CLARK $0^ 1 1 «*""'"^'^T""'""'""' #"i^ L^R/fc^T-BooK ON Rhetoric; UHivfRenY or CAUtownteM^TiNG THE Development op the Science with j^rr * " ' .;" •"!!_ Exhaustive Practice in Composition. llpCASIOIS IiIfiBt A Course of Practical Lessons Adapted for use in Higli Schools and Academies, and in thie Lower Classes of Colleges. BY BRAINERD KELLOGG, A.M., Professor of the English Lhinguage and Literature in the Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic^stitute, and one of the authors of Beed & KjMogg's " Chmded Lessmis^ in English" ih£r LeSipns in English. " In preparing this work ijpon Rhetoric, the author's aim has been to write a practical text-book foi" High Schools, Acadenjies, and the lower classes of Colleges, basjed upon the science rather than an exhaustive treatise upon the science itself. ' This work has grown u^^^out of the belief that^he rhetoric which the pupil needs is not^that whiph lodges finally in thUmeni6.ry, but that which has worked itSj way down into his tongue and' fingeJrs, enabling him to speak and write the better for having studi^Sit.-v The a'uthor believes that the aim of the study should be to put the pupil in posses- sion of an art, and that this can be done not by forcing the science into him through eye and ear, but by drawing it out of him, in products, through tongue and pen. Hence all explanations of principles are fol- lowed by exhaustive practice in Composition — to this everything is made tributary. "This is just the work to take the place of the much-stilted 'Sentential Analysis' that is being waded through to little purpose by the Grammar and High School pupils of our country. This work not only teaches the discipline of analyz- ing thought, but leads the student to feel that it is his thought that is being dealt with, dissected, and unfolded, to etficient expression."— ^o/.tr. S. Albee, Prest. cf State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis. ^ 276 pages, ISitio, attractively bound in cloth. r^'y \l CLARK & MAYNARD, Publishers, New York'. " Kelt.ogo's Khetoric is evidently the fruit of scholarship and large experience. The authof has collected his own mate- rials, and di*^posed of them with the skill of a master; his j-tatements are precise, lucid, and sufficiently copious. Nothing is sacrificed to f how ; the book is intended for use. and the abundance of examples will constitute one of its chief merits in the eyes of the thorough teacher."— Pro/". A. S. Cook, Johns Jlopkins University, BaUimorc, Md. m ^ ■g^—— ^^— I—— g— ■—— M^— ^—■—■■1 ^^^——l ^ AText-Book on English Literature, With copious extracts from the leading authors, English and Ameri- can. With full Instructions as to the Method in which these are to be studied. Adapted for use in Colleges, High Schools, /> Academies, etc. By Brainerd Kellogg, A.M., Professor of ^O the English Language and Literature in the Brooklyn Collegiate an(i Polytechnic Institute, Author of a "Text-Book on Rhet- oric," and one of the Authors of Reed & Kellogg's " Graded Lessons in English,'* and ** Higher Lessons in English." Handsomely printed. 12mo, 478 pp. The Book is dividedJnIo the following Periods: Period I.— BefiCre the Norman Conquest, 670-1066. Period II.— From the Conqi^st to Chaucer's death, 1066-1400. Period III.— From Chaucer's jjeath to Elizabeth, 1400-1558. Period IV.— Eliza- beth's reign, 155§-1603. Period V. — From Elizabeth's death to the RestTjtation, 1603^$46a Period VI.— From the Restoration to Swift's death, 1660-174^ P^d VII. -From Swift's death to the French Revolution, 174B3789. Period VIII.— From the French Revolution, ^ 1789, onwards.! ^ /^, Eacb Perioa is preceded by a Lesson containing a brief resum6 of the H great historicalev^kts that have had somewhat to do in shaping or in color- rC-iog the literatune oTthat period. J \j The author KimVin this book to furnish the pupil that which he cannot ^ help himself to. rN^oups the authors so that their pliices in the lino and y their relations to each otner can be seen by the pupil; it throws light upon ^.the authors' ttm^s an 1 surroundinjrs, and notes the great influences it work, ^ helping to make t.\ieir writings what they are ; it points out sucli of these >, as should be studied. \ !^ Extracts, a^ many and as ample as the limits of a text-book would fallow, have been made from the principal writei-s of each Period, feuch are \ selected as contam the characteristic traits of taetr authors, both in thought and expression, and but lew of these extract^ have ever seen the light in books oT selections— none of them have beea worA threadbare by use, or have lost JtJo^ir freshness by the pupil's familiarity with them in the school readers. 1' It teaet»«s the_4jupij/^j0w the selections are to pe studied, soliciting and vi exactingv his judgment at every step of the waiy which lead#^rom the Yauthor'sdi«tiaa,jLip*n rough his style apd thought to the author nimeelf, V and in many otherNyays it places the pupil on the best possible footing with V the authors whose acquaintance it is his business, as well as his pleasure, to ■^make. \ \ > i >j Short estinSates tafJAe leading authors, made by the best English and VxAmerican critics, have beeti inserted, most of them contemporary with us. The author has endeavored to make a practical, common-sense text- book: one that woul^ so educate the student that he.wahMJinow and enjoy good literature. / " ' ' if " I find the hoolv in its treatment of English liteniture superior To any other I have exap|nii,)ed. Its main feature, which should be the le.iding one of all i^imilar books, is t&ai it is a moans to an end, siinply a guide-book to the study of English literature/ Too many students in the paj't'have studied, not the literature of the En^lislyTanguage, but some authors opinion of that literatui*e. I know from ex- perience that your metfeod of treatment will prove an eminently successful one." — James H. iShults, Prin. of the West High School, Cleveland, 0. Clark & MAYNARD, Publishers. New York. 7 -'- ^^: ■K'i\ t' ;^ \ i^ ^^-T^ ^^^y^^^/S^'^ «?« iy-^v-f/ LANGUAGE LESSONS: GRAMMAR-COMPOSITICN. A COMPLETE COURSE IX TWO BOOKS ONLY. The Best and the Cheapest. I. Graded Lessons in English. — An Elementary English Grammab, consisting of One Hundred Practical Lessons, carefully graded and adapted to the class room. 164 pages, 16mo. Bound in linen. II. Higher Lessons in English. — A Work on English Grammar and Composition, in which the science of the Language is made tributary to the art of expression, A course of Practical Lessons, carefully graded, and adapted to e very-day use in the school room. 316 pages, 16mo. Bound in cloth. The two books completely cover the ground of Grammar and Composition, from the time the scholar usually begins the study until it is* finished in the High School or Academy. A Text-Book on Rhetoric. — Supplementing the development of the Science with exhaustive practice in composition, A course of Prac- tical Lessons adapted for use in High Schools and Academics, and in the Lower Classes of Colleges. By Brainekd Kellogg, A.M., Professor of the English Language and Literature in the Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute, and one of the authors of Keed & Kellogg's "Graded Lessons va. English" and "Higher Lessons in English." 276 pages, 12mo. A Text-Book on English Literature. — With copious Extracts from the leading authors, English and American, With full instructions as to the method in which these are to be studied. Adapted for use in Colleges, High Schools, Academies, etc. By Brainehd Kellogg, A.M., author of "A Test-Book of Rhetoric," and one of the authors of Eeed & Kellogg's " Graded Lessons in English " and " Higher Lessons in English." Handsomely printed, 12mo, 484 pages. Word-Lessons : A Complete Speller.— Adapted for use in the Higher Primary, Intermediate, and Grammar Grades. Designed to teach the correct Spelling, Pronunciation, and Use of such words only as are mo?t common in current literature, and as are most likely to be Misspelled, Mis- pronounced or Misused, and to awaken new interest in the study of Synnnyn-.s and of Word-Analysis. By Alonzo Keed, A.M., joint author of "Graded Lessons in English " and "Higher Lessons in English." 188 pages, 12mo. Higher Lessons in English. A WOEK OK English Grammar AND COMPOSITION, In which the Science of the Language is made tributaky TO the Art of Expression. A COITESE OF PRACTICAL LESSONS CAREFULLY GRADED, AND ADAPTED TO EVERY DAY USE IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. BT ALONZO REED, A.M., IiTSiaiuCTOB IN English Grahx ar in the Brooklyn Collegiatb and Polytechnic Institctk, AND BRAraEED KELLOGG, A.M., Profkssor or the English Langpage and Literature in the Brooklyn Colleglate AND Polytechnic Institute. REYI8ED. NEW YORK: Clark & Maynard, Publishers, CbAl & Mechanical Engineer. COPTRIGHT, 1877, By AiiONzo Beed and Braineed EEixoae. COPTKIGHT, 18S5, By Alonzo Reed and Brainekd Kbllogo. j?5U.tc., Press of J. J. Little & Co., Nos. lo to 20 Astor Place, New York. GXFt Rsxs It is generally conceded that a scientific and practical knowledge of one's vemacular is the first essential of an education, yet the position, in our common school curriculum, of grammar, the only study that aims directly to lay a foundation for such knowledge, has been of late desperately assailed. Some of those who advocate the banishment of grammar from schools are men of high literary culture, whose knowledge of general grammar has been obtained from a study of the classical languages, and whose facility in the use of language has come from being born and bred in the purest literary atmosphere. Such naturally could not see the advantage, to those differently educated and surrounded, of a scientific standard by which to regulate forms of expression. Others, who without scholarly acquirements have themselves achieved a certain measure of literary success, fail to see why the genius of young writers should be hampered by the restrictions of grammarians. The regretful recollection of months and years spent in mechanical parsing or in the tiresome and unfruitful memorizing of iron-clad rules and unapplied principles has moved many more to decry the study of English grammar. Another less thoughtful but more demonstrative class have joined in the hue and cry mainly because it is popular to denounce the old and hail the new. The majority, however, of thoughtful, practical teachers have never doubted the utility of the study of English grammar. Many, it is true, 159 r 4 Preface. finding their text-books burdened with non-essential matter and defi- cient in practical work, have dropped them, or else have themselves assumed the labor of daily revision. To meet the pressing demands of such educators this series of Lessons in English has been prepared. From our own extended experience and from the nature of things, we are convinced that the oral instruction, the composition writing, and the studies in literature that are offered as substitutes for the study of grammar, invaluable as they are in themselves, fall far short of their greatest possible good, are more or less loose and erratic, unless based upon the science of language, upon those principles that underlie the structure of the English sentence ; and that, on the other hand, the study of technical grammar, divorced, as it too generally has been, from practical language work, although not without value as a mental discipline, is hardly deserving of a place in the common school. The aim of this work is to make the Science of the Language, of which all the essentials are thoroughly presented, tributary to the Art of Expression. Every principle learned by the pupil is fixed in his memory and, above all, in his practice by varied and exhaustive drill in composition. He is constantly required to compose sentences, to arrange and rearrange their parts, to contract, expand, punctuate, and criticise them — the analysis furnishing hira materials for the synthesis, and the synthesis supplementing the analysis. Even if the study of grammar were only to lodge in the memory the forms and principles of the language, we contend that this could be done effect- ively only by work in composition — this, and this only, can make them permanent possessions. We begin with the sentence, because the sentence is the unit of dis- course, because words can be classified only from their function in the sentence, and because the pupil should, from the outset, see that what determines the words in the sentence and the sentence itself is Preface, 5 the thought. Rules for Punctuation are given where they are needed, since the marks are as much a part of the sentence as are the words themselves — the sentence is not written till it is punctuated. The large space allotted to the sentence is necessary, because (1) the oflBices and relations of words are many and diverse, and they must be mastered by analysis and synthesis before the inflections can be under- stood ; (2) because Arrangement must be studied, and the relations of clauses in the complex and the compound sentence must be understood in order to secure variety, force, and clearness of expression ; and (3^ be- cause, in reading, the pupil cannot express the subordination of the dependent clause to the independent and the co-ordination of in- dependent clauses, till he can detect the relation of these elements at a glance. In the supplementary Lessons on Composition the pupil is thoroughly drilled in the use of the marks of Punctuation, is made familiar with the cardinal virtues of Style, and is led on to the grouping of sentences into Paragraphs and of Paragraphs into Themes, to the construction of Frameworks for Themes, and to Letter-Writing. Many years of experience in teaching grammar, both with and with- out Diagrams, have convinced us of their great utility. But, while believing that no teacher or pupil, once familiar with them, will willingly dispense with their aid, we wish to say that they form no vital part of the work. They could be omitted without break. The sentences given for analysis are largely quotations, but they will not always be recognized. To suit them to the purpose in hand, many of them had to be changed ; and, when changed, they could not be marked as quoted. We, therefore, have given authors' names only in particular Lessons headed " Miscellaneous Exercises in Review." We have preferred to make no departures from the ordinary classi- fication and nomenclature, unless, as it seemed to us, some practical good would accrue to the pupil. 6 Preface. We wish to add that, while shunning no difficulties that lay in our path, we have not turned out of our path to encounter any. This book was not written to air crotchets or to resolve grammatical puzzles, but for every-day use in the school-room. " Higher Lessons in English," while in press, was criticised by the distinguished philologist, Prof. Francis A. March of Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., and to him we are indebted for many most valuable suggestions. Suggestions to the Teachei\. Though professing to be a complete grammar, this work is not intended for beginners. In preparing it, we have supposed the pupil to be already thoroughly familiar with " Graded Lessons in English " or its equivalent. Guard, then, against introducing " Higher Lessons " too early into the course of study. Those who desire a brief course in technical grammar are referred to that outlined in the "General Reviews," pp. 147, 186, 219, 220, 228, 229, 264, PuBLisHEi^s' Note. The unprecedented success attending "Higher Lessons in English" during its few years of publication has necessitated new electrotype plates. The publishers have taken this opportunity to enlarge the type and to open the page. The authors have also carefully revised their work, and have made some valuable additions and improvements. Teachers, however,^ will find no difficulty in using the two editions in the same class. The Lesson Numbers have not been changed. Alphabetic Index. PAOBS. Abbreviations 30, 31 Absolute Phrase. . 76, 86, 127, 141 Adjective, The 34, 35 ** Classes 158-159 " Clauses 105-108 ** ** Composi- tion.. 109-111 '♦ Composition . . 36-38 " Construction . . 159-163 ** Modification — Comparison.. 220-227 Adjective or Adverb ? 61 Adverb, The 38-39 ♦« Classes 164-166 " Clauses 111-118 " ** Composi- tion... 118-122 ♦* Composition 40 ♦* Construction 166-169 *' Modification — Comparison. . 220-227 Alphabet, The 19 Analysis 21 Analysis — Additional Se- lections 148, 269-276 Antecedent 152 Apostrophe, Rules 69, 192, 208-213, 282 Arrangement.. 93-102, 109, 120, 128 PAQEg. Articles 159-161 As. .61, 63, 113, 115, 151, 175, 177 Both . . . and 49 Bad or badly ? 63, 64 Brackets, Rule 282 But 132, 134, 170, 175, 184 Capital Letters, Rules. . . 22, 27- 29, 51, 131, 277 Clauses, Kinds 105, 111, 123, 132, 133, 139 Colon, Rules 280 Comma, Rules. .44, 50, 67, 68, 77, 87, 109, 118, 119, 127, 128, 135, 136, 277, 278 Complements 57 '* Attribute 58-61, 74, 80, 125, 126 *' Modified 57 ♦* Object... 57, 76, 80, 125 " Objective... 62, 63, 74, 82 Conjunction, The. ... . .47-49, 174 Classes 174-176 Connected Terms, Com- position ... 50-53 Connectives 175-180 " Construction. . . 180-182 Consonants , 18-20 Contraction 102-104, 120-122, 129, 139 8 Alphabetic Index. PAGES. Copula. 58, 59 Dash, Rules 87, 88, 135, 281 Diagram, The 22 Each other ^ One another.. 67, 215 Exclamation Point, Rule. . 51, 277 Factitive Object 62, 74, 82 i^or— introductory 81, 243, 244 Grammar, English 16 Hand in hand 55 Hyphen, Rules 282 In or into ? 172 If 117, 118, 175, 176, 177 Independent Words and Phrases 85-87 Infinitives 78-83 *' Composition,. 81,85 •' Expansion 141, 142 " without to 85 ^^ Intended to haw called ". 257 Interjection, The 47, 48 Interrogation Point 89, 277 Irregular Verbs 236-240 7s being huilt 247, 248 It 82, 126,128 It is me, etc 217 Language, Natural and Word 15,16 Lest 175, 176, 177 Letters, Sounds of 18-20 Letter-Writting 306-314 Many a 76, 112 Miscellaneous Errors 157, 163, 168, 169, 182, 183, 218 Miscellaneous Exercises in Review. . . .55, 90-92, 142-144 Mine, thine, etc 214 Modifications of Parts of Speech 187 Modifier, A 35 Noun, The 25,26 Noun, Classes 149, 150 *' Clauses 123-127 " '* Composition. 127-131 '* Declension 213 Nouns as Modifiers 65-70 Nouns and Pronouns, Case 203, 205-213 Nouns and Pronouns, Gen- der 197-202 Nouns and Pronouns, Num- ber 188-196 Nouns and Pronouns, Per- son 202-204 Oh, 51 Object, The 57, 164, 165 Only 90, 167 Paragraph, The 294-300 Parenthesis, Marks of. .88, 135, 282 Parsing 34, 56, 207, 208, 224, 252, 253 Participles 72-76, 248 " Composition. . 77, 78 " Expansion.... 141 Period, Rules 22, 27, 277 Phrases 41-43, 49, 52, 127 '* Composition 44-46 Possessive Forms 69, 208-213 Predicate, The. 17, 21, 47, 48, 58, 59 *' Compound. . . . 47-49 ** Modified or Log- ical 38 Preposition, The. .42, 43, 169, 170 Alphabetic Index. PAGES. Preposition Construction. . 170-173 Pronoun, The 25, 26, 151 ' * Case-Forms - Con^ struction ... 65, 216-218 Classes 149-152 " Construction... 153-158 Declension 214-216 " Person, Number, and Gender — Construction.. 200-202, 260-268 Questions, Direct and In- direct 131 Quotations, Direct and In- direct 131 Quotation Marks, Rule. . . 130, 131, 282 Review, Capital Letters and Punctuation 53, 44, 92, 283, 284 Review, General— Schemes 147, 186, 219, 220, 228, 229, 264, 265 Review Questions. . .24, 41, 56, 71, 104, 144-146, 185, 186, 265-268 Semicolon, Rules 135, 136, 279 Sentence, The 16, 17, 20 Sentences, Classes 88, 89, 133 «* Complex 105-132 Compound.... 132-138 Since 112, 175, 177 Spelling, Rules 222 Style, Qualities 284 294 Subject, The. . . .17, 21, 47, 48, 75, 80, 124 ' * Compound 47-49 •' Modified or Logical 35 PAGES. Subject or Complement?. . . 60 Subjunctive Mode 235, 243, 246, 255, 256 Tlian 113,114 That 114, 117, 124, 155, 175, 176, 178, 184 The... the 113, 114 There 86, 87 Composition- Writmg 301-305 Thought, A 16, 17 To with the Infinitive. .79, 243, 244 Verb, The 32, 33 " Classes 163-165 " Conjugation 236-249 " Mode and Tense. .. 234-235 '* Mode and Tense Forms— Analysis. 249, 250 *' Tense Forms — Mean- ing 250-252 ** Mode and Tense Forms — Construc- tion 254-259 *' Number and Person. 234, 235 "■ Number and Person —Construction . . 260, 203 " Voice 229-233 Vowels 18-20 Was lost sight of 233 What 107, 108, 151, 183 WJien 108, 112, 175, 176, 178 Where 108, 118, 175, 176, 118 While ...112, 175, 179 Will and would, shall and should 258, 259 Fes and iVb 165 Classfied Index. {The numbers refer to pages.) Part I.— The Sentence and Classes of Words 15-148 Part II.— Parts of Speech Subdivided 149-186 Part III.— Modifications of the Parts of Speech 187-268 Part rV.— Composition— Supplementary 277-314 Letters, Sounds of Letters, 18-20. Classes of Letters, 18-20. Capital Let- ters, 22, 27-29, 51, 131, 277. Rules for Spelling, 222. The Noun, The Noun, 25, 26. Classes, 149, 150. Modifications, 187, 188.— Number, 188-196 ; Gender, 197-202 ; Person, 202-204 ; Case, 203, 205, 206, 208-210. Declension, 213. Construction of Possessive Forms— Cautions, 69, 210-213. See also ** Scheme," page 219. The Pronoun, The Pronoun, 25, 26. Classes, 149-152. Modifications (same as for the noun). Declension, 214-216. Construction of Pronouns — Cau- tions. — Use of the different Pronouns, 153-157 ; Number, Gender, and Person— Agreement, 196, 200-202, 261-263 ; Case Forms, 65, 216-218. See also ** Scheme," page 220. The Adjective, The Adjective, 34, 35. Classes, 158, 159. Comparison, 220-224. Construction of Adjectives — Cautions. — Position, Choice, Use, 36, 37, 63, 64, 159-163 ; Degree Forms and Number Forms, 225-227. See also *' Scheme,'' page 228. 12 Classified Index. The Verb, The Verb, 3?, 83. Participles, 73-78. Infinitives, 78-85. Classes, 163-165. Moditlcations.— Voice, 239-233 ; Mode, Tense, Number, and Person, 233-235. Irregular Verbs, 237-240. Conjugation, 236, 241-249. Compound Forms— Analysis, 349, 350. Tense Forms — Meaning, 350- 252. Construction of Verbs — Cautions. — Mode and Tense Forms, 354-259 ; Number and Person Forms— Agreement, 36, 33, 360-363. See also " Scheme, " page 364. The Adverb, The Adverb, 38, 39. Classes, 164-166. Comparison, 333, 224. Construction of Adverbs — Cautions.— Choice, Position, Use, 40, 166-169 ; Degree Forms, 225-227. The Conjunction, The Conjunction, 47-49. Classes, 174-176. Uses of Different Con- nectives, 177-180. Construction of Connectives— Cautions, 180-183. The Preposition, The Preposition, 41-43, 169-171. Construction of Prepositions- Cautions, 172, 173. The Interjection f 47, 48, 51. rarsing, 34, 56, 207, 208, 224, 252, 353. Summary of Utiles of Syntaoc, 315, 316. JPunctuati on. Period, 23, 37, (Summary) 377. Interrogation Point, 89, 131, (Sum- mary) 277. Exclamation Point, 51, 89, (Summary) 277. Comma, 44, 50, 51, 67, 68, 77, 87, 88, 109, 118, 119, 127, 128, 131, 135, 136, (Sum- mary) 277, 278. Semicolon, 135, 136, (Summary) 279. 280. Colon, 131, (Summary) 280. Dash, 87, 88, 135, (Summary) 281. Marks of Parenthesis, 88, 135, (Summary) 282. Brackets, 282. Quotation Marks, 130, 131, 282. Apostrophe, 69, 192, 208-213, (Summary) 282. Hyphen, 332. Classified Index, The Sentence, The Sentence, 16, 17, 20. Subject,— 17, 21 ; Compound Subj., 47, 48 ; Subj. Phrase, 75, 80 ; Subj. Clause, 133, 124. Predicate,— 17, 21, 58, 59 ; Compound Pred., 47, 48. Object Complement,— 57, 58 ; Object Phrase, 76, 80 ; Object Clause, 125. Attribute Complement, — 58-61 ; Attribute Phrase, 74, 80 ; Attribute Clause, 125, 126. Objective Complement,— 62, 63 ; Objective Comp. Phrase, 74, 82, 83. Adjective Modifiers. — Adjectives, 34, 85 ; Nouns, 65-67 ; Phrases, 41-43, 73, 79. Clauses, 105-108, 126. Adverb Modifiers.— Adverbs, 38, 39 ; Nouns, 69-71 ; Phrases, 41-43, 79, 80; Clauses, 111-118. Connectives.— Conjunctions, 47, 48, 116-118, 124, 132-135, 174-182; Relative Pronouns, 105-108, 151, 175 ; Conjunctive Adverbs, 108, 112-115, 175, 176. Independent Parts, 85-87. Classes of Sentences and Clauses, 88-90, 183. Composition. — Adjectives, 3'>-38 ; Adverbs, 40 ; Prep. Phrases, 44-46 ; Connected Terms, 50-53 ; Complements, 68-65 ; Noun Modi- fiers, 67-69 ; Participles, 77-78 ; Infinitives, 84, 65 ; Independent Parts, 87, 88 ; Arrangement, 86, 37, 40, 45, 93-102, 109, 120, 12^ ; Contraction, 102-104, 120-122, 129, 130, 136,137; Expansion, 109-111, 141, 142. See also " Scheme," page 147. Supplementary Composition, Capital Letters and Punctuation, 277-284 ; Style, 284-294 ; The Paragraph, 294-300 ; Analysis of the Theme, 297-302. How to Write a Composition, 302-304. Letter-Writing, 306-314. ,//^Z^4^^-yC<^ CX^'^^-^-^^^^^^^^^ Trdyx^^^^t-^'^^^^^^^'l^ ^ PrC^tyuV". LESiOli 4. A TALK ON LANGUAGE. We wish to talk with you to-daj about a language that we never learned from a grammar or a book of any kind. Nor was it ever taught us by parent or by teacher. We came by it naturally and use it without thinking of it. It is a universal language, and so needs no interpreter. People of all lands and of all degrees of culture use it; even the brute animals in some measure understand it. This Natural language is the language of cries, laughter, and tones ; the language of the eyes, the nose, the mouth, the whole face; the language of gestures and postures. The child's cry tells of its wants ; its sob, of grief ; its scream, of pain ; its laugh, of delight. The boy raises his eyebrows in surprise and his nose in disgust, leans forward in expectation, draws back in fear, makes a fist in anger, and calls or drives away his dog simply by the tone in which he speaks. But feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to communi- cate. Early in life we begin to acquire knowledge and learn to think, and then we feel the need of a better language. Suppose, for instance, you have formed an idea of a day ; could you express this by a tone, a look, or a gesture? If you wish to tell rae tho fact that yesterday was cloudy, or that the days are shorter in uinter than in summer, you would find it wholly impossible to do this by means of Natural language. To communicate, then, your tlwughts, or even the mental pictures wc have called ideas, you need a language more nearly perfect. This language is made up of words. These words you learn from your mothers, and so Word language is your mother-tongue. You learn them, also, from your friends and teachers, your playmates and companions, and you learn them by reading; for words, as you know, may be written as well as spoken. 1 6 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. This Word language we may, from its superiority, call Language Proper. Natural language, as was said, precedes this Word language, but gives way as Word language comes in and takes its place ; yet Natural language may be used, and always should be, to assist and strengthen Word language. In earnest conversation we enforce what we say in words, by the tone in which we utter them, by the varying expression of the face, and by the movements of the different parts of the body. The look or the gesture may even dart ahead of the word, or it may contradict it, and so convict the speaker of ignorance or de- ception. The happy union of the two kinds of language is the charm of all good reading and speaking. The teacher of elocution is ever trying to recall the pupil to the tones, the facial expression, and the action, so natural to him in childhood and in animated conversation. DEFINITION. — Language Proper consists of the spoken and written words used to communicate ideas and ttiouglits. DEFINITION. — English Grammar is the science which teaclies tlie forms, uses, and relations of the words of the English language. Ltmm % A TALK ON THOUGHTS AND SENTENCES. To express a thought we use more than a single word, and the words arranged to express a thought we call a sentence. But there was a time when, through lack of words, we compressed our thought into a single word. The child says to his father, up, mean- ing, Take me up into your lap ; or, booJc, meaning, This thing in my Jiand is a book. These first words always deal with the things that can be learned by the senses ; they express the child's ideas of these things. We have spoken of thoughts and sentences ; let us see now whether we can find out just what a thought is, and what a sentence is. A Talk on Sounds and Letters. ly As a sentence is a group of words expressing a thought, — the body, of which the thought is the soul, — and so is something that we can hear or see, while a thought is not, let us try to find out what a thought is by looking at a sentence. In any such sentence as this, Spiders spin, something is said, or as- serted, about something. Here it is said, or asserted, of the insects, spiders, that they spin. The sentence, then, consists of two parts, — the name of that of which something is said, and that which is said of it. The first of these parts we call the Subject of the sentence; the second, the Predicate. Now, if the sentence, composed of two parts, expresses the thought, there must be in the thought two parts to be expressed. And there are two; viz., something of which we think, and that which we think about it. In the thought expressed by Spiders spin, the insects, spiders, are the something of which we think, and their spinning is what we think of them. In the sentence expressing this thought, the word spiders names that of which we think, and the word spin tells what we think about spiders. Not every group of words is necessarily a sentence, because it may not be the expression of a thought. Spiders spinning is not a sen- tence. There is nothing in this expression to show that we have formed a judgment, i.e., that we have really made up our minds that spiders do spin. The spinning is not asserted of the spiders. Soft feathers, The shining sun are not sentences, and for similar reasons. Feathers are soft, The sun shines are sentences. Here the asserting word is supplied, and something is said of something else.^ The shines sun is not a sentence ; for, though it contains the asserting word shines, the arrangement is such that no assertion is made, and so no thought is expressed. LESSOU 3. A TALK ON SOUNDS AND LETTERS. We have already told you that in expressing our ideas and thoughts we use two kinds of words, spoken words and written words. 2 1 8 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. We learned the spoken words first. Mankind spoke long before they wrote Not until people wished to communicate with those at a dis- tance, or had thought out something worth handing down to after- times, did they need to write. But speaking was easy. The air, the lungs, and the organs of the throat and mouth were at hand. The first cry was a suggestion. Sounds and noises were heard on every side, provoking imitation, and the need of speech for the purposes of communication was impera- tive. Spoken words are made up of sounds. There are over forty sounds in the English language. The ditt'erent combinations of these give us all the words of our spoken tongue. That you may clearly under- stand these sounds, we will tell you something about the human voice. In talking, the air driven out from your lungs beats against two flat muscles, stretched, like bands, across the top of the windpipe, and causes them to vibrate up and down. This vibration makes sound. Take a thread, put one end between your teeth, hold the other with thumb and finger, draw it tight and strike it, and you will understand how voice is made. The shorter the string, or the tighter it is drawn, the faster will it vibrate, and the higher will be the pitch of the sound. The more violent the blow, the farther will the string vibrate, and the louder will be the sound. Just so with these vocal bands or cords. The varying force with which the breath strikes them, and their differ- ent tensions and lengths at different times explain the different degrees of loudness and the varying pitch of the voice. If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, a class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds. But if the voice is held back or obstructed by the palate, tongue, :eeth, or lips, one kind of the sounds called consonant sounds is made. If the hreath is driven out without voice, and is held hack by these same parts of the mouth, the other kind of consonant sounds is formed. The written word is made up of characters, or letters, which repre- sent to the eye these sounds that address the ear. You are now prepared to understand us when we say that vowels are the letters that stand for the open sounds of the voice, and that A Talk on Sounds and Letters. 19 consonants are the letters that stand for the sounds made by the obstructed voice and the obstructed breath. The alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters. A per- fect alphabet would have one letter for eaoh sound, and only one. Our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways: — 1. Some of the letters ar*? suparfluous ; c standrf for the sound of s or of k, as in city and can ; q has the sound of k, as in quit ; and x that of ks, gZy or z, as in expel, exist, and Xenophon. 2. Combinations of letters sometimes represent single sounds ; as, th, in thine, th in thin, ng in sing, and sh in shut. 3. Some letters stand each for many sounds. Twenty-three letters represent over forty sounds. Every vowel does more than single duty; e stands for two sounds, as in mete and met; i for two, as in pine and pin ; for three, as in note, not, and move ; u for four, as in tube, tub, full, and fur ; a for six, as 'vafate, fat, far, fall, fast, and fare. Wis a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a vowel sound, and g^ is a vowel when it has the sound of i, as in now, by, boy, newly. W and y are consonants at the beginning of a word or syllable. The various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same vowel are caused by the different shapes which the mouth assumes. These changes in its cavity produce, also, the two sounds that unite in each of the compounds, ou, oi, ew, and in the alphabetic i and 0. 1. 2. 1. 2. Vocal Consonants. Aspirates. Vocal Consonants. Aspirates. b P d t g k h 3 ch 1 r th ... th (in thine) V (in thin) f y z (in zone). . s z (in azure). sh The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the ob- structed voice; those in column 2, except h (which represents a 20 The Sentence and 'the Parts of Speech. mere forcible breathing), represent those made by the obstructed ireath. The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth, lips, and palate are placed in the same relative position to make the sounds of both letters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of the letters of any pair is simply this: there is voice in the sounds of the let- ters in column 1, and only whisper in those of columw 3. Give the sound of any letter in column 1, as h, g, v, and the last or vanishing part of it is the sound of the other letter of the pair. To the Teacher.— Write these letters on the board, as above, and drill the pnpils on the sounds till they can see and make these distinctions. Drill them on the vowels also. In closing this talk with you, we wish to emphasize one point brought before you. Here is a pencil, a real thing ; we carry in memory a picture of the pencil, which we call an idea ; and there are the two words naming this idea, the spoken and the ivritten. Learn to distinguish clearly these four things. To the Teacher.— In reviewing these three Lessons, put particular emphasis on Lesson 2. LESSOR 4. ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM. To the Teacher.— 1^ the pupils have been through "Graded Lessons" or its equivalent, some of the following Lessons may be passed over rapidly. DEFINITION,— A Sentence is the expression of a thouglit in words. Direction. — Analyze the following sentences : — Model.— Spiders spin. Why is this a sentence 9 Ans. — Because it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans. — -'Spiders Which word tells what is thought? Ans. — -Spin. * S/nclers, standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing ; spin, used merely as a word, is in Italics. This use of Italics the teacher and the pupil will please note here and elsewhere. Analysis and the Diagram. 21 1. Tides ebb. 4. Carbon burns. 7. Leaves tremble. 2. Liquids flow. 5. Iron melts. 8. Worms crawl. 3. Steam expands. 6. Powder explodes. 9. Hares leap. In these sentences there are, as you have learned, two parts — the Subject and the Predicate. DEFINITION.— The Subject of a Sentence names that of which something is thought. DEFINITION.— The Predicate of a Sentence tells what is thought. DEFINITION.— The Analysis of a Sentence is the separation of it into its parts. Direction. — Analyze these sentences : — Model.— Beavers build. This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. Beavers is the subject, because it names that of which some- thing is thought ; build is the predicate, because it tells what is thought. 1. Squirrels climb. 4. Heralds proclaim. 7. Corn ripens. 2. Blood circulates. 5. Apes chatter. 8. Birds twitter. 3. Muscles tire. 6. Branches wave. 9. Hearts throb. XJxplanation.—I>ra,w a heavy line and divide it thus :— 1 Let the first part represent the siibject of a sentence ; the second, the pred- icate. If you write a word over the first part, you will understand that this word is the stiJbject of a sentence. If you write a word over the second part, you will understand that this word is the prediccUe of a sentence. Lo7je , cwiQuers You see, by looking at this expression, that Love conquers is a sentence, that love is the siibject, and conquers the predicate. 22 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. These figures, made up of straight lines, we call Diagrams, DEFINITION.— A Diagram is a picture of tlie offices and rela- tions of the different parts of a sentence. • TAxecXion.— Analyze cmd diagram these sentences : — 1. Frogs croak. 5. Flies buzz. 9. Books aid. 2. Hens sit. 6. Sap ascends. 10. Noise disturbs. 3. Sheep bleat. 7. Study pays. 11. Hope strengthens. 4. Cows low. 8. Buds swell. 13. Cocks crow. LliSOl^ i. COMPOSITION— SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. To the Teacher.— Let some of the pupils write their sentences on the board while others are reading theirs. Then let the work be corrected. Correct any expression that does not make good sense, or that asserts something not strictly true ; for the pupil should early be taught to think accurately, as well as to write and speak grammatically. Correct all mistakes in sj)elling, and in the use of capital letters and the period. Insist on neatness. CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— The first word of every sentence must begin with a capital letter, PERIOD — RULE, — A period must be placed after every sen- tence that simply affirms, denies, or commands. Direction. — Construct sentences hy supplying a subject to each of the following predicates : — Ask yourselves the questions, What tarnishes ? Who sailed, con- quered, etc. ? 1. tarnishes. 6. sailed. 11. conquered. 2. capsize. 7. descends. 12. surrendered. 3. radiates. 8. glisten. 13. refines. 4. sentence. 9. absorb. 14. gurgle. 5. careen. 10. corrode. 15. murmur. Analysis, 23 Direction. — Construct sentences hy supplying a predicate to each of the following subjects : — Ask yourselves the question, Glycerine does what ? 1. Glycerine . 2. Yankees . 3. Tyrants . 4. Pendulums 5. Caesar . 6. Labor . 7. Chalk . 8. Nature . 9. Tempests — 10. Seeds . 11. Heat . 12. Philosophers 13. Bubbles 14. Darkness — 15. Wax . 16. Reptiles 17. Merchants 18. Meteors — 19. Conscience 20. Congress — 21. Life . 22. Vapors — 23. Music 34. Pitch . To the Teeicher.—This exercise may profitably be extended by supplying several subjects to each predicate, and several predicates to each subject. {.£§§011 §. ANALYSIS. The predicate sometimes contains more than one word. Direction. — Analyze and diagram as in Lesson 4. 1. Moisture is exhaled. 2. Conclusions are drawn. 3. Industry will enrich. 4. Stars have disappeared. 5. Twilight is falling. 6. Leaves are turning. 7. Sirius has appeared. 8. Constantinople had been capt- ured. 9. Electricity has been harnessed. 10. Tempests have been raging. 11. Nuisances should be abated. 12. Jerusalem was destroyed. 13. Light can be reflected. 14. Rain must have fallen. 15. Planets have been discovered. 16. Palaces shall crumble. 17. Storms may be gathering. 18. Essex might have been saved. 19. Caesar could have been crowned. 20. Inventors may be encouraged. Direction. — Point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons 12 a/nd 17. 24 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting vjho or what before this predicate^ the subject may easily be found. To the Teacher.— het this exercise be continued till the pupils can readily point out the subject and the predicate in any simple declarative sentence. When this can be done promptly, the first and most important step in analysis will have been taken. LESion r. COMPOSITION— SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. jyirection.— Make at least ten good sentences out of the words in the three columns following :— The helping words in column 2 must be prefixed to words in column 3 to make complete predicates. Analyze your sentences. 1 2 3 Arts is progressing. Allen was tested. Life are command. Theories will prolonged. Science would released. Truth were falling. Shadows may be burned. Moscow has been measured. Raleigh have been prevail. Quantity should have been lost. RE^ V^IEW^ QUESTIG NS. What is language proper ? What is English grammar ? What is a sentence ? What are its two parts ? What is the subject of a sen- tence ? The predicate of a sentence ? The analysis of a sentence ? What is a diagram ? What rule has been given for the use of capital letters ? For the period ? May the predicate contain more than one word ? Illustrate. To the Teacher.— Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of tills recitation. See " Introductory Hints," next page. The matter contained in the *' Hints" should always be given to the class as a preparation for the next day's work. Classes of Words. 25 LEiiOl a, CLASSES OF WORDS. Nouns. Introductory Hints.— "We have now reached the point where we must classify the words of our language. But we are appalled by their number. If we must learn all about the forms and uses of a hundred thousand words by studying them one by one, we shall die ignorant of English grammar. But may we not deal with words as we do with plants ? If we had to study and name each leaf and stem and flower, taken singly, we should never master the botany even of our garden-plats. But God has made things to resemble one another and to differ from one another, and he has given us the power to detect resemblances and differences, so we are enabled to group things that have like qualities. From certain likenesses in form and structure, we put certain flowers together and call them roses ; from other likenesses, we get another class called lilies ; from others still, violets. Just so we classify trees and get the oak, the elm, the maple, etc. The myriad objects of nature fall into comparatively few classes. Studying each class, we learn all we need to know of every object in it. From their likenesses, though not in form, we classify words. We group them according to their similarities in wse, or office^ in the sen- tence. Sorting them thus, we find that they all fall into eight classes, which we call Parts of Speech. We find that many words name things — are the names of things of which we can think and speak. These we place in one class and call them Nouns (Lat. nomen, a name, a noun). Pronouns. Without the little words which we shall italicize, it would be difficult for one stranger to ask another, '* Can you tell me who is the postmaster at B ? " One would not know what name to use instead of you, and the other would not recognize the name in the place of me, and both would be puzzled to find a substitute for who. 26 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. i, you^ myy me, what, we, it, he, who, him, she, them, and others, are used in place of nouns, and are, therefore, called Pronouns (Lat. pro, for, and nomen, a noun), and form the third part of speech. By means of these handy little words we can represent any or every object in existence. We could hardly speak or write without them now, they so frequently shorten the expression and prevent confusion and repetition. DEFINITION.— A Noun is the name of anything. DEFINITION.— A Bronoun is a word used for a noun.* The principal office of nouns is to name the things of which we say or assert something in the sentence. Direction. — Write, according to the model, the names of things that can burn, grow, melt, love, roar, or revolve. Nouns. Wood Paper Oil Houses Jfodcl.-Coal Leaves Matches Clothes -J ' bum or bums. Remark. — Notice that, when the sub- ject adds s or es to denote more than one, the predicate does not take s. Note how it would sound if both should add s. Every subject of a sentence is a noun, or some word or words used as a noun. But not every noun in a sentence is a subject. Direction. — Select and write all the nouns and pronouns, whether subjects or not, in the sentences given in Lesson 18. In writing them observe the following rules : — * See 2d foot-note, Lesson 85. Capital Letters. 