/ TH E IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND. ISAAC WATTS, D.D. // CORRECTIONS, QUESTIONS, AND SUPPLEMENT. JOSEPH EMERSON. PEINCIPAL OP THE FEMAIE SEMINARY, WETHEUSFIELD, CONN. J AUTHOR OP THE EVANGELICAL PRIMER, LECTURES ON THE MILLENNIUM, &C. REVISED STEREOTYPE EDITION. BOSTON: PUBLISHED BY JENKS, PALMER & CO., 131 Washington Street; AND SOLD BY THE PRINCIPAL BOOKSELLERS THE0T7GH0UT THE UNITED STATES. ft^The Editor indulges tlie belief, that this volume contains all the Instructions upon education, of much importance, ever written by the excellent Watts. Tlje circumstances, iiiicier which the original work was composed and pulilis'ied, may account for its numerous inaccuracies. These, however, may be regarded as minute spots upon the face of a glo- rious lumiriary. Tliat tliese sliould be wiped away, must be the desire of everj- friend to tlie great author. This has been attempted by one, who begs to be considered among the most ardent and devoted. The corrections relate principally to piiijuiar, punctuation, orthography and superfluous words. TO TEACHERS. Beloved Fellow- Laborers, Permit pie to assure you. that I have found no other human text-book, that appears nearly equal to iliia treatise of Watts, for interest and utility. Having taught it to sixteen classes, it has appeared brighter and brighter, like tlie iinest gold. May you have occasion to esliinale its solid worth still more and more. To teach in the best manner, you must have your own plan. If in any measure, you adopt that of another, you must approve and use it as wholly your own. It umst becoaie, as it were, a part of your very selves, like your daily broad. 1 shall rtjuice, if any of you can derive assistance from the following HINTS FOR TF.ACHI>G WATTS ON TQE MIND. 1. .Assign for a lesson from 3 to 8 pages. 2. Mention any printed questions, which you would omit. 3. Direct your pupils to read the lesson once, chiefly with a view to understand it. 4. Let them read it again, to judge, whether the sentiments are true; to perceive their connertion, and fix in the mind the leaditig tiicmghls. 5. They may read ii, once more, ascertaining and committing to memory the answers to the questions. C. Fill your own mind and heart with the contents and spirit of the lesson. 7. Ask your pupils the printed question?, keeping a record of their performances. 8. Go over tlie lesson again, without record, with much lecturing, ques- tioning ;:ii(l plain talk. 9. Make the utmost eflorts to impress their minds with the truths and duties inculcated. 10. ICncourage them to state with fl-etdoiii their inquiries and objections. 11. Give ihem (pic.Klions to be answere'l in writing or otherwise, at a future recitation. 12. Let their compositions be upon the subjects of their lessons. 13. Let every 5th or Cth lesson be a review of the preceding 1 or ,5, the pupils first recilin; to each other, with nr;tiial certificates, to be recorded. Form of Certificnlc, Miss A — H — has promptly and coriectly recited to me — answers, in the last review. [Date] . C D. 14. Let them review the whole, and be faithfully Examined ul the close of each quirtcr. 1.5 Inquire from time to lime, their manner of stinlying. ]fi. Aflcr two or three years, let them go throuzh Ihe course ngnln. In- quiring p;iriirulMrly, limv far they have practised the directions of Watts, and Willi what advantage. J. £ Kt;icreil sccorilln; to the Act or Cnri EDITORS INTRODUCTION. V "irodijction is suited to afford such a clear, steady, safe, bril- liant light, to direct, animate, and encourage us, in the path of knowledge. Its unrivalled simplicity and perspicuity of style, notwithstanding some minor faults, its lively and touching ^il- lustrations, its plain, sound and useful maxims and precepts, can hardly fail to recommend it to the understanding and heart of every lover of truth. C. Its Grand Characteristic. Its grand characteristic is, that it is so practical. While it is far enough from being an assem- blage of dry maxims, a mere compend of dogmas — v/hile the author most fully, clearly, and delightfully states hjs reasons, he is continually informing us, how to think, how to feel, how to converse, how to act, in order to grow wiser and better — "and better thence again, and better still, in infinite progression." 7. It most luifpihj comhincs theory and practice. Probably in no other work of man, are excellent theory, practical direc- tion and illustration more happily combined. We are addres- sed, as being at once capable of the most noble speculation, and the most useful practice ; and each of these is -made to reflect the most brilliant lustre, from the elfulgeuce of the other. Perhaps it is not venturing too mucli to say, that probably this little voluiiie contains a greater number and weight of useful directions, to aid us in the most important business of life, than are to be found in all the great works of Locke, Reid, Stewart and Brown. 8. Should he faithfully studied. A work, so enriched with instructions — instructions, so excellent, so momentous — instruc- tions, which are continually needful, to regulate our conduct, and rouse our energies — instructions, that should be most fa- miliarly hxed in the mind, and seem to make a part of our very identity — a work, replete with such instructions should be studied ; fuiihfuUti and luhoriously studied. One or two hasty, or even thorougli perusals of such a work, are by no means sufficient. y. Yet ove reading may be useful. Not that in such a case, indeed, the time v^ould be lost. One reading, and that a very rapid one, may prove of real utility to a vigorcus youth, who pants for improvement. Thougli he may be able to retain scarcely a maxim or an idea, for a single year, yet his mind re- ceives impressions, that can hardly fail to be salutary. He is induced to form a higher estimate of knowledge and mental improvement, and his heart beats higher and more effectually Grand clmrartei if tic of this work .' | In what manner, sliould it be What inforniatinn is tlie author j studied 1 continvially givin;; MS 1 \ Of \yhat, may one reading of this What does this work most liap- \ work induce a person to form a higU- ptly combine 1 — Meaning of ihcory ? | er estimate 1 1* Xi EDITOR S INTRODL'CTIOX. for their attainment. Pride, egotism, prejudice, dogmatism prating, reviling, &e. are here most powerfully assailed ;. and thoucrh he gains but very faint and obscure viewd of these evils, yet he sees something of their odious delbnnities, and receives an impulse, to hate, avoid and sliun tliem ; while on the other hand, he gains a glimpse of the beauty and loveliness of candor, docility, meekness, kindness, affability, liberality of feeling, and independence of thought, wiiicii urges hiin to assume and wear these more than earthly ornaments An impression is thus made upon his feelings and habits, which tends to give a turn to his future pursuits, and to reuder him greater and bet- ter. It must be confessed, however, that in such a case, such happy results, would be very likely to be in a great measuie, prevented by untoward circumstances. There is probably no other book, that will more richly reward the labor of ten or fifteen hours' cursory application. The style is so luminous, the thouglits so weigiity, the illustrations so striking, tliat it seems hardly possible to read a page of it, without some advantage. 30. IVatts a Pdluddo. Perhaps no writer is more like the picture of his own favorite Pellucido, vvliich he lias so finely drawn, than Watts himself. " Swnetimcs," s.ays he, "you will find a person, who in his conversioTi or his writings, deliv- ers his thoughts in so plain, so easy, so familiar and perspicu- ous a manner, that you both understand and assent to every thing he says, as fast, as you read or hear it. Hereupon, some have been ready to concUuie in haste, " Surely, this man says none but common things. 1 knew a.s nuich before, or, I could have said all this myself." This is a frequent mistake. Pellu- cido was a very great genius. Wiien he spoke in the senate, he was wont to convey his ideas in so simple and ha()])y a man- ner, as to instruct and convince every hearer, and to enforce llie conviction through the whole illustrious a.'^.sombly ; and tiiat with so much evidence, that you would h.ave bec-n ready to wonder, tliat every one, who iiad spoke, had not said the same things. But Pellucido was the only man, that could do it." 11. Danger from tliis cxcrllencc. One evil, iiowever, may result from this incomparable e.xccllenco of Watts. As we do not give him credit fctr half tlie instructions we receive from him, we are not so liiiely to jjondcr them, to fi.x them in our minds, and make special efforts to apply them in practice, an though tiiey were more difficult, and had more of the charm of novelty. Doubtless, many might have derived much more advant.age from this work, if it had not appeared bo easy niij Why iR il Inrilly poH.^ihN-rfo reail f For what, are we nut likoly to a page of it, without ailvantngo? } give the author full credit ' KDITOR'S INTRODUCTION. VH familiar — so much like an old acquaintance and friend. Hav- ing read it once or twice thronjjh, and perhaps reviewed some parts of it, they seemed to know alaiost tiie wliole of it, while in fact, their practical acquaintance was almost notliing. They afterwards continued to talk at random, to dispute at random, to read at random, to tiiink at random, &c. very much as they had done before. The admired maxims of Watts were not sufficiently known, to prove of any considerable advantage ; at least their utility was almost nothing, compared with what it might have been. lience it appears exceedingly desirable, that this work slionld be studied, faith fully,, laboriously and abundantly studied, and often reviewed and pondered. 12. The hnoioledgc of ill is icork a grr.ut altainment. To be- come tlioroughly acquainted with this work, to gain a familiar knowledge of all its practical instructions, to ap]>ly them con- tinuall}' to the great busuiess of thought, feeling and action, is a task far greater, than any person, at first, can easily imagine. I have been grieved and distressed, to find after the tenth pe- rusal — nay, after teaching its contents more than ten times — after lecturing and conversing much upon the various topics, I have been grieved and disLicssed, to find how many of its admi- rable precepts, I had but imperfectly learned, and more imper- fectly practised. Yet I cannot but indulge a hope, that this work has been of some advantage to me — that every hour, that I have spent in studying, pondering, teaching or recommend- ing its contents, has conduced to aid me in the regulation of my thoughts, feelings and pursuits — has conduced to render my practice less defective, tnan it otherwise would have been. Had I reguliirly and thoroughly studied it in my childhood and youth — h;\d I been cheered and animated, by affectionate and ardent classmates, and aided by a kind, able and faithful teach- er, there is no doubt, that the advantage might have been in- comparably superior. O that it had been the appointed text book of my youth, instead of the immortal work of Locke. 13. Should be taught to millions. It is my heart's desire and prayer to God, that millions of youthful students, of the pres- ent, and of future ages, may deri.ve from tins work, all the ad- ' vantages, that I have realized — all that 1 might have gained, and much more. For such an object, 1 would gladly do some- thing more, than to wish and pray. Sometliing more than this, 1 have indeed already done. For fourteen years, it has been my most delightful task, season after season, to instruct a class in Watts. No otlier literary branch, that I have taught, has been so gratifying to mj^sclf, and probably no other so interesting, or so jirofitable, to successive pupils. Under no other instructions, have I witnessed such manifest improve- ment of mind. via EDITORS I-VTRODDCTIOS. 14. Different victhods of teaching it. With diflertnt classes, I have pursued methods somewhat different, hoping, however, that I have been enabled to make souie improvement from year to year, and certainly finding my task more and more delight- ful. So far from fading — so tiir from growing old and dry, this tree of intellectual life has appeared more green and more fra- grant every year. 15. Written Questions. For some years, I liave used writ- ten questions. Notwithstanding the labor of transcribing, the advantage of these has been manifest. Tiie questions are doubt- less much better, than I could suggest extemporaneously. They direct the pupils' attention to the most important points of in- struction ; and are suited to rouse their attention to a particu- lar consideration of those points. But perhaps the most im- portant advantage is, by asking the same questions over and over, and especially by using theni at examinations, forever to rivet the most ijnportant/ideas in the mind. There is not the least reason to think, that this could be nearly so well eftected in any other way. If the whole book were committed to memory verbatim, it is doubtful, whether the knowledge ac- quired, would be so much, or so permanent. Or if the pupil should learn all the ideas, so as to be able to answer every minute question, he would not be likely to distinguish between the more important and the less important ; and would be in danger of much sooner forgetting the whole together. 16. It is an advantage of fixed qucsliuns, that they aid and encourage thepvpils to question each other. It is most deeply to be regrettecf, that some distinguished teachers are disposed to object to the use of fixed questions, writtx?n or ])rinted. Sure- ly their objections will not stand the test of judicious, faithful experiment, and sound philosophy. \( questions already ex- tant, are not good, let them make and ])nblish better. The method of using fixed questions, is un^^oubtedly tht> greatest improvement, that has been extensively adopted by teachers of the present age. Some extemporaneous question:-!, however, should be interspered with these, to ensure the pupil's atten- tion to his whole lesson ; not that he may become equally ac- quainted with every minute particular, but that he may have a- clear view of the connection, and fully understand the most important parts. ^V'liicli qiiesiiiina are likely to be j memory every idea, even the most best, writion iir exlcinpriranpoiiH 1 j miinilo .' To what, do wriuen (lue.sliuns j What in probably tbe grnnfest im- dirfct Ibe pupil's ftlttMiliiiii 1 1 provciiiciit, iliat lias recently been Mo3t important iidv^llilaj.'c of writ- \ adopted in tearliinql ten (pivstiuns ? | Why should oxtemporaneoufl quos- Meaniiig of rrrftof/m 7 I lions bo inttrsp'^rscd f Wlmt if the pupil comniit!i to | EDITORS INTRODUCTION. IX 17. Printed (Question.''. Tliougli some special avlvantajrcs may result from iisiiitr qirestions in manuscript, and from the pupil's transcribing them, it seems much betier, on the whole, that they should be printed, it saves the great labor of tran- scribing. This is more especially the casr, when important ad- ditional questions, with answers, are thro /n in among them. Such are a great number of the follpwin/; questions ; at least, it is hoped, that they will be found valuable. These,- with the answers, are to be considered a part of tiie Supplement. 18. *"/ Sapplciiient to this work desirable. It sceins pecu- liarly desirable, tiiat this supplement, in a concise and cheap form, should be added to tliis work of Watts. The whole work of Watts on the Improvement of the Mind, may be con- sidered, as consisting of three parts, . But the volume, bearing this title, so extensively circulated, and so mucli admired, con- tains only the first of these parts. This first part is longer, and unquestionably very much better, than the other two. Some parts of these two, however, are much more valuable, than some parts of tlie first, and may well constitute a part of the Supplement. Still more important parts may be drawn from his Logic. And here it is important to be considered, that the author seems to take it for granted, that tliose, who attend to his work on the Improvement of the Mind, are already ac- quainted with his Logic. In consequence of this, no doubt, the former work is considerably difi'erent, from what it other- wise would iiavebeen. It seems, then, of peculiar importance, that some parts, at least, some ideas, should be taiien from the Logic, to supply intentional omissions in the other work. Such supplement is here attempted. 19. Definition- (Questions. It is earnestly desired, that no one may be displeased with the questions, requiring definitions for answers. In proportion to the ground they occupy, these may be found the most useful of all the questions. 20. Importance of defining words- There is, probably, no other branch of literary education of equal importance, that is so neglected, or iniperfectly taught, as defining — no other, that has now such demands upon the attention of teachers. It is often astonishing and grievous to see, how grossly ignorant are children and youth, and even men and women, of the meaning o^important words and phrases — an ignorance, which in gen- eral, they are very far from feeling or mistrusting. They can- not e.xpress their thoughts, for the want of words ; and often they e.xpress thoughts, very different from what they intend, because they do not understand the words they employ. And Advaiinge of having the qiies- i Why are many unable to express tlons printed, rather than in manu- ! their thoughts? script 1 I Why tlo many express thoughts S - EDITORS OTKODUCTION. very frequently from the same cause, they take no idea, or wrong ideas, from what they read and hear. Probably, more than three fourths of the disputes, that have troubled the world, have arisen from the ignorance or misapprehension of words •No doubt, one of the greatest reasons, why so little good is effected by preaching, is, that the language of the preacher is but very imperfectly understood by most of the hearers. Said a venerable and pious lady to her little grandchild, just re- covering from sickness, " Now, you must be thankful." But the poor little cliild did not know — could not guess, the mean- ing o{ thanl.f'ul ; and was afraid to ask. So her excellent in- struction was lost upon the child, at least for years, till he ascertained the meaning of the word. So it is, no doubt, with a great part of the instructions, that parents and teachers, as well as ministers, give to those under their care. A remedy for these various and abounding evils, is devoutly to be wished and sought. VVliatisit.' FroiHT attention to the exercise of defining, is doubtless one of the remedies, and perhaps the best of all. And it would be easy to show, that all other methods must be inetl'ectual to gahi an accurate knowl- edge of words, at least of many words, without this. But the e.ifercise of defining, may not only prevent much evil, but efl!ect much positive good. ^Vhen ])roperly attended to, it is one of the best of exercises for improving at once the memory and the judgement, and storing tiie mind with useful knowledge. And when a good acquaintance with language, 1 mean the vernacular language, is once acquired, this knowl- edge is one of the best aid.?, ever devised by human ingenuity, to assist the reasoning faculty 'in the searcli of truth. We make much use of words in thinking, especially in close tliink- ing ; and it is perhaps impossible to pursue a train of thought, to any consider.ablc length, without their aid. But how olten do we impose upon ourselves, and draw wrong conclusions, by imperfectly understanding the words, we silently and per- haps insensibly use, or by using them in difterent senses. And how often do we think in words, of which we have no definite understanding, flattering ourselves, that we are nobly investi- gating thougiits and things, while in reality, we are only mak- ing progress in pride and darkness. As words arc only tl»< fiigns of thoughts and things and the relations of things, so it is very imj)ortant, in order to imj)rove our acquaintance with thoughts, tilings and relations, tliat we should have a very dear and correct knowledge of the meanings of words, or th^ ob- did'rrent from what tli(;y intend 1 i Wli.it rensiin is incntion/il, why VVIiat liaH caused a. ({real part of j so littlu |!ooil is donu by p.-cncliingt tlif! ilixputes, that have troubled the | VVIiat is nicnlioiie \ WATTS'S PREFACE. XV lenity of my readers, if they will please to ic^o-rd these papers as parcels of imperfect sketches, which "ere designed by a sudden pencil, and in a thousand leisure moments, to be one day collected into landskips of some I'-tle prospects in the re- gions of learning, and in the world --t' common life, pointing out the fairest and most fruitful sr-^^s, as well as the rocks and wildernesses and faithless mora-'^s of the country. But I feel age advancing upon me, an-' ^7 liealth is insufficient to per- fect what I liad designed, -o increase and amplify these re- marks, to confirm and im'-ove these rules, and to illuminate the several pao-es with a r'-'iPr ^^^'^ more beautiful variety of ex- amples. The suhiec- '^ almost endless, and new writers in the present and in foll''*v''^o ^S^^ "^'^7 ^^ill find sufficient follies, weaknesses and (Augers among mankind, to be represented in such a manner/ '^s to guard youth against them. These hir-'^? such as they are, I hope may be rendered some way usefu? to persons in younger years, v/hci will favor them with a ; by very short and hasty sketches. \ Meaning of latent! — of gcniusl Con3e\ 3 Author's Preface, .v I3 Importance of knowledge and mental iwovement, . . 17 Sixteen general rules for gaining kno\\'*,clffe and im- provement, 20 Observation, reading, instruction by lectures cujversa- tion and study, compared, , . , 37 Rules relating to observation, , . gi Of reading and books, 55 Judgment of books, 74 Of living instructions and lectures — of teachers and learners, 8G Of inquiring into the sense and meaning of any writer or speaker, and especially the sense of the sacred writings, !M Rules of improvement by conversation, 97 Of disputes, 113 The Spcratic way of disputation, 125 Of study, or meditation, 129 Of fixing the attention, 141 Of enlarging tlie capacity of the mind, 144 Of improving the memory, . 16(J Of dctcrminining a question, 185 Of inquiring into causes and effects, 202 Of the Bciences, and their use in particular profcssioos, 206 INTRODUCTION. lairORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE AND MENTAL IMPROVEMENT. No man is obliged to learn and know every thing. This can neither be sought nor required ; for it is utterly impossible. Yet all persons are under some obligation to improve their own understanding. Otherwise, it will be a barren desert, or a forest overgrown with weeds and bram- bles. Universal ignorance or infinite errors will over- spread the mind, which is utterly neglected, and lies with- out any cultivation. Skill in the sciences is indeed the business and profession but of a small part of mankind. But there are many others, placed in such an exalted rank in the world, as allows tliem much leisure and large opportunities to cultivate their rea- son, and to beautify and enrich their minds with various knowledge. Even the lower orders of men have particular callings m life, wherein they ought to acquire a just degree of skill ; and this is not to be done well, without thinking and reasoninsf about them. Suliject of the introduction ? Difieronce between knowlerl^e and mental improvement? Knowl- edge is the store of information, which the mind possesses. Mental improvement is the progress of tlie mental faculties. Meaning of procp-ess ? What is a mental faculty ? Tlie mind itself, considered as capable of acting, feeling or existing^ in a cer- tain manner or state. How is this definition illustrated In the case of perception, attention, memory, judgment and sensibility ? Perception is the mind, considered as capable of perceiving ; attention is the mind, considered as capable ot attending, Ace Why is no man obliged to learn every thing.' What evil will be likely to result from attempting to learn too many things ? Nolliing will be learnt well , and the faculties will be injured by distraction. Meaning of dlslraction ? Who ought to improve their minds? What will be the mind, if unim- proved ? In what, should the lower orders of men acquire skill.' VVIiat mental effort Is necessary for this ? 18 author's I.NTRODDCTIGN. The common duties and benefits of society, wliich belong to every man living-j as we are social creatures, and even our native and necessary relations to a fajiiily, a neiijlibor- hood, or a government, oblige all persons whatever to use thek reasoning powers upon a thousand occasions. Every hour of life cfells for some regular exercise of our judgment as to times and things, persons and actions. Without a prudent and discreet determination in matters before us, we shall be ])lunged into perpetual errors in our conduct. Now, that winch should always be practised, must at some time, be learnt. Besides, every son and daughter of Adam has a most im- portant concern in tlie affairs of a life to come ; and there- fore, it is a matter of the highest moment for every one to understand, to judge, and to reason right about the things of religion. It is in vain for any to say, We have no leisure or time for it. The daily intervals of time, and vacancies from necessary labor, together with the one day in seven in the Christian world, allow sufficient time for tliis. If men would but apply themselves to it witli lialf as much zeal and diligence, as they do to the trifles and amuse- ments of this lifj, and it would turn to infinitely better account. Thus it appears to be tlie necessary duty and the interest of every person living to improve his understanding, to in- form his judgment, to treasure up useful knowledge, and to acquire the skill of good reasoning, as far as his station, capacity and circumstances furnish him with proper means. Our mistakes in judgment may plunge us into much folly and guilt in practice. By acting without thought or reason, we dislionor the God that made us reasonable creatufcs, we often become injurious to our neighbors, kindred or friends ; and we bring sin and misery u])on ourselve*s. For we are accountable to (iod our judge for every part of our irregular and mistaken conduct, where he has given us sufllcient advantages to guard against those mistakes. About wlint slilijocts, is it most i ilesiraHle, timt all sliouUI nrqiiire? tiii|iiirtnnt, lliut \vu should reasuii i Into what, may our mistakes in correctly ? J jiulmoeiit pluiipo us ? Wliy is It in vain for any one to | Wlioni do \vv dislinnnr, by acting say, that lie haa no time to attend to | witlioiil reason ? — Wliy .■' roli'jiiin? ! Wlien are we accountable to God, What if m<"n were as /ealouA for } for our mistakes r religious kno'.vleilgf, as they uje for j What is l,oj;ic.' The artof inveo- trifles? I tipati:!); and coinmnnirating trutllf Wliut mental skill is it peculiarly | Meaning oCinvcsl\salc1 author's INTRODDCTION. 19 It is the design of Logic to give this improvement to the mind, and to teach us the right use of reason in the acquire- ment and conmiunication ot all useful knowledge ; though the greatest part of writers on that subject, have turned it into a composition of hard words, trifles and subtilties, foi- tlie mere use of the schools, and that only to anmse the minds and the cars of men with empty sounds, which flatter their vanity, and puflT up their pride, v/ith a pompous and glittermg show of false learning ; and thus they have per- verted the great and valuable design of that science. A few modern writers have endeavored to recover the honor of Logic, since that excellent author of the Art of Thinking led the way. Among the rest, I have presumed to make an attempt of the same kind, in a treatise published several years ago, wherein it was my constant aim to assist the reasoning powers of every rank and order of men, as well as to keep an eye to the best interest of the schools, and tlie candidates for true learning. There I have en- deavored to show the mistakes, we are exposed to, in our conception, judgment and reasoning ; and pointed out the various springs of them. I have also laid down many general and particular rules, liow to escape error, and attain truth in matters of civil and religious life, as well as in the sciences. But there are several other observations, very pertinent to this purpose, which have not fallen so directly under any of those heads of discourse; or at least, they would have swelled that treatise to an improper size ; and therefore, I iiave made a distinct collection of them liere, from various authors, as well as from my own observation, and set them down under the following heads. The learned world, who has done so m.uch unmerited honor to that logical treatise, as to receive it into our two Of what, does Logic leach us the J soiiin;; faculty .' Judijment. right use ? ! Mure exact definition of jud^nient.' What is reason ? The faculty, by I Tlie faculty, by which we perceive which we compare ideas, and draw \ relations, inferences. I [nio what, has Logic been turned Meaiiirif! of ni/ercnce? A truth or ! by many writers ? proposition, drawn from others. . \ W'liat would Watts have us cnn- Technicnl name of the proposi- ! sider this book, in relation to his tions, from which inferences are ! treatise of Logic ? drawn? Tremises. | Why have some tlionsrlif, that it Meaning o{ technical 7 \ should rather be considered tlie first Another nanie for inference ? Con- | part? Because it is more easily un- elusion. I derstood, and more intereslin-;. More appropriate name of tiie rea \ 20 UEiNERAI. KULES FOil GAIMiVQ KNOWLEDGE. flourishing universities, may possibly admit this as a second part or supplement to that treatise. And I may venture to persuade myself, that if the common and tlie busy ranks of mankind, as well as the scholar and the gentleman, would but transcribe such rules into their understandnig, and practise them upon all occasions, there would be much more truth and knowledge found among men ; and it is reasona- ble to hope, that justice, virtue and goodness would attend as the happy consequences. CHAPTER I. SIXTEEN" GENERAL RULES FOR GJIxMNG KNOWLEDGE AND IMPROVEMENT. I. Deeply possess your mind with the vast importance of a good judgment, and the rich and inestimable advan- tage of right reasoning. Review tlie instances of your own misconduct in life. Tliink seriously witli yourselves, how many follies and sorrows you had escaped, and how much guilt and misery you had prevented, if from your early years, you had but taken due pains to judge arigiit con- cerning persons, times and things. This will awaken in you a lively vigor to address yourselves to the work of im- proving your reasoning powers, and seizing every oppor- tunity and advantage for that end. II. Consider the weaknesses, frailties and mistakes of human nature in general, whicii arise from the very con stitution of a soul united to an animal body, and by this subjected to many inconveniences. Consider the many additional weaknesses, mistakes and frailties, which are de rived from our original apostasy from a stite of innocence: liow niucli our powers of unde-rstanding arc yet more dark- ened, enfeebled and imposed upon, "by oiir senses, on- fnncins, onr unruly passions, (Si c. Consi'der tlie dei)tli and difficulty of many truths, and tlic flattering appearances of Of what, does tlio first chapter consist ? t^iil.stanrc (if the first rule? We 6h GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGi:. 21 falseliood ; Avhence arise an infinite variety of dangers, to wliich wc are exposed in our judgment ot" things. Read with eagerness, those authors, that treat of the doctrine of prejudices, prepossessions, and springs of error, on purpose to make your soul watcliful on all sides, tliat it suffer not itself to be imposed upon by any of them. See more on this subject, LogiCj Part If. Chap. '3. and Part III. Chap. 3. III. A slight vievr of things so momentous, is not suffi- cient. You should, therefore, contrive and practise some proper methods, to ace^uaint yourself witli your own igno- rance, and to impress your mind with a deep and painful sense of the low and imperfect degrees of your present knowledge, that you may be incited with labor and activity, to pursue after greater measures. Among otliers, you may find some such methods as these' successful. . 1. Take a wide survey, now and then, ef the vast and unlimited regions of learning. L'ot your meditations run over the names of all the sciences, with tlieir numerous brandlings, and iimumerable particular tiiemes of knowl- edge ; and then reflect, how few of them you are acquaint- ed" with, in any tolerable degree. The most learned of mortals will never find occasion to act over again wliat is fabled of Alexander the Great, that when he had conquered what was called the Eastern World, he wept for more worlds to conquer. The worlds of science are immense and endless. What works should we read most i prejudice 1 Principally, by keeping eagerly, in order to correct our jiidg- | the attention upon 0116 side of the meiit? I question. Meaning o( prejudice 1 A judg- | How does bad logic produce prejii- ment witliout evidence, or a state of ! dicel By using bad rules of reason - mind, that tends to sucli judgment. S ing, or aliusing good ones. Ijiteral meaning of jjreJM.iic6? Pre- | 'i'o what interests, is prejudice in- judging. \ jnrious T 'J'o all — temporal, spiritual Are our prejudices in favor of per- X and eternal, sons and tilings, or against them 1 | How shall we cure our present Which prejudices are most numer- J prejudices, and . guard against \\i\- oua, those in favor of objects, or ! bibing more ! By faithfully attend- tliose against them 1 Perhaps about j in g to logic, by studying the scrip- equal. I tures, by conversing with the wise At what age of life, are persons \ and good, by watchfulness and pray- influenced by prejudice .' i er, and by the faithfulness of judi- When do persons most easily im- \ cious friends. bibe prejudice 1 | Vv'lio-e ignorance should we most When are prejudices strongest! ! deeply feel and deplore 1 Principal ctiuses of prejudice "] In- j Meaning of rf(7)/orp? (lolencCjWrong feelings and bad logic, i Mention some of the methods, that How does indolence produce pje- | may lead us to feel our ignorance 1 judicel By preventing proper e\- i Meaning nl immcmsc'! — of t/Kurcm? amination. ! — of dr.mnnstratinn? of bev}Uder7 — How does wrong feeling produce j of tjacuiim? — oi' incrcdtble 1 22 GE.NKRAL RUl^TS FOR G\IMNG KKOWJLEDGE. 2. Think, wliat a numberless variety of quesUons and difficulties there are, belonging even to tiinc particular science, in which you i)ave made the greatest progress, and liow few of them there are, in which you l.-ave arrived at a final and undoubted certainty ; excepting- only those ques- tions in the pure and simple mathematics, whose tiieorems are demonstrable, and leave scarcely any doubt. And yet even in the pursuit of some few of these, mankind liave been strangely bewildered. 3. Spend a few thoughts sometimes on the puzzling in- quiries concerning vacuums and atoms, the doctrine of infinites, indivisibles and incommensurables in geometry, wherein there appear some insolvable difficulties. Do this, . on purpose to give you a more sensible impression of the poverty of your understa.'iding, and the imperfection of your knowledge. Tiiis vill teach you, v.'hat a vain thing it is to fancy, tlmt you know all things ; and will instruct you to think modestly of vour present attainments, when every dust of the eiirtl), ana'every inch of empty space surmounts your understanding, and triumphs over your presumption. Arithmo had been bred up to accounts all his life, and thought himself a complete master of numbers. But when he was pushed hard to give the square root of Uie number 2, he tried at it. and labored long in millesimal fractions, until lie confestied there was no end of the incpiiry ; and yet he learut so nuich modesty by tiiis perplexing question, that he was afraid to say, it was an impossible tiling. It is some good degree of improvement, wlicn we are afraid to be positive. 4. Read the accounts of those vast treasures of knowl- edge, which some of the dead have possessed, and some of the living do possess. Read, ninl be astonished at the almost incredible advances, which fiave been made in sci- eiice. Acquaint yourselves witli s"m.e persons of great learning, that by converse among them, and comparing yourselv{!s with them, you may acquire a mean opinion ot your own attainments, 'and may be thereby animated with new zeal to equal them, as far as possible, or to exceed. Thus let your diligence be quickened by a generous and Wliat ddcs it indicate, when wc 1 projpalily in tlip wmnp. are afraid to no positive 1 j What, dors the aiiihor sny, sltouhl What is said of the fool in Prov. j aniinntu lis witli zeal to increase oui 14 : 1G1 I ultainniriits'! Wliat eonrliision .nay wo draw,! ' What is emulation 1 A ileaire to conceniiMi; a man, who appears out j surpass others, rageously roiifideiit 1 'J'hal he is t V\'lifii if rule, respecting genius ■? case '! To make us grieve. > What, besides genius, is neces- Should enmlation be encouraged 1 sary to make a person truly wise 1 or not 1 Good emulation should be | Study and tlie blessing of God. encouraged, and bad emulation op- ; If persons neglect study in yoiitli, posed. \ what is likely to be the character of Why is it, that some good men | their elder life 1 Contemptible, profess to he opposed to all eniula- | Why do witty men sometimes pre- tion"? Probably, by mistaking the s tend to despise argument 1 Because meaning of the word. | they cannot reason. If we exalt ourselves upon some J 24 GENERAL RCLES FOR GAINING KNOWLEDGE. tacks of argument, or boldly pretend to despise and re- nounce them ; because tliey are conscious of Uieir own ignorance, and inwardly confess tlieir want of acquaintance with tlie skill of reasoning. V. As you are not to fancy yourself a learned man, be- cause you are blessed with a ready wit, so neither must you imagine, that large and laboiious reading, and a sti"ong memory, can denominate you truly wise. It is meditation and studious thought, it is the exercise of your own reason and judgment upon all you read, tha:t gives good sense even to the best genius, and affords your snderstanding the truest improvement. A boy of strong memory may repeat a whole book of Euclid, yet be no geometer ; for he may not be able perhaps to demonstrate one single theorem. Memorino lias learnt half tlie Bible by heart, and is become a living concordance, and a speak- ing index to theological folios, and yet he understands little of divinity. A well furnished library and a capacious memory are indeed of singular use toward the improvement of the mind. But if all your learning be nothing else but a mere amass- ment of what others have written, Avithout a due penetra- tion into their meaning, and without a judiciom choice and determination of your own sentiments, I do not see, what title your head has to true learning, above your shelves. Thougli you have read Philosopliy and Theology, Morals and Metaphysics in Jibundance, and every other art and science, yet if your memory is tlie only faculty cinjjloyod, you can justly claim no higher character than tliatof agood historian of the sciences. Here note, Many of the foregoing advices arc more peculiarly proper for those, who are conceited of tlieir abili- ties, and are ready to entertain a hitrh opinion of them- selves. But a modest, humble youth of a good genius, slwuld not suffer himself to be discouraged by any of these considerations. They are designed only as a spur to dili- gence, and a guard against vanity and pride. VI. Bo not so weak, :is to imagine, that a life of learning is a life of laziness and ease. J)are not give up yourself to any of the learned professions, unless you are resolved to VVlial of reading, under tlie fiflli nilel VVIint !- but the gown and the name. VII. Let t.fie hope of new discoveries, as well as the satisfaction and pleasure of known trutlis, animate your daily industry. l)o not think learning in general has ar- rived at its perfection, or that the knowledge of any par- ticular subject in any science cannot be improved, merely because it has lain five liundred or a tliousand years, with- out improvement. The present age, by the blessing of God on the ingenuity and diligence of men, has brought to light, such truths in natural philosophy, and sucli discove- ries in tlie heavens and the earth, as seemed to be beyond the reach of man. But may not there be Sir Isaac New- tons in every science ? You should never despair, there- fore, of finding out, that which has never yet been found, unless you see something in the nature of it, which renders it unsearchable, and above the reach of our faculties. Nor should a student in divinity imagine, tlmt our age has arrived at a full understanding of every thing, which can be known by the scriptures. Every age smce the Reformation, has tlirowu gome further light on difficult Meaning of the Latin plirase, La- ( Meaning of unsfarchahlc 7 bor ipse voluplasl Labor itself is > Upon what, lias liglit been thrown, pleasure. \ in every age, since tlie Ileforniationl Why (lid fianguiiios choose to be | What relbrniatioii is here meant 1 brought up a scholar"! i The great reformation from I'opery, How was he regarded in his pro- \ begun by Martin Luther. — Wheni fession 1 ; In 1517. To wliat, should the hope of new I Why is it called Oie Rcformationi discoveries animate ns1 i By way of eminence, because it was In what cases, sliould we not des- I so great and iiiii>ortant. pair of inakini' discoveries! \ 3 2G UENEKAL RULES FOK GAINING K>0WLED6E. texts and paragraphs of the Bible, which had been long obscured by the early rise of Antichrist; and since tliere are at present many difficulties and darknesses hanging about certain trutlis of the Christian Religion, and since several of these relate to important doctrines, such as the Origin of Sin, the Fall of Adam, tiic Person of Christ, the blessed Trinity, the Decrees of God, &.c. which do still embarrass the minds of honest and inquiring readers, and wliich make Avork for noisy controversy ; it is certain there are several things in the Bible yet unknown, and not suffi- ciently explained ; and it is ceriain, that there is some way to solve these difficulties, and to reconcile these seeming contradictions. And why may not a sincere teaclier ot truth in the present age, by labor, diligence, study and prayer, with the best use of his reasoning powers, lind out the proper solution of those knots and perplexities wliicb liavc hitherto been unsolved, and which have afforded mat- ter for an^ry quarrelling ? Happy is every man, who shall be favored of Heaven to give a helping hand toward that introduction of the blessed age of light and love. VIII. Do not hover always on the surface of things, nor take up suddenly with mere appearances ; but pene- trate into the deptli of matters, as far as your time and cir- cumstances allow, especially in those things, wiiich relate to your own profession. Do not indulge yourselves to judge of things by the first glimpse, or a short and superficial view of them ; for this will fill the mind ■with errors and preju- dices, and give it a wrong turn and ill habit of thinking, and make much work for retraction. Subito is carried away with title pages, so that he ventures to pronounce upon a large octavo at once, and to recommend it wonderfully when he had read half tiie Preface. Anotiier volume of controversies of equal size, was discarded by iiim at once, because it pretended to treat of the Trinity ; and yet he could neither find the word es5t?ice nor siibsistcncies, in the By what, had tliosc passages been t Stato oriuiinkind during that age ! obscured 1 — l.iteriil ineiuiinBof.4Hf(- | Peniliarly Imly ;md liappy. See thrill! An adversary (d' (Jhrist. — i Isaiah 2: MeaniiiR of a/irrr.vucy / i Meaiiiiig of ohscurel — of emhar- To what dnen Aiilirhrial here re- j ra.^sl — of .su/cc ? ferl 'J'ho Pap.il power. i If wo jiidiie of thinps by tlie first MeanWiR of y'vith inconstancy. T confess, it is better not to judge, than to judge falsely ; and it is wiser to withhold our assent, till we see complete evidence. But if we have too suddenlv given our assent, as the wisest man does some- times, ii we have professed what we find afterwards to be false, we should never be. ashamed nor afraid to renounce With what, does Furio charge, Wliat is a dbgmatist in danger of those, who refuse his notions.'' } becoming? Against what, does he say, they \ Can you now mention three or sin ? (four great evils of dogmatism ? When such men deal in contro-; What should we be willing to re- jpersy, in what do they delight ? S tract .' — to confess ? Meaning of controversy 1 < Meaning of rciract? Meaning of OHteo-oni5t? I AVhich is worst, to judge falsely, of heresu 7 — of aital/tema ?— of bi^ot ? } or not to judge ? 3* 30 GENERAL RULES FOR GAINING KNOV'LEDGE. a mistake. That is a noble essay, that is found among the Occasional Papers, to eneoiu'age tlie world to practise re- tractions ; and I would recommend it to tlie perusal of every scholar and every Christian. XII. He, that Avould raise his ju'dgments above the vul- gar rank of mankind, and learn to pass a just sentence on persoiis and things, must take heed of a fanciful temper of mind, and a humorous conduct in his affairs. ' Fancy and humor, early and constantly indulged, may expect an old age over-run with follies. A humorist is one that is greatly pleased or greatly dis- pleased with little things ; Avho sets his licart much upon matters of very small importance ; who has liis will deter- mined every day by trifles, his actions seldom directed by the reason and nature of things, and his passions frequently raised by things of little moment. Where this practice is allowed, it will insensibly warp the judgment to pronounce little things great, and tempt you to lay a great weight upon them. In short, this temper will incline you to pass an un- just value on almost every thing that occurs ; and every step, that you take in tiiis patli, is just so far out of the way to wisdom. XIII. For the same reason, have a care of trifling with tilings important and momentous, or of sporting with tilings awful and sacred. Do not indulge a spirit ot ridicule, as some Avitty men do on all occasions and subjects. This will as unhaj)pily bias the judgment on the other side, and incline you to pass a low esteem on the most valuable objects. Whatsoever evil habit we indulge in practice, it will insensibly obtain a power over our understanding, and betray us into many errors. Jocander is ready witli his Jest, to ansAver every tiling tiiat he licars. He reads books in the same jovial luimor, and has got tlic art of turning every tliouglit and sentence into merriment. How many awkward and irregular judgments does this man pass upon liiilemn subjects, even wJicii lie designs to be grave and in earnest? llis mirtii and laughing humor is formed into Mnaniiii; iif Aiim«n.«t? | Scripture, or rolato serious nnec- Upoii wli.il, will this temper in- | dulrs, for mere aiiiiispineiitl Never dine IIS to plnce .in undue vniuc ! i Inr mere .iiniisenient, tliough we Willi wlial tilings, sliuuld wu nut j may Noinctiiiius relate such, as are trille 1 t amusing. Willi what BiilijeclH, in it peculiar- j Willi what, is .(ocander ready to ly criiniiiul tuHpurt 1 Keli[;iuus.sul)- | answer every tliiiin, that lie hears 1 jecls. i Into what, does he turn every t*liuuld wc mention passages or { thought and sentence 1 OK.NEUAL RULES KOil CiAIMNG KNOWLEDGE. 31 habit and temper, and leads his understanding shamefully astray. You will sec him wandering in pursujt of a gay flying feather, and he is drawn by a sort of ignis fatuus into bogs and mire, almost every day of his life. XIV. Ever maintain a virtuous and pious frame of spirit; for azi indulgence of vicious inclinations debases the un- derstanding, and perverts the judgment. Licentiousness and new wine, take away the heart and soul and rea- son of a man. Sensuality' ruins the better faculties of the mind. An indulgence of appetite and passion enfeebles the powers of reason ; it makes the judgment weak and susceptive of every falseiiood, and especially of such mis- takes, as have a tendency towards the gratification of tlie animal •, and it warps the soul aside strangely from that stedfast honesty and integrity, th^t necessarily belongs to the pursuit of truth. It is the virtuous man, who is in a fair way to wisdom. " God gives to those, that are good in his sight, wisdom and knowledge and joy." Ec. 2: 2G. Piety toward God, as well as sobriety and virtue, are necessary qualifications to make a truly wise and judicious man. He, that abandons religion, must act in such a con- tradiction to his own conscience and best judgment, that he abuses and spoils the faculty itself It is thus in the nature of things ; and it is thus by the righteous judg- ment of God. Even the pretended sages among the Hea^ thens, " who did not like to retain God in their knowledge, were given up to a rejjrobate mind ;" an undistinguishin^ or injudicious mind, so that they judged inconsistently, ana practised mere absurdities. Rom. 1 :28. And it is the character of tlie slaves of Antichrist, 2 Thes. What cffeKt ii|)()n his tiiidtTstaiul- S are good in his sight 1 ing, has Jocander's huichingliiimdrl \ V\ hat is implied in beins; pood in How'! liydiverliiii; liis attention ! the sight of God 1 A good life, and from the merits of the siihjcct. ! a ^ood heart. Meaning of ii-/;(teH.,-? I 'J'wo great commandmenta of the That which dazzles, to lead astray. \ law of God 1 Mat. 22 : :i7, :!9. What frame of spirit should we ; Teni'ency of acting contrary to maintain, in order to advance in S conscience and judijflient I knowledge and nienCal improve > Wliom vverethe lleiilhen sagesun- nient ? \ willing to retain in llieir knowledge ? What intluenre npon the mind, | To what, diil God give the!n up ? >)as vicious indiil;:ence 1 1 Meaning oC reprolmlc mind'! — of What does God give to those, who \ sage 1 — of IranaubsUiiUialiou ? 