelling on paper alone can 
 make good spellers; the practice of 
 speaking and writing correctly is neces- 
 sary to become a good grammarian. 
 Hence, the teacher should insist upon 
 accuracy and propriety in the use of lan- 
 guage in the recitation and in the com- 
 mon intercourse of the school, and seek 
 practical results in the study of every 
 principle and rule in the language. 
 
 And the scholar who studies arithme- 
 tic ought to be able, when he leaves it, 
 to solve all the practical examples of the 
 farm, the work-shop and the counting-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 141 
 
 room. He should know how to measure 
 a pile of wood, and estimate its value ; to 
 determine the length of a brace, by 
 knowing its distance from the joint of 
 the post and beam, in the frame of his 
 building ; and to make up a bill of goods 
 that have been purchased at the counter. 
 He should be able to draft a note, and, 
 at sight, to cast the interest; to make 
 an indorsement, and write a receipt. 
 
 Of what advantage are years of study 
 upon these practical branches, if no prac- 
 tical ability is gained ? What is the 
 benefit to a young lady to be able to 
 read French and play the piano, while 
 she cannot estimate the cost of a calico 
 dress, with the necessary trimmings ? 
 
 And one grand object of the school 
 is to make citizens, and to qualify them 
 for the responsible duties of citizenship 
 in a free government. And shall they 
 grow up to manhood without culture
 
 142 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 and intelligence, find uninstructed as to 
 the nature of our government and the 
 manner m which it is administered ? 
 
 And yet how many of the graduates 
 from our district schools understand 
 what constitutes the Congress of the 
 United States, or the Legislature of a 
 single State ? Who among them can 
 tell the difference between the Senate 
 and House of Representatives, or how 
 these bodies are elected, how long they 
 hold their office, or what are the specific 
 duties of each ? Who knows the exact 
 difference between the Legislative, Judi- 
 cial, and Executive Departments of our 
 Government, and what constitutes each ? 
 
 Indeed, it is not improper to inquire 
 how many of our teachers could bear a 
 rigid examination upon these topics ? 
 It is admitted that governmental in- 
 struction has not had sufficient atten- 
 tion, even in our higher institutions;
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 143 
 
 and that suitable text-books have not 
 been accessible for our common schools. 
 But the evil should at once be reme- 
 died. 
 
 The public school should be the place 
 to prepare thoroughly for the practical 
 business of active life ; and it fails to 
 accomplish its work, so far as it fails to 
 secure this result. 
 
 I can in no way illustrate and enforce 
 the suggestions made above upon prac- 
 tical teaching, so well as to refer my 
 readers to the German primary school, 
 which, it must be conceded, is the 
 model school of the world. The sub- 
 jects taught in this school are religion, 
 reading, writing, counting, mental arith- 
 metic, writing to dictation, singing, 
 grammar, repeating prose and poetry 
 by heart, drawing, natural history, bot- 
 any and geography ; not all at once, 
 but gradually and thoroughly. The
 
 144 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 school opens at seven in the morning, 
 and closes at eleven. One hour is de- 
 voted to religious, and three hours to 
 secular teaching.; and then the school- 
 day is over. The masters are always 
 fresh for work, and the children active, 
 but not fatigued. There is no sham 
 teaching, or dawdling over forms, in this 
 school. 
 
 Elementary teaching in Germany is 
 made eminently practical, by applying 
 the principles of each department stud- 
 ied to the business transactions of ordi- 
 nary life. The teacher imagines, for 
 instance, the purchase of some apples, 
 and requires the children to calculate 
 what will be the price of a certain 
 quantity, and how much change they 
 would get back for a dollar or half a 
 dollar paid for them. The whole class 
 are called into consultation, and much 
 fun awakened by the incidents of the
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 145 
 
 bargain. Writing is taught so as to in- 
 clude composition. No German boy or 
 girl leaves the primary school who is 
 not able to compose and write a re- 
 spectable letter. But every reader will 
 be interested to know just how this 
 German school is conducted, to secure 
 such practical results. I can in no way 
 so well give this information, as by 
 quoting the description of an eye-wit- 
 ness who attended an hour's examina- 
 tion in one of these German primary 
 schools. 
 
 " The class being ranged, with slates 
 and pencils in their hands, the master 
 propounds the subject. 'Let me see/ 
 he will say, ' to-day is market-day. You 
 live, we will say, not here, but in the lit- 
 tle house just beyond the village, three 
 miles away. Mother sends you to mar- 
 ket with something to sell, and for 
 something to buy; but you are not to 
 10
 
 146 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 go home to-night, and so you want to 
 write a letter telling her what you have 
 done. Now then, begin. What shall we 
 write down first ? ' ' I have sold three 
 hens for ' shouts a little, fat, white- 
 haired fellow, who plainly is used to sell- 
 ing his mother's farm produce. ( Stop ! ' 
 says the master: 'you are too fast. 
 That's not the way to begin : we will 
 come to that after.' Here several rise, 
 and ask to be heard. A little girl, with 
 golden hair plaited down the back, 
 shouts out, ' My dear mother ! ' ' No,' 
 says the Herr : ' that's good ; it will 
 come later.' Another : l To-day is Fri- 
 day ! ' ' That's right ; but there is more 
 to add.' At last it is settled that the 
 name of the place, and the day of the 
 month, and perhaps the hour of the 
 day, if need be, shall all be set down 
 first, and at the right hand of the letter, 
 before any thing else be done. Having"
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 147 
 
 settled now what is first to be done, next 
 comes the question how to do it, and 
 the competition who shall do it best. 
 The end of the room has huge black- 
 boards, sponges, and chalk, and towels, 
 with little long rows of steps for the 
 little ones to climb up. The letter has 
 first to be written out (in draft) on the 
 blackboard, and corrected and settled 
 finally before it is allowed to be written 
 with ink on paper. Now, then, a child 
 is called to write out (one on each 
 board), at the right-hand corner, the 
 name of, say Rottenburg; the day, 
 Friday ; the date, Sept. 20, 1871. The 
 arrangement of this gives rise to a vari- 
 ety of opinion and discussion: Shall 
 ' Rottenburg ' go down as two words or 
 one ? Shall ' burg ' have a capital letter 
 to commence with ? Shall a stroke part 
 the words ? or shall the whole be written 
 together ? Shall ' Friday ' go below or on
 
 148 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 the line ? Shall we write 20 Sept., or 20 
 September, or September 20 ? Shall we 
 put 1871 below or on the line ? Shall 
 we begin near the top of the board, or 
 lower, or more right or left ? write on 
 three lines, two lines, or one line ? At 
 last the test is settled ; and the master 
 asks the cleverest girl to write out the 
 pattern agreed, dating at the right-hand 
 corner, with the proper margin all 
 round ; and this is now copied over by 
 each on the slate as the right heading. 
 6 My dear mother ' is rightly placed at 
 last the same way ; and, preliminaries 
 adjusted, the real business of the day 
 begins in earnest. ' My dear mother, 
 I did not get in to Eottenburg before 
 the hand of the clock on the lower 
 church told three-quarters of eight,' 
 and so forth. The letter being finished, 
 revision and criticism begin. Each pu- 
 pil changes slates with his or her neigh-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 149 
 
 bor, who has to pick flaws, and find fault. 
 The corrected slates are all shown to the 
 master, who gives the finishing touch. 
 At last they all sit down to the desk, take 
 pen and ink, mend their pens, rule their 
 paper, and write out the letter fairly on 
 the pages of their little book, which is to 
 form a standard reference for any letters 
 of the sort they may want to write in 
 their future life. 
 
 In all this proceeding, there is nothing 
 very new perhaps, but it is so admira- 
 bly done that the spectator cannot help 
 taking an interest in the process. Every 
 item entered is made a matter of discus- 
 sion. The prices of fowls. How much 
 a fat fowl should weigh. How much a 
 lean one. A reasonable price. What 
 food fattens fowls best. What sort of 
 fowls they are, and how old. The price 
 of cabbage, of carrots, of apples : their 
 sorts, the quantity produced every
 
 150 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 thing to bring the school home to the 
 life wants, interest, and duties, is done, 
 the scholars themselves contributing 
 each his mite to the store of informa- 
 tion the letter contains. The expenses, 
 too, of the day, the bargains, and the 
 shops, are all discussed. After one such 
 display as this, I went home, looking at 
 the baskets in the market, at the don- 
 key-carts lading for return home, at the 
 buyers and sellers, and at the goods in 
 the little shop-windows with more inter- 
 est than ever I had in such things be- 
 fore. I felt that in this German school 
 the children were training for the real 
 duties of their lives." 
 
 12. WE COME, FINALLY, TO THE DISCIPLINE OF 
 GOOD MANNERS. 
 
 The school of good manners, which 
 our forefathers seem to have regarded of 
 great importance, has been discontinued.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 151 
 
 The subject receives little or no attention 
 in the public schools of the present day, 
 is not discussed in modern works on Edu- 
 cation, and is generally treated as if it 
 were of little or no consequence. 
 
 As a result, our children in the family 
 and school practise only rudeness and 
 insubordination. 
 
 To such an extent has this department 
 of education been neglected of late, in 
 our country, that we have received and 
 merited reproach from other nations. 
 
 I may here draw the contrast between"^ 
 the old and the new civilization, touching 
 the habits of social life. The old was 
 distinguished by a proper regard to all 
 the courtesies of refined- life : the new 
 can boast of nothing but incivility. The 
 rapid decline of good manners in our 
 times appears most evident when we 
 compare the practice of our fathers with 
 their degenerate grandchildren. In no
 
 152 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 way can this be so well done as by free 
 extracts from an ancient little book on 
 good manners, which has accidentally 
 fallen into my hands. The book is so 
 worn that the name of its author and 
 date are entirely lost to us. 
 
 Its orthography and style indicate its 
 antiquity, and lead us to infer that its 
 second centennial may have been cele- 
 brated. Its size is about four inches by 
 two and a half. It has no cover, though 
 it may have had one in its younger days. 
 Its title, " The School of Good Man- 
 ners." It contains five chapters, cov- 
 ering about sixty pages. " Chap. I., 
 containing twenty Miscellaneous Pre- 
 cepts." " Chap. II., containing one hun- 
 dred and sixty-three Rules for Children's 
 Behavior." " Chap. III., containing 
 Good Advice to Children." " Chap. IV., 
 containing eight Wholesome Cautions." 
 '' Chap. V., containing a Short, Plain, 
 and Scriptural Catechism.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 153 
 
 The precepts, cautions, and rules of 
 this little book are all addressed to chil- 
 dren, as the youth in the family and 
 school were called in those days. We 
 have no children now. Boyhood and 
 girlhood have been dropped from the 
 natural stages of human life ; and all who 
 are not infants regard themselves as 
 young men and women, and claim the 
 deference and dignity which belong only 
 to their superiors. But I regard the 
 finding of this little book almost as the 
 recovery of one of the Lost Arts. Let 
 it here speak for those revered men and 
 women who inculcated by precept and 
 example the good manners of other days. 
 The quotations will be made from Chap. 
 II. And first let it speak of children's 
 behavior at home. 
 
 "1. Make a bow always when you 
 come home, and be instantly uncovered. 
 2. Be never covered at home, especially
 
 154 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 before thy parents or strangers. 3. If 
 thou passest by thy parents at any place 
 where thou seest them, either by them- 
 selves or with company, bow toward 
 them. 4. If thou art going to speak to 
 thy parents, and see them engaged in 
 discourse with company, draw back, and 
 leave thy business until afterwards ; but, 
 if thou must speak, be sure to whisper. 
 
 5. Never speak to thy parents without 
 some title of respect, as sir, madam, &c. 
 
 6. Dispute not nor delay to obey thy 
 parents' commands. 7. Go not out of 
 doors without thy parents' leave, and re- 
 turn within the time by them limited. 
 8. Come not into the room where thy 
 parents are with strangers, unless thou 
 art called, and then decently; and, at 
 bidding, go out; or if strangers come 
 while thou art with them, it is manners 
 with a bow to withdraw. 9. Use re- 
 spectful and courteous, but not insulting
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 155 
 
 or domineering carriage or language 
 towards the servants. 10. Quarrel not 
 nor contend with thy brethren or sisters, 
 but live in love, peace, and unity. 11. 
 Grumble not, nor be discontented, at 
 any thing thy parents appoint, speak, or 
 do. 12. Bear with meekness and pa- 
 tience, and without murmuring or sullen- 
 ness, thy parents' reproofs or corrections ; 
 nay, though it should happen that they 
 be causeless or undeserved." 
 
 Here we see that the old civilization 
 recognized the bow, as a token of cour- 
 tesy and respect. It has ever been so 
 regarded, though sometimes used as a 
 sign of recognition. In the rural districts 
 the bow and courtesy have been regarded 
 as evidence of good-breeding, and as the 
 expression of proper reverence cherished 
 by the young for their superiors. 
 
 Alas ! that both the sign and thing sig- 
 nified have nearly passed away. These
 
 156 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 expressions of genuine politeness and 
 deference, which were met in every cul- 
 tivated family in the days of the distin- 
 guished Dr. Edwards, have given place to 
 coarseness and incivility. And the "sir" 
 and " madam " which were always used 
 by the children, in the genteel family, as 
 a title of respect and reverence for par- 
 ents, have with the bow and courtesy 
 passed away. 
 