27 CAPITAL LETTER- RULE. —l*roi>er,or indivUlual^names and words derived from them be^ln with capital letters. PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— ^&6reviafiows generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the period. CAPITAL LETTERS. Direction. — From the following words select and write in one column those names that distinguish individual things from others of the sams class, and in another column the words derived from these names : — Observe Rule 1, Lesson 8. Ohio, state, Chicago, france, bostonian, country, england, boston, milton, river, girl, mary, hudson, williara, britain, miltonic, city, englishman, messiah, platonic, american, deity, bible, book, plate, christian, broadway, araerica, jehovah, christ, british, easter, europe, man, scriptures, god. Direction. — Write the names of the days of the week and the months of the year, beginning each with a capital letter ; and write the names of the seasons without capital letters. Bememlfer that, when a *class name and a distinguishing word combine to make one individual name, each word begins with a capital letter ; as, Jersey City. But, when the distinguishing word can, by itself, be re- garded as a complete name, the class name begins witli a small letter ; as, river Rhine. Examples.— Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Suspension Bridge, New York city. Harper's Ferry, Cape May, Bunker Hill, Red River, Lake Erie, General Jackson, White Mountains, river Thames, Astor House, steamer Drew, North Pole. * Dead Sea is compoged of the class name sea, which applies to all sea^s, and tha word Dead, which distinguishes one sea from all others. 28 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Direction. — Write these words, using capital letters when needed : — Ohio river, professor huxley, president adams, doctor brown, arctic circle, clinton county, westchester county, torrid zone, colonel burr, secretary stanton, lake george, green mountains, white sea, cape cod, delaware bay, atlantic ocean, united states, rhode island. liememher that, when an individual name is made up of a class name, the word of, and a distinguishing word, the class name and the distinguishing word should each begin with a capital letter ; as, Gulf of Mexico. But, when the distin- guishing word can, by itself, be regarded as a complete name, the class name should begin with a small letter ; as, city of London.^ Direction. — Write these ivords, using capital letters when needed : — ♦The need of Pome definite instruction to save the youiig writer from hesitation and confusion in the use of capitals is evident from the following variety of forma now in use : City of New York, city of New York, New York City, New York city. New York State, New York stats. Fourth Avenue, Fourth avenue. Grand Street, Grand street, Grand-s^., Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Mediter- ranean sea. Kings County, Kings county^ etc. The usage of newspnpers and of text-books on geography would probably favor the writing of the class names in the examples above with initial capitals ; but we find in the most carefully printed books and periodical? a tendency to favor small letters in such cases. In the superscription of letters, such words as street, city, county, etc., begin with capitals. Usage certainly favors small initials for the following italicized words : river Wiima, Catskill village, the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. If river and village, in the preced- ing examples, are not essential parts of the individual names, why should river, ocean, and county, in Hudson Hver, Pacific ocean, Queens coiiniy, be treated diff'erently ? We often say the Hudson, the Pacific, Queens, without adding the explanatory class name. The principle we suggest may be in advnnce of common usage ; but it is in the line of progress, it tends to uniformity of practice and to an improved appearance of the page. About a century ago every noun began with a capital letter. The American Cyclopa3dia takes a position still farther in advance, as illustrated in the following: 'Rq(\ river, B\i!ick sea, gulf oiMesXco, Kocky mountains. In the En- cyclopoedia Britannica (Little, Brown, & Co., 9th Ed.) we find Connecticut river, Madiscm county, etc., quite uniformly ; but not so with gu^, ocean, etc. Capital Letters. 29 city of atlanta, isle of man, straits of dover, state of Vermont, isth- mus of darien, sea of galilee, queen of england, bay of naples, empire of china. nememher that, when a compound name is made up of two or more distinguishing words, as, Henry Clay, John Stuart Mill, each word begins with a capital letter. Direction. — Write these words, using capital Utters when needed : — great britain, lower California, south Carolina, daniel webster, new eng- land, Oliver wendell holmes, north america, new Orleans, james russell lowell, british america. lieinember that, in writing the titles of books, essays, poems, plays, etc., and the names of the Deity, only the chief words begin with capital letters ; as. Decline and Fall of the Eoman Empire, Supreme Being, Paradise Lost, the Holy One of Israel. Direction.— Write these words, using capital letters when needed : — declaration of independence, clarendon's history of the great rebell- ion, Webster's reply to hayne, pilgrim's progress, Johnson's lives of the poets, son of man, the most high, dombey and son, tent on the beach, bancroft's history of the united states. Direction.— TTnYe these miscellaneous names, using capital letters when needed :— erie canal, governor tilden, napoleon bonaparte, cape of good hope, pope's essay on criticism, massachusetts bay, city of boston, continent of america* new testament, goldsmith's she stoops to conquer, milton's hymn on the nativity, Indian ocean, cape cod bay, ply mouth rock, anderson's history of the united states, mount Washington, english channel, the holy spirit, new york central railroad, old world, long island sound, flatbush village. 30 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, LISS©!^ I©. ABBREVIATIONS. Direction. — Some words occur frequently, and for convenience are ah-' hreviated in writing. Observing Rule 2, Lesson 8, abbreviate these words by writing the first five letters : — Thursday and lieutenant. These by writing the first four letters : — Connecticut, captain, Colorado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Oregon, professor, president, Ten- nessee, and Tuesday. These by writing the first three letters : — / Alabama, answer, Arkansas, California, colonel, Delaware, England, esquire, Friday, general, George, governor, honorable, Illinois, Indiana, major, Monday, Nevada, reverend, Saturday, secretary, Sunday, Texas, Wednesday, Wisconsin, and the names of the months except May, June, and July. These by writing the first two letters : — Company, county, credit, example, and idem (the same). These by writing the first letter : — East, north, south, and west. These by writing the first and the last letter :— Doctor, debtor, Georgia, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mary- land, Master, Mister, numero (number), Pennsylvania, saint, street, Vermont, and Virginia. These by writing the first letter of each word of the compound tvith a period after each letter: — Artium baccalaureus (bachelor of arts), anno Domini (in the year of our Lord), artium magister (master of arts), ante meridiem (before noon), before Christ, collect on delivery, District (of) Columbia, divini- tatis doctor (doctor of divinity), member (of) Congress, medicina? doctor (doctor of medicine), member (of) Parliament, North America, North Abbreviations. 31 Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, postmaster, post meridiem (afternoon), post-office, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and United States. Direction.— !7%e following abbreviations and those you have made must be committed to memory : — Acct. or acct. , account. bu., bushel. Bbl. or bbl., barrel. do., ditto (the same). Chas., Charles. doz., dozen. [pJe). Fla., Florida. e.g.. exempli gratia (for exam- *LL. D., legum doctor etc., et caetera (and others). (doctor of laws). ft.. foot, feet. Messrs., messieurs hhd.. hogshead. (gentlemen). hdkf. , handkerchief. Mme., madame. i. e.. id est (that is). Mo., Missouri. 1., line. Mrs., (pronounced missis) U., lines. mistress. lb.. libra (pound). Mts., mountains. oz.. ounce. Ph. D., philosophiaB doctor • Pv page. (doctor of philosophy) .pp.. pages. . Reed., received. qt.. quart. Robt., Robert. vs.. versus (against). Supt., superintendent. viz.. videlicet (namely). Thos., Thomas. yd.. yard. Remark. — In this Lesson we have given the abbreviations of the states as now regulated by the "U. S. Official Postal Guide." In the " Guide " Iowa and Ohio are not abbreviated. They are, however, fre- quently abbreviated thus : Iowa, la. or lo.; Ohio, 0. The similarity, when hurriedly written, of the abbreviations Gai., Col.; Ia.,,Io.; Neb.., Nev,; Penn., Tenn., etc., has led to much confusion. * The doubling of the I in U. and LL. Z>., and ot pinpp., with no period between the letters, comes from pluralizing the nouns line, lex, auid page. 32 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. VERBS. Introductory Hints. — We told you, Lesson 8, how, by noticing the essential likenesses in things and grouping the things thus alike, we could throw the countless objects around us into comparatively few classes. We began to classify words according to their wse, or o^ce, in the sen- tence, and found one class that name things, and called them nouns. But in all the sentences given you, we have had to use another class of words. These words, you notice, tell what the things do, or assert that they are, or exist. When we say ClocJcs ticJc, tick is not the name of anything ; it tells what clocks do ; it asserts action. When we say Clocks are, or There are clocks, are is not the name of anything, nor does it tell what clocks do ; it simply asserts existence, or heing. When we say Clocks hang, stand, last, lie, or remain, these words hmig, stand, last, etc., do not name anything, nor do they tell that clocks act or simply exist; they tell the condition, ox state, in which clocks are, or exist ; that is, they assert state of being. All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call Verbs (Lat. wrbum, a word). The name was given to this class, because it was thought that they were the most important words in the sentence. They form the second part of speech. Give a score of verbs that assert action. Give some that assert being, and some that assert state of being. DEFINITION.— A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being. There are two forms of the verb, the participle and the infinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), that express action, be- ing, or state of being, without asserting it. Verbs. 33 Direction. — Write after each of the following nouns as many appro- priate verbs as you can think of : — Let some express being and some state of being. Model.— Noun. ' burns. melt. scorches. Remark.— Notice that the Fire keep. simple form of the verb, as. (or) - spreads. hum, melt, scorch, adds s or Fires glow. es when its subject noun rages. names but one thing. heat. ^ exists. Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind. A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words ; as, is learning y may le learned, could have been learned. Direction. — Unite the words in columns 2 and 3, and append the verbs thus formed to the nouns and pronouns in column 1 : — Remark. — Notice that is, was, and has are used with nouns naming one thing, and with the pronouns he, she, and it ; and that are, were, and have are used with nouns naming more than one thing, and with the pronouns we, you, and they. I may be used with am, was, and have. 1 Words 2 am 3 confused. Cotton Sugar Air is are exported. refined. coined. Teas was delivered. Speeches I, we, you He, she, it, they were has been have been weighed. imported. transferred. As verbs are the only words that assert, every predicate mnst be a verb, or must contain a verb, 3 34 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Natning the class to which a word belongs is the first step in parsing. Direction.— Parse five of the sentences you have written. Model.— Poland was dismembered. jpar sing. —Poland is a noun, because ; was dismembered is a verb, because it asserts action. L£§S©li n. MODIFIED SUBJECT. Adjectives. Introductory Hints. — The subject noun and the predicate verb are not always or often the whole of ,the structure that we call the sentence, though they are the underlying timbers that support the rest of the verbal bridge. Other words may be built upon them. We learned in Lesson 8 that things resemble one another and differ from one another. They resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities. Things are alike whose qualities are the same ; as, two oranges having the same color, taste, and odor. Things are unlike, as, an orange and an apple, whose qualities are different. It is by their qualities, then, that we know things, and are able to separate them or to group them. Pipe apples are healthful. Unripe apples are hurtful. In these two sentences we have the same word apples to name the same general class of things ; but the prefixed words ripe and unripe, marking opposite qualities in the apples, separate them into two kinds — the ripe ones and the unripe ones. These prefixed words ripe and unripe, then, limit the word apples in its scope ; ripe apples or unripe apples applies to fewer things than apples alone. If we say the, this, that apple, or an, no apple, or some, many, eight apples, we do not mark any quality of the fruit ; but the, this, or that points out a particular apple, and limits the word apple to the one pointed out ; and an, no, some, many, or eight limits the word in respect to the number of apples that it denotes. Modified Subject, 35 These and all such words as by marking quality, pointing out, or specifying number or quantity limit the scope or meaning of the noun, modify it, and are called Modifiers. In the sentence above, apples is the Simple Subject and ripe apples is the Modified Subject. Words modifying nouns and pronouns are called Adjectives (Lat. ady to, audjacere, to throw), and form the fourth part of speech. DEFINITION.— A Moclifier is a word or group of words joined to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning. The Subject with its Modifiers is called the Modified Subject, Bj some it is called the Logical Subject. DEFINITION.— An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. Analysis and Parsing. 1. The cold November rain is falling. is faUinq Explanation.— The two lines shaded alike — and placed uppermost stand for the subject and the predicate, and show that these are of the same rank, and are the principal parts of the sentence. The lighter lines, placed under and joined to the subject line, stand for the less important parts, the modifiers, and show what is modified.* * To the Teacher.— When several adjectives are joined to one noun, each adjec- tive does not always modify the noun alone. That old wooden house was burned. Here wooden modifies house, old modifies wooden, house^ and that modifies old wooden house. This may be illustrated in the diagram by numbering the | modifiers in the order of their rank, thus : — Xs \ \ Adverbs, and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ in ^^ rank in the same way, and in the diagram this difference may be indicated as above. If the pupils are able to see these distinctions, it would be well to have them made in the analysis, as they often determine the punctuation and the arrangement. Seo Lessons 13 and 21. 36 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Oral Analysis.— {^QVQ and hereafter we shall omit from the oral analysis and parsing whatever has been provided for in previous Les- sons.) The, cold, and November are modifiers of the subject. The cold November rain is the modified subject. Barsing.-The, cold, and November are adjectives modifying rain, — cold and November expressing quality, and the pointing out. 2. The great Spanish Armada was destroyed. 3. A free people should be educated. 4. The old Liberty bell was rung. 5. The famous Alexandrian library was burned. 6. The odious Stamp Act was repealed. 7. Every intelligent American citizen should vote. 8. The long Hoosick tunnel is completed. 9. I alone should suffer. 10. All nature rejoices. 11. Five large, ripe, luscious, mellow apples were picked. 12. The melancholy autumn days have come. 13. A poor old wounded soldier returned. 14. The oppressed Russian serfs have been freed. 15. Immense suspension bridges have been built. COMPOSITION— ADJECTIVES. Caution,— W\iQVL two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must be taken in their arrangement. If they differ in rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If of the same rank, place them where they will sound best — generally in the order of length, the short- est first. Explanation. — Two horiest young men were chosen. A tall, straight. Composition — A djectives. 37 dignified person entered. Young tells the kind of men, honest teUs the kind of young men, and two tells the niimber of honest young men ; hence these adjectives are not of the same rank. Tall, straight, and dignified modify person independently — ^the person is tall and straight and dignified ; hence these adjectives are of the same rank. Notice the comma after taU and straight; and may be supplied ; in the first sentence and cannot be supplied. See Lesson 21. Direction. — Arrange the adjectives, helow, and give your reasons : — 1. A Newfoundland pet handsome large dog. 2. Level low five the fields. 3. A wooden rickety large building. 4. Blind white beautiful three mice. 5. An energetic restless brave people. 6. An enlightened civilized nation. Direction. — Form sentences by prefixing modified subjects to these predicates :- 1. have been invented. 6. were carved. 2. were destroyed. 7. have been discovered. 3. are cultivated. 8. have fallen. 4. may be abused. 9. will be respected. 5. was mutilated. 10. have been built. Direction. — Construct ten sentences, ea^h of which sTiall contain a subject modified by three adjectives — one from each of these columns : — Let the adjectives be appropriate. For punctuation, see Lesson 21. The dark sunny That bright wearisome This dingy commercial Those short blue These soft adventurous Five brave fleecy Some tiny parallel Several important cheerless Many long golden A warm turbid Direction. — Prefix to each of these nouns smeral appropriate adjec- tives : — River, frost, grain, ships, air, men. 38 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Direction. — Couple those adjectives and nouns, below, that most ap- propriately go together :— Modest, lovely, flaunting, meek, patient, faithful, saucy, spirited, violet, dahlia, sheep, pansy, ox, dog, horse, rose, gentle, duck, sly, waddling, cooing, chattering, homely, chirping, puss, robin, dove, sparrow, blackbird, cow, hen, cackling. MODIFIED PREDICATE. Adverbs. Introductory Hints. — You have learned that the subject may be modified ; let us see whether the predicate may be. If we say. The leaves fall, we express a fact in a general way. But, if we wish to speak of the time of their falling, we can add a word and say, The leaves fall ea/rly ; of the place of their falling, The leaves fall here ; of the manner, The leaves fall quietly ; of the cause, Why do the leaves fall ? We may join a word to any of these modifiers, and even another to that, and say. The leaves fall so x>ery quietly. Here mry modifies quietly, and so modifies very by telling the degree. So wry quietly is a group of words modifying the predicate. The predicate with its modifiers is called the Modified Predicate. Such words as so, very, here, and quieUy form the fifth part of speech, and are called Adverbs (Lat. ad, to, and verhum, a word, or verb). Adverbs may. modify adjectives ; as, Yery ripe apples are healthful. Adverbs modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns— by limiting them. The horse has a proud step, = The horse steps proudly. The Predicate with its Modifiers is called the Modified Predicate. By some it is called the Logical Predicate. Modified Predicate. 39.. BEFIKITION.— An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. Analysis and Parsing. 1. The leaves fall very quietly. Explanation, — The two lines forming this group leaves fall slant the same way to show that each stands for a modifying word. The line standing for the principal word of the group is joined to the predicate Hue. The end of the other is broken, and turned to touch its principal. 1 Oral Analysis. — Very quietly is a modifier of the predicate ; quietly is the principal word of the group ; very modifies quietly ; the leaves is the modified subject ; faU very quietly is the modified predicate. Parsing. — Quietly is an adverb modifying fall, telling the manner ; very is an adverb modifying quietly ^ telling the degree. 2. The old, historic Charter Oak was blown down. 3. The stem, rigid Puritans often worshiped there. 4. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. 5. The precious morning hours should not be wasted. 6. The timely suggestion was very kindly received. 7. We turned rather abruptly. 8. A highly enjoyable entertainment was provided. 9. The entertainment was highly enjoyed. 10. Why will people exaggerate so ? 11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unex- pectedly. 12. We now travel still more rapidly. 13. Therefore he spoke excitedly. 14. Y©u will undoubtedly be veiy cordially welcomed. 15. A furious equinoctial gale has just swept by. 16. The Hell Gate reef was slowly drilled away. 40 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. LESiOH li. COMPOSITION— ADVERBS. Caution. — Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. Direction. — Place the italicized words, helow, in as many different positions as possible, and note the effect on the sound and the sense : — 1. 1 immediately ra,n out. 2. Ow?2^ one was left there, 3. She looked down proudly. 4. f7>i/or^i^7ia^e^y, this assistance came too late. Direction. — Construct on each of these subjects three sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates : — For punctuation, see Lesson 21. Model.— clouds . 1. Darh, heavy, threatening clouds are slowly gathering above, 2. Those brilliant, crimson clouds wiU very soon dissolve. 8. Thin, fieecy clouds are scudding over. 1. ocean — — . 2. breeze . 3. shadows . 4. rock . 5. leaves . Direction. — Compose sentences in which these adverbs shall modify verbs : — Heretofore, hereafter, annually, tenderly, inaudibly, legibly, eva- sively, everywhere, aloof, forth. Direction. — Compose sentences in which five of these adverbs shall modify adjectives, and five shall modify adverbs : — Far, unusually, quite, altogether, slightly, somewhat, much, almost, too, rather. Prepositional Phrases and Prepositions, 41 LSisoii 4§. REVIEWS. To the Teacher,— In all school work, but especially here, where the philosophy of the sentence and the principles of construction are developed in progressive steps, success depends largely on the character of the reviews. Let reviews be, as far as possible, topical. Kequire frequent outlines of the work passed over, especially of what is taught in the " Introductory Hints." Except Rules and Definitions, the language should be the pupil's own, and ihe illustrative sentences should be original. In oral recitation, such a topic as Classification of Words or Forms of Individual Names may be presented to the class and passed from one pupil to another till a full discussion is obtained. Direction. — Review from Lesson 8 to Lesson 15, inclusive. Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, what three things such words as tick, are, and remain do in the sentence, what office they have in common, what such words are called, and why; what common office such words as ripe, the, and eight have, in what three ways they perform it, what such words are called, and why, etc.). Memorize and illustrate definitions and rules; illustrate what is taught of the capitalization and abbreviation of names, and of the position of adjectives and adverbs. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND PREPOSI- TIONS. Introductory Hints. — To express our thoughts with greater distinct- ness we may need to expand a word modifier into several words ; as, A long ride brought us there-=L ride of one hundred miles brought us to Chicago. These groups of words, of one hundred miles and to Chicago, — the one substituted for the adjective long, the other for the adverb there— v^Q call Phrases. As adverbs modify adjectives and adverbs, they may modify their equivalent phrases ; as. The train stops onli/ at the station. 42 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, They sometimes modify only the preposition of the phrase ; as, He sailed nearly around the globe. That we may learn the office of such words as of, to, and at, used to introduce these phrases, let us see how the relation of one idea to another may be expressed. Wealthy men. These two words express two ideas as related. We have learned to know this relation by the form and position of the words. Change these, and the relation is lost— me/i wealth. But by using of before wealth the relation is restored — men of wealth. The word of, then, shows the relation between the ideas ex- pressed by the words men and wealth. All such relation words are called Prepositions (Lat. prce, before, and posit us, placed — their usual position being before the noun with which they form a phrase). DEFINITION.— A Phrase is a group of words denoting related ideas but not expressing a thought. DEFINITION. — A JPreposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified. Analysis and Parsing. 1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of vibra- tion. pitch . depends Explanation.-The diagram ' of the phrase is made up of a slanting line standing for the introductory word, and a hori- zontal line representing the principal word. Under the latter are drawn the lines which represent the modifiers of the principal word. Oral Analysis — The and the adjective phrase of the musical note are modifiers of the subject ; the adverb phrase upon the rapidity of vibra- tion is a modifier of the predicate. Of introduces the first phrase, and note is the principal word ; the and musical are modifiers of note ; upon Prepositional Phrases and Prepositions. 43 .'ntroduces the second phrase, and rapidity is the principal word ; the and the adjective phrase of vibration are modifiers of rapidity ; of in- troduces tliis phrase, and vibration is the principal word. rar;iing,—Of is a preposition showing the relation, in sense, of note to pitch; etc., etc. To the Teacher.— InsiHt that, in parsing, the pupils shall gire specific reasons instead of general definitions. 2. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United States by the blueness of the water. 3. /The North Pole has been approached in three principal directions. 4.' In 1607, Hudson penetrated within six hundred miles of the North Pole. 5. /The breezy morning died into silent noon. 6.bThe Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis. 7. jCoal of all kinds has originated from the decay of plants. S.VjGenius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom. atmosphere \ \ Falls \' Explanation — Only modifies the whole phrase ; and just, the preposi- tion. 9. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just below the Falls. 10. In Mother Goose the cow jumps clear over, the moon. 11. The first standing army was formed in the middle of the fifteenth century. 12. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected at Seville by the Saracens. 13. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 100,000,000 miles. 14. The body of the great Napoleon was carried back from St. Helena to France. 44 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. LESiOli IS. COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. COMMA— RULE.— A Phrase out of its natural order * or not closely connected with the word it modifies, should be set off by the comma, f Remark. — This rule must be applied with caution. Unless the phrase is to be made emphatic, or it breaks the continuity of the thought, the growing usage among writers is not to set it off. Direction. — Tell why the comma is, or is not, used in these sen- tences : — 1. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley. 2. Of the scenery along the Rhine, many travelers speak with en- thusiasm. 3. He went, at the urgent request of the stranger, for the doctor. 4. He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday. 5. In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he approached. Direction. — Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctua- tion : — 1. England in the eleventh century was conquered by the Normans. 2. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died. 3. For the sake of emphasis a word or a phrase may be placed out of its natural order. 4. In the Pickwick Papers the conversation of Sam Weller is spiced with wit. 5. New York on the contrary abounds in men of wealth. 6. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest times to the present day. * For the natural order of words and phrases, see Lesson 51. t An expression in the body of a sentence is set off by two commas; at the beginmng or at the end, liy one comma. Composition — Prepositional Phrases. 45 Caution, — Place phrase modifiers where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. Direction. — Correct these errors in position, and use the comma when needed : — 1. The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by the president. 2. That small man is speaking with red whiskers. 3. A message was read from the President in the Senate. 4. With his gun toward the woods he started in the morning. 5. On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lecture at the old brick church was delivered. Direction. — Form a sentence out of each of these groups of words : — Look sharply to the arrangement and the punctuation. 1. Of mind of splendor under the garb often is concealed poverty. 2. Of affectation of the young fop in the face impertijient an was seen smile. « ' * * 3. Has been scattered Bible English the of millions by hundreds of the earth over the face. ^ 4. To the end with no small difficulty of the journey at last through deep roads we after much fatigue came. 5. At the distance a flood of flame from the line from thirty iron mouths of twelve hundred yards of the enemy poured forth. Direction. — See into how many good, clear sentences you can convert these hy transposing the phrases :— 1. He went over the mountains on a certain day in early boyhood. 2. Ticonderoga was taken from the British by Ethan Allen on the tenth of May in 1775. To the Teacher.— Examine the text-books frequently, and see that no pupil marks upon the page the punctuation of the sentences. 46 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, LESS©! IS. COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. Direction. — Rewrite tliese sentences, changing the italicized words into equivalent phrases : — Model,— The sentence was carefully written. The sentence was written with care. 1. A brazen image was then set up. 2. Those homeless children were Mndly treated. 3. Much has been said about the Swiss scenery. 4. An aerial trip to Europe was rashly planned. 5. The American Continent was probably discovered by Cabot. l>ixection.— Change these adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases; and then, attending carefully to the puiictuation, use these phrases in sentences of yoUr own : — 1. Bostonian 6. hence 11. Arabian 2. why 7. northerly 12. lengthy 3. incautiously 8. national 13. historical 4. nowhere 9. whence 14. lucidly 5. there 10. here 15. earthward Direction. — Compose sentences, using these phrases as modifiers :— - Of copper ; in Pennsylvania ; from the West Indies ; around the world ; between the tropics ; toward the Pacific ; on the 22d of Decem- ber ; during the reign of Elizabeth ; before the application of steam to machinery ; at the Centennial Exposition of 1876. To the Teacher.— If your pupils need more drill in the analysis and parsing of prepositional phrases, you can make np for them an exercise or two, from the sen- tences in Lesson 18 and those they are required to construct in Lesson 19. Compound Subject and Compound Predicate. 47 LESS©! S0» COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. Conjunctions and Interjections. Introductory Hints.— JEJdward, Mary, and Elizabeth reigned in JSngland. The three words Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth have the same predicate — the same action being asserted of the king and the two queens. Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth are connected by and, and be- ing understood between Edward and Mary. Connected subjects having the same predicate form a Compound Subject. Charles I. was seized, was tried, and was beheaded. The three pred- icates was seized, was tried, and was beheaded have the same subject — the three actions being asserted of the same king. Connected predicates having the same subject form a Compound Predicate. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound pred- icate ; as, Mary and Elizabeth lived and reigned in England. The words connecting the parts of a compound subject or of a com- pound predicate are called Conjimctions (Lat. con [cum], together, and jungere, to join), and form the seventh part of speech. A conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence, as two word modifiers — A dark and rainy night follows. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously. It may connect two phrases ; as, The equinox occurs in March and in September. It may connect two clauses, that is, expressions that, standing alone, would be sentences ; as, The leaves of the pine fall in spring, but the leaves of the maple drop in autumn. Inteijections (Lat. inter, between, and jacere, to throw) are the eighth and last part of speech. Oh ! ah ! pooh ! psha ! etc., express bursts of feeling too sudden and violent for deliberate sentences. Hail ! fudge ! indeed ! amen ! etc., once verbs, nouns, or adverbs, have lost their grammatical relation to other words. These express condensed thought as well as feeling. 48 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Any part of speech may thus be wrenched from its construction with other words, and may lapse into an interjection ; as, Behold ! shame ! what ! Two or more connected subjects having the same predicate form a Compound Subject. Two or more connected predicates haying the same sub- ject form a Compound Predicate. DEFINITION.— A Conjunction Is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses. BEFINIT10N.~An Interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden feeling. Analysis and Parsing. 1. Ah I anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news. Explanation.— ThQ three short hor- izontal lines represent each apart of the compound subject. They are connected by dotted lines, which stand for the connecting word. The x shows that a conjunction is understood. The line standing for the word modifier is joined to that part of the subject line which represents the entire subject. Turn this diagram about, and the connected horizontal lines will stand for the parts of a compound predicate. Oral Analysis.— Wives, sisters, and mothers form the compound sub- ject ; anxious is a modifier of the compound subject ; and connects sisters and mothers. Parsing.— And i& Sk conjunction connecting sisters and mothers; ah is an interjection, expressing a sudden burst of feeling. 2. In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. (For diagram see the last sentence of the " Explanation " above.) Compound Subject and Compound Predicate. 49 3. The mental, moral, and muj^cular powers are improved by use. poioers came 4. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a strange parentage. 5. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball, and there spreads out. 6. Between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the nerves of the human body. 7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are found in the body. 8. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of all the faculties. ' • 9. Ugh ! I look forward with dread to to-morrow. 10. From the Mount of Olives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and solemn, is seen. 11. Tush ! tush ! 'twill not again appear. 13. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and in other parts of Asia. 13. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously. 14. Feudalism did not and could not exist before the tenth century. (The line on which hefore stands should touch the part of the predi- cate line that represents the entire predicate. Let x , in place of exist, follow did.) 15. The opinions of the New York press are quoted in every port and in every capital. 16. Both friend and foe applauded. ^ Explanation.— TYie conjunction both is V applauded used to strengthen the real connective and. ^ ' 80 with either — or. neitJier — nor. foe 50 TJie Sentence and the Parts of Speech. COMPOSITION— CONNECTED TERMS AND INTERJECTIONS. COMMA— RULE.— Two or more words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated from each other by the comma, unless all the conjunctions are expressed. Remark. — When words and phrases stand in pairs, the pairs are separated according to the Rule, but the words of each pair are not. When one term has a modifier that without the comma might be re- ferred to both, or when the parts of compound predicates and of other phrases are long or differently modified, they are separated by the comma though no conjunction is omitted. When two terms connected by or have the same meaning, the second is logically explanatory of the first, and is set off by the comma, i. e., when it occurs in the body of the sentence a comma is placed after the explanatory word, as well as before or. Direction. — Justify the punctuation of these sentences : — 1. Long, pious pilgrimages are made to Mecca. 2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 3. Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States. 4. The brain is protected by the skull, or cranium. 5. Nature and art and science were laid under tribute. 6. The room was furnished with a table, and a chair without legs. 7. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. Explanation. — No comma here, for no conjunction is omitted. Oaken limits bucket, old limits oaken bucket, and the limits old oaken bucket. See Lesson 13. 8. A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or female, friend or foe. 9. We climbed up a mountain for a view. Explanation. — No comma. Up a mountain tells where we climbed, and for a view tells why we climbed up a mountain. Composition — Connected Terms and Interjections. 51 10. The boy hurries away from home, and enters upon a career of business or of pleasure. 11. The long procession was closed by the great dignitaries of the realm, and the brothers and sons of the king. Direction.— i^nc^wa^e such of these sentences as need punctuation^ and give your reasons : — 1. Men and women and children stare cry out and run. 2. Briffjot healthful and vigorous poetry was written by Milton. 3. Few honest industrious men fail of success in life. (Where is the conjunction omitted ?) 4. Ireland or the Emerald Isle lies to the west of England. 5. That relates to the names of animals or things without sex. 6. The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the Syriac and the Chaldec. 7. We sailed down the river and along the coast and into a little inlet. 8. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and were fed with abundance. of hay and grain. 9. Spring and summer autumn and winter rush by in quick suc- cession. 10. A few dilapidated old buildings still stand in the deserted village. EXCLAMATION POINT— RULE.— All exclamatory expres- sions must be followed by the exclamation point. Remark. — Sometimes an interjection alone and sometimes the inter- jection and the words following form the exclamatory expression ; as, Oh f it hurts. Oh, the beautiful snow ! is used in direct address ; as, father, listen to me. Oh is used as a cry of pain, surprise, delight, fear, or appeal. This distinction, however desirable, is not now strictly observed, being frequently used in place of Oh. CAPITAL LETTERS— RULE.— The words I and O should be written in capital letters. 52 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, Direction. — Correct these molations of the two rules given above : — 1. o noble judge o excellent young man. 3. Out of the depths have i cried unto thee. 3. Hurrah the field is won. 4. Pshaw how foolish. 5. Oh oh oh i shall be killed. 6. o life how uncertain o death how inevitable. LESS©!! ti. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. Direction. — Beginning with the 8th sentence of the first group of ex- ercises in Lesson 21, analyze and parse fourteen sentences, should te s7iown Jew Model,~A Christian spirit should he shown to Jew or OreeTc, male or female, friend or foe. %a%Ll COMPOSITION— CONNECTED TERMS. Direction.— t/s^7^^ the noun^ below, compose sentences with compound subjects ; compose others in which the verbs shall form compound predi^ cates ; and others in which the adjectives, the adverbs, and the phraser shall form compound modifiers : — In some let there be three or more connected terms. Observe Rule, Lesson 21, for punctuation. Let your sentences mean something. Nouns. '^Washington, beauty, grace, Jefferson, symmetry, lightning, Lincoln, electricity, copper, silver, flowers, gold, rose, lily. Review, 53 Veebs. Examine, sing, pnll, push, repojpt, shout, loy% hate, like, scream, loathe^ approve^ f ear/bbey, refine,^op, elevate, skip, disapprove. Adjectives. Direction.— /S'ee Caution^ Lesson 13. Bright, acute, patient, careful, apt, forcible, simple, homely, happy, short, pithy, deep, jolly, mercurial, precipitous. Adveebs. Direction. — See Caution, Lesson 15. Neatly, slowly, carefully, sadly, now, here, never, hereafter. On sea ; in the city ; by day ; on land ; by night ; in the country ; by hook ; across the ocean ; by crook ; for weal ; over the lands ; for woe ; along the level road ; up the mountains. LESSON i4. REVIEW. Capital Letters and Punctuation. Direction. —6^u'e the reason for every capital letter and for every mark of punctuation used helow : — 1. The sensitive parts of the body are covered by the cuticle, or skin. 2. The degrees of A.B., A.M., D.D., and LL.D. are conferred by the colleges and universities of the country. 3. Oh, I am so happy ! 4. Fathers and mothers, sons and daughters rejoice at the news. 5. Plants are nourished by the earth, and the oarbon of the air. 6. A tide of 54 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. American travelers is constantly flooding Europe. 7. The tireless, sleepless sun rises above the horizon, and climbs slowly and steadily to the zenith. 8. He retired to private life on half pay, and the income of -a large estate in the South. Direction. — Write these expressions, using capital Utters and marhs of punctuation where they belong : — 1. a fresh riiddy and beardless french youth replied 2. maj, cal, bu, p m, rev, no, hon, ft, w, e, oz, mr, n y, a b, mon, bbl, st 3. o father o father i cannot breathe here . 4. ha ha that sounds well 5. the edict of nantes was established by henry the great of f ranee 6. mrs, vs, co, esq, yd, pres, u s, prof, o, do, dr 7. hurrah good news good news 8. the largest fortunes grow by the saving of cents and dimes and dollars 9. the baltie sea lies between Sweden and russia 10. the mis- sissippi river pours into the gulf of mexico 11. supt, capt, qt, ph d, p, cr, i e, doz 13. benjamin franklin was born in boston in 1706 and died in 1790 Direction. — Correct all these errors in capitalizaiion and punctuation, and give your reasons : — 1. Oliver cromwell ruled, over the english People, 2. halloo, i must speak to You ! 3. John Milton, went abroad in Early Life, and, stayed, for some time, with the Scholars of Italy, 4. Most Fuel con- sists of Coal and Wood from the Forests 5. books are read for Pleasure, and the Instruction and improvement of the Intellect, 6. In rainy weather the feet should be protected by overshoes or galoches 7. hark they are coming ! 8. A, neat, simple and manly style is pleasing to Us. 9. alas poor thing alas, 10. i fished on a, dark, and cool, apd mossy, trout stream. LIiS©li ti. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. Analysis. 1. By tjie streets of By-and-by, one arrives at the house of Never.— Span. Prov. 2. The winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest navi- gators, — Gibbon, 3. The axis of the earth sticks out visibly through the center of each and every town or city. — Holmes. 