32 GENERAL RCLES FOR GAI>'IXG K>OVVL£DGK. 2 : 10, &c. that those " who receive not the love of tlie truth," were exposed to the power of diabolical sleights and lying wonders. . When divine revelation shines and blazes in the face of men with glorious evidence, and tlicy wink their eyes against it. the God of this Avorld is sulTcred to blind them, even in the most obvious, common and sensible things. The great God of heaven, for this cause, " sends them strong delusions, that they should believe a lie ;" and the nonsense of transubstantiation in the po])ish world, is A most glaring accomplishment of this prophec}^ beyond ever what could liave been thought of or expected among crea- tures who pretend to reason. XV. Watch against the pride of your own reason, and a vain conceic of your intellectual powers, with the neglect of divine aid and blessing. Presume not upon great attain- ments in knowledge by your own self-sufficiency. Those, who trust to their own understanding entirely, are pro- nounced fools in tlie word of God : and it is the wisest of men, who gives tliem tJiis cliaracter. " He, that trusteth in his ov/n heart, is a fool," Prov. 28 : tiG. And tiie same divine writer advises us to " trust in the Lord with all our heart, and not to lean to our own understandings, nor to be wise in our own eyes," Cha]), .') : 5, 7. Those, Avho witli a neglect of religion, and of dependence on God, apply themselves to search out every article in the things of God, by the mere dint of their own reason, have been suffered to run into wild excesses of foolery, and strange extravagance of opinions. Every one, who pursues this vain course, and will not ask for tlic conduct of (lod in the study of religif)n, has just reason to fear he .shall be IcR of God, and given uj) a prey to a thousand prejudices ; tliat he shall be consigned over to the follies of his own hearty and pursue his own temporal nnd eternal ruin. And even in common studies, v/e should by humility and dependence, cngMgo t!ie God of truth on our side, aVF. Offer up, tlicrefore, your daily requests to God, the Father of ligiits, that he would bless all your atteiupta and labors in reading, study and conversation. Think witli Agnh)' iliviiicl)li'.ssiii(' upon our iiitcllertiiiil \Vli;il does the Srripliirc r.'ill Iilni. i hiliors? V'ho tniHlH ill I1I4 own h<^'\rl ? J .Mraninir tit' clue? — oTinlricateJ — Whai, is IhiTK rrasoii to fi-ar, wc j of liil'iirinl.ti'! — tif inifilorcl fliall Im left to piirniie, ilwcil'inot | Meaiiiiii; of a Kaliii phrase under wck lh(! iliviin- aid in llie iiivcstiya- j rule IG? Cod is tlie pourcc or bo- lion ol triitli 1 ; ijiMiiini;. UEKERAti RULES I'OR GAIMiNG KNOWLEDGE. 33 yourself, how easily und liow insensibly, by one turn of Uiought, ho can lead you into a large scene of useful ideas., He can teach you to lay hold on a clue, which may guide your thoughts with safety and ease, througli all tlie difficul- ties of an intricate subject. Think, how easily the Author of your being can direct your motions, by his providence, so that the glance of an eye, or a word striking the ear, or a sudden turn of tlie fancy, shall conduct you to a train of happy sentiments. By this secret and supremo method of government, he can draw you to read such a treatise, cfr to converse witli such a person, who may give you more light into some deep subject in an hour, than you could obtain by a month of your own solitary labor. Think with yourself, with how much ease the God of spirits can cast into your mind, some useful suggestion, and ^ive a happy turn to your own thoughts, or the thoughts of those, with whom you converse, whence you may derive unspeakable light and satisfaction in a matter, that has long puzzled and entangled you. lie can show you a path, "which the vulture's eye has not seen," and lead you by some unknown gate or portal, out of a Avildeirness and laby- rinth of difficulties, wherein you have been long wander- ing. Implore constantly his divine grace, to point your incli- nation to proper studies, and to hx your heart there. He can keep off" temptations on the right hand and on the left, both by the course of his providence, and by the secret and insensible intimations of his Spirit, fie can guard your un- derstanding from every evil influence of error, and secure you from the danger of evil books and men, which might otherwise have a fatal effect, and lead you into pernicious mistakes. Nor let this sort of advice fall under the censure of the godless and profane, as a mere piece of bigotry or enthusi- asm, derived from faith and the bible ; for tlie reasons, which I have given to support this pious practice of in- voking the blessing of God on our studies, are derived from tlie light of nature as well as revelation. Ho, that made our souls, and is the Father of spirits, shall he not be sup- posed to have a most friendly influence toward the instruc- tion and government of them ? The Author of our rational powers can involve them in darkness, when he pleases, by a sudden distemper, or he can abandon them, to wander into dark and foolish oi)inions, wlicn they are filled with a vain conceit of their own light. He expects to be acknowl- 31 GENERAL RULES FOR GAI.MNU KJSO'.VLEDGE. edged in the common affairs of life, and he docs as cer- tainly expect it in tlic superior operations of the mind, and in the search of knowledge and truth. The Latins were taught to saj'-, A Jove principhun miisce. In the works of learning, they thought it necessary to begin with God. Even tlie poets call upon the muse as a goddess, to assist them in their compositions. The first lines of Homer in his Iliad and Odyssey, the first line of Museus in his song of Hero and Leander, the beginning of Hesiod in his poem of Works and Days, and several others, furnish us with sufficient examples of tliis kind. Nor does Ovid leave out this piece of devotion, as he begins his stories of the Metamorpliosis. Christianity so much the more obliges us by the precepts of Scripture, to invoke the assistance of the true God in all our labors of the mind, for the improvement of ourselves and others. Bishop Saunderson says, tliat study without prayer is athC' ism, as well as, that prayer ivithout study is presumption. And we are still more abundantly encouraged by the testa- mony of tliose who have acknowledged from their own experience, that sincere prayer was no hinderance to their studies. They have gotten more knowledge sometimes upon their knees, than by their labor in perusing a variety of au- thors ; and they have left this observation tor such as follow, Bene orassc est bene studuissc. Praying is the best studying. To conclude, let industry and devotiun join together; and you need not doubt the happy success, Prov. 2: 1 — 6. " My son, if thou wilt receive my words, aiid hide my com- mandments within thee ; so tluit thou incline tliine ear unto wisdom, and apply thine iieart to understanding ; yea, if thou criest after knowledge, and liftest up thy voice for un- derstanding ; if tliou seclvest her as silver, and srari-hest for her as tor hid treasures ; then shalitliou understand the fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of God. For the Lord givcth wisdom : out of his mouth coincth knowledge and understanding." Note ], itv the Editor. [Prayer for inslruiiion. — It is earnestly desired, tliat these excellent remarks of Watts upon })ray(:r in cuiiuection with study, may not be lost upon a single pupih May he attend to them closely, ponder tliem deeply, and improve them AccordiriR In iiislicip SauiiderKon, j What desirn is exprefsrd In Uin wli;it iH Htiidy witlidul jiriijcrl — j bcgiiiiiiiiK ol'Nute I. I pr»ycr wlllioul iitudv 1 ! GENERAL KU1.ES FOli GAINING KNOWLEDGE. 35 faithfully. Perhaps there is no other subject, which in pro- portion to its imj)ortance, has been so little regarded in the pursuit of literature as prayer. If we would gain knowl- edge, we should seek it irom tl*e Father of lights. If we would have a wise and understanding heart, we should seek it from llim, whose understanding is inlinite ; not in the way of sloth and idleness, but in the assiduous use of ihe appointed means. We must dig for knowledge, as well as cry for it. Here the pupil is advised, to turn to that admirable passage in Prov. 2 : 1 — 9, and study these verses, till he can almost or quite repeat them ; and endeavor to understand and feel and relish the Aveighty thoughts. He is also advised,not only to offer his daily prayer for di- vine instruction, but to put up two or three sliort petitions, as he commences the study of each lesson. They may be purely extemporaneous or not ; they may be compos- ed wy himself or otliers ; they may be read or repeated. These circumstances are of no importance, provided the prayer is breathed forth, from a contrite and fervent heart. Perhaps some of the following forms may be helpful to those, wht) have had little or no experience in crying to God after knowledge, and lifting up their voice for under- standing. * Form of Prayer for a Student. — O thou Father of lights and God of grace, I beseech thee, to pardon my unworthi- ness, to enfighten my mind, to invigorate my faculties, to quicken my attention, to deliver me from prejudice, and enable me to pursue my study with great success, that I may be prepared for usefulness and glory, for the Redeem- er's sake. Another. — O thou Sun of righteousness, thou Light of the world, I entreat thee to enlighten my soul. Shine upon llie pages before me. May I understand them. May I be enabled to distinguish between the precious and the vile. If they contain any thing, not true, may I be enabled to On wliiit special occasions, should i ciirfe the special blessing of God upon we pray, that Cud would aid us in \ our effbits. gainiui; knowledge 1 ! What use may w? make of the Should we pray extemporaneous- \ following forms of prayer's ly, or otherwise ! How must we i Should we confine ourselves to pray, in order that our prayers may * these 1 By no means, avail'! ! What if we do not need themi How can prayer conduce to fur- > It will be better to pray without nish our minds with knowledge? ! them. It tends to m-il;e us love it more ar- | What if students were as much denlly, to seek it more vigorously, I engaged in seeking knowledge from patiently and candidly, and to pro- | God as from books? 36 GEMERAL RULES FOR GAIfflXG K.\OWLEU(iE. perceive and reject it ; and %vlialever is true and importar.:, may I hide in my heart, and improve it to thy glory, and tli • good of mankind, for Christ's sake. Another. — Q thou gracjous Giver of every good gift, 1 desire to bless and praise tliee, that there is a spirit in man, and thy inspiration gives him understanding ; that thou hast, thus exalted him above the beasts of the field and tlie fowls of heaven. I beseech thee to increase my understanding, that every faculty may be greatly improved and invigora- ted ; that every lesson may add to the precious stock of knowledge, and tliat it may conduce to the good of man- kind, and my own immortal benefit, through Jesus Christ tlie Redeemer, to wliom he glory everlastinof. Amen. Another. — Most great and gracious God, 1 desire forever to bless and praise thee, for the noble faculties of my soul. I have reason to blush and to be ashamed, that I have made 60 little effort for their improvement. 'O Lord, how haje I hated instruction, and despised reproof. I beseech thee to forgive my great transgression, and all my other transgres- sions, and enable me hereafter most vigorously and de- voutly to improve all my means of knowledge and under- standing, and prepare for life eternal, for tlTe Redeemer's sake. Form of Prayer for the iLse of one ivho is studying the Scriptures. — O Gou of nature and of grace ; Father of an- gels and of saints, I bless tiiec for the light of sim, moon and stars. But more especially would I praise thee, for the light of redemption ; the light that beams forth from the face of Jesus, that glows on the pages of thy holy word. To this holy word, may I ever take heed, as to a light sinning in a dark place. O Lord, I beseech thee to show me thy glory ; teach me wondrous things out of thy law ; open my v.nderstanding, that 1 may understand the Scrip- tures ; quicken my memory, to retain thy truth ; and my iieart, to obey it ; that by thy word and Spirit, I may be trained for everlasting lift.-, through Jesus Christ, to whom be honor, i>raise, doiuluion and glory forever. Amen. Another. — FalJicr of lights, and f'Vuntain of knowledge, I thank thee iur t!ie IJible — that all Scripture is given by tJ)y insj)iriition, and that it is ])rofitable for doctrine, for re- proof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness. May It be thus profitable to me. Mny I read it with close and devout attention, with understanding, with love. May it be the joy and rejoicing of my hoiiI, and may it nourish ine up into everlasting life, fur Christ's sak<:L . Amen. THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 37 Another. — O Lord, I entreat thee, to assist me in reading tliy word. May I receive it into a good and honest heart. May it conduce to make me perfect, to fiirnisli me for every good, and to prepare me for heaven, for Christ's salte. Amen. If students, were as much engaged to seek knowledge from God, as they are to gain information from books, no doubt it would liave a most happy influence to hasten the blessed day, Avhen tlie watchmen shall see eye to eye, and the earth be filled with the knowledge and salvation of the Lord.] CHAPTER IL OBSERVATION, READING, INSTRDCTION BY LECTURES, CONVEKSAIION AND STUDY, COMPARED. There are five emment means or methods, whereby the mind is improved in the knowledge of things, and these are observation, reading, instruction by lectures, conversation and meditation ; which last in a most peculiar manner, is called study. Let us survey the general definitions or descriptions of them all. L Observation is the notice, that we take of all occur- rences in human life, whether they are sensible or intel- lectual, M'liether relating to per!?ons or things, to ourselves or others. It is this, that furnishes us, even from our in- fancy, with a rich variety of ideas and propositions, words and plu-ases. It is by this, we know, that fire will burn, that the sun gives light, that a horse eats grass, that an acorn produces an ofik, that man is a being capable of rea- soning and discourse, that our judgment is weak, that otir mistakes are many, that our sorrows are great, that our bodies die, and are carried to the grave, and that one gen- eration succeeds another. All those tilings, wliich we see, which we hear or feel, which we perceive by sense or con- Siiliject of the second chapter 1 i first— conversation next 1 General view of the Five Methods \ Wliat is observation r Tlie notice of saining iiislriiction. J we take of objects. Wliat are tlie five methods of in- | Wliere are tliose objects in rela- struction .■' ! tion to oiirselves ? t'ome of them Wliat is the best arrangement of ) are within us, and same, witliout us. these -1 I Wliat objects can we observe with- Why should observation be placed | in us ^ • 4 38 THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. sciousness, or which we know in a dii-ect manner, with scarcely any exercise of our reflecting faculties, or our reasoning powers, may be included under the general name of observation. When this observation relates to any thing, tha# immedi- ately concerns ourselves, and of which we are conscious, it may be called experience. So I am said to know or expe- rience, that I have in myself a power of thinking, fearing, loving, &c, tiiat I have appetites and passions, working in mc, and that many personal occurrences have attendeame in this life. Observation therefore includes all that Mr. Locke means by sensation and reflection. When we are searching out the nature or properties of any being, by various metliods of trial; or when Ave apply some active powers, or set some causes at work, to observe, what effects they would j)roduce, this sort of observation is called experiment. So, when I throw a bullet into water, I find it sinks ; and when I throw the same bullet into quick- silver, I sec it swims ; but if I beat out this bullet into a thin, hollow shape, like a dish, then it will swim in the waller too. So, v/hcn I strike two flints together, I find they i)roduco fire ; when I tiirow a seed into tlie earth, it grows up into a plant. Ail these belong to the first method of knowledge, which I call observation. II. Reading is tliat means or method of knowledge, whereby we acquaint ourselves with what other men have published to the world, in their writings. These arts of read- ing and writing arc of infinite advantage ; for by them, we are made partakers of the sentiments, ouservutions, reason- ings and improvements gf all the learned world, in tiio most remote nations, and in former ages, almost from the begin- i«g of mankind. Name of lliis; inward oliservation 1 i How? Ily using iiietliods of In- More technical name 1 Consci- | stnictlnn, and presenting motives. OUBneKS. I Me:in\i\ii of iiinlirr.7 Oeneral meaning of ohscrcalinnJ > 'J'wo crand distinclions in read- Notice of external nlijocts. j ing? Silent and audible. By how many ReoMeH, do we ob- i Meaning of awi/iV/fc? serve externals 1 — Wliat are they ? i Dc.iign of silent readingi — ofau When we employ caiiseit, in order \ dihio? to witn(!H8 their eli'ects, what in the 1 Which kind of reading does the operation called 1 | author here mean 1 Mention some experiments. j Of what, may we ho made par- Ciin we inukc expuriments n|)un | takern hy meanii of reading 1 . miiidii 1 THE FIVE niETUOUS COMPAIU'D. 39 III. Public or private lectures are such verbal instruc- tions, as are given by a teacher, while the learners attend in silence. This is the way of learning religion from the pulpit, or philosophy or theology from the professor's chair or mathematics, by a teaclier, showing us various theorems or problems, that is, speculations or practices, by demon- stration and operation, with all tlie instruments of art neces- sary to those operations. IV. Conversation is another method of improVing our minds, wherein by mutual discourse and inquiry, we learn the sentiments of others, as well as communicate our senti- ments to them, in the same manner. Sometimes indeed, though both parties speak by turns, yet the advantage is only on one side ; as when a teacher and a learner meet and discourse together ; but frequently the profit is mutual. Under this head of conversation, we may also rank dis- putes of various kinds. V. Meditation or study includes all those exercises of mind, whereby we render all the former methods useful for our increase in true knowledge and wisdom. It is by meditation, we come to confirm our memory of tilings, that pass through our thouglits in the occurrences of life, in our own experiences, anu in the observations wo make. It is by meditation, that we draw various inferences, and estab- lish in our minds general principles of knowledge. It is by meditation, that we compare the various ideas, which we derive from our senses, or from tlie operations of our souls, and join them in propositions. It is by meditation, that we fix in our memory, whatsoever we learn, and form our own judgment of the truth or falsehood, the strength or weak- ness, of what others speak or write. It is meditation, oi^ What are lectures 1 f What is a proposition 1 An as- What common religioiis exercise i sertion, in wliicli one tiling is cle- may be considered lecturing 1 ! clared lespecting another. What is conversation 1 Mntnal i Grand e.\ccHence or defect of ever>' discoiirs-e. — Meaning of wufiwi/? \ proposition'! Every proposiUon is Meaninir of conversation, as used | eitlier true or false. in Scripture 1 i What does every truth become, Which of the five methods is pe- I when expressed 1 A true i)ropos;- ciiliarly fitted to render the others \ turn. useful! I What does every falsehood be- What word does Watts here use I come, when expressed 1 A false aa syr.omynious with merfitaaoH? ! proposition. Meaning of .■■;/7ii)ni/moMs? ; \Vhat is a proposition, existing By what exercise, do we general- I merely in the mind, without being ly fix ideas in the memory 1 — draw \ expressed 1 A mental proposition, inferences'? — join our ideas, so as to i What is the grand business of form propositions 1 | logic 1 To ascertain, whether pro- 40 THE KIVK METHODS COMPARED. study, that draws out long chains of argument, and searches and finds deep and difficult truths, which before lay con- cealed in darkness. It would be a needless thin^ to prove, that our own soli- tary meditations, together with the few observations, that the most part of manlcind are capable of making, are not sufficient of themselves, to lead us into the attainment of any considerable proportion of knowledge, at least in an age so much improved as ours, without the assistance of conversation and readmg, and other proper instructions, that are to be attained in our days. Yet each of thooO five methods has its peculiar advantages, whereby they assist each other ; and its peculiar defects, which need to be sup- plied by the others' assistance. Let us trace over some of the particular advantages of each. I. One method of nnproviug the mind is observation; and the advantages of it are these. 1. It is ov/ing to observation, that our mind is furnished ■with the first, simple and complex ideas. It is this, lays the foundation of all knowledge ; and makes us capable of usin^ the other methods for improving the mind. For, if we did not attain a variety of sensible and intellectual ideas, by the perception of outward objects, by the con- sciousness of our own appetites and passions, pleasures and pains, and by inward exjjerience of the actings of our own spirits, it would be impossible either for men or books to teach us any thing. It is observation, that must give us our first ideas of things, as it includes sense and conscious- ness. 2. All our knowledge, derived from observation, whether it -be ofsinMe ideas or of propositions, is knowledge gotten at first hand. Hereby, wc see and know tilings, as they are, or as they appear to us ; we take the impressions of them on our minds, from the original objects themselves ; which give a clearer and stronger concci)lion of things. These ideas are more lively ; anu the propositions, at least in many cases, arc much more evident. Whereas, what positions are true or false. VVIiiil iii.iy we infer from tliisi That the siilijecl of propiisitions iH e.vceedincly iiii|)oitanl,n8 it is n suit ject, witli wliicli nU Initli is iiiti- mntcly coiinerted. Wliicli of the fi methods has its peculiar excelletires and ilcferts 1 How many are llie cliicf excel- letires of oliservnlion 1 What are tliey 1 I'rom ohserv.i- tioii, we reieive our first ideas — ideas at fust liaiid — ideas more rieni and livclv-:-foiiiidation of all other ideas — pain continually. From what, do we take impree- sions of things, by olu:rrvulioii 1 THE FIVE JMEXnODS COMPARED. 41 knoAvledge -vve derive from lectures, reading and conversa- tion, is but the copy of other men's ideas ; that is, the pic- ture of a picture ; and is one remove further from tho original. 3. Anotlicr advantage of observation is, that we may gain knowledge all the day long, and every moment of our fives ; and every moment of our existence, we may be add- ing something to our intellectual treasures, except only while we are asleep ; and even then, the remembrance of our dreamings will teach us some truths, and lay tJie foun- dation for a better acquaintance with human nature, both in its powers and frailties. II. The next way of improving the mind is by reading ; and the advantages are such as these. 1. By reading, we acquaint ourselves, in a very exten- sive manner, with the affairs, actions and thoughts of the living and tlie dead, in the most remote nations, and in most distant ages ; and that with as much ease, as though they lived in our own age and iiation. By reading, we may learn something from all parts of mankind. Whereas by observation, we learn all from ourselves, and only what comes within our own direct cognizance. By conversation, we can only enjoy the assistance of a very few persons, namely, tliose who are near us, and live at the same time. But our knowledge is much more narrowed still, if we con- fine ourselves merely to our own solitary reasonings, with- out much observation or reading ; for then, all our miprove- mcnt must arise only from our own inward poM'ers and meditations. 2. By reading, we learn not only the actions and the sentiments of drstant nations and ages, but we transfer to ourselves, the knowledge and improvements of the most learned men, the wisest and the best of mankind, when or wheresoever they lived. For though many books have been written by weak and injudicious persons, yet the most of those books, wliich have ootained great reputation in the world, are tlie products of great and wise men in their Of what, are the ideas derived | learn — consult dictionaries — choose from lectures, reading and con versa- . our companions — dismiss them at tion, the copies 1 _ I pleasure. With wliat, may we 'g^i'" s'orne | To what objects, are we limited acquaintance, by means of dreams'? i in observation 1 Chief advantages of readinii? By ! To what sources of knowledge, readinsj, we may converse with tlie I are v.e confined in conversation 1 remotest ases and nations — with the i Principally to cotemporaries and wisest and best of men — learn their \ neighbors. best thoughts — review what we | 42 TUE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. several ages and nations ; whereas we can obtain the con- versation and instruction of those only, who are within the reach of our dwelling, or our acquanitance, whether they are wise or unwise ; and sometimes that narrow spliere scarce- ly affords any person of great eminence in wisdom or learn- ing, unless our instructor happens to have tliis character And as for our own study and meditations, even when we arrive at some good degrees of learning, our advantage for further improvement inlcnowledge by them, is still far more contracted, than what we may derive from reading. 3. When we read good authors, we learn the best senti- ments, even of those wise and learned men. l^'or they studied hard, and committed to writing, their maturest thoughts, and the result of their long study and experience. Whereas, by conversation, and in some lectures, wc obtain, many times, only tlie present thoughts of our tutors or friends, which, though they may be bright and useful, yet, at first perhaps, may be sudden and indigested, and are mere hints, which have risen to no maturity. 4. It is another -advantage of reading, that we may re- view what we read ; Ave may consult the page again and again, and meditate on it, "at successive seasons, in our serenest and retired hours, having the book always at hand. But what we obtain by conversation and lectures, is often- times lost, as soon as the company breaks up, or at least, when the day vanishes ; unless we happen to have liic tal- ent of a good memory, or quickly rctu-e, and note down, whatrcmarkables we have found in these discourses. And for the same reason, and for want of retiring and writing, many a learned man has lost several useful meditations of his own, and could never recall them. III. The advantages of verbal instructions by public or private lectures, are these. 1. There is soumtliing more sprightly, more delightful and entt.Ttaining in lIielivingdiscour.se of a wise, learned and well qualilicd teacher,' tluin in silent reading. The verv turn of voice, the good pronunciation, and tlie polite and alluring manner, which some teachers have attained, will engage the attention, keep the soul fi.xcd, and insinuate What kind of tlipiights, do we | "What mny rondiiri; to roniler Ice- generally pain in ronvfrsnlinn 1 i luring peculiarly iiiti;restiMg1 Elo- AdvanlagcsoficcturL'sl l,(>itiires i iinencc. are iicnorally inorc inlcllipiblu liian j ^VIlat other method is lecturing reuilini;, more inJerrHi inn — may lie j ninsl like? illiHtratcd l-y cx|ieriinent8— may ad- j Meaning o( compendium 1 — inteUi- mit urqiiiri^liuMS. j giblcl — simUUudel THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 43 into the mind, the ideas of things in a more lively and forci- ble way, tlian the mere reading- of books in the silence and retirement of the closet. 9. A tutor or instructor, when lie paraphrases and ex-' Slains other autliors, can mark out the precise point of ifficulty or controversy, and unfold it. He can shew you, whicli paragraphs ar.e of greatest importance, and which are of less moment. He can teach his hearers, what authors, or what parts of an author, are best worth reading, on any particular subject ; and thus save his disciples much time and pains, by shortening the labors of their closet and pri- vate studies. He can sliew you, what were the doctrines of the ancients in a compendium, which perhaps would cost much labor. He can inform you, what nev/ doctrines or sentiments are rising in the world, before they come to be public, as well as acquaint you with his own private thoughts, and his own experiments and observations ; v/liich never were, and perhaps never will be. published to the world ; and yet may be very valuable and useful. 3. A living instructor can convey to our senses, those notions, with v.hich he would furnish our minds, when he teaches us natural philosopjiy, or most parts of mathemati- cal learning. He can make the experiments before our eyes. He can describe figures and diagrams, point to the lines and angles, and make out the demgnstration in a more intelligible manner, by sensible means, which cannot be done so well by mere reading, even though we should have the same figures lying in a book before our eyes. A living teacher, therefore, is a most necessary help in these studies. I might add also, tliat even v/herc the subject of discourse is moral, logical or rhetorical, &c. and whicli does not directly come under tJie notice of our senses, a tutor may explain his ideas by such familiar examples, and plain simili- tudes, as seldom find place in books. 4. When an instructor in his lectures delivers any mat- ter of difiiculty, or expresses himself in such a manner, as seems obscure, so that you do not take his ideas clearly or fully, you have opportunity, at least when the lecture is finished, or at other proper seasons-, to inquire, how such a sentence should be understood, or how such a difficult)' may be explained and removed. If there be permission given to free converse with the tutor, either in the midst of the lecture,- or rather y t the end, concerning any doubts or difficulties, that occur to the hearer, this brings it very near to conversation or discourse. 44 THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. IV. Conversation is. the next method of improvement and it is attended with the following advantages. 1. When we converse familiarly with a learned friend, we have his own help at hand, to explain to us every word and sentiment, that seems obscure in his discourse, and to inform us of his wiiole meaning ; so that wc arc in much less danger of mistaking his sense ; whereas in books, what- soever is really obscure, may also abide always obscure, since the autlior is not at hand, that ^ve may inquire his sense. If we mistake the meaning of our friend in conversation, we may be quickly set at right again. But in reading, we many times go on in the same mistake ; and arc not capa- ble of recovering ourselves from it. Thence it comes to pass, that we have so many contests, in all ages, about the meahing of anc.ent authors, and especially the sacred writers. Happy should we be, could we but converse with Moses, Isaiah and Paul, and consult the prophets and apostles, when we meet with a difficult text! But that glorious conversation is reserved for the ages of future blessedness. 2. When wc arc discoursing upon any theme with a friend, we may propose our doubts and objections against his sentiments, and have them solved and answered at once. The difficulties, tjiat arise in our minds, may be removed by one enlightening word. Whereas in reading, if a difB- culty or question arises in our thoughts, which the author has not happened to mention, wc must be content without a present r.nswcr or solution. Books cannot speak. •i. Not only the doubts, v.hich arise in the mind upon any subject of discourse, ;iro easily proposed and solved in conversation, but t.he very difficulties we meet with in books and in oUr private studies, may find a relief by friendly con- ference. Wc may pore ujion a knotty point in solitary meditation many months, witliout a solution ; because per- haps wc have gotten into a v.rong tract of tliought ; and our labor is not only useless and unsuccessful, but it leads us perhaps into a train of error, for want of being corrected in the first step. But if we note down this difficulty, when wc read it, we may propose it to an ingenious correspcnd- AdvantnppH of converdafinn ? It } without pnlilicexiwismc — shows ua affords opfiorliiiiily lor PX|)hiii;iti;9 frieiidKliip— improves tlie lectins II yiilijcrl. It pci iiliarly stiniu- ! manners. taleH the faculticj — allowM iritlcistn, | THK FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 45 ent, ■\vhon we sec him ; we may be relieved in a moment. He beholds the object perliaps in a different view, sets it before us in f|uitc another light, itnd leads us at once into evidence and truth, and that, with a delightful surprise. 4. Conversation calls out into li^nt, MJiat has been lodged in the recesses and secret cluunuers of the soul. By oc- casional hints and incidents, it brings old useful notions into remembrance. It uijfolds and displays the hidden treasures of knowledge, ^vith which reading, observation and stud}', h-ad before furnished the mind. By mutual dis- course, the soul is awakened, and allured to bring fortli its hoards of knowledge ; and it learns, how to render them most useful to mankind. A man of vast reading, without conversation, is like a miser, who lives only to himself 5. In free and friendly conversation, our intellectual powers are more animated, and our spirits act with a supe- rior vigor in quest of unknown truths. There is a sharp- ness and sagacity of truth, that attends conversation, be- yond what wc find, 'Avhile we are shut up, reading and musing in our retirements. Our souls may be serene in solitucfe, but not sparkling, though perhaps we are employ- ed in reading the works oTthe brightest writers. Often lias it happened in free discourse, that new thoughts are strange- ly struck out, and the seeds of truth sparkle and blaze through the company, which in calm and silent reading, would never iiave been excited. By conversation, you avuI both give and receive this benefit ; as flints, when put into motion and striking against each other, produce living fire on both sides, whicn would never have risen from the same hard materials in a state of rest. 6. In generous conversation, among ingenious and learn- ed men, we have a great advantage of proposing our opin- ions and of bringing our own sentiments to the test, and of learning in a more compendious and a safer way, what the world Avill judge of them, how mankind will receive them, what objections may be raised against them, what defects there are in our scheme, and how to correct our own mis- takes ; which advantages are not so easy to be obtained by our own private meditations. For the pleasure we take in our own notions, and the passion of self-love, as well as the narrowness of our own views, tempt us to pass too favoura- ble an opinion on our own schemes ; whereas the variety To what, does Watts romparo a ? vorsation "? — M man of vast reading, without con- | [eaning of mu^crl 4c THE FIVE METUUDS COMPARED. of genius in our several associates, will give happy notices, how our opinion will stand in the view of mankind. 7. It IS also another considerable advantage of conversa- tion, that it furnishes the student yv'it'a the knowledge of men and the affairs of life, as reading furnishes him with book-learning. A man, who dwells all his days among books, may have amassed together a vast heap of notions ; but he may be a mere scholar, which is a contemptible sort of character in the world. A hermit, Avho has been shut up in his cell in a college, has contracted a sort of mould and rust upon his soul, and all his airs of behavior have a cer- tain awkwardness in them. But these awkward airs are worn away by degrees in company. The rust and the mould are filed and brushed off by polite conversation. The scholar now becomes a citizen or a gentleman, a neigh- bor and a friend ; he learns how to dress his sentiments in the fairest colors, as well as to set tlicm in the strongest light. Thus, he brings out his notions with honor ; he makes some use of tliem in the world ; and improves the theory by the practice. But before we proceed too far in finishing a bright cha- racter by conversation, we should consider, that something else is necessary, besides an acquaintance with men ana books ; and therefore I add, V. Alerc lecture, reading and conversation, without think- ing, are not sufficient to make a man of knowledge and wisdom. It is our own thought and reflection, study and meditation, which mii;;t littend all the otlier methods of im- provement, and perfect tlicm. It carries these advantages witii it. 1. Though observation and instruction, reading and con- llow is a mere scholar generally rcj^urilcd by the world 1 V\ hul is a college s^tudeiit in dan- ger of contracting'! ilow Kliould students endeavor to avoid this 1 lly treating each other more pulilely. Which tnelhnd ofinstrnction must attend all (he rest, in order to per- fect them 1 Advantages of mcditaliont It fortui our jiid!;mont of tilings — makes the sentiments of nlherN onr own — improves liints otherwise ac- quired. Ilow shall wc Icarn facts, that wo do not wiliiusii') Principally hy tes- timony. Cleaning oC testimony 7 liuw shall we determine, what credit to give to leslimony t Oy considering its rredihilily. Meaning of credit ? SSi.v |)rincipal circumstances, that render Icsliinony credible 1 Pro- bability of the fact; veracity of the witness ; his power to judge ; hii opportunity to judge ; his freedom from bias, aiid the consistency of his testimony. Of what, is a person in danger, who confines himself principally to nu'dltulion ? ^'elf conceit, di'.s|)it«ing oiJiers, and falling into great errors. THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. 47 versation may furnisli us with many ideas of men and things, yet it is our own meditation, and the labor of our own thoughts, that must form our judgment of things. Our own thoughts should join or disjoin these ideas in a proposition for ourselves. It is our own mind, that must judge for, our- selves, concerning the agreement or disagreement of ideas, and form propositions of trutli out of them. Reading and' conversation may acquaint us with many truths, and with many arguments to support them. But it is our own study and reasoning, that must determine, whether these proposi- tions are true, and whether these arguments are just and solid. It is confessed, there are a thousand things, which our eyes have not seen, and which would never come within the reach of our observation, because of the distance of times and places. These must be knov/n by consulting other persons ; and that is done, either in their writings, or in their discourses. But after all, let tliis be a fixed point with us, that it is our own reflection aad judgment, which must determine, how far we should receive that which books or men inform us of, and how far they are Avorthy of our assent and credit. 2. It is meditation, that conveys the notions and senti- ments of others to ourselves, so as to make them properly our own. It is our own judgment upon tiiem, as v.-ell as our memory of them, that makes them become our own property. It does, as it were, concoct our intellectual food, and turns it into a part of ourselves ; just as a man may call his limbs and his flesh his own, whether he borrowed the materials from the ox or the slieep, from the lark or the lobster; whether he derived it from corn or milk,-tho fruits of the trees, or the herbs and roots of the earth. It has all now become one substance with himself; and he wields and manages those muscles and limbs, for his own proper purposes, which once were the substance of other animals or vegetables ; that very substance, which last week was grazing in the field, or swim.ming in the sea, waving in the milk-pail, or growing in the garden, has now become part of the man. • • • 3. By meditation, we improve the hints, that we have acquired by observation, conversation and reading ; we take more time in thinking ; and by tlie labor of the mind, we penetrate deeper into themes of knowledge, and carry our thoughts sometimes much farther on many subjects, than we ever met with either in the b^oks of the dead, or dia- 48 THE FIVE METHODS COMPARED. courses of tlie living. It is our own reasoning, tliat draws out one truth from anotlier, and forms a whole scheme of science, from a few hints, which we borrowed elsewhere. By a survey of tiiese things, we may jnstly conclude, that he, who spends all his time in hearing lectures, or poriiig upon books, without observation, meditation or con- verse, will have but a mere historical knov, ledge of learn- ing, and be able only to tell, what others have known or said en the subject, lie, that lets all his time flow away in conversation, without due observation, reading or study, will gain but a slight or superficial knowledge ; which will be in danger of vanishing with the voice of the speaker ; and he, that confines himself merely to his closet, and his own narrow observation of things, and is taujriit only by his own solitary thoughts, without instruction by lectures, read- ing or free conversation, will be in danger of a narrow spirit, a vain conceit of himself, and an unreasonable con- tempt of others ; and after all, lie will obtain but a very limited and imperfect view and knowledge of things, and he will seldom learn, hew to make that knowledge useful. These five metliods of improvement should be pursued jointly, and go hand in hand, where our circuinstanccs are so happy, as'to find opportunity and conveniency to enjoy thern all ; though I must give my opinion, that two of them, reading and meditation, slioiild employ mucii more of our time, tlian public lectures or conversation. As for observa- tion, we may be always acquiring knowledge that \vay, whether we are alone or in company. But it will be for our furtlier improvement, if we go over all these five methods of obtaining knowledge more dis- tinctly, and more at large, and see, what special advances in useful science we may draw from them all. Note II, by the Editor. [Hero it is earnestly recommended, that the learner re- view the preceding pages — that he cnrefuliy consider and weigh every sentiment and fict, and endeavor to fix it in his mind forever. IJcrc is a rich treasure, vastly superior to Which nf thr^ie ."i inKlhods should lie piiriiiKsil Jiiliilly I Mviininu i.\(jinvllij7 From what vi'rl), docs joinf/y ap pear to I".' di-rivcd ' To ulliih of Ihcfic .I iiinthods, should most lime ho duvi'lwll How early in lifi;, iihniild children l>H taiijert of tlie tliirii cliaptei'! Of wliat other exercise, is ol)- lerA'ntion considered as including a ■mall decree? Wlifii sliiiiilil \vt- keep in view the enlarRi'ini'iii of our l(no\vl(-d).'c ? Wiien sliciiild we he cncii^'eil for the iiMproveiiii'iil of our mental fac- ulties.' (.'onKtantly. How rnn we (.onliniially purine both tliHHe ohjccts 1 I'rolialily toiic- qnlre useful kiKiwIedfr, in tlie licsl manner, i» llic hei>t wny to iiii)iruvo the faculties. With what, can we converse, alone, in darkness.' What nature have we prcniinr op- portunities to Ivarn in company? VVilh what creatures, is it. inMl importnnt for us to he acquainted .' What knowlcdpp |8 not less im- portant, than that of miinkiiid 1 Whose works may we principally see in the city 1 — In the country.' I'Voiii \vhnt, Khoiild we endeavor tu derive instrnrlion 1 RULES RELATING TO OliSERVATIO.N. 5\i from every tiling, wliich occurs in liuman life, from every thing witliiii. you or witiiout you. Fetch down sonio knowledoe from the clouds, the stars, tlie sun, the moon, and the revolution of all the planets. Dig and draw up some valuable meditations from the depths of the earth ; and search them through the vast oceans of water. Extract some intellectual improvements from the minerals and metals, from the wonders of nature among the vegetables, the herbs, trees and flowers. Learn some les- sons from tlie birds, and the beasts and the meanest insect. Read tJie wisdom of God, and his admirable contrivance in them all. Read his almighty power, his rich and various goodness, in all the works of his hands. From the day and the night, the liours and the flying minutes, learn a Avise improvement of time ; and be watch- ful to seize every opportunity to increase in knowledge. From the vicissitudes and revolutions of nations and fami- lies, and from the various occurrences of the world, learn the instability of mortul aSiiirs, tiie uncertainty of life, the certainty of death. From a coffin and a funeral, learn to meditate upon your own departure. From the vices and follies of others, observe what is hateful in them. Consider how such a practice looks in another person ; and remember, that it looks as ill or worse in yourself. From the virtues of others, learn something worthy of your imitation. From the deformity, the distress or calamity of others, derive lessons of thankfulness to God, and hymns of grate- ful praise to your Creator, Governor and Benefactor, who has formed you in a better mould, and guarded you from those evils. Learn also the sacred lesson of cuntentment in your own estate, and compassion to your neighbor under his miseries. From your natural powers, sensations, judgment, memory, hands, feet, &c. make this inference, that they were not given you for nothing, but for some useful employment, to the honor of your Maker, and for the good of your fellow- creatures, as well as for your own best interests and flnal happiness. From wlr.u, should we fetcli down i and fdllies of others ?— from the vir- knowledye; \ tnes ol' others '! — from the talanii- V\''hal may we learn from the vi- ! ties of others ? clssitutles and revolutions of nations | For wlial, were our natural pow- and famdies ? } ers and members given usi VViat may we learn from the vices { 5* 54 RDLES UELATIJiG TO OBSERVATIOJf. From the sorrows, Uie pains, tlie sicknesses and suffer- ings, that attend you, loarn tlie evil of sin, and the imper- fection of your present state. From your own sins and follies, learn the patience of God toward you, and the prac- tice of humility toward God and man. Thus, from every appearance in nature, from every oc- currence of life, you may derive natural, moral and reli- gious observations, to entertain your minds, as well as rules of conduct in the affairs relating to this life, and tliat which is to come. II. In order to furnish the mind with a rich variety of ideas, the laudable curiosity of young people should be in- dulged and gratified, rather than discouraged. It is a very hopeful sign in young persons, to see them curious in ob- serving, and inquisitive in searching into the greatest part of things that occur ; nor should such an inquiring temper be frowned into silence, nor be rigorously restrained, out should rather be satisfied' by proper answers. For this reason also, where time and fortune allow it, young people should be led into company at proper seasons, should DO carried abroad, to see the fields, the woods, the From what, may we learn the evils of sin .' — the patience of God ! In whoni, is curiosity a liopclul sign ? Meaning of citnVsf/y ? How should it be treated ? VV'lial opportunities, would W.ntts allow young persons for observing various objects 1 First of 3 cautions relating to such observers'! Their minds should not be distracted and ovcrwiitlmed, by (00 many objects. ' Second 1 'I'liey should not be hurried from object to object. Tnird 1 Their attention should be directed to the most inipiutant. t^pecial direction 1 Their minds dhonld be improved and enriched, by viirious questions rolnting lo the ohjPclH, both at the time ol observ- ing them, and aflerwanls. Wlia', other mean.^ should be used foi' their instriir:tlon 1 Kxplanations, anecdotes and reHecllons. IMeanlng of nnrn/i/'c ? To what topics, xhoulil these In- ftructinns relate! To the proper- ties, iisen and history of the objects. WUy should the observer be ipirs- tioncd at first? To biing his atlen i preface, and table of contents? useful to others. i How should the second reading be Why are recommendations of | performed ? 