 And where now do we find that quiet- 
 ness, politeness, and ready obedience 
 which characterized those children in 
 their relations to the guardians whom 
 God had placed over them, in their own 
 homes ? In those days, under the direc- 
 tion of parental gentleness and authority, 
 children kept their places, regarded their 
 instructions, and observed all the little 
 acts of civility which throw a charm 
 around the family circle. 
 
 Not so now. Rudeness characterizes
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 157 
 
 all their movements. With their heads 
 covered they lounge about their home, 
 intrude themselves into company, inter- 
 rupt conversation, dispute with superiors, 
 and make themselves disagreeable every 
 way. And, to cap the climax of impu- 
 dence, these children command, and their 
 parents obey. This is the inverted order 
 of things, the new civilization, Young 
 America at home. 
 
 And the old civilization was distin- 
 guished by special regard to the chil- 
 dren's behavior at the table. Allow me 
 to give, on this point, copious extracts 
 from the little book. 
 
 " 1. Come not to the table without 
 having your hands and face washed, and 
 your head combed. 2. Sit not down 
 till thou art bidden by thy parents or 
 other superiors. 3. Be sure thou never 
 sittest down till a blessing be desired, 
 and then in the due place. 4. Offer not
 
 158 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 to carve for thyself, or to take any 
 thing, though it may be that which thou 
 
 J dost greatly desire. 5. Ask not for any 
 thing, but tarry till it be offered thee. 
 6. Find no fault with any thing that is 
 given thee. 7. When thou hast meat 
 given thee, be not the first that 
 begins to eat. 8. Speak not at the 
 table : if thy superiors be discoursing, 
 meddle not with the matter ; but be si- 
 lent, except thou art spoken to. 9. If 
 thou wantest any thing of the servants, 
 call to them softly. 10. Eat not too 
 fast, or with greedy behavior. 11. Eat 
 not too much, but moderately. 12. Eat 
 not so slow as to make others wait for 
 thee. 13. Make not a noise with thy 
 tongue, mouth, lips, or breath, in eating 
 
 ^ or drinking. 14. Stare not in the face 
 of any one (especially thy superiors) at 
 the table. 15. Grease not thy fingers 
 or napkin more than necessity requires.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 159 
 
 16. Bite not thy bread, but break it, but 
 not with slovenly fingers, nor with the 
 same wherewith thou takest up thy 
 meat. 17. Dip not thy meat in the 
 sauce. 18. Take not salt with a greasy 
 knife. 19. Spit not, cough not, nor blow 
 thy nose at the table, if it may be 
 avoided ; but, if there be necessity, do it 
 aside and without much noise. 20. Lean 
 not thy elbow on the table, or on the 
 back of thy chair. 21. Stuff not thy 
 mouth so as to fill the cheeks ; be con- 
 tent with smaller mouthfuls. 22. Blow 
 not thy meat, but with patience wait 
 until it cool. 23. Sup not broth at the 
 table, but eat it with a spoon. 24. 
 Smell not of thy meat, nor put it to thy 
 nose ; turn it not the other side upwards, 
 to view it upon the plate. 25. Throw 
 not any thing under thy table. 26. Hold 
 not thy knife upright in thy hand, but 
 sloping, and lay it down at thy right
 
 160 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 hand with the blade upon thy plate. 
 27. Spit not forth any thing that is not 
 convenient to be swallowed, as the stones 
 of plums, cherries, or the like, but with 
 thy left hand neatly move them to the 
 side of thy plate. 28. Fix not thine 
 eyes upon the plate of another, or upon 
 / the meat on the table. 29. Lift not up 
 thine eyes, nor roll them about, while 
 thou art drinking. 30. Bend not thy 
 body downward to thy plate, when thou 
 movest any thing that is sauced to thy 
 mouth. 31. Look not earnestly on any 
 one that is eating. 32. Foul not the 
 table-cloth. 33. Foul not the napkin all 
 over, but at one corner. 34. Gnaw not 
 bones at the table, but clean them with 
 a knife, (unless they be very small 
 ones), and hold them not with the whole 
 hand, but with two fingers. 35. Drink 
 not nor speak with any thing in thy 
 mouth. 36. Put not a bit in thy mouth
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 161 
 
 
 
 till the rest be swallowed. 37. Before 
 and after thou drinkest, wipe thy lips 
 with a napkin. 38. Pick not thy teeth 
 at the table, unless holding up a napkin 
 before thy mouth with thine other hand. 
 
 39. Drink not till thou hast quite emp- 
 tied thy mouth, and not drink often. 
 
 40. Frown not nor murmur if there be 
 any thing at the table which thy par- 
 ents or strangers with them eat of, while 
 thou thyself hast none given thee. 
 
 41. As soon as thou shalt be moderately 
 satisfied, or whensoever thy parents 
 think meet to bid thee, rise up from the 
 table, though others thy superiors still 
 sit. 42. When thou risest from the 
 table, having made a bow at the side of 
 the table where thou didst sit, withdraw. 
 43. When thanks are to be returned after 
 eating, return to thy place, and stand 
 reverently till it be done ; then with a 
 bow withdraw out of the room, leaving
 
 162 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 
 
 thy superiors to themselves, unless thou 
 art bidden to stay." 
 
 These quaint precepts of our vener- 
 able ancestors reveal the inner life of 
 the family as then constituted ; and we 
 cannot fail to notice the special care 
 exercised in the training of their chil- 
 dren to correct habits of deportment. 
 We may admit that some of these rules 
 are not applicable to modern ideas of 
 etiquette ; and yet no one can deny that 
 they reveal all the principles of good- 
 breeding touching family life, and re- 
 buke the degeneracy of our times. 
 
 Let us now trace this comparison a 
 step farther, and mark the children's 
 behavior when at school. Here I will 
 quote again from our ancient " School 
 of Good Manners." 
 
 " 1. Bow at coming in, pulling off 
 thy hat, especially if thy master be in 
 school. 2. Loiter not, but immediately
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 163 
 
 take thine own seat, and move not from 
 one place to another, till school-time is 
 over. 3. If any stranger come into the 
 school, rise up and bow, and sit down 
 in thy place again, keeping a profound 
 silence. 4. If thy master be discours- 
 ing in the school with a stranger, stare 
 not confidently on them nor hearken to 
 their talk. 5. Interrupt not thy master 
 while a stranger or visitant is with him, 
 with any question, request, or complaint, 
 but defer any such matter until he be 
 at leisure. 6. At no time quarrel or 
 talk in the school, but be quiet, peace- 
 able, and silent. Much less mayest thou 
 deceive thyself, in trifling away thy 
 precious tune in play. 7. If thy master 
 speak to thee, rise up and bow, making 
 thine answer standing. 8. Bawl not 
 aloud in making thy complaints. A 
 boy's tongue should never be heard in 
 the school but in answering a question,
 
 164 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 or saying his lesson. 9. If a stranger 
 speak to thee in school, stand up and 
 answer with respect and ceremony, both 
 of word and gesture, as if thou speak- 
 est to thy master. 10. Make not haste 
 out of school, but soberly go when thy 
 turn comes, without noise or hurry. 
 11. Go not rudely home through the 
 streets ; stand not talking with boys to 
 delay thee, but go quietly home, and 
 with all convenient haste. 12. When it 
 is tune to return to school -again, be 
 sure to be there in season, and not 
 loiter at home whilst thy master is at 
 school. 13. Divulge not to any person 
 whatever, elsewhere, any thing that 
 hath passed in the school, either spoken 
 or done." 
 
 We may observe that a similar code 
 of laws is here given for the regulation 
 of school manners, as for the family. 
 And we know that this was the practice
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 165 
 
 in the homes of our Puritan fathers. 
 Under parental discipline the children 
 learned the art of good behavior, and 
 they carried these habits into the school 
 and into life. Home is, indeed, the 
 place where the sentiments of true 
 courtesy should take root, be cultivated, 
 and grow. It would then naturally be 
 transferred to the school ; would gain a 
 controlling influence over the young, 
 would grow with their growth and 
 strengthen with their strength, regulat- 
 ing their behavior in all their inter- 
 course with the world. 
 
 But, as already intimated, children 
 are not instructed in the art of good 
 behavior, as formerly, in the family or 
 the school. In a majority of cases, the 
 subject receives absolutely no attention, 
 from year to year. How can it be ex- 
 pected, therefore, that our children or 
 our pupils will practise good manners ?
 
 166 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 They have never been instructed, and 
 how can they understand their impor- 
 tance ? 
 
 How wide the contrast, in these rela- 
 tions, between the old and the new civ- 
 ilization. Do our pupils, now, any- 
 where, enter the school with the bow 
 and courtesy, in the presence of their 
 master and strangers ? Do they rise 
 and bow when spoken to, " making their 
 answer standing ? " Are they, as a rule, 
 quiet, orderly, and respectful during all 
 the school hours ? Do they " go out of 
 school soberly when their turn comes, 
 without noise or hurry " ? or do the 
 bound and scream which follow the 
 word of dismissal remind you of incipi- 
 ent savages ? What is the experience 
 of the teachers of our public schools on 
 this point ? 
 
 And when you pass through the 
 streets, may you always expect respect-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 167 
 
 fill attention and courteous behavior 
 from your school-boys that chance to 
 pass that way ? In exceptional cases, 
 no doubt, you do meet civility ; but you 
 are fortunate if you escape insulting 
 words, and even snow-balls or mud- 
 balls from these young Americans. 
 
 And how else is the village gossip, 
 the busybody with the affairs of others, 
 and the slanderer, trained in their arts, 
 if not by " telling tales out of school," 
 in violation of the last rule given above, 
 on school manners ? " Divulge not any 
 thing that hath passed in the school, 
 either spoken or done." 
 
 "The discipline of the family is inti- 
 mately connected with that of the school, 
 and each has reference to social life. The 
 instructions given to the children, there- 
 fore, will cover their behavior in com- 
 pany, in their discourse, when abroad, 
 and among other children. On these
 
 168 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 points our genteel author discourses as 
 follows. Let these quotations follow in 
 their order. 
 
 " 1. Enter not into the company of 
 superiors without command or calling, 
 nor without a bow. 2. Sing not, nor 
 hum in thy mouth, while thou art in 
 company. 3. Stand not wriggling with 
 thy body hither and thither, but steady 
 and upright. 4. Play not wantonly like 
 a mimic with thy fingers or feet. 5. 
 In coughing or sneezing, make as little 
 noise as possible. 6. If thou canst not 
 avoid yawning, shut thy mouth with 
 thine hand or handkerchief before it, 
 turning thy face aside. 7. When thou 
 blowest thy nose, let thy handkerchief 
 be used, and make not a noise in so 
 doing. 8. Gnaw not thy nails, pick 
 them not, nor bite them with thy teeth. 
 9. Spit not in the room, but in the fire- 
 place, or rather go out and do it abroad.
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 169 
 
 10. Lean not on the chair of a superior, 
 standing behind him. 11. Spit not upon 
 the fire, nor sit too wide with thy knees 
 at it. 12. Turn not thy back to any, 
 but place thyself so that none may 
 be behind thee. 13. Read not letters, 
 books, or other writings in company, 
 unless there be necessity, and thou 
 askest leave. 14. Touch not nor look 
 upon the books or writings of any one, 
 unless the owner invite or desire thee. 
 15. Come not near when another reads 
 a letter or any other paper. 16. Let 
 thy countenance bs moderately cheer- 
 ful, neither laughing nor frowning. 17. 
 Laugh not, but silently smile, upon any 
 occasion. 18. Stand not before thy 
 superiors with thine hands in thy pock- 
 etsj scratch not thy head, wink not 
 with thine eye, but modestly look 
 straight before thee. 19. Walking with 
 thy superior in the house or garden,
 
 170 TEACHER 'S MANUAL. 
 
 give him the right (or upper hand), and 
 walk not too near, but a little behind 
 him ; yet not so distant as that it shall 
 be troublesome to him to speak to thee, 
 or hard for thee to hear. 20. Look not 
 boldly or wishfully in the face of thy 
 superior. 21. To look upon one in 
 company, and immediately whisper to 
 another, is unmannerly. 22. Whisper 
 not in company. 23. Be not forward 
 and fretful among equals, but gentle 
 and affable. 24. Among superiors, speak 
 not till thou art spoken to, and bid to 
 speak. 25. Hold not thine hand nor 
 any thing else before thy mouth when 
 thou speakest. 26. Come not very near 
 the person thou speakest to. 27. If thy 
 superior speaks to thee while thou sittest, 
 stand up before thou givest an answer. 
 28. Sit not down till thy superior bid 
 thee. 29. Speak neither very loud nor 
 too low. 30. Speak clear, not stammer-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 171 
 
 ing, stumbling, nor drawling. 31. Answer 
 not one that is speaking to thee until 
 he hath done. 32. Loll not when thou 
 art speaking to a superior, or spoken 
 to by him. 33. Speak not without 
 Sir, or some other title of respect, 
 which is due to him to whom thou 
 speakest. 34. Strive not with superiors 
 in arguments or discourse, but easily 
 submit thine opinion to their assertions. 
 
 35. If thy superior speaketh any thing 
 wherein thou knowest he is mistaken, 
 correct not nor contradict him, nor grin 
 at the hearing of it, but pass over the 
 error without notice or interruption. 
 