4. The arrogant Spartan, with a French-like glorification, boasted forever of little Thermopylae. — De Qwincey. 5. The purest act of knowledge is always colored by some feeling of pleasure or pain. — Hamilton. 6. The thunder of the great London journals reverberates through every clime. — Marsh. 7. The cheeks of William the Testy were scorched into a dusky red by two fiery little gray eyes. — Irving. 8. The study of natural science goes hand in hand * with the culture of the imagination. — TyndaU. 9. The whole substance of the winds is drenched and bathed and washed and winnowed and sifted through and through by this baptism in the sea. — Swain. 10. The Arabian Empire stretched from the Atlantic to the Chinese .Wall, and from the shores of the Caspian sea to those of the Indian Ocean. — Draper. 11. One half of all known materials consists of oxygen. — Cooke. 12. The range of thirty pyramids, even in the time of Abraham, looked down on the plain of Memphis. — Stanley. * Band in hand may be treated as one adverb, or vMh may be supplied. 56 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, WRITTEN PARSING. Direction. — Parse the sentences of Lesson 25 according to this Model for Written Parsing. Nouns. Pron. Verbs. Adj. Adv. Prep. C(wy. Int. Ist sentence. streets, By-and- house. Never. one. arrives. the, the. By, of, at, of. 2d Bentence. To the Teac/icr.— Until the Subdivisions and Modifications of the parts of speech are reached, Oral and Written Parsing can be only a classification of the words in the sentence. You must judge how frequently a lesson like this is needed, and how much parsing should be done orally day by day. In their Oral Analysis let the pupils give at first the reasons for every statement, but guard against their doing this mechanically and in set terms ; and, when you think it can safely be done, let them drop it. But ask now and then, whenever you think they have grown careless or are guessing, for the reason of this, that, or the other step taken. LESSOfi if. REVIEW. To the Teacher.— See suggestions, Lesson 16. Direction. — Review from Lesson 17 to Lesson 21, inclusive. G-ive the substance of the " Introductory Hints " (tell, for example, what such words as long and there may be expanded into, how these expanded forms may be modified, how introduced, what the intro- ductory words are called, and why, etc.). Memorize and illustrate defi- nitions and rules; illustrate fully what is taught of the position of phrases, and of the punctuation of phrases, connected terms, and ex- clamatory expressions. How many parts of speech are there ? Nouns as Object Complements. 57 LESSOli SB. NOUNS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS. Introductory Hints. — In saying Washington captured, we do not fully express the action performed by Washington. If we add a noun and ssuf^^asJiington captured Cornwallis, we complete the predicate by naming that which receives the action. Whatever fills out, or completes, is a Complement. As Cornwallis completes the expression of the action by naming the thing acted upon — the object, — we call it the Object Complement. Connected objects completing the same verb form a Compound Object Complement j as, Washington captured Cornwallis and his army. DEFINITION.— The Object Complement of a Sentence completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. The complement with all its modifiers is called the Modified Complement. Analysis and Parsing. 1. Clear thinking makes clear writing. _ thinking - makesi , vyntimj Explanation.-ThQ line standing for \ ' r;^ the object complement is a continuation V ^ of the predicate line. The little vertical \ \ line only touches this without cutting it. Oral Analysis — Writing is the object complement; clear writing is the modified complement, and makes clear writing is the entire predi- cate. 2. Austerlitz killed Pitt. 3. The invention of gunpowder destroyed feudalism, 4. Liars should have good memories. 5. We find the first surnames in the tenth century. 6. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 58 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 7. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 8. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held rank with the greatest schools of Europe. took resolves Oxford . \ , rarik held / Tcee^^ , side 9. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us. 10. Hunger rings the bell, and orders up coals in the shape of bread and butter, beef and bacon, pies and puddings. 11. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer, and forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity. 12. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a proportion, a harmony, beyond the reach of art. 13. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk and thatch roofs with the leaves, of the cocoa-nut palm. 14. Richelieu exiled the mother, oppressed the wife, degraded the brother, and banished the confessor, of the king. 15. James and John study and recite grammar and arithmetic. Jftmea study grammar JoTin recite arithmetic LESSOU ii. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES AS ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS. Introductory Hints. — The subject presents one idea ; the predicate, another, and asserts it of the first. Corn is growing presents the idea of the thing, corn, and the idea of the act, growing, and asserts the act of the thing. Corn growing lacks the asserting word, and Corn is lacks the word denoting the idea to be asserted. In logic, the asserting word is called the copula — it shows that the Nouns and Adjectives as Attribute Complements. 59 two ideas are coupled into a thought, — and the word expressing the idea asserted is called the predicate. But, as one word often performs both offices, e. g., Corn grows, and, as it is in dispute whether ajiy word can assert without expressing something of the idea asserted, we pass this distinction by as not essential in grammar, and call both that which asserts an^hat which expresses the idea asserted, by one name — the predicate.* The maple leaves become. The verb become does not make a complete predicate; it does not fully express the idea to be asserted. The idea may be completely expressed by adding the adjective red, denoting the quality we wish to assert of leaves or attribute to them — The maple leaves become red. ' Lizards are reptiles. The noun reptiles, naming the cla^ of the an- imals called lizards, performs a like office for the asserting word are. Holfe's wife was Pocahontas. Pocahontas completes the predicate by presenting a second idea, which ivas asserts to be identical with that of the subject. When the completing word expressing the idea to be attributed does not unite with the asserting word to make a single verb, we distinguish it as the Attribute Complement. Connected attribute complements of the same verb form a Compound Attribute Complement. Most grammarians call the adjective and the noun, when so used, the Predicate Adjective and the Predicate Noun. DEFINITION.— The Attrihute Complement of a Sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. Analysis and Parsing. 1. Slang is vulgar. Slang is v mclgar Escplanation.-ThQ line standing for the '■ — I ^ attribute complement is, like the object line, a continuation of the predicate line ; but notice that the line which sepa- * We may eall the verb the predicate ; but, when it is followed by a complement, It is an incomplete predicate. 6o The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. rates the incomplete predicate from the complement slants toward the sub- ject to show that the complement is an attribute of it. Oral AnMy sis. — Vulgar is the attribute complement, completing the predicate and expressing a quality of slang; is vulgar is the entire pred- icate. 2. The sea is fascinating and treacherous. 3. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable. 4. The Saxon words in English are simple, homely, and substantial. 5. The French and the Latin words in English are elegant, dignified, and artificial. 6. The ear is the ever-open gateway of the soul. 7. The verb is the life of the sentence. 8. Good-breeding is surface-Christianity. 9. A dainty plant is the ivy green. Explanation. — The subject names that of which the speaker says something. The terms in which he says it, — the predicate, — he, of course, assumes that the hearer already understands. Settle, then, which — plant or ivy — Dickens supposed the reader to know least about, and which, therefore, Dickens was telling hitn about ; and you settle which word — plant or ivy — is the subject. (Is it not the writer's poeti- cal conception of " the green ivy" that the reader is supposed not to ?) 10. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity. 11. Stillness of person and steadiness of features are signal marks of good-breeding. 12. The north wind is full of courage, and puts the stamina of en- durance into a man. 13. The west wind is hopeful, and has promise and adventure in it. 14. The east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism and grum- bling, and curls one up in the chimney-corner. 15. The south wind is fuU of longing and unrest and effeminate suggestions of luxurious ease. Attribute Complements — Continued, 6i LESSON 30. ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS— CONTHNTUED. Analysis and Parsing. 1. He^ent out as mate and came back captain. ^ JExpl»nation.—Mate, like captain^ is an ~~] attribute complement. Some would say ^^ ■ that the conjunction as connects mate to I (^j ^ Tie; but we think this connection is made x e; came ^ captain through the verb went, and that as is ^ simply introductory. This is indicated in the diagram. 2. The sun shines bright and hot at midday. 3. Velvet feels smooth, and looks rich and glossy. 4. She grew tall, queenly, and beautiful. 5. Plato and Aristotle are called the two head-springs of all philosophy. 6. Under the Roman law, every son was regarded as a slave. 7. He came a foe and returned a friend. 8. I am here. I am present. Explanation. — The office of an adverb sometimes fades into that of an adjective attribute and cannot be distinguished from it. Here, like an adjective, seems to complete am, and, like an adverb, to modify it. From their form and usual function, here should, in this sentence, be called an adverb, and present an adjective. 9. This book is presented to you as a token of esteem and gratitude. 10. The warrior fell back upon the bed a lifeless corpse. 11. The apple tastes and smells delicious. 12. Lord Darnley turned out a dissolute and insolent husband. 13. In the fable of the discontented pendulum, the weights hung speechless. 14. The brightness and freedom of the New Learning seemed incar- nate in the young and scholarly Sir Thomas More. 15. Sir Philip Sidney lived and died the darling of the Court, and the gentleman and idol of the time. 62 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. Introductory Hints.— jETe made the wall white. Here made does not fully express the action performed upon the wall. We do not mean to say, He made the white wall, but, He made-white {whitened) the wall. White helps made to express the action, and at the same time it denotes the quality attributed to the wall as the result of the action. They made Victoria queen. Here made does not fully express the action performed upon N^ictoria. They did not make Victoria, but made-queen {crowned) Victoria. Qu£en helps made to express the action, and at the same time denotes the office to which the action raised Victoria. A word that, like the adjective white or the noun queen, helps to com- plete the predicate and at the same time belongs to the object comple- ment, differs from an attribute complement by belonging not to the subject but to the object complement, and so is called an Objective Complement. As the objective complement denotes what the receiver of the act is made to be, in fact or in thought, it is sometimes called the factitive complement or the factitive object (Lat. facere, to make). Some of the other verbs which are thus completed are call, think, choose, and name. DEFINITION.— The Objective Complement completes the predicate and belongs to the object. Analysis and Parsing. 1. They made Victoria queen. T7ie7/ made ^ queen , Victoria Explanation. —The line that sepa- rates made from queen slants toward the object complement to show that qiteen belongs to the object. Oral Analysis.— Queen is an objective complemerit completing made Composition — Complements, 63 and belonging to Victoria ; made Victoria queen is the complete pred- icate. 2. Some one has called the eye the window of the soul. 3. Destmy had made Mr. Churchill a schoolmaster. 4. Pre^dent Hayes chose the Hon. Wm. M. Evarts Secretary of State. 5. After a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English nobility, James I. created the worthless Villiers Duke of Bucking- ham. 6. We should consider time as a sacred trust. Explanation. — As, may be used simply to introduce an objective complement. 7. Ophelia and Polonius thought Hamlet really insane. 8. The President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to foreign courts. 9. Shylock would have struck Jessica dead beside him. 10. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous. 11. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny. 12. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music. 13. They named the state New York from the Duke of York. 14. Henry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very ark of the constitution. LESSOR St. COMPOSITION— COMPLEMENTS. Caution,— Be careful to distinguish an adjective com- plement from an adverb modifier. Explanation. — Mary arrived safe. We here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving. My head feels bad (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). The sun shines bright (is bright— quality,— as perceived by its shining). 64 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. When the idea of Ijeing is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows. Direction. — Justify the use of these adjecii'oes and adverbs: — 1. The boy is running wild. 2. The boy is running wildly about. 3. They all arrived safe and sound. 4. The day opened bright. 5. He felt awkward in the presence of ladies. 6. He felt around awkwardly for his chair. 7. The sun shines bright. 8. The sun shines brightly on the tree-tops. 9. He appeared prompt and willing. 10. He appeared promptly and willingly. Direction. — Correct these errors and give your reasons:— 1. My head pains me very bad. 2. My friend has acted very strange in the matter. 3. Don't speak harsh. 4. It can be bought very cheaply. 5. I feel tolerable well. 6. She looks beautifully. Direction. — Join to each of the nounSy below, three appropriate adjec- tives expressing the qualities as assumed, and tlien make complete sentences by asserting these qualities : — Hard J , . Model.— hriiile > glass. Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent, transparent ) Coal, iron, Niagara Falls, flowers, war, ships. Direction. — Compose sentences containing these nmins as attribute eomplements : — Emperor, mathematician, Longfellow, Richmond. Direction. — Compose sentences, using these verbs as predicates, a/nd these pronouns as attribute complements : — Is, was, might have been ; I, we, he, she, they. Nouns as Adjective Modifiers, 65 Remark. — Notice that these forms of the pronouns — /, we^ thou, hey she, ye, they, and who— are never used as object complements or as prmcipal wopds in prepositional phrases ; and that me, us, thee, him, her, them, and whom are never used as subjects or as attribute comple- ments of sentences. IDirection.— Compose sentences in which each of th£ following verbs sholl have two complements — the one an object complementf the other an objective complement : — Let some object complements be pronouns, and let some objective complements be introduced by as. Model.— They call m^ chief. We regard composition dw very impor- tant. Make, appoint, consider, choose, call. LESSOR 33. NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. Introductory Hints. — Solomon's temple was destroyed. Solomon's limits temple by telling what or whose temple is spoken of, and is, there- fore, a modifier of it. The relation of Solomon to the temple is expressed by the apostrophe and s i's) added to the noun Solomon. When s has been added to the noun to denote more than one, this relation of possession is expressed by the apostrophe alone (') ; as, boys' hats. This same relation of pos- session may be expressed by the preposition of; Solomon'' s temple = the temple of Solomon. Dom Pedro, the emperor, was welcomed by the Americans. The noun emperor modifies Dom Pedro by telling what Dom Pedro is meant. Both words name the same person. Solomon' s audi emperor, like adjectives, modify nouns; but they are names of things, and, besides, when modified, are modified by adjec- tives and not by adverbs ; as, the wise Solomon's temple, etc. ; Dom Pedro, 66 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. the Brazilian emperor, etc. These are conclusive reasons for calling them nouns. They represent two kinds of Noun Modifiers— the Possessive and the Explanatory. Analysis and Parsing. 1. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I. Explanation.— Raleigh is written favorite (itdkigh) . was beheaded on the subject line, because it aud favorite name the same person ; but Raleiyh is enclosed within curves to ~ show that favorite is the proper grammatical subject. Oral Analysis.— Elizabeth's and Raleigh are modifiers of the subject, the first telling whose favorite is meant, the second what or which favorite. Elizabeth* s favorite, Raleigh is the modified subject. 2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are derived from Tyndale's version. 3. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero. 4. A fool's bolt is soon shot. 5. The tadpole, or poUiwog, becomes a frog. 6. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. 7. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was born in year 569 and died in 632. 8. They scaled Mount Blanc — a daring feat. Theu I scaled , Mount Blanc ( feat \ Explanation. —Feat is explanatory of the sentence, They scaled Mount Blanc, and in the diagram it stands, enclosed in curves, on a short line placed after the sentence line. 9. Bees communicate to each other the death of the queen, by a rapid interlacing of the antennaB. Composition — Nouns as Adjective Modifiers, 67 £:xplanatio^. — Each other may be treated as one term, or emh may be made eifplanatory of 6ees. 10. The lamp of a man's life has three wicks — brain, blood, and breath. Explanation. — Several words may together be explanatory of one. 11. The turtle's back-bone and breast-bone — its shell and coat of armor— are on the outside of its body. 12. Cromwell's rule as Protector began in the year 1653 and ended in 1658. Explanation. — As, namely, to wit, viz., i. e., e. g., and that is may introduce explanatory modifiers, but they do not seem to connect them to the words modified. In the diagram they stand like as in Lesson 30. Protector is explanatory of Cromwell's. 13. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, three powerful na- tions, namely, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, united for the dismember* ment of Poland. 14. John, the beloyed disciple, lay on his Master's breast. 15. The petals of the daisy, da^s-eye, close at night and in rainy weather. LESSOU 34, COMPOSITION— NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. COMMA— RULE.— An Explanatory Modifier , when it does not restrict tlie modified term or combine closely willi it, is set off* by the comma. * See foot-note, Lesson 18. 68 TJie Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Explanation.— jf%e words I and should he written in capital letters. The phrase / and restricts words, that is, limits its application, and no comma is needed. Jacob's favorite sons, Joseph and Benjamin, were RacheVs children. The phrase Joseph and Benjamin explains sons without restricting, and, therefore, should be set off by the comma. In each of these expressions, I myself, we loys, William the Conqueror, the explanatory term combines closely with the word explained, and no comma is needed. Direction. — Give the reasons for the insertion or the omission of conn- mas in these sentences : — 1. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat-club. 2. The author of Pilgrim's Progress, John Bunyan, was the son of a 4^inker. 3. Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was careless of his literary rep- utation. 4. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his treatment of Montezuma. 5. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard. 6. The Emperors Napoleon and Alexander met and became fast friends on a raft at Tilsit. Direction. — Insert c&mmas, below, where they are needed, and give your reasons : — 1. The Franks a warlike people of Germany- gave their name to France. 2. My son Joseph has entered college. 3. You blocks ! You stones I you hard hearts ! 4. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in the eyes of Mohammedans. 5. He himself could not go. 6. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth. 7. Elizabeth Queen of England ruled from 1558 to 1603. Direction. — Compose sentences containing these expressions as ex- planatory modifiers : — The most useful metal ; the capital of Turkey ; the Imperial City ; Nouns as Adverb Modifiers. 69 the great Eaglish poets ; the hermit ; a distinguished American statesman. DirecTtion. — Punctuate these expreasionSj cmd employ eaeh of them in a sentence : — See Remark, Lesson 21. Omit or, and note the effect. 1. Palestine or the Holy Land . 2. New York or the Empire State . 3. New Orleans or the Cres«ent City . 4. The five Books of Moses or the Pentateuch. Memember that ('5) and (') are the possessive signs, (') being used when s has been added to denote more than one, ('s) in other cases. Direction. — Copy the foUotomgy and n^te the use of the possessive sign : — The lady*s fan ; the girl's bonnet ; a dollar's worth ; Bums's poems ; Brown & Co.'s business ; a day's work ; men's clothing ; children's toys ; those girls' dresses ; ladies' calls ; three years' interest ; five dollars' worth. Direction. — MaJce possessive modifiers of the following words, and Join them to appropriate nouns : — Woman, women ; mouse, mice ; buffalo, buffaloes ; fairy, fairies ; hero, heroes ; baby, babies ; calf, calves. Caution, — Do not use ('s) or (') with the pronouns its, Ms, ours, yours, hers, theirs. NOUNS AS ADVBRB MODIFIERS. Introductory Hints. — He game me a booh. Here we have what maay grammarians call a double object. Book, naming the thing acted upon. 70 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. they call the direct object ; and we, naming the person toward whom the act is directed, the indirect, or dative^ object. You see that we and look do not, like Cornwallis and army, in Washington captured Cornwallis and his army, form a compound object complement ; they cannot be connected by a conjunction, for they do not stand in the same relation to the verb gave. The meaning is not. He gave me and the book. We prefer to treat these so-called indirect objects, which generally name the person to or for whom something is done, as phrase moditers without the preposition. If we change the order of the words, the prep- osition must be supplied ; as, He gave a hook to me. He bought me a book ; He bought a hook for me. He asked me a question ; Ho asked a question of me. Teachj tell, send, and lend are other examples of verbs said to be fol- lowed by double objects. Besides these so-called indirect objects, nouns denoting measure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction are often used ad- verbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition. We walked four miles an hour. It weighs one pound. It is worth a dollar a yard. I went Jiome that way. The wall is ten feet, six inches high. The idiom of the language does not often admit a preposition before nouns denoting measure, direction, etc. In your analysis you need not supply one. Analysis and Parsing. 1. They offered Cassar the crown three times. TTi^ . offered , crom i Explanation — CcBsar, the so-called dative object, and times, the noun denoting meas- ure, stand in the diagram on lines represent- ing the principal words of prepositional phrases. But there are no prepositions on the slanting lines, nor is there an x to mark the omission, there being no preposition understood. €>ral Analysis.^CcBsar and times, without prepositions, perform the office of adverb phrases modifying the predicate offered. Review, yi 2. We p&j the President of the United States $50,000 a year. 3. He sent his daughter home that way. 4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a pound for his sugar. 5. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death. 6. Serpents cast their skin once a year. /?. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn., fell Aug. 21, 1856. 8. Good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of com an acre. K 9. On the fatal field of Zutpheu, Sept. 22, 1586> his attendants brought the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water. 10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water. . 11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means of gills. 12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor. 13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. ; 14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an ounce. 15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night. LEiiOli i§. REVIEW. ^^^^ To the Teacher.— See euggestions, Lesson 16. Direction.— i^meM' from Lesson 28 to Lesson 35, inclusive : — -^""^ Give the substance of the *' Introductory Hints" (for example, show . clearly what two things are essential to a complete predicate ; explain - -^v;^' what is meant by a complement; distinguish clearly the three kinds of -^.^^.J^ complements ; show what parts of speech may be employed for each, and tell what general idea — action, quality, class, or identity— is ex- pressed by each attribute or objective complement in your illustrations, etc.). Memorize and illustrate definitions and rules; explain and illus- trate fully the distinction between an adjective complement and an adverb modifier ; illustrate what is taught of the forms 7, we, etc., me, us, etc. ; explain and illustrate the use of the possessive sign. 72 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. LESS©M SF. VERBS AS ADJECTIVES AND AS NOUNS— PAR- TICIPLES. Introductory Hints. — Corn grows; Corn growing. Here growing differs from grows in lacking the power to assert. Growing is a form of the verb that cannot, like grows, make a complete predicate, because it only assumes the act — implies that the com does the act. Corn may be called its assumed subject. Birds, singing, delight us. Here singing does duty (1) as an ad- jective, describing birds by assuming or implying an action, and (2) as a verb by expressing the act of singing as going on at the time they delight us. Bg singing their songs birds delight us. Here singing has the nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an object complement, songs ; and as a noun it names the action, and stands as the principal word in a prepositional phrase. Their singing so sweetly delights us. Here, also, singing has the nat- ure of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an adverb modifier, sweetly, and as a noun it names an act and takes a possessive modifier. This form of the verb is called the Participle (Lat. pa/rs, a part, and capere, to take), because it partakes of two natures and performs two offices — those of a verb and an adjective, or those of a verb and a noun. (For definition see Lesson 131.) Singing birds delight us. Here singi7ig has lost its verbal nature, and expresses a permanent quality of birds — telling what kind of birds, — and so is a mere adjective. The singing of the birds delights us. Here singing is simply a noun, naming the act and taking adjective modifiers. You see that there are two * kinds of participles ; one sharing the nature of the verb and that of the adjective ; the other, the nature of the * Many grammarians restrict the name participle to the first kind, calling words of the second kind gerunds, or verbal nouns, because they suppose all verbal forms used as nouns to have a dijfferent origin, and to have once had a different ending. But the original participles, like other adjectives, are freely used as nouns. Verbs 0S Adjectives and as Nouns — Participles. 73 verb and that of the noun. The common endings of the participle are ing^ ed, and en. The participle, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by an object complement or an attribute complement. Analysis and Parsing. The participle may be used as an adjective modifier. 1. Hearing a step, I turned. I , tur med £Jxplanation.— The line standing for the participle is \^ broken ; one part slants to represent the adjective nature y-inff t step of the participle, and the other is horizontal to represent Y Its verbal nature. Oral Analysis.— The phrase hearing a step is a modifier of the sub- ject ; * the principal word is hearing, which is completed by the noun step ; step is modified by a. Parsing.— Bearing is a form of the verb called participle, because the action expressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of an adjective and that of a verb. 2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use. Explanation. — The complement is here modified by a participle phrase. 8. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends downward through the back-bone. 4. Van Twiller sat in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the celebrated forest of the Hague. Explanation.— The principal word of a prepositional phrase is here modified by a participle phrase. 5. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had amused the populace with the sports of the amphitheater. * Logically, or in sense, hearing a step modifles the predicate also. I turned when or bacause I heard a step.-* See Lesson 79. 74 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, The participle may be used as an attribute complement. 6. The natives came crowding around. Explanation. — Crowding here completes the predicate came, and be- longs to the subject natives. The natives are represented as performing the act of coming and the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive force of the. predicate came seems to extend over both verbs. 7. The city lies sleeping. 8. They stood terrified. 9. The philosopher sat buried in thought. 10. The old miser kept-grubbing and saving and starving. The participle may be used as an objective com^plement. 11. He kept me waiting. Explanation. — Waiting completes kept and relates to the object com- plement me. Kept-waiting expresses the complete action performed upon me. He kept-waiting me = He detained me. The relation of waiting to me may be seen by changing the form of the verb ; as, I was kept waiting. See Lesson 31. 13. I found my book growing dull. Yr^ JSxplanaHon.— The diasrram represent- Vtoin9 V dull . xv V- 1 • ^ v I mg the phrase complement is drawn aoove / found JL book *^^ complement line, on which it is made I ' ^ > ' ^Q ^^^^ l^y means of a support. All that \ stands on the complement line is regarded as the complement. Notice that the little mark before the phrase points toward the object complement. Tlie adjective dull completes growing and belongs to book, the assumed subject ot growing. 13. He owned himself defeated. 14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in turbulent mobs. 15. I felt my heart beating faster. 16. You may imagine me sitting there. 17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned into a king. Participles — Continued. 75 LESi©l 38. PARTICIPLES— CONTINUED. Analysis and Parsing. The participle may be used as principal word in a prepositional phrase. 1. We receive good by doing good. Explanation. ^ThQ line representing the We receive , r/ixxl participle here is broken ; the first part rep- resents the participle as a noun, and the other d oing I good as a Verb. (Nouns and verbs are both written on horizontal lines.) Oral Analysis.— The phrase hy doing good is a modifier of the pred- icate ; hy introduces the phrase ; the principal word is doing, which is completed by the noun good. Parsing.— Doing is E participle ; like a noun, it follows the preposi- tion hy ; and, like a verb, it takes an object complement. 2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain. 3. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand per- sons. 4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously. 5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having suffered. {Suffering is here a noun.) The participle may be the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement. 6. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position. Explanation .—The diagram of the subject phrase is drawn above the subject line. All that rests on the subject line is regarded as the subject. 76 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, Oral Analysis.— 1l\^q phrase yow writing that letter so neatly is the subject ; the principal word of it is writing, which is completed by letter ; writing, as a noun, is modified by your^ and, as a verb, by the adverb phrase so neatly, 7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. 8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent. 9. Good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment. The participle may be used as a mere noun or a tnere adjective, 10. The cackling of geese saved Rome. 11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many* a long-for- gotten song. £ixplanation. — Many modifies %ong as modified by a and long- forgotten, 12. All silencing of discussion is an assumption- of infallibility. 13. He was a squeezing, grasping, hardened old sinner. The participle may be used in independent or absolute phrases, 14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the /river. Explanation. — The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists of a noun used independently with a participle, stands by itself. See Lesson 44. 15. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's "constitutionals." * ^^Manif/ man in Aif«;lo-Saxon was used like Grerman mancher mann, Latin multus vir, and the like, until the thirteenth century ; when the article was inserted to emphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number." — Prof. F. A. March, Composition — Participles. JJ COMPOSITION— PARTICIPLES. COMMA— RULE.— The Participle used as an adjective mod- ifier, with the words belonging to it, is set olf* by the comma unless restrictive. Explanation. — A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me with a song. The bird sittin^g on the wall is a wren. Lighting describes with- out restricting; sitting restricts— limits the appUcation of bird to a par- ticular bird. Direction. — Jiistify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson 37. Caution.^ln using a participle be careful to leave no doubt as to what you intend it to modify. Direction. — Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, giving your reasons : — 1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small family containing all the improvements. 2. The tx)wn contains fiity houses and one hundred inhabitants built of brick. 3. Suit« ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor hand- somely trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap. 4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel. 5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger. Direction. — Recast these sentences, making the reference of the par- ticiple clear, a7t,d punctuating correctly : — * An expression in the body of a sentence ia set off hy two commae ; at the begin- ning or at the end, by one comma. 78 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, Model.— Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen. Incorrect, because it appears that the ocean did the climbing. Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean. 1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. 2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. 3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock. Direction. — Compose sentences in which each of these three participles shall be used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a prep- ositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere noun, and in a/n absolute phrase : — Buzzing, leaping, waving. VERBS AS NOUNS—INFINITIVES. Introductory Hints. — / came to see you. Here the verb see, like the participle, lacks the asserting power — / to see asserts nothing. See^ following the preposition to,* names the act and is completed by you, and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In office it is like tne second kind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from some grammarians has received the same name— some calling both gerunds, and others calling both infinitives. It ditfers from this participle in form, and in following only the preposition to. Came to see = came for seeing. This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement ; as. To read good boohs is profitable ; Hike to read, good boohs. Here also the form with to is equivalent to the participal form reading. Reading good hooks is prof- itable. As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, with- out limiting it to a subject, we call it the Infinitive (Lat. infinitum, without limit). For definition, see Lesson 131. * For the discussion of lo with the infinitive, see Lesson 134. Verbs as Nouns — Infinitives. 79 Frequently the infinitive expresses purpose, as in the first example given above, and in such cases to expresses relation, and performs its full function as a preposition ; but when the infinitive phrase is used as subject or as object complement, the to expresses no relation. It serves only to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of the verb. The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the different complements. Analysis and Parsing. The infinitive phrase may be used as an adjective modifier or an adverb modifier. 1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams. hot-house is ^ trap Oral Analysis.— To in- N^ \ \ ^ troduces the phrase ; catch \ catch . sunbeam ^ ^^^ principal word, and sunbeams completes it Parsing.— To is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing the relation, in sense, of the principal word to trap ; catch is a form of the verb called infinitive ; like a noun, it follows the preposition to and names the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by sunbeams. ~ 2. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and decision of character, 3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated. 4. We will strive to please you. Explanation. — ^The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to mod- ify the predicate. 5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy. Explanation. — Happy completes m^ke and relates to us. 8o The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to mod- ify the adjective JmrA. To heal=to he healed. 8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle palace, and again to sell off and wander. 9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat. Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adverb enough. To eai—to he eaten. The infinitive phrase may be used as subject or com- plement. 10. To be good is to be great. X\ Explanation.— To, in each of these phrases, he ^pood \ he ^ crreat ^^«^'« °<^ relation-it serves merely to intro- ^v-iz _-. x^; ^ duce. The complements good and great are JL •. i. adjectives used abstractly, having no noun to ^^ I ^ «^> ^gi^^g ^Q 11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. 13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. 14. He seemed to be innocent. Explanation. — The infinitive phrase here performs the office of an adjective. To he innocent=innoce7d. 15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him. 16. We should learn to govern ourselves. Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used as an object com plement. 17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice. Infinitives — Continued, 8 1 LISSOI^ 41. INFINITIVES-CONTINUED. Analysis. The infinitive phrase may be used after a preposition as the principal term of another phrase. 1. My friend is about to leave me. Explanati€ni. — The preposition aibade- hend (= bent) the stick — with He made the stick straight — equaling He made-straight {= straightened) the stick. The relation of these objective complements to me, him, and stick may be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus : I was made to wait, He was seen to do it. He was seen doing it, The stick was made to bend. The stick was made straight 13. We found the report to be true.* \', be -s^ true :x Wd > Jbun^ ^ y\ I report * Some prefer to treat the report to be true as an object clause, because it is equiva- lent to the clause that the report is tru£. But many expressions logically equivalent are entirely different in grammatical construction. If, in " I desire him to be promoted," him to be promoted is a clause because equiv- Infinitives — Continued, 83 14. He commanded the bridge to be lowered.* 15. I saw the leaves stir. Explanation. — Stir is an infinitive without the to. 16. Being persuaded by PoppaBa, Nero caused his mother, Agrippina, to be assassinated. INFINITIVES— CONTINUED. Analysis. The infinitive phrase may be used independently. \ Explanation. — In the diagram, the independent element must stand by itself. 1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000. 2. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette were executed. alent to that he shoiUd be promoted, why is not his promotion a clause in "I desire Ms promotion " ? "I saw the sun rising.'''' "I saw the 7nsing of the sun.'''' If we must call svn rising a clause, why not call the rising of the sun a clause ? In both expressions mn names the actor and rising denotes the act. Besides, when the pupil has learned that he is a subject form and him an object form, and that participles and infinitives lack the asserting element, necessary to a true predicate, we prefer not to confuse him by calling him the subject and to be pro- moted the predicate of a clause. * Notice the difference, in construction, between this sentence and the sentence He commanded him to lower the bridge. Him represents the one to whom the command is given, and to lower the bridge is the object complement. This last sentence = He commanded him that he should lower the bridge. Compare He told me to go with He told (to) mje a story ; also He taught me to read with He taught {to) me reading. t These infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79. For the infinitive after as, than, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and infinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms ; as, have walked, shall {to) walk. 84 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Infinitives and Participles. Miscellaneous. 4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto tlie Lord. 5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the heat of the sun. 6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having changed so. 7. This sentence is not too diJBBcult for me to analyze. 8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole. ' 9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 10. To be, or not to be, — that is the question. 11. I supposed him to be a gentleman. 12. Food, keeping the body in health by maldng it warm and repair- ing its waste, is a necessity. 13. 1 will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another time. 14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of the window, to drown herself. 15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours smoking and watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling. COMPOSITION— THE INFINITIVE. Direction.— C^aw^re tliA infinitixies in these sentences into participles, and the participles into infinitives : — Notice that to, the only preposition used with the infinitive, is changed to toward, for, of, at, in, or on, when the infinitive is changed to a participle, 1. I am inclined to believe it. 6. There is a time to laugh. 2. I am ashamed to be seen there. 7. I rejoice to hear it. 3. She will be grieved to hear it. 8. You are prompt to obey. 4. They trembled to hear such 9. They delight to do it. words. 10. I am surprised at seeing you. 6. It will serve for amusing the 11. Stones are used in ballasting children. vessels. Words and Phrases Used Independently. 85 Direction. — Improxie these sentences by changing the participles into infinitives, and the infinitives into participles : — . 