6u OF REAPI.NG AND BOOKS. ter fitted to give the book the first reading, but you will be much assisted in your second perusal ; whicli should be done with greater attention and deliberation ; and you will learn with more case and readiness, what the author pro- tends to teach. In your reading, mark what is new or un- known to you before ; and review those chapters, pages or paragraphs. Unless a reader has an uncommon and most retentive memory, I may venture to affirm, tliat there is scarcely any book or cliapter, worth reading once, tliat is not worthy of a second perusal. At least, take a careful review of'all the lines or paragraphs, which you marked, and make a collection of the sections, which you thought truly valuable. There is another reason also, Avhy I would choose to take a superficial and cursor.y survey of a book, before I sit down to read it, and dwell upon it with studious attention ; and that is, there may be several difiicultics in it which wc can- not easily understand and conquer at the first reading, for want of a fuller comprehension of the author's whole scheme. And therefore, in such treatises, we should not stay, till we master every difliculty at the first perusal ; for perhaps, many of these will appear to be solved, when we have pro- ceeded farther, or will vanish upon a second reading. What wc cannot reach and penetrate at first, may be noted down as matter for after consideration and inquiry, if the pages, that follow, do not liappen to strike a complete light on those, which went before. 111. If three or four persons agree to read the same book, and each'brings his own remarks upon it, at some set hours appointed for conversation, and they communicate mutually their sentiments on the subject, and debate about it in a friendly manner, this practice will render the reading of any author more abundantly beneficial to every one of them. Plioiild wc stop to conquer evftry difficiilly, at Uie first re:ulii)^1 — Whyl How sliall wc remember the dilB- culty ? To what book, proVR lli What nnpiiry sliould we make, Im, Fiif rvf nh iKLilr. (lacml tt U \ when we n-ad prai:liral works.' lawful to he lauchi liv an ciinniy. | L'pon what, should we iin|ircs9 Can yon repeat the paraphraHC, f the he closely and ahundantly studied 1 und felicity. ! Those upon history, at ieust, such Meaninc of utWite? Practice of ; .-xg are good. 70 Of READING AND BOOKS. Why is Iiistory worthy of such ,it- tention 1 It is full of instruction, and very improving to the mind. Wliat peculiar honor has God con- ferred upon history? More than hall the Bible is history'. Why is history belter than almost any other branch for children 1 be- cause it is so intelligible, interest- ing and instructive. What history is most important 1 Sacred history. Meaning of sacred history ? His- tory, contained in the Bible. What history is next in import- ance to us 1 That of our own coun- try, of England, and of the church generally. Wiiat is the history of thethiirch generally called .' Kcclesiaslical his- tory. Meaning of church, as here used .' All Ihe cririslinn churches, that have been known to exist. t'pcin what branches of knowl- edge, does history tlirow light 1 Upon all. What branches are peculiarly needful, to prepare for gaining a good acquaintance with history] Arithmetic, geography and chronolo- gy. Meaning >>( chronologij'! What are cilled Ihe two (?ycs of history .' Geography and chronolo- gy- i^hould these be studied before history, or in connection with it.-' Both ; but chiotly the latter. Meaning of pnesif 7 How has fiod manifested his re- ganl for poetry 1 A considerable part of the Bible was originally writ- ten in poetry. What parts 1 Most of Job and Isaiah, the whole of I'snlms, various olhfr songs, &.c. . Ilow has Watts manifested his regard for poetry 1 By writing so niNcli. Most useful part of Watts's works? \\'hat two I'.nglish poems, arc cnn-iilt-red more valuable than nny other! Young's Night Thoughts, and i'ollok'B (Niurse of Time. What Htamps superior value upiui these? They are ihougbt to C(m- tnin mc re excellent inslrurlbmH, ami more lines, that are worth commit ting to mcinury, than any ulher pnvr.is Grand objections, that many have felt, to these poems "! 'J'hat they are too serious, dark and gloomy. Ho% have many others tf.lt in re- lation'to these objections 1 That these poems are on the whole, really most animating and delight- ful. Whence the difference'! Prin- cipally from different poetic and re- ligious taste. Why is it, that some serious per- sons do not admire the sentiments of these poems'! Probably from not knowing them, or from some un- happy bias against them. What is generally considered the greatest fault of the Night Thoughtsi Its obscurity. Meaning of obscurity ? Principal caysc of this obscurity ' Rs ccuiciseness. Meaning of conciseness ? What advantage, may be derived from this obscurity "! Great mental improvement, in finding out the meaning. What other English poems, Iiave been greatly anil extensively admir- ed ■! Milton's Paradise Lost. I'tppe's Essay on Man, Thompson's Seasons, Cowper's 'I'ask. What striking excellence, is each of these thought to possess 1 Great poetic merit. What great objection, has heen made to Paradise liCst? 'J'hat it is suited to bias the youthful mind in favor of Satan, and of rebellion against God ; or to diminish the ob- horrencc, that ought to be felt in view of them. Objection to the Essay on Man"! That it is tinctured with inlidelity. Meaning of infidelity 1 Objertinii to the Seasons .' That it contains no goi*pfl. Objection to the 'i'ask '! That it contains much that is trifling. Which of these six poems, has probably been most frequently pub- lished "! The Essay on Man. Which next? Young's Night Thniishtfl. What does this indicate'! That the public are most fond of reading these. What other English poems are much admired and |)raised '! Aken- side's Pleasures of Iniaginullun, OF READING AND BOOKS. 71 Still, let it be remembered, tliat where the historical nar- ration is of considerable moment, where the poesy, oratory, &c. shme witir some degrees of perfection and glory, a sin- gle reading is neither sufficient to satisfy a mind, that has a true taste for this sort of writings ; nor can we make the fullest and best improvement of them, without proper re- views, and that in our retirement, as well as in company. Who is there, that has any taste for polite writings, that would be sufficiently satisfied with hearing the beautiful pages of Steele or Addisbn, the admirable descriptions of Virgil or Milton, or some of the hnest poems of Pope, Young or Dryden, once read, and then to lay them by for- ever ? « XVI. Amon^ these writings of the latter kind, we may justly reckon short miscellaneous essays on all manner of subjects ; sucWs the Occasional Papers, the Tattlers, the Spectators, anasome other books, that have been compiled out of the weekly or daily products of the press ; wherein are contained a great nuniber of bright thoughts, ino'enious remarks, and admirable observations, which have had a con- siderable share in furnishing the present age with knowl- edge and politeness. I wish every paper among these writings could be re- commended, both as innocent and useful. I wish every unseemly idea and wanton expression had been banished CampbeU's Pleasures of Hope, and ! tioned. Trumbull's iM'Fingal, besides a mul- ! Why is the study of English poetry litude of smaller poems.* ! the most useful 1 It is vastly more Can you name so!ne of the poems, \ instructive, and affords us much mentioned in the note1 i more assistance to understand En- Which da you like best 1 ! glish. Chief argument, used by many, j Poetic character of Sliakspeare, for studying other languages? The | Dryden and Byron 1 They are just- mental improvement, derived from i ly ranked among the greatest poets, the effort to understand words and ! that ever lived, phrases. i Grand objection to their poems.' By what other study, may the | That from their immoral tendency, same advantage be gained 1 By | they are likely to do more liarm studying our own poets. 5 than good, at least to some. Are they not too easy 1 They are i Can you mcnti(m someof Watts's so difficult, that probably no one | remarks upo jy cial reading'! ever understood perfectly all the i What wisflpiloes Walts express poems, that have been just men- \ concerning the Spectator, fccl * Among the finest of these, are Thomsofi's Hymn to tlie Seasons, Oold- smith's Traveller and Deserted Village, Porteus'on Beatli, Ryron's Dream on Darkness, and Destruction of the Assyrians, Watts's Hero's School «f Morality, Pope's Messiah, Essay on Criticism ;ind Dying Christian, 1!™** Elegy in a Clountry Church Vard, Campbell's Battle of Hohenl-nden. Tap- pan's Missionaries' farewell JMontgouiery's Departing Christian. 72 OF UEAUrXG AND BOOKS. froTfi among them, and every trifling' page had been ex- cluded, when bound up in volumes. But it is not to be ex- pected, in so imperfect a state, that every page or piece of such mixed public papers should be entirely blameless and laudable. Yet in the main, it must be confessed, there is so much virtue, prudence, ingenuity and goodness in them, especially in the eiglit volumes of bpectators, there is such a reverence of things sacred, so many valuable remarks for our conduct in life, that they are not improper to lie in par- lors or summer-houses or places of usual residence, to en- tertain our thoughts in moments of leisure. There is such a discovery of the follies, iniquities and fashionable vices of mankinci, contained in them, that we may learn much of the humors and madnesses of the age, and tiic public world, in our own solitary retirement, without the danger of fre- quenting vicious company, or receiving tlicjnortalinfection. XVI I. Among other books, which are ^oper and requi- site, in order to improve our knowledge in general, or our acquaintance witli any particular science, it is necessary, that wo should be furnished with vocabularies and diction- aries of several sorts, namely, of common words, idioms and phrases, in order to explain their sense ; of technical words, or the terms of art, to sliew their use in arts and sciences ; of names of men, countries, towns, rivers, &c. which are called liistorical and geographical dictionaries, &c. These are to be consulted, and used upon every occasion. Never let an unknown word pass in your reading, without seeking for its meaning in some of these writers. If such booliS are not at hand, you must supply the want of them, as well as you can, by consulting sucli, as can in- firm you. It is useful to note down the matters of doubt and impiiry, and take the first opportunity to get them re- solved, oitlier by persons or books. XVIII. I5c not satisfied with a mere knowledge of the best aut.'iors, that treat of any subject, instead of acquaint- ing yourselves thoroughly with the fiul)j(>ct itself. There is many a ynunnariiM,*iiilhi! rotir^e of rendiiicT i as snoii as |ios:>ihlc. Ili'si r.nslinli dif.tiomry 1 (.Ste j What diroction is Riven respecting InirMitiirtifrn.) I ninitorA of Sunlit and inquiry 1 Wliat if no snrh lioi k is at liand ? i OF READI>G AND UOOKS, 73 has of their title-page, ■whicli is the attainment of a book- Bellcr fiithor tiian a scliolar. Such persons are under a great temptation to practice these two follies. 1, To lieap up a great number of I'ooks, at greater ex- fiense than most of them can hour, and to farnioh their ibrarios infinilely better tluin their understandings. And 2. When they have got such rirli treasures of knowledge upon tiieir shelves, they imagine themselves men of learn- ing, and take a pride in talking of the names of famous authors, and the subjectsof which thoy treat, without any real improvement of their own minds, in science or wisdom. At best, their learning reaches no farther than the indexes and tables of contents, while tiiey know not how to judge of reason concerning the matters contained in those authors. And indeed how many volumes of learning soever a man possesses, he is still deplorably poor in his understanding, till he has made these several parts of learning his own property, by reasoning, by judging for hnnself, and reraera- oerinff what he has read. Note IV, by the Editob, [ Writing; (Questions in Connection with Reading:. — This method 1 have practised, more especially within a few- years, and am more and more disposed to recoiumend it to others, at least to such, as can write with tolerable facility. It is among the best of all remedies for that evil disease — reading too fast. It is most happily litted to promote medi- tation in connection with reading — most deeply to fix and invigorate attention, to ascertain in the first place, what the autlior means, and then, whether he is correct. It also con- duces, to make us take a view of what we read in its con- sequences and various connection. There is perhaps no exercise, more suited to promote the flow, the delighllul flow, of thought, to teach the mind to think with advantage, and to improve the performer in composition and conversa- tion. It may promote self knowledge, as it may show in a considerable degree the state of the reader^s mind. It is often, much more modest to state a remark in the form of a question, than in any other form. Whose prnppr attainir.ci.t is tlie | title pages 1 — Sfinond 1 mere knowleiUo (if title pages'! | How tuny we make the contents First (l;m^»!r of tliestiuletits who i of books niir own ! are principally .■uiibitiors to know | Meaning of (/c;)i'ornt/c? 74 JUUGIIIK,'?T OK tiOOKS. Method. Make a boo!^ of porliips 3 or 4 sheets of paper, as it may contain a treasure worlli preserving. Wliatever important inquiry, reflection or remark occurs to you in readin;^, write it down in the form of a question. If one question suggests another, write that also, and so on, with a dozen questions, if they should occur, and seem sufficient- ly important to deserve recording. 'I'hese questions will furnish excellent materials for future consideration, medi- tation, inquiry and conversation. If you have some learned friend, whom you may wish to consult upon certain points, mark tlioso questions particularly, upon which you may wish for his instructions. Are you afraid you shall bo mor- tified in looking over your questions hereafter? — tliat you will be tempted to say to yourself, " How could I be so fool- ish, as to write this question r" Is not this, the very way to trace your intellectual progress, and to lead you to per- ceive, and to thank (rod, that you grow wiser and wiser, from year to year ? Experience mny enable you to make important improvements in this method.] CHAPTER V. JUDGMENT OK COOKS. 1. Ik wc would form a judgment of a book, which we have not soon before, the lirst thing tiiat oilers, is the title- page ; and we may sometimes "uess a little at the import and design of a book by that ; though it must bo contest, tliat titles are often deceilOil, and promise more than the book performs. The author's nnme, if it be known in the world, may help us to conjecture at tlie performance a little more, and lead us to guess, in what manner it is done. A perusal of the preface or introduclion, whicii 1 before re- commended, may further assist our judgment ; and if there be an index of the contents, it will give us still some ad- vancing light. If wc have not leisure or inclination to read over the book itself regularly, then by the titles of chapters, wc may be iiivv Hdiiia accuiiiit (if tliu iiielliod, dcscrlbcil ill Note I V 1 IMeiiiiun Kiiiiiu advanlagcs uftlial mclliijil. tiulijtct oniir nnii chapter 1 AIiMilio.i Home of tlio niilliodH of riiriii{iir> .sniiii- (;<'i>crul Idranru tuxik. Ill wliat riiHiiuct, ur« liilc pages often (I'Neiirull JUDGMF..NT OK liOOKS. 75 directed to peruse several particular chapters or sections, and observe, whetiier there id any thiii^- valuable or im- portant in thein. We sliall find Jiereby, ivijetiier the author exphiins iiis icfeas clearly, whijUicr 'lie r^'a^onsi suongiy, whether he metliodizes well, whetiier ins tlioughts and sense are manly, and his manner jJoUte ; or, on the other hand, whetiier he is obscure, weak, tritiing and confused ; or, finally, whether the matter may not be solid and substan- tial, though the manner or style is rude and disayveeable. II. Ey having run througli several chapters and sections in this manner, we may g-cnerally judge, whether tlie trea- tise is v/ortli a complete perusal or not. liut it by such an occasional survey of some chapters, our expectation be ut- terly discouraged, we may well lay aside that book ; for there is great probability, he can be but an indiilerent writer on that subject, if he alfords but one prize to divera blanks, and it may be, some downriglit blot too. 'JMie piece can haiitly be valuable, if in seven or eight chapters, which we peruse, tiicrc be but little truth, evidence, force of reasoning, beauty and ingenuity of thought, &c. mingled with much error, ignorance, impertinence, dulness, mean and common tiiougjits, inaccuracy, sophistry, railing, &c. Life is too short, and time is too precious, to read every new book quite over, in order to find, that it is not worth reading. III. There an' some general miptnkcs, wliich persons frequently make in passing a judgment on tiio books, whicn they read. One is this. When a tveatise is written but tolerably well, we are ready to pass a favorable judgment of it, and sometimes to exalt its chiiracter far beyond its merit, if it agrees with our own principles, and supports the opinions of our party. On the other hand, if the autiior is of different sentin^icnts and espouses contraiy principles, we can find neither wit nor reason, good sense nor good lan- guage in it. Whereas, alas, if our opinions of Dungs were certr.in and infallible trutii, yet a sdly author may draw his pen in tlie defence of them, and he may attjck even gross errors with feeble and ridiculous arguments. Truth in this world is not always attended and supported by the wisest What a we nre red to form :i very i Jleaning of divers 7— Ingenuity 7— I(r,v estiiiinte ,>f a hook, by a survey \ sojihistni 7 — rail!iilfrs.' fii \vii;it resj.c-;":, are >.ve lilioly lo VVliy is if not ••veil to rend n book \ iiiisjiulL'e iif .i book, that fivors our t^r()ll^b, ill oriItT to know, I'lut it i$ i vi'-ws or t,:irty 1 — :t book tlial op- Ilot worili re;i(ling ? | jjoses ll.e:u ' 7G JUDGMENT OF bUOKS. and safest methods'; and error, though it can never be mam- lained by jiiit reasoning-, yot may be artfully covered and defended. An ingenious writer may put excellent colors upon his own ini.stakes. Some Kocinians, who deny tlie atonemnnt of Christ, liav'C written well, and with nuich ap- pearance of argument, for their own unscriptural senti- ments ; and souio writers for the Trinity, and satisfaction of Ciirist, have exposed tiiemsolves and the sacred doctrine, by tlieir feeble and foolish manner of handling it. Books arc never \.o be judg-ed merely by their subject, or the opin- ion they represent; but by the justness of their scntinients, the beauty of their manner, the force of their expression, or the strength of reason, and the weight of just and proper argument, wiuch appears in them. But this fully and \;eakness of trifling, nistcad of argu- inn-, does not iiappen to fall to the share of Cln-istian writers only. There arc some, who have taken the jien in liand, to suppcut the Deistical or antichrislinn scheme of our days, who make great pretences to reason upon all occasions, but seem to have lefl it quite behind them, when they are jesting with the Uibk*, and laughing at the books, which we call sacred. Some of these pinfornKinces would scarcely have been thought tolero.ble, if they had not assaulted the Christian fiith, though tlu'j' are now grown up to a place among the admired pens. I much question whether several of the rhapsodies, called the Characteristics, would ever have survived the first edition, if they hud not discovered so strong a tincture of iuildelity, and now and tlien east out a profane sneer at our ho'y religiou. 1 liave sometimes indeed been ready to wonder, how a book, in the mam so loosely writ- ten, should ever obtain so mauy readers among men of sense. Surely they must be conscious in the perusal, that sometimes a patrician may write as idly, as a man of ple- beian rank, and tnlle as much, as an old school-man, Ihough it is in another form. I am forced to say, there are few books, that ever I read, which nnide any pretence to a great By tvldl, ciiii error iii^vxr be iimiii- 1 VVIii^re w.ih llteir ciiivriiilliience^ taiiied 1 t III I'dlaiiil Most (liMtiiii!uisliiii)! cli.'irar.tertis | Ily wliat clinr.ictrri.^tirF Plinll we tic ol'tlie S(ii'iiij:iii!i ) I jiidiit^ c.r hiioUs ] Ily their truth, Miililliiie ••r.Siir/nidii.v? ImiIIowlms j llicir iiii|i(irt:ilii'c, iiiiil llic e.\ci:ll(/nce or lr c'ninicJrr/.i/ir ? LeIiiiK wa.i iiiiclr to FausiiiN. I 'J'o what, did thu Di'i^tH or the WliiTc i\»'ir llii-y liciiri .' Ill Italy. I last reiitiiry, liiiike greiil preteo- VVlieii did Ihey ilniiriMllI III tiiu | !r/v(.''— of jureie*/ JUDGMENT OF HOOKS. 77 genius, from which I derived so little valuable knowledge, as from those treatises. Tlicre is indeed amon;^ tliem, a lively portness, a parade of J'teraturo, and much of what some folks call politeness ; bui it is Jiard, that we should be bound to admire all the reveries of this author, under the penality of being unfasliionable. IV. Another mistake, wliich some persons fill into, is tliis. When they read a treatise on a subject, witii which thoy have but little acquaintance, they Hnd almosi every thing nev,' and strange to them ; their understandings are greatly entertained and improved, by the occurrence of many tilings, which were unknown to them before ; they admire the treatise, and commend the autlior at once ; whereas, if they had but attainod a good degree of skill in that science, pcrhips they would find, that the author had written very poorly, tlint neither his sense nor his method was just and proper, and tliat he had nothing but what was very common or trivial in his discourses on that subject. . Hence it comes to pass, that Carlo and Faber, who were both bred up to iabor, and unacquainted witli the sciences, admire one of the weekly papers, or a little pamphlet, that talks pertly on some critical or learned theme, because the matter is all strange and new to them, and they join to extol the writer to t1io skies ; and for tiie same reason, a younfj academic will dwell upon a Journal or an Observa- tor, tliat treats of trade and politics in a dictatorial style, and be lavish in praise of tiie author. While at the same time, persons well skilled in those different subjects, hear the impertinent tattle with a just contempt ; for they know, how weak and aukvvard many of those little diminutive dis- courses are ; and that those very papers of science, politics or trade, which were so much admired by the ignorant, are perhaps, but very mean performances ; though it must be also confessed, there are some excellent essays in those papers, and that upon science, as well as upon trade. V. But there is a danger of mistake in our judgment of books, on the other hnnd also. For when wo have made ourselves nngters of-tuiy particular theme of knowledge, and surveyed it long on all sides, there is perhaps scarcely any wrif^r on that subject, who much entertains and pleases us afterwards ; because Ave find little or nothing new in him ; and yet in a true judgment, perhaps his sentiments Fdnv nre p'Tsniis likely to resanl S Ilnw are we lilvciy to jmlire of a tri'.Tiisf, upon ;i siiliject, of wliicli \ liooks, upon siiiijitris, w'nh which, tliey know very little 1 { we are most faiiiiliaily acoiiainteJ 1 7* 78 JUDUJIENT OF BOOKS. arc most proper and just, his explications clear, and his reasonini^s strong, and all the parts of tlic discourse are well connected, and set in a happy lio-iit. But wo knew most of those thin;^s before ; and therctorc, they strike u,s not, and we are in danger of discommondin!^ them. Thus the le-arned and the unlearned have their several distinct dangers and prejudices ready to attend thom in their judgment of the writings of men. These wjiich I have mentioned are a specimen of them, and indeed but a mere specimen ; for the prejudices, that warp our judgment aside from Iruth, are almost infinite. VI. Yet I cannot forbear to point out two or three more of these follies, that I may attempt sometliing toward their correction, or at least, to guard others against them. There are scjme persons of a forward and lively temper, who are fond to intermeddle witli all appearances of knowl- edge, and Avill give their judgment on a book, as soon as the title of it is mentioned ; ^r they would not willingly seem ignorant of any thing, that others know. And es- pecially if they happen to have any superior character or passions of this world, they fancy they have a right to talk freely upon every tiling tliat stirs or appears, though they have no other pretence to this freedom. Divito is worth forty thousand pounds ; Politulus is a fine young gentle- man, who sparkles in all tiie shining things of dress and equipage ; Aulinus is a small attendant on a minister of state, and is at court almost every day. These three happened to meet on a visit, where an excellent book of warm and refined devotions lay in the window. " What dull stuff is here !" said Divito, " I never read so muc'i non- sense in one page in my life ; nor would I give a shilling for a thousand such treatises." Aulinus, thougli a courtier, and not used to speak roughly, yet would not allow, tliere was a lino of good s(>nse iu the booic, and ])ron()tuiced him a madman,, that wrote it in ids secret retirement, and de- clared him a for.l, that pul)lislied it after his death. Politu- lus had more manners than to differ fiom men of such rank and character ; and therefore, he sneeriMl at the devout ex- pressions, as lie heard them read, and made the divine treatise a matter of scorn and ridicule ; and yet it was well VVIkiI iIoi's In; xiiy iiT the riiiitilicr | is iiioiitiDnrd ? of tlif. prfjiiiliccs, liial p'-TVert jiitlg- ! VVIiril diil Divito, Pnliliiliis and liieiit 1 I Aiiliiiiis tliliil< uf .-111 cxrclli'iil book Why will nfiiiie rIvc their jinle- i uf dcvotiiiri ? meiit uC a buuk, u8 biiuii un llie lille ( Why did thoy thus iiil-'judge 1 JUDGMtNT OF BOOKS. 79 known, that neither tlib fine gentleman, nor the courtier, nor the man of wealth, had a grain of devotion in thern, beyond, their horses, that waited at the door with tlicir gilded chariots. But tiiis is the way of the world. Blind men will talk of the beauty of colors, and of the harmony or disproportion of figures in painting ; the deaf will prate of discords in music ; and these, who have iiothing to do with religion, will arraign the best treatise on divine subjects, tliough they do not understand the very language of the scripture, nor the common terms or phrases used in Chris- tianity. VII. I might here name another sort of judges, who will set themselves up to decide in favor of an author, or will pronounce him a mere blunderer, according to the company tiiey have kept, and tlie judgment they have heard past upon a book by otliers of their own stamp or size, though they have no knowledge or taste of the subject themselves. These, with a fluent and voluble tongue, become mere echoes of the praises or censures of otner men. Sonillua haj)pened to be in the room where the three gentlemen just mentioned gave out their thoughts so freely upon an ad- mirable book of devotion ; and two days afterwards, he met with some friends of his, where this book was the subject of conversation and praise. Sonillus wondered at tiieir dulness, and repeated the jests, which he had hoard cast upon the weakness of the airtlior. His knov/ledge of the book and his decision upon it were all from hearsay ; for he had never seen it : and if ho had read it through, he had no manner of right to judge about the tilings of religion, hav- ing no more knowledge, nor taste of any thing of inward piety, than a hedge-hog or a bear has of politeness. When I had written these remarks, Probus, who knew all these four gentlemen, wished they might have oppor- tunity to read their own character, as it is represented here. Alas ! Probus, 1 fear, it would do tliem very little good, though it may guard otliers against their folly ; for there is not one of them, would find his own name in these characters, if they read them, though all their actpiaintances would acknowledge the features immediately, and see the persons almost alive in the picture. VIII. There is yet another mischievous principle, which prevails among some persons in passing a judgment on the writings of others, and that is, M'hcn from'the secret stiniu- Wliat dill Ponillus tliink of the | Wlitit iiviy siicli jiulKeaas SonilluB book 1 — VVliy 1 I be called 1 Lclio-critics. 86 JUPGMENT OF BOOKS. * lation, of vanity, pride or envy, they despise a valuable book, and throw contempt upon it by wholesale ; and if you ask them the reason ot their severe censure, they will tell you perhaps, tliey have found a mistake or two in it, or there arc a few sentiments or expressions, not suited to their humor. Bavius cries down an admirable treatise of phi- losophy, and says, there is atlieism in it ; because there are a few sentences, that seem to suppose brutes to be mere machines. Under the same influence, I\Iomus will not al- low Paradise Lost to be a ^ood poem, because he had read some flat and heavy lines ni it, and he thought Milton had too much honor done him. It is a paltry iiumor, that in- clines a man to rail at any human pcrlorirance, because it is not absolutely perfect. Wise and just distinctions ought to be made, when we pass a judgment on mortal thinc^s; but envy condemns by wholesale. Envy is a cursed plant. Some fibres of it are rooted almost in every man's nature ; and it works in a sly and imperceptible maimer, and that even in some persons, who in the main nre men of wisdom and piety. They know not, how to bear the praises, that are given to an ingenious author, especially if he be living and of their profession; and therefore they will, if possible, iind some blemish in his writings, that tliey may nibble and bark at it. Tliey will endeavor to dimmish the honor of the best treatise, that has been written on any subject, and to render it use- less, by tlieir censures, rather tl'ian suffer their envy to lie asleep, and the little mistakes of that author to pass unex- posed. Perhaps tliey will commend the work in general with a pretended air of candor ; but pass so many sty and invidious remarks upon it aflcrwards, a.s shall effectually destroy all their cold and formal praises. I grant, wiien wisdom itself onnHures a weak and foolish performance, it will pass its severe sentence, and yet with an air of candor, if tlie author has any thing valualile in him ; but envy will oflcnlimes imitate lliesauK! fivorahle airs, in order to make lis cavils ajjjx ar more just and rredililo, when it has a mind to snarl at some of the brightest performances of a human writer. IX. When a person feels any thing of this invidious Why wniilil not Mriinii.s nllow j ttini-s riHiinieiid a work in Roneran rnmdiBii IrfiHt lo lip a pood noeni ? i How will llipy dcfilroy tlie furcO From wli:it |irinri[i|p, ilo many i of llicir fniiuiicnilnlioii '( pniir roriteiii|il upon a bnuk, by ! How tuny n porsuii cure such ao wliolewile? I invidious liuiiiur' Jo what inniiner, will tlipy some- j JUDGMENT OF B00K3. bt humor working in liim, lie may by the following considera- tions, attempt the correction of it. Let him think with himself, how many are tlie beauties of siicli an author whom he censures, in comparison of his blemishes, and remember, that it is a much more honorable and good natured thing to find out peculiar beauties than faults. True and undisguised candor is a much more amiable and divine talent tiian accusation. Let him reflect again, what an easy matter it is, to find a mistake in all human authors, who are necessarily fallible and imperfect. I confess, where an author sets up liimself to ridicule divine writers and things sacred, and yet assumes an air of eovereignty and dictatorship, to exalt and almost deify all the 'Pagan ancients, and cast his scorn upon all the moderns, especially if they do but savor of miracles and the gospel, it is fit tiie admirers of this author should know that nature and these ancients are not the same, though some writers always unite them. Reason and nature never made these ancient heathens their standard, either of art or genius, of writing or heroism. Sir Richard Steele, in his little essay called The Christian Hero, has shewn our Savior and St. Paul in a more glorious and transcendant light, than a Virgil or a Homer could do for their Achilles, Ulysses or -(Eneas ;* and I am persuaded, if Moses and i)avid had not been inspired writers, these very men would have ranked them, at least with an Herodotus and Horace, if not given them the superior place. But where an author has many beauties consistent with virtue, piety and truth, let not little critics exalt themselves, and s}%wer down their ill-nature upon him, without bounds or measure ; but rather stretch tlieir own powers of soul, till they write a treatise superior to that which tiiey con- demn. This is the noblest and surest manner of suppres- sing what they censure. A little wit, or a little learning, with much vaiiity>and ill- nature, will teach a man to pour out whole pat^cs of remark and reproach upon one real or fancied mistake of a great and good author, and this may be dressed up by the same talents, and made entertaining enough to the world,- who What aiitliois, does Walls say, \ upuii Uie whole of a work, thut ia are not the same as nature 1 \ due only to certain parts ? VVliol©- How may severe critics learn to ) sale critics. jiiripe more favorably ol" the works ; Who was tlic most dislinsnished of others 1 { arch-bisliopof Camlir.iy 1 Kenelon. What shall we call those who > Where is Cambray ! In tlie N. pour out the suuie praise or censure | E. of i-'rance. 8'i JUDGME.N'T OF BODKS. love reproach and scandal. BtJt if the remarker would but once m .ke this attempt, and try to outshine tlie author by writing a better book on the same subject, he would soon be convinced of liis own insufficiency, and perhaps might learn to judge more justly and favorably of tiio performanco of other men. A cobler or a shoemaker may find some little fault with the latchet of a shoo, tliat an Apelles had painted, and perhaps with justice too, when the whole figure and portraiture is such, as none but an Apelles could paint. Every poor low genius may cavil at what the richest and the noblest has performed. But it is a sign of envy and malice, added to the littleness and poverty of genius, when such a cavil becomes a sufficient reason to pronounc^e at once, against a bright author, and a whole valuable treatise. X. Another, and that a very frequent fault in passing a judgment upon books, is tiiis, that persous spread the same praises or the same reproaches over a wjiole treatise, and all tlie chapters in it, which are due only to some of them. They judge as it were by wholesale, without making a due distinction between the several parts or sections of the per- formance ; and this is ready to lead those, wiio hear them talk, into a dangerous mistake. Florus is a great and just admirer of the late arch-bishop of Cambray, and mightily commends every thing he lias written, ami will allow no blemish in liiin ; whereas the writings of that excellent man arc not of a piece ; nor are those very books of his, which have a good number of beautiful and valuable sentiments in them, to bo recommended throughout, or all at once, without distinction. There is his " l)omonstralion of the Existence and Attributes of God," which has justly gained a universal esteem, for bringing down some new and noble thoughts of the wisdom of the creation to the understand- ing of the unlearned ; and thoy are such as well deserve the perusal of the man of science, perhaps ns far as the 50th section. But there are many oi the following sections which are very weakly written, and some of them built upon an enthusia-stical and mistaken scJieme, akin to the pecnliar opinions of fatiier iM;ilhranc,he ; such as Sect. 51, 5M. "That we know tin' finitf* only by the ideas of the infinite." Sect. 5."), (JO. " 'I'li.it tin' superior reason iu man, is (lod hiinsell", acting in iiim." Sect. (11, (i'-i. "Tiiatthe idea of unity cnnnot be taken from creatines, byt from Uod only ;" and several of his sections, from 0.5, to G8, upon the Wlint kind of a writer was Fcnnliml * JlJDG?.tEM' 01' BOOKS. 83 doctrine of liberty, seem to be inconsistent. Again, toward Ihe'^nil of his book, he spends more time and pains, than are nccdfu!. in refuting the Epicurean fancy of atoms mov- ing ctcrnalJy through infinite changes, which might be done cflectually in a much shorter and better way. So in his Posthumous Essays and his Letters, there are many admirable thoughts in practical and experimental re- ligion, and very beautiful and divine sentiments in devo- tion ; but somotimes in large paragraphs, or in whole chap- ters together, you find him in the clouds of mystic divinity, and he never' descends within the reach of common ideas or common sense. But remember this also, that tliere are but few such au- thors, as this great man, who talks so very weakly some- times, and yet in other places, is so much superior to the greatest part of writers. There are other instances of this kind, Avhere men of good sense- in the main, set up for judges ; but they carry too many of tiieir passions about them, and then, like lovers, they arc in rapture at the name of their fair idol. They lavish out all their incense upon that shrine, and cannot boar the thought of admitting a blemish in them. Milton is a noble genius ; and the world agrees to con- fess it. His Paradise Lost is a glorious performance, and rivals the most famous pieces of antiquity. But that reader must be deeply prejudiced in favor of the poet, who can imagine him equal to himself, through all that work. Nei- ther the sublime sentiments, nor dignity of numbers, nor force or beauty of expression, are equally maintained, even in all tliose parts, which require grandeur or beauty, force or harmony. I cannot but consent to Mr. Drydcn's opinion, though I will not use his words, that for some scores of lines together, there is a coldness and flatness, and almost a perfect absence of that spirit of poesy, which breathes and lives and flames in other pages. XL When you hear any person pretending to give his judgment of a book, consider with yourself, whether he be a capable judge, or whether he may not lie under some un- happy bias or prejudice, for or against it, or whether he has made a sufficient inquiry to form his justest sentiments upon it Wlmt.fifipg Watts say ot the gen- i pct-in ! ius nf IMilton 1 * Wlien we hear n mnn criticising WInt floea Watts say, Paradise > a iinok, wliat silent inquiries slioulj Lost rival-" ? ; we makel VVliat does he say against this < 64 JUDGMKiNT OF BOOKS. Though he is a man of good sense, yet he is incapable of passing a true judgment of a particular book, if he b4 not well acquainted with the subject, of wjiich it treats, and the manner in which it is written, be it verse or prose ; or if he has not had opportunity or leisure to look sufficiently into the writing itself. Again, thougli he is ever so capable of judging on all other accounts, by the knowledge ot the subject, and of the book itself, yet you arc to consider also, whether there is any thing in tiie author, in his manner, in his language, in his opinions, and his particular party, wliicli may warp the sentiments of him that judges, to tliink well or ill of the treatise, and to pass too favourable or too severe a sentence concerning it. If you lind, that he is either an unfit judge, because of his ig'norance, or because of his prejudices, his judgment of that book should go for nothing. Pliilographo is a good divine, a usefiJ preacher, and an approved expositor of scripture ; but he never had a taste for any of the polite learning of.the age. He was fond of every thing that ap- peared in a devout dress ; but all verse was alike to him. lie told me last week, there was a very fine book of poems publishetl on the tliree christian graces. Faith, Hope and Charity ; and a most elegant piece of oratory on the four last tilings. Death, .Judgment, Heaven and Hell. Do you think I shall buy eitlier of those books merely on Philo- grapho's recommendation ? Why wimlil not W.-itts purchase | a certain good divine 1 a poem, on the recomiiiendatidii of | Miscellaneous Questions, No. 2. Why may a hook lie iif^eriil to ! our assent, when we read Jiuiuuu aonie perKoiiH, and not tuotliers'? | authors 1 For wliat olijecl, Bliould cliildrtn J Aiillior of the .Vight Thoiiclits ? attend iMti.seunis 1 | In wliat rcspoi t are title -piiges often deceitful ) VViio were I.elius and Faustua ^Horinus 1 A\'hon sliouhl we make some ahatcnient of our favorahle opinion 1 How can we he continually en- ga(;<'d fur the iniprnvenient of our minds, and for the acquisiliun of knuwledt'e 1 What is meant hy dealing freely with an author ] (JreateHt poi in of Alillon .' How may we make the contents of a hook our own t What sen (((professed Christians deny the atonement of ClirlHt 1 V\'lio Is most lunrerncil to know Hehrew, a iniiiistir or a lawvcr .' With what limitation, should chil- j Who is likely to become a'tatfler I dren he allowed to liatulle the ar 1 \\)iy are we in peculiar dnnt;cr tides of a uniseuui 1 ' of emln.iciiia any errors, that we 'i'o what al'jne, should we yield | may (itid in Walts's writings.' M1SCEI.LAXE00S QUESTIONS. 85 What fmlt in re.idins is almost aiiivsrditl ? CJie.ileal poem of Young 1 Wli:u (lues Watts say of the tmin- ber of prejudices, that pervert judg- ment ^ What should we fetch dowu Irouj tlie clouds and from the stars 1 From what two evils, bhoiild ive kee|) nurselved free, in making ob- servations ? Wliat liny sometimes require us to speak unfavorably of others.' 'J'o what, should we always keep our minds open, when wc read 2 Author of the Seasons? How do echo-critics form their opinions of books 1 Where may we see most of the works of (Jod ! What oli^orvations are made by Jaundiced eyes 1 What measure with regard to evil speaking, is calculated to defeat itself! What if an author would have us receive his opinions on human au- thority \ What iii'iiiiry should we make, when we read practical works 1 Greatest poem of Tliomson .•■ What authijrs, does Watts say, are not the same as nature 1 Where may we see most of the works of man ? Upon wliat, do jaundiced eyes make ;'ellii\v ohserv.itions ? What is false induction 1 Why should we believe the de- clarations of (jod t Wliit is more valuaMe, than knowieik'eand mental impovement? Author of the ICssay on Man ] By vvhat characteristics, shall we juiiiitt ofbioks 1 What are wluilesalc-critics 1 What two branches of knowledge are most important ? Infl'ience of envy upon our judg- ment of others. How may a young person he a.^- sisted in ascertaining, what books to read 1 Why cannot fJod Iie1 What may be lire effect of knowl- edge iini! loeiilal impniveuient, with- out virtue and holiness 1 Author of the Task 7 Who wa.s t'enelou '! Ilow in.iy we best learn the hate- fulness of vice .' Of whom, are we most likely to think too favorably 1 Wliy are recommendations of books often injurious "! "• What if we should always follow the judgment o.'" others "i Eii'iicl of knowledge and mental improvement, with virtue and holi- ness 1 Greatest poem ofCowperl Wiiat ho|)eful sign should wo particularly encourage in youth 1 What special efforts should be made, to improve and enrich young minds, when observing new objects? What if books are recommended ignorantly, inconsiderately or wick- edly 1 On what subjects, are we more especially bound to judge for our- selves 1. Meaning of virtue i. Author of the Course of Time ? Against the errors of what author, should we be doubly guarded ? From what wrong motives, do persons sometimes read books ? V^'hy shoulil we judge for our- selves, upon the things of religion 1 Meaning of holines.i ? Author of Paradise Lost "? Greatest work of PoUokT Grand object, for which we .'should read books 1 What does Watts advise us to do, when we discover faults in books'! WHiat English poems have been greatly adinireil "! Aame, given to those, wl\o hold to the being of God, but deny the Dible'! For whom, misht museums be exceedingly useful ? With wiiat authors, should we deal freely ? ' Advantages of making books, aa we read ? 8 66 OF LIVING INSTKOCTION.S. CHAPTER VI. OF LIVING INSTRCCTIONS AND LECTURF.S — OF TEACHERS AND LEARNERS. I. There are few persons of so penetrating a genius, and so just a judgment, as to be capable of learning the arts and sciences witliout the assistance of Teachers. There is scarcely any science, so safely and so speedily learned, even by the noblest genius and the best boolcs, witliout a tutor. His assistance is absolutely necessary for most persons, and it is very useful fur all beginners. Books are a sort of dumb teachers. Tliey point "out the way to learning ; but if we labor under any doubt or mis- take, they cannot answer sudden questions, or explain pre- sent doubts and dilllcullies. Tiiis is properly the work of a living instructor. II. There are very few tutors, who are sufficiently fur- nished with such universal learning, as to sustain all the parts and provinces of instruction. The sciences are nu- merous, and many of tiiem He far wide of each other ,• and it is best to enjcjy tiie instruction of two or tlirce tutors at least, in order to run tlirougii the whole Encyclopedia or Circle of Sciences, wliere it may be obtained. Tlien we may expect, that each will teach tliC few parts of learning, which are committed to ids care, in greater perfection. But wjiere this advantage cannot bo had with convenience, one great man must supply the place of two or tliree common • instructors. III. It is not Gufllcient that instructors be competently skilled in those sciences, which tliey profess and teach, • They sliould iiave skill also in tiie art or method of teach- ing, and patience in llie practice of it. It is a great unliappiness indeed, when persons by a spirit of party or faction or interest or by purchase, ore VVIifi«o .ii'-'islmic() fill iiicHt |KT- Hnns iii'i-il, ill Icnriiiiig the ntis iiiid BCifllCCH 1 IIuw iiinny toarlicrs in it ileuiralilc to liavel— Why ? 'Vwu ci.inil iiiKilil'icntinnB, wlilcll uvery tuacllur bhuiilil puHsera.' OF LIVING INSTR0CTIONS. 87 set up fur tutors, who have neither due knowledge of sci- ence, nor skill in tiie way of communication. And alas, there are others, who with all their ignorance and insuffi- ciency, iiave self-admiration and effrontery enough to set up themselves ; and the poor pupils faro accordingly, and grow lean in their understandings. And let it be observed also, there are some very learned men, who know much themselves, but have not the talent of comnmnicating their own knowledge ; or else tliey arc lazy, and will take no pains. Either they have an obscure Some leiisnns, wliy u learned man may be a very bad tearlier? Qualiticaliutis, desirable in a teacher.' Ivnovvledgc, skill, piety, good rliaructcr, zeal, afiettion, in- genuity, mt'ekness, patience, au- thority, politeness, healtli. Aleaiiiii;; of iiigcmuLyl — of mcdi- ncm 7 Why should !io be pious T He will be niutli uuire likely to use ef- fectual means lor the iiijjhesl bcnerit of liis pupils. Why .should a teacher endeavor to promote the salvation of his pu- pils ) He has peculiar advantages for this object, and il is infinitely important. What scripture shows it to be sin- ful not to improve such advantage 1 To him, &c. I Si'c James 4 : 17.] Why should not a teacher be wholly employed in teacliin'^ his pupils literaluie, to tin: exclusion of religion .' Religion is inlioiiely more important ; it vastly increases the importance of the other branches, and helps the pupil's progress in them. Mow does it help the |)upil's pro- pres.s in other branches.' It con- duces to render his application more constant, vigorous and pcrsevcrinu, and he is more likely to enjoy the special blessing of God upon his studies. Are teachers hired to teach reli- gion "] 'I'hfy uenerally are, at least, in some dciiree. How does this appear, when their employers say nolhiu!; upon the sub- ject 1 It is generally understood, that teariicrs will L'ive their pupils Boine religious instruction. What if parents are unwilling, their childieu should be tansht reli- gion 1 Probably no one ought to take such a sciiool. Why should a tfa':her have a good moral character ? That he maybe respected by his pupils, and that his inoial inllueiice upon liieni, iiiuy be Kuod. Why should i teacher have zeal 1 He will do very little without it. The example of his zeal is also need- ful to awaken the genius of his pu- pils. Why should a teacher be affec- tionate 1 It is a thousand times belter to draw children to their stu- dies, by the cords of love, than to drive them, by the rod of correction. It will conduce to make them love tliL-ir studios, as long as they live. Why is it desirable, that a teacher should be iugenions.' To devise the best methods, and practise them in the best manner, as circumstances may varj'. Why i.