 36. Mention not frivolous or little things 
 among grave persons or superiors. 37- 
 If thy superior drawl or hesitate in his 
 words, pretend not to help him out or 
 prompt him. 38. Come not very near 
 two that are whispering or speaking in 
 secret, neither ask about what they con-
 
 172 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 verse upon. 39. When thy parent or 
 master speaks to any person, speak not 
 thou nor hearken to them. 40. If thy 
 superior be relating a story, say not, I 
 have heard it before, but attend to it as 
 if it were altogether new to thee. Seem 
 not to question the truth of it. If he 
 tell not right, snigger not, nor endeavor 
 to help him out, or add to his relation. 
 41. If any immodest or obscene thing 
 be spoken in thy hearing, smile not, but 
 settle thy countenance as though thou 
 didst not hear it. 42. Boast not in dis- 
 course of thine own wit or doing. 43. 
 Beware thou utter not any thing hard to 
 be believed. 44. Interrupt not any one 
 that speaks, though he be thine intimate. 
 45. Coming into company whilst any 
 topic is discoursed on, ask not what was 
 the preceding talk, but hearken to the 
 remainder. 46. Speaking of any distant 
 person, it is rude and unmannerly to
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 173 
 
 point at him. 47. Laugh not in or at 
 thy own story, wit, or jest. 48. Use 
 not any contemptuous or reproachful 
 language to any person, though very 
 mean or inferior. 49. Be not over 
 earnest in talking to justify thine own 
 sayings. 50. Let thy words be modest 
 about those things which only concern 
 thyself. 51. Repeat not the words of a 
 superior that asketh thee a question, or 
 talketh with thee. 52. Go not singing, 
 whistling, or hallooing along the street. 
 53. Quarrel not with anybody thou 
 meetest or dost overtake. 54. Affront 
 none, especially thy elders, by word or 
 deed. 55. Jeer not at any person what- 
 ever. 56. Always give the right hand 
 to your superiors when you either meet 
 or walk with them, and mind also to 
 give them the wall in meeting or walk- 
 ing with them; for that is the upper 
 hand, though in walking your superior
 
 174 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 should be at your left hand. But when 
 three persons walk together, the middle 
 place is the most honorable, and a son 
 may walk at his father's right hand 
 when his younger brother walks at his 
 left. 57. Give thy superiors leave to 
 pass before thee in any narrow place 
 where two persons cannot pass at once. 
 58. If thou go with thy parents, master, 
 or any superior, go not wantonly, nor 
 even with them, but a little behind 
 them. 59. Pay thy respects to all thou 
 meetest of thine acquaintance or friends. 
 60. Pull off thy hat to persons of desert, 
 quality or, office. Shew thy reverence 
 to them by bowing thy body when thou 
 seest them. 61. If a superior speak to 
 thee in the street, answer him with thy 
 head uncovered. 62. Run not hastily 
 in the street, nor go too slowly ; wag not 
 to and fro, nor use any antic or wanton 
 postures, either of thy head, hands, feet,
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF T11E SCHOOL. 175 
 
 or body. 63. Stare not at every un- 
 usual person or thing which thou seest. 
 64. Throw not any thing in the street, as 
 dirt or stones. 65. Offend not the mas- 
 ter or scholars of another school. 66. 
 As near as may be, converse not with 
 any but those that are good, sober, and 
 virtuous. Eoil communications corrupt 
 good manners. Be not quarrelsome, but 
 rather patiently- take than mischievously 
 occasion any wrong. 67. Reprove thy 
 companions as often as there shall be 
 occasion, for wicked actions or indecent 
 expressions. 68. Give place always to 
 him that excelleth thee in quality, age, 
 or learning. 69. Be willing to take 
 those words or actions as jesting which 
 thou hast reason to believe were designed 
 as such ; and fret not at thy companion's 
 innocent mirth. 70. If thy companion 
 be a little too gross or sarcastical in 
 speaking, strive not to take notice of it
 
 176 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 or be moved at all by it. 71. Abuse 
 not thy companion either by word or 
 deed. 72. Deal justly among boys thy 
 equals, as solicitously as if thou wert a 
 man with men, and about business of 
 higher importance. 73. Be not selfish 
 altogether, but kind, free, and generous 
 to others. 74. Jog not the table or 
 desk on which another writes. 75. At 
 play, make not thy clothes, hands, or 
 face dirty, nor sit upon the ground. 76. 
 Avoid sinful and unlawful recreations, 
 and all such as prejudice the welfare of 
 body or mind. 77. Scorn not, laugh 
 not at, any for their natural infirmities 
 of body or mind ; nor, because of them, 
 affix to any a vexing title of contempt, 
 but pity such as are so visited, and be 
 thankful that you are otherwise distin- 
 guished and favored. 78. Adventure 
 not to talk with thy companion about 
 thy superiors, to raise discourse reflect-
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL, 177 
 
 ing upon or touching another's parents 
 or masters; nor publish any thing of 
 thine own family or household affairs. 
 Children must meddle only with the 
 affairs of children." 
 
 These are indeed homely and very 
 ancient precepts touching the habits of 
 social life, and are clothed in Quaker 
 garb ; yet we cannot deny that they 
 reveal the principles of true politeness. 
 And what are its elements ? Its source 
 cannot be doubtful. It must spring 
 from benevolence and kindness of heart. 
 Its aim is to make others happy, and to 
 smooth down the rough edges and sharp 
 points of human society. Some are nat- 
 urally courteous ; with others it is an 
 acquired habit, and is put on as easily 
 as an elegant garment. But still others 
 are so rude in their manners, that it 
 seems almost hopeless to engraft upon 
 them the grace of politeness. Still we 
 12
 
 178 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 may assume that this germ is found in 
 every human soul, and that culture will 
 bring it out. 
 
 True courtesy everywhere requires us, 
 First, to avoid doing any thing that will 
 offend the taste, delicacy, or feelings of 
 those with whom we associate. 
 
 Second, it requires us to aim to con- 
 tribute to the enjoyment of our associ- 
 ates ; and, 
 
 Third, it requires us to give up our 
 own personal gratification for the com- 
 fort of others. 
 
 These principles underlie good-breed- 
 ing everywhere, and are, perhaps, suffi- 
 ciently comprehensive for the guidance 
 of all who would enter upon a course of 
 self-culture in this direction, or desire 
 to give instruction to others. The very 
 presence of a true gentleman or lady 
 refines and elevates. 
 
 Hon. Edward Everett, late of Boston,
 
 TH-E DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 179 
 
 was an accomplished gentleman. He 
 was in the habit of visiting the public 
 schools of that city ; and on one occasion, 
 after he had retired, a young pupil who 
 had watched him with admiration, said 
 to his teacher, " Miss Brown, I always 
 feel just as if 1 must keep bowing when 
 that gentleman comes into school." 
 This illustration suggests the great im- 
 portance of politeness as an example in 
 the family and school. Parents and 
 teachers should practise all the little 
 civilities of refined life in their inter- 
 course with their children and pupils. 
 They would thus enforce precept by 
 living example of good manners, and the 
 happiest results would be realized. 
 
 The subject of manners is scarcely in- 
 ferior in importance to that of morals. 
 An educator who felt the importance of 
 the subject draws the following compar- 
 ison between these two departments of 
 culture :
 
 180 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 " Morals form the basis of human 
 character, but manners are its decora- 
 tions, and aids to its development. 
 Morals are the staple of human laws, 
 the grand regulators of human govern- 
 ment ; manners are their gildings, which 
 tend to soften their asperities, and win a 
 more ready acquiescence in their observ- 
 ance. Morals are the solid bullion form- 
 ing the foundation of the currency of a 
 government ; manners the small notes 
 and coins, ever ready to use, and with- 
 out which the business intercourse of 
 mankind would cease, or retrograde to 
 the condition of things that existed in 
 the world's infancy. In fine, morals are 
 the sun behind a cloud, which, though 
 giving light to the world, lacks the 
 genial force of its shining face ; manners 
 are the agencies that displace the cloud, 
 and reveal the glorious orb in all its 
 original power."
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 181 
 
 Indeed, manners are the twin-sister 
 of morals, and yet morals are the only 
 preserver of human society. One is 
 the complement of the other, and they 
 cannot be separated. Like the Siamese 
 twins, their vital organs are connected ; 
 their life-blood flows from the same 
 heart, and through the same channels. 
 Sever the artery that connects them, and 
 you destroy the life of both. 
 
 Morals divorced from manners become 
 cold and repulsive ; but when united 
 they are attractive and pleasing. 
 
 It is true also that manners without 
 morals soon degenerate into hypocrisy, 
 exhibiting to the world the " Whited 
 Sepulchre," the false-hearted man or 
 woman. 
 
 Edmund Burke said, " Manners are 
 of more importance than laws. Upon 
 them, hi a great measure, the laws 
 depend. The law can touch us here
 
 182 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 and there, now and then. Manners are 
 what vex or soothe, corrupt or purify, 
 exalt or debase, barbarize or refine, by 
 a constant, steady, uniform, insensible 
 operation, like that of the air we breathe 
 in. They give their whole form and 
 color to our lives." 
 
 And how are we to gain what has 
 been lost in this important department 
 of education ? Lack of home culture 
 and discipline is the principal cause of 
 the evil we contemplate. Children left 
 to their own ways usually grow up in 
 the entire disregard of common cour- 
 tesy. They neglect to show proper 
 respect to parents and teachers, to 
 seniors in age, to superiors in wisdom 
 and virtue. 
 
 And if the ordinary civilities of re- 
 fined life are not regarded in the family 
 and school, and in the social intercourse 
 of home-life, how can we expect that
 
 THE DISCIPLINE OF THE SCHOOL. 163 
 
 politeness will be extended to the stran- 
 ger met in the marts of business, or in 
 the walks of pleasure ? 
 
 In the present condition of society, 
 much responsibility in regard to this 
 needed reform rests upon the teachers 
 of our public schools. 
 
 Hence, I most earnestly commend 
 this subject to those for whom especially 
 this book is written. Let every teacher 
 to whom is intrusted the care of chil- 
 dren and youth, and every candidate 
 for this responsible office, aim at a high 
 degree of self-culture in the school of 
 good manners. And let him not fail to 
 give daily and faithful instruction on 
 this subject.
 
 II. 
 
 THE DIGNITY OF THE TEACHEK'S WORK. 
 
 E great sculptor, Hiram Powers, 
 executed the bust of the distin- 
 guished Edward Everett, which is said to 
 be unsurpassed by any work of art, either 
 in ancient or modern times. Yet how 
 much greater and more distinguished 
 the artist who aided in forming the 
 mind and character of that same Everett, 
 who was acknowledged to be one of the 
 greatest American orators. When but 
 ten years old, young Everett sat before 
 Daniel Webster, and received from him, 
 as his teacher, the rudiments of educa- 
 tion. More than half . a century after- 
 
 184
 
 THE DIGNITY OF HIS WORK. 185 
 
 wards, when both teacher and pupil 
 had attained the most distinguished 
 honors and highest position among their 
 fellow-men, the one having passed off 
 the stage of life, leaving the other with- 
 out a living superior, the pupil sat for 
 his bust before the artist Powers. 
 
 And to whom shall we award the 
 praise ? To the artist or the teacher ? 
 to the distinguished Powers, or the im- 
 mortal Webster and his co-laborers in 
 the work of education ? We may ad- 
 mire the genius and skill of him who 
 has taken the rude block of marble, cold 
 from the quarry, and converted it into 
 an almost breathing statue. Ages will 
 venerate him, time will pay him a trib- 
 ute of respect, poesy will proudly rear 
 a tablet to his memory, and history will 
 adorn her pages with his eulogy. 
 
 The painter, who represents on can- 
 vas the beautiful creation of his own
 
 186 TE ACHE It'ti MANUAL. 
 
 imagination, or the striking events of 
 story, rears a monument to his own 
 memory that will long endure, and con- 
 tinue to rise in loftier majesty and more 
 fit proportions from generation to gen- 
 eration. 
 
 Still, how insignificant the profession 
 of the artist when compared with that 
 of the true teacher. The one works 
 upon stone or the canvas, the other 
 upon the undying spirit ; the one 
 creates the form and figure of the life- 
 less body, the other moulds the living 
 character of the hero, statesman, and 
 sage. The artist attracts attention as a 
 man of genius, and his works are ad- 
 mired as evidence of inimitable skill; 
 but the memory of the faithful teacher 
 will be cherished with gratitude when 
 all earthly distinctions shall be for- 
 gotten, and the results of his labors will 
 endure forever.
 
 THE DIGNITY OF HIS WORK. 187 
 
 His material is no rude earthly sub- 
 stance, to be fashioned by the chisel, or 
 made to glow with animation by the 
 pencil. It is his to mould the MIND, 
 that emanation from Deity, which, when 
 developed, constitutes the intellect, the 
 affections, and the will ; which denies 
 relationship to any thing earthly, and 
 claims kindred with the skies ; and 
 which, when all material forms shall 
 decay, will continue to live and to glow 
 in the brightness of progressive immor- 
 tality. What, then, is the sculptor's or 
 painter's art compared with his ? It is 
 the teacher's business to form the intel- 
 lect, not to fashion a stone ; to guide 
 the affections, not the pencil ; to stimu- 
 late conscience and give energy to will, 
 not merely to make the lifeless eye 
 speak in a group of figures, or the 
 graces sit enthroned on a marble brow. 
 In a word, it is his to educate the human
 
 188 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 soul, and fit it for its noble designs and 
 destiny. From the canvas upon which 
 he paints, no impression can be erased ; 
 good or evil, truth or error, virtue or 
 vice, it must ever remain. How honor- 
 able, then, the teacher's position and 
 work! 
 