1. We began ascending the moun- 3. I commenced to write a letter. tain. 4. It is inconvenient being poor. 2. He did not recollect to have 5. It is not wise complaining. paid it. Direction. — Vary these sentences as in th^ model : — Model. —Rising early is healthful, To rise early is healthful, It is healthful to rise early, For one to rise early is healthful. (Notice that the explanatory phrase after it is not set off by the comma.) 1. Reading good books is profitable. 4. Indorsing another's paper is 2. Equivocating is disgraceful. dangerous. 3. Slandering is base. 5. Swearing is sinful. Direction. — Write nine sentences^ in three of which the infinitive shall be vsed as an adjective, in three as an adverb, amd in three as a noun. Direction. — Write eight sentences in which tJiese verbs shall be fol- lowed by an infinitive without t o : — Model.— Wq saw the sun smk behind the mountain. Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see. LESiOH 44. WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDE- PENDENTLY. Introductory Hints. — In this Lesson we wish to notice words and phrases that in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the rest^f the sentence. 86 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. The favlt, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Dear Brutus serves only to arrest attention, and is independent by address. Poor man I he never came hack again. Poor man is independent by exclamation. Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. Rod and staff simply call attention to the objects before anything is said of them, and are inde- pendent by pleonasm — a construction used sometimes for rhetorical effect, but out of place and improper in ordinary speech. His master being absent, the business was neglected. His master be- ing absent logically modifies the verb was neglected by assigning the cause, but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and so is grammatically independent. This is called the absolute phrase. His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking is a par- ticiple without connection, and with the adverb generally forms an in- dependent phrase. To confess the truth, I was wrong. The infinitive phrase is inde- pendent. The adverbs, well, now, why, there are sometimes independent, as ; Well, life is an enigma; Now, that is strange; Why, it is already noon ; There are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees. Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have learned, and so are independent. Whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independent of the rest of the sentence; as, I stake my fame {and I had fame), my heart, my hope, my soul, upon this cast. Analysis and Parsing. 1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows. Explanation. — Tom is independent by address, and in the diagram must stand by itself. But is used as an adjective modifying shadows. 2. There are one story intellects, two story intellects, and tliree story intellects with skylights. Explanation. — Often, as here, there is used idiomatically, merely to Composition — Independent Words and Phrases. 8/ throw the subject after the verb, the idea of place having faded out of it. To express place another there may follow the predicate; as, There is gold there. 3. Ah I then and there was hurrying to and fro. 4. Hope lost, all is lost. 5. The smith, a mighty man is he. 6. Why, this is not revenge. 7. Well, this is the forest of Arden. 8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool. 9. To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies. 10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive to-morrow. 11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday. 12. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts. 13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs. 14. But the enemies of tyranny — their path leads to the scaffold, 15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman !) Threat ^ l)ega.n managed the matter extremely well. 16. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the fatal retreat of the Grand Army, from Mos- day cow. ~"V~ See Lesson 35. LEiSOli 4§. COMPOSITION— INDEPENDENT WORDS AND PHRASES. COMMA— BULE.—Words and phrases independent or nearly so are set off by the comma. Remark. — Interjections, as you' have seen, are usually followed by the exclamation point ; and there, used merely to introduce, is never set off by the comma. When the break after pleonastic expressions is slight, as in (5), Lesson 44, the comma is used ; but if it is more abrupt, as 88 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. in (14), the dash is required. If the independent expression can be omitted without affecting the sense, it may be enclosed within marks of parenthesis, as in (15) and (16). (For the uses of the dash and the marks of parenthesis, see Lesson 148.) Words and phrases nearly independent are those which like however, of course, indeed, in short, hy the hye, for instance, and accordingly do not modify any word or phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a whole; as, Lee did not, 1iX)wever, follow Washington's orders. Direction. — Write sentences illustrating the several hinds of inde- pendent expressions, and punctuate according to the Rule as explained. Direction. — Write short sentences in wJiich these words and phrases, used in a manner nearly independent, shall occur, and punctuate them prope/rly: — In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover, however, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then, too, of course, in fine, namely, above all, therefore. Direction.— Write short sentences in which these words shall modify some particular word or phrase so closely as not to be set off by the comma : — Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still. LESiOfI 4§. SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. Introductory Hints. — In the previous Lessons we have considered the sentence with respect to the words and phrases composing it. Let us now look at it as a whole. The mountains lift up their heads. This sentence simply aflBrms or declares a fact, and is called a Declarative Sentence. Do the mountains lift up their heads ? This sentence asks a ques- tion, and is called an Interrogative Sentence. Sentences Classified with Respect to Meaning, 89 lAft up your heads. This sentence expresses a command, and is called an Imperative Sentence. Such expressions as You must go, You shall go are equivalent to imperative sentences, though they have not the imperative form. now the mountains lift up their heads 1 In this sentence the thought is expressed with strong emotion. It is called an Exclamatory Sen- tence. How and what usually introduce such sentences; but a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may become exclamatory when the speaker uses it mainly to give vent to his feelings ; as. It is impossible 1 How can I endure it ! Talk of hypoc- risy after this I DEFINITION.— A Declarative Sentence is one that affirms or denies. DEFINITION.— An Interrogative Sentence is one tliat ex- presses a question. DEFINITION.— An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a command or an entreaty. DEFINITION.— An Exclamatory Sentence is one that ex- presses sudden thought or strong feeling. INTERROGATION POINT— RULE.— Every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point. Analysis and Parsing. Direction. — Before analyzing thsse sentences classify thsm, and jus- tify the terminal marks of punctuation :— A 1. There are no accidents in the providence of God. 2. Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping before him, and bis glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide of the mor- tal part ? 3. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. (The subject is you understood.) 90 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 4. How wonderful is the advent of spring I 5. Oh 1 a dainty plant is the ivy green 1 6. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work. 7. Alexander the Great died at Babylon in the thirty-third year of his age. 8. How sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to himself I 9. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 10. Lend me your ears. 11. What brilliant rings the planet Saturn has 1 12. What power shall blanch the sullied snow of character ? 13. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 14. How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night long, on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead ! 15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag into the very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his den, and woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon and the shouts of his triumph ? LESS0I! 4r. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. Analysis and Parsing. 1. Poetry is only the eloquence and enthusiasm of religion. — Words- worth. Explanation. — Only^ usually an adverb, here modifies eloquence and enthusiasm. 2. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu would permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence. — Stephen. 3. The Queen of England is simply a piece of historic heraldry; a flag, floating grandly over a Liberal ministry yesterday, over a Tory ministry to-day. — Conway. 4. The vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of foam- ing phrase. — Lowell. Miscellaneous Exercises in Review. 91 5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew into strong eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of Greek literature, Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art.— Z)e Q,uincey. 6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense lie in three words — health, peace, and competence. — Pope. 7. Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye. — Tyler. 8. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun. — Longfellow. 9. Things mean, the Thistle, the Leek, the Broom of the Plantage- nets, become noble by association. — F. W. Robertson. 10. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night. — Beecher. 11. In that calm Syrian afternoon, memory, a pensive Ruth, went gleaning the silent fields of childhood, and found the scattered grain still golden, and the morning sunlight fresh and fair. — Curtis, LESS0W 48, MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. Analysis and Parsing. 1. By means of steam man realizes the fable of bolus's bag, and carries the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of his boat. — Emerson. 2. The Angel of Life winds our brains up once for all, then closes the case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of Resurrection. — Holmes. 3. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old. — Canning. 4. The prominent nose of the New Englander is evidence of the con- stant linguistic exercise of that organ. — Warner. 5. Every Latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb ticketed upon it. — Earle. 6. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of des- potism. — Phillips. 92 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 7. I want my husband to be submissive without looking so. — Gail Hamilton. 8. I love to lose myself in other men's minds. — Lamb. 9. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes and composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual calm. — Addison. 10. To discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved beyond the power of science. — Brown's Oram. Explanation. — Beyond the power of science=impossihle, and so is an attribute complement. The preposition heyond shows the relation, in sense, of power to the subject phrase. ' 11. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to win victories by turning somersets in the air. — Longfellow. .ESSOli 4©. REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION. Direction.— 6^/i?e the reason, as far as you have been taught^ for the marks of punctuation v>sed in Lessons 44, 46, 47, and 48. I.ESS0M i@. REVIEW. To the Teacher.— ^ee sngfrestions, Lesson 16. Direction. —^e^^w/rom Lesson 87 to Lesson 46 inclusive : — Give, in some such way as we have outlined in preceding Review Lessons, the substancel of the " Introductory Hints ; " memorize and illustrate definitions and rules ; illustrate the different uses of the participle and the infinitive, and the Caution regarding the use of the participle ; illustrate the different ways in which words and phrases may be grammatically independent, and the punctuation of these in- dependent elements. Arrangement — Natural Order. 93 LESSOU il ARRANGEMENT— NATURAL ORDER. To the Teacher.— \i^ from lack of time or from the necesBity of conforming to a presicriberi course of study, it ii* found desirable to abridge these Lessons on Arrange- ment and Contraction, the exercises to be written may be omitted, the pupil may be re- quired to name and illustrate the positions of the different parts, in both the Natural and the Transposed order, and then to read the examples given, making the required changes orally. The eight following Lessons may thus be reduced to two. Let us recall the Natural Order of words and phrases in a simple declarative sentence. The verb follows the subject, and the object complement follows the verb. Mtcatnple.— Drake circumnavigated the glohe. Direction. — Observing this order, write three sentences each mth am, abject complement. An adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun, and an explanatory modifier follows it. Examples— Man^s life is a hrief span. Moses, the lawgiver, came down from the Mount. Direction. — Observing this order, write four sentences, two with pos- sessive modifiers and two with explanatory, each sentence containing a/n adjective. The attribute complement, whether noun or adjective, follows the verb, the objective complement follows the object complement, and the so-called indirect object precedes the direct. Examples.— ^gYV^ *'* ^^^ valley of the Nile. Eastern life is dreamy. They made Bonaparte consul. They offered Ccesar a crovm. Direction. — Observing this order, write four sentences illustrating the positions of the noun and the adjective when they perform these offices. If adjectives are of unequal rank, the one most closely modifying the noun stands nearest to it ; if of the same 94 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. rank, they stand in the order of their length — the shortest first. Mxamples.-^Two honest young men enlisted. Cassius has a lean and hungry look. A rock, huge smd. precipitous, stood in our path. "Direction.— Oiserving this order, write three sentences illustrating the relative position of adjeetives before and after the noun. An adverb precedes the adjective, adverb, or phrase which it modifies ; precedes or follows (more frequently follows) the simple verb or the verb with its complement ; and follows one or more words of the verb if the verb is compound. :Exaniples.— The light far in the distance is so very bright. I soon found him. I hurt him badly. He had often been there. Direction. — Observing this order, write sentences illustrating these several positions of the adverb. Phrases follow the words they modify ; if a word has two or more phrases, those most closely modifying it stand nearest to it. Excmipies.— Facts once established are facts forever. He saUed for Liverpool on Monday. Direction.— Observing this order, write sentences illustrating the po- rtions of participle and prepositional phrases. ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED ORDER. Introductory Hints. — The common and natural order, spoken of in the preceding Lesson, is not the only order admissible in an English sentence ; on the contrary, great freedom in the placing of words and phrases is sometimes allowable. Let the relation of the words be kept obvious and, consequently, the thought clear, and in poetry, in impassioned oratory, in excited speech of any kind, one may deviate widely from this order. Arrangement — Transposed Order. 95 One's meaning is never distributed evenly among his words ; more of it lies in some words than in others. Under the influence of strong feeling, one may use words out of their accustomed place, and, by thus attracting attention to them, give them additional importance to the reader or hearer. When any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of its usual place, appearing either at the front of the sentence or at the rear, we have what we may call the Transposed Order. I dare not venture to go down into the cabin — Venture to go down into the cabin I dare not. You shall die — Die you shall. Their names will forever live on tTie lips of the people — Their names loill, on the lips of the people, forever live. When the word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb, or the principal word of it, before the subject, we have the extreme example of the transposed order ; as, A yeomam, had he. Strange is the magic of a turban. The whole of a verb is not placed at the beginning of a de- clarative sentence except in poetry ; as. Flashed aU their sabres bare. To the Teacher,— Where, in our directions in these Lessons on Arrangement and Contraction, we say change, transpose, or restore, the pupils need not write the sen- tences. They should study them and be able to read them. Require them to show what the sentence has lost or gained in the change. Direction. — Change these senten^ees from the natural to the transposed order by moving words or phrases to the front, and explain the effect: — 1. He could not avoid it. 8. He ended his tale here. 2. They were pretty lads. 9. The moon shone bright. 3. The great Queen died in the 10. A frozen continent lies beyond year 1603. the sea. 4. He would not escape. 11. He was a contentious man. 5. I must go. 12. It stands written so. 6. She seemed young and sad. 13. Monmouth had never been ac- 7. He cried, "My son, my son I " cused of cowardice. Direction. — Change these sentences from the transposed order to the natural, and explain the effect : — 1. Him the Almighty Power 5. Slowly and sadly we laid him hurled headlong. down. 2. Volatile he was. 6. Once again we'll sleep secure. 3. Victories, indeed, they were. 7. This double oflce the participle 4. Of noble race the lady came. performs. 96 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 8. That gale I well remember. 12. To their will we must suc- 9. Churlish he often seemed. cumb. 10. One strong thing I find here 13. Him they hanged. below. 14. Freely ye have received. 11. Overhead I heard a murmur. Direction. — Write fiiae sentences, each mth one of t?ie following nouns or adjectives as a complement ; and jive, each with one of the adverbs or phrases as predicate modifier ; then transpose the ten with these same words moved to the front, and explain the effect : — Giant, character, happy, him, serene, often, in the market, long and deeply, then, under foot. Direction. — Transpose these sentences by placing the italicized words last, and note the effect : — 1. The clouds lowering upon our house are buried in the deep bosom of the ocean. 2. ^neas did bear from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder the old Anchises. 3. Such a heart beats in the breast of my people. 4. The great fire roared up the deep and wide chimney. Direction. — Change these to the natural order : — 1. No woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won. 2. Let a shroud, stripped from some privileged corpse, be, for its proper price, displayed. 3. An old clock, early one summer's morning, before the stirring of the family, suddenly stopped. 4. Treasures of gold and of silver are, in the deep bosom of the earth, concealed. 5. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable. Direction. — Write three sentences, each with the following noun or adjective or phrase in its natural place in the predicate, and then trans- pose, placing these words wherever they can properly go : — Mountains, glad, by and by. Arrangement — Transposed Order, 97 LESSOli Si. ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED ORDER. Direction. — Restore these sentences to their natural order hy moving the obfect complement and the verb to their usual places, and tell what is lost by the cliange : — 1. Thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth. 2. "Exactly so," replied the pendulum. 3. Me restored he to mine office. 4. A changed France have we. 5. These evils hath sin wrought. Direction. — Transpose these sentences by moving the object complement and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change : — 1. The dial-plate exclaimed, " Lazy wire I " 2. The maiden has such charms. 3. The English character has faults and plenty of them. 4. I will make one effort more to save you. 5. The king does possess great power. 6. You have learned much in this short journey. Direction. — Write six transposed sentences with these nouns as obfect complements, and then restore them to their neural order : — Pause, cry, peace, horse, words, gift. Direction. — Restore these sentences to their natural order by moving the attribute complement and verb to their usual places, and tell what is lost by the change : — 1. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 2. Feet was I to the lame. 3. A mighty man is he. 4. As a mark of respect was the present given, 5. A giant towered he among men. Direction.— Transpose tJiese sentences by moving the attribute complex ment and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change : — 1. We are merry brides. 7 98 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 2. Washington is styled the ** Father of his Country." 3. He was a stark mosstrooping Scot. 4. The man seemed an incarnate demon. 5. Henry VIII. had become a despot. Direction. — Vsing these nouns as attribute complements, write three sentences in the natural order, and then transpose them : — Rock, desert, fortress. Direction. — Restore these sentences to their natural order hy moving the adjective complement and verb to their usual places : — 1. Happy are we to-night, boys. 7. Blood-red became the sun. 2. Good and upright is the Lord. 8. Doubtful seemed the battle. 3. Hotter grew the air. 9. Wise are all his ways. 4. Pale looks your Grace. 10. Wide open stood the doors. 5. Dark rolled the waves. 11. Weary had he grown. 6. Louder waxed the applause. 12. Faithful proved he to the last. Direction. — Transpose these sentences hy moving the adjective complex ment and the verb :: — 1. My regrets were bitter and unavailing, 2. The anger of the righteous is weighty. 3. The air seemed deep and dark. 4. She had grown tall and queenly. 5. The peacemakers are blessed. 6. I came into the world helpless. 7. The untrodden snow lay bloodless. 8. The fall of that house was great. 9. The uproar became intolerable. 10. The secretary stood alone. Direction. — Write Jive transposed sentences, each with one of these adjectives as attribute complement, and then restore them to the natural order : — Tempestuous, huge, glorious, lively, fierce. Arrangement — Transposed Order. 99 LESSOli 14, ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED ORDER. Direction. — Restore these sentences to the natural order hy moving the adverb and verb to their usual places^ and note the loss : — 8. Off went his bonnet. 9. Well have ye judged. 10. On swept the lines. 11. There dozed the donkeys. 12. Boom ! boom ! went the guns. 13. Thus waned the afteraoon. 14. There thunders the cataract age after age. 1. Then burst his mighty heart. 2. Here stands the man. 3. Crack ! went the ropes. 4. Down came the masts. 5. So died the great Columbus of the skies. G. Tictac ! tictac ! go the wheels of thought. 7. Away went Gilpin. Direction. — Transpose these sentenxiea by moving the adverb and the verb : — 1. I will never desert Mr. Micaw- ber. 2. The great event occurred soon after. 3. The boy stood there with dizzy brain. 4. The Spaniard's shot went whing! whingi 5. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin. Direction. — Write ten sentences in the transposed order, using tliese adverbs : — Still, here, now, so, seldom, there, out, yet, thus, never. Direction. — Restore these sentences to the natural order by moving the phrase and the verb to their usual places, and note the loss : — 1. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 3. Into the valley of death rode the 2. Seven years after the Restoration six hundred. appeared Paradise Lost. 4. To such straits is a kaiser driven. 6. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 7. It stands written so. 8. Venus was yet the morning star. 9. You must speak thus. 10. Lady Impudence goes up to the maid. 11. Thy proud waves shall be stayed here. :oo The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, 5. Upon such a grating hinge opened the door of his daily life. 6. In purple was she robed. 7. Between them lay a mountain ridge. 8. Near the surface are found the implements of bronze. 9. Through the narrow bazaar pressed the demure donkeys. 10. In those days came John the Baptist. 11. On the 17th of June, 1775, was fought the Battle of Bunker Hill. 13. Three times were the Romans driven back. Transpose these sentences hy moving the phrase and the Direction •verb : — 1. The disciples came at the same 6. time. 2. The dreamy murmur of insects 7. was heard over our heads. 8. 3. An ancient and stately hall stood near the village. 9. 4. His trusty sword lay by his side. 5. Pepin eventually succeeded to 10. The house stands somewhat back from the street. Our sphere turns on its axis. The bridle is red with the sign of despair. I have served in twenty cam- paigns. Touch proper lies in the finger- tips and in the lips. Charles Martel. Direction. — Write ten sentences in the natural order, using these prep- ositions to introduce phrases, and then transpose them, and compare the two orders : — Beyond, upon, toward, of, by, into, between, in, at, to. Direction. — Write six sentences in the transposed order, beginning them with these words : — There (independent), nor, neither. LEii©l ii« ARRANGEMENT— INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. If the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, the order is natural. Arrangement — Interrogative Sentences. loi Examples — Who came last evening ? What star shines brightest ? Direction. — Write five interrogative sentences, using the first word below a>s a subject ; the second as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject ; the third as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject : — Who, which, what. If the interrogative word is object or attribute complement or a modifier of either, the order is transposed. Examples — Whom did you see ? What are personal consequences f Which course wiU you choose ? Direction.— Write an interrogative sentence with the first word below as object complement, and another with the second word as attribute com- plement. Write four with the third and the fourth as complements, and four with the third and the fourth as modifiers of the complement : — Whom, who, which, what. If the interrogative word is an adverb, the order is trans- Exampies.— Why is the forum crowded ? Where a/re the flowers, the fair young flowers ? Direction. — Write five interrogative sentences, using these adverbs : — How, when, where, whither, why. If there is no interrogative word, the subject stands after the verb when this is simple ; after the first word of it when it is compound. Examples — Have you your lesson ? Has the gentleman finished ? Direction. — Write six interrogative sentences, using these verbs : — Is, has, can learn, might have gone, could have been found, must see. Direction. — Change the sentences you ha/ve written in this Lesson into declarative sentences. 102 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, tESiOH S§, ARRANGEMENT— IMPERATIVE AND EX- CLAMATORY SENTENCES. The subject is usually omitted in the imperative sentence ; but, when it is expressed, the sentence is in the transposed order. Examples.— Praise ye the Lord. Qiw {thou) me three grains of com. Direction. — Using these verbs, write ten sentences, in five of which the subject shall be omitted; and in five, expressed : — Remember, listen, lend, love, live, choose, use, obey, strive, devote. Although any sentence may without change of order be- come exclamatory (Lesson 46), yet exclamatory sentences ordinarily begin with how or what, and are usually in the transposed order. Examples.— How quietly the child sleeps ! How excellent is thy loving kindness I What visions have I seen ! What a life his was ! Direction. — Write s^ exclamatory sentences with the word how mod- ifying (1) an adjective, (2) a verb, and (3) an adverb— in three sentences let the verb follow, and in three precede, the subject. Write four sentences with the word what modifying (1) an object complement and (2) an at- tribute complement — in two sentences det the verb follow, and in two pre- cede, the subject. ♦ tm%m s?. CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. Direction. — Contract these sentences by omitting the repeated modifiers and prepositions, and oil the conjunctions except the last : — 1. Webster was a great lawyer, a great statesman, a great debater, and a great writer. 3. By their valor, by their policy, and by their matrimonial alliances, they became powerful. Contraction of Sentences, 103 8. Saml. Adams's habits were simple and frugal and unostentatious. 4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental ! 5. They are truly prosperous and truly happy. 6. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remonstrance^ and resolutions and defiance. 7. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of nations. Direction. — Expand these hy repeating the adjecti'oe, the adverb, the preposition, and the conjunction : — 1. He was a good son, father, brother, friend. 2. The tourist traveled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine. 3. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous. 4. Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart. Direction. — Write eight sentences, each with one of these words used four times ; and then contract them, as a^ove, and note the effect of the repetition and omission : — Poor, colossal, how, thus, with, through, or, and. Direction. — Expand these sentences by supplying subjects : — 1. Give us this day our daily bread. 5. Where hast been these six 2. Why dost stare so ? months ? 3. Thank you, sir. 6. Bless me I 4. Hear me for my cause. 7. Save us. Direction. — Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of it : — 1. Nobody there. 6. Short, indeed, his career. 2. Death to the tyrant. 7. When Adam thus to Eve. 3. All aboard ! 8. I must after him. 4. All hands to the pumps I 9. Thou shalt back to France. 5. What to me fame? 10. Whose footsteps these ? Direction. — Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and note the loss in vivacity : — 1. Upon them with the lance. 6. Off with you. 2. At your service, sir. 7. My kingdom for a horse I 3. Why so unkind ? 8. Hence, you idle creatures I 4. Forward, the light brigade I 9. Coffee for two. 5. Half-past nine. 10. Shine, sir ? 104 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, 11. Back to thy punishment, false 14. Once more unto the breach. fugitive. 15. Away, away I 12. On with the dance. 16. Impossible! 13. Strange, strange I Direction. — Contract these ly omitting the subject or the verb : — 1. Art thou gone? 6. How great is the mystery I 2. Will you take your chance? 7. Canst thou wonder ? 3. His career was ably run. 8. May a prosperous voyage be to 4. Are you a captain? you. 5. May long life be to the republic. 9. Are you here? Direction. — Contract these hy omitting both subject and verb, and note tTie gain in force and animation : — 1. I offer a world for sale. 7. It is true, sir. 2. Now, then, go you to breakfast. 8. We will drink a health to Pre- 3. Sit you down, soothless in- ciosa. suiter. 9. I offer a penny for your 4. I want a word with you, wife. thoughts. 5. Those are my sentiments, ma- 10. Whither are you going so dam. early? 6. Bring ye lights there. Direction. — Construct ten full sentences, using, in each, one of these adverbs or phrases or nouns, and then contract them by omitting both subject and verb : — Why, hence, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peaches, room, for the guns, water. — * — LESSOli IS. REVIEW. To the Teacher,— See suggestions, Lesson 16. Direction. — Review from Lesson^! to Lesson 57, inclusive. Illustrate the different positions — Natural and Transposed — that the words and phrases of a declarative sentence may take; illustrate the different positions of the parts of an interrogative, an imperative, and an exclamatory sentence ; illustrate the different ways of contracting sentences. Complex Sentence — Adjective Clause. 105 LESSOR id. COMPLEX SENTENCE— ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. Introductory Hints. — A discreet yovih makes friends. In Lesson 17 you learned that you could expand the adjective discreet into a phrase, and say, A youth of discretion maiies friends. You are now to learn that you can expand it into an expression that asserts, and say, A youth tTiat is discreet makes friends. This part of the sentence and the other, A youth makes friends, containing each a subject and a predicate, we call Clauses. The adjective clause that is discreet, performing the office of a single word, we call a Dependent Clause, and A youth makes friends, not performing such office, we call an Independent Clause. The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent clause, we call a Complex Sentence. Analysis and Parsing. 1. They that touch pitch will be defiled. TTiey . wUl be defiled JSxplanation.— The relative Importance of the two clauses is shown by their position, by \ their connection, and by the difference in the t7iat\ touch rtitch shading of the lines. The pronoun that is writ- H — ten on the subject line of the dependent clause. TTiat performs the oflace of a conjunction also. This oflBce is shown by the dotted line. As modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that that touch pitch is a modifier of they. Oral Analysis.— This is a complex sentence, because it consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause. They wUl be defiled is the independent clause, and that touch pitch is the dependent. Thai touch pitch is a modifier of they, because it limits its meaning ; the de- pendent clause is connected by its subject that to they. io6 The Sentence aitd the Parts of Speech. To the Teacher —Illustrate the connecting force of who, which, and (hat by substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting the loss of connec- tion. 3. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press. 3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his habits. Explanation. — The adjective clause does not always modify the subject. 4. Photography is the art which enables common-place mediocrity to look like genius. 5. In 1685, Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict of Nantes. 6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which Samuel Adams framed. Explanation. — The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always a subject. 7. The guilt of the slave-trade, which sprang out of the traflBc with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins. I ^ found I ' ^ace ^ g^ j ^^^^^ ^^^ pj^^^ ^^ ^j^.^j^ ^^^ ^^_ V \ f erred. you referred \ ^' "^^^ spirit in which we act is the ' \ \ highest matter. \ wMeh\ ^^' ^^ ^^^ *^^ same book that I re- ^ ^ ferred to. Explanation. — The phrase to that modifies referred. That connects the adjective clause. When the pronoun tliat connects an adjective clause, the preposition never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8). 11. She that I spoke to was blind. 12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him. Explanation. — A preposition is wanting. That = in which, 13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. Adjective Clauses — Continued. 107 14. It is to you that I speak. Explanation. — Here the preposition, which naturally would stand last in the sentence, is found before the complement of the independent clause. In analysis restore the preposition to its natural place — It is you that I speak to. That I speak to modifies the subject. 15. It was from me that he received the information. {Me must be changed to / when/rom is restored to its natural position.) mountains 16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base \ . is in the bed of the ocean. \ \^ I Explanation. — The connecting pronoun is here a ^ possessive modifier of base. 17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers in- teresting. I.E1 /0~ ^ 1. Trillions of ADJECTIVE CLAUSES— CONTINUED. Analysis. waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in the time you take to breathe. Explanation. — The connecting pronoun is omitted. Supply that. ' 2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he works on. 3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth. Explanation. — The adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent of whom. Supply him. 5. He did what was right. ■■ {*', JBxplanation.—lihe adjective clause modifies the omitted word thing, or some word whose meaning is general or what \ . was ^ rkjht indefinite.* * Manj'^ grammarians prefer to treat what was right as a noun clause (see Les8< n 71), the object of did. They would treat in the same way clauses introduced by whoever, whatever, whichever. " What was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses. Its upe I08 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, 6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of show. 7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived. 8. What men he had were true. Explanation. — Men is here taken from its natural position before what, and placed after it, as if the relative were an adjective. In analy- sis restore men to its place— J!fe?i what (= thafj he had were true. 9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled. Explanation. — The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject {man or he) of the independent clause. ..^.lO. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest, 11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. 12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited. depot . is V nlace Explanation.— T!\iQ lin6 repre- W ' V \ senting where is made up of two \^ parts ; the upper part, representing ^ wJiere as a conjunction, connects . stores j\are depoidted ^^e adjective clause to place; and the lower part, representing it as an adverb, modifies are deposi^e^?. As where performs these two offices, it may be called a conjmictive adverb. By chang- ing where to the equivalent phrase in whic/i, and using a diagram similar to (8), Lesson 59, the double nature of the conjunctive adverb will be seen. 13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. (Su^^lj the place hetore where.) 14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing suit against Antonio. >. 16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the opera- tions of the universe are conducted. as a compound relative is an extension of its nse as an indirect interrogative ; it is confined to clauses which may be parsed as substantives, and before which no ante- cedent is needed, or permitted to be esprcssed. Its possessive whose has, however, attained the full construction of a relative."— iVcj^. jF. A. March. Composition — Adjective Clause. 109 LEii§ll %\. COMPOSITION— ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. COMMA— RULE.— The ^<(/ecfit;e Clause^ when not restrictive, is set ofiF by the comma. Explanation. — I picked the apple that was ripe. I picked the apple, which was ripe. In the first sentence the adjective clause restricts or limits apple, telling which one was picked ; in the second the adjective clause is added merely to describe the apple picked, being nearly equiv- alent to, I picked the apple, and it was ripe. This difference in mean- ing is shown by the punctuation. Caution,— T]iQ adjective clause should be placed as near as possible to the word it modifies. Direction. — Correct the following errors of position, and insert the comma ivhen needed : — 1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the/feign of King Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits. 2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. 3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm which we had for breakfast. 4. You have no right to decide who are interested. Direction. — Construct Jive complex sentences, each containing an ad- jective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives : — Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable. Direction. — Change the following simple sentences into complex sen' tences by expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses :-^ 1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. 2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of our liberties. . 1 10 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 3. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the night. 4. Some people, having lived abroad^ undervalue the advantages of their native land. 5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphan- age, have knelt at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate Chamber. / j) ^Direction. — Change, these simple sentences to complex sentences hy ex- ^ panding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses : — 1. I have many things to tell you. 2. There were none to deliver. 3. He had an ax to grind. 4. It was a sight to gladden the heart. 5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear. Direction. — Form complex senten^ces in which these pronouns and con- junctive adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses : — Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever. When, where, and why. Direction. — Change that which in the following sentences to what, and what to that which; whoever to he who, and whatever to anything or everything which; where and when to at, on, or in which ; wherein to in which; and whereby to by which : — 1. That which is seen is temporal. 2. What God hath joined together let not man put asunder. 3. Whoever lives a pious life blesses his race. 4. Whatever we do has an influence. 5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands en the very spot where brave men died. 6. The year when Chaucer was born is uncertain. 7. The play's the thing wherein I'll catch the conscience of the king. 8. You take my life in taking the means whereby I live. Complex Sentence — Adverb Clause. iii Direction. — Expcmd these possessive and explanatory modifiers into adjective da/uses : — 1. A man's heart deviseth his way. 2. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense. Lie in three words — ?ieal.th, peaee^ and competence. LESSOM @a. Direction. — Analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding Lesson^ and icrite iUKstrative sentences as here directed : — Give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject; one modifying a complement; one modifying the principal word of a phrase; one modifying some word omitted; one the connective of which is a subject; one whose connective is a complement; one whose connective is the principal word of a phrase ; one whose connective is a possessive modifier ; one whose connective is omitted ; one whose con- nective is an adverb. LESSON @3. COMPLEX SENTENCE— ADVERB CLAUSE. Introductory Hints. — He arrived late. You have learned that you could expand the adverb late into a phrase, and say, He arrived at midnight. You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of Time, and say. He arrived when the clock struck ticelve. He stood where lam. The adverb clause, introduced by wliere, is a clause of Place, and is equivalent to the adverb A^re or to the phrase i» this place. This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant. The adverb clause, in- troduced hj as ... as, modifies profitable, telling the Degree of the quality expressed by it. 112 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Analysis and Parsing. The adverb clause may express time. 1. When pleasure calls, we listen. we listen Bxplanation, — W?ien modifies both listen and calls, ' 'T denoting that the two actions take place at the sam© •^ time. It also connects pleasure calls, as an adverb y modifier, to listen. The offices of the conjunctive pleasure J\ calls ^^^^^^ ^j^^^ ^^^ -^^ better understood by expand- ing it into two phrases thus : We listen at tJve time at which pleasure calls. At the tirne modifies listen, at which modifies calls, and which connects. The line representing wfi£n is made up of three parts to picture these three oflices. The part representing it as a modifier of calls is, for convenience, placed above its principal line instead of below it. 2. "While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war. 3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then the Lord will take me up. Lord I will take i rne 1 \ V^ Explanation..— "Ej changing then into \A\ at the time, and wh£n into at which, the of- father ' \^ fi^es of these two words will be clearly \^ !s \ \f(yrsdke \ me seen. For explanation of the line repre- motTher > sentingwAeri, see Lesson 14 and (1) above. 