-f meekness desirable in a teacher 1 Tofiutily him against the many provocations, to which he is exposed. Why should he be patient ? He will prohablv find some of his pupils very ijinoranl, dull, stupid and slow ill their progress. What teacbeis are in the greatest danger of failing in regard to sucli scholars 1 Those, who are tiie most brii^lit and intelligent. Why aie men of siipeiior genius and leaniitig very liable to tail in foriiiiiigsj stems of ediicaliim t 'J'hey c:in hardly iii;ike due alloivance for tile \vc:ikiiev liirli. nirumoii niiiids proceed in improvement. 88 OF J-IVI.\G I.VSTRUCTIO.NS. and perplexed way of talking ; or they show their learning uselessly, and make a long peripJirasis on every word ol the booa they explain ; or they cannot condescend to young beginners ; or they run presently into the elevated parts of the science, because it gives themselves greater pleasure ; or the}' are soon angry and impatient, and cannot bear witi» a few impertinent questions of a young, imjuisitive and Wliy should ;i te;iclier possess au- thority 1 To render liis kindness more striking and atfectin^, and to au-e and ^(^vera llioso, who will not he rnlfid hy love. Meaning of aiUhorUyl Dignity and energy of character. VVlien siioiild a teiichir's autlioniy bedlrectly manifested '! Only wlien it is needful to maintain good order. Why is politenes.s desirable in a teacher! 'I'o win the hearts of iiis pupils, and improve their manners. What is true politeness 1 It is love, manifested in an easy, unaf- fected, graceful and winning man- ner. Why is it desirable, that the pu- pils' manners should be improved 7 It may greatly cmuluce to their hap- piness and usefulness. What passage of scripture incul- cates politeness .' Charity doth not behave itself unseemly. Can w(! expect a teacher to pos- Bess all these qualifications 1 J'er- haps rarely, if ever, in a high degrea. What is the daily duly of a teacli- n(i1 ny the most assiduous atten- tion, watchfulness and prayer, to be as useful to his pupils, as possible. How much time should a teacher devote to his pupils'! If he is well paid for the whole of his lime, jns- tire seems to require, that the whole shunid he devoted ; and merry may require the same, where his com- pensation is little or nothing. Why do yoiing teachers often suc- ceed better, than those, who have had inurli experience.' Flow shall a teacher maintain his interest in his busitiessl lly mak- ing special preparation for every re- citation, and continual I'llorls to im- prr.ve in the art of te.\( bin!.'. Dulles iiit n^niiist his tenclierl | pils.-' rnreuis, iiiiiiisicrs, scliudl In wlipt iiiaiiiier, sliuiiKI a pupil > coiiiriiiUei-s and ull, wliu can pro- disciiss a ipicsliun witli liis leaclicr ? ; iiKiif tlie ulijcct. What sl)iiiilrl lie Uie comliict Ilia ! What c!ot'-< Walts iiiention, oso tcaclu^r in siiih a rase 1 III- should j frecpii'iit and growing folly in that encoiiia!!!! his jnipil to ask qims- j age: tioMs, and slate olijections freely, j Tendency of sncli a disposition T mill endeavortoronvince and sali:-fy ! To infidelity and everj evil wcrk. Iiini in the most kind and alfeetion- { Mtniiinc of i/'.Ai/r/.7i/ ? ate niaiim-r. j 'Mow shoiild » teaciier check such What hImiiiUI Ihe teacher era(e with teach- ) iiiiiidK lo iiiaiiitain I OF WRITERS OR SPKAKERS. Dl just and .solemn veneration for tlie autliority and advice of their parents, and the instructions of their tutors, and yet at the same tiijic, to secure to tliemsclves, a ju^t freedona in tlicir own thoughts. We are sometimes too ready to imbibe all their sentiments without examination, if we rev- erence and love them ; or, on the other hand, if we take all freedom to contest their opinions, we are sometimes tempt- ed to cast off tliat love and reverence to their persons, •which God and nature dictate. YoutJi is ever in danger uf these two extremes. X. But I think, I may safely conclude thus ; though the authority of a teacher must not absolutely determine the judgment of his pupil, yet young and inexperienced learn- ers should pay all proper deference to the instructions of their parents and teachers, short of absolute submission to their dictates. Yet still we must maintain this, tliat they should never receive any opinion, whether conformable or contrary to the tutor's mind, without sufficient evidence of it, first given to their own reasoning powers. It is thought best to omit the 7th chapter, as it would probably be useless to most learners, and of very little advantage to any. CHAPTER Viri. OF INQUIRING INTO THE SENSE AND MEANING OF ANY WRITER OR SPEAKER, AND ESPECIALLY THE SENSE OF THE SACRED WRITINGS. It is a great tuihappinoss, that there is such an ambiguity in words and forms of speech, that the same sentence may be drawn inlo different significations; wjiercby it comes to VVIiat deference should rhildren \ Meaninj n( pUrasc? All e.xpres- show to prirents and teacliersM sion, Cfinsistiim of ninre words llian — Meaning' (if (/c/rrcHcc ? | one, so united as to make sense. Ukrmi-.nkutics.— MerininirofAcr- j What is tlie diUVrence beuveen menentici'? 'J'he art of inveslisatin!; j pii|)lainin!j a |)liraf;e, and evpliining and c\plainins; the sense of words \ the words, ofuliiclia phr.i>e con- andplirascs. ; sists l In nianv phrases, some of From what Creek word, is r/c^- i the wonls are o'sed in a verv pecu- tneneutir^ derived .' Ilernieneno. — ; linr sense, or iiiive scariely any Meaning ot hermcneiw7 To inter- i meaning, so that tlie sense of llie ptet. I piirase cannot be gathered from JB" OF KNOVVINU THE SE.VSE f)as.s, tliat it is difficult soniotiracs for the reader exactly to lit iij)oii the ideas, wliich the writer or speaker ii;ul in his mind. Some of the best rules to direct us in this, are such as these. I. Be well acquainted witii the tongue itself, or language, wherein the aullior's mind is cxprcst. Learn not only uie true meaning of eacli v/ord, hut tiie sense, Avhich those 'words obtain, when placed in such a particular situation and order. Acquaint yourself with the peculiar power and emphasis of the several modes of speech, and tlie various idioms of the tongue. The secondary ideas, Aviiich custom iias sui>eraddeu to many words, should aJsej be known, as well as the particular and primary meaning of them, if we would understand any writer. See Logic, Part I. Chap. 4. Sec. 3. II. Consider the signification of those words and phrases, more especially in the same nation, or near the same age, in which that writer lived, and in wliat sense they arc used by authors of the same nation, opinion, sect, party, &,c. In this way, we may learn to interpret several phrases of the New Testament out of that version of the Hebrew Bible into Crook, which is called the Septuagint. For though that rsion is very imperfect and detective in many things, yet it seems to nv^ evident, that the holy writers of the New Testament made use of that version many times in their citation of texts out of the Bible. knowiiis the meaning of eacli word sep'iralely. t/'iiii you give an example 1 In tlic plir.ise, .Vol. at nil, tlie \\(ir.l ut i.s used in a pt'ciiliar scnsa, nnil the word nil, in ii sense contrary to its usual moaning. Sliciiild we »nc. absurd and ridicu- lous plir.i!--es'? We should not, f.x- cept siicli, ns are so coiiiiiion, as to remler it very liitriciilt to drop tlieiii. How shall we learn the iiieaiiinc of phraHes? Ai .ve do the lueaiiinu' of words, at least, when wc have diclionaries, in wliicli phra^eH nre explained. W^iat dors Watts represent, mt a prent iinliappliiess, relating to Ian- giia'je .' With what, is it very important to be well anpiaiiiteil, in order to learn Uie siinse ofaii aiilhcir 1 What lang'iiigc Is it most impor- tant to know, in order to iindersiaitd an English book, that isiiota trans- lation from nnoUicr laiiianse ? In what, consists the knowledge of a lan;;uage 1 Principally in know- ing tlie meaning of words and phrases. In what else, does it in some measure, consist 1 In knowing the ril.itiou, variation and proper col- location of words aiiif phrases. What branch of liiernliire treats of these siilijecis .'' (iraiiimar. Meaning of riillm-iition ? Three principal iiieUiods oflearn- ing the ni(anln<: of wortis 1 lly ob- servin:;, how they are used in con- versation, how tiiey are used in books, hotv they arc e.\|!laiiied in dictionaries. V\'h II oJicr methods are Boinc- tiines uscil 1 .'^liowina the olijecla, siL'tiilled by tin- worils, making' xiglis by motions ofllie hands, liead, &0. and by verbal eTcplanatiuiiH, OF WRITERS AND SPEAKERS. 93 111. Compare the v.'ords and [jlirases in one place of an author, with tiie same or kindred \vord:= and jjhrascs, used in other pluces- of the same author ; wliich are generally called parallel phices ; and as one expression explains another, which is like it, so sometimes a contrary expression will explain its contrary. Remember always, tliat a writer best What is !> vei"l);il exiilaiintioii "J ' Latin assist us to know LiigHsli? It is lelliii;;, wliat a word iticans. | Aliont one ?ixtli part uf oiir words ill wliiil way, does llie ciiild be- \ are derived lioiii l.atiri. gin to li-.iiii liiii iiieaiiiii;; of word;.? \ Can v\e not kiii-w lire meaning ot By lieariii^'tliciii ^l^ed, wjiile lie per- i tlie.se words, williout l\iiou ing ihoir ceives llie olijects. | Latin origin ? V\e c.-in. How do liiile ciiildren learn the i How does tliis appear? Many meaning o( u olds, \\ lien llie ubjecls { good Kngliali scliolnis Know notliiiig are not pirceiveil ! Ily llie totiuec- i of l.alin ; asid most of our licnva- lion, in wliirli the words are used, \ lives dilil-r in sit;iiilicatii,n lioiii and by verbal explanations. i llieir tbreign priniilives. — .Meaiimj; IJow do cbildieii olten get wrong | oi iinnnuct 1 ideas I'f u ordsr l!y misjadging of ! VVIiat is iM;plied in supposing tliat tlieconiiPciinn,orby guessing wrong, j we rannot luiow llie ineaniiig ol a V\ lien should parents and friends i word, willioiil knowing i:s original begin lo make it u busi'ness tu Ieat;i | in aiiollier language 1 'i iiat staice- tlie tliild uufds! Almost as soon ; ly aiij person iviiou s one quailer of as he is born. | cur words, and that ;liose \\ liitli are How siioiild this be done, during J not derived from other languages, Jiis tender years 1 l!y showing liiiii | cannot be kno« n. multilmles of olijerls, pronouncing ! What else does it seem to imply .' their i.aiues, qualities, fee. and fre- ! That in order lo Know a Latin or quently asking liiin, " VVliat's that ? I Uieek «ord, we must know its What is 11 good lor ! Where did it \ primitive in some other language, come from ! Who made it ! How ! V\ hat injury is sometimes impart- do you like itV&c. | ed lo a peison's stj le by liiskiiowl- What if the child uses a word i edge of l^atin I It is sometimes improperly 1 lie should be kindly | rendered stately, stift", pompous and corrected, and the proper word I obscure, by the copious use of liigh slioiilil he sii^'gesled. | soiiiidiug words. Two special cautions in teaching ! V\'hat compositions in English a chilli words? Not attempt to ! have probably been most injured by teach him those, that are wholly i Latin? termons. above his comprehension, nor too \ \A hat part of the audience can many in a shoil lime. { generally understand very little of What slio'ild parents do, that are I a«rillen sermon? Probably more not qualitied to leach llitir children, i than half. as here recommended ? They must \ \A'hat then is the advantage of do the best in their power ; and this i knowing the Latin origiiials 1 It will enable them to do better, and \ may give us some general notion of bettei coutiiitially. > ihe meaning of woids, render the Why have many parents scarcely I nieaniiis more impiessive, more per- any talent to teach their children? | nianeiitly remembered, and more Because Ihey do not improve the ! easily recalled for use. little talent ihey have. | With what should we compare an What >h'>Mld parents teach chil- I nntlnrr's words and phrases, in ordei dren. respeciin-rwords, besides their \ to understand them ? sisjnificalion 1 Cood pronunciation, t What are these generally called ■? good articiiltiiion, and all the pro- i Wbat does the author say of ccn- prieties of speech. I trariesl Why will some knowledge of | Who can best interpret a writer / !)4 OF KNOWING THE SENSE interprets himself; and as Ave believe the Holy Spirit to be tlie supreme a;:rent in the writings of the Old Testament and tlie New, he can best exphiin liimself. Hence, that theological rule arises, tliat "Scripture is the best inter- preter of scripture ;" and therefore concordances, which shew its parallel places, are of excellent use for interpreta- tion. Note V, by the Editor. [Concordnnr.e. — It is deeply to be lamented, that this ad- mirable help for understanding and impressing Scripture, is so little used. It lias been stated by some one, that " the Poor Man's Library" should always contain at least three volumes, the Bible, Psalm l^ook and Concordance. Surely these three ought to be tlie inmates of every dwelling of man. It is exceedinglv useful in finding parallel passages, in fixing the scriptural meaning of words, and in tinding particular passages, that we may wish to use in meditation or otherwise. The best works of this kind in our language, are unquestionably Cruden's and Rutterworth's. Taylor's niid Brown's are too snvill and imperfect, to answer the pur- pose in any considcralile degree. Gaston's Collection of Scri|)ture passages is a most valuable work, calculated to answer the same purpose in some respects, as a concord- ance. In this Collection, the Scriptures arc principally inserted at large ; and it is excellent indeed for those, who wish to see in a few moments, what the Scriptures say of almost any sacred subject, that may occur to mind ; which, as the work lias an excellent index, they can easily find. Butterworth's concordance, on account of its cheapness, will probably be preferred by most persons, to Cruden's.] IV. Consider tlie subject, of which the author is treat- ing, and by comparing oilier jihces, where he treats oftlio same suhject, you may learn his sense in the place, which you are reading, though some of the terms, which lie uses m tlioso two places, may be very different. And on the other hand, if the n'lthor uses the snmo words, where the subject of which he treats is not just the same, you cannot learn his sense by comparing tliose two llpjl iiilrrprpifr (if •rri|iliiiT ? j WInl is n ri)iirot:lniice1 McTiiitiff iif /ii/cr/irrf ? I Wliiwr nrc llie hcMt I \\'lnl linnli ili'pj Ic nicnllon, nr tilings, iii03tlin|>ortanl vtty UHcrul in riiuliM;,' pnnillelsl | to lie coiiniitered .' OF WRITERS OR SPEAKERS. 05 places, tboagli the more words mav seem to afjrce. For some authors, when tliey are treatin^^ of a quite different subject, may use perhaps the same words in a very difier- cnt sense, as Paul does tlie words faith and law anti righte- ousness. V. Observo the scope and design of the writer ; inquire into his aim and end in that hook or section or paragraph, which will help to explain particular sentences ; for we suppose a wise and judicious writer directs his expressions generally toward his designed end. VI. When an author speaks of any subject occasionally, let his sense be explained by those places, wlicre ho treats of it distinctly and professedly. — Where he treats of any subject in mystical or metaphorical terms, explain them by other places, where he treats of the same subject in terms that are plain and literal. — Wliere he speaks in an oratori- cal, affecting or persuasive way, let tiiis be explained by other pkices, where he treats of' the same theme in a doc- trinal or instructive way. — Where the autlior speaks more strictly, and particularly on any theme, it will explain the more loose and general expressions. — Where he treats more largely, it will explain the shorter hints and brief in- timations ; and wheresover he writes more obscurely^ search out some more perspicuous passages in the same writer, by which to determine the sense of that obscurer language. VII. Consider not only tiie person, who is introduced speaking, but the persons, to whom the speech is directed, the circumstances of time and place, the temper and spirit of the speaker, as well as tlie temper and spirit of the hear- ers; In order to interpret scripture well, there needs a good acquaintance with the Jewish customs, some knowl- edge of the ancient Roman and Greek times and manners, which sometimes strike a strange and surprising light upon passafjes, which before were very obscure. VIII. In particular propositions, the sense of an author may bo sometimes known by the inferences, which he draws from them ; and all those senses may be excluded, which will not allow of that inference. IIow shall an author he explain- j What customs shoiihl we. know, ed, whiMi he treats of a subject oc- ! in order to iindorstaiid scriiitnre .' casionally ? — MiKtaphorically .' — very i Mow .-hall wu ^ajii an aci|iiaint- brie.ily 1 — ohs^ciirely 1 — .Meanlnj; (if! ance with tlie,-'e.'' . Ey studying mctapliirrl — u{ br'fn j Srripture lii^lory, .lahn's .Arrheolfv In onler to understand a speech, I sv 1 nnnvn's Dicllnnary of the what sliould we particularly con- | Hilile, Ah-vairler's, Malroin's, tc. siderl j, Kcnsark upon iiifeiericesi 90 OF WRITERS OR SPEAKERS.. JVofe, This rule indeed is not always certain in reading and interpreting- 'human autliors : because they may mis- take in drawing tlieir inferences ; but in explaniing scrip- ture, it is a sure rule ; for the sacred and inspired writers always make jii.. Sec. 3. Directions concerning the Definition of Names. CHAPTER IX. RULES OF IMPROVEMENT BY CONVERSATION. I. If we would improve our minds by conversation, it is a great happiness to be acquainted with persons wiser than ourselves. It is a piece of useful advice, therefore, to get the favor of their conversation frequently, as far as circum- stances will allow ; and if they happen to be a little reserved, use all obliging methods to draw out of them, what may increase your own knowledge. II. Whatsoever company yon are in, waste not the time in trifling and impertinence. If you spend some hours among children, talk with them according to their capaci- ty ; mark the young buddings of inf\mt reason ; observe the different motions and distinct workings of the animal and the mind, as far you can discern them ; take notice, by what degrees, the little creature grows up to the use of his rea- soning powers, and what eai-ly prejudices beset and endan- ger his understanding. By tins means, you will learn how to address yourself to children for their benefit, and perhaps you may derive some useful philosophemes or theorems, for your own entertainment. III. If you happen to be in company with a merchant or a sailor, a farmer or a mechanic, a milk maid or a spinster, lead them into a discourse of the matters of their own pecu- Of whose presence, should we S time in trifles ? maintain an awful sense ■? *, How sliould we talk with chil- Wilh what kind of character? is | dreni it desirable to be acquainted 1 | What should we mark in them 1 What if they are reserved ? J Ou what, should we converse In what situation, should we par- | with men of particular professions ? ticularly guard against spending our I «J d8 OK CONVERSATION, liar province or profession ; for every one knows, or shouhl know, liis own business best. In this sense, a common mechanic is wiser than a philosopher. By this means, you may gain some improvement in knowledge from every one you meet. IV. Confine not yourself always to one sort of company, or to persons cf the same party or opniion, either in matters of learnin{?, religion or the civil life, lest if you should hap- pen to be nursed up or educated in early mistake, you should be confirmed and established in the same mistake, by conversing only with persons of the same sentiments. A free and general conversation with men of very various countries and of different parties, opinions and practices, so far as.it may be done safely, is of excellent use to unde- ceive us in many wrong judgments, which we may liave framed, and to lead us into luster thouj^hts. It is said, when the Kingof Siam first conversed witli some European merchants, who sought the favor of trading on his coast, he enquired of them'somc of the common appearances of summer and winter in their country ; and when they told him of water growing so hard in their rivers, that men and liorses and laden carriages passed over it, and that rain sometimes fell down as white and light as feath- ers, and sometimes almost as liard as stones, he would not believe a syllable they said ; for \c6, snow and hail, were names and things utterly unknown to liim, and to his subjects in that hot climate. — He renounced all traffic with such shameful liars, and would not suffer them to trade witli his people. Sec here the natural efl'ects of gross ignorance. Conversation with foreigners on various occasions, lias a happy influence to enlarge our minds, and to set them free from many errors and gross prejudices, we are ready to imbibe concerning them. Domicillus has never travel- led five miles from his mother's chimney •, and h(! imagines all outlandish rnen are Papishes, and worshij) nothing but a cros.s. Tityrus the shepherd, was bred up all his fife in the country, and never saw Home. He fancied it to be only a liuge vilhige, and was Iherefore infinitely surprised to nnd sucli palaces, such streets, such glittering trejisures From wliotn, iiiny we gnin iii\- ( From wli.il evil, will conversalion proveniPiit? j willi IdrciciuTR t)o likely to free us? Why slioiilcl wo rdiivcrso with j WImt (ii \ AiND OK rROIITUNG BY IT. 99 and gay magnificence, as his first journey to the city shewed him, and with wonder he confesses iiis t'olly and mistake. Conversation would have given Tityrus a better notion of Rome, thouf-ii he had never happened to travel thither. V. In mixed company among acquaintance and stran- fers, endeavor to learn somethmg from all. Be swift to ear ; but be cautious of your tongue, lest you betray your ignorance, and perhaps offend some of those who are pre- sent. The scripture severely censures those, who speak evil of the things they know not. Acquaint yourself, there- fore, somotimps v.-ith j)ersons and jiiirties, v.hicli are far dis- tant from your conmion life and customs. This is a way, whereby you may form a wiser opinion of men and things. Prove all things, and hold fast that which is good, ist divine rule, and it comes from the Father of light and truth. But young persons should practise it indeed with due limitation and under the eye of their elders. VI. Be not IVightcd nor provoked at opinions different from your own. ^om'e persons are so confident, they are in the right, that they will not come within the hearing of any notions but their own. They canton out to theitiselves, a little province in the intellectual Avorld, where they fancy, the light shines, and all the rest is darkness. They never venture into the ocean of knov/ledge, nor survey the riches of otlier minds, winch are as solid and as useful, and per- haps are finer gold, than what they ever possessed. Let not men imagine, there is no certain trutli but in the sci- ences which they study, and among that party, in ^vhich they M-ere born and educated. VII. Believe, that it is possible to learn something from ^ persons much below yourself. We are all short-sighted creatures. Our views are also narrow and limited. We often see but one side of a matter, and do not extend' our sight far and wide enough, to reach every thing that has a connexion with the thing wn talk of. We see out in part, and know but in part. Therefore, it is no wonder, we form not right conclusions ; because we do not survey the whole of any subject or argument. Even the proudest admirer of his own parts, mignt.find it useful to consult with others, though of inferior capacity and penetration. We have a In what kind of company, should ! To what, should we be swift, we he pnrlirularly rautiousofspeak- J when in company .'—slow 1 in?'? — Why! i At what opinions, should we not Of what tliinfrs. should we never | he frij^htened or provoked ? Mean- speak unfavorably .' I ingof cauttffji? 100 OF CONVERSATION, different prospect of the same thinjj, if I may so speak, ac- cording to the different position of our understandings to- wards it. A weaker man may sometimes light on notions, which have escaped a wiser, and which the wiser man might make a happy use of, if he would condescend to take notice of them. VIII. It is of considerable advantage, when we are pur- suing any difficult point of knowledge, to have a society of ingenious correspondents at hand, to whom we may pro- pose it ; for every man lias sometliing of a different genius, and a various turn of mind, whereby the subject proposed will be shown in all its lights, rc])roscnted in all its forms, and every side of it turned to view, that a juster judgment may He framed. IX. To make conversation more valuable and useful, whether it bo in a designed or accidental visit; among per- sons of the same or of different sexes, arter the necessary salutations are finislied, and the stream of common talk begins to hesitate, or runs flat and low, let some one per- son take a book, which may be agreeable to the whole com- pany,* and by common consent, let him read in it ten lines, or a paragraph or two, or a few pages, till some word or sentence gives an occasion for any of tlie company to offer a thouglit or two, relating to that subject. Interruption of the reader sitould be no blame ; for conversation is tiie busi- ness ; whether it be to confirm what the author says, or to improve it ; to enlarge upon or to correct it ; to obi(?ct against it, tir to ask any question tliat is a-kin to it ; and let every one that pleases add his opinion, and promote the conversation. When the discourse sinks again, or diverts to trifles, let him that reads pursue the page, and read on further paragraplis or pages, till some occasion is given by a word or sentence, for a now discourse to be started, and that with the utmost ease and freedom. Such a method as this would prevent the hours of a visit from running all to waste ; and by this means, even among scliolars, they will seldom find occasion for that too just and bitter reflection, " I have lost my time in the company of the learned." Why mny we leBrn sometliing i Why Is not this uncivil ? from Inff-rlorH.' j When should the rending recom- Why is il ilpijr.TMp to ronvrrse \ nicnre 1 with others ii(mn (lidiriill poitilai' • j AVhat evil mny tlilA method pre How loav time he pmfiliihly spent, j vent 1 when ronvers:iilon (liTlineH 1 I What hitter reflection might It When may any one interrupt the j prevent among scholars i' reader 1 i AND OF PROFITING BT IT. 101 By such practice as this, young ladies may very honora- bly and agreeably, improve their hours. While one applies herself to reading, the others may employ their attention, among the various artifices of the needle. But let all of them make their occasional remarks or inquiries. This will guard a great deal of that precious time from modish trifling impertinence or scandal, which might otherwise afford mat- ter for painful repentance. Observe this rule in genera] ; whensoever it lies in your power to lead the conversation, let it be directed to some profitable point of knowledge or practice, so far, as may be done with decency ; and let not tiie discourse and the hours be suflxjrcd to run loose without aim or design ; and when a subject is started, pass not hastily to another, before you have brought the present theme or discourse to some tol- erable issue ; or there be a joint consent to drop it. X. Attend v/ith sincere diligence, vvhile any one of the company is declaring his sense of the question proposed. Hear the argument with patience, though it differ ever so much from your sentiments ; for vou yourself are very de- sirous to be heard with patience ty others who differ from you. Let not your thoughts be active and busy all tlie while, to find out something to contradict, and by what means to oppose the speaker, especially in matters wliich are not brought to an issue. Tliis is a frequent and un- happy temper and practice. You should rather be intent and solicitous to take up tlie mind and meaning of the speaker, zealous to seize and approve all tliat is true in his discourse ; nor yet should you want courage to oppose where it is necessary ; but let your modesty and patience, and a friendly temper, , be as conspicuous as your zeal. XI. When a man speaks witii much freedom and ease, and gives his opinion in the plainest lansruage of common sense, do not presently imagine you shall ga^in nothing by his company. Sometimes you will find a person, Avho in How may this method be iin- i lead, when duty requires, proved by ;i circle of ladies 1 | .Second 1 Never engross conver- To what, -ihould we direct the i sation, wlien others should speak, conversation, when we can take the | Third.' Always keep the con- lead 1 i versation upon some profitable sub- How shall we decide, whether j ject. we oujilit to take the lead in cun- ! \Vhat does Watts say with regard versation 1 By considering our age, | to changing subjects 1 qualifications and circumstances. I In what manner, should we hear First of ;i L'reat rules for those, i the remarks of others 1 who are qiialifierl to lead in con- \ What should we do, rather than versation 1 lie. willing to take the ! find out something to contradict 1 {)# im OF CONVERSATION, his conversation or his writings, delivers Iiis thoughts in so plain, so easy, so familiar and perspicuous a manner, that you both understand and assent to every thing he says, as fast as you read or hear it. Hereupon some hearers have been ready to conclude in haste, "Surely this man says none but common things. I knew as much before, or I could have said all this myself." This is a frequent mis- take. Pellucido was a very great genius. When he spoke in the senate, he was wont to convey his ideas in so simple and happy a manner, as to instruct and convince every hearer, and to inforce the conviction through the whole illustrious assi^mbly ; and that, with so much evidence, that you would have been ready to wonder, that every one who spoke had not said the same things. But Pellucido was the only man that could do it, the only speaker who had attain- ed this art and honor. XII. If any thing seems dark in the discourse of your companion, so that you have not a clear idea of what is spoken, endeavor to obtain a clearer conception of it by a decent manner of inquiry. Do not charge the speaker with obscurity, either in his sense or his words ; but intreat his favor to relieve your own want of penetration, or to add an enlightening word or two, tliat you may take up his whole meaning. If difficulties arise ni your mind, and constrain your dis- sent to the tilings spoken, represent what objections some persons would be ready to make against the sentiments of the spoakor, witliout telling him, you oppose. This man- ner of address carries something more modest and obliging in it, than to appear to raise objections of your own, by.way of contradiction to him that spoke. XIII. When you are forced to differ from him, who de- livers his sense on any point, yet agree as far as you can, and represent how far you a^rce ; and if there bo any room for it, explain the words of ftio speaker in a sense, to which f'ou can in genepai assent, and so agree with him ; or at east, by a small addition or alteration of liis sentiments, shev.' your own sense of things. It is the practice and dc- In wh.-it innniK-r, did Pellucido spcnk In the sfiniitc ? VVilh wlinl elivm Al wliiil, woiilfl the lieiirciH !»■ rendy to wonder 1 Wlio eUe could Bpenk like I*el- liicido 1 VVIial irtlie speaker's reinarRgarc olisciite ? With wlint, Rhould we not charge an ohsriirp speiikurl What if yon dissent Troni him? H(s. Courage and positiveness are never more necessary than on such an oce-isiou. I'ut it is good to join some argument with them, of real and convincing force ; and let it be stroiifrly pronounced too. Wlien such a resistance is made, you will find some of In what iiinnnrr, mIkiiiIiI he pro- t With wliat, may we fioiiw'tiitiRM po»e hiH llioiiphtfl 1 — Why ? | roprl th'? insi>U>nre orwiirli a iiiaii 1 What if he (Inrliles a piihil willi i What ratition .«hiiiil(l wo unc in great coiillilcnre, and i;< at^urwaids niirli a rase ? Not tlitis t(i oppose, convinced of hi!i crnirl Wliat arc weak minds ready to conclude ronrerniiiK n man wllo talka will) |;roal assurance 1 iiidess we are very nun: to coiupier. Of what, is tliere danger in such a rase ? rtirlous debute. AKD OF PROFITING BY IT. JOS these bold talkers will draw in their horns, wlien their fierce and feeble pushes against truth and reason are repel- led with pushing and confidence. It is a pity indeed, tliat truth should ever need sucli sort of defences. But we know, that a triumphant assurance has sometimes support- ed gross falsehoods, and a wiiole company have been cap- tivated to error by tliis means, till some man with equal assurance has rescued them. It is a pity that any momen- tous point of doctrine should happen to fall under such reproaches, and require such a mode of vindication ; though if I happen to hear it, I ought not to turn my back and sneak off in silence, and leave the truth to lie baffled, bleed- ing and slain. Yet I must confess, I should be glad to have no occasion ever to fight with any man of this sort of weapons, even though I should be so happy as to silence his insolence, and obtain an evident victory. XVII. Be not fond of disputing every thing Pro and Con, nor indulge yourself, to shew your talent of attacking and defending. A logic, which teaches nothing else, is little worth. This temper and practice will lead you just so far out of the way of knowledge, and divert your honest inquiry after the truth, which is debated or sought. In set disputes, every little straw is often seized, to support our own cause ; every thing, that can be drawn in any way, to give color to our argument, is advanced, and that perhaps with vanity and ostentation. This puts the mind out of a proper posture to seek and receive the truth. XVIII. Do not bring a warm party-spirit into free con- versation, which is designed for mutual improvement in the search of truth. Take need of allowing yourself in those self-satisfied assurances, which keep the doors of the un- derstanding barred fast against the admission of any new sentiments. Let your soul be ever ready to hearken to further discoveries, from a constant and ruling conscious- ness of our present fiillible and imperfect state ; and make it appear to your friends, that it is no hard task for yon to learn and pronounce those little words, 1 ivas mistaken, how hard soever it is for the bulk of mankind to pronounce them. XIX. As you may sometimes raise inquiries for your own instruction and improvement, and draw out the learn- Influence of a disputatious spirit i V^'liat little hiimiliaiins words upon tlie acquisition of triitli 1 I should we be willing to pronounce, What is said of a logic, that teach- | when convinced of error'! ea notlting else ? t 106 OF CONVERSATION, ing, wisdom and fine sentiments of your friends, who per- haps may be too reserved or modest ; so at other times, if you perceive a person unskilful in the matter of debate, you may by questions aptly proposed in tlie Socratic method, lead him mto a clearer knowledge of the subject. Then you become his instructor, in such a manner, as may not appear to make yourself his superior. XX. Take heed of atfecting always to shine in company, above the rest and to display the riches of your own under- standing or your oratory, as though you would render your- self admirable to all that are present. This is seldom well taken in polite company. Much less should you use such . forms of speech, as would insinuate the ignorance or dul- ness of those, with whom you converse. XXI. Though you should not affect to flourish in a co- pious harangue and diffusive style in company, yet neither should you rudely interrupt and reproach him that happens to use it ; but when he has done speaking, reduce his sen- timents into a more contracted form ; not with a show of correcting, but as one who is doubtful whether you hit upon his true sense or not. Thus matters may be brought more easily from a wild confusion, into a single point, questions may be sooner determined, and difficulties more easily removed. XXII. Be not so ready to charge ignorance, prejudice and mistake upon others, as you are to suspect yourself of them ; and in order to show, how free you are from pre- {'udicps, learn to bear contradiction with patience. Let it ►e easy to you to hear your own opinion strongly opposed, especially in matters, which are doubtful and disputable among men of sobriety and virtue. Give a patient hearing t VVliat if you see a person unskil- i listen palieiill)' to arpiments on all ful in (leliale i" j sides'! For tlio sake of p!iiiiiii)» and What iM Hald tance, linw tlity rrpulate their man- pan y 1 At home. j ners in the family circle? They do How mi((lit the members of most j exceedinclv err. faniilieH firc.itly improve their man- | dualities, deslrahle inacompan ners I Ilv ^re;llinc(^■ll■ll other mnrh j ion '! more kindly and polilclv, and l.v ( Uualities, unde.oirable In a com- ■pecial effort." lo (iilliv.ite propriety panion ? Iteserve, pride, dogma- of speeeh and Ixhavior. \ limn, nHsnininR forwardness, iniper- Agalnsl what, should such re- tineiit lonnacity, freifulness, affecta- formerH parlicularly puard 1 AfTec- j lion of wit, jealoiisy, &.c. AND OF PROFITI.NG BY IT. lO'J 1. If he be e.\"cecdingly reserved, and lias either no in- clination to discourse, or no tolerable capacity of speech and language for the communication of his sentiments ; 2. If he be hauHity and proud of his knowledge, imperi- ous in his airs, and always fond of imposing his sentiments on all the company ; 3. If ho be positive and dogmatical in his own opinions, and will dispute to the end ; if he will resist the brightest evidence of truth, rather than suffer himself to be over- come, or yield to the plainest and strongest reasonings ; 4. If he be one, who always affects to outshine all the company, and delight to hear himself talk and flourish upon a subject, and malie long harangues, while the rest must be all silent and attentive ; 5. If ho be a person of a whiffling and unsteady turn of mind, who cannot keep to a point of controversy ; but wan- ders from it perpetually, and is always solicitous to say something, whether it be pertinent to the question or not ; 6. If he be fretful and peevish, and given to resentment upon all occasions ; if he know not hoAV to bear contradic- tion, or be ready to take things in a wrong sense ; and if he be swift to feel a supposed offence, or to imagine himself affronted, and then break out into a sudden passion, or re- tain silent and sullen wrath ; 7. If he affect wit on all occasions, and be full of his con- ceits and puns, quirks or quibbles, jests and repartees ; these may agreeably entertain and animate an liour of mirth ; but they have no place in the search after truth ; 8. If he carry always about him, a sort of craft and cun- ning and disguise, and act rather like a spy, than a friend. Have a care of such a oile, as will make an ill use of free- dom in conversation, and immediately charge heresy upon you, wlicn you happen to differ from those sentiments, which authority or custom has established. In short, you should avoid the man in such select con-'* Versation, who practises any thing, that is unbecoming the character of a sincere, free and open searcher after truth. Now though you may pay all the relative duties of life to persons of these unhappy qualifications, and treat them with decency and love, so far as religion and humanity oblige you, yet take care of entering into a free debate of niattera of truth or falsehood in tlieir company, and especially about \l\e principles of religion. I confess, if a person of such a Can yoii think of any oUiers, not i Where slinulfi we especially vvatcl^ here mentioned ? J against tliese evils' 10 110 OK CONVERSATIOiN, temper happens to judge and talk- well on such a subject, you may liear him -with attention, and derive what profit you can from his discourse ; but he is by no means to be chosen for a free conference in matters of inquiry and knowledge. XXVill. While I would persuade you to beware of such persons, and abstain from too mucli freedom of discourse among them, it is very natural to infer, that you should watch against the working of these evil qualities in your own breast, if you happen to be tainted with any of them yourself Men of learnmg and ingenuity will justly avoid your acquaintance, when they find such an \mhappy and unsociable temper prevailing in you. XXIX. To conclude ; when you retire from company, then converse with yourself in solitude, and inquire, what you have learnt for the improvement of your understand- ing, or for tlie rectifying your inclinations ; for the increase of your virtues, or the meliorating of your conduct and behavior in any future parts of life. If you iiave seen some of your company candid, modest, humble in their manner, wise and sagacious, just and pious in their sentiments, polite and graceful, as well as clear and strong in their expression, and universally acceptable and lovely in tlieir behavior, endeavor to impress the idea of all these upon your memory, and treasure tiiem up for your imitation. XXX. Jf the laws of reason, decency and civility have not been well observed among your associates, take notice of those defects, for your own improvement ; and from every occurrence of this kind, remark something to imitate or to avoid, in elegant, polite and useful conversation. Perhaps you will find, that some persons present have really, dis- pleased the company, by an excessive and too visible affectation to ph-asc ; that is, by giving loose to servile flattery, or promiscuous praise ; while otlicrs wore as ready to oppose and contradict every tiling said. Some have Reserved just censure for a morose anu affV-cted taciturnity.^ Others iiave been anxious and careful, lest their silence should be interpreted a want of sense ; and therefore, they What inquiry should we make of 1 please T ourselvcH, when wo reiirc fruni coin I \\'h(irn sho\il(I we strive to please, pany .'— HicnniiiK (il mi'/iiir«tf? i Mioru than men ? Wliat improvrnirnt shonhl we j For what ohject niny we pleaae make of the exnin|ile cf thos\ (Ull JUMICSl Ul With what feelings, should we i we read every author 1 learn to bear contradiction 1 Qualifications desirable in a teach- er 1 Why should a teacher have zeal 1 in a companion 1 Why should a pupil attend school punctually T What should a pupil do before he decides a point against his teacher! Three principal methods of learn- ing the meaning of words 1 How shall we decide, whether we ougut to take the lead in conversa- tion 1 Why should we listen patiently to arguments on all sides'! Why should a teacher be pious ? Why should a teacher be affec- tionate 7 What should we think of a teach- er, who is unwilling to be taught by his pupil ? How does a child begin to learn the meaning of words? In order to understand a speech, what should we particularly con- sider? In what mannei, did Pellucido speak in the rennte 1 Why should wo be willing some times lolifllcn to remarks that appear frivolouf 1 Whiidc salvation should a teaclier i Why are some ashamed to a»>k questions ? Five qualifications most desirable What branch of instruction is it most im])ortAnt for a teacher to in- culcate? What is inculcated by that scrip ture, which says, Chaiity doth not behave itself unseemly 1 Fur what purpose, should parents, teachers, ministers, school coiiiinit lees, &.C. co-operate ? Coldeii rule for the treatment ol authors 1 To what king, did some European merchants give some account ot the ed'ects of cold ? Mention some qualities, that ap- pear undesirable in a companion 1 How docs religion help a pupiPt progress in all other liranches ! Ilow should a teacher promote freedom of tlioiiglit in his pupils 1 Ilow do children olXen get wrong ideas of wcuds! With what, should we compare an author's words and phrases, in orilcr to understand them 1 Why should we converse with various uasuciatea ? OF DISPUTES. 113 CHAPTER X. OF DISPUTES. I. Under the general head of Conversation for the Im- provement of the Mind, we may rank the practice of disputing ; that is, when two or more persons appear to maintain different sentiments, and defend their own, or oppose the other's opinion, in alternate discourse, by some metliods of argument. II. As these disputes often arise in good earnest, where the two contenders do really believe the different proposi- tions, whicli tliey support ; so sometimes they are appoint- ed, as more trials of the students' skill in academies, or scliools. Sometimes they are practised, and tliat with ap- parent fervor in courts of judicature, by lawyers, in order to gain the lees of their clients, while both sides perhaps are really of the same sentiment, with regard to the cause which is tried. III. In common conversation, disputes are often managed witliout any forms of regularity or order ; and they turn to good or evil purposes, chiefly according to the temper of the disputants. They may sometimes be successful to search out truth, sometimes effectr.al to maintain truth, and convince the mistaken ; but at other times, a dispute is a mere scene of battle, in order to victory and vain triumph. DisruTEs. — Me^uunf; of dispute 7 j, What shall we think of the max- How are ilisputes generally iiiaiia- j im, adopted liy some, " Never dig- ged in conversation ^ | pute about religion '!" It seems to According to what, do disputes | he as unscriptiiral, as it is unrea- generally prodnce good or evil '! | sonable. What may dii^putes sometimes | Has not disputing done more harm enable us to searcli out and main- i than good 1 Probably not. tain"? I What good has ever been done by What Scripture authority have we | disputing'! Most iujportant truths to show, that disputing may be \ have been maintained, and spread right 1 Paul disputed daily in the i far and wide. school of Tyrannus ; ami we are \ Flow do missionaries propagate exhorted to contend earnestly for the \ the gospell In a great measure, by faith, i.nce delivo/ed to the saints. } disputing. Acts 19 : 9. Jude : 3. j Would it not be better to propa- Hovv does the latter text show, i gate the gospel by preaching 1 The that we should sometimes dispute 1 i missionaries do preach; but, tlieir We must doubtless contend for Die I doctrine being disputed, tbey must, faith by argument ; and this is dis- \ like Paul, defend it by disputation, puting. { 10* 114 OF DISPUTES. IV. There are some few general rules, which should be observed in all debates whatever, if we would find out truth by them, or convince a friend of his error, even though they be not managed according to any settled forms of disputa- tion. As there are almost as many opinions and judgments of things, as there are persons, so when several persons hapj)en to meet, and confer together upon any subject, they are ready to declare their different sentiments, and support them by such reasonings, a.s they are capable of. This is called debating, or disputing, as is above described. V.' When persons begin a debate, they should always take care, that they are agreed in some general principles or jtropositions, which either more nearly or remotely affect the question in hand ; for otherwise, they have no founda- tion or hope of convincing each other. They must have some common ground to stand upon, wjiile they maintain the contest. Wlien they find that they agree in some remote proposi- tions, then let them search farther, and inquire, iiow near they approach to each other's sentiments ; and whatsoever propositions they agree in, let these lay a foundation for the mutual hope of conviction. Hereby you will be pre- vented from running, at every turn, to some original and remote propositions and a.xioms, which practice both en- tangles and prolongs a dispute. As for instance, if there was a debate proposed l)etween a Protestant and a Papist, whether there be such a place as purgatory ; let tliem remember, that they both agree in this point, that Christ has made satisfaction or atonement for sin, and upon this ground, let tlicm botli stand, while they search out the con- troverted doctrine of purgatory, by way of conference or debate. VI. The question should be cleared from all doubtful terms aiiu needless additions ; and all things, tiiat belong to the (piestion, sliould be expressed in plain and intelligi- ble language. This is so necessary a thin;,'-, Ibat without it, men will be exposed to sucli sort of ridicidous contests as was found one day between the two unlearned combat- ants Sartor and Sutor, wiio assaulted and defended the In wli;it, (Idi'H it necin needful, 1 make, wlicn they find, they are that (liHpiil.intH Klimild he npreed 1 j ngreed in some pctints? Why 1 IJnIesK tlioy .ire iigreeil in j Trom whnt, should the question some poinlH, there <>rcmH to lie no j lie cleiireii 1 ronnd.'itlon, upon which, to rest nn I In wliitt kind of liinctinKC, should iir^iincnt. j the cpu-slion he stnled I What inquiry should disputants j Upon what duclrinc, did SaiUir OF DISPUTES. lis doctrine of transubstantiation with much zeal and violence. But Latino happening to come into their company, and inquiring the subject of their dispute, asked eacli of them, what he meant by that long hard word Iransuhstantiation. Sutor readily informed him, that he understood bowing at the name of Jesus. But Sartor assured him, that he meant nothing but bowing at the higii altar. " No wonder then," said Latino, "that you cannot agree, when yon neither un- derstand one another, nor the word, about which you con- tend." I think the whole family of the Sartors and Sutors would bo wiser, if they avoided such kind of debates, till they understood the terms better. But alas ! even their wives caiTy on such conferences. The other day, one was heard in the street, explaining to her less learned neigh- bor, the meaning of metaphysical science ; and she assured her, that as physics were medicines for the body, so meta- physics was physic for the souL Upon this, they went on to dispute the point, how far tlic divine excelled the doctor. VIL And not only the sense and meaning of the words used in the question, should be settled and adjusted be- tween the disputants, but the precise point of inquiry sliould be distinctly fixed ; the question in debate should be limited precisely to its special extent, or declared to be taken in its more general sense. As for instance. If two men are con- tending whether civil government be of divine right or not; here it must be observed, the question is not whether mon- archy in one man, or a republic in multitudes of the people, or an aristocracy in a few of tlio cliief, is appointed of God as necessary ; but whether civil government in its most general sense, or in any form wliatsoever, is derived from the will and appointment, of God .' Again, The point of inquiry should be limited further. Thus, the question is not whether government comes from the will of God, by the light of revelation ; for that is granted ; but wlietlicr it is derived from the will of God, by the liglit of reason too. This sort of specification or limitation of the question pre- vents the disputants from wandering away from the precise point of inquiry. and Sutor dispute? f What precise point should be fi\eanm \ Wlwii. dues the autlior say of the VVhnI M centrally tti'! ocrasicn of 1 lov« of viclnry 1 clmnsinc tise (piestion 1 ; VVIiv nre most persons so very I)oe« lin iiilciKi What caution dues Watts give, Why should we dispute only for i witb regard to concession in dia- truth 1 If we dispute for any thing S putesi else, we shall be in danger of pro- | When is this caution scarcely moting error, and diminishing our | needful.' When our opponent al- love and thirst for truth. | lowsus to retract any concession we Is it right to dispute in favor of an j have made, opinion, that we do not believe? j \Vhy should this privilege be al- Probably not. | lowed on both sides .' All are liable Why 1 We can hardly expect to | to make false concessions. promote truth by advocating error. ! Who seein the most liable to make — Meaning of arfrofc/c? | false concessions .' Those who are By what arguments, should we | most candid ' defend truth 1 Only such, as we | What are we bound to do, when consider sound. \ we retract a concession .' Toanswer Why not by others.'