 The warrior, the statesman, and the 
 scholar claim also a share of the world's 
 homage. And may we erect triumphal 
 arches to our own Washington, who led 
 our armies victorious over the slaugh- 
 tered hosts of their enemies, and after- 
 wards presided in our public councils ? 
 May we institute a great national festi- 
 val, whose annual return is celebrated 
 by bells, bonfires, illuminations, and pub- 
 lic rejoicings, in view of the great work 
 which our hero and statesman has ac- 
 complished ? May we purchase " Mount 
 Vernon," that the great name of the 
 " Father of our Country " may be for-
 
 THE DIGNITY OF HIS WORK. 189 
 
 ever associated with the home of his 
 manhood, and that a mighty nation may 
 water his tomb with their grateful tears 
 through all coming time ? It is well to 
 do so. But what avail the victories of 
 our Revolution or our dear bought free- 
 dom ? What avail to rear monuments 
 and consecrate public grounds to per- 
 petuate the memory of our great na- 
 tional struggle, and of the warriors and 
 statesmen whom we delight to honor, if 
 the school be not established and the 
 teacher employed to prepare the people 
 for the enjoyment and preservation of 
 our liberties ? Self-government is not 
 possible without intelligence and virtue. 
 Hence, great statesmen and victorious 
 armies are of little value in any country 
 without efficient teachers. Indeed, the 
 teacher has ever been the patron of 
 society. To him has been committed 
 the work of training the mind and form-
 
 190 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 ing the character of each generation of 
 American citizens, and at a period when 
 the most susceptible of durable impres- 
 sions. And our future citizens and 
 rulers are now under his care and in- 
 struction. Their moral and intellectual 
 character must be moulded chiefly by 
 his hand. To our Common Schools we 
 must look for those who will soon be 
 called upon to manage the affairs of 
 families, to transact the business of town 
 and State, to fill the vacated bench of 
 justice, to sit in the halls of legislation, 
 and to direct and control the Church of 
 God. 
 
 Upon the character of our schools and 
 teachers., therefore, depends the weal or 
 woe of unborn millions, the prosperity 
 or downfall of our boasted institutions. 
 
 And if, as some one has said, " to 
 educate a child perfectly, requires pro- 
 founder thought, greater wisdom, than
 
 THE DIGNITY OF HIS WORK. 191 
 
 to conquer an empire or govern a 
 State," what place among the honored 
 of our nation and the benefactors of our 
 race shall we assign to the efficient 
 teacher? May the profound scholar, 
 who retires from the strifes and conflicts 
 of life, and spends his strength for the 
 public weal, win from us his meed of 
 praise ? And shall we not honor him 
 also who consecrates himself to the 
 great work of cultivating mind, and 
 training American citizens for their 
 peculiar duties and responsibilities ? 
 
 Dr. Channing once said, " One of the 
 surest signs of the regeneration of 
 society will be the elevation of the art 
 of teaching to the highest rank in the 
 community. When a people shall learn 
 that its greatest benefactors and most 
 important members are men devoted to 
 the liberal instruction of all its classes, 
 to the work of raising to life its buried
 
 192 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 intellect, it will have opened to itself 
 the path of true glory. Socrates is now 
 regarded the greatest man in an age of 
 great men. To teach, whether by word 
 or action, is the greatest function on 
 earth" 
 
 There is another view of our subject 
 which magnifies the teacher's position 
 and work still more. Teaching is the 
 source of our most valuable attainments 
 and greatest blessings. Who does not 
 owe a debt of gratitude to the teacher ? 
 Look on the favored portions of our 
 country, and ask whence the general 
 intelligence, virtue, order, and happiness 
 that characterize the people ? whence 
 these countless privileges, innumerable 
 sources of enjoyment, and thousands of 
 smiling, happy homes that meet our 
 eye ? Do they not all emanate from 
 our schools ? Are they not the result 
 of teaching ?
 
 THE DIGNITY OF HIS WORK. 193 
 
 We are accustomed to look with pride 
 upon the noble phalanx of educated 
 men and women who have done so 
 much to elevate and honor our country. 
 Our editors, authors, orators, and states- 
 men have an imposing character and 
 commanding influence ; our professional 
 men are distinguished for learning, skill 
 and ability, and many of them have 
 gained a world-wide and enduring repu- 
 tation. But are not all these the work- 
 manship of the teacher ? The compara- 
 tive dignity of the teacher's work 
 will be best illustrated by the following 
 fable : 
 
 "When Jupiter offered the prize of 
 immortality to him who was the most 
 useful to mankind, the court of Olympus 
 was crowded with competitors. The 
 warrior boasted of his patriotism, but 
 Jupiter thundered ; the rich man boasted 
 of his munificence, and Jupiter showed 
 
 13
 
 194 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 him the widow's mite ; the pontiff held 
 up the keys of heaven, and Jupiter 
 pushed the doors wide open; the painter 
 boasted of his power to give life to in- 
 animate canvas, and Jupiter breathed 
 aloud in derision ; the sculptor boasted 
 of making gods that contended with the 
 immortals for human homage, Jupiter 
 frowned; the orator boasted of his power 
 to sway the nation with his voice, and 
 Jupiter marshalled the obedient host of 
 heaven with a word ; the poet spoke of 
 his power to move even the gods by 
 praise, Jupiter blushed ; the musician 
 claimed to practise the only human 
 science that had been transplanted to 
 heaven, Jupiter hesitated ; when seeing 
 a venerable man looking with intense 
 interest upon the group of competitors, 
 but presenting no claims, ' What art 
 thou ? ' said the benignant monarch. 
 ' Only a spectator/ replied the gray-
 
 THE DIGNITY OF HIS WORK. 195 
 
 headed sage : ' all these were my pupils/ 
 f Crown him, crown him!' said Jupiter; 
 1 crown the faithful teacher with immor- 
 tality, and make room for him at my 
 right hand ! ' "
 
 III. 
 
 HIS NECESSARY QUALIFICATIONS, 
 
 "TV yT~ORE depends upon what the 
 **-**- teacher is, than upon what he 
 does. Like the poet, he is endowed by 
 Nature with the most important qualifi- 
 cations for his work ; nascitur non Jit. 
 This natural talent may be cultivated, 
 but cannot be created by education. 
 
 The true teacher has a large share of 
 common sense, or, as some would call it, 
 good judgment. This is practical wis- 
 dom, a sort of instinct as to the fitness 
 and propriety of things. It teaches its 
 possessor to do the right thing at the 
 right time. It acts in the real, and not 
 
 196
 
 HIS QUALIFICATIONS. 197 
 
 in the romantic world, and adapts one 
 to circumstances, to society, and to duty. 
 
 There are many opportunities for its 
 exercise in the schoolroom; many in- 
 stances when the want of it imperils the 
 teacher, or proves his ruin. A question 
 of judicial economy is about to be set- 
 tled in his little empire : he has no time 
 for consultation with older and more 
 experienced teachers; no time to read 
 books on the " Theory and Practice of 
 Teaching ; " the question must be set- 
 tled without delay ; the existence of his 
 authority, and his destiny as a teacher, 
 depend upon prompt and judicious ac- 
 tion. Under such circumstances sound 
 common sense is the teacher's only 
 security. 
 
 The successful teacher has an earnest 
 devotion to his work. The employment 
 is congenial to his tastes; he has a natu- 
 ral love for the office for its own sake ;
 
 198 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 the detail of schoolroom life is pleasant ; 
 intercourse with the pupils a social and 
 intellectual gratification ; teaching an 
 agreeable exercise ; and the conscious- 
 ness of having contributed to the intel- 
 lectual and moral good of the young his 
 ample reward. If this is not the case, 
 if the teacher's tastes, interests, and am- 
 bition are not in his employment, no 
 amount of talent, no intellectual attain- 
 ments, can fit him to instruct and man- 
 age a school. 
 
 A cheerful and hopeful disposition is 
 also essential to success in teaching. 
 The radiant smile of cheerfulness is the 
 sunlight of the schoolroom which, dif- 
 fuses itself through the atmosphere, and 
 is reflected from every countenance. It 
 wakes to new life the slumbering ener- 
 gies of the mind, and creates an abiding 
 interest in the duties and scenes of 
 school-life. The cheerful teacher makes
 
 HIS QUALIFICATIONS. 199 
 
 his pupils cheerful ; but sadness and dis- 
 couragement on his countenance burden 
 the mental atmosphere with gloom, and 
 chill the very life-blood of vigorous 
 thought. 
 
 Hope is also an essential element in 
 the teacher's character. He must be 
 inspired with faith in human nature and 
 human progress in the moral and in- 
 tellectual capacity of his pupils, in the 
 power of good instruction and good 
 example to improve and elevate the 
 mind, and in the vast importance of his 
 own sphere of influence in educating 
 and forming the character of those com- 
 mitted to his charge. Hope built upon 
 such faith is strong and powerful as a 
 stimulus to efficient action. 
 
 A natural and earnest sympathy with 
 the young is another valuable trait in 
 the character of the teacher. With him 
 life should ever be young. He must be
 
 200 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 fond of the society of children and 
 youth ; must partake largely of their 
 hopes, their joys, and their enthusiasm, 
 and must be sensitively alive to all that 
 troubles them. Such a teacher has a 
 sympathy, an interest, an affection, for 
 his pupils which will create in their 
 minds corresponding feelings, and give 
 him power and influence over them that 
 can be gained in no other way. He 
 can mingle in their sports without los- 
 ing his dignity or authority ; can re- 
 prove and correct them without provok- 
 ing their ill-will. Such a master will 
 succeed. 
 
 Aptness to teach is also a gift of 
 Nature : still it may be improved by 
 culture. Quickness of perception and 
 accurate knowledge are important ; but 
 the most brilliant scholars are not 
 usually the best teachers. The power 
 to communicate and instruct, so as to
 
 HIS QUALIFICATIONS. 201 
 
 gain the attention and wake up the 
 mind of the pupil, is the indispensable 
 gift to which we allude. This enables 
 the teacher to adapt his instructions to 
 the peculiarities of his pupils. Some 
 need encouragement, others caution, 
 and still others rebuke, according as 
 they are timid, ambitious, or self-suffi- 
 cient. Aptness to teach implies skill in 
 the selection and use of illustration. It 
 guides the teacher as to the amount of 
 instruction to be given, that he may not 
 make the task of the pupil too easy, but 
 simply possible. In a word, it instructs 
 him when to teach, how to teach, and 
 how much to teach. 
 
 Earnestness and perseverance are 
 among the necessary qualities in the 
 teacher. 
 
 These qualities are indispensable to suc- 
 cess in any department of labor. Look 
 where you will for examples, the same
 
 202 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 truth is illustrated. The earnest man 
 succeeds ; the indolent, though possessed 
 of more talents and greater attainments, 
 often fails. The earnest and determined 
 teacher not only performs much more 
 labor in the same time, but inspires all 
 around him with his own spirit. He in- 
 fuses life and animation into the minds 
 of all, awakens new interest in study, 
 and exerts a commanding influence which 
 is felt not only in the schoolroom, but 
 also in the district and town where he 
 resides. He is a living, breathing, acting 
 spirit. Enthusiasm \_God in us] has 
 taken possession of his soul. He has 
 caught the divine idea of education, and 
 feels a divine solicitude to acquit himself 
 in a manner corresponding to the impor- 
 tance of his work. 
 
 His earnestness and eagerness to ac- 
 complish his object call forth a corre- 
 sponding effort. No obstacles intimidate,
 
 HIS QUALIFICATIONS. 
 
 no difficulties discourage him ; he feels 
 no misgivings, he knows no defeat. 
 Such a teacher has power, by his 
 presence, to create order out of con- 
 fusion, and to make his school popular, 
 profitable, and successful. 
 
 The efficient teacher must have a 
 sound and well-cultivated mind. 
 
 A sound mind is not only the founda- 
 tion of true manhood, but the source 
 of all successful efforts. It is conceded 
 that respectable talents are necessary to 
 fit the young man for successful business, 
 or efficiency in any one of the mechan- 
 ical arts or professions. For the factory, 
 the workshop, the counting-room, we 
 demand young persons of talent, and 
 can less be required of those who are 
 to occupy the important position of 
 teachers ? 
 
 And this mind must be cultivated; 
 must acquire the power to think, to ana-
 
 204 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 lyze, and reason. An undisciplined mind 
 is unfit to educate other minds. It cannot 
 appreciate the importance of systematic 
 culture, or employ the means necessary 
 to secure it. Without the power and 
 habit of well-regulated thought, the 
 teacher can himself have no available 
 knowledge; and, if he had, he could 
 have no power to impart it to others. 
 Hence, every teacher should be thor- 
 oughly disciplined by classical and 
 mathematical study. These furnish 
 the most direct means of securing 
 mental discipline. 
 