4. Cato, before* he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the night in reading " Plato's Immortality." 5. Many f a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave. Explanation. — Many here modifies year, or, rather, year as modified by a. 6. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was meeting the last onslaught of Napoleon. * Some prefer, in constructions like this, to treat before, ere, after, till, until, and since as prepositions followed by noun clauses, t See foot-note p. 76. Complex Sentence — Adverb Clause, 113 Bliix^h^ I arnved Explanation.— Just may be treated as a modifier of the de- pendent clause. A closer aual- WeUington \ was meeting , mslaught ^^i^' Ixowever, would make it ' 1"^ a modifier of as. Just as = just at the time at which. Just here modifies at the time. At the time is represented in the diagram by the first element of the as line. The adverb clause may express place, 7. Where the snow falls, there is freedom. 8. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever he could find it. 9. The wind bloweth where it listeth. The adverb clause may express degree, 10. Washington was as good as he was great. Explanation. — The adverb clause as lie was great modifies the first as, which is an adverb modifying good. The first as, modified by the adverb clause, answers the question, Good to what extent or degree ? The second as modifies great and performs the oflBce of a conjunction, and is, therefore, a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding as . . . as into two phrases, we have, Washington was good in the degree in which he was great. See diagram of (3). 11. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. Explanation. — The words the . . . the are similar in office to as . . . as — He became humbler in that degree in which he became wiser. 12. Gold is heavier than iron. Gold I is \ heavier Explanation. — Heavier = heavy beyond the \ degree, and than = in which. The sentence = '% G'oZd is h£avy beyond the degree in which iron is \ heavy. Is and heavy are omitted. Frequently 1 '^ ^^ words are omitted after than and as. Than modifies heavy (understood) and connects the clause expressing degree to heavier, and is, therefore, a conjunctive adverb. 8 1 14 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, 13. To be right is better than to be president. Explanation. — To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be president (would be good). 14. It was so cold that the mercury froze.* Explanation. — The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it produced. The adverb so, modified by the adverb clause that the mer- cury froze, answers the question, Cold to what degree ? The sentence = It was cold to that degree in which the mercury froze. Thatj as you see, modifies froze and connects the clauses ; it is, therefore, a conjunc- tive adverb. 15. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury. Explanation. — It was so cold as to freeze the mercury would indicate or require ; or. It was as cold as it would he to freeze the mercury. This phrase may be resolved into the clause that the mercury froze. 16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for it. T like it ^'^' ^^ called so loud that all the hollow deep of ' \-\ CLASSES OF NOUNS AND PRONOU'NS. Introductory Hints. — ^You have now reached a point where it be- comes necessary to divide the eight great classes of words into sub- classes. You have learned that nouns are the names of things ; as, girlf Sarah, The name girl is held in common by all girls, and so does not dis- tinguish one girl from another. The name Sarah is not thus held in common ; it does distinguish one girl from other girls. Any name which belongs in common to all things of a class we call a Common Noun ; and any particular name of an individual, distinguishing this individual from others of its class, we call a Proper Noun. The ** proper, or individual, names " which in Rule 1, Lesson 8, you were told to begin with capital letters are proper nouns. Such a word as wheats musicy or a/rchitecture does not distinguish one thing from others of its class ; there is but one thing in the class de- noted by each, each thing forms a class by itself ; and so we call these words common nouns. In Lesson 8 you learned that pronouns are not names, but words used instead of names. Any one speaking of himself may use J, myy etc., instead of his own name ; speaking to one, he may use you, thou^.your, thy, etc., instead of that person's name ; speaking of one, he may use he, she, it, him, her, etc., instead of that one's name. These little words that by their form denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of are called Personal Pronouns. By adding self to my, tJiy, your, him, her, and it, and selves to our, your, and them, we form what are called Compound Personal Pro- nouns, used either for emphasis or to reflect the action of the verb back 150 Parts of Speech Subdivided. upon the actor ; as, Xerxes Jdmselfy^&s the last to cross the Hellespont; The mind cannot see itself. If the speaker wishes to modify a noun, or some word or words used like a noun, by a clause, he introduces the clause by who, wMchy what, or tliat ; as, I know the man that did that. These words, relating to words in another clause, and binding the clauses together, are called Relative Pronouns. By adding emr and soe'Qer to who, whicht and what, we form what are called the Compound Relative Pronouns whoever, whosoever, whichever, whatever, etc., used in a general way, and without any word expressed to which they relate. If the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and asks for it, he uses who, which, or what; a^, Who did that ? These pro- nouns, used in asking questions, are called Interrogative Pronouns. Instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words pointing them out as near or remote ; as, Is that * a man ? What is this? or telling something of their number, order, or quantity ; as, None are perfect ; The latter will do ; Much has been done. Such words we call Adjective Pronouns. DEFINITIONS. A Noun is the name of anything. A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class. A Proper Noun is the particular name of an indiyidual. Remark. — It may be well to note two classes of common nouns — collective and abstract. A Collective Noun is the name of a number of things taken together ; as, arm^, flock, mob, jury. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, an action, a being, or a state ; as, white- ness, beauty, wisdom, (the) singing, movement, (the) sleep. * Such words as this and that may be called demonstrative pronouns ; and such words as none, latter, and much, ind^nite pronouns. "The difference between nouns and pronouns starts from the roots. Common substantives and adjectives are formed from verbal roots, and denote quality and attributes. Pronominal roots denote relations, and from them are formed those sub- stantive and adjective words which indicate things by their relations. The demon- strative roots are the most important of all."— i^'of. F. A. March. Classes of Nouns and Pronouns. 151 A IPronoun is a word used for a noun.* A Personal Pronoun is one that, by its form, denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. A Belative Pronoun is one that relates to some preceding word or words, and connects clauses. An Interrogative Pronoun is one with which a question is asked. An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of both an adjectiye and a noun. The simple personal pronouns are : — /, t7u>u, you, he, she, and it. The compound personal pronouns are : — Myself, thyself, yourself himself, herself, and itself. The simple relative pronouns are : — Who, which, j; that, and wMt.X The compound relative pronouns are : — Whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, wTuvtever or what- soever. The interrogative pronouns are : — WTw, which, and what. * In our definition and general treatment of the pronoun, we have conformed to the traditional views of grammarians ; but it may be well for the student to note that pronouns are something more than mere substitutes for nouns, and that their primary function is not to prevent the repetition of nouns. Unlike common nouns, which denote things by their qualities, pronouns denote things by their relations. In the sentence *' /will help yow," /and you mark the re- lations of the persons to the act of speaking, /denoting the person fpeaJdng and you the one spoken to — a function that does not belong to nouns. The relation of the clauses in the sentence "Whales are the largest animals that swim " cannot be expressed by a noun, nor even by a noun and a conjunction. In the sentence " What did you say ? " the speaker finds ivhat something more than a substitute for a noun. t W/iich, retaining its oflBce as connective, may accompany its noun as an adjective; as, " I gave him definite instruction, which instruction he has followed." t As, in such sentences as this : Grive stich things as you can spare, may be treated as a relative pronoun. But by expanding the sentence as is seen to be a conjunctive adverb—Give such things as those are which you can sptire. 152 Parts of Speech Subdivided. Some of the more common adjective pronouns are : — All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, little, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, that, these, this, those, whole, etc.* The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pro- noun is used is called an Antecedent. Direction. — Point out the 'pronouns and their antecedents in these sentences : — Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met him. To lie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and his companions were fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To He is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body. Who f (or whose and whom), which, and what are inter- rogative pronouns when the sentence or clause in which they stand asks a question directly or indirectly ; they are rel- atives when they connect adjective clauses. Direction. — Analyze these sentences, and parse all the pronouns : — 1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. I myself know who stole my purse. 3. They knew whose house was robbed. 4. He heard what was said. 5. You have guessed which belongs to me. 6. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad. 7. What was said, and who said it ? 8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. 9. She saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. 10. Whatever is done must be done quickly. * But for the fact that such words as brave, good, etc., in the phrases the brave, tk« good, etc., describe — which pronouns never do— we might call them adjective pro- nouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives modifying nouns to be supplied. The is not always used with these adjectives ; as, for better or worse, in general, at random, in vain, in particular. Some adjectives preceded by the are abstract nouns ; as, the grand, the sublime, the beautiful. + See Lessons 60, 61, and 71, for further treatment of these words. Construction of Pronouns. 153 LESSOR Si« CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. To the Teacher.— In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for correction, the pupils' books should be closed, and the examples should be read by you. To insure care in preparation and close attention in the class, read some of the examples in their correct form. Require specific reasons. Caution.— Aroid he, it, they, or any other pronoun when its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast the sentence. Direction. — Study tlie Caution, and relieve these sentences of their ambiguity : — Model.— HhQ lad cannot leave his father ; for, if he should leave him, he would die = The lad cannot le^ve his father ; for, if he should leave Ms father, his father would die. Lysias promised his father never to abandon ^w friends = Lysias gave his father this promise : "I will never abandon your (or my) friends." 1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the bookseller, he told him it was a dry subject. 2. He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought be had better go home. (This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what you may suppose were the speaker's words.) 3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not, because he was so short. 4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by a letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted. 5. The farmer told the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it was but fair that he should pay him for his loss. Caution, — Do not use pronouns needlessly. Direction. — Write these sentences, omitting needless pronouns :~- 1. It isn't true what he said. 2. The father he died, the mother she f6llowed, and the children they were taken sick. 3. The cat it mewed, 1 54 Parts of Speech Subdivided. and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 4. Let every one turn from his or her evil ways. 5. Napoleon, Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English. Caution, — In addressing one, do not, in the same sen- tence, use the two styles of the pronoun. Direction. — Study the Caution^ and correct these errors : — 1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news ? 2. You cannot always have thy way. 3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 4. Love thyself last, and others will love you. Caution, — The pronoun them should not be used for the adjective those, or the pronoun what for the conjunction that. Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 1. Hand me them things. 2. Who knows but what we may fail ? 3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again. 4. We ought to have a great regard for them that are wise and good. Caution.— The relative who should always represent persons ; which, brute animals and inanimate things ; that, persons, animals, and things ; and what, things. The ante- cedent of what should not be expressed. Direction.— /S^ifw^Zy the Caution, and correct these errors : — 1. Those which say so are mistaken. 2. He has some friends which 1 know. 3. He told that what he knew. 4. The dog who was called Fido went mad. 5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke loose. 6. All what he saw he described. 7. The horse whom Alexander rode was named Bucephalus. Direction.— Wrii^ correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions* Construction of Pronouns — Continued. 155 LESSOR SF. CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS— CONTINUED. Ca^^fion.— Several connected relative clauses relating to the same antecedent require the same relative pronoun. Direction. — Study the Caution^ and correct these errors : — 1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became gOTernor of the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine. 2. He who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not forget him. 3. This is the horse which started first, and that reached the stand last. 4. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was the first mate. Caution.— When the relative clause is not restrictive, and could be introduced by and he, and it, and they, etc., who or which, and not that, is generally used. ^Example. — Water, w7iieh (= and it) is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, covers three fourths of the earth's surface. Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound of oxygen and nitrogen. 3. Longfellow, that is the most popular Ameri- can poet, has written beautiful prose. 3. Time, that is a precious gift, should not be wasted. 4. Man, that is bom of woman, is of few days and full of trouble. Caution. — The relative that * should be used instead of 2vho or which (1) when the antecedent names both persons and things ; (2) when it would prevent ambiguity ; and (3) when it would sound better than who or which, e. g,, after * Some grammarians claim that the relative that should always be used in restrictive clauses instead of wJio or which ; others say that usually it should be. But all admU that modern writers do not observe this distinction. 156 Parts of Speech Subdivided. same, very, all, the interrogative who, the indefinite it, and adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree. i-'ajamjpie.— He lived near a pond that was a nuisance. {That relates to pond — the pond was a nuisance. Which might have, for its ante- cedent, pond, or the whole clause He lived near a pond ; and so its use here would be ambiguous.) Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors :— 1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes. 2. The chief material which is used now in building is brick. 3. Who who saw him did not pity him ? 4. He is the very man whom we want. 5. He is the same who he has ever been. 6. He sent his boy to a school which did him good. 7. All who knew him respected him. 8. It was not 1 who did it. Catition,— The relative clause should be placed as near as possible to the word which it modifies. Direction. — Correct these errors : — 1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent. 2. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 3. A dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar. 4. A purse was picked up by a boy that was made of leather. 5. Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man. 6. He should not keep a horse that cannot ride. Caution.— When this and that, these and those, the one and the other refer to things previously mentioned, this and these refer to the last mentioned, and that and those to the first mentioned ; the one refers to the first mentioned, and the other to the last mentioned. (Obscurity is often pre- vented by a repetition of the words referred to. ) Examples.— High and tall are synonyms : this may be used in speak- ing of what grows — a tree ; that in speaking of what does not grow — a mountain. Homer was a genius, Yirgil an artist : in t?ie one we most admire the man ; in the other, the work. Construction of Pronouns — Continued. 157 Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar ; tact, triumphantly : this is complimented by the bench ; that gets the fees. 2. Charles XII. and Peter the Great were sovereigns : the one was loved by his people ; the other was hated. 3. The selfish and the benevolent are found in every community ; these are shunned, while those are sought after. Direction.— TFn^e correct sentences illustrating eury point in these five Cautions, LESSOR 8S. CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS— CONTINUED. Miscellaneous Ebbobs. Direction. — Two of the sentences below are correct. Give the Cautions which the other sentences violate, and correct the errors ;— 1. He who does all which he can does enough. 2. John's father died before he was bom. 3. Whales are the largest animals which swim. 4. Boys who study hard, and that study wisely make progress. 5. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the light. 6. He did that what was right. 7. General Lee, that served under Washington, had been a British officer- 8. A man should sit down and count the cost who is about to build a house. 9. They need no spec- tacles that are blind. 10. They buy no books who are not able to read. 11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth. 12. Cotton, which is a plant, is woven into cloth. 13. There is no book which, when we look through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in it. 14. The re- porter which said that was deceived. 15. The diamond, that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 16. The brakemen and the cattle which were on the train were killed. 17. Reputation and character do not mean the same thing : the one denotes what we are ; the other, what we are thought to be. 18. Kosciusko, having come to this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary struggle. 19. What pleased me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the general appearance of the 158 Parts of Speech Subdivided. class. 20. There are many boys whose fathers and mothers died when they were infants. 21. One does not know but that the future has these things in store for him. 22. Shall you be able to sell them boots? 23. I don't know but what I may. 24. Beer and wine are favorite drinks abroad : the one is made from grapes ; the other from barley. 25. There is one marked difference between shiners and trout ; these have scales, and those have not. 26. All the means that grace display which drew the wondrous plan. 27. Help thyself, and Heaven will help you. LESSOU S©» CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. Introductory Hints. — You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the sentences Ripe apples are Tiealthfuly Unripe apples are hurtful^ the adjectives ripe and unripe limit, or narrow, the application of apples by describ- ing, or by expressing certain qualities of the fruit. You learned, also, that the, this, an, no, some, and many limit, or narrow, the application of any noun which they modify, as apple or apples, by pointing out the particular fruit, by numbering it, or by denoting the quantity of it. Adjectives which limit by expressing quality are called Descriptive Adjectives ; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering, or de- noting quantity are called Definitive Adjectives. Adjectives modifying a noun do not limit, or narrow, its application (1) when they denote qualities that always belong to the thing named; as, yellow gold, the good God, the blue sky ; or (2) when they are attri- bute complements, denoting qualities asserted by the verb; as. The fields were green ; The ground was dry and hard. DEFINITIONS. An Adjective Is a word used to modify a nonn or a pronoun. A Descriptive Adjective is one that limits by expressing quality. A Definitive Adjective is one that limits by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity. Construction of Adjectives, 159 The definitive adjectives an or a and tJie are commonly called Articles, A noun may take the place of an adjective. XJxampies. — London journals, the New York press, silver spoons, diamond pin, state papers, gold bracelet. Direction. — Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives below, and name such as do not limit : — Able statesmen, much rain, ten mice, brass kettle, small grains, Man- sard roof, some feeling, all men, hundredth anniversary, the Pitt dia- mond, the patient Hannibal, little thread, crushing argument, moving spectacle, the martyr president, tin pans, eyes are bright, few people, less trouble, this toy, any book, brave Washington, Washington market, three cats, slender cord, that libel, happy children, the huge clouds were dark and threatening, the broad Atlantic. Direction. — Point out the descriptive and the defi/nitive adjectives in Lessons 80 and 81, and tell whether they denote color, motion, shape, position, size, or moral qualities. LESSOil ©0. CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. Caution, — An and a are different forms of one. An is used before vowel sounds. For the sake of euphony, an drops 71 and becomes a before consonant sounds.* Examples. — An inkstand, a bag, a historian, a humble petition^ aw hour (h is silent), a unit {unit begins with the consonant sound of y), such a one {one begins with the consonant sound of w). * Some writers still use an before such words as historian, use, on/e ; but present usage favors a. i6o Parts of Speech Subdivided. Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — A heir, a inheritance, an hook, an ewer, an usurper, a account, an uniform, an hundred, a umpire, an hard apple, an hero. Caution,— An or a is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class — to any one. The is used to distinguish (1) one thing or several things from others, and (2) one class of things from other classes. Explanation.— We can say a horse, meaning any one horse ; but we cannot say A gold is heavy, This is a poor kind of a gas, William Pitt received the title of an earl ; because gold, gas, and earl are here meant to denote each the whole of a class, and a limits its noun to one thing of a class. The horse or the horses must be turned into the lot. Here the before horse distinguishes a certain animal, and the before horses, certain ani- mals, from others of the same class ; and the before lot distinguishes the field from the yard or the stable — things in other classes. The horse is a noble animal. Here the distinguishes this class of animals from other classes. But we cannot say, The man (meaning the race) is mortal, The anger is a short madness, The truth is eternal, The poetry and the painting are fine arts, because man, anger, truth, poetry, and painting are used in their widest sense, and name things that are suflQciently distinguished without the. Direction. — Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors : — 1. This is another kind of a sentence. 2. Churchill received the title of a duke. 3. A hill is from the same root as column. 4. Dog is a quadruped. 5. I expected some such an offer. 6. The woman is the equal of man. 7. The sculpture is a fine art. 8. Unicorn is kind of a rhinoceros. 9. Oak is harder than the maple. Caution, — Use an, a, or the before each of two or more connected adjectives, when these adjectives modify differ- ent nouns, expressed or understood ; but, when they modify the same noun, the article should not be repeated. Explanation. — A cotton and a silk umbrella means two umbrellas—' Construction of Adjectives. l6l one cotton and the other silk ; the word umbrella is understood after cotton. A cotton and silk umbrella means one umbrella partly cotton and partly silk ; cotton and silk modify the same nomi— umbrella. The wise and the good means two classes; the wise and good means one class. Direction. — Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors : — 1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. 2. The Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. 3. The right and left hand. 4. A Pull- man and Wagner sleeping-coach. 5. The fourth and the fifth vei-ses. 6. The fourth and fifth verse. 7. A Webster's and Worcester's dic- tionary. (7a wfion.— Repeat an, a, or the before connected nouns denoting things that are to be distinguished from each other or emphasized. THrection.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 1. There is a difference between the sin and sinner. 2. We criti- cise not the dress but address of the speaker. 3. A noun and pronoun are alike in oflice. 4. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and adverb. 5. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe. 6. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been reached. 7. The secretary and treasurer were both absent. {The secretary and treoMbrer was ofts^Ti^— referring to one person — is correct.) Caution, — A few and a little should be used when op- posed to none ; few when opposed to many ; and little when opposed to much. Examples. — He saved a few things and a little money from the wreck. Few shall part where many meet. Little was said or done about it. 'Direction.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 1. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy month. 2. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the 11 1 62 Parts of Speech Subdivided. night. 3. Few men live to be a hundred years old, but not many. 4. Little can be done, but not much. Direction. — Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these Cautions, Lm%m SI. CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES- CONTINUED. Cawfiow.— Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them needlessly ; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. Remark. — The following adjectives are obviously needless : Good virtues; verdant gYQQTi\ Jpa^w/w? toothache ; umbrageous sh&de. Direction. — Study the Caution carefully, and correct these errors ;— 1. It was splendid fun. 2. It was a tremendous dew. 3. He used less words than the other speaker. 4. The lad was neither docile nor teachable. 6. The belief in immortality is common and universal. 6. It was a gorgeous apple. 7. Tlie arm-chair was roomy and capa- cious. 8. It was a lovely bunn, but I paid a frightful price for it. Caution, — Place adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. If those forming a series are of different rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If they are of the same rank, place them where they will sound best — generally in the order of length — the shortest first. Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 1. A new bottle of wine. 2. The house was comfortable and large. 3. A salt barrel of pork. 4. It was a bJue soft beautiful sky. 5. A Classes of Verbs and Adverbs. 163 fried dish of bacon. 6. We saw in the distance a precipitous, barren, towering mountain. 7. Two gray fiery little eyes. 8. A docile and mild pupil. 9. A pupil, docile and mild. Direction. — Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these two Cautions. Miscellaneous Errors. Direction. — Two of the expressions below are correct. Give th^ Cautions which the others violate and correct the errors : — 1. I can bear the heat of summer, but not cold of winter. 2. The North and South Pole. 3. The eldest son of a duke is called "mar- quis." 4. He had deceived me, and so I had a little faith in him. 5, An old and young man. 6. A prodigious snow-ball hit my cheek. 7. The evil is intolerable and not to be borne. 8. The fat, two lazy men, 9. It was a fearful storm. 10. A white and red flag were flying. 11 His unusual, unexpected, and extraordinary success surprised him. 13, He wanted a apple, an hard apple. 13. A dried box of herrings 14. He received a honor. 15. Such an use I 16. The day was delight ful and warm. 17. Samuel Adams's habits were unostentatious, frugal, and simple. 18. The victory was complete, though a few of the enemy were killed or captured. 19. The truth is mighty and will prevail. 20. The scepter, the miter, and coronet seem to me poor things for great men to contend for. 21. A few can swim across the Straits of Dover, for the width is great and the current strong. 22. I have a contemptible opinion of you. 23. She has less friends than I. CLASSES OF VERBS AND ADVERBS. Introductory Hints. — Y"ou learned in Lesson 28 that in saying Washington captured we do not fully express the act performed. Add- 164 Parts of Speech Subdivided. ing Cornwallis, we complete the predicate by naming the one that re- ceives the act that passes over from the doer. Transitive means passing over, and so all verbs that represent an action as passing over from a doer to a receiver are called Transitive Verbs. If we say CornwaUis was captured hy Washington, the verb is still transitive ; but the object, CornwaUis, which names the receiver, is here the subject of the sentence, and not, as before, the object complement. You see that the object, the word that names the receiver of the action, may be the subject, or it may be the object complement. All verbs that, lik^ fall in Leaves fall, do not represent the action as passing over to a receiver, and all that express mere being or state of being are called Intransitive Verbs. A verb transitive in one sentence ; as, He writes good English, may be intransitive in another ; as, He writes well— meaning simply He is a good writer. A verb is transitive only when an object is expressed or obviously understood. Washington captured CornwaUis. Here captured represents the action as having taken place in past time. Tense means time, and so this verb is in the past tense. CornwaUis captured, the tear speedily closed. Here captured is, as you have learned, a participle ; and, rep- resenting the action as past at the time indicated by closed, it is & past participle. Notice that ed is added to capture (final e is always dropped when ed is added) to form its past tense and its past participle. All verbs that form the past tense and the past participle by adding ed to the present are called Regular Verbs. All verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by adding ed to the present ; as, fall, fell, fallen ; go, went, gone, are called Irregular Verbs. Early, hereafter, now, often, soon, presently, etc., used to modify any verb — as will go in I will go soon — by expressing time, are called Adverbs of Time. Away, back, elsewhere, hence, out, within, etc., used to modify any Terb — as will go in I will go away — by expressing direction or place, are called Adverbs of Place. Exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficiently, too, mry, etc., used to modify a word — ^as the adjective hot in The tea is very hot—hj expressing degree, are called Adverbs of Degree. Classes of Verbs and Adverbs, 165 Plainly, so, thus, well, no, yes,* etc., used to modify a word— as spoke in He spoke plainly — by expressing manner, are called Adverbs of Manner. Hence, therefore, why, etc., used in making an inference or in expres- sing cause — as, It is dark, 7ien^e, or therefore, the sun is down ; Why is it dark ?— are called Adverbs of Cause. Some adverbs fall into more than one class ; as, as, and so. Some adverbs, as you have learned, connect clauses, and so are called Conjunctive Adverbs. DEFINITIOIVS. A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being. An Adverb is a word used to modify a yerb, an adjectiye, or an adverb. Classes op Verbs with respect to Meaning. A Transitive Verb is one tliat requires an object, f An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an object. Classes of Verbs with respect to Form. A Megular Verb is one that forms its past tense and past l»articiple by adding ed to the present. An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present. * Many grammarians say that no and yes {nay and yea) are independent when they answer questions. But they seem rather to modify words omitted in the answer but contained in the question ; as, Did you see him ? No = \ did yio {not) see him That the form no is not now used in an answer except when the modified words are omitted does not argue against the position taken. Compare whether or no, condemned by some, but good English nevertheless. Other words change their form when the modi- fied words are omitted ; as, My book is new, Mine is new. Yes { = certainly) may be explained in a similar way. Some make of these words a separate part of speech, and call them responsives. t The object of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, may be the object complement, ot it trsly be the stibject; as, Brutus stabbed Ccesar, Coesar was stabbed by Brutus. See p. 164. 1 66 Parts of Speech Subdivided, Classes of Adverbs. Adverbs of Time are those that generally answer the ques- tion, When? Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the question, Where 9 Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the question, To what extent ? Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question, In what way 9 Adverbs of Cause are those that generally answer the question, Why 9 Direction. — Fqint out the transiti'oe and the intransitive, the regviar and the irregular verbs in Lesson 14, and classify the adverbs. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. Caution.— Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them need- lessly or instead of other forms of expression ; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. JExampies.—l could ill (not illy) afford the time. Do as (not like) I do. A diphthong is the union of two vowels (not where or when two vowels unite) in the same syllable. This (not this here or 'ere) sentence is correct. He wrote that (not 7iow that) he had been sick. The belief in immortality is universally held (not universally held everywhere). His nose was very (not terribly or frightfully) red. J^irection.— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1. I returned back here yesterday. 2. He had not hardly a minute to spare. 3. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peace- fully. 4. It was awfully amusing. 5. This 'ere knife is dull. 6. That Construction of Adverbs. 167 'ere horse has the heaves. 7. A direct quotation is when the exact words of another are copied. 8. I do not like too much sugar in my tea. 9. He seldom or ever went home sober. 10. The belief in im- mortality is universally held by all. 11. I am dreadfully glad to hear that. 12. This is a fearfully long lesson. 13. He said how that he would go. Crti^^ion..— Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. They should not stand between to and the infinitive. Examples — I only rowed across the river = I only ( = alone^ an ad- jective), and no one else, rowed, etc., or = I only rowed, etc., but did not swim or wade. I rowed only across the river = across, not up or down, etc. I rowed across the river only = the river only, not the bay, etc. Merely to see (not to merely see) her was sufficient. lifot every coUegian is a scholar (not Every collegian is not a scholar). Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1. I have thought of marrying often. 2. We only eat three meals a day. 3. He hopes to rapidly recruit. 4. All is not gold that glitters. 5. He tries to distinctly speak. 6. He tries distinctly to speak. 7. All that glitters is not gold. 8. His sagacity almost appears miraculous. Caution.— Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two negative words so that they shall contradict each other. Examples.— 'No one hos (not hasn't) yet reached the North Pole. No unpleasant circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended to affirm). Direction. — Study the Caution a/nd the Examples, and correct these errors ;— 1. No other reason can never be given. 2. He doesn't do nothing. 3. He isn't improving much, I don't think. 4. There must be some- thing wrong when children do not love neither father nor mother. 5. He isn't no sneak. 6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found. 1 68 Parts of Speech Subdivided. Caution, — Do not use adverbs for ad jectiyes or adjectives for adverbs. :Exanipies.—l. The moon looks calm and peaceful (not calmly and peacefully, as the words are intended to describe the moori). 2. The moon looks down calmly and peacefully on the battle field (not calm and peaceful, as the words are intended to tell how she performs the act). 3. These terms are more nearly (not nearer) related. Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1. It was a softly blue sky. 2. The river runs rapid. 3. You must read more distinct. 4. It was an uncommon good harvest. 5. She is most sixteen. 6. The discussion waxed warmly. 7. The prima donna sings sweet. 8. She is miserable poor. 9. My head feels badly. 10. He spoke up prompt. 11. He went most there. 13. He behaved very bad. 13. This is a mighty cold day. "Direction. — Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these four Cautions. LEiiOl i4. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS— CONTINUED. Miscellaneous Errors. Direction. — Three of these sentences are correct. Give the Cautions which the others violate, and correct the errors : — 1. Begin it over again. 2, This can be done easier. 3. The house is extra warm. 4. Most every one goes there. 5. The sparrow chirps constantly. 6. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe. 7. A circle can't in no way be squared. 8. This is a remarkable cold winter. 9. The soldier died hard. 10. Feathers feel softly. 11. It is pretty near fin- ished. 12. Verbosity is when too many words are used. 13. It is a wonderful fine day. 14. He is some better just now. 15. Generally every morning we went to the spring. 16. I wish to simply state this Prepositions, 169 point. 17. He tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man. 18. The lesson was prodigiously long. 19. The cars will not stop at this station only when the bell rings. 20. He can do it as good as any one can. 21. Most everybody talks so. 22. He hasn't yet gone, 1 don't believe. 23. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and carelessly. 24. That 'ere book is readable. 25. 1 will not go but once. 26. I can't find out neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends. 27. They were nearly dressed alike. 28. The tortured man begged that they would kill him again and again. 29. The fortune was lavishly, pro- fusely, and prodigally spent. 30. He is not unjust. 31. We publish all the information, official and otherwise. Liiion ii. PREPOSITIONS. DEFINITION.— A JPreposition is a word that introdaces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified. Composition. Direction. — We give, below, a list of t?ie prepositions in common use. Make short sentences, in which each of these shall be aptly used. Use two or three of them in a single sentence, if you vrish : — Aboard, athwart, ere, till. about, before, for, to. above, behind. from. toward. across. below. in, towards. after, beneath. into. under. against. beside, of, underneath. along. besides. on. until. amid, between, over, unto. amidst, betwixt. past, up. among. beyond. round, upon. amongst, but, since. with. around, by, through, within. at. down, throughout, without. - I/O Parts of Speech Subdivided, Remark. — Bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, 'pending, regarding, respecting, saving, and touching are still par- ticiples in form, and sometimes are such in use. But in most cases the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they express mere re- lations. But, except, and save, in such a sentence as, AD hut or except or save him were lost, are usually classed with prepositions. The phrases aboard of, according to, along with, as to, because of (by cause of), from among, from between, from under, etc., instead o/(in stead of), out of, over against, and round about may be called compound prepositions. But from in these compounds ; as. He crawled from under the ruins, really introduces a phrase, the principal term of which is the phrase that follows from. Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily follows them is omitted; as, He rode^a*'^, He stands above. COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONS—CONTINUED. To the Teacher.— Most prepositions express relations so diverse, and so delicate in their shades of distinction that a definition of them based upon etymology would mislead. A happy and discriminating use of prepositions can be acquired only by an extended study of good authors. We do, below, all that we think it prudent or profit- able to do with them. He should be a man of wide and careful reading who assumes to teach pupils that such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain words. Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That gram- marian exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrower than the highwaj' which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast up.* * Take a single illustration : grammarians, in general, teach that between and betwixt "refer to two," are used " only when two things or sets of things are referred to." Ordinarily, and while clinging to their derivation, they are so used, but are they always, and must they be ? "A choice between two or more alternatives/''— Mulligan. "There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox."— L' Estrange. " Between two or more authors different readers will diSer.''''- Campbell. " Read between the Imes.""— Matthew Arnold. " The Greeks left no spaces between Composition — Prepositions — Continued, 171 Direction. — We give, helow, a few words with the prepositions which usually dccompany them. Form short sentences containing these words combined with each of the prepositions which follow them, and note carefully the different relations expressed by the different preposi- tions : — (Consult the dictionary for both the preposition and the accompany- ing word.) Abide at, by, unth ; accommodate to, with; advantage of, oner; agree to, with ; angry at, with ; anxious about, for ; argue against, with; arrive at, in; attend on, or upon, to; careless about, in, of; communicate to, with; compare to, unth; consists in, of; defend against, from ; die by, for, of; different from ; disappointed in, of ; distinguish by, from ; familiar to, with ; impatient for, of ; indulge in, with ; influence on, over, with ; insensible of, to. LESiOli m. CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. Direction. — Do unth the following words as you were required to do above : — Inquire after, for, into, of; intrude into, upon; joined to, toith ; liberal of, to; live.a^, in, on; look after, for, on; need of; obliged for, to ; part from, with ; placed in, on ; reconcile to, unth ; regard for, to ; remonstrate against, with ; sank beneath, in, into ; share in, of, unth ; sit in, on, or upon ; smile at, on; solieitons about, for ; strive for, unth, against ; taste for, of ; touch at, on, or upon; useful for, in, to ; weary of, in, with ; yearn for, towards, their words."— WUson. *' Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivory neck.''''