- It is an at- ! the argument^;, that led us to make tempt to convince othersi by argu- \ it. 118 OF DISPUTES. Polonides in free conversation, led Incauto to agree with him in this proposition, that the blessed God Jias too much justice, in any case to punish any being, wiio is in itself in- nocent, till he not only allowed it witli an unthinking alac- rity, but asserted it in most universal and unguarded terms. A little after Polonides came in discourse, to commend the virtues, the innocence and the piety of our .blessed Savior; and thence inferred, it was impossible tliat God should ever pimish so holy a person, who was never guilty of any crime. Then Incauto espied the snare, and found himself robbed and defrauded of the gieat doctrine of the atonement by the death of Christ ; upon vvliich he had placed liis immor- tal hopes according to the gospel. Tliis tauglit him to be- tliink himself, what a dangerous concession he had made in 80 universal a manner, that God would never punish any being who was innocent, and ho saw it needful to recal his words, or to explain them better, by adding this reflection or limitation, namely. Unless this innocent being were some way involved in anotiier's sin, or stood as a voluntary surety for the guilty. By this limitation, he secured the great and blessed doctrine of the sacrifice of Christ for the sins bi men, and learnt to be more cautious in his concessions for time to come. Two months ago Fatalio had almost tempted Iiis friend Fjdens to leave oil" prayer, and to abandon his dependence on the providence oi God in tlic common affairs of life, by obtaining of him a concession of the like kind. " Is it not evident to reason," says Fatalio, " that God's immense scheme of transactions in the universe, was contrived and determined long before you and I were born ? Can you imagine, my dear Fidcns, that the blessed (Jod changes his original contrivances, and makes new interruptions in the course of them so often, as you and 1 want his aid, to pre- vent llie little accidents of life, or to guard us from them ? Can you snff'or yourself to be persuaded, that the great Creator of this world takes care to support a bridge, whicli was quite rotten, and to make it stand firm a lew minutes longer, till you had rode over it? Or will he uphold a fall- ing tower, while we two are passing by it, that such worms as you and I, may escape tiie ruin ? WIml doctrini- iliil I'oloniil'js al- ! siiade Fidcrm to omit? •most lead Incauto to rcnoiinrcl i How may tlic pnipriely of pmyei — Howl — MRaiiiiiR ofiitUMemfH/ ! i lin vindicali'd against Ilic objection How did Incniitu Kccure the line ! orRitalin ? Ry fiii|i|)OHiii|;, tliat Ood txinc ? ! Iiail respect to tlie pruycr, in hie VVliat duly did Fatalio almost per- { eternal arrangeineiita OF DISPUTES. 119 But you say, you prayed for his protection in the morn- ing ; and he certainly hears prayer. I grant, he knows it. But are you so fond and Aveak, as to suppose, that the uni- versal Lord of all had such a regard to a word or two of your breath, as to make alterations in his own eternal scheme upon that accourft ? Nor is there any other way, whereby his providence can preserve you in answer to prayer, but by creating such perpetual interruptions and changes in his own conduct according to your daily be- havior." " I acknowledge," says Fidens, "there is no other way to secure the doctrine of divine providence in all these common affairs ; and therefore, I begin to doubt, whether God does or ever will exert himself so particularly in our little concerns." Have a care, good Fidens, that you yield not too far. Take heed, lest you have granted too much to Fatalio. Pray let me ask of you. Could not the great God, who grasps and surveys all future and distant tilings in one sin- gle view, could not he from the beginning, foresee your morning prayer, for his protection, and appoint all second causes to concur for the support of that crazy bridge, or to make tiiat old tower stand firm, till you had escaped the danger ? Or could not he cause all the mediums to work, so as to make it fall before you come near it? Can ho not appoint all his own transactions in the universe, and every event in the natural world, in a way of perfect correspond- ence, with his own fore-knowledge of all the events, actions and appearances of the moral world in every part of it ? Can he not direct every thing in nature, which is but his servant, to act in perfect agreement with his eternal pre- science of our sins, or of our piety ? And hereby all the flory of providence, and our necessary dependence upon it y faith and prayer, are as well secured, as if he interposed to alter his own scheme every moment. Let me ask again. Did not he in his own counsels or decrees appoint thunders and lightnings and earthquakes, to burn up and destroy Sodom and Gomorrah, and turn them into a dead sea, just at the time, when the iniquities of those cities were raised to their supreme height ? Did he not ordain the fountains of the deep to be broken up, and overwhelming rains to fall from heaven, just when a guilty world deserved to be drowned ; while he took care of the security of righteous Noah, by an ark, which should float upon that very deluge of waters ? Thus, he can pun- 120 OF DISPUTES. ish the criminal, wlien he pleases, and reward the devout worshipper in the proper season, by his original and eternal schemes of appointment, as well as if he interposed every moment anew. Take lieed, Fidens, that you be not tempt- ed aM'ay by such sopliisms of Fatalio, to witlihold prayer from (jiod, and to renounce your faith in his providence. Remember this sJiort and plain caution of the subtle errors of men. Let a snake but once thrust in Ins head at some small unguarded fold of your garment ; and he will insensibly and unavoidably wind his whole body into your bosom, and give you a pernicious wound. XI. On the other hand, when you have found your op- ponent make any such concession us may turn to your real advantage in maintaining the truth, be wise and watchful to observe it, and make a liappy improvement of it. Rhap- sodus has taken a great deal of pains to detract from the honor of Christianity, by sly insinuations, that the sacred writers are perpetually promoting virtue and piety by promises and tlireatenings ; wheretis, neither tlie fear of future punishment, nor the hope of future reward can pos- sibly be called good affections, or such as are the acknowl- edged s])rings and sources of all actions truly good. He adds furtlier, that this fear or this hope cannot consist in reality with virtue or goodness, if it either stands as essen- tial to any mora! performance, or as a considerable motive to any good action. Thus he would fain lead Cliristians to be ashamed of the gospel of Christ, because of its future and eternal promises and threatenings, as being incon- sistent with Ills notion of virtue : for lie supposes, virtue shoidd be so beloved and practised for the sake of its own beauty and loveliness, that all other motives arising from rewards or punishments, fear or hope, do really take away just so much from the very nature of virtue, a.s their in- fluence reaches to ; and that no part of those good practices are really viilunble, but what arises from tht; mere love of virtue itself, without any regard to punishment or reward. But observe in two pages aflerwards Ik; grants, lluit this principle of fear of future punishment, and hope of future What if your opponent makntt ) How inny fcan anil linpeH be a somp iinporlanl roticcsHiDn ? } (;real scr.iirily to virtue ? 'I'lmy may What (plijerlKMi did Khapsodus j prevent ils Iwinj; swept away by make tn the llihici ! sotne violent Icinptalion. Why would llhnpsodus have vir- | What seetns lo ho a romplele tUP prnctifled I j auHwer lo Hhapsodiis 1 That virtue What ronression does Rhapandus j is jiift as inerrenary, when piaitiactl afterwards iu.ike1 } Tor preHcntsatlalaeiion, nil for future. OK DISPUTES. 12J reward, how mercenary and servile soever it may be ac- counted, is yet in many circumstances, a great advantage, security and support to virtue ; especially wliere there is danger of the violence of rage or lust, or any counterwork- ing passion 1,0 control and overcome the good aliections of the mind. Now tlie rule and the practice of Christianity, or the gospel, as it is closely connected with future rewards and punishments, may be Avell supported by this concession. Pray, Ilhapsodus, tell me, if every man m this present life, by the violence of some counter-working passion, may not have his good affections to virtue controlled or overcome ? May not therefore his eternal fears and hopes be a great advantage, security, and support to virtue in so dangerous a state and situation, as our journey through this world to- wards a better ? And this is all, that the defence of Christianity necessarily requires. And yet further, let me ask our Rhapsodist, If you have nothing else, Sir, but the beauty and excellency, and love- hncss of virtue to preach and flourish upon before such sorry and degenerate creatures, as the bulk of mankind are, and you have no future rewards or punishments, with which to address their hopes and fears, how many of these vicious wretches will you ever reclaim from all their varieties of profaneness, intemperance and madness ? How many have you ever actually reclaimed by this smooth, soft method, and these fine words ? What has all tliat reasoning and rhetoric done, which have been displayed by your pre- decessors the Heathen moralists, upon this excellency and beauty of virtue ? What has it been able to do towards the reforming of a sinful world ? Perhaps now and then a man of better natural mould has been a little refined, and perhaps also there may have been here and there a man restramed or recovered from injustice and knavery, fron drunkenness and lewdness, and vile debaucheries, by ^his fair reasoning and philosophy. But have tiie passir^s of revenge and envy, of ambition and pride, and the- inward secret vices of the mind been mortified merely bv this phi- losophical language ? Have any of these men been made new creatures, men of real piety and love to (/'od ? Go, dress up all the virtues of human nzwre in all the beauties of your oratory, and declaim a-'oud among the looser herds of mankind, on the praise of social virtue, and What success have pliilnsophers liad, in preaching the beauty of virtuof 11 J22 OF DISPUTES. the amiable qualities of goodness, till 3'our heart or your lungs ache, and you v,'ill ever find, as your Heathen fathers have done before, that the wild passions and appetites of men are too violent to be restrained by sucli mild and silken language. You may as well build up a fence of straw and featliers, to resist a cannon-ball, or try to quench a flaming grenado with a s'lell of fair water, as hope to succeed in these attempts. But an eternal heaven and an eternal hell carry divine force and power with them. Tliis doctrine from the mouth of Christian preachers has begun the re- formation of multitudes. This gospel has recovered thou- sands among tlie nations from iniquity and death. They have been awakened by tlicse awful scenes to begin reli- gion ; and afterwards their virtue lias improved into supe- rior and more refined principles and liabits by divine grace, and risen to high and eminent decrees, though not to a con- summate state. The blessed (jod knows human nature much better than Rhapsodus, and has throughout his word appointed a more proper and more effectual method of ad- dress to it, by tJie passions of liope and fear, by punishments and rewards. If you read on four pages further in these writings, you will find, the author makes another concession. He allows, tliat the master of a familj% using proper rewards, and gentle punishments toward his cliildrcn, teaches tliem good- ness, and by this help, instructs them in a virtue, which afterwards they practise upon other grounds, and without thinking of a penalty or a bribe ; and this, says he, is what we call a liberal education and a liberal service. This new concession of that author may also bo very happily improved in fuvor of Christianity. What are tlie best of men in this life ? They arc by no means perfect in virtue. We arc all but children here under tlu; great Master «jf the family ; and ho is pleased by hopes and fears, by nitrcies and corrections, to instruct us in virtue, and to con- duct jsonwnrd towards the Kublimor and more perfect prac- tice otitin the future world, where it will be performed, as in his oMn language, perhaps without tiiinking of penalties and bribes And since he has allowed, tiiat this conduct may be calltj " a liberal education, and a liberal service," let Chnstianr>y, then, be indulged the title of a "hberal Effect of prcncliiti/ elornnl ro- f iipnii his own principle, and may wards and piiiiiKlmiciil^') | nut npidy to a person or difl^.rant VVIiul is a persoii.il frgumenll j princi|iif-!<. Onr tUat is addressed to a periuii, j or DISPUTES. 123 education" also ; and it is admirably litted for such frail and sinful creatures, while they are trainini!it / j wrole in (Jrcek I (ireek f.illiera. Who wan Si. Jcroinfi? The most j MeMiiiizof Chrhiliiin j'atlirr.tl Ui«- lo!irrie'liteousness to appear. Q. If this be not before their death, how can it be done ? A. I can think of no other way, but by supposing man to have some existence after this life. Q. Are you not convinced, then, that there must be a state of reward and punishment after dcatli .'' A. Yes, sure- ly, I now see plainly, tliat the goodness and righteousness of God, as governor of the world, necessarily require it. III. Now the advantages of this method are very con- siderable. 1. It represents the form of a dialogue or common con- versation, which is a much more easy, more pleasant and a more sprightly way of instruction, and more fit to e.xcite the attention and sharpen the penetration of the learner, than solitary reading, or silent attention to a lecture. Man being a sociable creature, dcliglits more in conversation, and fearns bettor tliis way, if it could always be wisely and happily practised. 2. This method has something very obliging in it, and carries a very humble and condescending air, when he that instructs seems to be the inquirer, and seeks information from him who learns. 3. It leads the learner into the knowledge of truth, as it were by his own invention ; which is a very pleasing thing to human nature : and by questions pertinently and arti- ficially i)roposed, it docs as cffoctually draw hiui on to dis- cover his own mistakes, which he is mucji ir.ore easily persuaded to relinquish, when he seems to have discovered tliem Iiiniself. 4. It is managed in a great measure in the form of the most easy reasoning, always arising from sometliing as- serted or known in the foregoing answer, and so proceed- First rinss of ndvantagea, ine:i- i 'I'liiit each parly, should he allowed lioneil by Watts 1 to ask ax many i|iicsliuii8 as thu Siecoiul class 1 ollii;r. When one answers the qiientiona ol Ills (ipponenl, what is the exer- risu iineti called ? U»in<{ tlie lubor- inj! oar. tlow Miiu'li oiiplit each to be will- inc t<< use the laborinp onr? Why is it so called I Uecaiise it is ceninally niiich easier to ask {\\uf- tions, than to answer Iheni. Who can ask i|iiesliiins, that no pliildsophur can anawcr? A little cliil.l. How does it lead the learner, Into Ihe kiiowlcilee of irnthl For wliar, docs the Socratic meth- od pive a li-a( her, peculiar advan- tnut'S 1 'I'o nd.-ipt his Ideas iiiid words (n the capacities of his pupils. When may this niethoil, become very nnreasonablo and oppressive I When one |iarly ImsInIs npon af^kinu all the (picntions, and answeiiiii; none. (irand rnio tipon this niellKiil 1 SOCRATICAL DISPUTATION. 127 ing to inquire something unknown in the following ques- tion, which again makes way for the next answer. Now such an exercise is very alluring and entertaining to the learner, while his own reasoning powers are all along em- ployed, and that Avithout labor or difficulty ; because the querist finds out and proposes all the intermediate ideas or middle terms. IV. There is a method very near akin to this, which has much obtained of kite, namely, writing controversies by questions only, or confirming or ret"uting any position, or persuading to, or deliorting from, any practice, by the mere proposal of queries. The answer to eacii question is sup- posed to be so plain and so necessary, that it is not expres- sed ; because the query itself carries a convincing argument in it, and seems to determine, what tlie answer must be. V. If Christian catechisms could bo framed in the man- ner of a Socratic dispute, by question and answer, it would wonderfully euiigliten the minds of children, and it would improve tiieir inttMlectual and reasoning powers, at the same time, that it would lead them into tlie knowledge of reli- gion. It is upon one account, well suited to the capacity of cliildren ; for the questions may be pretty numerous, anii the querest must not proceed too swiftly toward the deter- mination of his point proposed, that he may with more ease, with brighter evidence, and with surer success, draw the learner on to assent to those principles step by step, from whence the final conclusion will naturally arise. The only inconvenience would be this, that if children were to reason out all their way entirely into the knowledge of every part of their religion, it would draw common catechisms into too large a volume for their leisure, attention or memor}'. let those who explain their catechisms to them may, by due application and forethought, instruct them in this man- ner. Method of instruction, nearly al- lied to the Socratic? Why are not tiie answers given"? VVliat effect does Watts think a catechism upon tlie Socratic method might have uoun cliildrca 1 | Why sliould the querist he cau- tious not to proceed too rapidly 1 What would be the inconvenience of a catechism, consisting of a vaal number of questions and answers i las MISCELJLAJVEODS qOESTlONS. iMlSCELLANEOUS Q,UE.STIO.\S, No. 4. In what language, should dis- putants state the question of debate ? According to what, do disputes generally produce good or evil i Whom does Watts represent as disputing upon transubtantiation ? Of what, shall we be in danger, if we dispute for any tiiink but truth? Who was the most distinguished Grecian philosopher 7 Wlial method uf disputation seenis the most kind and conciliating 1 What good has ever been done by disputing '! Where did Paul dispute daily 1 How long should Sartors and Su- lors avoid debate ? Why should we not attenii)t to defend truth by unsound arguruents: What is the Socratic method of disputation 1 What class of ministers propagate the gospel in a great measure by dis- putation ? Upon what, did Sartor and Putor dispute 1 How often did Paul dispute in (he school of Tyrannus '! What word signifies the supposed change of bread and wine into the body and blood of (Jhrist 1 VVhat method of disputation is conducti^d principally by questions? Why is it needful for missiona- ries to dispute upon religion ? What precise point should be clearly settled in every dispute ? For what faith, should Christians earnestly contend ? What pri-rise point should be elearly settled in every dispute 1 What numo ia given to an argu- ment, tiiat is addressed to a perscn on his own principles 1 When may the Socratic method becoma opfiressive ? Over w h:it may we sometimes gain a victory, when our opponent gains a victory over us 1 When the doctrines of a missiona- ry are denied, how should he gen- erally defend them : What should be the grand object of disputation 1 Who were the Latin fathers '? (Srand rule to be used in the So- cratic method of reason ing1 VVhat may disputes sometimes enable us to search out and main- tain ? What if our opponent makes some important ciuicession ^ What maxim relating to religion seems to be as unscriptural, as it is unreasonable 1 What does Watts compare to the (light nf a hunted hare .' Who were the fJreek fathers? In what school, did Paul dispute daily 1 What scripture authority have we for (tispulitig ? Why should we dispute only for truth 1 What pood has ever been done by di-iputingi Most learned of the l.alin fathers ? What sliall we think of tiie max- im vrrcr In rlispitle abnnl rrliirinn'! What effoct have philosopliers had in prr^adiing the beauty of virtue 'I Why is it needful, that disputants shouhl be agreed in some points'! KtTi'ct of changing the question In a dispute ? It is tliotipht best to omit the two next chapters, aa I^orcnsic nntl Scholastic disputations nrc now perliaps. on the wiiolo of no nso, and would probably never be prac- tised by one of a Inindred, who may study tliis book. T]ioup;l> some of the instructions of tiicsc chapters arc in themselves valuable, in relation to other disputes, perhaps most of Uiera have been superseded. OK 8TUDT, OR MEDITATION. 129 CHAPTER XIV. OF STDDir, OR MEDITATION. I. It has been proved and established in some of the foregoing chapters, tliat neither our own observations, nor our reading the labors of the learned, nor the attendance on the best lectures of instruction, nor enjoying the bright- est conversation, can ever make us truly knowing and wise, without the labors of our reason in surveying, examining a.nd judging concerning all subjects, upon the best evidence we can acquire. A good genius, or sagacity of thought, a happy judgment^ a capacious memory, and large opportuni- ties of observation and converse, will do much of them- selves toward the cultivation of the mind, where they are well improved. But where to the advantage of learned lectures, living instructions and well chosen books, dili- gence and study are superadded, this man has all human aids concurring, to raise him to a superior degree of wis- dom and knowledge. Under the preceding heads of discourse, it has been already declared, how our own meditation and reflection should examine, cultivate and improve all other methods and advantages of enriching the understanding. What re- mains in this chapter, is to give some further occasional hints, how to employ our own thoughts, what sort of sub- jects we should meditate on, and in what manner, we should regulate our studies, and how we may improve our judgment, so as in the most effectual and compendious way, to attain such knowledge, as may be most useful for every man in his circumstances of life, and particularly for those of the learned professions. II. The first direction for youth is this, Learn betimes to distinguish bdtween words and things. Get clear and plain ideas of tlie tilings you are set to study. Do not con- Wliat is tlie gnind, and crowning i VVliat pives words, their whole method of gaining knowledge and I \'ahie? Their representing other mental improvement 1 1 ohjecta. Between what objects, should we j What, if we do not know, what learn helinies to distinguisii? — Mean- I objects, certain words represent? ing of betimes ^ \ Those wortis are useless to us. Why should we not content CHir- J What is implied in knowine, what B«lves with mere words ? \ oiijects, words represent .' U is itie 130 OF STDDY, AND MEDITATION. tent yourselves with mere words and names, lest your la bored improvements only amass a heap of uiiintelligibli- phrases, and you feed upon husks instead of kernels. This rule is of unknown use in every science. But the greatest and most common dann^er is in the sacred science of theoloo;y, where settled terms and phrases have been pronounced divine and orthodox, which yet have had no meaning. The scholastic divinity would furnish us with numerous instances of this folly ; and yet for many ages, all truth and all heres}^ were determined by such senseless tests, and by words without ideas. Such Shib- boleths as these, have decided the secular fates of men ; and bishopricks or burning, mitres or fijjgots, have been the rewards of different persons, according as they pro- nounced these consecrated syllables, or not pronounced them. To defend them was all pioty and pomp and triumph ; to despise them, or to doubt or deny them, was torture and death. A thousand tliank-offerings arc due to that Provi- dence, Avhich has delivered our age and our nation from these absurd iniquities ! O that every specimen and shadow of this madness, in every shape, were banished from our schools and clun-ches. III. Let not young students apply theinselves to search out deep, dark and abstruse matters, far above their reach, same as knowing the meanini; of i havingclenr iileas annexed lowiirds? tbe words. | Meaning of njinfr? Wliat are the two grand divisions j Wliy ia it pcLiiliarly desiralile, to of words 1 Spoken and wrillen. | liave cli^ar idciis upon this sulyect 1 By which of the 5 sensps, are i Recaiisft these Ideas rclntc more im- ■poken words perceived 1 — written ? i mediately to our eternal welfare. What four things, most intimately i By what tests, were all truth ami connected topether, and connected ' heresy determined, for aucs 1 with study, should he carefully dis t What are due to Provlilence, fot tinpnished.' 'J'hinss, iile.as, spoken , delivering iis from such n'osurd inl- words, and written words, j quitiesi W'liat do written words inimedi- j What liranrh of Ijteiature, hna »tely representT In general, they j been hii;lily conihicive to such de- immedintely represent spokenvvords. J liveranre? Ilr-rmeneutics. What do spoken words, inimedi ! Who liav* heen the cre-Tf ' '••• •tely represent? Oenerally ideas; i strnments in ellecting this deliver- Mmelliaes, thincs directly, willioul J ance? I.nther and his coadjulom representini; ideas. J in the Reformation. When we study words, of what, j Mcanins of couiZ/'ufrir? ■hould we endeavor to gain clear ! Who, since their day, has done conc«ptions1 i the most, to proiuule this cause of Why Is it necessary, to pay vi'ry j truth, raiidor aiiif holiness.' Pro- particular attention to words, in 1 lialdy Watts, pursuiuB our studii's? We can | Who should he especially cnu- ■carcely study without them. tioiis. not to search for things above In what science, is the prrntest I their rrfathi and most common danjer of not I OF STUDY, AND MEDITATIO.V. 131 or spend theii-jlabor in any subjects, for which lliey have not the advantages of necessary antecedent learning or books or observations. Let them not be too hasty to know things above their present powers, nor plunge their in- quiries at once into the depths of knowledge, nor begin to study any science in the middle. This will confound, rather than enlighten, the understanding. Such practices may happen to discourage and harass the mind by an at- tempt above its power ; it may balk the understanding, and create an aversion to future diligence, and perhaps by despair, may forbid the pursuit of that subject for ever afterwards ; as a limb overstrained by lifting a weight above its power, may never recover its former agility and and vigor ; or if it does, the man may be frighted from ever exerting his strength again. IV. Nor yet let any student on the other hand frighten himself at every turn, with insurmountable difficulties ; nor imagine, that the truth is wrapt up in impenetrable dark- ness. These are formidable spectres, which the under- standing raises sometimes, to flatter its own laziness. Those things, which in a remote- and confused view, seem very obscure and perplexed, may be approached by gentle and regular steps, and may then unfold and explain tliemselvee at large to the eye. The hardest problems in geometry, and the most intricate schemes or diagrams may be expli- cated and understood step by step. Every great mathema- tician bears a constant witness to this observation. V. In learning any new thing, there should be as little as possible first proposed to the mind at once. That being understood, and fully mastered, proceed to the next ad- joining part yet unknown. This is a slow, but safe and sure way to arrive at knowledge. If the mind "apply itself at first to easier subjects, and things near akin to what is already known, and then advance to the more remote and knotty parts of knouledge, by slow doarees, it will be able in this manner, to cope with great difficulties, and prevail over them, with amazing and liappy success. Matlion happened to dip into the two last chapters of a Wlierp sixnild we not begin to i F.ffVct nf smcIi proceeiliiig upon study any science !— Why ' i the (acuities of the mind? Great Why (hies Mie nnilerstandlng j iinpiovement. enmetiini?8 raise nirmidrible spectres, ! (n leaniins any new thin r, how in the course of study ? ( mucli should be proposed at once 1 How may wc learu very difficult j Ilnw was Mathon affected, when tniths'? I'.y proreedini systeuiati- ) he first attended to the latter part of cnlly, crai^iially, viL'onmsly, patient- | a vvorli on Geometry ? ly and perseveringly. ' i 133 OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. new book of geometry and mensuration. A^ soon as he saw it, and was frighted with the complicated diagrams, whicli he found tiiere, about the frustums of cones and pyramids, &c. and some deep demonstrations among conic sections, he shut the book in despair ; and imagined none but a Sir Isaac Newton was ever fit to read it. But his tutor happily persuaded him to begin the first pages about lines and angles. And he found such surprising pleasure m three wcelcs time in the victories he daily obtamed, that at last, he became one of the chief geometers of his age. VI. Engage not the mind in the intense pursuit of too many things at once ; especially sucli, as have no relation to one another. This will be ready to distract the under- standing, and hinder it from attaining perfection in any one subject of study. Such a practice gives a slight smattering of several sciences, without any solid and substantial knowl- edge of them, and without any real and valuable improve- ment. Though two or three sorts of study may be usefully carried on at once, to entertain the mind with variety, that it may not be over-tirod wit!i one sort of thoughts, yet a multitude of subjects will too much distract the attention, and weaken the application pf the mind to any one of them. Where two or three sciences are pursued at tiie same time, if one of them be dry, abstracted and unpleasant, as logic, 'mctapliysics, law, languages, let anotlier be more entertaining and agreeable, to secure the niind from weari- ness. Delight should be intermingled with labor, as far as possible, to allure us to bear the fatigue of dry studies the What did Matlion finally become 1 | rendered a-ireeable "? I?y excellent How 1 , I teadiin);, and excellent learning. EfTect of pursuing too tnany stu- i How I'ar, sliould delijilit l)u niin- dies at once ? ! filed with study 1 — Why ! How many |)rincl|):il sturlies, may ( What advantape may it aflTord, usually be pursued collaterally 1 — ) besides this allurement 1 It may Meanini; of c«//rtrcrn//w? j improve tiod'.ly health, and intel- Wliat else may be attended to, at 1 lectual vigor, the same time! Reading, writinc, j How far should our studies he gpellioi: and perhaps, one or two i made amusements 1 If possible, iiiihordinate branches, that require j every study should be made an but little atleiitifui. | amusement, in relation to otfiers. Why should more than one sort i fnvrsiied at the same inne. — Mean- of study be carried on at once 1 ! inj ot amu.imnriil, as here used? Why should they not be very j That which reOeslies the mind, niid niiiiierons 1 I irrepares it, lo at^nd with nioro Wliat studies should be pursued j vigor, to snmpthini; eNe. In connection with surh, ns are | What clFect upim many wander- more dry and uninterrstliiRl | ini: peniusefl, has the puriiiiit of in (^an you mention some of these | ciilenlal themes.' drv studies? j Meaning of fAoiiie 7 How can the driest gtuilict be j OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. 133 better. Poetry, practical mathematics, history, &c. are generally esteemed entertaining studies, and may be hap- pily used for this purpose. Thus, while we relieve a dull and heavy hour, by some alluring employments of the mind, our very diversions enrich our understandings ; and our pleasure is turned into profit. VII. In the pursuit of every valuable subject of knowl- edge, keep the end always in your eye, and be not diverted from it by every petty trifle you meet witii in the way. Some persons have such a wandering genius, that they are ready to pursue every incidental theme or occasional idea, till they have lost si^ht of their original subject. These are the men, wlio, when they are engaged in conversation, prolong their story by dwelling on every incident, and swell their narrative with long parentheses, till they have lost their first design ; like a. man, who is sent in quest of some great treasure ; but steps aside to gather every flower he finds, or stands still to di^ up every shining pebble he meets with, till the treasure is forgotten, and never found. VIII. Exert your care, skill and diligence about every subject and every question, in a just proportion to the im- portance of it, together with the danger and bad conse- quences of ignorance or error therein. Many excellent advantages flow from this one direction. 1. This rule will teach you to be ven-y careful in gaining some general and fundamental truths both in philosophy, in religion and in human life ; because they are of the highest moment, and conduct our thoughts with ease, into a thousand inferior and particular propositions. Such is that great principle in natural philosophy, the doctrine of gravitation, or mutual tendency of all bodies toward each other, which Sir Isaac Newton has so well established, and from wliich he has drawn the solution of a multitude of ap- pearances m tlie heavenly bodies, as well as on earth. Such is that golden principle of morality, which our How do some men most painfully ? considerntion, lliat a study is really prolong their stories, in coiiversa- ' useful, without inquiiing, whether tion "! — Meaning of guest ? — of peb- ble ? — of jiarentkesis ? In proportion to what, should we pursue every study ? By whom, is tliis rule violated 1 useful, in proponion to the at- tention paid to it ; or whether it is more useful, than some other study, less attended to, or wholly neglecled. In what, will this rule teach us. Probably by most persons, who di- \ to he very cautious, in gaining some rect, what studies shall he pursued, i fundauieutal truths 1 What mistakes are often made, \ M^amn^ of fundamental 7 — o{ gra- by disregarding this rule? Persons j viUilionl often content themselves with the | ISJ 134 OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. blessed Lord has given us, Do that to others, which you think just and reasonable, that others should do to you •, which is almost sufficient in itself to solve all cases of con- science, which relate to our neig-hbor. Such are those principles in religion, that a rational crea- ture is accountable to his Maker for all his actions ; that the soul of man is immortal ; that there is a future state of happiness and of misery, depending on our behavior iu tlie present life, on which all our religious practices are built or supported. We should be very critical in examining all propositions, that pretend to tliis honor of being general principles. We should not, without just evidence, admit into this rank mere matters of common fame, or commonly received opinions ; no, nor the general determinations of t!ie learned, nor tiie established articles of any church or nation, &c. for there are many learned presumptions, many synodical and na- tional mistakes, many established falsehoods, as well as many vulgar errors, wherein multitudes of men have fol- lowed one another for whole ages almost blindfold. It is of great importance for every man to be careful, that these general prmciples are just and true. For one error may lead us into thousands, which will naturally follow, if once a leading faschood be admitted. y. This rule will direct us to bo more careful about prac- tical points, tlian mere speculations ; since they are com- monly of mucli greater use and consequence. Therefore, ttie s]je(;u!ati()ns of alg(^l)ra, the doctrine of infinites, and the (piadraturc of curves in mathematical learning, together with all the train of theorems in natural philosopliy, sliould by no means iiitrencli upon our studies of moralitv and virtue. Even in tiie science of divinity itself, tlie sublimest s])oculations of it arc not of that worth and value, as the rules of duty toward God and toward man. ',i. In matters of practice, we should be most careful to fix our end right, and wisely determine the scope, at which What are soiiio of tlip riindaiiieii' i iicrtion with piartire. tal (irinri|ilrs in ri-licion 1 | What siicciitatioiis are ii'ost im- What |i'o|i(psiii(iiis Nhniitd we he i poriant ? 'I'hdso, which are inosi very rritiral in rvariiiniiic i' j i»t'»iat('ly ('(iiincrted with the most Into how many NrtialliT I'rrors, i iinpurtant praclico. mav one. (Treat (!rrnr li-ail IIS ? \ '.'rand nuaative maxim for reeii- What points are morf; important, j lalinj; our ftiKJicHl Never neplecl than iniTc Rpeciilatioiis 1 ; a nioro ini|i(>rtaiit, for the sake of Mnaiiinc o( nfirnilnlivn ? j pnrsnini; a less iiiipoilant. \Vhy are spenilations iisi'Tnll 1 VViiat slioiild « <• lie nuii't caicfiil Principally on account of tlicir cmi ) to tiv riylit, in inatlcrB of practice'' OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. 135 we aim ; because that is to direct us in the choice and use of all the means to attain it. If our end be wrong, all our labor in the means will be vain, or perhaps so much the mor'e pernicious, as they are better suited to attain that mistaken end, If mere sensible pleasure or human gran- deur or wealth be our chief end, we shall •choose means contrary to piety and virtue, and proceed apace toward real misery. 4. This rule will engage our best powers and deepest attention in the affairs of religion, and things that relate to a future world. For those propositions, Avhich extend only to the interest of the present life, are but of small impor- tance, when compared with tliosc, that have influence upon our everlasting concernments. 5. And even in the affairs of religion, if we walk by the conduct of this rule, we shall be much more laborious in our inquiries into the necessary and fundamental articles of faith and practice, than the lesser appendices of Chris- tianity. Tlie great doctrines of repentance toward God, faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, with love to men, and uni- versal holiness, will employ our best and brightest hours and meditations ; while the mint, anise and cummin, the gestures and vestures and fringes of religion, will be re- garded no further, than they have a plain and evident con- nection with faith and love, with holiness and peace. 6. This rule will make us solicitous not only to avoid such errors, whose influence will spread wide into the whole scheme of our own knowledge and practice, but such mistakes also, whose influence would be yet more exten- sive and injurious to others, as well as to ourselves ; per- haps to many persons oi many families, to a whole church, a town, a country or a kingdom. Upon this account, per- sons, who are called to instruct others, Avho are raised to any eminence either in church or state, ought to be careful in settling their principles in matters relating to the civil, the moral or the religious life, lest a mistake of theirs should What if our end be wrong? ! who find that pcvsture most con- What if our end be mere sensual S diirive to devotion, and especially enjoyment? 1 ilmse, who think it most agreeable In what affairs, should our best j to scripture, powers and deepest attention be I Against what mistakes, should we engaged'! ; most earnestly guard 1 To what doctrines of religion, | Why sliouid we not indulge an should wo pav n)ost attention ? i uniliie' fondness for any study ? It How far should the circumstan- i will tend to make us disrelish, or tlals of religion be regarded "! i pervert others. Who should pray kneeling? Those I 136 OK STUDT, AXI> JIEUITAi'lOiS-. diffuse wide mischief, should draw along witli it, mostpel- nicious consequences, and perhaps extend to following generations. These arc some of the advantages, which arise from the eighth rule, namely, pursue every inquiry and study in pro- portion to its real value and importance. IX. Have a care, lest some beloved notion, or some darling science so far prevail over your mind, as to give a sovereign tincture to all your other studies, and discolor all your ideas ; like a person in the jaundice, who spreads a yellow scene with liis eyes over all tlie objects which he meets. I have known a man- of peculiar skill in music, and much devoted to that science, who fcumd out a great resem- blance of the Athanasian doctrine of the trinity in every single note ; and he thought it carried something of argu- ment in it to prove that doctrine. I have read ot another, who accommodated the seven days of the first week of creation to the seven notes of music ; and thus the whole creation became harmonious.* Under this influence, derived from mathematical studies, some have been tempted to cast all their logical, their meta- physical, and their tiieological and moral learning into the method of mathematicians, and brino- every thing relating to those abstracted or those pruclictiV sciences, under tlieo- rems, problems, j)ostulates, scholiums, corollaries, &,c. whereas tlie matter ought always to direct the method. For all subjects or matters of tiiought cannot be moulded or forced to one form. Neither the rules for the conduct of the understanding, nor the doctrines nor duties of reli- gion and virtue, can be exhibited naturally in figures and diagrams. Things are to be considered as they are in themselves. Their nature is inflexible, and their natural relations unalterable. And therefore, in order to conceive them aright, we must bring our understandings to things, and not pretend to bend and strain things to comport with our fancies and forms. X. Suffer not any beloved study to prejudice your mind BO far in favor of it, as to despise all other learning. This is a fault of sonic little souls, wlio have got a smattering of astronomy, clicmistry, mctaphysicg, history, &c. and for want of a due acquaintance witli other sciences, make a Bcoff at them all, in comparison with their favorite science. * IVrliaps tlif^ inillior did not rimsiilcr, tli:it t\\e " seven notes of ninslc," If Hounded toiiellirr, will produce Keveral disriirds ; nor, that sounded sop- aratcl}', tliey will produce at liisst, only a melody. — Kditoh. OF STUDY, AND MEDITATION. 137 Their understandings are hereby cooped up in narrow bounds, so that they never look abroad into otlier provinces of the intellectual world, which are more beautiful perhaps, and more fruitful than their own. If they would search a little into other sciences, they might not only find treasures of new knowledge, but might be furnished also with rich hints of th.oughr, and glorious assistances, to cultivate that very province, to which they have confined themselves. Here I would always give some grains of allowance to the sacred science of theology, which is incomparably su- perior to all the rest, as it teaches us the knowledge of God, and the way to his eternal favor. This is that noble study, which is every man's duty ; and every one who can be called a rational creature is capable of it. This is that science, which would truly enlarge the minds of men, were it studied with that freedom, that unbiassed love of truth and thi't sacred charity, which it teaches ; and if it were not made, contrary to its own nature, the occasion of strife, faction, malignity, a narrow spirit, and unreasonable im- positions on the mind and practice; Let this, therefore, stand always chief. XI. Let every particular study have due and proper time assigned it, and let not a favorite science prevail with you to lay out such hours upon it, as ought to be employed upon the more necessary and more important affairs or studies of your profession. When you have, according to tlie best of your discretion, and according to the circumstances of your life, fixed proper hours for particular studies, endeavor to keep those rules ; not indeed with a superstitious pre- ciseness, but with some good degrees of a regular constancy. Order and method in a course of study, save much time, and make large improvements. Such a fixation of certain hours will have a happy influence to secure you from trifling and wasting away your minutes in impertinence. XIL Do not apply yourself to any one study at one time longer than the mind is capable of giving a close attention Why is tlie science of tlieology S mistake, and doubly injurious. — superior to all tlie rest 1 ! How doubly "! What pfTeit would this science ( Advantaiies of alloting particular ves baye upon menial improvement, if ! times to particular studies 1 It sa properly pursued? i much time, and is more likely VVliat has theolosy occasioned, i secure due proportion of time to contrary to its own nature ? i each study. What shall we think of neRlecting \ Ileyond what point, should we not theology, for studies of little prac- ! apply o\irselves, at one lime 1— :ical importaiire, in order to improve i VVliyl tlie mind; It seems to be a vast \ 12* 138 OF STUDY, Oil MEDITATION. to it, without weariness or wandering. Do not over-fatigue the spirits at any time, lest tlie miiid be seized with a las- situde, and thereby be tempted to nauseate a particular sub- ject, before you have finislied it. XIII. In the beginning of your application to any new subject, be not too uneasy under present difficulties, that occur, ror too importunate and impatient for answers and solutions to any questions ihat arise. Perhaps a little more study, a little turtlier acquaintance with the subject, a little time and experience, will solve those difficulties, untie the knot, and make your doubts vanish. If you are under the instruction of a tutor, he can inform you, that your inquiries are perhaps too early, and that you have not yet learnt those principles, upon which the solution of such a difficulty de- pends. XIV. Do not expect to arrive at certainty in every sub- ject, which you pursue. There are aliundred tilings, where- in we mortals, in tliis dark and imperfect state, must be con- tent with probability, where our best light and reasonings will reach no further. We must balance arguments, as justly as we can, and where we cannot find weigiit enough on either side to determine the scale witli sovereign force and assurance, we must content ourselves perhaps with a small preponderation. This will give us a probanle opin- ion ; and tlioso probabilities are sufficient for the daily determination of a thousand actions in human life, and many times oven in matters of religion. It is admirably well expressed by a late writer, " When there is great strength of argument set before us, if we will refuse to do what appears most fit for us, until every little objection is removed, we shall never take one wise resolu- tion, as lon^ as wo live." Suppose 1 had been honestly and long searching, what religion I sliould choose, and yet I could not find, tliat the arguments in defence of (^liristianity arose to complete certainty ; I)iit went only so far as to give me a probable evidence of tlie truth of it ; though many difliciiiiies still rcniaiu'-d, yet F should think myself obliged to receive and Cractise tliat religion. For the God of nature and reason as bound us to assent and act according to the best evi- Apilnst wlint \inc()iiiri)rtnl)le reel- I What niny siicli prolmbilitieii do- ings, fliioiilil we minid, ntlhoconi- ! teriniii«1 menretm-iil ;if a miidv ? j What if we reOise to do what ap- VVilh what, Mhimid we content i peaiH ni What can you say with regard to ies inure us 1 j chaniiing our methods of study 1 When is the best time to produce ! They should rarely be changed, ex- this effect.' Probably in childhood. ! repi in early life. Why.' Because the mind is then | What important inferenc?. maybe very susceptible of impressions. I deduced from this reinarl. ? That How young should children begin \ it is very important for youth to to study mathematics in books 1 In i adopt the best methods of study, general, under six years old. j 140 OK STUDY, OR MEDITATION. the infinite divisibility of matter and eternal durationj which seem to be purely speculative, will shov/ us some g-ood practical lessons, will lead us to see the weakness ot our nature, and should teach us humility in aryuing- upon divine subjects, and matters of sacred revelation.' This should guard us against rejecting any doctrine, which is expressly and evidently revealed, though we cannot fully understand it. It is good sometimes to lose and bewilder ourselves in such studies for this very reason, and to attain this prac- tical advantage, this improvement in true modesty of spirit. XVI. Though we sliould always be ready to change our sentiments of things upon just conviction of their falsehood, yet there is not the same necessity of changing our ac- customed methods of reading, or study and practice, even though we have not been Ted at first into the happiest method. Our thoughts may be true, though we may have hit upon an improper order of thinking. 