 But discipline is not the only advan- 
 tage derived from such studies. The 
 study of Latin is indispensable to a 
 thorough knowledge of the English 
 language, and the most successful way 
 to learn that language. To illustrate : al- 
 low any two individuals of equal age and 
 equal capacity to commence the study of
 
 HIS QUALIFICATIONS. 205 
 
 the English language with a view to make 
 the greatest possible attainments in two 
 years. The one may study English 
 grammar during the whole time, and 
 under proper instruction ; the other may 
 spend his first year (one-half the time 
 allowed) hi the study of Latin; the 
 second year he may spend in the study 
 of English, and the latter will be the 
 better English grammarian when the 
 two years have expired. The study of 
 the higher mathematics is also of great 
 service to the common-school teacher. 
 It adds strength and vigor to his mental 
 powers, and affords him a knowledge of 
 the principles necessary to explain arith- 
 metic and the practical natural sciences. 
 The facts and principles of the branch- 
 es to be taught must be thoroughly 
 understood. And, if the teacher would 
 do himself justice, he must extend his 
 knowledge far beyond his present neces-
 
 206 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 sity and requisitions. He cannot teach 
 clearly in the twilight of his own knowl- 
 edge, nor communicate more definite 
 information than he himself possesses. 
 All branches of science are connected. 
 No one branch can be properly taught 
 and illustrated without the aid of others. 
 With a knowledge of the lesson to be 
 taught, merely, the teacher may be able 
 to throw some light upon the subject be- 
 fore him ; but it is like the light of the 
 sun where there is no atmosphere to dif- 
 fuse and reflect it, all in one direction, 
 and total darkness everywhere else. 
 The range of the teacher's studies should, 
 therefore, be extensive, and his knowl- 
 edge liberal. He should be familiar with 
 all the principles that can aid in the ex- 
 planation of the subjects to be taught. 
 He should gather up and preserve all 
 attainable facts and incidents to be found 
 in the wide field of science and history.
 
 HIS QUALIFICATIONS. 207 
 
 All passing events should be preserved 
 for use in the schoolroom. 
 
 In a word, the teacher should be con- 
 stantly reading, observing, and thinking, 
 for the benefit of his pupils and the hon- 
 or of his profession. 
 
 Another desirable quality in a school- 
 teacher is self-respect. This implies a 
 consciousness of integrity which makes 
 one strong in the discharge of his duties ; 
 it gives its possessor noble aims and hon- 
 orable motives, and enables him to hold 
 a commanding position among his pupils, 
 and to exert a healthful influence over 
 them. Self-respect also implies self-reli- 
 ance, or a confidence in one's own ability 
 and qualifications for his office. Such a 
 teacher is not ostentatious, but simply 
 self-confident. Difficulties do not intim- 
 idate nor disturb him, because he feels 
 himself adequate to surmount them. 
 He rightly judges himself worthy of his
 
 208 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 own confidence and esteem, and is sure 
 to gain the respect and confidence of his 
 pupils, so necessary to his success and 
 usefulness. 
 
 Self-respect is intimately connected 
 with self-control. This, also, is essential 
 to success in school-keeping. Without 
 it, a master is like a ship without a helm. 
 In calm weather he may experience no 
 serious difficulty ; but when the storm 
 comes, and the winds blow, as surely 
 they will, he has no security from wreck 
 and ruin but in his own self-possession. 
 The teacher whose mind is thoroughly 
 disciplined and well balanced can com- 
 mand his knowledge ; can apply himself 
 to any subject, whether literary or judi- 
 cial. His understanding, reason, and 
 judgment are ready for any emergency ; 
 hence his efficiency. 
 
 Self-control also gives authority. To 
 be qualified to govern others, the master
 
 HIS QUALIFICATIONS. 209 
 
 must govern himself, his temper and his 
 tongue. His power to quell a raging tu- 
 mult or crush a rebellion lies in his cool- 
 ness. Authority is undoubtedly a gift 
 of nature ; but it is, in a measure, the 
 result of other cardinal and cultivated 
 qualities, principle, decision, indepen- 
 dence, dignity, disinterestedness, and re- 
 finement are all commanding ; they 
 give power and impression to the whole 
 man ; they speak out in his eye, his step, 
 his voice, and in all his movements and 
 expressions. Such self-respect and such 
 self-control gain for the teacher his true 
 position as instructor and governor of 
 his school. After all, the teacher, to be 
 efficient, must ^professionally educated. 
 De Witt Clinton has said, " Teaching 
 ought to be among the learned profes- 
 sions." And why not ? May we require 
 a young man to pass through a course of 
 professional training before he can
 
 210 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 practice law or medicine, or become a 
 respectable mechanic, and yet require 
 no special training of the teacher, whose 
 profession is more important than any 
 other ? 
 
 Must the lawyer make himself famil- 
 iar with constitutional principles and 
 legislative enactments, in order to be 
 qualified to settle our difficulties ; must 
 the physician understand the laws of 
 our physical being, the nature of disease 
 and its remedies, in order to be allowed 
 to administer to the health of the body ; 
 must the mechanic serve a three years' 
 apprenticeship before he is allowed to 
 build a house ; and shall the teacher, 
 to whom is committed the great work of 
 training the human mind for life and im- 
 mortality, during the most impressible 
 and formative period of its existence, be 
 allowed no special preparation ? 
 
 It is a serious reflection upon the
 
 BIS QUALIFICATIONS. 211 
 
 boasted intelligence of American mind, 
 that so little interest has been felt upon 
 this subject, and so large a proportion of 
 all our teachers have been so entirely 
 unfitted for their responsible duties. 
 Teaching should be recognized as a pro- 
 fession; the teacher should be satisfied 
 with nothing short of a thorough pro- 
 fessional education ; and, when fully 
 qualified, he should receive that com- 
 pensation and encouragement which his 
 self-sacrifice and devotion to the good of 
 the rising generation so richly merit. 
 While he honors his profession he should 
 be honored for the sake of it. But the 
 mere "novice in the trade," who has 
 chosen teaching only to avoid more un- 
 pleasant labor, or to gain the means to 
 accomplish the object of his own per- 
 sonal ambition, having no interest in the 
 business or idea of his responsibility, 
 should be driven from the field as un-
 
 212 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 worthy the high position which he occu- 
 pies. Why should not the profession 
 of teaching be as exalted, and be made 
 as exclusive, as any other ? No good 
 reason can be assigned. It is gratifying 
 and encouraging to mark the progress 
 that has been made in this direction, 
 during the last ten years. Normal 
 schools have been established in nearly 
 every State in the Union, and several 
 States are appropriating largely to sup- 
 port them. 
 
 New York State now has nine and 
 Massachusetts six, in full operation. 
 
 According to the last annual report of 
 the Commissioner of Education, the to- 
 tal number of normal schools in the 
 United States is eighty-one. The num- 
 ber of pupils attending them is about 
 six thousand. 
 
 Everywhere the demand for better 
 qualified teachers is becoming more and
 
 HIS QUALIFICATIONS. 213 
 
 more imperative, and the employment, 
 more elevated and honorable. Hence, 
 it becomes all candidates for this high- 
 office to avail themselves of these in- 
 creased facilities for professional training. 
 In no other way can they meet the wants 
 of the age, and render themselves wor- 
 thy of their high calling. 
 
 Last, but not least, among the necessary 
 qualifications of the school-teacher here 
 to be enumerated is moral and Christian 
 character. Every teacher should be a 
 model of excellence. No position in life 
 demands higher attainments, as none 
 commands a more important influence. 
 Children are fine copyists. They re- 
 ceive their earliest and most durable im- 
 pressions by imitation. Their teacher is 
 always sitting or standing before them 
 for his likeness. The impressions of 
 his feelings, principles, and character, 
 and especially the defects in his charac-
 
 214 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 ter, are left, in the ambrotype of the 
 schoolroom, upon the imperishable tab- 
 lets of the immortal mind. The pupil 
 may be expected to exhibit his teacher 
 before the world. He often assumes his 
 airs, imitates his tones, habits, and almost 
 his very looks. He copies his rough- 
 ness, stereotypes his oddities, and per- 
 petuates his errors and blunders. The 
 results of these early impressions and of 
 this influence will be felt upon future 
 generations. The teacher is doing his 
 most important work, then, when he 
 seems to be idle. 
 
 And let it not be forgotten, that edu- 
 cation does not begin with the alphabet, 
 nor end when the scholar takes his di- 
 ploma. It consists not entirely in tasks 
 and recitations. Character teaches ; 
 intelligence, politeness, candor, mag- 
 nanimity, veracity, kindness, worship, 
 moral and Christian integrity, all have
 
 HIS QUALIFICATIONS. 215 
 
 an important plastic power in the school- 
 room. But " these are no juvenile 
 graces meant to be set on children's 
 breasts by grown-up teachers on whose 
 own lives their glory never gleams." If 
 we would cultivate in our children that 
 Christian morality which alone can exalt 
 their character, and fit them for useful- 
 ness and happiness in life ; if we hope 
 to see them respected and honored for 
 their integrity and virtue ; and if we 
 would, through them, transmit to coming 
 generations the fruits and blessings of 
 our holy religion, we must demand 
 teachers who possess the principles and 
 spirit of true piety. 
 
 No person, therefore, should presume 
 to enter upon the responsibilities of the 
 teacher's office who has not, in active 
 exercise, every principle of true man- 
 hood or womanhood, every element of 
 a noble character, mental, moral, and re- 
 ligious.
 
 216 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 No reader will regret that I here put 
 on record Goldsmith's immortal "Village 
 Schoolmaster." 
 
 " Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, 
 With blossomed furze unprofitably gay, 
 There, in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule, 
 The village master taught his little school. 
 A man severe he was, and stern to view : 
 I knew him well, and every truant knew. 
 Well had the boding tremblers learned to trace 
 The day's disasters in his morning face ; 
 Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee 
 At all his jokes, for many a joke had he ; 
 Full well the busy whisper, circling round, 
 Conveyed the dismal tidings when he frowned. 
 Yet he was kind, or, if severe in aught, 
 The love he bore to learning was in fault. 
 The village all declared how much he knew : 
 'Twas certain he could write, and cipher too ; 
 Lands he could measure, storms and tides presage ; 
 And even the story ran that he could gauge ; 
 In arguing, too, the parson owned his skill, 
 For even though vanquished, he could argue still ; 
 While words of learned length and thundering sound 
 Amazed the gazing rustics ranged around ; 
 And still they gazed, and still the wonder grew, 
 That one small head could carry all he knew."
 
 IV. 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 HUS, fellow-teachers, I have aimed 
 -*- to present you very briefly some 
 practical thoughts upon school-keeping. 
 I trust you will appreciate my motives, 
 with however little favor you may re- 
 gard my efforts. All that is valuable for 
 you as teachers must be learned either 
 from those " who have borne the heat 
 and burden of the day," or from your 
 own experience in the " wear and tear " 
 of teaching. Mere theory and philoso- 
 phy have no place in the management 
 and instruction of schools. The teacher 
 deals only with facts. He is eminently 
 
 217
 
 218 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 a practical man or woman, and must take 
 a practical, common-sense view of every 
 thing. Besides, 
 
 " Teacher I to thyself 
 Tbou hast assumed responsibilities 
 Of crushing weight. A mighty, peerless work 
 Is thine. The golden chords attuned by thee, 
 Or grown by thy neglect discordant, not 
 In time alone, but through the limitless 
 Expanse of all eternity, shall throb ; 
 And should one note, which thou, by greater care, 
 More zealous labors, or by added skill, 
 Might now attune in harmony, be found 
 At last in dissonance with virtue, truth, 
 Or mental symmetry, in Heaven's sight, 
 Methinks a fearful guilt will on thee rest. 
 Thou hast to do with God's most noble work I 
 The unage fair, and likeness of himself 1 
 Immortal raiiid. That emanation bright 
 From his Divinity ! Sole transfer made 
 To man from his own deathless nature ! Such, 
 Instructor, is thy trust ! Thus sacred, high, 
 And precious, e'en beyond all finite power 
 To estimate, thy holy charge ! No work 
 Of art, or finest mechanism in things 
 Material, hath e'er so challenged for 
 Its right discharge e'en the vast aggregate 
 Of human skill. "
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 219 
 
 Look well, then, to your qualifications 
 for the great work which you have un- 
 dertaken. Have you as much common- 
 sense, devotion to your work, cheerful- 
 ness and hope, natural sympathy with 
 the young, aptness to teach, energy of 
 character, mental power and cultivation, 
 self-respect, self-control, professional 
 knowledge, and moral integrity, as is 
 necessary to fit you for your important 
 duties ? 
 
 We need the noblest order of minds 
 for this work. We need persons of ripe, 
 extensive, thorough scholarship ; persons 
 of refined, elegant tastes, and high and 
 commanding intellects ; but they must 
 be individuals of perfected power, who 
 can communicate themselves, as well as 
 their learning, individuals of profound 
 impulses and burning sympathies, who 
 have souls to move the world. There is 
 an acknowledged want of this kind of
 
 220 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 personal power in many of our teachers. 
 They may exhibit no prominent defects 
 either in character or attainments ; may, 
 indeed, be living editions of text-books, 
 capable of patient elaborations and 
 learned comments on the subjects before 
 them : but they are destitute of all vital, 
 transmissive, inspiring influence ; no 
 virtue goes out of them as they mingle 
 with their scholars ; they never stir 
 the deep fountain of their souls, nor 
 awaken in their bosoms those lofty 
 sentiments that incite to greater efforts 
 and nobler deeds. The teacher who 
 cannot rouse his pupils to think and act 
 for themselves, who is satisfied to drag 
 the almost lifeless body of an uninter- 
 ested class through formal recitations, 
 does not deserve the name he bears. 
 No matter how great his abilities, or how 
 extensive his learning, his main work is 
 left undone. The high office of the
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 221 
 
 teacher reaches far beyond the mere 
 formalities of the schoolroom. " Where 
 acquisition ends, the highest education 
 begins ; " hence, the paramount aim of 
 the teacher should be to cultivate the 
 faculties and cherish the spirit of a no- 
 bler life. If he possesses such a power, 
 an unconscious tuition will be felt upon all 
 around him ; his spirit will have all the 
 glow that imagination kindles, and will 
 be filled with impulses more stirring than 
 chivalry ever excited. Such a spirit 
 will consecrate him to his work, and 
 bear him through his labors as a glorious 
 pastime. 
 