— Bryant. With what clumsy circumlocutions would our speech be filled if prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology ! What simple and grace- ful substitute could be found for the last phrase in this sentence, for instance: There were forty desks in the room with ample space betvoeen them ? J 2 Parts of Speech Subdivided. LESS©1 ©Ss CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS— CONTINUED. Cat*fton.— Great care must be used in the choice of prepositions. Direction.— Correct these errors : — 1. This book is different to that. 2. He stays to home. 3. They two quarreled among each other. 4. He is in want for money. 5. I was fol- lowed with a crowd. 6. He fell from the bridge in* the water. 7. He fought into'^ the Revolation. 8. He bears a close resemblance of his father. 9. He entered in the plot. 10. He lives at London. 11. He lives in the turn of the road. 12. I have need for a vacation. 13. The child died with the croup. 14. He took a walk, but was disappointed of it. 15. He did not take a walk ; he was disappointed in it. 16. Ho was accused with felony. 17. School keeps upon Monday. 18. Place a mark between each leaf. 19. He is angry at his father. 20. He placed a letter into my hands. 21. She is angry with your conduct. 22. What is the matter of him ? 23. I saw him over to the house. 24. These plants differ with each other. 25. He boards to the hotel. 26. I board in the hotel. 27. She stays at the North. 28. He was averse from the war. 29. You make no use with your talents. 30. He threw himself onto the bed. 31. They are hard to work. 32. He distributed the apples between his four brothers. 33. He went in the park. 34. You can confide on him. 35. He arrived to Toronto. 36. I agree with that plan. 37. The evening was spent by reading. 38. Can you accom- modate me in one of those ? 39. What a change a century has produced upon our country ! 40. He stays to school late. 41. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. 42. The Colonies de- clared themselves independent from England. 43. I spent my Satur- days by going in the country, and enjoying myself by fishing. * In denotes motion or rest in a condition or place ; into, change from one condition or place into another. " When one is outside of a place, he may be able to get inta it ; but he cannot do anything in it, until he has got into it." Construction of Prepositions — Continued. 173 LESSON ©a. CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS- CONTINUED. CauHon.—Bo not use prepositions needlessly. Direction. — Correct these errors : — 1. I went there at about noon. 3. In what latitude is Boston in ? 8. He came in for to have a talk. 4. I started a week ago from last Saturday. 5. He was bom August 15, in 1834. 6. A good place to see a play is at Wallack's. 7. He went to home. 8. I was leading of a horse about {leading is transitive). 9. By what state is Kentucky bounded by ? 10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 11. Where are you going to ? 12. They admitted of the fact. 13. Raise your book olf of the table. 14. He took the poker from out of the fire. 15. Of what is the air composed of ? 16. You can tell by trying of it. 17. Where have you been to ? 18. The boy is like to his father. 19. They ollered to him a chair. 20. This is the subject of which I intend to write about. 21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. 22. Give to me a knife. 23. I have a brother of five years old. 24. To what may Italy be likened to ? 25. In about Apiil the farmer puts in his seed. 26. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 27. Before answer- ing of you, I must think. 28. He lives near to the river. 29. Keep oil of the grass. Caution.— Do not omit prepositions when they are needed. ■ Direction. — Correct these errors : — 1. There is no use going there. 2. He is worthy our help. 8. I was prevented going. 4. He was banished the country. 5. He is un- worthy our charity. 6. What use is this to him ? 7. He was born on the 15th August, 1834. 8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. 9. It was the size of a pea. 10. Egjrpt is the west side of the Red Sea. 11. His efforts were not for the great, but the lowly. 12. He received dispatches from England and Russia. Direction. — Point out the prepositions in Lessons 80 and 81, and name Vie words between which, in sense, they show the relation. 174 Parts of Speech Subdivided. LESSON 400. • CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTIVES. Introductory Hints. — The stars look down upon the roofs of the living and upon the graves of the dead, "but neither the living nor the dead are conscious of their gaze. Here and^ hut, neither, and nor con- nect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order , and so are called Co-ordinate Conjunctions. Both clauses may be independent, or both dependent but of equal rank. At the burning of Moscow, it seemed as [it would seem] */the heavens were lighted up that the nations might behold the scene. Here as, if, and that connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a clause of higher rank, and so are called Subordinate Conjunctions. One clause may be independent and the other dependent, or both dependent but of unequal rank. DEFINITIONS. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses.* Co-ordinate Conjunctions are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank. Subordinate Conjunctions are such as connect clauses of different rank. Remark. — Some of '"he connectives below are conjunctions proper ; some are relative pronouns ; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the clauses. To the Teacher »— We do not advise the memorizing of these lists. The pupils should be able to name the different groups, and some of the most common con- nectives of each. * Some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as and and but, are used to connect, in thought, sentences separated by the period, and even to connect paragraphs. In analysis and parsing, we regard only the individual sentence and treat such connect- ives as introductory. Classes of Conjunctions and other Connectives, 175 CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES.* Copulative. — And, both . . . and, as well a5,f are conjunctions proper. Accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, lience, likewise, moreover, now, so, then, and titer ef ore are conjunctive adverbs. Adversative. — But and wTiereas rtg conjunctions proper. How- ever, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on t/ie contrary, on the other hand, still, and yet are conjunctive adverbs. Alternative. — Neither, nor, or, either . . . or, and neither . . . nor are conjunctions proper. Else and otherwise are conjunctive adverbs. SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES. Connectives op Adjective Clauses. Tliat, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, and whoever are rela- tive pronouns. When, where, whereby, wherein, and why are conjuno- tive adverbs. Connectives of Adverb Clauses. Time.— After, as, before, ere, since, tUl, until, when, whenever, while, and whilst are conjunctive adverbs. Place. — Whence, where, and wherever are conjunctive adverbs. Degree. — As, than, that, and the are conjunctive adverbs, correlative with adjectives or adverbs. Manner. — As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an adjective or an adverb. BeaZ Gatme. — As, because, for, since, and whereas are conjunctions proper. Beason.— Because, for, and since are conjunctions proper. Purpose. — In order tliat, lest {= that not), thM, and so that are con- junctions proper. Condition. — Except, if, in case that, on condition that, 'provided, pro- vided that, and unless are conjunctions proper. Concession. — Although, if (— even if), notwithstanding, though, and whether are conjunctions proper. However is a conjunctive adverb. Whatever, whichever, and whoever are relative pronouns used indefi- nitely. * s'or explanations of CqpjUative, Adversative, and Alternative, see Lesson 76. t The as tuell as in He, as Well as I, went ; and not that in He is as well as lam. 176 Parts of Speech Subdivided, CONXECTIVES OF NoUN CLAUSES. If, lest, that, and whether are conjunctions proper. WhM, which, and who are pronouns introducing qiestions; how, when, whence, where, and why are conjunctive adverbs. Direction. — Study the lists above, and point out all the connectives in Lessons 80, and 81, telling which are relative pronouns, which are con- junctions proper, and which are conjunctive adverbs. To the Teacher.— If the pupils lack maturity, or, if it is found necessary to abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study, the six following lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these exercises very profitable, but their omission will occasion i^ break in the course. COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES. Direction.— Write 20 compound sentences whose dauses shMl be joined by connectives named in the three subdivisions of Co-or dinate con- nectives. LESiOH i®a» COMPOSITION— CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. Direction. — Write 20 complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adj ective clauses, and by connectives of ad'' verb clauses of time, place, degree, and manner. LESSOR 103. COMPOSITION— CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. Direction. — Write 20 complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, reason, purpose, condition, and concession, and by connectives of noun clauses. * Connectives. 1 77 LliiOH 4©4. CONNECTIVES. Analysis. Direction. — TeU wTiat kinds of clauses follow tJie connectwes beloWj and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences : — As may connect a clause expressin:^ manner, time, degree, cause, or reason. 1. Mount Marey is not so high as Mount Washington. 2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription. 3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas. 4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing. 5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand. If may connect a clause expressing condition, time, con- cession, or it may introduce a 7ioun clause. 6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free. 7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride. 8. Who knows if * one of the Pleiads is really missing. 9. If the flights of Dry den are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing. Lest may connect a clause expressing purpose or it may introduce a noun clause. 10. England fears lest Russia may endanger British rule in India. 11. Watch and pray, lest ye enter into temptation. Since may connect a clause expressing time, cause, or reason. 13. It must be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas. 13. Many thousand years have gone by since the Pyramids were built. 14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were persecuted. * Many grammarians say that e/here i? improperly used for whether. But this use of ^/'is common with good authors in early and in modem English. 12 178 Parts of Speech Subdivided. CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. Analysis. Direction. — TeU what kinds of clauses follow the connectives helow^ and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences : — That may introduce a noun clause or an adjective clause,' or connect a clause expressing degree, cause, ov purpose. 1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other men. 2. Vesuvius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried. 3. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he may- harden it. 4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle. 5. We never toll our secrets to people that pump for them. When may connect a clause expressing time, cause, con- dition, an adjective clause, a noun clause, or it may connect co-ordinate clauses. 6. The Aztecs were astonished when they saw the Spanish horses. 7. November is the month when the deer sheds its horns. 8. When the future is uncertain, make the most of the present. 9. When the five great European races left Asia is a question. 10. When judges accept bribes, what may we expect from common people ? 11. The dial instituted a formal inquiry, when hands, wheels, and weights protested their innocence. WJiere may connect a clause expressing place, an a live clause, or a noun clause. 12. No one knows the place where Moses was buried. 13. Where Moses was buried is still a question. 14. No one has been where Moses was buried. Connectives — Continued, 1 79 While may connect a clause expressing time or conces- sion, or it may connect co-ordinate clauses. 15. Napoleon was a genius, while Wellington was a man of talents. J16. While we sleep, the body is rebuilt. 17. While Charles 1. had many excellent traits, he was a bad king. LiiSOli 40§. CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. Analysis, Direction. — Use, the appropriate connectives, and change these com- pound sentences to complex without changing the meaning, and then analyze them : — (Let one dependent clause be an adjective clause ; let three express cause ; five, condition ; and two, concession.) 1. Caesar put the proffered crown aside, but he would fain have had it. 2. Take away honor and imagination and poetry from war, and it becomes carnage. 3. His crime has been discovered, and he must flee. 4. You must eat, or you will die. 5. Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom. 6. Let but the commons hear this testament, and they would go and kiss dead CaBsar's wounds. 7. Men are carrying umbrellas ; it is raining. 8. Have ye brave sons ? look in the next fierce brawl to see them die. 9. The Senate knows this, the Consul sees it, and yet the traitor lives. 10. Take away the grandeur of his cause, and Washington is a rebel instead of the purest of patriots. 11. The diamond is a sparkling gem, and it is pure carbon. l8o Parts of Speech Subdivided, Direction. — Two of the dependent clauses, below, express condition, and three concession. Place an appropriate conjunction before each, and (hen analyze the sentences : — 12. Should we fail, it can be no worse for us. 13. Had the Plantagenets succeeded in France, there would never have been an England. 14. Were he my brother, I could do no more for him. 15. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify the reader. 16. "Were I [Admiral Nelson] to die this moTHQnt, more frigates would be found written on my heart." LISSOM \m. CONSTRUCTION OF CONNECTIVES. Caution, — Some conjunctions and conjunctiye adverbs may stand in correlatioji with other words. A7id may be accompanied by both; as by as, by so, or by such ; hut {but also and but Ukeiuise) by not only ; if by then ; nor by neither ; or by either or by whether ; that by so ; the by the; though by yet ; when by then ; and where by there. Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and stand where they belong. Examples.— QfivQ me neither riches nor (not or) poverty. I cannot find either my book or (not nor) my hat. Dogs not only bark (not not only dogs bark) but also bite. Not only dogs (not dogs not only) bark but wolves also. He was neither (not neither was) rich nor poor. Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 1. He not only gave me advice, but also money. 2. A theatrical part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture or a dissimulation of my real sentiments. 3. She not only dressed richly but tastefully. 4. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of New York. 5. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature, Construction of Connectives. i8l but also for his moral wisdom. 6. Not only he is successful, but ho deserves to succeed. 7. There was nothing either strange nor inter- esting. Caw^ion,— Choose apt connectives, but do not use them needlessly or instead of other parts of speech. ^acamj??©*.— Seldom, if (not or^ ever, should an adverb stand between to and the infinitive. I will try to (not and) do better next time. No one can deny thai (not huf) he has money. A harrow is drawn over the ground, which (not and which) covers the seed. Who doubts that (not but that or hut what) Napoleon lived ? The doctor had scarcely left when (not hut) a patient called. He has no love for his father or (not nor) for his mother (the negative no is felt throughout the sentence, and need not be repeated by nor). He was not well, nor (not or) was he sick {not is expended in the first clause ; nor is needed to make the second clause negative). Direction. — Study the Catttion and the Examptes, and correct these errors : — 1. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other poets, is tenderness. 2. Try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow. 3. Who can doubt but that there is a God? 4. No one can eat nor drink while he is talking. 5. He seldom or ever went to church. 6. No one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season. 7. I do not know as I shall like it. 8. You will not succeed without you are careful. Caution,— Else, other, otherwise, rather, and adjectives and adverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed by than. But else, other, and more, implying something additional, but not different in kind, may be followed by lilt or besides. JSxampies.—X diamond is nothing else than carbon. Junius was no other than Sir Philip Francis. The cripple cannot walk otherwise than on crutches. Americans would rather travel th^n stay at home, I rose earlier than I meant to. He can converse on other topics besides politics. 1 82 Parts of Speech Subdivided. Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. 2. The moon is something else but green cheese. 3. Comwallis could not do otherwise but surrender. 4. It was no other but the President. 5. He no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran. Caution,— Two or more connected words or phrases re- ferring to another word or phrase should each make good sense with it. JExamples.—l have always (add said) and still do say that labor is honorable. Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add lived) or is now alive. The boy is stronger than his sister, but not so tall (not The boy is stronger, but not so tall, as his sister). Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1. Gold is heavier, but not so useful, as iron. 2. Gold is not so useful, but heavier, than iron. 3. This is as valuable, if not more so, than that. 4. Faithful boys have always and always will learn the lessons. 5. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. 6. This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be pub- lished. LESSON l§S. MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. Direction. — Correct these errors, telling what Caution each mo^ lates ; — 1. Carthage and Rome were rival powers: this city in Africa, and that in Europe ; the one on the northern coast of the Mediterranean, the other on the southern. 2. The right and left lung were diseased. 3. The right and the left lungs were diseased. 4. My friend has sailed for Europe, who was here yesterday. 5. There are some men which Various Uses of What, That, and But. 183 are always young. 6. I cannot think but what God is good. 7. Thim- bles, that are worn on the finger, are used in pushing the needle. 8. A told B that he was his best friend. 9. Them scissors are very dull. 10. Ethan Allen, being a rash man, he tried to capture Canada. 11. The lady that was thrown from the carriage, and who was picked up insensible, died. 12. The eye and ear have different oflBces. 13. I only laugh when I feel like it. 14. This is the same man who called yesterday. 15. He was an humble man. 16. He was thrown forward onto his face. 17. A knows more, but does not talk so well, as B. 18. The book cost a dollar, and which is a great price. 19. At what wharf does the boat stop at ? 20. The music sounded harshly. 21. He would neither go himself or send anybody. 22. It isn't but a short distance. 23. The butter is splendid. 24. The boy was graceful and tall. 25. He hasn't, I don't suppose, laid by much. 26. One would rather have few friends than a few friends. 27. He is outrageously proud. 28. Not only the boy skated, but he enjoyed it. 29. He has gone way out West. 30. Who doubts but what two and two are four ? 31. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt water. 32. The problem was difficult to exactly understand. 33. It was the length of your finger. 34. He bought a condensed can of milk. 35. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. 36, The death is inevitable. 37. She wore a peculiar kind of a dress. 38. When shall we meet to- gether ? 39. He talks like you do. LESSOU 4oe. VARIOUS USES OF WHAT, THAT, AND BUT. What may be used as a relative pronoun, an interrogative pronoun, a definitive adjective, an adverh, and an inter- Examples.— l^Q did icliat was right. What did he say ? What man is happy with the toothache ? What with confinement and what with bad diet, the prisoner found himself reduced to a skeleton (here uhat = partly, and modifies the phrase following it). What / you a lion ? 1 84 Parts of Speech Subdivided. That may be used as a relative pronoun, an adjective pro- noun, a definitive adjective, a conjunction, and a conjunctive advert. Examples.— B.e that does a good deed is instantly ennobled. That is heroism. That man is a hero. We eat that we may live. It was so cold that the mercury froze. But may be used as 3, conjunction, an adverb, an adjec- tive, and ei preposition, Examples.— The ostrich is a bird, but (adversative conjunction) it cannot fly. Not a sparrow falls but ( = unless — subordinate conjunc- tion) Grod wills it. He was all but (conjunction or preposition) dead — He was all dead, but he was not dead, or He was all (anything in that line) except (the climax) dead. No man is so wicked but (conjunctive ad- verb) he loves virtue = No man is wicked to that degree in which he loves not virtue {so — to that degree, but = in which not). We meet but (ad- verb = only) to part. Life is but (adjective = only) a dream. All but (preposition = except) him had fled. The tears of love were hopeless but (preposition = except) for thee. I cannot but remember = I cannot do anything but (preposition = except) remember. There is no fireside but (preposition) has one vacant chair {except the one which has) ; or, regard- ing but as a negative relative = thxit not, the sentence = There is no fireside that has not one vacant chair. Direction. — Study the examples given above ; point out the exact use of what, that, and but in these sentences, and then analyze tht sentences : — 1. He did nothing but laugh. 2. It was once supposed that crystal is ice frozen so hard that it cannot be thawed. 3. What love equals a mother's ? 4. There is nobody here but me. 5. The fine arts were all but proscribed. 6. There's not a breeze but whispers of thy name. 7. The longest life is but a day. 8. What if the bee love not these barren boughs ? 9. That life is long which answers life's great end. 10. What 1 I the weaker vessel ? 11. Whom should I obey but thee ? 12. What by industry and what by economy, he had amassed a fortune. 13. I long ago found that out. 14. One should not always eat what he Review Questions. 185 likes. 15. There's not a white hair on your face but should have its effect of gravity. 16. It was a look that, but for its quiet, would have seemed disdain. 17. He came but to return. LESSOR 440. REVIEW QUESTIONS. Lemon 85. — Define a noun. What is the distinction between a com- mon and a proper noun ? Why is music a common noun ? What is a collective noun ? An abstract noun ? Define a pronoun. What are the classes of pronouns ? Define them. What is an antecedent ? Lemon 86. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting Tie, it, and they ; the needless use of pronouns ; the two styles of the pronoun ; the use of them for thx)8e, and of what for that ; and the use of who, which, that, and what. Lesson 87. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting connected relative clauses ; the relative in clauses not restrictive ; the use of that instead of who or which ; the position of the relative clause ; and the use of this and that, the one and the other. Lesson 89. — Define an adjective. What two classes are there ? Define them. What adjectives do not limit ? Illustrate. Lesson 90. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the use of the adjectives an, a, and the ; and the use of a few and few, a little and little. Lesson 91. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice and the position of adjectives. Lesson 92. — Define a verb. What are transitive verbs ? Intransi- tiv^e ? Illustrate. What distinction is made between the object and the object complement ? What are regular verbs ? Irregular ? Illus- trate. What are the several classes of adverbs ? Define them. What is a conjunctive adverb ? Lesson 93.— Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice and position of adverbs, the use of double negatives, and the use of adverbs for adjectives and adjectives for adverbs. 1 86 Parts of Speech Subdivided, iESSOU m, REVIEW QUESTIONS— CONTINUED. Lesson 95. — Define a preposition. Name some of the common prepositions. What is said of some ending in ing? Of hut, except, and save ? Of certain compound prepositions ? When do prepositions become adverbs ? Lesson 98. — Give and illustrate the Caution as to the choice of prep- ositions. What, in general, is the difference between in and into ? Lesson 99. — Give and Olustrate the two Cautions relating to the use of prepositions. Lesson 100. — Define a conjunction. What are the two great classes of conjunctions, and what is their difference ? What other parts of speech besides conjunctions connect ? What are adverbs that connect called ? Into what three classes are co-ordinate connectives subdivided? Name some of the conjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs of each class. What three kinds of clauses are connected by subordinate con- nectives ? The connectives of adverb clauses are subdivided into what classes ? Give a leading connective of each class. Lessons 104, 105. — Illustrate two or more offices of each of the con- nectives as, if, lest, since, that, when, where, and while. Lesson 107.— Give and illustrate the four Cautions relating to the construction of connectives. Lesson 109. — Illustrate the offices of what, that, and hut. GENERAL REVIEW. Schemes for the Conj., Prep., and Int. {The numbers refer to Lessons.) THE CONJUNCTION. Classes. | g^^^^J^^^^^^^^ 1 100-107. THE PREPOSITION. No Classes (95, 98, 99). THE INTERJECTION. No Classes (20, 21). MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. LESS©*! 442, Introductory Hints. — You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may be changed by simply changing its form. The English language has lost most of its inflections, or forms, so that many of the changes in the meaning and the use of words are not now marked by changes in form. These changes in the form, meaning, and use of the parts of speech we call their Modifications.* * Those grammarians that attempt to restrict number, case, mode, etc.,— what we here call Modifications— to form, find themselves within bounds which they con- tinually overleap. They define nximber, lot instance, as a. form, or inflection, and yet speak of nouns " plural in form but singular in sense," or " singular in form but plural in sense ; " that is, if you construe them rigorously, plural or singular in form but singular or plural form in sense. They tell you that case is hform, and yet insist that nouns have three cases, though only two forms ; and speak of the nominative and the objective case of the noun, "although in fact the two cases are always the same in form ''''—the twofwms always the same inform ! On the other hand, those that make what we call Modifications denote only relations or conditions of words cannot cling to these abstract terms. For instance, they ask the pupil to "pronounce and write the possessive of nouns," hardly expecting, we suppose, that the " condition " af a noun will be sounded or written ; and they speak of " a noun in the singular with a plural application," in which expression singtUar must bo taken to mean singular form to save it from sheer nonsense. We know no way to steer clear of Scylla and keep out of Charybdis but to do what by the common use of the word we are allowed ; viz., to take Modifications with such breadth of signification that it will apply to meaning and to use, as well as to form. Primarily, of course, it meant inflections, used to mark changes in the meaning and use of words. But we shall use Modiflcations to indicate changes in meaning and use when the form in the particular instance is wanting, nowhere, however, recognizing that as a modification which is not somewhere marked by form. 1 88 Modifications of the Parts of Speech, Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns. Number. TJie hoy shouts. The loys shout. The form of the subject hoy is changed by adding an s to it. The meaning has changed. Boy denotes one lad ; hoys two or more lads. This change in the form and the meaning of nouns is called Number ; the word hoy, denoting one thing, is in the Singular Number ; and. hoys, denoting more than one thing, is in the Plural Number. Number expresses only the distinction of one from more than one ; to express more precisely how many, we use adjectives, and say two hoys, four hoys, many or several hoys. DEFINITIONS. Modifications of the Parts of Speech are changes in their form, meaning, and use. Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which de- notes one thing or more than one. The Singular Number denotes one tiling. The Plural Number denotes more than one tiling. Number Forms. RULE.— The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular. To this rule there are some exceptions. "When the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite with that of s, es is added to form another syllable.* * In Anglo-Saxon, as was the plural termination for a certain class of nouns. In later English, as was charged to es, which became the regular plural ending ; as, bird-es, doud-es. In modem English, e is dropped, and s is joined to the singular without increase of syllables. But, when the singular ends In an 5-sound, the original syllable es is retained, as two hissing sounds will not unite. Number Forms. 189 Remark. — Such words as Tioru^ niche, and cage drop the final e when es is added. See Rule 1, Lesson 127. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and note what letters represen t sounds that cannot imite with the sound of s : — Ax or axe, arch, adz or adze, box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, face, gas, glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz. Some nouns ending in preceded by a consonant add es without increase of syllables. Direction. — Form the plurcd of each of the follomng nouns : — Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innuendo, motto, mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico, potato, tornado, volcano. Some nouns in preceded by a consonant add s only. Direction.— ^orm the plural of each of the follomng nouns : — Canto, domino {as or oes), duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero {as or oes). Nouns in preceded by a Yowel add s. Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, seraglio, trio. Common nouns * in y after a consonant change y into i and add es without increase of syllables. Nouns in y after a vowel add s. Direction.— i^brm the plural of each of the following nouns : — Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, f daisy, essay, fairy, fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey, valley, vanity. ♦ See Rule 2, Lesson 127. In old English such words as lady, fancy, etc., were spelled ladle, fande. The modem plural simply retains the old ppelling and adds $. t V after 5 is a consonant. 190 Modifications of the Parts of Speech, Some nouns change/ or /e into ves. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff,* thief, wharf,* wife, wolf. Some nouns in/ and /<3 are regular. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — Belief, brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof, reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif. (Nouns in ff, except staff, are regular ; as, cuff, cuffs,) Some plurals are still more irregular. Direction. — Learn to form the following plurals : — Child, children ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; man, men ; mouse, mice ; Mr., Messrs. ; ox, oxen ; tooth, teeth ; woman, women. (For the plurals of pronouns, see Lesson 124.) LESiOH 413. NUMBER FORMS— CONTINUED. Some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain their original plural forms. Some of these take the English plural also. Direction. — Learn to form the following plurals : — Analysis, analyses ; antithesis, antitheses ; appendix, appendices or appendixes ; automaton, automata or automatons ; axis, axes ; bandit, banditti or bandits ; basis, bases ; beau, beaux or beaus ; cherub, * Staff (a stick or support), staves or stqfs ; staff (a body of officers), staffs. Th« compounds of staff are regular ; as, fiag-staffs. In England, generally wharfs. Number Forms — Continued. 191 cherubim or cherubs ; crisis, crises ; datum, data ; ellipsis, ellipses ; erratum, errata ; focus, foci ; fungus, fungi or funguses ; genus, genera ; hypothesis, hypotheses ; ignis fatuus, ignes fatui ; madame, mesdames ; magus, magi ; memorandum, memoranda or memoran- dums ; monsieur, messieurs ; nebula, nebulae ; oasis, oases ; parenthesis, parentheses ; phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, radii or radiuses ; seraph, seraphim or seraphs ; stratum, strata ; synopsis, synopses ; terminus, termini ; vertebra, vertebrae ; vortex, vortices or vortexes. Some compound nouns in which the principal word stands first vary the first word ; as, sow5-in-law. Direction. — Form the plural of the following words : — Aid-de-camp, attomey-at-law, billet-doux, commander-in-chief, court-martial, cousin-german, father-in-law, hanger-on, knight-errant, man-of-war. Most compounds vary the last word ; as, pailfuls,* gentle- men. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — Court-yard, dormouse, Englisman, fellow-servant, fisherman. French- man, forget-me-not, goose-quill, handful, maid-servant, man-trap, mouthful, piano-forte, porte-monnaie, spoonful, step-son, tete-a-tete, tooth-brush. The following nouns are not treated as compounds of man — add s. Brahman, German, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman. A few compounds vary both parts ; as, man-singer, men- si7igers. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — Man-child, man-servant, woman-servant, woman-singer. y^ * Pails full is not a compound. This expression denotes a number of pails, each full. 192 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Compounds consisting of a proper name preceded by a title form the plural by varying either the title or the name ; as, the Miss Clarhs or the Misses Clark ; but, when the title Mrs. is used, the name is usually yaried ; as, the Mrs. Clarks* Direction. — Form the plural of the following compounds : — Miss Jones, Mr. Jones, General Lee, Dr. Brown, Master Green. A title used with two or more different names is made plural ; as, Drs. Grimes and Steele, Messrs. Clark and Maynard. Direction. — Put each of the following expressions in ' its proper form : — General Lee and Jackson ; Miss Mary, Julia, and Anna Scott ; Mr. Green, Stacy, & Co. Letters, figures, and other characters add the apostrophe and s to form the plural ; f as, a'5, 2'5, — ^s. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following characters : — S, i, t, +, X, *, i 9, 1, i, 1, 3. * Of the two ioTm9,t\xe Miss Claries and the 3Iisses ClarJc,, we believe that the former is most used by classical authors. The latter is now quite popular ; but, except in formal notes or when the title is to be emphasized, it is rather stiff, if not pedantic. Some claim that, when a numeral precedes the title, the name should always be varied ; as, the two Miss Claries. The forms, the Wsses ClarJcs and the two Mrs. Clark, have but little authority. t Some good writers form the plural of words named merely as words, in the same way ; as, the ifs and and''s ; but the (') is here unnecessary. Number Forms — Continued. 193 LESSOR \\^. NUMBER FORMS— CONTINUED. Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. Direction. — Lea/rnto form the following plurals ; note the meaning of each, and be able to put each into a sentence : — ^ heads (parts of the i brothers (by blood), brethren (of the same society). {cannons (individuals), cannon (in a collective sense). {dies (stamps for coin- ing), dice (cubes for gam- ing)- j fishes (individuals), ( fish (collection). ( feet (parts of the body), ( foot (foot-soldiers), geniuses (men of gen- Genius, -l ius), genii (spirits). Head, Horse, j body), ( head (of cattle). ( horses (animals), ( horse (horse-soldiers). /-indexes (tables of refer- Die, Fish,^ Index, J . ,^!^^^)= mdices in al- Foot, lius, -j Penny, Sail, Shot, (signs *- gebra). {pennies (distinct coins), "pence (quantity i n value). ( sails (pieces of canvas), ( sail (vessels). /shots (number of times ■j fired), ( shot (number of balls). Some nouns and pronouns have the same form in both numbers. Direction. — Study the follovnng list : — Amends, bellows, corps, f deer, gross, grouse, hose, means, odds, pains (care), series, sheep, species, swine,, vermin, wages, who, which, that (relative), what, any, none. (The following have two forms in the plural.) Apparatus, apparatus or apparatuses ; heathen, heathen or heathens. * The names of several sorts of fish, as herring, shad, trout, etc., are used in the same waj'. The compounds of Jish, as codfish, have the same form in both numbers, t The singular is pronounced kdr, the plural kdrz. 13 194 Modifications of the Parts of Speech, (The following nouns have the same form in both numbers when used with numerals ; they add s in other cases ; as, one pair, two pair, in pairs, hy scores.) Brace, couple, dozen, pair, score, yoke, hundred, thousand. Some nouns have no plural. (These are generally names of materials, qualities, or sciences.) Names of materials when taken in their full or strict sense can have no plural, but they may be plural when kinds of the material or things made of it are referred to ; as, cottons, coffees, tins, coppers. Direction. — Study the following list of words : — Bread, coffee, copper, flour, gold, goodness, grammar (science, not a book), grass, hay, honesty, iron, lead, marble, meekness, milk, mo- lasses, music, peace, physiology, pride, tin, water, etc. (The following were originally plural forms, but they are now more commonly treated as singular.) Acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences in ics), news. Some words are always plural. (They are generally names of things double or multiform in their character.) Direction. — Study the following list : — Aborigines, annals, ashes, assets, clothes, fireworks, hysterics, literati, measles, mumps, nippers, oats,* pincers, rickets, scissors, shears, snuffers, suds, thanks, tongs, tidings, trowsers, victuals, vitals. (The following were originally singular forms, but they are now treated as plural.) Alms (Anglo-Saxon, celmesse), eaves (A. S., efese), riches (Norman French, richesse). . * Oat 18 sometimefi aped, but a grain of oats would be better. Review in Number. 195 (The following have no singular corresponding in meaning.) Colors (flag), compasses (dividers), goods (property), grounds (dregs), letters (literature), manners (behavior), matins (morning service), morals (character), remains (dead body), spectacles (glasses), stay? (corsets), vespers (evening service). (The singular form is sometimes an adjective.) Bitters, greens, narrows, sweets, valuables, etc. Collective nouns are treated as plural when the individ- uals in the collection are thought of, and as singular when the collection as a whole is thought of. Examples. — The committee were unable to agree, and they asked to be discharged. A committee was appointed, and its report will soon be 7 made. : ^ ^ (Collective nouns have plural forms ; as, committees, armies.) *P |- V- vW-^ .m$m MM, REVIEW IN NUMBER. Direction. — Write the plural of the singular nouns and pronouns in the following list, and the singular of those that are plural ; give the rule or the remark that applies to each ; and note those that have no plural, and those that have no singular : — Hope, age, bench, bush, house, loss, tax, waltz, potato, shoe, colony, piano, kangaroo, pulley, wharf, staff, fife, loaf, flag-staff, handker- chief, Mr., child, ox, beaux, cherubim, mesdames, termini, genus, genius, bagnio, theory, galley, muff, mystery, colloquy, son-in-law, man-of-war, spoonful, maid-servant, Frenchman, German, man-servant. Dr. Smith, Messrs. Brown and Smith, x , ^, deer, series, bellows, mo- lasses, pride, politics, news, wages, sun-flsh, clothes, alms, goods, grounds, greens, who, that. Direction. — Oive five words that have no plural, five that have no singular J and five that have the same form in both numbers. 196 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Direction. — Correct tlie following plurals, and gue the remark that applies to each : — Stagees, foxs, mosquitos, calicos, heros, soloes, babys, trioes, chimnies, storys, elfs, beefs, scarves, oxes, phenomenons, axises, terminuses, genuses, mother-in-laws, aldermans, Mussulmen, teeth- brushes, mouthsful, attorney-at-laws, man-childs, geese-quills, 2s, ms, swines. ^ — V LESS©! M^. NUMBER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. The number of a noun may be determined not only by its form, but also by the veri, the adjective, and the pronoun . used in connection with it. Remark. — These scissors are so dull that I cannot use them. The plurality of scissors is here made known in four ways. In the follow- ing sentence this, is, and it are incorrectly used : This scissors is so dull that I cannot use it. Direction. — Construct sentences in ivhich the number of each of the following nouns shall he indicated hy the form of the verb, the adjectiv e, or the pronoun used in connection with it : — (With the singular nouns use the verbs is, was, and has been ; the adjectives an, one, this, and that ; the pronouns he, his, him, she, her, it, and its.) (With the plural nouns use the verbs are, were, and have been ; the adjectives these, those, and two ; the pronouns they, their, and them.) Bellows, deer, fish, gross, means, series, species, heathen, pair, trout, iron, irons, news, wages, eaves, riches, oats, gallows, vermin, molasses. Misses, brethren, dice, head (of cattle), pennies, child, parent, family, crowd, and meeting. Direction. — Compose sentences in which the first three of the following adjective pronouns shall be used as singular subjects, the fourth asaplu' ral subject, and the remainder both as singular and as plural subjects ;— Each, either, neither, both, former, none, all, any. Nouns and Pronouns — Gender. 197 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS— GENDER. Introductory Hints.— T7^« ^i<>7i teas ca^'^cf. The lioness was caged. In the first sentence something is said about a male lion, and in the second something is said about a female lion. The modification of the noun to denote the sex of the thing which it names is called Gender. Lion, denoting a male animal, is in the Masculine Gender ; and lion- ess, denoting a female animal, is in the Feminine Gender. Names of things that are without sex are said to be in the Neuter Gender. Such nouns as coiisin, child, friend, neighbor, naming things of whose sex you are ignorant, are either masculine or feminine. Sex belongs to the thing, Siudgeiider to the nou7i that names the thing. Knowing the sex of the thing or its lack of sex, you know the gender of the noun in English that names it ; for in our language gender follows the sex. But in such modem languages as the French and the German, and in Latin and Greek, the gender of nouns naming things without reference to sex is determined by the likeness of their endings in sound to the endings of words denoting things with sex. The Ger- man for table is a masctdine noun, the French, feminine, and the Eng- lish,* of course, neuter. DEFINITIONS. Gender is that modification of a noun or pronoun which de- notes sex. The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex. The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex. The 1^ enter Gender denotes want of sex. * In Anglo-Saxon, the mother-tongue of our language, gender was grammatical, as in the French and German ; but since the union of the Norman-French with it to form the English, gender has followed sex. 198 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Gender Forms. No English nouns have distinctive neuter forms, but a few have different forms to distinguish the masculine from tl[iQ feminine. The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways : — 1st. By a difference in the ending of the words. 2d. By different words in the compound names. 