'JVutii does not always depend upon the most convenient method. There may be a certain form and order, in which we have iong accustomed ourselves to range our ideas and notions, which may be best for us now, though they were not originally best in themselves. The inconveniencies of changing may be mucli greater, than the conveniencies we could obtain by a new metiiod. As for instance ; if a man in his younger days has ranged all his sentiments in theology in the method of Ames's Medulla Theologirc, or Uisiiop Usher's Hody of Divinity, it may be mucii more natural and easy for him to continue to dispose all his further acquirements in the same order, though perhaps neither of these treatises is in itself written in tlie most perfect method. So when we have long fixed our cases of shelves in a library, and ranged our books in any particular ord^r, nnnicly, :u-cordiug to their languages, or according to tlieir subjects, or according to the aljtha- betical nnmf^s of the antiiors, &c. w<; are ptM^lt'ctiy well acquainted with tlie order, in which they now stand, and we can find any particular book, which we seek, or add a new book, wiiich we have purcliased, with much greater ea-se, tiian wc do in finer cases of shelves, wlierc the books are ranged in any dilforent manner whatsoever. Any dif- ferent position of tlie volumes would be new and strange and troublesome to us, and would not countervail the in- conveniencies of a change. So if .'I niMii of forty years old has been taught to hold his pen awkwardly in hia youth, and yet writ(^s suflicicntljr OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 141 well for all the purposes of his station, it is not worth while to teach him now the most accurate methods of iiandling that iiistrunienl. For this would create him more trouble without equal advantage, and perliaps he mifrht never at- tain to write better, after he had placed all his fm^ers per- fectly right with tliis new accuracy. CHAPTER XV. OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. A Student should labor by all proper methods, to ac- quire a steady fixation of thought. Attention is a very necessary thing, in order to improve our minds. The evi- dence of trutii does not always appear immediately, nor strike tlie soul at first sight. It is by long attention and inspection, thut we arrive at evidence ; and it is for want of it, we judge lliLsely of many things. We make Iiaste to determine upon a sliglit and a sudden view ; we confirm our guesses, wliich arise from a glance ; we pass a judg- ment, wliile we have but a confused or obscure perception, and tluis plunge ourselves into mistakes. This is like a man, who -walking in a mist, or being at a great distance from any visible object, (suppose a tree, a man, a horse or a church,) judges much amiss of the figure and situntion and colors of it, and sometimes takes one for the other ; whereas, if he would but withhold his judgment, till he came nearer to it, or stay, till clearer liglit came, and then would fix his eyes longer upon it, he would secure himself from those mistakes. Now, in order to gain a greater facility of attention, we may observe these rules ; 1. Cultivate a fondness for the study or knowledge you What if a man holds liis pen bad- i and patient thought, ly at 40 years old 1 ! Ptri kin" couplet, relating to New- FixiNo Attention. — What ex- j ton's discoveries ? ereise is most imriortant, in order to I », . , ... improve our minds'! Nature, and nature's laws were If we delermine a question upon ! ^ ^j" i" I", .V . ■. in a slight view, into what, shaU we Ood snti\, Let JVewton be, ^in^Mwaa . ..f? . . . ■> light. be likely to plunge 1 What rondufed i thingelse tonvikf X of philos(4iliers 1 (Muse attention, t How ran we cultivate a fondness What rondufed more thftn any \ First direction for fixing atten- thingelse to m:ikf Xewton the prince i tion ? 142 OF KIXI.NG THE ATTExNTION. would pursue. We may observe, tliat there is not much difficulty in confining the mind to contemplate, what we have a great desire to know ; and especially if they are mat- ters of sense, or ideas which paint themselves upon the fancy. It is but acquiring a hearty good will and resolu- tion to search out and survey the various properties and parts of such objects ; and our attention will be engaged, if there be any delight or diversion in the study or con- templation of them. Therefore mathematical studies have a strange influence toward fixing the attention of the mind, and giving a steadiness to a wandering disposition ; because they deal much in lines, figures and numbers, which affect and please the sense and imagination. His- tories have a strong tendency the same way ; for tliey en- gage the soul by a variety of sensible occurrences ; when it has begun, it knows not, how to leave off. It longs to know the final event, through a natural cariosity. Voyages and travels, and accounts of strange countries and strange appearances, will assist in tliis work. This sort of study detains the mind by the perpetual occurrence and expecta- tion of something new, and that which may gratefully strike the imagination. II. Sometimes we may make use of sensible things and corporeal images for the illustration of tliose notions, which are more abstracted and intellectual. Therefore, diagrams greatly assist the mind in astronomy and pliilosophy ; and the emblems of virtues and vices may happily teach children, and pleasmgly impress tliose useful moral ideas on young minds, which perhaps might be conveyed to them with much more difficulty, bv mere moral and abstracted discourses. I confess, in this practice of representing moral subjects by pictures, we should be cautious, lest we so far immerse the mind in corporeal imnws, as to render it unfit to take in an abstracted and intellectual idea, or cause it to form wrong conceptions of immaterial things. This practice therefore is rather to be used, at first, in order to get a fixed habit of attention, and in some cases only ; but it can never for nny stiiriy ? By rending, think- ing nnil convrrsinK upon it, and by considering tliii |ilcnsnrrg and ad- vantapcH (if pursuing it. Wliiit if it in a dry, uspIpsb study ? God never required ns to \\ke midi a Rtndy ; and it in lieat to leave it off, l)nfiire we meddle willi it. Peronit dirortion for fiTing llie at- tention 7 Represent intellectual ob- jects by visible. Meaningof ri»iA/f ? What caution should we use in follovviniz this rulel That we do not confound iuiniaterial objeclt will) material. Meaniiid of e.nnfound ? Third dircrlion 1 Study worki, that are arKunientative. — Meaning of the Latin phrase l.nhitr ipstvoluf- Us ? Labor itself \a pleasure. OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 14J] be our constant way and method of pursuing all moral, abstracted and spiritual themes. III. Apply yourself to those studies, and read those au- thors, who draw out their subjects into a perpetual chain of connected reasonings, wherein the following parts of the discourse are naturally and easily derived from thuse which go before. Several of the mathematical sciences, if not all, are happily useful for this purpose. Tliis will render the labor of study delightful to a rational mind, and will fix the powers of the understanding with strong attention, to their proper operations, by the very pleasure of it. Labor ipse voluptas, is a happy proposition wheresoever it can be applied. IV. Do not choose your constant place of study by the finery of the prospects, or the most various and entertaining scenes of sensible things. Too much light, or a variety ot objects, which strike the eye or the ear, especially while they are ever in motion or often changing, have a natural and powerful tendency to steal away the mind too often from its steady pursuit of any subject, which we contem- plate ; and thereoy the soul gets a habit of silly curiosity and impertmence, of trifling and wandering. Vagario thought himself furnished with the best closet for his study,, among the beauties, gaieties and diversions of Kensington or Hampton-Court. But after seven years professing to pursue learning, he M'as a mere novice still. V. Be not in too much haste to come to the determina- tion of a difficult or important point. Think it worth your waiting, to find out truth. Do not give your assent to either eide of a question too soon, merely on this account, that the study of it is long and difficult. Rather be contented with ignorance for a season, and continue in suspense, till your attention and meditation and due labor have found out sufficient evidence on one side. Some are so fond of know- ing a great deal at once, and of talking of things with free- dom and boldness, before they understand them, that they scarcely ever allow themselves attention enough to search the matter through and through. VI. Have a care of indulging the more sensual passions and appetites of animal nature. They are great enemies to attention. Let not the mind of a student be under the ' Is it (lesirnl)le to have oiir study i Effect of strongly desiring to know pleasantly situated T j a pieat deal at once ? What is recoininended, with re- | Inflect of sensual indulgence upon gard to deciding didicult and inipor- S tlie haliit of altention 1 — of llic in- tent points? I dulgcnce of passions'! 144 OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. influence of any warm affection to tliinp^s of sense, when he comes to engage in the search of truth, or tlie improve- ment of his understanding. A person under the power of love or fear or anger, great pain or deep sorrow, lias so little government of his soul, tliat he cannot keep it atten- tive to the proper subject of his meditation. The passions call SLway tiie thouofhts witii incessant importunity toward the object, that e.vcTted them ; and if we indulge the fre- quent rise and roving of passions, we shall thereby procure an unsteady and inattentive habit of mind. Yet this one exception must be admitted, namely. If we can be so happy, as to engage any passion on tiie side of the study, which we are jnirsuing, it may have a great influence to fix the attention more strongly to it. VII. It is, therefore, very useful to fix and engage the mind in the pursuit of any study, by a consideration of the divine pleasures of truth and knowledge, by a sense of our duty to God, by a delight in the exercise of oUr intel- lectual fjculties, by the hope of future service to our fellow-creatures, and glorious advantage to ourselves, both in this world and tliat which is to come. These thoughts, though thpy may move our affections, yet they do it with a proper influence. These will rather promote our attention, than divprt it from the subjoct of our meditations. A soul, inspired witli the fondest love of truth, and the warmest aspirations nftor sincere celestial beatitude, will keep all its powers attentive to the incessant pursuit of them. Pas- sion is then refined, and consecrated to its divinest purposes. CHAPTER XVI. OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. There are three things, which in an especial manner, go to make up that amplitude, or capacity of the mind, which is one of the noblest charactrrs belonging to tiie iinder- Btanding. 1. When the mind is ready to take in great and When iniy n pnssinn lie coriiiii- 1 lion 1 clve to fix niicniinii ? j Mow mnny of tliRse soven dlrec-^ ImpDrtntil liitiTciirR rrimi thia re- I lions ran \oii miw slate? r mnrk.' UV Hlinnld miliTivor to on- j W'liul if Die hoiiM:* inspired with gage oi;r passions in fnvor of our | dm fonilcst Imeof truth, nnd warm- •tiidiKS. j est ticuircs for liPJiven 1 I«-ist iliriTtion for (Uiiii; alien j I'Ni.AixjiNn thj: mi ni<. — In what OF EN1.AKGJNG THE CAPACITY OF THE HIND. 145 sublime ideas, without pain or difficulty ; 2. When the mind is free to receive new and strange ^eas, upon just evidence, without great surprise or aversion ; 3. When the mind is able to conceive or survey many ideas at once, without confusion, and to form a true judomcnt, derived from that extensive survey. The person, who wants either of these characters, may in that res^iect, be said to have a narrow gemus. Let us diffuse our meditations a little upon this subject. I. That is an ample and capacious mind, which is ready to take in vast and sublime ideas, without pain or difficulty. Persons, who have never been used to converse with any thing but the common, little and obvious affiiirs of life, have acquired a narrow or contracted habit of soul, that they are not able to stretch their intellects wide enough to admit large and noble thoughts. They are ready to make their domestic, daily and familiar images of things the measure of all that is, and all that can be. Talk to them of the vast dimensions of the planetary worlds ; tell them, that our star called Jupiter is a solid globe, 1400 times larger than the earth ; that the sun is a vast globe of fire, above a thousand times larger than Jupiter; that is, 1400,000 times larger than the earth ; that the distance from the earth to the sun is 96 millions of miles ; and that a cannon bullet, shot from the earth, would not arrive at the nearest of the fixed stars, in some hundreds of years ; they cannot bear the belief, but hear all these glorious labors of astronomy, as a mere idle romance. Inform them of the amazing swiftness of the motion of some of the smallest or the largest bodies in nature. Assure them, according to the best philosophy, that the planet Venus, (that is, our morning or evening star, which is nearly as large as our earth,) though it seems to move from its place but a few yards in a month, does really fly 81,000 miles in an hour ; tell them, that the rays of light shoot from the sun to our earth at the rate of 200,000 mileg in the second of a minute, they stand aghast at such talk, and believe it no more, than the tales of giants fifty yards "high, and the rabbinical fables of Leviathan, who every day swallows a fish, three miles long, and is thus preparing three things, does amplitude of mind i blime ideas'! .consist 1 \ How are persons, who lack this In wliat respect, is any person a i quality, alTected, when told of th« narrow genius, who wants any of j wonders of astrotioniy ? — of the won' thesel j ders of the niicrosropel — iMeaniDg What in (hat mind called, which \ of nstronumy 1 — of viicrimcope'! can readily take in great and su- ' 13 146 OF 2NLARG1^'G THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. himself to be the food and entertainment of the blessed at the feast of Paraise. Note VI, sr the Editor. [ Wonders of Astronomy. — Since the days of Watts, vast improvements have been made in optical instruments, es- pecially the telescope. This has enabled astronomers to cultivate a more intimate acquaintance with the starry heavens. Important corrections have been made in astro- nomical instruments ; and the wonders of astronomy have appeared more wondrous still. Some of the statements of Watts, therefore, are far below the truth. There is no doubt now amont^ philosophers, that Jupiter is 1400 times larger than the earth ; that the sun is about 1000 times larger than Jupiter, that the earth is more than 95 millions of miles from the sun; that it moves 81,000 miles every hour; and that light moves about 200,000 miles every second. These corrections have accordingly been made in tlie statements of Watts.] These unenlarged souls are in the same manner, dis- gusted with the wonders, which the microscope has dis- covered, concerning the shape, the limbs and motions of ten thousand little animals, whose united bulk would not equal a pepper corn. They are ready to give the lie to all the improvements of our senses, by the invention of a va- riety of glasses, and will scarcely believe any thing beyond the testimonv of their naked eye, without the assistance of art. Now if we would attempt in a learned manner, to re- lieve the minds, that labor under this defect, 1. It is useful to begin with some first principles of (reometry, and lead them onward by degrees to the doc- trine of quantities, which am incommensurable, or which will admit of no common moasure, though it be ever so Rmall. By this means, they will seethe necessity of ad- mitting the infinite divisibility of space or matter. This same "doctrine may also be proved to their under- standings, and almost to their senses, by some easier argu- Wliy nro Home of WalU's stale- | Witli what first principles, sliould mcniH ill nstroiioiny. very clifTeioiit i wi^ Ix'iiiii, in orilcr to cure the fl rot from those of the preseiil day 1 i^eo j kind of narrow mindedness? NotK VI. j How many miles iu cirr.nmter- Moaninc of o/itic* 7 — nf lelesr.opr? j eii< e. is llio larlli ? About 25,000-- What hody movnB 81,0110 miles j Meaning of ctrcum/erfnce 7 every lioiix 1 ' ^ OF ENLAIIGING THE CAPACITV OF THE MIND. 147 ments in a more obvious manner. As the very opening and closing of a pair of compasses, will evidently prove, that if the smallest supposed part of mattor bo put between the points, there will be still less and less distAice all the way between the legs, till you come to the head or joint. Wherefore, there is no such thing possible as the smallest quantity. But a little acquaintance with true philosophy and mathematical learning would soon teach them, that there are no limits either as to the extension of space, or to the division of body, and would lead them to believe, there are bodies amazingly great or small, beyond their present imagination. 2. It is proper also to acquaint them Avith the circum- ference of our earth, which may be proved by very easy principles of geometry, geography and astroiK)my, to be about '25,000 miles round ; as it has been actumy found to have this dimension by mariners who have sailed round it. Then let them be taught, that in every '24 hours, either the sun and stars must all move round this earth, or the earth must turn round upon its own axis. If the earth itself re- volve thus, then each house or mountain near the equator, must move at the rate of a thousand miles in an hour. But if, as they generally suppose, the sun or stars move round the earth, then, the circumference of tlicir several orbits or spheres being vastly greater than this earth, they must have a motion prodigiously swifter than a thousand mdes an hour. Such a thouglit as this M-ill by degrees, enlarge their minds, and they wdl be taught, even upon their ov/n principle of tne diurnal revolutions of the heavens, to take in some of the vast dimensions of the heavenly bodies, their spaces and motions. •i. To this, should be added the use of telescopes, tc help them to see the distant wonders in the skies ; and microscopes, which discover the minutest part of little ani- mals, and reveal some of the finer and most curious works of nature. They should be acquainted also Avith some other noble mventions of modern philosophy, which have a great influence to enlarge the human understanding: of which I shall take occasion to speak more under the next nead. 4. For the same purpose, they may be invited to read those parts of Milton's admirable Poem, entitled Paradise Lost, where he describes the armies and powers of angels, the wars and the senate of devils, the creation of this earth, togetlier with the descriptions of heaven, hell aud paradise. 148 OF EM.ARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. It must be granted that poesy often deals in these vast and sublime ideas. And even if the subject or matter of the poem does not require such amazing and extensive thoughts ,• yet tropes and fio-ures, M'hich are some of the main powers and beauties of poesy, do so gloriously exalt the matter, as to give a sublime imagination, its proper relish and delight. So wiien a boar is chaffed in hunting, His .nostrils flames exjiire, And his red cye-biills roll with living fire.— Dnjdm. When Ulysses withholds and suppresses his resentment, His wnith coinprest Rercilinj;, muttered tliiinder in his breast. — Pope. But especially where the subject is grand, the poet fails not to repxescnt it in all its grandeur. So when the su- premacy oTa God is described. He sees with equal eye, as Ood of all, A hero perish, ur a sparrow fall ; Atoms or systems, into ruin huri"d, And now a bubble burst, and now a world. — Pope. This sort of writings has a natural tendency to enlarge the capacity of tlic mind, and make sublime ideas familiar. But instead of running always to ancient IJeathen poesy, with this design, we may with equal if not superior advan- tage, apply ourselves to converse with some of the best of our modern poets, as well as with tiie writings of tJie Crophets, and the poetical parts of the Bible, namely, the ook of Job and the Psalms, in which sacred authors, we shall find sometimes more sublime ideas, more glorious oescriptions, more elevated language, tlian the fondest critics have ever foimd in any of the Heathen versifiers cither of Greece or Rome ; for the eastern writers use and allow much stronger figures and tropes than the western. Now there are many and great and sacred advantages to be derived from this sort of enlargement of the mind. It will lead us into more exalted apprehensions of the great God our Creator, than ever we liad Ix-fore. It will entertain our thoughts with holy wonder and amazement, while we contemplate that being who created these various nfTcrt of readiii)' sublime poetry 1 1 roniemplation of his amazing worku, Meanlni! n( suhlimi ? i suiled lo inspire 1 Of wli.iin, doPH this enlarcemcnt ( .^trikinc line, of Dr. Yonnp, upon of tniu.l help us to form exalted con- this sulijerl? "An undevout o» ceptionsl tronomer, i« mad." What feelings toward Cod ii! the i OF KNLARGIxNS THE CAPACITY OF THE MINI*. 14JJ works of surprising greatness, and surprising smallness who has displayed most inconceivable wisdom in the con- trivance of all the parts, powers and motions of these little animals invisible to the naked eye ; who has manifested a most divine extent of knowledge, power and greatness, in forming and moving the vasi bulk of the lieavenly bodies, and in surveying and comprehending all those unmeasura- ble spaces, in which they move. Fancy, witli all lier ima- ges, is fatigued and overwhelmed in following the planetary worlds through such immense stages, such astonisliing journies, as tliese are, and resigns its place to tlic pure in- tellect, which learns by degrees to take in such ideas as these, ^nd to adore its Creator with new and sublime devo- tion. And not only are we taught to form justor ideas of the great God by these methods, but this enlargement of the mind carries us on to nobler conceptions of his intelligent creatures. The mind, that deals only in vulgar and com- mon ideas, is ready to imagine the nature and powers of man to come something too near to God his Maker ; be- cause we do not see or sensibly converse with any beings superior to ourselves. But when the soul has obtained a greater-amplitude of thought, it will not then immediately pronounce every thing to be God, wiiich is above man. It then learns to suppose, there ma}' be as many various ranks of beings in the invisible world, in a constant gradation superior to us, as we ourselves are superior to all the ranks of being beneath us in this visible world ; even though we descend downv/ard far below the ant and the worm, the snail and tlie oyster, to the least and to the dullest animated atoms, which are discovered to us by microscopes. By this means, we shall be able to suppose what powers angels, whether good or bad, must possess, as M'ell as ?rodigious knowledge, in order to oversee the realms of 'ersia and Greece of old ; or if any such superintend the affairs of Great Britain, France, Ireland, Germany, &c. in our days ; what power aiul speed are necessary to destroy one hundred eighty-five thousand armed men in one night in the Assyrian camp of Sennacherib, and all the first-born in the land of Egypt in another, each of which is attributed to an angel. By these steps, we shall ascend to form more just ideas of Of whom, besides God, does this | Snliliine conjecture of Watts, con- enlareeiiieiitof mind help us to form | cerning the various ranks of beings! nobler conceptions.^ j 13* 150 OF E>'LARGI.\G THE CAPACITY OF THE MI.ND. the knowledge and grandeur, the power and glory of the Man Jesus Christ, who is intimately united to God, and is one with him. Doubtless he is furnished Avith superior poAvers to all tiie angels in heaven, because he is employed m superior work, and appointed to be the sovereign Lord ol" all the visible and invisible worlds. It is his human nature, in which the Godliead dwells bodily, that is ad- vanced to these honours and to this empire ; and perhaps ^ tiiere is little or nothing in the government of the kingdoms % of nature and grace, but what is transacted by the Man Jesus, inhabited by the divine power and wisdom, and em- ployed as a medium or conscious instrument of this exten- sive gubernation. II. I proceed now to consider the next thing, "wherein the capacity or amplitude of the mind consists, and that is, when the mind is free to receive new and strange ideas and propositions upon just evidence, without any great surprise or aversion. Those, who conhne themselves within the circle of their own hereditary ideas and opinions, and who never give themselves leave so much as to examine or believe any tiling, beside the dictates of their own family or sect or party are justly charged with a narrowness of soul. Let us silrvoy some instances of this imperfection, and then direct to tlie cure of it. L Persons who have been bred up all their days within the smoke of tiieir father's chimney, or witliin the limits of their native town or village, are surprised at every new sigiit that appears, when tliey travel a tow miles from home. The plowman stands ama/.ed at the shops, the trade, the crouds of people, the magnificent buildings, the pomp and riches and equipage of tlie court and city, and would hardly believe what was told him, liefure he saw it. On the other iiand, tiie cuckuey travelling into tiie country, is sur- prised at many actions of tlie quadru]ied and winged ani- mals in the field, and at many common practices of rural afiairs. If either of these liappens to lioar an account of the fa- miliar and daily customs of toreign countries. In; jironounces tlicm at once indecent and ridiculous. So nnrrow arc their understandings, and their thoughts so confined, that they Hecond narrowness of iiiIimI ! ! lie visits tlie city 1 How is such ii.irrinviirHH rnrcd 1 j VVIiiil siirnrisijs the rnrkney, when By travellinc rciiiliii!;, conviTsation, j he visits llie coiiiUry 1 mill pliilosnpliical nx|i'Tiiiii'iiis, j Mdiniii!.' of cuckneiil An igno- What aiii:iZf8the{iU>wiii:iii, when j rani or coiileiiiplilile Londoner. OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 151 know not how to believe any thing wise or proper, besides what they have been tauglit to practise. This narrowness of mind should be cured by hearing and reading the accounts of different parts of the world, and the histories of past ages, and of nations and countries distant from our own, especially the more polite parts of mankind. Nothing tends in this respect so much to enlarge the mind, as travelling, that is, makmg a visit to other towns, cities or countries, besides tiiose in which we were born and edu- cated. Where our condition does not grant us this privi- lege, we must endeavor to supply the want by books. 2. It is the same narrowness of mind, that awakens the surprise and aversion of some persons, when they hoar of doctrines and schemes in human atfairs or in religion, quite different from what they have embraced. Perliaps they have been trained up from their infancy in one set of notions, and their tliouglus have been confined to one single track both in the civil and religious life, witliout ever hearing or knowing, what other opinions are current among mankind ; or at least, they have seen all other notions besides their own, represented in a false and malignant liglit ; where- upon they judge and condemn at once, every sentiment but what their own party receives, and they think it a piece of justice and truth to lay heavy censures upon the practice of every different sect in Christianity or politics. They have so rooted themselves in the opinions of their party, that they cannot hear an objection with patience, nor can they hear a vindication, or so much as an apology for any set of principles beside their own. All the rest is nonsense or heresy, folly or blasphemy. This defect also is to be relieved by free conversation with persons of different sentiments. This will teach us to bear with patience a defence of opinions contrary to our own. If we are scholars, we should also read the objections against our own tenets, and view the principles of other parties, as they are represented in their own authors, and not merely in the citations of those who would confute them. We should take an honest and unbiassed survey of the force of reasoning on all sides, and bring all to the test of unprejudiced reason and divine revelation. JVote, This is not to be done in a rash and self-sufficient How do some very nurrowniinded | In what works, should we read persons regard all principles, but \ the principles of other parties "? their own 1 \ To what test, should we hring alt How can this he cured 1 i our opinior.s, and all olijcctiuna to MeaDini; of tenet.; t thcni 1 152 OK ENLARGING THE CAPACITl Of THE MIND. maimer ; but Avith a humble dependence on divine wisdom and grace, while we walk amon^ snares and dangers. By such a free converse with persons of different sects (especially those who differ only in particular forms of Christianity, but a^ree in the great and necessary doc- trines] we sliall find, tliat there are persons of good sense and vn-tue, persons of piety and wortli, persons of mucli candor and goodness, Avho belong to different parties, and have imbibed sentiments opposite to each other. Tiiis will Boften the rouglmess. of an unpolished soul, and enlarge the avenues of our charity toward otliers, and incline us to re- ceive them into all the degrees of unity and affection, which the word of God requires. 3. I may borrow further illustrations both of this free- dom and this aversion to receive new trutlis, from modern astronomy and natural philosopliy. liow nuich is tlie vul- gar part of the world surprised at the. talk of the diurnal and annual revolutions of the earth ? TJiey luive ever been taught by their senses and their neiglibors, to imagine, the earth stands fixed in the centre of tlie universe, and that the sun, with all the planets and the fixed stars, is wliirled round tiiis little globe once in tweuty-four liours ; not con- sidering, that sucli a diurnal motion, by reason of the dis- tance of some of tliose iieavenly bodies, must be almost infinitely swifter and more iiicducoivable, than any winch the modern astrouomers attribute to them. Toll these per- sons, that the sun ts fixed in tlie centre, lliat the eartli, and all the planets, roll round the sun in tlieir several periods, and that the moon rolls round the earth in a lesser circle, while together with tlie earth, she is carried round the sun, they cannot admit a syllable of this new and strange doc- trine, and they pronounce it utterly contrary to all sense and reason. Acquaint them, that there are four moons also perpetu- ally rolling round the planet .lu])iter, and cairied along with him in his periodical circuit round the sun, which little moons were never known till the year 1(110, when (Jalileo discovered them by his telescope ; inform them, that Saturn has seven moons of the same kind atti-nding him ; and that the body of that planet is encompassed with two broad, flat \VIi:il pleasitiK (HHcoverics Kliall we make, liy convTrsini' kiiiilly aiirt (Veely, with pernoiis of various r What if those iltill C'llu'es had What is meant hy the vices of j been niurh lietter educated, from the will ? Dad passions or allec- j their very infancy .' f'r4ii)aMy, thoy liona. J would have heeii rcspectaldc s-luil- Cnn yon mention Bomn of f hem ? ! ai-<, perhaps cnli;:htencrs of man Dooi thin amplitude of uiiiwl de- i liind. OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 157 speculative studies. It is hard for them to discern the dif- ference between right and wrong, in matters of reason, on any abstract subjects. These ought never to set up for scholars ; but apply themselves to those arts and profes- sions of life, Avhich are to be learnt at an easier rate, by slow degrees and daily experience. Others have a soul a little more capacious, and they can take in the connection of a few propositions pretty well ; but if the chain of consequences be a little prolix, here they stick, and are confounded. If pers'ons ot this make ever devote themselves to science, they should be well assured of a solid and strong constitution of body, and well resolved to bear the fatigue of hard labor and diligence in study. If the iron be blunt, says Solomon, we must put too more strength. But, in the third place, there are some of so bright and happy a genius, and so ample a mind, that they can take in a long train of propositions, if not at once, yet in a very few moments, and judge well concerning the dependence of them. They can survey a variety of complicated ideas without fatigue or disturbance; and a number of truths oftering themselves, as it were in one view, to their under- standing, does not perplex nor confound them. This makes a great man. Now though there may be much owing to nature in this case, yet experience assures us, that even a lower degree of thifi capacity may be increased by diligence and applica- tion, by frequent exercise, and the observation of such rules as these. I. Labor by all means, to gain an attentive and patient temper of mind, a power of confirming and fixing your thoughts on any subject, till you have surveyed it on every side, and in every situation, and run tiiough the several powers, parts, properties and relations, effects and conse- quences of it. He, whose thoughts are very fluttering and wandering, and cannot be fixed attentively to a few ideas successively, will never be able to survey many and various objects distinctly at once, but v/ill cr^rtainly be overwhelmed and confounded with the multiplicity of them. The rules for fixing the attention, in the former chapter, are proper to be consulted here. II. Accustom yourself to clear and distinct ideas in every VVlwl makes a grt^at man 1 i tent of thoualit ? How many rules dcies Watts jive, i Wliat is tlio first of these rules? (hr increasing tlie capacitv and ex- i !'<• what kind of ideas, should wc 14 158 OF ENLARGING THE CAPACITY OF THE MIND. ( thing you think. Bo not satisfied with obscure and con- fused conceptions of tilings, especially where clearer may be obtained. For one obscure or contused idea, especially, if it be of great importance in the question, intermingled ■with many clear ones, and placed in its variety of aspects, will be in danger of spreading confusion over the Avhole; and thus may have an influence to overwhelm tlie under- standing with darkness, and pervert the judgment. A little black paint will shamefully tincture and spoil twenty gay colors. Consider yet further, that if you content yourself fre- quently with words instead of ideas, or with cloudy and confused notions of things, how impenetrable will that dark- ness be, and how vast and endless that confusion, which must surround and involve the understanding, when many of these obscure and confused ideas come to be set before the soul at once ! and how imj)ossible it will be, to form a clear and just judgment about them. III. Use all diligence to acquire and treaoure up a large store of ideas. Talce every opportunity to add something to your stock ; and by frequent recollection, fix them in your memory. Nothing tends to confirm and enlarge the memory, like a frequent review of its possessions. This will gradually give the mind a faculty of surveying many objects iit once ; as a room, that is richly adorned and hung round with a variety of pictures, strikes the eye almost at once, with all that variety, especinlly if they have been well surveyed one by one at first. This makes it habitual, and .icciistoni ourselves, for this piirpcisc? i ami iinirh lens xvjllunit it. What may be tlie effect of one j Why shoiihl not we speiul our obscure idea, iiilerminglcil wilh lime wpoM Uillos ami liclions ! Time many clear ones .' \ is too short ami too precious. • )fvvhat, should we strive to treas- i For what, will attention to lictiou, lire up a larRe store.' | be likely to destroy or diminisli our When should we add to our stock i rf;;ard 1 Tor truth and reality, of ideas? \ When may we attend to fiction ? When should this treasure begin .' t When a little instructive fiction is In infancy. | intimately conuocted witii much VVlio should then endeavor to t useful truth, and when it is very make this infantine store as rich a< j uiauifi-st, thai it ii fiction, possible 1 Tarrnls, teachers of in j What evample of this Is most fant schools, and all who ran assist. | slrikinp.' The parables of the Bible. Why shonhl this store of ideas i Wliy may we read riliirim's Pro- bcgin in infancy 1 That the mimi j cress, willuuit injury .' Thespirllnal may be more improved, and more i nu"anin« Mote VVhiit is the fltori- hoMKiiof knnwl j Vlll. OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 165 possessing ! There is no doubt, tliat in past ages, many have esteomed the memory too highly, in comparison with the judgment, the perception, &c. But perhaps their error was not greater, than that of many more modern dcclaimers upon these faculties. • Watts appears to have been much more correct in considering all these faculties and their improvement of inestimable moment.] Memory is very useful to those who speak, as well as to those who learn. It assists the teacher and the orator, as well as the scholar or the hearer. The best speeciies and instructions are almost lost, if those who hear, immediately forget them. And those, who are called to speak in public, arc much better heard and accepted, when they can deliver their discourse by the help of a lively genius and a ready mem.ory, than when they are forced to read all tiiey would communicate. Reading is certainly a heavier way of con- veying our sentiments ; and there are very few mere read- ers, who have the felicity of penetrating the soul, and awakening the passions of those who hear, by such a grace and power of oratory, as the man who seems to talk every word from his very heart, and pours out the riches of his own knowledge upon the people round about him, by the help of a free and copious memory. This gives life and spirit to every thing that is spoken, and lias a natural ten- dency to make a deeper impression on the minds of men. It awakens the dullest spirits, causes them to receive a dis- course with more affection and pleasure, and adds a singular grace and excellence both to the person and his oration. A good judgment and a good memory are very different. A person may iiave a very strong, capacious and retentive memory, where the judgment is very weak ; as sometimes it happens in those, who are but one degree above an idiot, who have manifested an aniazing strength and extent Wlier. was tlie memory too lii;;hly | sermoii:^, very r.nUi and iiniiiterest- estimnted, in comparison with tlie | insT Because tlify read liiidly. judgment, (cc. 1 | Why are some extemporaneous What is likely to be the effect of \ preacliers very unprofitable to their preaching, if the preacher seem« to ! hearers f Either because they are speak every word, from his very > not znod'workmen, or have not well hearijjb i studied their sermons. \^^ are some preachers, who j What manner of preaching is preach good sermons from memory, | hestl One maybe best for some very lifeless and dull? Probably, \ preachers, and another for others. Does a iiood judgment always at- tend a strong meuiory "! because fliey make such an effort to ! recollect tlie words of tlieir sermons. ! Why are some, who read their ! 166 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. of memory, but have hardly been able to join or disjoin two or three ideas in a wise and happy manner to make a solid, rational proposition. There have been instances of others, who have had but a very tolerable power of memory ; yet their judgment has been of much superior degree, just and wise, solid and excellent. Yet it must be acknowledged, that where a happy me- mory is found in any person, there is good foundation laid for a wise and just judgment of things, wherever the natural genius has any thing of sagacity to make a riglit use of it. A good judgment must always, in some measure, depend upon a survey and comparison of several things togetlier in the mind, and determining the truth of some doubtful pro- position, by that survey and comparison. When the mind has, as it were, set all those various objects present before it, which are necessary to form a true proposition or judg- ment concerning any thing, it then determines, that such and such ideas are to be joined or disjoined, to be ailiimed or denied ; and this in a consistency and correspondence with all those other ideas or propositions, which in any way, relate or belong to the same subject. Now there can be no such comprehensive survey of many tilings without a tol- erable degree of memory. It is by reviewing tilings past, we learn to judge of the future. It happens sometimes, that if one needful or important object or idea be absent, the judgment concerning tlie thing considered, will thereby become false or mistaken. You will inquire then. How comes it to pass, that there arc some persons who appear in the world of business, as well as in the world of learning, to have a good judgment, and have acquired tlie just character of prudence and wis- dom, and yet have neitlier a very bright genius nor sagacity of thonnrht, nor a very happy memory, so tiiat they cannot set before their minds at once, a large scene of ideas, in order to pass a judgment ? What dors Walts Iiere coniider, 1 confiiflion. n-j ciiir fiiiiiilaliiiii for a just jmlg- j How do we learn to jiidfie of tlie nient of tliiiifsl • j future? Upon what Hiirvcy and compnri- I What scicnre, then, i!< peq||kirly gnu, niiisl n good jiidgiiiciit alwuyx j important, lor the dirfi'tioii^Foiir depend.' j conduct! History. «lf vvhnt, doen thin Burvcy imply | In applying the inslrnctlona of a tolprahle dPBre"! 1 . j history, liir what, olinuld \vc he very 'riiioe crand olistnrlcs to corrrct j raiillous to make allowancu .' Uif- JudCnienl.' Hurry, perturbation and { furcncu of ctrcumtilances. OF IMPROVING THE MEHIOKV. 107 Now we may learn from Penseroso some account of tliis difficulty. You will scarcely ever find this man forward in judginjj and determming things proposed to him. He ahvays takes tune, and delays, and suspends, and ponders tilings maturely, before he passes his judgment. Tlien he prac- tises a slow meditation, ruminates on the subject, and thus perhaps in two or three nights and days, rouses those several ideas, one after anotlicr, as he can, which are neces- sary, in order to judge right of the tiling proposed, and make them pass before his review in succession. This lie does to relieve the want both of a quick sagacity of tliought, and of a ready memory and speedy recollection. This cautious practice lays the foundation of his just judgment and wise conduct. He surveys well, before he judges. Whence, I cannot but take occasion to infer one good rule of advice to persons of higher as well as lower genius, and of large as well as narrow memories,' namely, that they do not too liastily pronounce concerning matters of doubt or in- quiry, where there is not an urgent necessity of present action. The bright genius is ready to be so forward, as often betrays itself into great errors in judgment, speech and conduct, without a continual guard upon itself, and using the bridle of the tongue. And it is by this delay and precaution, that many a person of much lower natural abilities, will often excel persons of the brightest genius in wisdom and prudence. It is often found, that a fine genius has but feeble memory. For where the genius is bright, and the imagination vivid, the power of memory may be too mucli neglected, and lose its improvement. An active fancy readily wanders over a multitude of objects, and is continually entertaining itself with new flying images. It runs through a number of new scenes or new pages with pleasure, but without due atten- tion, and seldom suffers itself to dwell long enough upon any one of^them, to make a deep impression upon the mind, and commit it to lasting remembrance. This is one plain and obvious reason, why there are some persons of very In what manner, does Penseroso i Wliy do briglit geninses so often judge?— Why 1 | mistiike and err 1 "From presump- Of what, does this slow and cau- { tion and impatience, tious practice lay the foundation ! \ Why has a fine genius often but Who may take cou.ace and com i a feeWe memory? fort from the example of Penseroso ? \ How may a great memory cramp Persons of ordinary powers of mind. ! invention*? Bv hindering a person Into w.hat, does bright genius i from pursuing hia own tliouglits. often betray a person ? i 168 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. bright pans and active spirits, who Iiave but short and nar- row powers uf remembrance ; for having riches of their own, tliey are not solicitous to borrow. As sucli a quick and various fancy and invention may be some hindrance to the attention and memory, so a mind of a good retentive ability, and which is ever crowding its memory with things, which it learns and reads continually, may prevent, restrain and cramp the invention itself. The memory of Lectorides is ever ready upon all occasione, to offer to his mind something out of other men's writings or conversations, and is presentmg him with the thougtits of other persons perpetually. Tims the man, who had natural- ly a good flowing invention, does not suffer himself to pur- sue his own thoughts. Some persons, who have been blest by nature with sagacity and no contemptible genius, have too often forbid the exercise of it, by tying themselves down to the memory of the volumes they have read, and the sentiments of other men contained in them. Wliero the memory has been almost constantly employ- ing itself in gathering new acquirements, and where there has not boon a judgment sufficient to distinguish, what things were fit to bo recommended and treasured up in the memory, and what things were idle, useless or needless, the mind has been filled with a wretched heap and mixture of words or ideas ; and the soul may be said to have had large possessions, but no true riches. r have read in some of Mr. Milton's writings a very beautiful simile, whereby he represents the books of the fathers, as tlicv arc called in the Christian church. " What- soever," says he, " old Time, with his huge drag-net, has conveyed down to us along tlic stream of ages, whether it be shells or shell-fish, jewels or pebbles, sticks or straws, sea-woods or mud, chose are the ancients, these are the fathers." Tiie case is much the same with the memorial possessions of tlie greatest part of mankind. A few useful things, perhaj)s, mixed and confounded with many trifles and all manner of ru!)bish, fill up their memories and com- pose their intellectual possessions. It is a great happiness, When I he incinnry has iiindo vast | Why should not some things bo colloc'.inns. wilhimt Jii(l;!incnl or j inpinorizod, merely to Htrcngthen the order, what may il he said to liavn I meniory ? Tlmrc jiro nu.ro things gained? i of intrinsic value, than any one can With what are the memories of I possibly learn ; and learninn those most people filled .' j will strensthen the memory quite ae What should be the rhararlcr of j well. — Meaning of rnrmoriia 7 every (liiiic, laid u|) in the memory? ' or IMPROVING THE MEMORT. 