 Now, fellow-teacher, the question is, 
 have you these qualifications and this spir- 
 it ? If you are conscious that you do not 
 possess these qualities (in some degree 
 at least), and have not the power and 
 determination to acquire them, you may 
 safely conclude that you have mistaken
 
 222 TEACHER'S MANUAL, 
 
 your calling, and should at once re- 
 linquish it, to engage in some employ- 
 ment less responsible and more congenial 
 to your habits and tastes. 
 
 " For woe to him who brings, 
 Or ignorance or recklessness, to such 
 Pursuit ! Let him the rather dig, or beg 
 From door to door his daily food, and live 
 At peace with God, and in Lis sight absolved, 
 Than tamper with expanding mind ; for if 
 Unsightly mould he doth perchance impart, 
 No power resides on earth to e'er repair 
 The seemless havoc he hath wrought. His work, 
 Howe'er achieved, whate'er its consequent, 
 How done, is done for aye." 
 
 If, however, you are conscious that 
 you possess the requisite qualifications to 
 enter upon such duties, let your aim be 
 high. Determine to elevate and honor 
 your profession. Let no opportunity for 
 self-culture pass unimproved. No teach- 
 er has already attained to perfection ; 
 every one should strive still more to cul-
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 223 
 
 tivate his mind and heart, and to gain 
 general and professional knowledge. 
 This should be the work of every day of 
 his life. Would you engage earnestly 
 in this work of self-discipline, learn to 
 make the most of time. 
 
 Great wealth is not usually acquired 
 by " huge windfalls," but by minute and 
 careful accumulations. The little sums 
 which many would deem of no impor- 
 tance, the pennies and half-dollars, are 
 the items which the miser has year by 
 year collected and preserved, until he 
 has reared his pyramid of fortune. From 
 the miser's success, you may learn the 
 nobler "avarice of time." 
 
 The German critic, who learned to 
 repeat the Iliad in Greek, had no months, 
 weeks, nor days to spare from profes- 
 sional labor. He employed the minutes 
 spent in passing from one patient's door 
 to another, in his daily round of duty.
 
 224 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 Dr. Mason Good's translation of Lucre- 
 tius was composed in the streets of Lon- 
 don, under similar circumstances. Dr. 
 Burney, the great musician, acquired the 
 French and Italian languages while rid- 
 ing on horse-back, from place to place, to 
 give his professional instructions. Elihu 
 Burritt and Hugh Miller are also illustri- 
 ous examples of what may be accom- 
 plished by a proper use of time, amid 
 the cares and labors of active life. You 
 should also profit by such economy, and 
 learn how to use fragments of time. 
 You should " glean up its golden dust ; 
 those raspings and parings of precious 
 duration, those leavings of days and 
 remnants of hours which so many sweep 
 out into the waste of existence," and 
 employ them all in study and efforts to 
 make yourselves better teachers. 
 
 To the same end, you should learn to 
 be punctual. This is important, not only
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 225 
 
 in your efforts for self-improvement, but 
 also for your success in the management 
 of your school. As a habit in life, punc- 
 tuality is invaluable. Some always post 
 their letters a few minutes after the mail 
 has closed ; reach the wharf just in time 
 to see the steamboat off, or the railroad 
 depot just in season to hear the whistle 
 of the engine, already thundering by. 
 By such tardiness much time is lost and 
 much inconvenience realized. So in 
 school-life. 
 
 " A LITTLE TOO LATE " will produce 
 evils that industry and perseverance 
 cannot remove ; will waste precious mo- 
 ments that no pains nor toil can recover. 
 Be punctual, then, in every school duty, 
 and also in those personal duties that 
 pertain to your own improvement. 
 
 Method and promptitude are also es- 
 sential to your improvement and success. 
 They will prevent confusion and irregu-
 
 226 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 larity. If you have no system, or delay 
 until to-morrow what ought to be done 
 to-day, a part of your necessary or desira- 
 ble work will remain undone through 
 the week, through the year, and through 
 life. " A time and place for every 
 thing," should be written over your 
 door, engraven on your memory, and 
 wrought into your fixed habits. Then 
 school duties will be pleasant, and will 
 be so performed that much time will be 
 saved for self-culture. 
 
 Again, I would urge upon you the im- 
 portance of singleness of purpose, both 
 as a means of success and a duty. I do 
 not mean that you should be a " man of 
 one idea," and know nothing beyond 
 the limited sphere of your own profes- 
 sion; but that teaching should be the 
 one great object before your mind, and 
 that you should devote to it directly 
 your best hours and your best thoughts.
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 227 
 
 Says one of our able thinkers in writing 
 upon the importance of devoting all our 
 energies to a particular calling, " The 
 world has advanced so far already, its 
 industries are so wide and various, the 
 laws that govern them are so intricate, 
 the circumstances which dictate success 
 are so changeful, that no one man can 
 master them all. One branch of busi- 
 ness is as much as one head can manage 
 well at a time : one life is none too long 
 to acquire the needed experience. The 
 great vineyard of human activity is 
 mapped out in sections ; and one sec- 
 tion is all any of you can cultivate thor- 
 oughly at a time. If a man is a ship- 
 builder, he need not go outside of his 
 trade to find room and necessity for all 
 his talents and time ; if a house-builder, 
 he must give his entire attention to the 
 conditions which underlie success in that 
 branch of industry ; if a preacher, then
 
 228 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 let him remember that preachers do not 
 grow spontaneously ; that he must de- 
 vote the best years of his life to the art, 
 and toil until his head whitens before 
 he can feel that the gospel receives a fit- 
 utterance through his lips. The preach- 
 er must press the richest juices of his 
 life out of his study, if he would have 
 his ministrations like rich wine to the 
 hearts and souls of his hearers. There 
 is no such thing, there never will be 
 such a thing again, as general knowl- 
 edge. All knowledge henceforth will 
 be specific. All students must be spe- 
 cialists. An engineer must be an engi- 
 neer, and feel that in the perfect knowl- 
 edge of and control over the magnifi- 
 cent power intrusted to his hands, he 
 has mounted a throne, and holds a ter- 
 rible sceptre. An engineer said to me 
 the other night, as I sat in the driving- 
 house, and watched him while he sent
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 229 
 
 his engine flying into the fog and dark- 
 ness at the rate of fifty miles an hour, 
 ' It is not enough/ said he, putting his 
 lips to my ear, and shouting, so that I 
 might hear his words amid the thunder- 
 ing din, ' it is not enough that I should 
 have an eye-knowledge of this engine ; 
 I must have an ear-knowledge of it. 
 And,' continued he, as we rolled up to the 
 junction, ' there is not a screw, a bolt, a 
 valve, or any part of this engine, which, 
 should it get out of its place, and I were 
 blindfolded, I could not instantly detect 
 it with my ear. I tell you sir,' he added, 
 i a man must understand his business, 
 when he undertakes to carry safely 
 seven hundred souls so near eternity as 
 an engine rolls." 
 
 So you as a teacher must understand 
 your business, and devote yourself with 
 untiring industry and earnestness to 
 your profession and peculiar work, if you 
 would gain success and merit honor.
 
 230 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 Kindred subjects demand a certain de- 
 gree of your attention, but only so far as 
 they subserve to the same purpose. Let 
 your profession be contemplated under 
 the similitude of a river, broad and 
 deep, but as constituted of many lesser 
 streams, by whose influence it has been 
 formed, and is still fed. The river 
 should engross your first attention, and 
 all the smaller streams be so directed as 
 to swell the main channel. 
 
 Professional enthusiasm is of two kinds ; 
 the one confines itself to the technicali- 
 ties of the profession, rejecting every 
 other species of discipline and knowl- 
 edge as irrelevant or useless ; the other 
 seeks the fountains from which the trib- 
 utaries flow, and aims to turn every thing 
 into the deep channel, and to guide even 
 the remotest streams of knowledge into 
 the swelling current. If you fully ap- 
 preciate the greatness of the work you
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 231 
 
 have undertaken, you cannot be diverted 
 from your noble purpose, however wide 
 your range of study and observation. 
 Happy indeed, if pure science and hard 
 study have trained your mind to close 
 and vigorous thought, happy if the 
 material world has enlarged your soul by 
 her lofty contemplations, happy if the 
 classics have strengthened your reason- 
 ing powers and cultivated your taste, 
 happy if the Muses have warmed and 
 exalted your imagination, and lifted your 
 thoughts to the beautiful and sublime in 
 nature and art. 
 
 Then you will be able to draw from 
 these ample stores means to embellish 
 your work and honor your profession. 
 
 Finally, enter upon your duties with a 
 full conviction of their importance and 
 of your own individual responsibility. 
 To become an accomplished teacher is 
 in itself a purpose worthy of your highest
 
 232 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 and noblest ambition. You must cher- 
 ish this feeling, or you can have no mo- 
 tive to put forth suitable efforts to attain 
 the end you have in view. 
 
 The community is yet, in a measure, 
 ungrateful and insensible to the impor- 
 tance of your service ; hence they offer 
 you inadequate compensation, and give 
 you too little encouragement. Still it is 
 true that you " stand in the highest 
 and best place that God has ordained to 
 man. " It is yours " to form a human 
 soul to virtue, and to enrich it with 
 knowledge, an office inferior only to 
 creating power." You stand on holy 
 ground ! 
 
 " Oh, then, be wise ! 
 Be every measure of thy choice, to aid 
 In forming deathless intellect, the fruit 
 Of earnest study, and of zealous care ; 
 E'en looking to the boundless future of 
 Its destiny. Thou may'st be popular, 
 Perchance, but seek not popularity 
 As motive-spring of any act, in thy
 
 CONCLUDING REMAKES. 233 
 
 Profession. Valiant be, and ever dare 
 
 To do the right, though all the gathered hosts 
 
 Of Error may oppose. Then, if thou fail 
 
 On earth thy well-earned measure of applause 
 
 To gain, that nobler tribute from the skies, 
 
 ' Well done, thou good ;v td faithful servant,' shall 
 
 Thy glorious mission crown."
 
 Y. 
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 
 
 THEIR HISTORY AND IMPORTANCE. 
 
 A BRIEF outline of the history of a 
 -^--*- free and universal education can- 
 not be uninteresting or unprofitable to 
 the teachers of our public schools. The 
 idea of educating the masses found ex- 
 pression in early times, but the develop- 
 ment of the principle has been very slow 
 and unsatisfactory. Sparta, under Ly- 
 curgus, adopted a system of public in- 
 struction; but the education imparted by 
 the State was mainly physical, and even 
 that did not reach the peasantry. 
 
 The private schools of Rome were nu- 
 
 234
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 235 
 
 merous ; but their advantages were con- 
 fined to the patricians and such plebeians 
 as possessed property. To Christianity 
 we are indebted for our system of com- 
 mon schools. With its accession to pow- 
 er, the duty of the State to educate its 
 children was at once recognized by the 
 bishops and the clergy. Their chief aim 
 was to teach the doctrines of the Church ; 
 and yet this was the first recognition of 
 the principle of universal instruction, and 
 the germ from which our system has been 
 developed. 
 
 In the year 529, the Council of Vai- 
 son recommended the establishment of 
 public schools. In the year 800, a 
 synod at Mentz ordered that the paro- 
 chial priests should have schools in the 
 towns and villages, " that the children of 
 all the faithful should learn letters of 
 them. Let them receive and teach 
 these with the utmost charity, that they
 
 236 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 themselves may shine as the stars for- 
 ever. Let them receive no remunera- 
 tion from their scholars, unless what the 
 parents through charity may voluntari- 
 ly offer." 
 
 In the year 836, a Council at Rome or- 
 dained that there should be three kinds 
 of schools throughout Christendom, 
 " Episcopal, parochial in towns and vil- 
 lages, and others wherever there could 
 be found place and opportunity." In 
 the year 1179, the Council of Lateran 
 ordained the establishment of a gram- 
 mar school in every cathedral for the 
 free instruction of the poorer classes. 
 The Council of Lyons enlarged and en- 
 forced this ordinance in the year 1245. 
 Up to this period, the education of the 
 people was confined to this mingled 
 scholastic and religious training. And 
 even these rudiments of knowledge did 
 not reach the more scattered population
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 237 
 
 of the rural districts. And from this 
 time up to the era of the Reformation, 
 the subject of popular schools received 
 little or no attention. Luther became 
 the champion of public education, and 
 through his efforts and influence the 
 cause received a new impulse. In the 
 year 1524, Luther wrote an address to 
 the Common Councils of all the cities of 
 Germany in behalf of Christian Schools. 
 In this address we find the following sen- 
 sible passages : " It is a grave and seri- 
 ous thing, affecting the interest of the 
 kingdom of Christ and of the world, that 
 we apply ourselves to the work of aiding 
 and instructing the young .... If so 
 much be expended every year for weap- 
 ons of war, roads, dams, and countless 
 other things of this sort, for the safety 
 and prosperity of a city, why should we 
 not expend as much for the benefit of 
 the poor ignorant youths to provide
 
 238 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 them with skilful teachers ? " This is a 
 question which is equally appropriate for 
 our own times, and for all parts of our 
 own country. 
 