3d. By using words wholly or radically different. Ess* is the most common ending for feminine nouns. Direction. — Form the feminine of each of the following mmculine nouns ly adding ess: — Author, baron, count, deacon, giant, god (see Rule 3, Lesson 127), heir, host, Jew, lion, patron, poet, prince (see Rule 1, Lesson 127), prior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor. (Drop the vowel e or in the ending of the masculine, and add ess.) Actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, conductor, director, editor, enchanter, hunter, idolater, instructor, preceptor, tiger, waiter. (Drop the masculine er, and add the feminine ess.) Adventurer, caterer, governor, murderer, sorcerer. (The following are somewhat irregular.) Direction. — Learn these forms : — Abbot, abbess ; duke, duchess ; emperor, empress ; lad, lass ; mar- quis, marchioness ; master, mistress ; negro, negress. Ess was formerly more common than now. Such words as editor and author are now frequently used to denote persons of either sex. * The suffix ess came into the English language from the Norman -French. It dis- placed the feminine termination of the mother-tongue (A. S, estre, old English sfer). The original meaning of ster is preserved in spinster. Er (A. S. ere) was originally a masculine suffix ; but it now generally denotes an agent without reference to sex ; as, read-er, speaker. Nouns and Pronouns — Gender. 199 Direction. — Give five nouns ending in er or or tJiat may he applied to either sex. Some words, mostly foreign, have various endings in the feminine. Direction. — Learn tJw following forms :— Administrator, administratrix ; Augustus, Augusta ; beau, belle ; Charles, Charlotte ; Cornelius, Cornelia ; czar, czarina ; don, donna ; equestrian, equestrienne ; executor, executrix ; Francis, Frances ; George, Georgiana ; Henry, Henrietta ; hero, heroine ; infante, infanta ; Jesse, Jessie ; Joseph, Josephine ; Julius, Julia or Juliet ; landgrave, landgravine ; Louis, Louisa or Louise ; Paul, Pauline ; signore or signor, signora ; sultan, sultana ; testator, testatrix ; widower, widow. In some compounds distinguishing words are prefixed or affixed. Direction. — Learn the following forms : — Billy-goat, nanny-goat ; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit ; cock-sparrow, hen- sparrow ; Englishman, Englishwoman ; gentleman, gentlewoman ; grand-father, grand-mother ; he-bear, she-bear ; landlord, landlady ; man-servant, maid-servant ; merman, mermaid ; Mr. Jones, Mrs. or Miss Jones ; peacock, peahen. Words wholly or radically different are used to distinguish the masculine from the feminine. (This is a matter pertaining to the meaning of words rather than to grammar.) Direction. — Lea/m the following forms : — Bachelor, maid ; buck, doe ; drake, duck ; earl, countess ; friar or monk, nun ; gander, goose ; hart, roe ; lord, lady ; nephew, niece ; sir, madam ; stag, hind ; steer, heifer ; wizard, witch ; youth, damsel or maiden. 200 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. The pronoun has three gender forms : — Masculine he, feminine she, and neuter iL* Direction. — Give five examples of each oftJie three ways of distinguish' ing the masculine from th^ feminine. LESION IIS. GENDER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. Gender as a matter of orthography is of some importance, but in grammar it is chiefly important as involving the cor- rect use of the pronouns he, she, and it. When a singular noun is used so as to imply persons of both sexes, it is commonly represented by a masculine pro- noun, t Example.— Eyqtj person has his faults. The names of animals are often considered as masculine or feminine without regard to the real sex. Examples.— TYiQ grizdy bear is the most savage of his race. The cat steals upon her prey. Remark.— The writer employs he or she according as he fancies the animal to possess masculine or feminine characteristics. He is more frequently employed than sh^. The neuter pronoun it is often used with reference to animals and very young children, the sex being disregarded. * It, although a neuter form, is used idiomatically to refer to a male or a female ; as, It was John, It was Mary. t When it is necessary to distinguish the sexes, both the masculine and the feminine pronouns should be used ; as, Each person was required to name Ms or her favorite flower. Gender Forms in Construction. 201 Banamplea When the deer is alarmed, it gives two or three graceful springs. The little child reached out its hand to catch the sunbeam. Remark. — It is quite generally used instead of he or she^ in referring to an animal, unless som^ masculine or feminine quality seems to pre- dominate. Inanimate things are often represented as living beings, that is, they are personified^ and are referred to "by the pro- noun tie or site, Example.— The oak shall send his roots abroad and pierce thy mould. Remark. — The names of objects distinguished for size, power, or sub- limity are regarded as masculine ; and the names of those distinguished for grace, beauty, gentleness, or proditctiveness are considered as femi- nine. Personification adds beauty and animation to style. Direction. — Study what is said above, and then fill each of the blanks in the following sentences with a masculine, a feminine, or a neuter pronoun, and in each case give the reason for your selection : — 1. No one else is so much alone in the universe as who denies God. 2, A person's manners not un frequently indicate morals. 3. Everybody should think for . 4. The forest's leaping panther shall yield spotted hide. 5. The catamount lies in the boughs to watch prey. 6. The mocking-bird shook from little throat floods of delicious music. 7. The wild beast from cavern sprang, the wild bird from grove. 8. The night-sparrow trills song. 9. The elephant is distinguished for strength and sagacity. 10. The bat is noctural in habits. 11. The dog is faithful to master. 12. The child was unconscious of danger. 13. The fox is noted for cunning. 14. Belgium's capital had gathered then beauty and chivalry. 15. Despair extends raven wing. 16. Life mocks the idle hate of arch-enemy. Death. 17. Spring comes forth work of gladness to contrive. , 18. Truth is fearless, yet is meek and modest. Direction. — Write sentences in which the things named below shaU be personified by means of masculine pronouns : — Death, time, winter, war, sun, river, wind. 202 Modifications of the Parts of Speech^ Direction. — Write sentences in which the things named below shall be personified by means of feminine pronouns : — Ship, moon, earth, spring, virtue, nature, night, England. Caution,— AYoid changing the gender of the pronoun when referring to the same antecedent. Direction. — Correct these errors : — 1. The polar bear is comparatively rare in menageries, as it suffers po much from the heat that he is not easily preserved in confinement. 2. The cat, when it comes to the light, contracts and elongates the pupil of her eye. 3. Summer clothes herself in green, and decks itself with flowers. 4. War leaves his victim on the field, and homes desolated by it mourn over her cruelty. iESSOU lli» NOUNS AND PRONOUNS— PERSON AND CASE. Introductory Hints. — Number and gender, as you have learned, are modifications affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns— number being almost always indicated hj form, ov inflection ; gender sometimes. There are two other modifications which do not refer to changes in the meaning of nouns and pronouns, but to their different uses and relations, these uses and relations not often being indicated by /(9rw, or inflection, I, Paul, have written. Paul, thou art beside thyself. He brought Paul before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word Paul has three different uses, though, as you see, its form is not changed. In the first it is used to name the speaker ; in the second to name the one fpoken to ; in the third to name the one spoken of. These different uses of nouns and pronouns and the forms used to mark them consti- tute the modification called Person. I, thou, and he are personal pro- nouns, and, as you see, distinguish person by iheiv form. I, denoting the speaker, is in the First Person ; thou, denoting the one spoken to, is in Nouns and Pronouns — Person and Case. 203 the Second Person; and lie^ denoting the one spoken of, is in the Third Person. Instead of J a writer or speaker may use the plural we; and through courtesy it came to be customary, except among the Friends, or in the language of prayer and poetry, to use the plural you instead of thou. The bear killed the man. The man killed the hear. The hearts grease was made into hair oil. In the first sentence the animal, bear, is represented as performing an action ; in the second as receiving an action ; in the third as possessing something. Consequently the word bear in these sentences has three different uses. These different uses of nouns and pronouns and the forms used to mark them constitute the modification called Case. A noun or pronoun used as subject is in the Nominative Case ; used as object complement is in the Objective Case ; and used to denote possession is in tbe Possessive Case. Some of the protiouns have a special form for each case, but the pos- sessive case of nouns is the only one that is now marked by a peculiar form. We inflect, below,* a noun from the Anglo-Saxon and one from the Latin, the parent of the Norman-French, in order that you may see how cases and the forms, or inflections, to mark them have been dropped in English. In English, prepositions have largely taken the place of case forms, and it is thought that by them our language can express the many relations of nouns to other words in the sentence better than other languages can by their cumbrous machinery of inflection. * The Anglo-Saxon cases are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and instrumental; the Latin are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative ; the English are nominative, possessive {genitive), and objective. Anglo-Saxon. Hlaford, lord. Singular. Plural. Nom. hlaford, hlaford-a*. Gen. hlaford-ea, hlaford-a. Dat. hlaford-e, hlaford-wwt. Ace. hlaford, hlaford-a». Voc. hlaford, hlaford-a«. lust, hiaford-c / hlaford-Mwt. Latin. Dominus, lord. Singular. Plural. Nom. domin-M«, domin-i. Gen. domin-i, domin-oruwi. Dat. domin-o, domin-i«. Ace. domin-Mwt, domin-o*. Voc. domin-c, domin-i. Ab. domin-o; domin-i«. English. Lord. Singular. Nom. lord, Pos. lord-'*, Obj. lord. Plural. Nom. lord-5, Pos. lord-*/, Obj. lord-*. 204 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. DEFINITIONS. Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker, the one spolien to, or the one spoken of. The First Person denotes the one speaking. The Second Person denotes the one spoken to. The Third Person denotes the one spoken of. A noun is said to be of t\iQ first person when joined as an explanatory modifier to a pronoun of the first person ; as, /, John, saw these things ; We Americans are always in a hurry. * A noun is of the second person when used as explanatory of a pronoun of the second person, or when used independ- ently as a term of address ; as. Ye crags and peaks ; Idle time, John, is ruinous. Direction. — Compose sentences in which there shall be two examples of nouns and two of pronouns used in each of the three persons. Person Forms. Personal pronou7is and verbs are the only classes of words that have distinctive person forms. Direction. — From the forms of the pronouns given i^i Lesson 124, select and write in one list all the first person forms ; in another list, all the second person forms; and in another, all the third person forms. Person is regarded in grammar, because the verb some- times varies its form to agree with the person of its subject; as, / see, Tliou seest, He sees. * It is doubtful whether a noun is ever of t\iQ first person. It may be claimed with some propriety that, in the sentence /, John, saw these things, John speaks o/" his own name, the expression meaning, 7, and my name is John, etc. Nouns and Pronouns — Person and Case. 205 DEFINITIONS. Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence. The Nominative Case of a noun or pronoufi denotes its office as subject or as attribute complement. The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as possessive modifier. The Objective Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase. A noun or pronoun used independently is said to be in the nominative case. Examples.— 1 am, dear madam, your friend. Alas, poor ToricJc! Ee being dead, we shall live. IMerty, it has fled ! (See Lesson 44.) A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained — "is put by apposition in the same case." Examples.— Ths) first colonial Cangress, that of 1774, addressed the King, George III. He buys his goods at Stewa/rt's, the dry-goods mercliant. A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case. Example.— Hh&j made him speaker, A noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case [Nom, or Ohj.) as the word to which it relates as attribute. Examples. —l^eing an artist, he appreciated it. I proved it to be him. Remark. — When the assumed subject of the paiiiciple or the infinitive 2o6 Modifications of the Parts of Speech is a possessive, the attribute complement is said to be in the nominative ease; as, Its linng he * should make no difference. When the participle or the infinitive is used abstractly, without an assumed subject, its at- tribute complement is also said to be in the nominative case ; as, To he he * is to be a scholar, Being a scholar is not being an idler. Direction. — Study carefully the definitions and the remarks, above, and then compose sentences in wJiich a noun or a pronoun shall be put in the nominative case in four ways ; in the objective in five ways ; in the possessive in two ways. LlSSOfl «0. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. Direction. — Analyze the following sentences, and give the case of each noun and pronoun : — 1. Not to know what happened before we were born is to be always a child. 2. His being a Roman saved him from being made a prisoner. 3. I am this day weak, though anointed king. Explanation. — Nouns used adverbially are in the objective case, be- cause equivalent to the principal word of a prepositional phrase. (See Lesson 35.) * The case of he in these examples is rather doubtful. The nominative and the objective forms of the pronoun occur so rarelj' in such constructions that it seems impossible to determine the usage. It is, therefore, a matter of no great practical importance. Some, reasoning from the analogy of the Latin, would put the attribute complement of the abstract infinitive in the objective, supposing/o^', with some word, to be under- stood; as, For one to be him, etc. Others, reasoning from the analogj^ of the German, to which our language is closely allied, would put it in the nominative. The assumed subject of the infinitive being omitted when it is the same as that of the principal subject, him, in the sentence / wish {me or myself) to he him^-is the proper form, being in the same case as me. In the sentence / have iio doubt of his being a scholar, his is used instead of Jiim to prevent ambiguity ; and some would put scholar in the same case as him. For a similar reason scholar would be nomi- native in the sentence His {he) being a scholar is beyond doubt. Parsing. 207 4. What made Cromwell a great man was his unshaken reliance on God, 5. Amos, the herdsman of Tekoa, was not a prophet's son. 6. Arnold's success as teacher was remarkable. Explanation. — Teacher, introduced by as and used without a posses- sive sign, is explanatory of ArnoWs. 7. Worship thy Creator, Gk)d ; and obey his Son, the Master, King, and Saviour of men. 8. Bear ye one another's burdens. Explanation. — The singular one is explanatory of the plural ye, or one anotJier^s may be treated as a compound. 9. What art thou, execrable shape, that darest advance ? 10. you hard hearts ! you cruel men of Rome I 11. Everybody acknowledges Shakespeare to be the greatest of dram- atists. 13. Think'st thou this heart could feel a moment's joy, thou being absent ? 13. Our great forefathers had left him naught to conquer but hia country. (For case of liim see Explanation of (3), above.) 14. I will attend to it myself. Explanation. — Myself may be treated as explanatory of /. 15. This news of papa's* puts me all in a flutter. 16. What means that hand upon that breast of thine ?* LESSON \%\. PARSING. To the Teacher.— ^e do not believe that the chief end of the study of gramnuor is to be able to parse well, or even to analyze well, though, without question, analysis reveals more clearly than parsing the structure of the sentence, and is immeasurably * See foot-note, page 214. 2o8 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. gnperior to it as intellectual gymnastics. We would not do away with parsing alto- gether, but would give it a subordinate place. But we must be allowed an emphatic protest against the needless and mechanical quoting, in parsing, of " Rules of Syntax." When a pupD has said that such a noun is in the nominative case, subject of such a verb, what is gained by a repetition of the definition in the Rule : " A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case " ? Let the reasons for the disposition of words, when given at all, be specific. Parsing a word is giying its classification, modifications, and syntax {%. e., its relation to other words). Direction. — Select and parse in full all the nov/ns and pronowns found in the fust ten sentences of Lesson 120. For the agreement of pronouns, see Less. 142. Model for Written Parsing. — Elizabeth^ 8 favorite^ Raleigh^ was he- headed by James /. CLASSIFICATION. MODEPICATIONS. Nouns. Elizabeth's favorite Raleigh James I. Kind. Prop. Com. Prop. Person. 3d. Number. Sing. Gender. Fem, Mas. Case. Pos. Nom. Obj. Pos. Mod. of favorite. Sub. of was beheaded. Exp. Mod. of favorite. Prin. word in Prep, phrase. To the Teacher.— "For exercises in parsing nonns and pronouns, see Lessons 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 44, 46, 59, 60, 71, 73, 78, 80, and 81. Other exercises may be se- lected from examples previously given for analysis, and parsing continued as long as you think it profitable. LESSOfi 1^2. CASE FORMS— NOUNS. Nouns haye two case forms, the simple form, common to the nominative and the objective case, and Hie possessive form, RULE.— The possessive case of nonns is formed in the singu- lar by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter 8 Case Forms — Nouns. 209 (^«) ; in the plural, by adding (') only. If the plural does not end in s, ^s) are both added.* Examples. — Boy's, boys% men's. Remark. — To avoid an unpleasant succession of hissing sounds, the 8 in the possessive singular is sometimes omitted ; as, conscience' sake, goodness* sake, Achilles' sword, Archimedes screw (the s in the words following the possessive here has its influence). In prose this omission of the s should seldom occur. The weight of usage inclines to the s in such names as Miss Rounds s, Mrs. HemanSs, King James's, witness's, prince's. Without the s there would be no distinction, in spoken lan- guage, between Miss Round's and Miss Rounds', Mrs. Eeman's and Mrs. Heman^, Remark. — Pronounce the Cs) as a separate syllable (— es), when the sound of 8 will not unite with the last sound of the nominative. Remark. — ^When the singular and the plural are alike in the nomi- native, some place the apostrophe after the s in the plural to distinguish it from the possessive singular ; as, singular, sheep's ; plural, sheeps\ "DirecMon.— Study tJie Rule and the Remarks given above, and then vrrite the possessive singular and the possessive plural of each of th£ following nouns : — Actor, elephant, farmer, king, lion, genius, horse, princess, buffalo, hero, mosquito, negro, volcano, junto, tyro, cuckoo, ally, attorney, fairy, lady, monkey, calf, elf, thief, wife, wolf, chief, dwarf, waif, child, goose, mouse, ox, woman, beau, seraph, fish, deer, sheep, swine. Compound names and groups of words that may be treated as compound names add the possessive sign to the last word; as, a man-of-war^ s rigging, the queen of England's palace, f Frederick the Greafs verses. * In Anglo Saxon, es was a genitive (possessive) ending of the singular ; as, smith, genitive, smithes. In old English, es and is were both used. In modem English the vowel is dropped, and (') stands in its place. The use of the apostrophe has been extended to distinguish the possessive from other forms of the plural. t In parsing the words qveen and England separately, the Cs) must be regarded as belonging to qtieen ; but the whole phrase queen of England may be treated as one noun in the possessive case. 14 2IO Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Remark. — The possessive plural of such terms is not used. The preposition o/with the objective is often used instead of the possessive case form — David's Psalms = Psalms of David (of ='s). Remark. — To denote the source from which a thing proceeds, or the idea of belonging to, of is used more frequently than ('«). The possessive sign (s) is confined chiefly to the names of persons, animals, and things personified. We do not say the tree^s leaves, but the leaves of the tree. The possessive sign, however, is often added to names of things which we frequently hear personified, or which we wish to dignify, and to names of periods of time ; as, the earth's surface, fortune^s smile, eternity's stillness, a year's interest, a day's work. By the use of of such expressions as witness's statement, mothers-dri' law's faults may be avoided. Direction. — Study carefully the principles and remarks given above, and then make each of the following terms indicate possession, using either the possessive sign or the preposition of, as may seem most appro- priate, and join an appropriate name denoting the thing possessed : — Father-in-law, William the Conqueror, king of Great Britain, aid- de-eamp, Henry the Eighth, attorney- at-law, somebody else,* Jeffer- son, enemy, hero, eagle, elephant, gunpowder, book, house, chair, torrent, sun, ocean, mountain, summer, year, day, hour, princess. Socrates. LEii©ii lai. CONSTRUCTION OF POSSESSIVE FORMS. As the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a dis- tinctive form, or inflection, it is only with this case that mistakes can occur in construction. * In such expressions as everybody else''s business, the possessive sign is removed from the noim and attached to the adjective. The possessive sign should generally be placed immediately before the name of the thing possessed. Construction of Possessive Forms, 2 1 1 Caution, — When several possessive nouns modify the saQie word and imply common possession, the possessive sign is added to the last only. If they modify different words, ex- pressed or understood, the sign is added to each. Explanation. — William and Henry's boat, William's and Henry's boat. In the first example, William and Henry are represented as jointly owning a boat ; in the second, each is represented as owning a separate hoaX—hoat is understood after William's, Remark. — When the different possessors are thought of as separate or opposed, the sign may be repeated, although joint possession is implied ; as, He was \A?, father' s, mother's, and sister's favorite. He was the king's, as well as the people's, favorite. Direction. — Correct these errors, and give your reasons : — 1. The Bank of England was established in William's and Mary's reign. 2. Messrs. Leggett's, Stacy's, Green's, & Co.'s business pros- pers. 3. This was James's, Charles's, and Robert's estate. 4. America was discovered during Ferdinand's and Isabella's reign. 5. We were comparing Caesar and Napoleon's victones. 6. This was the sage and the poet's theme. Explanation. — If an article precedes the possessive, the sign is re- peated. 7. It was the king, not the people's, choice. 8. They are Thomas, as well as James's, books. Caution,— Whan a possessive noun is followed by an ex- planatory word, the possessive sign is added to the explana- tory word only. But, if the explanatory word has several modifiers, or, if there are more explanatory words, than one, the principal word only takes the sign. Remark. — When a common noun is explanatory of a proper noun, and the name of the thing possessed is omitted, the possessive sign may be added to either the modifying or the principal word ; as, We stopped at Tiffany, the jeweler's, or, We stopped at Tiffany's, the jeweler. (If 2 1 2 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. the name of the thing possessed is given, the noun immediately before it takes the sign.) Direction. — Correct these errors : — 1. This is Tennyson's, the poet's, home. 2. I took tea at Brown's, my old friend and schoolmate's. 3. This belongs to Victoria's, queen of England's, dominion. 4. This province is Victoria's, queen of Eng- land's. 5. That language is Homer's, the greatest poet of antiquity's. 6. This was Franklin's motto, the distinguished philosopher's and statesman's. 7. Wolsey's, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace. Direction. — Tell which of the sentences, above, may he improved by using other forms to denote possession. (See the following Caution.) Caution, — The relation of possession may be expressed not only by ('«) and o/, but by the use of such phrases as belong- ing to, property of, etc. In constructing sentences be careful to secure smoothness and clearness by taking advantage of these different forms. Direction. — Improve the following sentences ;— 1. This is my wife's father's opinion. Correction. — This is the opinion of my icife's father, or held by my wife's father. 2. This is my wife's father's farm. 3. France's and England's in- terests differ widely. 4. Frederick the Great was the son of the daughter of George I., of England. 5. My brother's wife's sister's drawings have been much admired, 6. The drawings of the sister of the wife of my brother have been much admired. 0/is not always equivalent to the (\ecie»isio»i is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and prononns in the two numbers. Direction.— Z/eam- ths following declensions : — Declension of Nouns. LADY. BOY. MAN. Bingula/r, Plural. Singular. Plural. Sing. Plural. lilom. lady, ladies, boy, boys. man, men. Pos. lady's, ladies', boy's, boys'. man's, men's, Obj, lady ; ladies. boy ; boys. man ; men. 214 Modifications of the Parts of Speech, Declension of Pronouns. Peesonal Peonouns. FmST PEESON. SECOND PEESON— SECOND PEESON — common form. old form. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Norn. I, we. you, you, thou, ye or you, Po8. my or • our or your or your or thy • . itself ; ) Remark. — The possessive of these pronouns is wanting. * The forms mine, ours, yours, thine., Tiers, and tJieirs are used only when the name of the thing possessed is omitted ; as, Yours is old, mine is new = Your book is old, etc. Mine and thine were formerly used before words beginning with a vowel sound; as, thine enemy, mine h07un\ The expression a friend of mine presents a peculiar construction. The explanation generally given is, that of is partitive, and the expression equivalent to one friend of my friends. And it is claimed that this construction can be used only when more than one thing is possessed. But such expressions as this h^art of mine, that temper of yours are good, idiomatic English. This sweet wee wife of mine.— Burns. This naughty world of ours.— Byron. This moral life of mine.—Sher. Knowles. Dim are those heads of theirs.— Carlyle. Some suggest that the word possessing or owning is understood after these possessives ; as, This temper of yours (your possessing) ; others say that of simply marks identity ; as in city of{= viz.) New York (see Lesson 34). They would make the expression= This temper, your temper. Number and Case Forms, 215 Ouradf-dxA we are used by rulers, editors, and others to hide their individuality, and give authority to what they say. Relative Pronouns. &m,g, aTid Plu. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. Nom. who, which, that, what, Pos. whose, whose, , , 013. whom. which. that. what. Remark. — Instead of using Moho^ as the possessive of which, some prefer the phrase of which. Interrogative Pronouns. The interrogative pronouns who, which, and what are de- clined like the relatives who, which, and what. Compound Relative Pronouns. Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. Nom. whoever, whosoever, Pos. whosever, whosesoever, Obj. whomever. whomsoever. Whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever do not change their form. Adjective Pronouns. This and that with their plurals, these and those, have no possessive form, and are alike in the nominative and the objective. One and other are declined like nouns; and another, declined like other in the singular, has no plural. Each, either, and neither are always singular ; * loth is al- * Grammarians have taught that each other, dther, and neither should always refer to two things, and one another to more than two ; but good writers do not regard this restriction. 2i6 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. ways plural ; and all, any, former, latter, none, same, some, and such are either singular or plural. Descriptive adjectives used as nouns are plural, and are not declined. Such expressions as " the wretched^ s only plea" and *^the mc^e^'5 den" are exceptional. LESiOH \%%. CASE FORMS— PRONOUNS. The pronouns /, thou, he, she, and who are the only words in the language that have each three different case forms. Direction. — Study tJie Declensions, and correct these errors : — Cur's, your's, hi's, her's, it's, their's, youm, hisn, hem, theirn. Construction of Case Forms— Pronouns. Caution, — J, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, and who are nominative forms, and must not be used in the objective case. Me^ us, thee, him^ her,* them, and whom are ob- jective forms, and must not be used in the nominative case. Remark. — The eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms here given are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the language. All the rules of syntax given in the grammars to guide in the use of the nominative and the objective case apply, practically, only to these fifteen words. Direction. — Study carefully the definitions and principles given under the head of case, Lesson 119, and then correct these errors, giving you/r reasons in every instance : — * Her is also a posseesive. Case Forms — Pronouns. 217 1. It is not me * you are in love with. 2. She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me.* 3. Who * servest thou under ? 4. It was not them, it was her. 5. Its being me should make no difference. 6. Him and me are of the same age. 7. Them that study grammar talk no better than me. 8. I am not so old as her ; she is older than me by ten years. 9. He was angry, and me too. 10. Who will go ? Me. 11. It isn't for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land. 12. Not one in a thousand could have done it as well as him. 13. Him being a stranger, they easily misled him. 14. Oh, happy us ! sur- rounded thus with blessings. 15. It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh promoted. 16. I referred to my old friend, he of whom I so often speak. 17. You have seen Cassio and she together. 18. Between you and I, I believe that he is losing his mind. 19. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend ? 20. Who did he refer to, he or I ? 21. Who did he choose ? Did he choose you and I ? 22. He that is idle and mischievous reprove. 23. We will refer it to whoever you may choose. 24. Whosoever the court favors is safe. 25. They that are diligent I wiU reward. 26. Scotland and thee did in each other live. 27. My hour is come, but not to render up my soul to such as thee. 28. I knew that it was him. 29. I knew it to be he. 30. Who did you suppose it to be ? 31. Whom did you suppose it was ? 32. I took that tall man to be he. 33. I thought that tall man was him. * Dr. Latham defends It is me, but condemns It is him and It is her. Dean Alford regards as correct the forms condemned by Latham, and asserts that thee and me are correct in " The nations not so blest as thee" " Such weak minister as me may the op- pressor bruise." Prof. Bain justifies If I were him, It was her. He is better than me, and even defends the use of who as an objective form by quoting from Shakespeare, " Who servest thou under ? " and from Steele, ** Who should I meet ? " They justify such expressions as It is m£ from the analogy of the French c'est moi, and on the ground that they are "more frequently heard than the prescribed form." But such analogy would justify It are them ice sont evx) ; and, if the argument from the speech of the uneducated is to have weight, we have good authority for '■'■Her ain't a calling we ; us don't belong to she." A course of reading will satisfy any one that the best writers and speakers in England are not in the habit of using such ex- pressions as It is m£, and that they are almost, if not quite, unknown in American literature. No one has so freed himself from the influence of early associations that in a careless moment some vicious colloquialism may not creep into his discourse. A violation of every principle of grammar may be defended, if such inadvertencies are to be erected into authority. To whatever is the prevailing, the habitual, usage of a majority of the best writers and speakers the grammarian bows without question ; but not to the accidental slips of even the greatest, or to the common usage of the un- reflecting and the uncultivated. 2i8 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. LESSON Its. CONSTRUCTION OF CASE FORMS. Miscellaneous— Review. Direction. — Correct these errors, and give your reasons : — 1. Who was Joseph's and Benjamin's mother ? 2. It did not occur during Washington, Jefferson, or Adams's administration. 3. I con- sulted Webster, Worcester, and Walker's dictionary. 4. This state was south of Mason's and Dixon's line. 5. These are neither George nor Fanny's books. 6. Howard's, the philanthropist's, life was a noble one. 7. It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general's. 8. He visited his sons-in-law's homes. Explanation. — If the possessive plural of such nouns were used, this would be- correct ; but it is better to avoid these awkward forms. 9. A valuable horse of my friend William's father's was killed. 10. For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife. 11. For the queen's sake, his sister's. 12. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. 13. He spoke of you studying Latin. 14. It being difficult did not deter him. 15. What need is there of the man swearing ? 16. I am opposed to the gentleman speaking again. 17. He thought it was us. 18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or me. 19. 1 shaU not learn my duty from such as thee. 20. A lady entered, whom I afterwards found was Miss B. 21. A lady entered, who I afterwards found to be Miss B. 22. Ask some- body's else opinion. 23. Let him be whom he may. 24. I am sure it could not have been them. 25. I understood it to be they. 26. It is not him whom you thought it was. 27. Let you and I try it. 28. All enjoyed themselves, us excepted. 29. Us boys enjoy the holidays. 30. It was Virgil, him who wrote the -^neid. General Review, 219 GENERAL REVIEW. To the Teacher.— These schemes and questions under the head of General Review are especially designed to aid in securing an outline of technical grammar. The questions given below may be made to call for minute details or only for out- lines. In some cases a single question may suffice for a whole lesson. Scheme for the Noun. {The numbers refer to Lessons.) ' Subject (4, 8). Object Complement (28). Attribute Complement (29, 30). Objective Complement (31). Adjective Modifier (33). Adverb Modifier (35). Principal word in Prep. Phrase (17). ^ Independent (44). NOUN. Uses Classes. Modifications. Common (85). (Abstract and Collective.) Proper (85). „ . ( Singular (112-116). Number, ] pi^al (112-116). Masculine (117, 118). Gender. ■{ Feminine (117, 118). Neuter (11 7, lis). First (119). Person. i Second (119). Third (no). C Nominative (119). Case. -j Possessive (il9, 122, 123). ( Objective (119). Questions on the Noun. 1. Define the noun and its classes. — Lesson 85. 2. Name and define the modifications of the noun. — Less. 112, 117, 119. 3. Name and define the several numbers, genders, persons, and cases. —Less. 112, 117, 119. 4. Give and illustrate the several ways of forming the plural. — ^Less. 112, 113, 114. 220 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 5. Give and illustrate the several ways of distinguishing the genders. —Less. 117. 6. How is the possessive case formed ? — Less. 122. 7. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in use of the possess- ive forms. — Less. 123. Scheme for the Pronoun. Uses. — Same as those of the Noun. {Personal (85, 86, 87). Eelative (85, 86, 87). Interrogative (85). Adjective (85, 87). Modifications. — Same as those of the Noun (il2, 117, 118, 119, 124, 125, 142). Questions on the Pronoun. 1. Define the pronoun and its classes, and give the lists. — Less. 85. 2. Decline the several pronouns. — Less. 124. 3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of th^ different pronouns. — Less. 86, 87. 4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the number forms, the gender forms, and the case focms. — Less. 142, 118, 125. PRONOUN. ^ COMPARISON. Introductory Hints. — That apple is sweet, that other is sweeter, hut this one is the sweetest. The adjective sweet, expressing a quality of the three apples, is, as you see, inflected by adding er and est. Adjectives, then, have one modification, and this is marked hj form, or inflection. This modification is called Comparison, because it is used when things are compared with one another in respect to some quality common to them all, but possessed by them in different degrees. The form of the adjective which expresses the simple quality, as sweety Comparison. 221 is of the Positive Degree ; that which expresses the quality in a greater or a less degree, as sweeter, less sweet, is of the Comparative Degree ; and that which expresses the quality in the greatest or the least degree, as sweetest, least sweet, is of the Superlative Degree. But even the positive implies a comparison ; we should not say, This apple is sweet, unless this particular fruit had more of the quality than ordinary apples possess. Notice, too, that the adjective in the comparative and superlative degrees always expresses the quality relatively. When we say, This apple is sweeter than that, or, This apple is the sweetest of the three, we do not mean that any of the apples is really or in the highest degree sweet ; but only that one apple is sweeter than the other, or the sweetest of those compared. The several degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective may be increased or diminished by adverbs modifying the adjective — we can say very, exceedingly, rather, or somewhat sweet ; far, still, or much sweeter ; hy far or much the sweetest. Some adverbs, as well as adjectives, are compared. Adjectives have one modification ; viz.. Comparison,'^ DEFINITIONS. Comparison is a modification of Ihe adjective (or the adverb) to express the relative degree of the quality t ia the things compared. The Positive Degree expresses the simple quality. The Comparative Degrree expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality. The Superlative Degree expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality. RULE.— Adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to the positive to form the comparative, and est to the positive to form the superlative. * Two adjectives, this and that, have iinnib3r iorm^—this, these ; that, those. In Anglo-Saxon and Latin, adjectives have forms lo indicate gender, number, and case. \ Different degrees of quantity, also, may tjometimes be expressed by comparison. 222 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. RULES FOR SPELLING. RULE I.— Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a Yowel ; as, jine, finer ; love, loving. Exceptions. — The e is retained (1) after c and g, when the snfBx begins with a ox o \ as, 'peaceable^ changeable ; (2) after o ; as, lioeing ; and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word ; as, singeing, dyeing. RULE 11. — Final y preceded by a consonant changes to * when a suffix is added not beginning with i; as, witty, wittier; dry, dried. RULE III.— Those monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable that end in a single consonant following a single vowel double this consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel j as, hot, Jwtter ; tegin, beginning. Exceptions. — X, k, and n are never doubled, and gas has gases in the plural. Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally com- pared by prefixing more and most. This method is often used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes w'th those of one. Remark.— Jfor^ beautiful, most beautifid, etc., can hardly be called degree forms of the adjective. The adverbs more and most have the degree forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as separate words. The adjective, however, is varied in sense the same as when the in- flections er and est are added. Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing less and least ; as, valuable, less valuable, least valuable. Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be compared, as their meaning will not admit of different degrees. Comparison, 223 Direction. — From this list of adjectives select those thai cannot be com- pared, and compare those thai remain : — Observe the Rules for Spelling given above. Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, hand- some, happy, able, polite, hot, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, witty, humble, any, thin, intemperate, undeviating, nimble, holy, lunar, superior. Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear is to be preferred. Direction. — Correct thefoUowirig : — Famousest, virtuousest, eloquenter, comfortabler, amusingest. Some adverbs are compared by adding er and est, and some by prefixing more and most. Direction. — Compare the following : — Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely. Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their com- parison. Direction. — Lea>rn to compare the foUomng adjectives and adverbs : — Adjectives Irregularly Compared. Pos. Comp, Superlative, Pos, Comp, Superlative, (Aft),* after. aftmost or aftermost. Far, farther. ( farthest or ( farthermost. Bad,) EvU, [ worse, worst. Fore, former, j foremost or (first. 111, ) (Forth), further, furthest • 5up. «' ) 127, 128. Questions on the Adjective. 1. Define the adjective and its classes. — Less. 89. 2. Define comparison and the degrees of comparison. — Less. 127. 8. Give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison. — Less. 127. 4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of ad- jectives. — Less. 90, 91. 5. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of com- parative and superlative forms. — Less. 128. Sehenne for the Adverb. ADVERB. Classes. Time. Place. Degree. Manner. Cause. Modification. — Comparison. 92-94. i Pos. Deg. < Comp, (Sup 3eg.) 127, 128. Modifications of the Verb. 229 Questions on the Adverb. 1. Define the adverb and its classes. — Less. 92. 2. Illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of com- parison. — Less. 127. 3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of ad- verbs. — Less. 93. l.£S§0«i 4ii. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. Voice. Introductory Hints. — He picked a rose, A rose was picked hy him. The same thing is here told in two ways. The first verb, picked, shows that the subject names the actor ; the second verb, was picked, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. These different forms and uses of the verb constitute the modification called Voice. The first form is in the Active Voice ; the second is in the Passive Voice. The active voice is used when the agevt, or actor, is to be made prom- inent ; the passive, when the tTiinig acted upon is to be made prominent. The passive voice may be used when the agent is unknown, or when, for any reason, we do not care to name it ; as, The ship was wrecked; Money is coined. DEFINITIONS. Voice is that modiflcation of the transitive yerb which shows whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon. The Active Voice shows that the subject names the actor. The Passive Voice shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. The passive form is compound, and may be resolved into 230 Modifications of the Parts of Speech, an asserting word (some form of the yerb he), and an attri- bute complement (a past participle of a transitive verb). An expression consisting of an asserting word followed by an adjectiye complement or by a participle used adjectively may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice. jffaeawj»?c«.