169 therefore, to distinguish things aright, and to lay up nothing •in the memory, but what lias some just value in it, and is worthy to be numbered as a part of our treasure. Whatever improvements are to the mind of man from the wise exercise of his own reasoning powers, tiiese may be called his proper manufactures ; and whatever he borrows from abroad, these may be termed his foreign treasures- Both together make a wealthy and happy mind. How many excellent judgments and reasonings are framed in the mind of a man of vfisdom and study in a length of years ! How many worthy and admirable notions has he been possessed of in life, both by his own reasonings,* and by his prudent and laborious collections in the course of his reading ! But, alas ! how many thousands of them vanish away, and are lost for want of a more retentive memory I When a young practitioner in the law was once said to contest a point in debate with that great lawyer in the last age, Serjeant Maynard, he is reported to have an- swered liim, " Alas, young man, I have forgot much more law, than ever thou has learnt or read." What an unknown and unspeakable happiness would it be to a man of judgment, and who is engaged in the pur- suit of knowledge, if he had but a power of stamping all his own best sentiments upon his memory in some indelible characters ; and if he could but imprint every valuable paragraph and sentiment of the most excellent authors he has read, upon his mind, with the same speed and facility, with which he read them ! If a man of good genius and sa- gacity could but retain and survey all those numerous, those wise and beautiful ideas at once, which have ever passed through his mind upon one subject, how admirably would he be furnished to pass a just judgment about all present objects and occurrences ! What a glorious entertainment and pleasure would fill and felicitate his spirit, if he could What may we denominate those i acquisitions 7 Ry writing them improvempnts, that are derived from ! down, and reviewin^them ; by con- cur own reasoning powers? — wliat I versing and meditatins upon them ; we borrow "? \ by putting Iheni in practice ; and by What do large amounts of both i avoiding, as far as possible, vain constitute'' | company, vain reading, vain actions For want of what, do a sreat part j and vain thoughts. of a wise man's intellectual treas- \ Can you mention some nf the ures vanish away 1 ( happy Cdnseniienres, iliat might re- What did ^'e'jeant Maynard say | suit from a wise man's being able to to a young lawyer 1 | retain all the excellent thoughts he How may we avoid fi>rgetting and | ever acquired ? losing so nianv of our must valuable | 15 170 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. grasp all these in a single survey, as the skilful eye of a painter runs over a fine and complicate piece of history, wrought by the hand of u Titian or a Raphael, views the whole scene at once, and feeds himself with the extensive delight! But these are joys, which do not belong to mor- tality. Thus far I have • indulged some loose and unconnected thoughts and remarks with regard to tiie different powers of wit, memory and judgment. For it was very difficult to throw them into a regular form or method, witliout more room. Let us now with more regularity, treat of the me- "inory alone. Though the memory is a natural faculty of the mind of man, and belongs to spirits, whicii are not incarnate, yet it is greatly assisted or hindered, and much diversified by the brain or the animal nature, to whicli the soul is united in this present state. But what part of the brain that is, wherein the images of things* lie treasured up, is very hard for us to determine with certainty. It is most probable, that those very fibres, pores or traces of the brain, which assist at the first idea or perception of any object, are the same, which assist also at the recollection of it ; and then it will follow, that the memory has no special part of the brain devoted to its own service, but uses all tliose parts in gen- eral, which subserve our sensations, as well as our tliinlcing and reasoning powers. As the memory improves in young persons from their childhood, and decays in old age, so it may be increased by art and labor and proper exorcise ; or it may be injured and quite spoiled by sloth or by disease or a stroke onthe head. There are some reasonings on this subject, which make it evi- dent, that the goodness of a memory depends in a great de- gree upontlic consistence and the temperament of that part With what bodily organ, does the memory appear to he. |iarliciilarly r.ontii.Ttcd 1— Wlif ro is the brain 1 Is it proliable, «liat any particular part of thfi brain Is fixrlusivi'ly di' votfid to the Frrvir^ of innniory 1 Meaning of tirliuivrlu ?^ At what period of ]i(c, dues nie mory generally improve 1 — deray 1 Mow may memory be injured and spoiled ? Are there any trneoa, forms of iniaycs, drawn on the braiu.'* Pro- bably there are not. Is the brain affected in any way, when Ideas are received or lo«t l It seems ci-rlain, that it is. Mow 1 Probably, no person will ever know. • Ft is hardly to be nopposed that Walts irally thought, that the " imngpu of things" are in fart dilincatcd upon the brain. It seems must ratiooal to •uppnse that h" nsrd snc!) expressions njntalivcl)-. OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 171 of the brain, which is appointed to assist the exercise of dl our sensible and intellectual faculties. So for instance, in children ; thcj' perceive and forget a hundred things in an hour. The brain is so soft, tiuit it receives immediately all impressions, like water or liquid mud, and retains scarce- ly any of them. All the traces, forms or images, which are drawn tiiore, are immediately effaced or closed up again, as though you wrote with your finger on the surface of a river, or on a vessel of oil. On the contrary, in old age, men have a very feeble remembrance of things, that were done of l:ite, that is, the same day or M'oek or year. The brain is grown so hard, that the present images or strokes make little or no impression ; and therefore, they imuiediately vanish. Prisco, in his seventy-eighth year, will tell long stories of things done when he was in tlie battle of the Boyne, almost fifty years ago, and when ho studied at Oxford seven years before. For those impressions were made, v.hen the brain was more susceptive. They have been deeply ertgraven at the pro- per season, and therefore, they remain. But words or things, which he lately spoke or did, are immediately for- gotten : because the brain is now grown more dry and solid in its consistence, and receives not much more im- pression, than if you v,'rote with your finger on a floor of clay, or a plastered wall. But in the middle stage of life, or it may be, from fifteen to fifty years of age, the memory is generally in its happiest .state ; the brain easily receives and long retains the images and traces, which are impressed upon it ; and the natural spirits are more active, to range these little infinite unknown figures of things in their proper cells or cavities, to preserve and recollect them. Whatever, therefore, keeps the brain in its best consist- ence, may be a help to preserve the memory. But excess of wine, or luxury of anv kind, as well as excess in study or business, may ovcrwhetm the memory, by overstraining and weakening the fibres of the brain, wasting the spirits, in- juring the consistence of that tender substance, and con- founding the images, that are laid up there. Why floes Watts suppose cliil- \ range tliroMih the brain, to preserve dren so soon ^ain and lose irte.is ? ; and recollect the images there 1 Wliich are hest remembered by ! Probably not. the ajed, ideas caincd recently, or \ Why did Watts suppose tlieir lona apo !— Why ? (existence'? It was agreeable to the Ptajie of life, when the memory is \ notion of his day. best 1 I What excesses may impair the Are Uiere any natural spirits, tliat \ memory? 172 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. ^ A good memory has tliese several qualifications ; 1. It is ready to admit with great ease, tlie various ideas both of words and things, Avhich are learned or taught. 2. It is large and copious, to treasure up these ideas in great number and variety. 3. It is strong and durable, to retain for a considerable time, those words or thoughts, which are committed to it. 4. It is faithful and active to suggest and recollect, upon every proper occasion, all those words or thoughts, which Jiave been recommended to its care, or treasured up in it. Now in every one of these qualifications, a memory may be injured, or improved. Yet I shall not insist distinctly on tliese particulars, but only in general, propose a few rules or directions, whereby this noble faculty, may be preserved or assisted, and shew, what are the practices, that both by reason and experience, have been found of happy influence to tliis purpose. There is one great and general direction, which belongs to the improvement of other powers, as well ^s of the memory ; and that is, to keep it always in due and proper exercise. Many acts by degrees form a habit ; and tliere- by the ability or power is strengthened, and made more ready to be again in action. Our memories should be used and ino'red from ciiildhood, to bear a moderate quantity of 'knowledge, let into them early ; and they will thereby be- come strung fur use and service. As any limb duly exer- cised, grows stronger, the nerves of the body are corrobo- rated thereby. Milo took up a calf, and daily carried it on his shoulders. Aa the calf grew, iiis strentrth grew also : and he at last arrived at firmness enough to Dear the ox. Our memories will be, in a great measure, moulded and formed, improved or injured, according to the exercise of them. If v/e never use them, they will be almost lost. Those, who are wont to converse or read about a fr;w things only, will retain but a few in their memory. Those who are used to remember things but for an hour, and charge their memories with it no longer, will retain them hut an Four prciiierlii'sof a good Bicniory ? | ed fiom rliildliood 1 Hy wiml !idj(-rtive», liiny t\icvt- \ Arcordinc lo wlinl, will our me- propertirHlm should have them recom- mended to our memory, by clear and distinct pronunciation, spelling or writing. If we would treasure up the ideas of tilings, notions, propositions, arguments and sciences, these shoiild be recommended idso to our memory by a clear and distinct perception of tlieni. Faint, glimmering and con- fused ideas will v.misli, lik(- images seen In twilight. Every thing, whicli we learn, should bo conveyed to the mind in the plainest expressions, without any ambiguity, that we may not mistake, what we 'desire to remember. This is a. general rub;, whether we would employ the memory about words or things ; though it must be confest, that mere Scrcind rule 1 KlFecl of iironoiinciiig or wrilliiR words, lli.it wo woulil learn? OF IMPROVING THE MEMORT. 170 sounds and w'ords are much harder to fix in ihg mind, than the Icnowledjre of" things. For tills reason, take heed, as I have often before warned you, that you do not take up witli words instead of things, nor mere sounds, instead of sentiments and ideas. Many a lad forgets what has been taught him, merely because he never well understood it. He never clearly and distinctly took in the meaning of those sounds and syllables, which he was required to get by heart. This is one reason, why boys make so poor a proficiency in learning the Latin tongue, under masters, who teach them by grammars and rules written in Latm. And this is a common case with children, when they learn their cate- chisms in their early days. The language and the senti- ments, conveyed in those catechisms, are far above the understanding of creatures of that age; and they haVe no clear ideas from the words. This makes the answers much harder to be remembered, and in truth, they learn nothing but words without ideas ; and if they are ever so perfect in repeating the words, yet they know nothing of divinity. For this reason, it is necessary in teaching children the principles of religion, that they should be expressed in very plain, easy and familiar words, brought as low. as possible, down to their understandings, according to their different ages and capacities ; and thereby they will obtain some useful knowledge, when tlie words are treasured up in their memory ; because at the same time, they will treasure uj) those divine ideas too. 3. Method in the things we commit to memory, is neces- sary, in order to make tliem take more effectual possession of the mind, and abide there long. As much as system- atica] learning is decried by some vain and humorous triflera o^ the age, it is certainly the happiest way to furnish tlio mind wiUi a variety of knowledge. Whatever you would trust to your memory, let it be dis- posed in a proper method, connected well together, and referred to distinct and particular heads or classes, both general and particular. An apothecary's boy will much Why lias many a lad anon forgot- j diired into our schools ' That chil- ten what he had "been tatictit? | dren should he better instructed in Greatest improvement in scliools, i relicion, and made more fully to since the days of Watts'? Children | understand what they learn, are better taught to understand what i In what kind of lanstiace, should Uiey learn. . i children be tauplil religion 1 Two improvements, that now j What does he recommend in tlio seem most desirable to be intro- j third rule 1 176 OF lUPROVIJVG TOE MEMORY. sooner learn all the medicines in liis master's shop, when they are ranged in boxes or on shelves, according to their distinct natures, whether herbs, drugs or minerals, whether leaves or roots, whether cliemical or galenical preparations, whether simple or compound, &c. and when they are placed m some order according to their nature, their fluidity, or their consistence, &ic. m vials, bottles, gallipots, cases, drawers, &,c. So the genealogy of a family is more easily learnt, when you begni at some j^reat grandfather as tiie root, and distinguish the stock, the Targe houghs, tlie lesser branches, the twigs and the buds, till you come down to the present infants of the house. And indeed all sorts of arts and sciences, taught in a method, are more easily com- mitted to the mind or memory. I might give another plain simile, to confirm the trutli of this. What liorse or carriage can take up and bear away all the various, rude and 'unwieldy loppings of a branchy tree at once ? but if they are divided yet further, sc as to be laid close, and bound up in a more uniform manner into several faggots, perliaps those loppings may be all carried iis one single load or burden. Tlie mutual dependance of things on cocli otlier, lielpa t!ie memory of both. A wiso connection of tlie parts ot a discourse in a rational method, gives great advantage to the reader or liearcr, in order to his renieinbrance of it. Therefore, many mathematical demonsLrations in a long train, may be remombered mucli better, than a hcnp of sen- tences, wiiich have no connection. The book of 1 rovcrbs, at least, from the tenth chapter and onward, is much harder 1.0 remember, than the book of Psalms, for this reason ; and some Christians have told me, that they rememl)er wliat is written in the epistle to the Romans, and that to the He- brews, much better tlian many others of the sucn-d e|)istles ; because there is more e.xact metiiod and connection ob- .served in them. He, that would h'arn to remember a sermon, wliich he hears, should accpiaint hiuiself by degrei*?! with the method, in which the soveral important parts of it are dejivered. It is a certain fanil in a multitude of preacluTS, that they utterly neirloft method ; or at least, they refuse to render their method visible and sensible to the iicarers. One What efToct upon the riii'iiHiry, has 1 What hint (Ioch he (jive for ro- Ihn innliiiil ilu|ieiiil(Mir<' (rf things 1 j inpnihi^ring n Horrnon .' Why in the grcalrr part of the j What flors In; tnnnlhin n!i a fauU hook <>rrruv).Mhii, harilto be reinein- | in a multitiidu of proncl'ori ? Ur'ageiiionts, nor lost in the croud or clamor of other loud and importunate affairs. Talking over the things, whicli you have read, with your Best niethoil of taking snrh notes ? ( toliearinp a sermon ? Most devmit- Wrile enuiicli of tlie doctrine or | ly toapply ittooiirown conscience*, leading prupusilion, to lie able to i to reprove and correct us. retneiiibcr it ; and a \v(/id or two of i \\'l)at docs he say of forniinn brief each liead ; and Fometiincs, perhaps, [ compends of what we would re- note n very striking thou)!ht besides. ! member'! Why not write as much as pos- 5 ftleaninp of fril, Juno, and iN'oveinl)er ; February, t\vt'iilyi;i);lit alunv ; And all llio rest have thirty-une. Who may be tansht to rcrnoinlicr ( inaiiy infant srhools ? That the many things, by way ut° sport and | children will consider their exerciaes play .•" : play and spnrt. Why should not children be taught j Present state of infant srhoola T every tiling in this way? They ! They senin to bo yet in their in- snould be lanulil to feel, that <;od i fancy. did not make iIkmii to Kpetnl tlicir > VVIiat may we hope from infant lives in play, but to endure li:ird- j sniools? 'I'hal they will lie among nesH, aH good soldierii of Jci Cnriht. Why Bhonid they be trained np, (hub to endnre hardne-is.' 'I'his is the way, in wliirh thev slimild co, timl they may lichl the lmmh! fiijlit offnilli. I'rov. Q'J:^. I Tim. ti : I-,!. vnii toremeoilier the niiiidier ol da>s What (lancer ir tlKuiKlit to attend In each month. the chiKf means of 811 rai.iinR man- kind, UH to make them appear lika another race ol Iteincs. What does Walls !,ay of verse, In relalion to memory ? Repeal llie linen that may ennlile OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 181 So have rules of health been prescribed in the book called Schola Salornitana : and many a person has pre- served himself doubtless from evening gluttony, and the pains and diseases consequent upon it,T)y these two lines. Ex magna cimui., stomacho Jlt.maxmm picna ; Ut sis node lei:is,Jit Ubi ci£>ta brevLs. Englished ; To be easy all night, Let your supper lie light , Or else you'll complain Of a stomach in pain. And a hundred proverbial sentences in various lan- guages, are formed into rhyme or verse, whereby they are made to remain in the memory of old and young. It is from this principle, tliat moral rules have been cast into a poetic mould, from all antiquity. So the golden verses of the Pythatroreans, in Greek ; Gate's disticlis De .Moribus, in Latin ; Lilly's precepts to scholars, called Qui milii, with many otiicrs ; and this has been done with very good success. A line or two of this kind recurring to the memory, has often guarded youtli from a temptation to vice and folly, as well as put tiiem in mind of their present duty. 7. When you would remember new thmgs or words, endeavor to associate them with some words or things, which you have well known before, and which are estab- lished in your memory. This association of ideas is of great importance, and may be of excellent use in many in- stances of human life. One idea, which is familiar to the mind, connected with others which are new and strange, will bring tho.--.e new ideas into easy remembrance. Ma- ronides had got the first hundred linos of Virgil's Enead printed upon his memory so perfectly, that he knew not only tiie order and number of every verse from one to a hundred, but the order and number of every word in each verse also ; and by this ipeans, he would remember two or three hundred names of persons or things by some rational or fantastic connection between some word in the verse, and some letter, syllable, property or accident of tiie name or tiling to be remembered, even though they had been repeated but once or twice in his hearing. Animate prac- tised much the same art of memory, by getting the Latin If we would rcmetnber new wonls or things, ivilh wh;it, slmuld we asaGCiate them .' It) 182 OF IMPROVr.VG THE MEMORY. names of twenty-two animals into his head, according to the alphabet, namely, asinus, basilicus, canis, draco, elepnas, felis, gryphus, hirciis, jiivencus, Ico, miilus, noctua, ovis, panthera, quadrupes, rhinoceros, simia, taurus, ursus, xiphi- as, hyena or yena, zibetta. IMost of these he divided also into four parts, namely, head and body, feet lins, or wings, and tail ; and by some arbitary or chimerical attachment of each of these to a' word or thing, which he desired to re- member, he committed them to the care of his memory, and that with good success. It, is also by this association of ideas, that we may better imprint any new idea upon the memory, by joining Aj'ith it, some circumstance of the time, place, company, &-c, where- in we first observed, heard or learnt it. If we would re- cover an absent idea, it is useful to recollect those circum- stances of time, place, &c. The substance v/ill many times be recovered, and brought to the thoughts by recollecting the shadow. A man recurs to our fancy by remembermg his garment, his size or stature, his office or employment, &c. A beast, bird or fisii by its color, figure, or motion, by tiie cage or court-yard or cistern, wherein it was kept. To this head, also wo may refer that remembrance of names and things, which may be derived from our recol- lection of their likeness to other things, which we know ; either their resemblance in tlio name, character, form, ac- cident or anv tliiug that belongs to them. An idea or word, wliich has been lost or forgotten, has been otlen recovered by hitting upon some otlier kindred word or idea, wliich has the nearest resemblance to it, and that in the letters, sylla- bles or sound of the name, as well as properties of the tiling. If we would remeuiber Hippocrates or Galen or Para- celsus, think of a physician's name, beginning with II. G. or P. If we would remember Ovidius Naso, we may repre- sent a man with a great nose ; if Plato, we may think upon a person witii large shoulders; ifCrispus, we may fancy another with curled hair ; ami so of otiier things. And sometimes a now or strange idea mny be fixed in the memory, by considering its contrary or opposite. So if we cannot hit on the word Goliath, the remembrance of David may recover it; or the name of a Trojan may be recovered by thinking of a (J rock, [' rcrpinlilniirrs ' \Vli;it in mraiit !)>• a locnl memory ? OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 183 local memory, or a remembrance of what you had read by the side or page, where it is written or printed ; whether the right or the left, whether at the top, the middle or the bottom; whether at the be"-inni»g ot a chapter or a para- graph, or the end of it. It Tias been some advantage for this reason to accustom ourselves to books of the same edition ; and it has been of constant and special use to divines and private Christians, to be furnislied with snvei'al Bibles of the same edition ; that wherever they are, whether in their chamber, parlor or study, in the younger or elder years of life, they may find the chapters and verses stand- m^ in the same parts of the page. This is also a great convenience to bfe observed by printers in the new editions of Grammars, Psalms, Testa- ments, &c. to print every chapter, paragraph or verse in the same part of the page, as me former, that so it may yield a happy assistance to those young learners, who find, and even feel the advantage of a local memory. 9. Let every thin^ we desire to remember be fairly and distinctly written, and divided into p'eriods, with lar^e cha- racters ; for by this moans, we shall the more readily im- print the matter and words on our minds, and recollect them with a glance, the more remarkable the writing ap- pears to the eye. This sense conveys the ideas to the fancy better than any other ; and what we have seen is not so soon forgotten, as what we have only heard. For the assistance of weak memories, the first letters or words of every period, in every page, may be written in distinct colors, yellow, creen, red, black, &-c. arid if you observe the same order oT colors in the following sentences, it may be still the better. This will make a greater im- pression, and may much aid the memory. Under this head, we may take notice of the advantage, which the memory gains, by having the several objects of our learning drawn out into Schemes and tables. Matters Meaning of /omH 5 may be convenient, always to use What advantage may ariae from \ the same copy of the Scripture ? always reading tlie same Bible, or | Do you thin l< of any otlier method, same edition? j to airl rememliriiire ? What disadvaiilase 1 We shall i What is thought to b^^ the best be more likely to make the same \ method, to aid lis in reiiioiiibering mistakes in successive readinss. | dates'? Grey's Jleiuoria Technica, Is it best on the wliole, as far as \ or Artificial Memory.* * An account of this method with iiiiprovements, m:iy be found in recent editions of VVhelpley's Compend of History, and in ^^'()^r.ester's Elements ofjiistory. 184 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. nf mathematical science and natural philosophy are not only let into the understandinjj, but preserved in the memory by figures and diatjrams. Tlie situation of the several parts of the earth are better learnt by one day's conversing with a map, or sea-chart, than bv merely reading the description of their situation a hundred times over in books of geography. So the constellations in astronomy, and their position in tlie heavens, are more easily remembered by hemispheres of the stars well drawn. It is by having such memorials, figures and tablets hung round our studies or places of resort, that our memory of these things will be greatly assisted and improved, as I have sliewn at large in tiie twentieth chapter of the Use of the Sciences. I might add here also, that once writing over what we design to remember, and giving due attention to what we write, will fix it more in the minJ, than reading it five times. And in the same manner, if we had a plan of the naked lines of longitude and latitude, projected on the meridian printed for this use, ^ learner miglit much more speedily advance himself in the knowledge of o^eograpiiy by l)is own drawing the figures of all the parts of the world upon it by imitation, than by many days survey of a map of tiie world so printed. The same also may be said concerning the constellations of the heavens, drawn by the learner, on a naked projection of tlie circles of the spheres upon Uie plane of the equator. 10. It has sometimes been the practice of men to imprint names or sentences on their memory, by taking the first letters of every word of that sentence or of those names, and making a new word out of them. So the name Macca- bcen is borrowed from the first letters of the Hebrew words which make that sentence J\Ii Camoka Bealim Jelwvak, that is, /f7io is like thee among the gods, O Jehovah ? which was written on their banners. So the word vihirjfor teaches us to remember the order of tiie seven original colors, as they appear by the sun-beams, cast through a prism on a white paper, or formed by the sun in a rainbow, according to the diffi'ient refrangibility of the rays, namely, viole^ indigo, blue, j^reen, yellow, orange, red. Otlici*»artihcial helps to memory mny be just mentioned here. Dr. Grey in his book call Memoria Technicn, has ex- clianged the figures 1, y, M, 4, r», (!, 7, H, J>, for some con- sonants, I), d, t, f, /, J/, p, k, 71, and some vowels, a, e, f, o it, and several diplithongs, and tlicreby formed words, Uial OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 185 denote numbers, which may be more easily remembered. Mr. Lowe has improved his scheme in a small pamphlet called Mnemonics Delineated, whereby in seven leaves, h.e has comprized almost an infinity of things in science and in common life, and reduced them to a sort of measure, like Latin verse ; though the words may be supposed to be very barbarous, being such a mixture of vowels and consonants, as are very unfit for harmony. But after all, the very writers on this subject have con- fessed, that several of these artificial helps of memory are so cumbersome, as not to be suitable to every temper or person; nor are they of any use for the delivery of a dis- course by memory, nor of much service in learning the sciences ; but they maj' be sometimes practised for assist- ing our remembrance of certain sentences, numbers or names. CHAPTER XVIIL OF DETERMINI>'G A QUESTION. L When a subject is proposed to your thoughts, con- sider, whether it be knowabie at all, or not, and then, w?iether it be not above the reach of your inquiry and knowledge in the present state ; and remember, that it is a great waste of time to busy yourselves too much among unsearchables. The chief object of these studies is to keep tlie mind humble, by finding its own ignorance and weak- ness. n. Consider again, whather the matter be worthy of your inquiry at alt; and then, how far it may be worthy of your present search and labor, according to your age, your time of life, your station in the world, your capacity, your profession, your chief design and end. There are many things, worthy inquiry to one man, which are not so to another ; and there are things, that may deserve the study of the same person in one part of life, which would be im- proper OP impertinent at another. To read books on the art When a question is pioposeil ftir \ little iUtontion to unsearchables !— determination, what should xvo first ! Mtmn'm'i of utisearchahle 7 consider? J If we liiid we can probably deter- Meaning of AKo?cnJ/e ? \ mine the point, what farther in- What niuy be the u^jif uf pavinj; a \ quires should we then make 1 i6* 186 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. of preacliing, or disputes about church discipline, are pro- per for a theological student, in the end of his academical studies, but not at the beginning. To pursue mathematical studies very largely may be useful for a professor of phi- losophy, but not for a divme. III. Consider, whether the subject of your inquiry be easy or difficult ; whether you have sufficient foundation or skill, furniture and advantages for pursuing it. It would be madness for a young statuary to attempt at first, to carve a Venus or a Mercury, and especially without proper tools. And it is equal folly for a man to pretend to make great improvements in natural philosophy, without due experi- ments. IV. Consider, whether the subject be in any way, use- ful or not, before yon engage in the study of it. Otlen put this question to yourselves, Cui bono? To tvhat purpose ? What end will it attain ? Is it for the glory of God ? for the good of men ? for your own advantage ? for the removal of any natural or moral evil ? for the attainment of any natural or moral good .' Will the profit be equal to the labor .^ There arc many subtle impertinencies learnt in the schools, many painful trifles even among the mathematical theorems and problems, many laborious follies of various kinds, which some ingenious men have been engaged in. A due reflection upon tliese, will call tlie mind away'from vain amusements, and save much time. V. Consider, what tendency it has to make you wiser and better, as well as to make you more learned. Tliosn Suestions, which tend to wisdom and prudence in our con- uct iimong men, as well as piety toward God, arc doubt- less more "important, than ail tliosn inquiries, which only improve our knowledge in mere speculations. V'l. If the question appears to be well worth your dili- gent n|)pli(riiion, and you are furmslied with the necessary requisites to pursue it, tlien consider, whether it be drest up and entangled in more words, th:in are needful, and con- tain or include more complicated ideas, than are necessary. If so, endeavor to reduce it to a greater simplicity and plainness ; which will make tlie inquiry and argument easier and plainer all the way. ■ VII. If it be staled in an improper, obscure or ifregular If the subject appears wortliy of | WImt if the question contain* our attention, what ghoutd we next | neeilieRS words and ideas 1 Inqiiiie ' ! U'liul if it ia ubitcure 1 Next inquiry 1 j OP DETERMI.M.NG A QUESTION. 187 form, It may be meliorated by changing the phrase, or transposing the parts. But be careful always to keep the grand and important point of inquiry the same in your new stating of the question. Little tricks and d^eits of sophis- try, by sliding in, or leaving out, such words as entirely change the question, should be abandoned. Stating a question 'ivith clearness and correctness, often goes" a great way toward answering it. The greatest part of true knowledge lies in a distinct perception of tilings, which are in themselves distinct ; and some men give more light and knowledge by the bare stating of the question, than otiiers do, by talking of it in gross confusion, for whole hours together. To state a question is but to separate and disentangle the parts from one another, as well as from every thing, wliicii does not concern the question, and then to lay the disentangled parts of the question in due order and method. Oftentimes witiiout more ado, this fully re- solves the doubt, and shews the mind, where the truth lies, without argument or dispute. VIII. If the question relate to an axiom or first principle of truth, remember, that a long train of consequences may depend upon it. It should therefore, not be suddenly ad- mitted. It is not enouglj to determine the truth of a proposition, much less to raise it to the honor of an axiom or first prin- ciple, to say, that it has been believed through many ages, that it has been received by many nations, that it is almost universally acknowledged, or nobody denies it, that it is established by human laws, or that temporal penalties or reproaches will attend the disbelief of it. IX. Nor is it enough to forbid any proposition the title of an axiom, because it has been denied by some persons, and doubted by others ; for some persons have been un- reasonably sceptical. Then only should a proposition be called an axiom, or a self-evident truth, when by a moderate attention to the subject and predicate, their connection ap- pears in so plain a lio'ht, and so clear an evidence, as needs no third idea or middle term, to prove them to be connected. X. While you are in search after truth in questions of a doubtful nature, or such as you have not yet thorougiily To wli;U, dcies tile clear statement j to entitle a proposition to be regard- of the qiiestJDii very iniicli conduce? | ed as an axjoni ? Wliat IC llie (juestion relatetJ to an ; To exclude it 1 axiom 1 — Mc:iMiii2 of uriom? | What should we most ardently What is mentioned as insuflicient j desire in our investigations 1 188 OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. examined, keep up a just indifference to each side of the question, if you would be led honestly into the truth ; for a desire or intJipation leaning to eitiier side, biasses the judo-ment strangely. Whereas by this indifference for every thing but truth, you will be excited to examine fairly, instead of presuming ; and your assent will be secured from goin^ beyond your evidence. XL For the most part, people are born to their opinions, and never question the truth of what their family or their party profess. They clothe their minds, as they do their bodies, after the fashion ; not one of a hundred ever exam- ines his principles. We shall be suspected of lukewarm- ncss, if v/e suppose examination necessary ; and be charged as tending to apostacy, if we attempt to examine them. Persons are applauded for presuming, they are in the right; and, as Mr. Locke says, he that considers and inquires into the reasons of things, is counted a foe to orthodoxy ; be- cause possibly he may deviate from some of the received doctrines. And thus men without any industry or acquisi- tion of their own, lazy and idle as they are, inherit local truths, th:it is, the trutiis of that place, where they live, and are inured to assent without'cvidence. This has a long and unhappy influence ; for if a man bring his mind once to be positive and fierce for proposi- tions, whoso evidence he has never examined, and that in matters of the greatest concernment, he will naturally fol- low tills short and easy way of judging and believing in cases of less moment, and build all his ojiinions upon in- sufficient grounds. XII. In determining a question, especially when it i.s a matter of difHci'.lty and importance, do not take up with partial examination ; but turn your thoughts on all sides to gather in all tiie ligiit you can, toward the solution. Take time, and use all the helps that are to be obtained, before you fully determine, except only where present necessity of .'K'tioii calls for speedy determination. If yo'i would knov/ what may be called a partial exami- nation, take these instances, namely. When you exaiHino an object of sense, or inquire into lldw ilo inoHt pci)|ili; ciiriii> by their t port.itit qiirfition, how should we opinions.' j prni'rnliy ptocoeii 1 Ifa purmm con'^idcrs iiMil InqiiircB i WhiMi niu.st we proceed ofher- liilo (III; riviMon of lliin(:-<, tu wjial is ! winu? he snniriinuM coMsiilcrml .iM n I'lif 1 j Can yon inpiition i>nmn instancM III duturiiiining n dillicult and im- J of imperfect exaiiiinntion 1 OF DETERMINING A qUESTlON. 189 some matter of sensation at too great a distance from the object, or in an inconvenient situation of it, or under any indisposition of the organs, or any disguise jvhatsoevcr re- lating to the medium or the organ of the object itself; or when you examine it by one sense only, where otliers might be employed ; or when you inquire into it by sense only, without the use of the understanding and judgment ancl reason. If it be a question which is to be determined by reason and argument, than your examination is partial, when you turn tlie question only in one light, and do not turn it on all sides ; when you look upon it only in its relations and as- pects to one sort of object and not to another ; when you consider only the advantages of it and the reasons for it, and neglect to think of the reasons against it, and never survey its inconveniencies tno ; when you determine on a sudden, before you have given yourself a due time for weighing all circumstances, &c. Again, If it be a question of fact, depending up the re- port or testimony of men, your examination is but partial, when you inquire only, what one man or a few say, and avoid the testimony of others ; when you only ask, what those report, who were not eye or ear-witnesses, and neglect those, who saw and heard it ;'when you content yourself with mere loose and gcrveral talk about it, and never enter into particulars ; or when there are many who deny tlie fact, and you never concern yourself about their reasons for denymg it, but resolve to believe only those who affirm it. There is yet a further fault in your partial examination of any question, when you resolve to determine it by natural reason only, where you miglit be assisted by revelation ; or when you decide the point by some word or sentence, or by some part of revelation, without comparing it with other parts, which might give fuitlier light, and better help to determine the meaning. It is also a culpable partiality, if you examine some doubtful or pretended vision or revelation, without the use of reason: or without the use of that revelation, which is undoubted, and sufficiently proved to be divine. These are all instances of imperfect examination ; and we should never determine a question by one or two lights, when we may have the advantage of three or four. What caution does lie pive, re- i Meaning o{ hypot/uses'! spectiii^ favoiile liypoIhe.ses1 { 190 OF DETERMINING A qUESTION. XIII. Take heed lest some darling notion, some favorite hypothesis, some beloved doctrine, or some common but unexamined opinion, be made a test of the truth or false- hood of all other propositions about the SMme subject. Dare not build much upon such a notion or doctrine, till it be very fully examined, accurately adjusted, and sufficiently confirmed. Some persons, by indulging sucji a practice, have been led into long ranks of errors ; they have found themselves involved in a train of mistakes, by taking up some petty hypothesis or principle, either in philosophy, politics or religion, upon slight and insufficient grounds, and establishing that as a test and rule, by which to judge of all other thmgs. XIV. For the same reason, have a care of suddenly determining any one question, on which, the determination of any kindred or parallel cases will easily or naturally follow. Take heed of receiving any wrong turn in your early judgment of things; be watchful, as far as possible, against any false bias, whic'h may bo given to the under- standing, especially in younger years. The indulgence of some one silly opinion, or the giving credit to one f()olish fable, lays the mind open to ue imposed upon by many. The ancient Romans were taught to helieve that Ronnilus and Remus, the founders of their state and empire, were ex- posed in the woods, and nursed by a wolf '1 liis story pre- pared their minds for the rccejjtion of any tales of the like nature relating to other countries. Trogus Pompcius would enforce the belief, that one of the ancient kings of Spain was also nursed and suckled by a hart, from the fable of Romulus and Remus. It was by the same influence, they learned to give up their hopes and fears to omens and sootli-saying, when thr-y were once persuaded, that the greatness of their empire and the glory of Romulus their founder, were predicted by the happy omen of twelve vul- tures appearing to him, when he souglit where to build the city. They readily received all tlio following legends of prodigies, auguries and prognostics, for many ages together, with which Livy has furnislicd his huge history. Into what, have nomc liecn led liy tndiilKing xui li n I'rnctice 1 Wlint i|ii(;Nti(ins slumlil \vr Iik pnr- (iciil.-irly cniitioiifi in ilclern'iniiid? In what Blapc o( liTc, Khnnlil |ic-r HiMiH he etipecially i:autioii8 of wriini; liiaHHca 1 What (ahulous account did tlie Romnns helieve rem)ecting Itoniulus and Keiniia? Kor what, did this story prepare their minds 1 llnw did Ihe Romans lenrii to give up ihcir hopes and fears looiiieiii7 — M culling v( omen. OF DETERMINI^•G A QCESTIOIV. 191 So the child, who is once taught to believe any one oc- currence to be a good or, evil, omen, or any day of the month or week to be lucky or unlucky, has a wide inroad made on the soundness of his understanding in the following judg- ments of his life. He lies ever open to all the silly impres- sions and idle tales of nurses ; and imbibes many a foolish story with greediness, which he must unlearn, if ever he become acquainted with truth and wisdom. XV. Have a care of interesting your warm and religious zeal in those matters, which are not sufficiently evident in themselves, or Avhich are not fully proved ; for this zeal, whether right or wrong, when it is once engaged, will have a powerful influence to establish your own minds in those doctrines which are really doubtful, and to stop up all the avenues of further light. This will brings upon the soul a sort of sacred awe and dread of heresy ; with a concern to maintain whatever you have espoused as divine, though perhaps you have espoused it, without any just evidence, and ought to have renounced it, as false and pernicious. We ought to be zealous for the most important points of our religion, and to contend earnestly for the faith once delivered to the saints ; but we ought not to employ this sacred fervor of spirit in the service of any article, till we have seen it made out v/ith plain and strong conviction, If a child has been taught to be- ! k.c. what must he do, in order to lievo in omens, or in lucky or un- | become truly wisel lucky days, on what has this made a \ How can he unlearn them .' By wide inroad 1 — Meaning of inroad7 j learning, that they are mere fictions. — of luck? — oflacky?' ! For what points, does he say, W9 Of the words luck and lucky, \ should not indulge religious zeal 1 which is the primitive word 1 — the | What will such zeal tend to pre- derivative? | vent 1 Meaning of prtmitii-e ? — of deriva- \ What sacred awe and dread will live 1 i it be likely to bring upon the soul 1 What important idea is implied j For what points, should we be in lucky, that is not implied in luck ? ! zealous 1 Can you think of any other de- | For wliat, sliould we earnestly rivative, essentially different in j contend 1 meaning, from its English primi- j Meaning of /uftA here 1 The doc- tivel* j trines of the bible, believed by First intrence contained in the 5 faith. note 1 — Second 1 j What caution does he give, with If a cliild believes in lucky days, | regard to this sacred fervor.' * Enslisli words generally differ, and often very greatly, from iheir primi- tives of other liingiiages. Hence, we can scarcely ever know the exact meaning of an English word, by knowing its derivation from another lan- guage. Hence too, persons sometimes use Knalish words improperly, by adliering too closely to their etymological signification ; as the phrase aocr** from, instead of averse to. 192 OF DETERMINING A QUESTIO.N. that it is a necessary or important point of faitli or practice, and is either an evident dictate of tlie light of nature, or an assured article of revelation. Zeal must not reign over the powers of our understanding, but obey them. God is the God of light and truth, a God of reason and order, and he never requires mankind to use their natural faculties amiss for the support of his cause. Even the. most mysterious and sublime doctrines of revelation, are not to be believed witliout just reason ; nor should, our pious affections be engitged in the defence of them, till we have plain and convincing proof, that they are certainly revealed, though perhaps we may never in this world attain to such clear and distinct ideas of them, as we desire. XVI. As a warm zeal ought never to be employed in the defence of apy revealed truth, till our reason be well convinced of the revelation; so neither should wit and banter, jest and ridicule, ever be indulf^^ed to oppose or assault any doctrines of professed reveuition, till reason has proved, they are not really revealed. And even then, tlieso methods should be used very seldom, and with the utmost caution and prudence. Raillery and wit were never made to answer our inquiries after truth, nor to determine a question of rational controversy ; though they may some- times he serviceable to expose to contem|)t, those incon- sistent follies, wliich have been first abundantly refuted by argument. Tliey serve indeed only to cover nonsense witn shame, when reason lias first proved it to be mere nonsense. It is therefore a silly nnd most unreasonable test, which some of our Deists have introduced, to jiidge of divine re- velation, namely, to try, if it will bear ridicule and laughter. They are enoctually beaten in all their combats at the weapons of men, that is, reason and argument ; and it would not be unjust, though it is a little uncourtly, to say, that they would now attack our ndigion with the talents of a vile animal, tiiat is, grin and grimace. I cannot tliink that a jester or a monkey, a droll or a pup- pet, can 1)0 a proper judge or decider of controversy. ThaL which dresses up all things in disguise, is not likely to leaa us into any just sentiments aiiout them. Plato or Socrates, Cesar or Alexander, might have a fool's coat clapt upon Hliould 7.im\ Qnvern or obey the i iinrR^iHoniilily ronKidertMl ns the test undcrHlnnrtins 1 j uf Iriilli 1— MennliiK of (m«,7 Frnin what iliiir.iiRsionM, ilioiild ! VVlin, dues \w sny, nre not proper wit anil liaiilcr hn excluded 1 [ ducidors ofcoiilioveMy ' What have loiiie iiilideU nioRl j OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 193 him ; and perhaps in this disguise, neitlier the wisdom of the one, nor the majesty of the other, would secure him from a sneer. This treatment wouhl never inform us, whetlier they were kin^s or slaves, whether they were fools or philosophers. The strongest reasoning, the best sense and the politest thoughts may be set in a most ridiculous light by this grinning faculty. The most obvious axioms of eternal truth may be drest in a very foolish form, and wrapt up in artful absurdities by this talent ; but they are truth and reason and good sense still. Euclid, with all his demonstrations, might be so covered and overwhelmed with banter, that a beginner in the mathematics might be tempted to doubt, whether his theorems were true or not, and to imagine, they could never be useful. So weaker minds might be easily prejudiced against the noblest prin- ciple of truth and goodness ; and the younger part of man- kind might be beat off from the belief of the most serious, the most rational and important points even of natural reli- gion, by the impudent jests of a profane wit. The moral duties of the civil life, as well as the articles of Christianity, may be painted over with the colors of folly, and exposed upon a stage, so as to ruin all social and personal virtue among the gay and thoughtless part of the world. XVII. It should be observed also, that these very men cry out loudly against the use of all severe raijing and re- proach in debates, and all penalties and persecutions of the state, in order to convince the minds and consciences of men, and determine points of truth and error. Now I re- nounce these penal and smarting methods of conviction, as much as they do ; and yet I think still, these are every whit as wise, as just and as good for this purpose, as banter and ridicule. Why should public mockery in print, or a merry joke upon a stage, be a better test of truth, than severe railing, sarcasms, and public persecutions and penalties ? Why should more light be derived to the understanding, by a song of scurrilous mirth or a witty ballad, than there is by a rude cudgel ? When a professor of any religion is set up to be laughed at, I cannot see, how this should help By wliat faculty, mny the strong- j that ridicule may sometimes be used est reasoning and most excellent j in such cases'! Answer a fool ac- thotights be set in a most ridiculous i cording to his folly. light 1 I Against what method of convic- Should ridicule ever be used in I tion, do infidels loudly exclaim? dtscussions? Rarely, and never in j What method of theirs appear* U> opposition to argument. i be no better 1 What scripture seems to imply, | 17 194 OF DETERMINI>G A QUESTION. US to judge of the truth of his faith any better, than if he were scourged. The jeers of a theatre, the pillory and the whipping-post, are very near akin. When the person or his opinion is made the jest of the mob, or his back the shambles of the executioner, I think, there is no more con- viction in the one, that in the other. XVIII. Besides, supposing it is but barely possible, that the great God should reveal his mind and will to men by miracle, vision or inspiration, it is a piece of contempt and profane insolence, to treat any tolerable or rational appear- ance of such a revelation M'itn jest and laughter, in order to find, whether it be divine or not. And yet, if this be a pro- per test of revelation, it may be properly applied to the true, as well as the false, in order to distinguish it. Sup- pose, a royal proclamation were sent to a distant part of the kingdom, and some of the subjects should doubt whether it came from the king or not. Is it possible, that wit and ridicule should ever decide the point ? or would the prince ever think himself treated with just honor, to have his proclamation canvassed in this manner, on a public stage, and become the sport of buffoons, in order to determine the question, Whetlier it is the word of a king or not .' Let such sort of writers go on at their peril, and sport themselves in their own deceivings ; let them nt their peril, make a jest of the Bible, and treat the sacred articles of Christianity with scoff and merriment. But then let them lay aside all their pretences to reason, as well as to reli- mon ; and as they expose themselves by such writings, to uie neglect and contempt of men, so let thera prepare to meet the majesty and indignation of God. XIX. In reading philosophical, moral or religious con- troversies, never raise your esteem of any opinion, by the assurance and zeal, wliercwith the author assorts it, nor by the highest praises, he bestows upon it. Nor on the other hand, let your esteem of an opinion bo abated, nor your aversion to it raised, by the supercillions contempt, cast upon it by a Avarm writer, nor by tlie sovereign airs, with which he condemns it. Lot the force of argument alone influence your assent or dissent. Take cure, tiiat your soul be not warped or biassed on one side or the other, b^ any strains of nattering or abusive language ; for there is To whnt, uliould scofTerR nt Uio 1 prnise or lil.imo enat upon It 1 Bible, liiy nHidc ;ill proteiir.c ? j (Inly lliiriK, thiit dhould InHuenc* How dhoiilil (lur (ipiriion of niiy | our assuiit or ilisHeiit '1 work bu alTcctuil by the viiry liigii j Of DETEKMINING A QUESTION. 