 Again Luther spoke on this subject, 
 in the year 1526. Let us hear him: 
 " Government, as the natural guardian 
 of all the young, has the right to com- 
 pel the people to support schools. What 
 is necessary for the well-being of the 
 State, that should be supplied by those 
 who enjoy the privilege of such State. 
 Now, nothing is more necessary than the 
 training of those who are to come after 
 us and bear rule. If the people are too 
 poor to pay the expense, and are already 
 burdened with taxes, then the monastic 
 funds which were originally given for 
 such purposes are to be employed in that 
 way to relieve the people." 
 
 This is sound doctrine, and as impor- 
 tant to the welfare of America as it is to
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 239 
 
 Germany ; as applicable to the nine- 
 teenth as to the sixteenth century. 
 Compulsory education here had its ori- 
 gin, and its beneficial results have been 
 fully demonstrated in the history of the 
 German school system and of the Ger- 
 man nation ; and more especially in the 
 history of the late Franco-German war. 
 It is a hopeful sign of our times, that the 
 States of the Union are beginning to 
 adopt this same compulsory system. 
 
 It is not enough for the public weal, 
 that free schools should be provided at 
 public expense ; but the children of the 
 State must be compelled to attend them, 
 so that all may be trained for private and 
 public service. 
 
 Luther became not only a zealous ad- 
 vocate of popular education, but an ear- 
 nest worker in the cause. In the year 
 1527, with the aid of Melancthon, he 
 drew up the so-called Saxon school sys-
 
 240 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 tern, and through his life he devoted 
 himself with earnestness to the educa- 
 tion of all classes of youth in the free 
 schools which he had helped to establish. 
 
 The labors of Luther in the cause of 
 popular education were continued by 
 such Germans as Trolzendorf, Sturm, 
 Neander, Ratich, Helwig, and Amos Co- 
 menius ; and, as a consequence, the Ger- 
 man nation has attained to a higher de- 
 gree of excellence than any other nation 
 on earth. 
 
 In 1618, a thirty-years' war broke 
 out, which delayed for half a century all 
 educational movements. Such is always 
 the direct influence of war upon civili- 
 zation. It may have an influence for 
 good upon remote ages ; but in its pres- 
 ent aspect, war is a bloody monster 
 which consumes the wealth, and destroys 
 the vitality of the nations. It is a relic 
 of barbarism, the perfect antagonism of
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 241 
 
 Christianity, and the scourge of the hu- 
 man race. 
 
 About the middle of the 17th century, 
 several of the German States, having re- 
 covered from the terrible war, began 
 again to look after the interests of edu- 
 cation. At this time compulsory laws 
 were enacted and enforced. Later in 
 this century commenced a new era in 
 the educational history of Germany. 
 Two distinguished men, Philip J. Spener 
 and August H. Frauche, acted an im- 
 portant part in carrying forward this 
 great work. The latter especially la- 
 bored so earnestly and effectually, that 
 his influence has been felt by every gen- 
 eration of men who have lived since his 
 day. Among his immediate followers 
 were Zinzendorf, Steinmetz, Hecker, 
 Rambalt, Basedow, Campe, Salzmann, 
 and the distinguished Pestalozzi whose 
 thoughts and methods are made the ba- 
 
 16
 
 242 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 sis of our own approved system of in- 
 struction. These men labored and have 
 passed away, and we have entered into 
 their labors. Indeed, the whole civilized 
 world are to-day much indebted to 
 Germany for the light and civilization 
 anywhere enjoyed. 
 
 The popular and perfected system of 
 education which is now enforced in Prus- 
 sia, which opens her schools alike to the 
 poor and the rich, was not introduced, 
 to any extent, until the early part of the 
 present century. And yet every pro- 
 vision which long experience, deep in- 
 terest, and profound study could suggest, 
 seems to have been adopted to render 
 these schools the most perfect, and best 
 adapted to the wants of the people, of 
 any in the world. 
 
 Scotland is the only other country on 
 the continent which can boast of having 
 an early system of popular education ;
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 243 
 
 and this originated also with the 
 clergy. 
 
 John Knox, as early as 1560, urged 
 the necessity of schools for the children 
 of the poor, and maintained that they 
 should be sustained on the charge of the 
 kirk. In 1696, common schools were 
 established in every parish in Scotland. 
 They were supported partly by the par- 
 ish and partly by rate -bills. These 
 schools have diffused a general elemen- 
 tary education among the whole people 
 of Scotland, more extensive and thor- 
 ough than in any nation of Europe ex- 
 cept Prussia. And these schools have 
 always been under the charge of the 
 kirk. In 1843, the Free Church of Scot- 
 land seceded ; and since that time schools 
 have been organized in connection with 
 each congregation. But the common- 
 school system has not there been as fully 
 developed as in Germany, nor as fully as
 
 244 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 we may hope it will be in our own coun- 
 try. This will depend, however, upon 
 the spirit of the democracy which 
 wields the power of the nation. If our 
 free institutions are founded upon intel- 
 ligence and virtue, and controlled by 
 law, the system of popular education 
 will find here a congenial soil, and will 
 
 * 
 
 thrive and grow to perfection. But if 
 we adopt the mad theory of the u Com- 
 mune " of Paris, that universal freedom 
 means unbounded license, our school 
 system will degenerate, and utterly fail 
 to accomplish its object. 
 
 The Puritan settlers of New England 
 believed in universal education. Hence, 
 as soon as they had provided a tempo- 
 rary shelter for themselves, they erected 
 the church, the college, and the school- 
 house. These always stand side by side. 
 Education was regarded the handmaid 
 of religion, and was everywhere cher-
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 245 
 
 ished and sustained with the same care 
 and interest. 
 
 But the first schools established in 
 this country were not common schools, 
 as that term is now understood. They 
 were called free grammar schools, and 
 were supported in part by the proceeds 
 of land, houses, or money granted by 
 the town or by individuals, and in part by 
 tuition ; and they were free only to the 
 donors, and even to them not wholly free. 
 
 These schools were established first in 
 Charles City, in Virginia, in 1621 ; in 
 Boston, in 1636 ; in New Haven, in 
 1638 ; in Salem, in 1641 ; in Roxbury, 
 in 1645 ; and in most of the settled 
 towns of New England within four or 
 five years after their settlement. These 
 schools gathered in the larger part of the 
 children in every parish, but not all. 
 
 The free common school of our times 
 originated in New England. Both
 
 246 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 Massachusetts and Connecticut claim 
 the honor of its first establishment. 
 The first act of legislation upon this 
 subject was passed in Massachusetts, in 
 1647. But the town authorities of 
 Hartford, Conn., had, at an earlier date, 
 taken broader and more liberal ground 
 for the education of all classes. Her 
 school laws soon followed. In 1642, 
 Hartford established a town school to 
 be supported by funds from the public 
 treasury. 
 
 In 1643, it was voted " that the town 
 should pay the schooling of the poor, 
 and for all deficiencies." The spirit of this 
 provision still governs the school system 
 of Connecticut. New Hampshire and 
 Vermont, then colonies, followed the 
 example of Massachusetts and Connec- 
 ticut, and established schools in every 
 neighborhood where the number of chil- 
 dren and adults were enough to support 
 a teacher.
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 247 
 
 And let it be remembered, that these 
 schools were sustained under the most 
 unfavorable circumstances. The people 
 were poor, and yet they were taxed as 
 people were never taxed before nor 
 since ; taxed for imports and exports ; 
 taxed by their wars with the Indians ; 
 taxed by their wars with the French; 
 taxed for the support of an able minis- 
 try, and the erection of houses of wor- 
 ship ; but all this did not prevent them 
 from making liberal provisions for their 
 common schools. 
 
 In 1670, the Governor of Connecticut 
 reported that "one-fourth of the annual 
 revenue of the Colony is laid out in 
 maintaining free schools for. the educa- 
 tion of our children. " And here we re- 
 call a remarkable contrast in the early 
 history of the Colonies. At the same 
 time that the Governor of Connecticut 
 reported as above, that one-fourth of the
 
 248 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 annual revenue was expended in support 
 of common schools, the Governor of Vir- 
 ginia replied to the same inquiry, in the 
 following strange language : " I thank 
 God there are no free schools, and I hope 
 we shall not have, these hundred years." 
 No comment is necessary. The subse- 
 quent history of our country reveals the 
 legitimate working of these two systems. 
 Soon after the close of the Revolution- 
 ary war, the " Western Reserve " lands 
 in Ohio, belonging to Connecticut, came 
 into market. " Shall they be sold to pay 
 the crushing debt brought upon the 
 State by the war, and to relieve the 
 people of oppressive taxation ? " was the 
 inquiry of that patriotic people. There 
 were strong arguments in favor of such a 
 policy. But there was another cause 
 more pressing and of more vital interest 
 to the State. The times were hard, but 
 the rising and future generations must be
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 249 
 
 provided for. Present poverty was bet- 
 ter than future ignorance. Present suf- 
 fering could be endured, if the growing 
 Commonwealth could be enriched by the 
 sacrifice. So these patriots reasoned, 
 and proceeded to consecrate the income 
 of that vast tract of land, now amount- 
 ing to more than two million dollars, to 
 the support of the common schools of the 
 State. 
 
 To the same cause, Massachusetts set 
 apart a portion of her wild lands in the 
 " province of Maine." Here is the be- 
 ginning of our public schools ; and in the 
 expression of these enlightened views as 
 to the importance of education, and in 
 the great sacrifice made to sustain free 
 schools, is revealed the secret of their 
 success in these noble States. 
 
 At the opening of the present century, 
 the * New-England school system was 
 based upon five prominent ideas.
 
 250 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 1st. The instruction of all the chil- 
 dren of the State in the rudiments of 
 education. This was to be accomplished 
 by district schools in neighborhoods con- 
 taining fifty householders or less. 
 
 2d. Each district was to be indepen- 
 dent of every other. 
 
 3d. A superintendent or board of 
 visitors (usually consisting of profes- 
 sional men, and always including the 
 clergy), to examine teachers, inspect 
 schools, prescribe text-books, &c. 
 
 4th. The support of the schools by 
 taxation and rate-bills, the poor being 
 exempted. 
 
 5th. Power to compel attendance. Un- 
 der the operation of this system, educa- 
 tion was diffused through the whole 
 community, and untold benefits were 
 realized. And similar schools were soon 
 introduced into New York, Ohio., and 
 Pennsylvania.
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 251 
 
 But ere long interest in the cause be- 
 gan to decline, and the condition of the 
 schools throughout the country was less 
 hopeful than for many years before. In 
 1817 the subject began to awaken new 
 interest among thinking patriotic men, 
 and new efforts to elevate the standard 
 of our common schools were made. 
 Organizations for educational purposes 
 were formed in New York, Philadelphia, 
 Boston, Portland, Lancaster, Pittsburg, 
 Worcester, Hartford, Lowell, Providence, 
 Cincinnati, and other cities and towns. 
 A revision of school systems followed, 
 under the guidance of such men as 
 Thomas H. Gallaudet, James G. Carter, 
 and Walter R. Johnson. 
 
 The labors of these men, aided by the 
 press, did much to elevate the standard 
 of instruction, and to create public opin- 
 ion in favor of .professionally trained 
 teachers.
 
 252 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 This educational revival is still exert- 
 ing its influence upon the public mind 
 for the elevation of our schools. 
 
 One of the direct results of this agita- 
 tion was the establishment of education- 
 al journals and State and county 
 associations. The "American Journal 
 of Education " was established in 1826, 
 and a little later the " American Annals 
 of Education." The organization of 
 teachers' institutes, and the founding of 
 normal schools for the education of 
 teachers, followed these efforts. The 
 names of Horace Mann and Henry Bar- 
 nard are associated with these earnest 
 efforts and permanent improvements. 
 Before the late civil war, educational 
 journals were published in nearly all 
 the States of the Union. Many of these, 
 I am sorry to say, have been discontin- 
 ued. Normal schools are now established 
 in nearly all the States, and have be-
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 253 
 
 come permanent institutions. Teach- 
 er's Institutes continue to be held, and 
 State and national educational associa- 
 tions have become important agencies 
 for the advancement of our common 
 cause. 
 
 It remains to mark the leading char- 
 acteristics of our improved school sys- 
 tem. They differ somewhat in detail in 
 the different Northern States, but in 
 their main features are not unlike. 
 
 A system of graded schools has been 
 established in most of the cities and 
 large towns. These embrace primary 
 schools for the younger scholars, with 
 books, apparatus, and teachers adapted 
 to their peculiar wants. Second, gram- 
 mar schools for the more advanced pu- 
 pils, in which are taught the ordinary 
 and higher branches. The third and 
 highest grade is designed for the more 
 advanced pupils, who study the higher
 
 254 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 mathematics and languages, and such 
 other branches as fit them for business- 
 life or for college. 
 
 The advantage of this graded system 
 cannot be over-estimated. It secures 
 perfect classification, according to the 
 attainments and standing of the pupils. 
 It brings together those of the .same 
 age, who have a common interest and 
 common sympathy ; and hence they are 
 much more profited than they could be 
 in a mixed and unclassified condition. 
 This system also enables school officers 
 to select teachers who are especially 
 fitted for their own particular depart- 
 ments. 
 