— The coat wa% sometimes worn by Joseph {was worn — passive voice). The coat wa% badly worn {was — incomplete predicate, worn — adjective complement). Remark. — To test the passive voice note whether the one named by the subject is acted upon, and whether the verb may be followed by by before the name of the agent. Direction. — TeU which of the following completed predicates may be treated as single verbs, and which should be resolved into incomplete pred- icates and attribute complements : — 1. The lady is accomplished. 2. This task was not accomplished in a day. 3. Are you prepared to recite ? 4. Dinner was soon prepared. 5. A shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge. 6. You are mistaken. 7. The man was drunk before the wine was drunk. 8. The house is situated on the bank of the river. 9. I am obliged to you. 10. I am obliged to do this. 11. The horse is tired. 12. A fool and his money are soon parted. 13. The tower is inclined. 14. My body is inclined by years. Direction.— i^Towe aU the transitive verbs in Lesson 78, and give their voice. LESiOfi 130. COMPOSITION— VOICE. The object complement of a verb in the active voice becomes the subject when the verb is changed to the passive voice. Composition — Voice. 231 Example. — The Danes invaded England = England was invaded by the Danes. Remark. — You will notice that in the first sentence the agent is made prominent ; in the second sentence the receiver. Direction. — In each of these sentences change the to ice of the tran- sitive verb mthmit altering th^ meaning of the sentence, and note the other changes tTiat occur : — 1. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, wore a winged cap and winged shoes. 2. When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they intro- duced into England their own language, which was a dialect of the Teutonic, or Gothic. 3. My wife was chosen as her wedding dress was chosen, not for a fine, glossy surface, but for su6h qualities as would wear well. 4. Bacchus, the god of wine, was worshiped in many parts of Greece and Rome. 5. The minds of children are dressed by their parents as their bodies are dressed — in the prevailing fashion. 6. Harvey, an English physician, discovered that blood circulates. 7. The luxury of Capua, more powerful than the Roman legions, van- quished the victorious Carthaginians. 8. His eloquence had struck them dumb. Remark. — Notice that the objective complement becomes the attri- bute complement when the verb is changed from the active to the pas- sive voice. 9. That tribunal pronounced Charles a tyrant. 10. The town had nicknamed him Beau Seymour. 11. Even silent night proclaims my soul inmiortal. 13. We saw the storm approaching. (Notice that the objective complement is here a participle.) 13. He kept his mother waiting. 14. We found him lying dead on the field. 15. We all believe him to be an honest man. (Notice that the objective complement is here an infinitive phrase.) 16. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. 17. Everybody acknowledged him to be a genius. The so-called indirect, or dative, object is sometimes made 232 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. the subject of a verb in the passive voice, while the object complement is retained after the verb.* Macatnpie — The porter refused him admittance = He was refused ad- mittance by the porter. (Some would treat admitta/nce as adyerbial modifier of was refused.) Direction. — Change the voice of the transitive verbs in these sentences^ and note the other changes that occur : — 18. They were refused the protection of the law. 19. He was offered a pension by the government. 20. I was asked that question yesterday. 21. He told me to leave the room. Explanation. — Here the infinitive phrase is the object complement, and {to) me is used adverbially. To leave the room = that I should leave the room, 22. I taught the child to read. 23. I taught the child reading, 24. They told me that your name was Fontibell. Direction. — Cha/nge the following transitive verbs to the passive form, using first the regular and then the idiomatic construe tion : — Model.— Re promised me a present = A present was promised me (regular) = I was promised a present (idiomatic). 25. They must allow us the privilege of thinking for ourselves. 26. He offered them their lives if they would abjure their religion. An intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive by the aid of a preposition. Example.— AVL his friends laughed at him = He was laughed at (ridiculed) by all his friends. Remark. — Was laughed at may be treated as one verb. Some gram- marians, however, would call at an adverb. The intransitive verb and * Some grammarians condemn thia construction. It is true that it is a violation of the general analogies, or laws, of language ; but that it is an idiom of our language, established by good usage, is beyond controversy. Modifications of the Verb — Continued. 233 preposition are together equivalent to a transitive verb in the passive voice. Direction. — Change the voice of the following verbs : — 27. This artful feUow has imposed upon us all. 28. The speaker did not even touch upon this topic. 29. He dropped the matter there, and did not refer to it afterward. Remark.— The following sentences present a peculiar idiomatic con- struction. A transitive verb which, in the active voice, is followed by an object complement and a prepositional phrase, takes, in the passive, the principal word of the phrase for its subject, retaining the comple- ment and the preposition to complete its meaning; as. They took care ofity It was taken care of. Direction. — Fiit the following sentences info several different formSp and determine wfdch is the best : — 30. His original purpose was lost sight of * (forgotten). 31. Such talents should be made much of. 32. He was taken care of by his friends. 33. Some of his characters have been found fault with as insipid. LESSON tSt. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB— CONTINUED. Mode, Tense, Number, and Person. rf Introductory Hints.— James walks. Here the walking is asserted as an actual fact. Ja/mes may walk. Here the walking is asserted not * Some would parse of as an adverb relating to was lost, and sight as a noun used adverbially to modify was lost ; others would treat sight as an object [complement] of was lost ; others would call was lost sight of a compound verb ; and others, claiming that the logical relation of these words is not lost by a change of position, analyze it as if arranged thus : Sight of his original purpose was lost. It seems to us that any separate disposition of these words is unsatisfactory. Mr. Goold Brown pronounces this construction " an unparsable synchysis, a vile snarl, which no grammarian should hesitate to condemn." 234 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. as an actual, but as a possible fact. If James walk out, he will improve. Here the walking is asserted only as thongJit of, without regard to its being or becoming either an actual or a possible fact. James, walk out. Here the walking is not asserted as a fact, but only as a command — James is ordered to make it a fact. These different uses and forms of the verb constitute the modification which we call Mode. The first verb is in the Indicative Mode ; the second in the Potential Mode ; the third in the Subjunctive Mode ; the fourth in the Imperative Mode. For the two forms of the verb called the Participle and the Infinitive, see Lessons 37 and 40. I walk. I walked. I shall walk. In these three sentences the mxin- ner of asserting the action is the same, but the time in which the action takes place is different. Walk asserts the action as going on in present time, and, as Tense means time, is in the Present Tense. Walked asserts the action as past, and is in the Past Tense. 8hall walk asserts the action as future, and is in the Future Tense. I have walked out to-day. I had walked out ichen he called. I shall hxive walked out by to-morrow. Have walked asserts the action as com- pleted at the present, and is in the Present Perfect Tense. Had walked asserts the action as completed in the past, and is in the Past Perfect Tense. Shall have walked asserts the action as completed in the future, and is in the Future Perfect Tense. I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk. In the second sen- tence walk is changed by adding est ; in the third sentence by adding s. Verbs are said to agree in Person and Number with their subjects. But this agreement is not often, as here, marked by changes in the form of the verb. DEFINITIONS. Mode is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being. The Indicative Mode asserts the action or being as a fact. The JPotenfial Mode asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting or being. Modifications of the Verb — Continued. 235 The Subjunctive Mode asserts the action or bein^ as a mere condition, supposition,^ or wish. Tlie Imperative Mode asserts the action or being as a com- mand or an entreaty. The Infinitive is a form of the Terb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anytliing. The Participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed. The Present Participle denotes action or being as continuing at tlie time indicated by the predicate. The Past Participle denotes action or being as past or com- pleted at the time indicated by the predicate. The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as com- pleted at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate. Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being. The Present Tense expresses action or being as present. The Past Tense expresses action or being as past. The Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come. The Present Perfect Tense expresses action or being as com- pleted at the present time. The Past Perfect Tense expresses action or being as com- pleted at some past time. The Future Perfect Tense expresses action or being to be completed at some future time. Number and Person of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject. 236 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. FORMS OF THE VERB. Conjugation. DEFINITIONS. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb. Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one num- ber and person in all the modes and tenses. Auxiliary Verbs are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs. The auxiliaries are do, did, he (with all its variations, see Lesson 135), Have, had, shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, and 7nust, The Principal Parts of a verb, or those from which the other parts are derived, are the present indicative or the present infini- tive, the past indicative, and the past participle. List of Irregular Verbs. To the Teacher.— It would be well to require the pupils, in studying and in re- citing these lists of irregular verbs, to frame short sentences illustrating the proper use of the past tense and the past particij)le, e. g., I began yesterday. He has begun to do better. In this way the pupils will be saved the mechanical labor of memorizing forms which they already know how to use, and they will be led to correct what has been faulty in their use of other forms. Remark. — Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form are called Redundant. Verbs that are wanting in any of their parts, as can and may, are called Defective. The present participle is not here given as a principal part. It may always be formed from the present tense by adding iiig. In adding ing and other terminations, the Rules for Spelling (see Lesson 127) should be observed. Remark. — The forms, below, in Italics are regular ; and those in smaller type are obsolete, and need not be committed to memory. Forms of the Verb. 237 Present. Past. Abide, Awake, Be, or am. Bear, {bring forth) Bear, {carry) Beat, Begin, Bend, Bereave, Beseech, Bet, Bid, Bind, Bite, Bleed, Blend, Blow, Break, Breed, Bring, Build, Bum, Burst, Buy, Can, Cast, Catch, Past Par. abode. abode. awoke, awaked, awaked. was. been. bore. bom. bare, borne. bore. borne. bare, beat. beaten. began. begun. bent. bent. bended. bended. bereft, bereft. bereaved. bereaved. besought, besought. bet. bet. betted, betted. bade, bid. bidden, bid bound. bound. bit. bitten, bit. bled. bled. blent, blent. blended, blended. blest, blest. blessed, blessed. blew, blown. broke, broken. brake, bred, bred. brought, brought. built, built. builded, builded. burnt. burnt. burned. burned. burst, burst. bought. bought. could. . cast. cast. caught, caught. Present. Past. Chide, Choose, Cleave, {adhere) Cleave, {splii) CUng, Clothe, (Be) Come, Cost, Creep, Crow, Cut, Dare, {venture) Deal, Dig, Do, Draw, Dream, Dress, Drink, Drive, Dwell, Eat, (Be) FaU, Feed, Feel, Fight, Find, chid, chose, cleaved, clave, clove, cleft, clave, clung, clad, clothed, came, cost, crept, crew, crowed, cut, durst, dared, dealt, dug, digged, did, drew, dreamt, dreamed, drest, dressed, drank, drove, dwelt, dwelled, ate, fell, fed, felt, fought, found. Past Par. chidden, chid, chosen. cleaved. cloven, cleft. clung. clad. clothed. come. cost. crept. crowed. cut. dared. dealt. dug. digged. done. drawn. dreamt. dreamed. drest. dressed. drunk. driven. dwelt. dwelled. eaten. fallen. fed. felt. fought. found. 238 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Present. Past. Past Pa/r. Present. Past. Past Par. Flee, fled, fled. Knit, knit. knit. Fling, flung, flung. knitted, knitted. Fly, flew. flown. Know, knew, known. Forsake, forsook, forsaken. Lade, laded, laded. Forbear, forbore. forborne. (load) laden. Freeze, froze, frozen. Lay, laid, laid. (For) Get, got, got, Lead, led. led. gotten.* Lean, leant. leant. Gilrl gilt. gilt. leaned, leaned. vXUU, Gird, gilded^ girt, gilded. girt. Leap, leapt, leaped. leapt. leaped. girded, girded. learnt. learnt. (For) Give , gave. given. Learn, learned, learned. Go, went, gone. Leave, left. left. (En)Grave Grind, Grow, , graved, ground, grew. gra/ced. graven, ground, grown. Lend, Let, Lie, (rechne) lent, let, lay. lent. let. lain. Hang, hung, hanged, hung. hanged.jf Light, lit, lighted. lit.§ lighted. Have, had. had. Lose, lost. lost. Hear, heard. heard. Make, made, made. Heave, hove, heaved, hove.:}: heaved. May, might. Hew, hewed. hewed. hewn. Mean, Meet, meant, met. meant, met. Hide, hid, hidden, hid. Mow, mowed. mowed. Hit, hit, hit. mown. (Be) Hold, held. held. Must, • nolden. Ought, Hurt, hurt, hurt. Pay, paid, paid. Keep, kept. kept. Pen, pent, pent. Kneel, knelt, knelt. (enclose) penned, penned. kneeled. kneeled. Put, put. put. * Ootten is obsolescent except in forgotten. t Hang, to execute by hanging, is regular. X H&oe is used in sea language. § Lighted is preferred to lit. List of Irregular Verbs — Continued. 239 LEiiO^ 133. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 5— CONT 'INUED. Present. Past. Pant Pa/r. Present. Past. Past Par. Quit, quit, quit. Shed, shed. shed. quitted^ quitted. Shine, shone. shone. quoth, shinedy shined. Rap, rapt. rapt. Shoe, shod. shod. ra/ppedj rapped. Shoot, shot. shot. Read, Rend, read, rent. read, rent. Show, showed. shown. showed. Rid, rid, rid. Shred, shred. shred. Ride, rode. ridden. Shrink, shrank, shrunk, Ring, rang, rung. shrunk. shrunken. rung, Shut, shut. shut. (A)Rise, rose. risen. Sing, sang. sung. Rive, rivedy riven. rived. Sink, sung, sank. sunk. sunk. sunken. Run, ran. run. Sit, sat. sat. Saw, sawedf sawed. aayxm Slay, slew, slain. Say, said. SOiWil. said. Sleep, slept, slept. &ee. saw. seen. Slide, sUd, slidden, slid. oeeK, sought. sought. Sling, slung. slung. Seethe, seefhedy seethed. slang. sod. sodden. Slink, slunk, slunk. Sell, sold. sold. sut. slit. slit. Send, sent, sent. slitted. slitted. (Be)Set, set. set. SmpU smelt. smelt. Shake, shook. shaken. k-/iXLV/XXy smeUed, smeUed. ShaU, should, Smite, smote, smitten. Shape, shaped. shaped. snut. Shave, sha/oed. shapen. shaced. Sow, sowedj sown. sowed. shaven. Speak, spoke. spoken. Shear, sheared. sheared. spake. shore, shorn. Speed, sped. sped. 240 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Present. Past. Past Par. Present. Past. Past Par. Spell, spelt, spelt. Sweep, swept, swept. spelled, spelled. Swell, sweUed, sweUed. Spend, spent. spent. swollen. Spill, spilt. spilt. Swim, swam. swum. spilled, spilled. swum. Spin, spun, spun. Swing, swung. swung. span, Take, took, taken. Spit, spit, spat, spit, spitten. Teach, taught, taught. Split, split, split. Tear, tore, tare. torn. Spoil, Spread, Spring, spoilt, spoiled, spread, sprang, sprung, spoilt. spoiled. spread, sprung. Tell, Think, Thrive, told, thought, throve, thrived, told, thought, thriven. thrived. Stand, stood, stood. Throw, threw. thrown. Stave, Stay, Steal, stove, stove. Thrust, thrust. thrust. staved, staid. staved. staidi Tread, trod. trodden, trod. stayed, stole, stayed. stolen. Wake, waked, woke. waked. Stick, Sting, stuck, stung, stuck, stung. Wax, waxed, waxen. waxed. Stink, stunk, stunk. Wear, wore. worn. stank, Weave, wove. woven. Strew, Stride, strewed, strode, strewn. strewed. stridden. Weep, Wet, wept, wet, wetted. wept. wet. wetted. Strike, struck. struck, stricken. Will, would. . String, Strive, strung, strove. strung, striven. Win, Wind, won, wound, won. wound. Strow, strowed, strown. strowed. Work, wrought, worked. wrought. worked. Swear, swore, Bware, sworn. (to)wit, wot, wist. . Sweat, sweat, sweat. Wring, wrung. wrung. sweated, sweated. Write, wrote, written. Forms of the Verb — Continued. 245 LESSOli 434. FORMS OF THE VERB— CONTINUED. Conjugation — Simplest Form. Remark. — English verbs have few inflections compared with those of other languages. Some irregular verbs have seven forms — see, saw, seeing, seen, sees, seest, sawest; regular verbs have six — 'walk, walked, walking, walks, walkest, walkedst. As a substitute for other inflections we prefix auxiliary verbs, and make what are called compound, ov periphrastic, forms. Direction. — Fill out the following formSf using the principal parts of the verb walk. Present, walk; past, walked; past par- ticiple, walked. INDICATIVE MODE. Peesent Tense.* Singular, Plural, 1. (We) Pres. ^ 2. (You) Pres. ^ 3. (They) Pres. _ Past Tense. 1. (I) Past. ^ 1. (We) Pa^' , ((You) _J^ast^, f,.,. ((Thou) Past. St. ^ ^ • 3. (He) Past. ; 8. (They) Past- . Future Tense. 1. (We) shaU Pres. ^ 2. (You) wiU Pres. ^ 3. (He)mK Pre.«. ■ 3. (They) mg Pres. . * In the indicative, present, second, singular, old style, st is sometimes added in- stead of est ; and in the third person, common style, es is added, when s will not unite. In the third person, old style, e(h is added. 16 (I) Pres. ((You) _ ^Thou) (He) _ (I) Pres. Pres. Pres. Past. _s;* i(You) _ ((Thou) (He) _ (I) shaU Past. Past. Past. u Z. il-t _ Zst, . -? Pres. ( (You) wii Pres. (Thou) w Pres. (He) will Pre.«. . 242 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Present Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. (I) have P<^i Par .^ 1. (We) ham Pasi_Par.^ ( (You) have ^L^, ' ^ ^^^^ ^^ ((Thou) host P^!L^^, 3. {Re)hars Past Par. . 3. (They) have Pa^J Par. _ Past Perfect Tense. 1. (I) had Pgg^ Par. ^ 1. (We) had Past Par. , UYou)had Po^LPo^, 3^ (You)W Past Par., ^' i (Thou) had-st Past Par. ^ 3. (He)Mc? Past Par. . 3. (They) had Past Par. . Future Perfect Tense. 1. (I) shall have Past Par. ^ 1. (We) shall ha/ce Past Par. , UY^) mil have ^^, ^ ^Yon) will h^ve PaMJ^ ( (Thou) ml-t hoAie Past Par.^ * 3. (Re) will Jiave Past Par. . 3. {Thej) will have Past Par. , POTENTIAL MODE. Present Tense. Bingula/r. Plwal. 1. (I) may Pr^- , 1. (We) Tnay Pres. ^ UYo^l)may __^^_, (You) may Pres. ^ ((Thovi) mav-st Pres. ^ ^ ' ^ ' 3. (He) may Pres. . 3. (They) may Pres. _ Past Tense. 1. (J) might Pres. ^ 1. (We) might Pres. , - S(YovL)might Pres. 2. l/m, X . x. ^~~^ 3. (You) might _Pres^^ i (Thou) might-st Pres. . ^ ^ ■^ ' 3. Qle) might Pres. . 8. (They) might ^^r^s^_. Present Perfect Tense. 1. (I) TO«y AcM)6 PastPm\^ 1. (We) Tmy Aa«e Pa^< Par. , ^ j (You) may have Past Par. c, ,^t . , « v r. 2- 1 (Thou) ma3,-,s« have ^^Z ^^ (^°»> ""'2' ^'^ ^^^^^^^' 3. (He) may ?m>e Past Par. . 3. (They) Jraojr h(we Po"' Pt"-- . Conjugation, 243 Past Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. (I) might have Po^t Par. ^ 1. (We) might have Past_Pa7\^ - \ (You) might have Past_Par. c> ,^t ^ • i.. t. d ^ n 3. l/rru N -7^ ^7 D , p ' 2. (You) might have Pas^Par., i (Thou) might st have Past Par. ^ ^ '^ ' 3. (B.e) might have Past Far. . 3. (They) might have Po^ Pat'- . SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular. 2. (If thou) Pres. ^ 3. (If he)* Pres. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 2. Pres. (you or thou) ; 2. Pres. (ypu or ye). INFINITIVES. Present Tense, Present Perfect Tense. f (To) Pres. . (To) have Past Par., * The subjunctive as a form of the verb is fading out of the language. The only distinctive forms remaining (except for the verb be) are the second and the third per- son singular of the present, and even these are giving way to the indicative. Such forms as If he have loved, etc., are exceptional. It is true that other forms ; as, If he had known. Had he been. Should he fall., may be used in a true subjunctive sense, to assert what is a mere conception of the mind, i. e., what is merely thought of, without regard to its beiBg or becoming a fact ; but in these cases it is not the/on» of the vejb, but the connective or something in the construction of the sentence that de- termines the manner of assertion. In parsing, the verbs in such constructions may be treated as indicative or potential, with a subjunctive meaning. The offices of the different mode and tense forms are constantly interchanging ; a classification based strictly on meaning would be very difficult, and would confuse the learner. t To, as indicated by the ( ), is not treated as a part of the verb. Writers on lan- guage are generally agreed that when (o introduces an infinitive phrase used as an adjective or an adverb, it performs its proper function as a preposition, meaning to- ward, for, etc. ; as, I am inclined to believe, I came to hear. When the infinitive phrase is used as a noun, the to expresses no relation"; it seems merely to introduce the phrase. When a word loses its proper function without taking on the function of some other part of speech, we do not see why it should change its name. In the ex- pressions, For me to do. this would be wrong, Over the fence is out of danger, few 244 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. PARTICIPLES. Present. Past. Past Perfect. Pres. trig. Pggj! Par. ^ Having Past_Paf\^ May, can, and inust are potential auxiliaries in the present and the present perfect tense; might, could, would, and should, in the past and the past perfect. The emphatic form of the present and the past tense in- dicative is made by prefixing do and did to the present. Do is prefixed to the imperative also. To the Teacher.— Require the pupils to fill out these forms with other verbs, regular and irregular, using the auxiliaries named above. Lm%m isi, FORMS OF THE VERB— CONTINUED. Conjugation of the Verb BE. "Direciion.—Learn the following forms, paying no attention to the line at the right of each veri : — INDICATIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. (I) am- , 1. (We) are , „ ( (You) are ^, or „ ,,, , 2' "i/rru \ 4- 2. (You) are , ( (Thou) art , ^ ^ ' S. (He) is ; 3. (They) are . grammarians would hesitate to call for and over prepositions, although they have no antecedent term of relation. We cannot see that to is a part of the verb, for it in no way Jiffects the meaning, a? does an auxiliary, or as does the to in He was spoken to. Those who call it a part of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the " preposition to " (which, as they have said, is not a preposition) " placed before the infinitive," i, e., placed before that of which it forms a part— placed before itself. In the Anglo-Saxon, to was used with the infinitive only in tlie dative case, where it had its proper function as a preposition ; as, nominative, etan (to eat) ; dative, to etanne ; accusative, etan. When the dative ending ne was dropped, making the three forms alike, the to came to be used before the nominative and the accusative, but without expressing relation. Forms of the Verb — Continued. 245 Past Tense. Angular. Plural. 1. (I) was- 2. ( (You) were - ( (Thou) wast or 3. (He) was 1. (I) shall be ( (You) will be - ■i(Thou)wUtbe 3. (He) wiU be — 1. (We) were 2. (You) were — 3. (They) were - Future Tense. 1. (We) shall be - '* 3. (You) will be - 3. (They) will be Peesent Perfect Tense. 1. (I) have been , 1. (We) have been ( (You) have been , or \ (Thou) hast been 3 . (He) has been 2. (You) have been - 3. (They) have been 1. (I) had been ( (You) had been — \ (Thou) hadst been Past Perfect Tense. 1. (We) had been - ' ^ S. (You) had been 3. (He) had been- 3. (They) had been Future Perfect Tense. 1. (I) shall have been , 1. (We) shall have been 2. ( (You) will have been - \ (Thou) wilt have been 3. (He) will have been — or 2. (You) will have been , 3. (They) will have been . 2. (I) may be j (You) may be — \ (Thou) mayst be POTENTIAL MODE. Present Tense. r. Plural. -, 1. (We) may be 3. (He) may be 2. (You) may be - 3. (They) may be- 246 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. (I) might be , 1. (We) might be , „ ( (You) might be , or „ ,^ , . , , , ^. i ,mu \ • v.4.^ V 3. (You) might be , ^Thou) mightst be , v / & > 8. (He) might be ; 3. (They) might be . Present Perfect Tense. 1. (I) may have been , 1. (We) may have been — „ ( (You) may have been , or ^ .^ . -u x. 2. k;^, \ i. u u 2. (You) may have been — ( (Thou) mayst have been , ^ ' •' 3. (He) may have been ; 3. (They) may have been - Past Perfect Tense. 1. (I) might have been , 1. (We) might have been - ^ ((You) might have been ,or o /tt % • ui-i, i, 2- ilThou)m1ghtsthaTebeen-^, 2. (You) might haye been- 8. (He) might have been ; 3. (They) might have been- SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. (If I) be , 1. (If we) be , ^•ii»n)t=ir MHyou,be_, (if he) be ; 3. (If they) be Past Tense. SingvZa/r. 1. (If I) were , - ( (If you) were , or i (If thou) wert , 8. (If he) were — . IMPERATIVE MODE. Present Tense. Plural. 2. Be (you or thou) ; 2. Be (you or ye) Forms of the Verb — Continued. 247 INFINITIVES. Peesent Tense. Present Perfect Tense. (To) be . (To) have been . PARTICIPLES. Present. Past. Past Perfect. Being . Been. Having been . LESSOR 43§. FORMS OF THE VERB— CONTINUED. Conjugation — Progressive and Passive Forms. A verb is conjugated in the progressive form by joining its present participle to the different forms of the verb he. A transitive verb is conjugated in the passive voice by joining its past participle to the different forms of the verb le. Remark. — The progressive form denotes a continuance of the action or being ; as, The birds are singing. Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance — such as love, respect, know — should not be conjugated in the progressive form. We say, I love the child — not, I am loving the child. Remark. — The progressive form is sometimes used with a passive meaning ; as, The house is building. In such cases the word in ing was once a verbal noun preceded by the preposition a, a contraction from on or in ; as, While the ark wa^ a preparing. While the flesh was in seeth- ing. In modem language the preposition is dropped, and the word in in^ is treated adjectively. Another passive progressive form, consisting of the verb he completed by the present passive participle, has recently app'eared in our language — The house is bein^ built. Although it has been condemned by many of our ablest linguists as awkward and otherwise objectionable, yet it has grown rapidly into good use, especially in England. Such a form seems to be needed when the simpler form would be ambiguous, i. e., 248 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. when its subject might be taken to name either the actor or the receiver; as, The child is whipping, The prisoner is trying. Direction. — Conjugate the verb choose in the progressive form by filling all the blanks left after the different forms of the verb be, in the preceding Lesson, with the present participle choosing ; and then in the passive form by filling tliese blanks with the past participle chosen. Notice that after the past participle of the verb be no blank is left. The past participle of the passive is not formed by the aid of be, but is the same in form as the simple active participle. In the progressive, the past participle is wanting. All the participles of the verb choose are arranged in order below. Present. Past. Past Perfect. Simplest form. Choosing, chosen, having chosen. Progressive form. Being choosing, having been choosing. Passive form. Being chosen, chosen, having been chosen. Direction. — Write and arrange, as above, all the participles of ths verbs break, drive, read, lift. To the Teacfoer.— Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them in the progressive and the passive form. Require them to give synopses of all the forms. Require them in some of their synopses to use it or some noun for the subject in the third person. LESSOU 43?. CONJUGATION— CONTINUED. Interrogative and Negative Forms. A verb may be conjugated interrogatively in the indica- tive and potential modes by placing the subject after the first auxiliary ; as, Does he sing f A verb may be conjugated negatively by placing not after the first auxiliary ; as, He does not sing. Not is placed before the infinitives and the participles ; as, not to sing, not Mode and Tense Forms. 249 A question with negation is expressed in the indicative and potential modes by placing the subject and not after the first auxiliary ; as, Does he not sing 9 Remark. — Formerly, it was common to use the simple form of the present and past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus : Loves he 9 I know not. Such forms are still common in poetry, but in prose they are now scarcely used. We say. Does hb love f I do not know. The verbs he and have are exceptions, as they do not regularly take the aux- iliary do. We say, Have you another f Is it right ? Direction. — Write a sy nop sis in the third person, singular, of the verb walk conjugated (1) interrogativ el y, (2) negatively, and (3) so as to express a question with negation. Itememher that the indicative and the potential are the only modes that can be used interrogatively. To the Teacher.— Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and the passive form. Require the pupils to give synopses of all the forms. LISSOM 43S. MODE AND TENSE FORMS. Compound Forms— Analysis. The compound, or periphrastic, forms of the verb may each be re- solved into an asserting word, and a participle or an infinitive used as a complement. If we look at the original meaning of the forms I do write, I shall write, I will write, we shall find that the so-called auxiliary is the real verb, and that write is an infinitive used as object complement. I do write = I do or perform the action (to) write. I shall write = I owe (to) write. I will write = I determine (to) write. May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, would write, and should write may each be resolved into an asserting word in the indicative mode and an infinitive complement. 250 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. The forms is writing, was written, etc., consist each of an asserting word (the verb he) and a participle, used as attribute complement. The forms have written, had written are so far removed from their original meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond with their history. They originated from such expressions as / have a letter written, in which have (= possess) is a transitive verb, taking letter for its object complement, and written is a passive participle modifying letter. The idea of possession has faded out of have, and the participle, having lost its passive meaning, has become a complement of have. The use of this form has been extended to intransitive verbs — Spring has come, Birds have flown, etc., being now regularly used instead of Spring is come, Birds are flown. {Is come, are flown, etc., must not be mis- taken for transitive verbs in the passive voice.) Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus : May have been written is composed of the compound auxiliary may have been and the participle complement written 5 may have been is com- posed of the compound auxiliary may have and the participle comple- ment been ; and may have is composed of the auxiliary may and the infinitive complement have. May is the asserting word — the first auxiliary is always the asserting word. Direction. — Study what has been said above and analyze the follow- ing verbal forms, distinguishing carefully between participles that may be considered as part of the verb, and words that must be treated as attribute complements :— 1. I may be mistaken. 2. The farm was sold. 3. 1 shall be con- tented. 4. Has it been decided ? 5. You should have been working. 6. The danger might have been avoided. 7. He may have been tired and sleepy. 8. She is singing. 9. I shall be satisfied. 10. The rule has not been observed. 11. Stars have disappeared. 12. Times will surely change. Tense Forms— Meaning. The Present Tense is used to express (1) what is actually present, (2) what is true at all times, (3) what frequently or habitually takes place, (4) what is to take place in the future, and (5) it is used in describing past or future events as if occurring at the time of the speaking. Mode and Tense Forms, 251 Examples.— \ Jiear a voice (action as present). The sun gives light (true at aU times). He writes for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips speaks in Boston to-morrow night (future). He mounts the scaffold ; the executioners approach to bind him ; he struggles, resists, etc. (past events pictured to the imagination as present). The clans of Culloden are scattered in fight ; they rally, they bleed, etc. (future events now seen in vision). The Past Tense may express (1) simply past action or being, (2) a past habit or custom, (3) a future event, and (4) it may refer to present time. Examples.— Th& birds sang (simply past action). He wrote for the newspapers (past habit). If I should go, you would miss me (future events). If he were here, he would enjoy this (refers to present time). The Future Tense may express (1 ) simply future action or being, (2) a habit or custom as future or as indefinite in time. Examples. — I shall write soon (simply future action). He loiU sit there by the hour (indefinite in time). The Present Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or being as completed in present time (i.e., a period of time — an hour, a year, an age — of which the present forms a part), and (2) action or being to be completed in a future period. Examples.— Corner Tms written poems (the period of time affected by this completed action embraces the present). The cock shall not crow till thou hast denied me thrice (action completed in a future period). The Past Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or being as completed at some specified past time, and (2) in a condi- tional or hypothetical clause it may express past time. Examples.— 1 had seen him when I met you (action completed at a specified past time). If I had had time, I should hwoe written (I AacZ not time — I did not write). 252 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. The Future Perfect Tense expresses an action as com- pleted at some specified future time. Example.— \. shall have seen him by to-morrow noon. Direction. — Study what has been said above about the meaning of the tense forms, and describe carefully the time expressed by each of the following verbs : — 1. I go to the city to-morrow. 2. The village master taught his little school. 3. Plato reasons well. 4. A triangle has three sides. 5. To- morrow is the day appointed. 6. Moses has told many important facts. 7. The ship sails next week. 8. She sings well. 9. Cicero has written orations. 10. He would sit for hours and watch the smoke curl from his pipe. 11. You may hear when the next mail arrives. 12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much trouble. 13. He will occasionally lose his temper. 14. At the end of this week I shall have been in school four years. 15. If I were you, I would try that. 16. He will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried it. 17. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along her keel. LESSOU I3i. PARSING. Direction. — Select and pa/rse, according to the Model below, the verbs in the sentences of Lesson 42. For the agreement of verbs, see Less. 142. Model for Written i^arsing— Verbs.— The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands. CLASSIFICATION. Verbs. * selling wanders ♦ seek Kind. Pr.Par.,Ir,,Tr. Reg., Int. Inf., It., Tr. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX. Voice. Ac. Ac. Mode. Ind. Tense. Pres. Num. Sing. Per. SdT Mod. of TanTcee. Pred. of " Prin. word in phrase Mod. of wanders. * Participles and infinitives have no subject, and, consequently, no person or number. Parsing. 253 i 1 ^ % i 1 i a , 1 2 1 0. P< 1 'i "S . . ts , 1 ^m a ^ s 6 03 1 •^ ? ! 1 1 "S "5 •s ^ eg I 1^ 5* 1 1 X3 5 1 '§ a 1 1 1 Ph •§ "^a, e |l 1 £ e f«;; ^ a ,• d • 1-^ •«» 1 - ^3 £ S »^. HS frj § ij ;3 1 "^ a ^ 1 g d •^ § J? m 0^ 5 s 1 § ^ s - = 3 S = 3 3 3 (^ » e m 5 ^ (£ I - "S « a< ^ x> •d 1 ,9 CI "* (g e> If ^3 |. 1 1 j 1 <^ i . i t i 1 Q a 5 5 1 s 1^ i i i ^ 1 1 i 1 1 t ;?; ^ ■5" 6 > > >« 06 II S § ^1 li ^ e3 1 1 1 .J3 ^ •g & , 'tZ'^yiycC 'U-e^'i't^^/TM^ ^yn-^, '-C-Ayl^ A Summary of the Rules of Syntax. 315 A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. At the request of many teachers, we here append a Summary of the so-called Rules of Syntax, with references to the Lessons which treat of Construction. I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case. II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infin- itive is in the same case (Nom. or Obj. ) as the word to which it relates. III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive case. IV. A noun or pronoun used as object complement or as objective complement or as the principal word in a preposi- tional phrase* is in the objective case. V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained. For Cautions, Principles, and Examples respecting the cases of nouns and pronouns, see Less. 119, 122, 123, 125. For Cautions and Fxamples to guide in the use of the different pronouns, see Less. 86,87. VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. With two or more antecedents connected by and, the pronoun is plural. With two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor, the pronoun is singular. For Cautions, Principles^ and Examples, see Less. 118, 142. VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. With two or more subjects connected by and, the verb is plural. * An " indirect object " or a noun of measure, etc., used adverbially, is treated as the principal word In a prepositional phrase (see Less. 35). 3i6 A Summary of the Rules of Syntax. With two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor^ the verb is singular. For Cautions^ Examples, and Exceptions, see Zess. 142, VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an adjective or a noun. For Uses of the participle, see Less. 37, 38, 39. IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by to, and with it forms a phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. For Uses of the infinitive, see Less. 40, 41, 42. X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. For Cautions and Examples respecting the use of adjectives and of comparative and superlative forms, see Less, 90, 91, 128. - XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. For Cautions and Examples, see Less. 93. XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified. For Cautions^ see Less. 98, 99. XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clausea For Cautions and Examples, see Less. lOO, 107, XIV. Interjections are used independently. \ \^ / i%;*C*i'»?-.;*:'»^vJi»i;^^^ The Most Reliable and Widely-used Text-Books on Physiology and Hygiene. A COMPLETE COURSE, Fully complying with the Statk Laws requiring Instruction in Physiology AND Hygiene, with Special Reference to the Physiological Effects OF Stimulants and Narcotics. By Joseph 0. Hutchison, M.D., LL.D., Me-President of the New York Pathological Society ; Ex-Vice-President of the Neiv York Academy of Medicine ; Surgeon to the Brooklyn City Hospital ; and late President of the Medical Society of the State of New York. FOR ELEMENTARY GRADES AND UNGRADED SCHOOLS. FiKST Lessons in Physiology. Fully illustrated. 160 pages, IGmo, cloth. FOR GRAMMAR GRADES. The Laws of Health. Copiously illustrated. 223 pages, 16ino, cloth. FOR HIGH-SCHOOLS. ACADEMIES, AND COLLEGES. Physiology and Hygiene. With immei-ous accui-ate aud artistic cuts and colored plates. 3-^0 pages, 12nio, cloth. With the present great number of text-books on Physiology which have been fmlilislied for the suddenly increased demand, and many of them by authors of ittle '»r uo exi»erimental knowledge of llieir subject, we believe tliat teacliers will see the prudence and wisdom of seleciing the works of Dr Hutchison, who, by his hijih professional position and well-kuown reputation for clear and thorough writ- in;^-. is preeminently qualifled for the special work in the Complete Course. From Samuel G. Armor, M.l>., late Frofe>*.sor ill Micliijfan Univer- sity: •" Many of the popnLir woi ks on Physiology now in us>^ in schools, acad- emies, and coll»"ges do not reflect the ])resent state of the science, and some of them abound in absolute errors. The work which Dr Hulchison has trivcn to the public is free from tiiese objection- able f^^at^u•es. I give it my hea> ty com- mendation." from Prof. Rnit G. WIMer. IT.T)., Cornell Uuiv.rsity, lllijica, N. Y. : I have exaini -"d vomewliat carefully Hutchison's Ph:<-si->l .^^y and Hygi'*n«, and "an recommend ir, ns an accurate, InteliiiTible and well-illustrated text- book for schools. From Boston Journal of Chem- istry : This book is one of th*' very fn^w school-*ionks on these subjects which can be unconditionallv recommended. The "Physiology and Hygiene" is probably used in more first-class Schools than jmy other book on a like subject. It is accurate, free from needless tech- nicalities, and judicious in the pi-actical advice it gives on Hygienic topics. The illustrations are excellent, and the book is well printed and bound. From the Boston 31 ed leal and Surgical Journal: " Legishitors Jtre untiring in their efforts to stay the progress of intemperance by Aarious methods, some of which are v\e!la(tvi'^^^^ WORD LESSONS ryLComnletp Speller. Adapted for use in the Higher Primary, Intermediate, and Gram- mar Grades. Designed to teach the correct Spelling, Pronunciation, and Use of such words only as are most common in current literature, and as are most likely to be Misspelled, Mispronounced or Misused, and to awaken ne'Wfi interest in the study of Synonyms and of Word- Analysis. By Aloh^o Reed, A.M., joint author of "Graded Lessons in English," and "Higher Lessons in English." 188 pages, 12mo. The book is a complete SJsM^iler, and was made to supplement the reading lesson and (Ither la^gitage work. 1st. — By grouping those diflficulties which it [would lak' impossible to overcome if met only occasionally and incidentally in the reader. 2d. — By presenting devices to stimulate the S|y^|[> npt only to observe the exact form of words, but to note carefi^l|BaP& use and different shades of meaning. 3d. —By affording a systemipj^coursfe of tinning in pronunciation. Word Lessons recognizes work already done 4n,.Ahe reader, and does not atte'fcipt' it^i^Ketition as do the old spellers, and other new ones now demand ing'Jie'^ention. ^ The author"^ has sptired no trouble in his search among the works of the best vrriters for tjieir best thoughts, with which to illustrate the use of words. Gr^t caii^ has been taken in grading the work to the growing vocabulai ,of the le&rner. Edward S. JoJ^fl^s, Pr fcs soi- of Belles Lettres and^English dtlKture. S. C. College, Colujnb^Sr»j|feLys: "I beg leave to express- my nWjgt \jBdrdial com- mendation of tlie book. Itineets, more perfectly than any other p'fijive e^er seen, the wants of our scljopls. Wher(BV<;r I have opportunity, offlciaHy or otherwise, I shall take pleasure in re'comm ending its introduction." Truman J. Backus, Pres. Packer Col- legiate Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y., says: "The book has more than met expecta- tions.'" C. P. Colgrove, A.B., Prin. Normal School of Upper Iowa University, Fayette, Iowa, says : " I am elad ro see it. It is a move in the right direction. I have been teaching spelling from the read- ing lei^son, but cannot say that I consider the method a success. Nine-tenths of our students fail in orthography." W. H. Foute, Supt. of Public Instruc- tion, Houston, Tex., says: "Athorouj^h and careful examination of the matter of your book has made me a perfect convert to your plan." CLARK & MAYNARD. Publishers, New York. K»i^w r«NTi,v>v«?*rH»iWK;«\v^vT-»7A-:r«^^