 It secures the advantages of a com- 
 plete division of labor, full time for class 
 recitation, and a more complete super- 
 vision of the school. One principal 
 superintends every department; his 
 teachers are employed permanently, and
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 255 
 
 hence, they not only understand the 
 wants of their pupils but feel a deeper 
 interest in their improvement. More 
 regularity and punctuality of attendance 
 and a greater uniformity of text-books 
 are secured. Happy the day when there 
 shall be a graded school of high order 
 in every town in the nation. 
 
 And our modern school systems are 
 characterized by more thoroughness. 
 This would naturally result from better 
 classification of the school, and the more 
 thorough discipline of the teacher, 
 in his own personal training. And it 
 results also from the more frequent pri- 
 vate and public examinations. These 
 stimulate the teacher to more care and 
 fidelity, and the pupil to more effort. 
 They serve to awaken an interest among 
 parents in their school, and to inspire 
 confidence and self-reliance in the schol- 
 ars. They induce earnest study and
 
 256 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 frequent and careful reviews, and lead 
 to the thorough mastery of the subject 
 investigated. 
 
 The importance of the common school 
 is seen in the fact that no other class of 
 schools can reach the whole people. 
 And yet, the people must be educated, 
 in the broadest sense of that term, if we 
 would preserve the perpetuity of our 
 free institutions. 
 
 The education of a young prince or 
 princess, in royal governments, is re- 
 garded as an important matter, aifecting, 
 as it must, the welfare of nations. The 
 selection of a proper tutor for such an 
 heir to the throne always excites a deep 
 interest and solicitude throughout the 
 kingdom or empire. But we are a na- 
 tion of sovereigns, and our children all 
 princes of a future generation. The 
 proper training of these children, to fit 
 them for the duties of citizenship, for
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 257 
 
 rulers or subjects, as the case may be, is, 
 therefore, a matter of great consequence. 
 
 There is no royal blood in American 
 veins that does not flow alike in every 
 rank and grade of society. Any child 
 that has the necessary ability, energy, 
 and culture, as he grows to manhood, 
 may work his way from the humblest 
 cottage in the land, to the " White 
 House " at Washington ; from obscurity 
 if> the highest place in the gift of the 
 people. Any citizen may cast a vote 
 that will change the policy, or seal the 
 fate, of the nation. Hence, that right 
 of franchise is a dangerous power in the 
 hands of the ignorant and vicious. 
 
 Again, the importance of the common 
 school is seen in the fact, that much the 
 larger portion of our children can attend 
 no higher school. These must gathe*- 
 the rudiments of education, and gradu- 
 ate from that institution which is located 
 
 17
 
 258 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 in their own neighborhood, by the way- 
 side, on the hilltop, or upon some bleak 
 and shadeless corner where four roads 
 meet, and is called, by way of distinction, 
 the " District School." It indicates, 
 therefore, an enlightened patriotism, and 
 a broad philanthropy to seek to elevate 
 the standard of our public schools. In- 
 deed, these should be the best schools in 
 the town, county, or State. And how 
 shall this object be secured ? I answer.; 
 special care must be taken to provide 
 better schoolhouses, with better furni- 
 ture and more apparatus, and teachers 
 who have received more culture and more 
 professional training, and are imbued 
 with the spirit and enthusiasm of earnest 
 workers. Parents must feel more inter- 
 est in the welfare and improvement of 
 the common school, and co-operate more 
 thoroughly in the measures necessary 
 for its success j and pupils must become
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS. 259 
 
 more docile, obedient, prompt, punctual, 
 and faithful in the discharge of their du- 
 ties. Then shall we find in our families 
 and in our community better sons and 
 daughters, kinder brothers and sisters, 
 truer friends, nobler patriots, more 
 virtuous, more devoted, more faithful 
 servants of our Lord Jesus Christ.
 
 VI. 
 
 ETJLES FOE THE DIVISIBILITY OF NUMBERS. 
 
 1. Any number is divisible by 2 when 
 its right-hand digit is even qr a cipher. 
 
 2. Any number is divisible by 3 when 
 the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. 
 
 3. Any number is divisible by 4 when 
 the number expressed by the two right- 
 hand digits is divisible by 4. 
 
 Explanation. That part of a number 
 is divisible by 4 which terminates in two 
 ciphers : for 4 is a factor of 100. Since, 
 then, both parts taken separately are di- 
 visible by 4, the number is also. 
 
 4. Any number is divisible by 5 when 
 the right-hand digit is 5 or a cipher. 
 
 260
 
 DIVISIBILITY OF NUMBERS. 261 
 
 Explanation. That part of a number 
 is divisible by 5 which terminates in a 
 cipher : for five is a factor of 10. Since, 
 then, both parts taken separately are di- 
 visible by 5, the number is also. 
 
 5. Any number is divisible by 6 when 
 the sum of its digits is divisible by 3, 
 and the right-hand digit is even. 
 
 6. Any number is divisible by 8 when 
 the number expressed by its three right- 
 hand digits is divisible by 8. 
 
 Explanation. That part of a number 
 is divisible by 8 which terminates in 
 three ciphers : for 8 is a factor of 1000. 
 Since, then, both parts taken separately 
 are divisible by 8, the number is also. 
 
 7. Cases 3d and 6th are particular 
 examples of a general law, viz. : 
 
 Any number is divisible by 2 n when 
 the number expressed by (n) right hand- 
 digits is divisible by 2 n . 
 
 Explanation. That part of a number
 
 262 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 is divisible by 2 n which terminates in 
 (n) ciphers : for 2 n is a factor of 1 with 
 (n) ciphers annexed. Since, then, both 
 parts taken separately are divisible by 
 2 n , the number is also. 
 
 8. Any number is divisible by 9 when 
 the sum of the digits is divisible by 9. 
 
 Explanation. Every number is com- 
 posed of a certain number of 9's plus the 
 sum of the digits. Thus, 7245=7000+ 
 200 +40+5 = 7(999+1) + 2 (99+1) +4 
 (9+l)+5 = 7.999+7+2.99+2+4.9+4+ 
 5=7.999 + 2.99 + 4.9 + 7 + 2 + 4 + 5 =. 
 The part composed of a certain number 
 of 9's is divisible by 9. Hence, if the 
 sum of the digits is divisible by 9, 
 both parts taken separately are divisi- 
 ble by 9 ; hence the number is divisible 
 by 9. It follows also that any num- 
 ber divided by 9 will give the same re- 
 mainder as the sum of the digits di- 
 vided by 9. Upon this property of the
 
 DIVISIBILITY OF NUMBERS. 2G3 
 
 9 depends one of the methods of proving 
 the operation in the four fundamental 
 rules. 
 
 Case 2d depends upon the principle in 
 case 8th. 
 
 9. Any number is divisible by 11 when 
 the sum of the digits in the odd places 
 equals the sum of the digits in the even 
 places, or when the difference of these 
 sums is some multiple of 11. 
 
 Explanation. Every number is com- 
 posed of a certain number of ll's plus or 
 minus the difference between the sum of 
 the digits in the odd places subtracted 
 from the sum of the digits in the even 
 places. 
 
 Thus, 2948 = 2000 + 900 4-40 + 8= 
 2.(1001 1 )+9(99+l) +4(11 l)+8= 
 2. 1001 2 + 9.99 +9 + 4.11 4+ 8 = 
 2. 1001 + 9.99 + 4.11 2+9 4+8. 
 Hence, the part composed of a certain 
 number of ll's is divisible by 11. Since
 
 264 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 the other part is zero or some multiple 
 of 11, it is divisible by 11. Therefore, 
 since both parts taken separately are di- 
 visible by 11, the number is also. 
 
 10. Any number is divisible by 2, 3, 
 6, 9, and 18 when the sum of its digits 
 is divisible by 9 and the right-hand digit 
 is even. 
 
 11. Any number is divisible by 3, 5, 9, 
 15, and 45, when the sum of its digits is 
 divisible by 9 and its right-hand digit is 
 a 5 or a cipher. 
 
 12. Any number is divisible by 2, 11, 
 and 22 when the sum of its digits in the 
 odd places equals the sum of its digits in 
 the even places, or when the difference of 
 these sums is some multiple of 11, and 
 the right-hand digit is even. 
 
 The rule which applies to the numbers 
 7 and 13 is too complicated to be of 
 much practical use j hence it is omitted.
 
 ORIGIN OF SIGNS. 265 
 
 THE ORIGIN OF ARITHMETICAL SIGNS. 
 
 1. The sign of addition, called plus, is 
 derived from the initial letter of the 
 
 word plus. Thus, ff* ft X ~K eacn time 
 more carelessly written. 
 
 2. The sign of subtraction, called mi- 
 nus, was derived from the word minus. 
 Minus was contracted into the letters 
 
 m n s with a horizontal line drawn 
 above them to denote contraction. Then 
 the letters m n s were omitted, which 
 left the short horizontal line [ ]. 
 
 3. The sign of multiplication was ob- 
 tained by changing the sign of addition 
 into the letter X. This change was 
 made because multiplication is the short 
 way of performing many additions. 
 
 4. The sign of division (a short line 
 between two dots -^-) was employed to 
 save room on the printed page, and pre-
 
 266 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 serve its regularity. The dividend was 
 written at the left of the sign, and the 
 divisor at the right, and a dot was writ- 
 ten in the places of the dividend and 
 divisor. Thus 8-r-4. 
 
 5. The radical sign was derived from 
 the letter r, the initial letter of radix. 
 Thus 2 6 or v/6. 
 
 6. The sign of equality (two short 
 horizontal parallel lines) was first used 
 by Roberte Recorde, physician, in his 
 "Whetstone of Witte," published in!557. 
 He gives his reason, in his own quaint 
 manner, in the following words : " And 
 to avoide the tediouse repetition of these 
 woordes, is equalle to, I will sette, as I 
 doe often in woorkeuse, a paire of paral- 
 leles or Gemowe lines of one lengthe 
 thus =, because noe 2 thynges can be 
 more equalle."
 
 PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS. 267 
 
 PROPERTIES* OF NUMBERS. 
 
 1. Every perfect square number ter- 
 minates in 1, 4, 5, 6, 9, or two 00. 
 
 2. A perfect cube terminates in 1, 2, 
 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or in a number of 
 ciphers which is divisible by 3. 
 
 3. The fifth power of any one of the 
 9 digits terminates in the digit itself. 
 
 4. The fourth power of a number ter- 
 minates in 1, 6, 5, or in a number of 
 ciphers divisible by 4. 
 
 5. A perfect number is one which is 
 equal to the sum of all its aliquot parts. 
 Thus 6 is a perfect number because 
 1+2+3=6. There are only 10 perfect 
 numbers known. 6, 28, 496, 8128. 
 
 6. Two numbers are said to be amica- 
 ble if each is equal to the sum of the 
 aliquot parts of the other. Thus 220 
 and 284 are amicable numbers, 220=1 
 +2+4+71+142, which are the aliquot
 
 268 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 parts of 284; and 284=1+2+4+5+10 
 + 11+20+22+44+55+110 which are 
 the aliquot parts of 220. There are on- 
 ly 6 amicable numbers at present known 
 
 220 ) -I ! . 17296 I O J -. . 9363583 j OJ _ 
 
 281 \ ->- fel pair , 18416 1 Ziti pair , 9437056 \ oa pair. 
 There are many other properties pe- 
 culiar to different numbers as they sub- 
 serve different purposes. 
 
 ARITHMETICAL CURIOSITIES. 
 
 1. To obtain a product which shall 
 consist of either of the nine digits only. 
 Multiply the number "1 2345679 
 by as many times the right-hand digit 
 as is indicated by the digit which is to 
 compose the product. Thus, if a pro- 
 duct is sought which shall consist of the 
 digit 6, multiply the digits 123456 
 7 9 x 6 X 9=666666666. 
 
 2. To obtain the sum of numbers by 
 subtraction. Take any number greater
 
 ARITHMETICAL CURIOSITIES. 269 
 
 than the sum of the numbers whose 
 amount is sought, and from this supposed 
 number subtract, in succession, each of 
 the given numbers. Subtract the final 
 remainder from the number first sup- 
 posed, and the result will be the sum 
 sought. Thus if the sum of 7+6+8+3 
 is sought. Suppose 30 from 30 ; sub- 
 stract 7, and from the remainder take 6, 
 and so proceed. Thus 
 30 
 7 
 
 23 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 3 
 
 6 
 30 6 = 24 = 7 + 6+8 + 3.
 
 270 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 3. To obtain the difference between 
 two numbers by addition and multipli- 
 cation. Multiply the subtrahend by 9, 
 and under the minuend write the pro- 
 duct. Add the figures in the minuend 
 to the one under it in the subtrahend, 
 and to this amount add each figure at 
 the right in the subtrahend, and carry 
 as in addition, 
 
 Kequired the difference between 89643 
 
 and 46375 
 
 89643 
 
 46375.9=417375 
 
 43268 
 
 5+3=8, to carry+4+7+5=16 ; 1 to 
 carry+6+3+7+5=22 ; 2 to carry +9+ 
 7-1-3+ 7+5=33; 3 to carry +8+1+7+3 
 +7+5=44. But, as the 4 falls under 
 the left-hand digit of the minuend, we 
 stop at the left-hand digit of the minu- 
 end, and we find the remainder to be 
 43268.
 
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