195 no question whatsoever, but has some defenders or op- posers. Leave those writers to their own follies, who prac- tise thus upon the weakness of their readers, without argu- ment. ]-ieave them to triuinph in their own fancied pos- sessions and victories. It is oftentimes found, that their possessions are but a heap of errors, and their boasted vic- tories are but overbearing noise and clamor, to silence the voice of truth. In philosophy and religion, the bigots of all parties are generally the most positive, and deal much in this sort of arguments. Sometimes these arc the weapons of pride ; for a hauglity man supposes all his opinions to be infallible, and imagines, the contrary sentiments are very ridiculous, and not worthy of notice. Sometimes these ways of talk- ing are the mere arms of ignorance. The men, who use them, know little of the opposite side of the question, and therefore, they exult m their own vain pretences lo knowl- edge, as tliougji no man of sense could oppose their opin- ion. They rail at an objection against tlieir own senti- ments ; because they can find no other answer to it but railinjj. iVnd men of learning, by their excessive vanity, have been sometimes tempted into the same insolent prac- Lce, as well as the ignorant. Yet let it be remembered too, that there are some truths so plain and evident, that the opposition to them is strange, unaccountable, and almost monstrous. In vindication of such truths, a writer of good sense may sometimes be allowed to use a degree of assurance, and pronounce them strongly with an air of confidence, while he defends them with reasons of convincing force. XX. Sometimes a question may be proposed, v/hich is of so large and extensive a nature, and refers to such a multituclc of subjects, as ought not injustice to be deter- mined at once by a single argument or answer ; as if one should ask me. Are you a professed disciple of the Stoics or the Platonists ? Do you give an assent to the principles What rhamcters are generally | whether we are Calvinists, Armini- most positive in matters of pliiloso- | ans, &c. ? pliy and religion 1 i Wliat if we have not time to enter Meaning of tiffo^? 1 into a detail of particulars'! We Why do many rail at an objection ! may say, that in general, we agree to their sentiments ■? i with Calvin or Arminius, or othei When may a writer of good sense ! writers, but not in all particulars, be allowed to use some degree of j according as truth may allow us to assurance 1 I slate. What shall we say, if asked, 1% OF DETERMIMNG A QUESTIOIf. ofGassendi, Descartes or Sir Isaac Newton ? Have you chosen the hypothesis of Tycho or Copernicus ? Have you devoted yourself to the sentiments of Armi'nius or Calvin? Are your notions Episcopal, Presbyterian or Independent? I think it may be very proper in such cases, not to give an answer in the gross, but rather to enter into a detail of particulars, and explain one's own sentiments. Perhaps there is no man, nor set of men upon earth, whose senti- ments I entirely follow. God has given me reason, to judge for mysclt ; and though I may see sufficient ground to agree with the greatest part of the opinions of one per- son or party, yet it does by no means follow, that I should receive them all. Truth does not always go in tlie orross ; nor does error tincture and spoil all the articles of belief, that some one party professes. Since there are difficulties attending every sch-cme of humai^lknowledge, it is enough for me in the main, to in- cline to that side, which has tne fewest difficulties ; and I would endeavor, as far as possible, to correct tlie mistakes or the harsh expressions of one party, by softening and reconciling methods, by reducing the extremes, and by borrowing some of the best principles or phrases from another. Cicero was one of the greatest men of antiquity, and gives us an account of the various opinions of philoso- phers in his age ; but he himself was of the Eclectic sect, and chose out of each of them such positions, as in his judgment canac nearest to the truth. XXI. When you arc called in the course of life or re- ligion, to judge and determine concerning any question, and to affirm or deny it, take a full survey, of the objections agaiiiiit it, as well as of the arguments for it, as far a>3 your time and circuinstances admit, and see, on whicii side, the propondoration falls. If either the objections against any proposition, or the arfjun:ents for the defence of it, carry in them most undoubtcaevidence, and are plainly unanswera- ble, they will and ought to constrain the assent, though there m;iy lie many seeming probabilities on tlic other side, which at first sight would flatter the judgment to favor it But M-hcre the" reasons on both sides, arc very nearly of equal weight, there suspension or doubt is our duty, unless What d(H>H VVittts gay respecting { incline .' bid own HeniiinentH 1 j When we are called to decide a For wlial had God given liiin j (luestion, what slioiild we consider, reaHon 1 j lipsiilea tlip arRiimcutH in fnvorl Ah there nrr- dlfliciiltlo.H in ovcry j Wliat if tlio reasons appear equal •cheine, tu wliicli side, ehuiiM we j on both sides' \ OF DETKRMmiiSG A QUESTION. 197 in cases wherein present determination or practice, is re- quired ; and there we must act according to the present appearing preponderation of reasons. XXII. In matters of importance, it is our duty indeed to seek after certain and conclusive arguments, if they can be found, in order to determine a question. But where the matter is of little consequence, it is not worth our labor, to spend much time in seekmg after certainties. Is it suffi- cient here, if probable reasons offer themselves. And even in matters of greater importance, especially where daily practice is necessary, and where we cannot attain any sufiicient or certain grounds, to determine a question, we must then take up with such probable arguments, as we can arrive at. But this general rule should be observed, namely, to take heed, that our assent be no stronger, than the probable argument will support. XXHI. There are many things even in religion, as well as in philosophy and the civil life, which we believe with very different degrees of assent ; and this should be always regulated j^ccording to the different degrees of evidence, which we enjoy. Perhaps there are a thousand gradations in our assent to the things we believe ; because there are thousands of circumstances rclatin"- to different questions, which increase or diminish the evidence we have concern- ing them, and that in matters botli of reason and revelation. I believe, tiiore is a God, and that obedience is due to him from every reasonable creature. Of this, I am most fully assured, because I have the strongest evidence, since it is the plain dictate both of reason and revelation. Again, 1 believe, there will be a future resurrection of the dead ; because scripture tells us so in the plainest terms, though reason says nothing of it. I believe also, that the same matter of our bodies, which died, in part at least, will rise. But I am not so fully assured of this cir- cumstance ; because the revelation of it is not so cleap and express. Yet further, I believe, that good men, who were acquainted here on earth, will know each other in heaven. But my persuasion of it is not absolutely certain ; because my assent to it arises only from circumstantial reasonings of men upon what God has told us ; and therefore, my evi- dences are not strong, beyond a possibility of mistake. Whafif we must act immedi.Ttely ? ! decrees of assent 1 In proportion to what, sliould al- | VVhot does reason say respecting ways be our assent ? | the resurrection ol the body 1 Why may tliere be a great many | 17* 198 OF DETEUMIMNG A QUESTION. This direction cannot be too often repeated, that our assent ought always to keep pace with our evidence ; and our belief of any proposition, should never rise higher, than the proof or evidence Ve have, to support it ; nor should our faith run faster, tlian right reason can encourage it. XXIV. Perhaps it will be objected here, " Why then does our Savior, in the histories of the gospel, so much commend a strong faith, and lay out both his miraculous benefits and his praises upon some of those poor creatures of little reasoning, who orofest an asspred belief of his commission and power to lieal them ?" I answer, the God of nature has given every man his own reason, to judge of evidence to himself in particular, and to direct his assent in all things, about which he is called to judge; and even the matters of revelation* are to be be- lieved by us, because our reason pronounces the revelation to be true. Therefore, the great God will not, or camiot in any instance, require us to assent to any thin^, without reasonable or sufficient evidence ; nor to believe any proposition more strongly, than our evidence .for it will support. We have, therefore, abundant ground to be- lieve, that those persons, of whom our Savior requires such a strong faith, or whom he commends for their strong faith, iiad as strong and certain evidence of liis power ana commission, from the credible and incontestable reports thoy had heard of his miracles ; wiiich were wrought, on purpose to give evidence to his commission. When our Savior gently reproves Thomas for his unbelief, in .lohn20: y9, he does" it in these words ; " Because thou hast seen me, Thomas, thou hast believed ; blessed are they, who have not seen, and yet have believed ;" tliat is, blessed are they, wiio, though they have not been favored with the evidence of their senses, as thou hast been, yet have been convinced by tlie reasonable and sufficient moral evidence of tli« well-grounded report of others, and have believed in mo iij)nn that evidence. Of this moral evidence, Mr. Ditton writes fxcpcdiiigly well, in his book on tiie Resurrection of Christ. Now in such a case, botli tliis strong faith and the open profession of it were very worthy of public en- Wlint ilireciion rnnrcrning nssent j est evidence, that Christ was able to can harilly iiv Ion ddcn rf|)e!itftl ! j heal. Of whom, iliil our .-^avior riM|iiirf 1 For what purpose, has fJod given Plron^failh? Tliose wlioiii he would j reason to every riuin 1 Ileal. j VVhy an: niatterD of revelation to What reason was there for «urh j be believed .' leqtiireuii-nt 1 There was lh«^ full ( OF DETERMINING A QUESTION. 19i) couragement and praise from our Saviour, because of the great and public opposition, which the magistrates and the priests and the doctors of the age made against Jesus, the man of Nazareth, wlien he appeared as the Messiah. And besides all this, it may be reasonably supposed, with regard to some of those strong exercises of faith, which are required and commended, that these believers had some further hints of inward evidence and immediate revelation Ironi God himself; as when Peter confesses Christ to be the Son of God, Matth. 16 : 17, our blessed Savior com- mends him, saying, " i31essed art thou Simon Bar-jona;" but he adds, " flesli and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father, who is in heaven.'.' And the same may be said concerning the faith of mira- cles, the exercise whereof was sometimes required of the disciples and otiicrs, that is, when by inward and divine influences, God assured them, such miracles should be wrought, their obedience to and compliance with these divine illuminations was expected and commended. Now tins supernatural mspiration, carried sufficient evidence with it to tliem, as well as to the ancient prophets, though we who never felt it are not so capable to judge and dis- tinguish it. XXV. What is said above concerning truth or doctrines, may be also affirmed concerning duties. The reason of both is the same. As the first are truths for our specula- tion, the others are truths for our practice. Duties, which are expressly required in the plain language of scripture, or dictated by the most evident reasoning upon first prin- ciples, ought to bind our consciences more than those, which arc but dubiously inferred, and that only from oc- casional occurrences, and circumstances ; as for instance, I am certain, tJiat 1 ought to pray to God. My conscience is bound to this, because there are most evident commands for it to be found in scripture, as well as to be derived from reason. I believe also, that I may pray to God, either by a written form, or without one ; because neither reason nor revelation expressly requires either of these modes of prayer at all times, nor forbids the other. I cannot, there- fore, bind my conscience to practise the one, so as utterly to renounce the other ; but I would practise cither of them, as my reason and other circumstances direct me. Wh^t (1(163 VVatt? sny of written forms of piaycr, an(3 of extemporane- ous ])r.i5'er ! 200 OF DETERMINING A qi,'E3TI0>. Affain, I believe, that Christians ought to remember the death of Christ, by the symbols of bread and wine ; and I believe, there ought to be pastors in a Christian church, some way ordained or set apart to lead the worship, and to bless aftd distribute the elements. But the last of these practices is not so expressly directed, prescribed and re- quired in scripture, as the former ; and therefore, I feel my conscience evidently bound to remember the deatii of Christ with some society of Cliristians or other, since it is a most plain command, thougli tiieir method of ordaining a pastor be very different from otlier men's, or from my own opinion ; or whether the person, wl)o distributes these elements, be only an occasional or a settled administrator ; since none of tlicse things arc plainly determined in scrip- ture. I must not omit or neglect an express command, because some unnecessary circumstances are dubious. And I trust, I shall receive approbation irom the God of nature, and from Jesus myjuclge at the last day, if I liave en- deavored in this manner to believe and practise every thing, in proportion to the degree of evidence, which God lias given mo about it, or which he has put me into a capacity to seek and obtain. Querw. VVliCther the obstinate Deists and Fatalists of Great Britain will find sufficient apology from this princi- ple ? But I leave tiiem to venture tlie awful experiment. XXVI. We may observe these tliree rules in judging of firobabilities, which are to bo determined by reason, re- ating either to things past, or tilings to come. 1. That, which agrees most with tlie constitution of nature, carries the greatest probability in it, where no other circumstance appears to counterpoise it ; 'as, if I let loose a greyhound within sight of a hare upon a large plain, there IS great probability tlie greyhound will seize her ; and that a tiiousand sparrows will fly away at tlic sight of a hawk among them. 2. That, which is most conformable to the constant ob- servations of men, or to expi-riineiitH frcriuentlv repeated, is most likely to be true; as that a winter will not pass awiiy in lOngland without some frost and snow ; tiiat if you deal out groat quantities of strong li(iuor to the mob, there will be many drunk ; that a large assenilily of men will be of difl'erent opinions on any doubtful jioint ; that a thief will make liis escape out of prison, if the doors of it are un- guarded at midnight. First rule forjudging of probabilitieH 1 Second rule i OF DETEKMINI.NG A qOESTION. 201 3. In matters of fact, which are past or present, where neither nature nor observation nor custom gives us any sufficient information on either side of the qdestion, there we may derive a probability from the attestation of wise and honest men by word or writing, or the concurring wit- ness of multitudes, who have seen and known what they relate, &c. This testimony in many cases will arise to the degree of moral certainty. So we believe, that the tea plant grows in China ; and that the emperor of the Turks lives at Constantinople ; that Julius Cesar conc^uered France, and jthat Jesus our Savior lived and died in Judea;"that thousands were converted to the Christian faith in a cen- tury after the death of Christ ; and that the books, which contain the Christian religion, are certain histories and epistles, which Avere written nearly two thousand years ago. There is an infinite variety of such propositions, wliicli can admit of no reasonable doubt, though they are not matters, which are directly evident to our own senses, or our mere reasoning powers. XXVII. When a point has been well examined, and our own judgment settled upon just arguments in our manly age, and after a large survey of the merits of the cause, it would be a weakness for us always to continue flattering in suspense. We ought, therefore, to stand firm in such well established principles, and not be tempted to change for the sake of every difficulty, or every occasional objection. We arc no^ to be carried about with every flying doctrine, like children tossed to and fro, and wavering with the wind. It is a good thing to have the heart established with grace, not with meats ; that is, in the great doctrines of the gospel of grace and in Jesus Christ, who is the same yesterday, to day and forever. But it is not so necessary in the more minute matters of religion, such as meats and drinks, forms and ceremonies, which are of less importance, and for which, scripture has not given such eicpress diMKtions, This is the advice of the great apostle, Eph. 4 : llf Heb. 13 : 8, 9. In short, those truths, which are the springs of daily practice, should be settled, as soon as we can with the exercise of our best powers, after the state of manhood. But those things, wherein we may possibly mistake, should Third rule, when neither nature J When would it be a weakness in nor observation gives us any suffi- | us, to feel in suspense respecting cient information 1 \ our opinion ? To what, does probability from | What of truths, relating to daily testimony often rise ? | practice 1 202 OF INQUIRINQ INTO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. never be so absolutely and finally established, as though we were infallible. If the Papists of Great Britain had maintained such a resolute estaolishment and assurance in the days of king Henry VIII, or queen Elizabeth, there never nad been a reformation ; nor would any Heathen have been converted even under the ministry of Paul, if their obstinate settlement in their idolatries had kept their eyes shut against all further light. Yet this should not hinder us from settling our most important principles of faith and practice, where reason shines with its clearest evidence ; and the word of God plainly determines trutli and duly. XXVII. But let us remember also, that though the gos- pel is an infallible revelation, we are but fallible interpre- ters, when we determine the sense even of some important propositions written there ; and therefore, though we seem to be established in tlie belief of any particular sense of scripture, and though there may be just calls of providence to profess and subscribe it, yet there is no need, that we should resolve or promise, subscribe or swear never to change our mind ; since it is possible in the nature and course of things, we may meet with such a solid and sub- stantial objection, as may give us a quite different view of things from what we once imagined, and may lay before us sufficient evidence of the contrary. We may happen to find a fairer light cast over the same scriptures, and see reason to alter our sentiments even in some points of mo- ment. Sic sentio, sentiam, tliat is. So I believe, and so 1 will believe, is the prison of the soul for life, and a bar against all the improvements of the mind. To impose such a profes- sion on other men in matters not absolutely necessary, and not absolutely certain, is' a criminal usurpation and tyranny over faith and conscience, and which none has power to require but an infallible dictator. CHAPTER XIX. OF IIVqUIRING INTO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. Some effects are; found out by their causes ; and some Oauscs, by their effects. Lot ua consider both these. I. When wo are inquiring into the causes of any par- Why nhnnid \vn not promise never j lion, So I hrlime, and.io IioiUbelimel to change our opinion 1 i VVIint is it to iinpoRe such a pio- What does he sny or the declnra- J TcsNlnn on others/ OF INQUIRING INTO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. 203 ticular effect or appearance, either in the world of nature, in the civil or moral concerns of men, we may follow this method ; 1. Consider, what effects or appearances you have known of a kindred nature, and what nave been the certain and real causes of them. For like effects have generally like causes, especially, when they are found in the same sort of subjects. 2. Consider, what are the several possible causes, which may produce such an effect ; and -find out by some circum- stances, how many of those possible' causes are excluded in this Articular cause. Thence proceed by degrees, to the probable causes, till a more close attention and inspec- tion shall exclude some of them also, and lead you gradual- ly to the real and certain cause. 3. Consider, what things preceded such an event or ap- pearance, which might have any influence upon it; and though we cannot certainly determine the cause of any thing merely from its going before the effect, yet among the many forerunners, we may probably light upon the true cause, by further and more particular inquiry. 4. Consider, whether one cause be sufficient to produce the effect, or whether it does not require a concurrence of several causes ; and then endeavor, as far as possible, to adjust the degrees of influence, that each cause might have in producing the effect, and the proper agency and influence of each. So in natural philosophy, if I would find, what are the principles or causes of that sensation, which we call heat, when I stand near the fire ; here I sliall find it is necessary, that there be an agency of the particles of fire on my flesh, either mediately by themselves, or at least by the interme- 'diato air ; there must be a particular sort of motion and vellication imprest upon my nerves ; there must be a com- munication of that motion to the brain ; and there must be an attention of my soul to this motion. If either of these is wanting, the sensation of heat will not be produced. So m the moral world, if I inquire into the revolution of a state or kingdom, perhaps I find it brought about by tlie tyranny or folly of a prince, or by the disaffection of his In ascertainiiiff fho causes of ef- \ Fourth thing to he considered ? fects, whnt is the first thing to be \ Can yon mention some of tfie considered 1 J causes, th.1t may produce the revolu- Second thing, to be considered 1 ! tion of a kingdom? Tllird thing ti. be considered '* \ 204 OF INqUIRI-NG I.\TO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. own subjects ; and this disaffection and opposition may arise, either on account of impositions in religion, or in- juries relating to their civil riohts ; or the revolution may be effected by the invasion ot a foreign army, or by the opposition of some person at home or abroad, tbat lays claim to the government, &c. or a hero, who would guard the liberties of the people ; or by many of these concurring together. Then we must adjust the influences of each, "as wisely as we can, and not ascribe the whole event to one alone, 11. When we are inquiring into the effects of anv particu- lar cause or causes, we may follow this method ;9 1. Consider diligently the nature of every cause apart, and observe, what effect every part or property of it will tend to produce. 2. Consider the causes united together in their several natures, and ways of operation ; inquire how far the powers or properties of one will hinder or promote the eflects of the other, and wisely balance the proportions of the influ- ence. 3. Consider, what the subject is, upon winch the cause is to operate ; for the same cause on different subjects will often produce different effects, as the sun, whicli softens wax, will Irarden clay. 4. JjO frc(iucnt and diligent in niuking all proper experi- ments, in setting such causes at work, whose effects you desire to know, and patting togetlier in an orderly manner, sucli things, as are most likely to produce some useful effects, according to the best survey you can take of all the concurring causes and circumstances. 5. Observe carefully all tiie events, which happen either by an occasional concurrence of various causes, or by the industrious application of knowing men ; and wjien you see any happy effect certainly produced and often repeated, treasure it up, togetlier with its known causes, among your improvements. (). Take a just survey of all tlic circumstances, which attend the operation of any cause or causes, wiicrcby any special effect is produced, and fmd out, as far as possible, how far any of tliose circumstances had a tendency either to obstruct or prouKjte or change tlio^e operations, and con- eequently, how far the effrct miglit be influenced by them. ■ V ^"""—^ WlicM we. aio imiiiirinc i'll" 'Ik* j Wlint does He reroinnifliiil in the cflTcrls (if causes, wliiil is llie rn.''t j foiirlli iilnre 1 IhiiiRtd liPcoiuiilori;iH— llifiiiM:(iii(l ? j Do yon iltoIIoi-I any other pni. —the iLtrd f i ticiilurH timii-r lliia general head ! OF INQCIRING INTO CAUSES AND EFFECTS. '^05 In this manner, physicians practise, and improve their skill. They consider the various known effects of particu- lar herbs or drugs ; they consider, what will be the effect of their composition, and whether the virtues of the one will exalt or diminish the force of the other, or correct any of its noxious qualities. Then they observe the native constitution, and the present temper or circumstances of the patient, and what is likely to be the effect of such a medicine on such a patient. And in all uncommon cases, they make wise and cautious experiments, and nicely ob- serve the effects of particular compound medicines on dif- ferent canstitutions, and in different diseases ; and by these treasures of just observation, they grow up to an honorable^ degree of skill in the art of healing. So tlie preacher considers the doctrines and reasons, the precepts, the promises and threatenings of the word of God, and what are the natural effects of them upon the mind ; he considers, what is the natural tendency of such a virtue or vice ; he is well apprised, that the representation of some of these things may convince the understanding, some may terrify the conscience, some may allure the slothful, and some encourage the desponding. He observes the temper of his hearers, or of any particular person that converses with him about things sacred, and he judges, what will be the effects of each representation on such persons. He reviews and recollects, what have been the effects of some special parts and methods of his ministry ; and by a careful survey of all these, he attains greater degrees of skill in his sacred employment. JVpie, In all these cases, we must distinguish those causes and effects, which are naturally and necessarily con- nected M-ith each other, from those, which have only an accidental or contingent connection. Even in those causes, where the effect is but contingent, we may sometimes arrive at a very higli degree of probability ; yet we cannot arrive at such certainty, as where the causes operate by an evident and natural necessity, and the effects necessarily follow the operation. See more on this subject, Logic Part II. Chap. V. Sect 7. " Of the principles and rules of judging concerning things past, present and to come, by the mere use of reason." In wliiit inniitier, do physicians i tlial a preaclier slicjuld tousider, reason in relaiinn to Uieir patientel ! wlieii he would produce an effect Meaning of ;)n((>H(j-, as here usefi ? S upon liis hearers? What do physii ians sometimes do | What, does* Watts say, we most in nncommon rases ? i distinguish in all these cases I Can you mention some things, j IS y06 Of THE SCIEjyCES, AND THEIR DSB. CHAPTER XX. OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE IN PARTICnLAR PROFESSIONS. I. The best way to learn any science, is to begin with a regular system, or a short and plain scheme of that science, well drawn up into a narrow compass, omitting the deeper and more abstruse parts, and that also under the conduct and instruction of some skilful teacher. Systems are neces- sary to give an entire and comprehensive view of the several parts of any science, which may liave a mutual influence toward the explication or proof of each other; whereas if a man deals alwavs and only in essays and dis- courses on particular parts ot a science, he will never ob- tain a distinct and just idea of tlie whole, and may perhaps omit some important part of il, ailer se.ven years reading of such occasional discourses. For this reason, young students should apply themselves to their systems much more than to pamphlets. That man is never so fit to judge of particular subjects relating to any science, who lias never taken a survey of the whole. It is a remark of an ingenious writer, " Sliould a barba- rous Indian, who iiad never seen a palace or a sliip, view their separate and disjointed parts, and observe the pillars, doors, wmdows, cornices and turrets of the one, or tlie prow and stern, the ribs and masts, the ropes and slu-ouds, the sails and tackle of the otiier, ho would be able to form but a very lame and dark i(!<'a of eillior of those excellent and useful inventions. In lilu; m;iniier, thos(>, who contemplate only tlie fragments or pieces liroken olf from any science, dispersed in short unconnecU'd discourses, and do not dis- cern their relation to each otiier, and iiow they may be adapted, and by their union, procure the deiigntful sym- Wilh what, Hliriiilil wCES, AlfD THEIR USE. marks, adjoined bv way of note or commentary in their proper places, and superadded to the regular treatise we have read. Then a studious and judicious review of the whole, will give us a tolerable acquaintance with tliat science. III. It is a great happiness to have such a tutor, or such friends and companions at hand, who are able to inform us, what are the best books, written on any science, or any part of it. For want of this advantage, many a man lias wasted his time in reading over petliaps some whole vol- umes, and learnt little more by it, than to know, that tliose volumes were not worth his reading. IV. As for the languages, they are certainly best learned in the younger years of life. The memory is then most empty and unfurnished, and ready to receive new ideas continually. We find that children in two year's time after they are born, learn to speak their native tongue. V. The more abstract sciences, which depend more upon the understanding and judgment, and which deal much in abstract ideas, should not he imposed upon children too Boon. Such are logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, or the Grand advantage of conversin-; with superiors'? — with equals'? It allows us the most favorable oppor- tunity for discussion, and free con- versation. Advanlaceof s\irli disrnssion "? It is an exercirie, most invigorating to the mind, and peculiarly calculated to Increase and familiarize our ac- quaintance with the subject. Advantage of conversing with in- feriors? it is pei.uli..rly fitted to give us a clear, distinct and familiar view of the first principles ; and must always gives us new ideas upon the suhjcct. VN'lien does Watts think the best time for learning languages? — Why ? What seems much more impor lant for children, than loading tjieir memories with languages ? 'I'o teach them their own language, to teach them the llihie, the history of their own country, and of others, most Intimately conricrted, fic. &.c. Why is it very important for chil- dren to attend to these things 1 Deeply to impress them upon llieir tender minds, to improve their larul ties, and 'o prepare them for use- (\jlncHH and for heaven. When should they attend to other Inngiiaees.' At a later period, if they have a prospect of lindingthem particularly useful. Why do many wish to learn, or to have their children learn, other lan- guages ? More perhaps for the name of it, than for any thing else? What is often the effect of trying to learn languages and a multitude of other branches ? Nothing is learnt well. Caution respecting the study of the deep sciences 1 When may children learn some- thing of the rudiments of these sci- ences? Very young. How soon does a child begin to reason, or to practise logic 1 As soon as he can speak. How soon does he know some- thing about mathematics 1 As soon as he knows the meaning of the word one. How soon does he know some- thing about metaphysics ? As soon as he knows the meaning of any such words, as pnm, aehc, glad, sorry, am, &c. What is the way to make a child very great in llies* sctencos.' To OF THE SCIENCES. AND THEIR CSE. 209 depth and difficulties of grammar and criticism. Yet it must be confessed, -the hrst rudiments of grammar af'e necessary, and very convenient to be known, when a youth learns a new language; and some general easy principles and rules of morality and divinity are needful, in order to teach a child his duty to God and man. But to enter far into abstract reasonings on these subjects, is beyond the capacity of children. • VI. There are several of tlie sciences, that will more agreeably employ our younger years, and the general parts 01 them may be easily known by boys ; as the first princi- ples and easier practices of arithmetic, geometry, plain trigonometry, measurinij heights, depths, lengths, distances, &c. The rudiments oi geometry and astronomy, together with something of mechanics, may be easily conveyed into the minds of acute young persons, nine or ten years old. These studies may be entertaining and useful to young ladies, as well as to gentlemen, and to all those, v/ho are bred up to the learned professions. The fair sex may in- termingle those with the operations of the needle, and the knowledire of domestic life. Boys may be taught to join tliem with their rudiments of grammar, and their labor in the languages. And even those, who never learn any lan- guage, but their mother-tongue, may be taught these sci- ences, with hlsting benefit in early days. That this may be done with ease and advantage, take these three reasons ; 1. Because they depend so much upon schemes and numbers, images, lines and figures and sensible things, that the imagination or fancy will greatly assist the understand- ing, and render the knowledge of them much more easy'. 2. These studies are so pleasant, that they will make the dry labor of learning words, phrases and languages more 'tolerable to boys in a Latin school, by this most agree- able mixture. The employment of youth in these studies will tempt them to neglect many of the foolish plays of childhood ; and they will find sweeter entertainment for themselves and their leisure hours by a cultivation of these pretty pieces of alluring knowledge. 3. The knowledge of these parts of science is both easy begin with him veryyoiins, to teach i children 9 or 10 years old. him such parts, as he can clearly | With what other pursuits, may understand, and let him frradnally ! females unite these studies ? advance to the more difficult parts. | What useless operations may these Mention some of the studies, that j studies induce children to neglect? Watts thinlta, mav be pursued by { 18* 210 OF THE SCIENCES, AAD THEIR USE. and worthy to be retained in memory, by all children, when they come to miinly years ; for they are useful tlirough all the parts of human life. They tend to enlarge the under- standing early, and to give a various acquaintance with useful subjects betimes. And surely it is best, as far as possible, to train up cliildren in tlie knowledge of those tilings, which they should never forget, ratlier than to let them waste years of Ijfe on trifles, ot hard words, which are not worth remembering. And here by the way, I cannot but wonder, that any author in our age should attempt to teach any of the ex- ploded physics of Descartes, or the nobler inventions of Sir Isaac Newton in his hypothesis of the heavenly bodies and their motions, in his doctrine of light and colors, and other parts of his physiology, or to instruct children in the knowledge of the theory of the heavens, earth and planets, without any figures or diagrams. Is it possible to give a boy or a young lady, the clear,, distinct and proper appre- hensions of these things, without lines and figures to de- scribe them ? Does not their understanding want the aid of fancy and images, to convey stronger and juster ideas of them to the inmost soul ? Or do they imagine, tiiat youtli can penetrate into all these beauties and artifices of nature, without those helps, which persons of maturer age find necessary for that purpose ? I would not M-illingly name the books; because some of the writers are said to be gen- tlemen of excellent acquirements. VII. After we have first learnt any of those arts or sciences, which are to bo explained by diagrams, figures and schemes, such as geometry, geograpliy, astronomy, optics, mechanics, &c. we may best preserve them in me- mory, by having those scliemes and figures in large sheets of paper, hanging always before the eye in closets, narlors, iialls, chambers, entries, staircases, &,c. Thus the learned hnages will bn perpetually imprest on the brain, and will keep the learning, thiit dejieiicls upon them alive nnd fresh m the mind, througii the growing years of life. The mere diagrams ;uid fiirures will ever recall to our thouglits tliose llieorenis, ])n)l)lems and corollaries, which have been de- monstrated by them. When iH n knowledge of these 1 uoeriil? In sluiliea relating to vlal- bmnrhfi' usel'iil ? } ble objects. In the knowledpe of what tliin);R, | M1 j Knsiest method of preserving u In what studies, lire dinerains and | knowledge of liiose branrhen? other viaitile reproHentulioiis very j OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 21l It ia incredible, how much geography may be learnt in this way, by the two terrestrial hemispheres, and by par- ticular maps and' charts of the coasts and countries oi the earth, happily disposed round about us. Thus we may learn also the constellations by just projections of the celestial sphere, hung up in tlie same manner. And I must confess, for the bulk of learner? of astronomy, I like that projection of the stars best, which includes all the stars in our horizon, and therefore it reaches to the 38 l-'i degree of southern latitude, though its center is the north-pole. This gives us a better view of the heavenly bodies, as they appear every night to us, and it may be made use of with a little instruction, and with ease, to serve for a nocturnal, and shew the true hour of the night. But remember, that if there be any coloring upon tliesc maps or projections, it should be laid on so thin, as not to obscure or conceal any part of the lines, figures or letters ; whereas most times they are daubed so thick with gay and glaring colors, and hung up so high above the reach of the eye, that should survey and read them, as though their only design were to make a gaudy show upon the wall, and they hung there merely to cover the naked plaster or wainscot. Those sciences, which may be drawn out into tables may also be hung up, and disposed in proper places, such as brief abstracts of history, chronology, &c. and indeed, the schemes of any of the arts or sciences may be analysed in a sort of skeleton, and represented upon tables, with the various dependences and connections of their several parts and subjects, that belong to them. Mr. Solomon Lowe has happily thrown the grammar of several languages into such tables ; and a frequent review of those abstracts would tend much to imprint them on the brain, when they jiave been once well learned ; this would keep those 'learned traces always open, and assist the weakness of a laboring memory. In this manner, may a scheme of scripture history be drawn out, and perpetuate those ideas in the mind, with which our daily reading furnishes us. VIII. 'Every man, who pretends to the character of a scholar, should attain some general idea of most or all the sciences; for there is a certain comioction among the vari- ous parts of human knowledge, so that some notions bor- rowed from any one science, may assist our acquaintance with any other, either by way of explication, illustration or What direction does he give for i Who should gain sotne idea of coloring maps, &.C. .' . \ most of the sciences.' — VVhyl i' 21^ OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. proof; though there are some sciences conjoined by a much nearer affinity than others. IX. Let those parts of every science be chiefly studied at first, and reviewed afterwards, which have a more direct tendency to assist our profession as men, or our general profession as Christians, always observing what we our- selves liave found most necessary and useful to us in the course of our lives. Age and experience will teach us to judge, which of the sciences, and which parts of thcni, have been of greatest use, and most valuable ; but in younger years, wo are not sufficient judges of this matter, and there- fore, should seek advice from others. X-. There arc three learned professions among us, name- ly, divinity, law and medicine. Though every man, who pretends to be a scholar or a gentleman, should so far acquaint liimself with all the sciences, as not to stand amazed, like a more stranger, at the mention of the common subjects, that belong to them ; yet there is no necessity for every man of learning to enter into their difficulties, and deep recesses, nor to chmb the heights, to which some others iiave risen. The knowledge of tliem in a proper measure, may be ha])pily useful to every profession, not only because all arts and sciences have a sort of communion and connec- tion with each other, but it is an angelic pleasure to grow in knowledge ; it is a matter of honor and esteem, and ren- ders a man more agreeable and acceptable in every com- pany. But let ns survey several of them more particularly, with regard to the learned professions ; and first, of the mathe- matics. XI. Though I have so often commended mathematical studies, and particularly tlie speculations of arithmetic and geometry, as a means to fix a wavering mind, to produce a habit of attention, and to improve the faculty of reason ; yet I would by no means, be understood to reconnnend to all, a pursuit of these sciences to those extensive lengths, to which llu! moderns jiave advanced them. This js neither ncc-cssary nor proper for any students but those few who What parts of earli BciKPre uliniild we more particularly Htiuly ami re- view 1 What will teach iis l« know these parts 1 How sliall youiii pcrnotM know 1 What are the three lenriicd pro (69910118 ' Who Khcmlil have some general arciuaiiilaiico with eaili of thti»o 1 Whom xviiiilil WaltH ailvise to sliiciv iiiallioni.ilii'!' ilceply 1 Why should nol persons in general study mallieunlics d'-eply ? 'I'lie; have not time j and if tliey had MOV OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 213 shall make these studies their chief profession and business of life, or those gentlemen whose capacities and turn of raind are suited to these studies, and have ail manner of advantage to improve in them. The general principles of arithmetic, algebra, geometry and trigonometry, of geography, of modern astronomy, mechanics, statics and optics, have their valuable and ex- cellent uses, not only for the exercise and improvement of the faculties of the mind ; but the subjects themselves are very well worth our knowledge in a moderate degree, and are often made of admirable service in life. So much of these subjects, as Dr. Wells has given us in his tiiree vol- umes, entitled, 'The Young Gentleman's Mathematics,' is richly snlKcient for the greatest part of scholars or gentle- men ; though perhaps there may be some single treatises, at least, on some of these subjects, which may be better written, and more useful to be perused, than those of that learned author. ' But a penetration into the abstruse difficulties and depths of modern algebra and fluxions, the various methods of quadratures, the mensuration of all kinds of curves, and their mutual transformation, and twenty other things, that some modern mathematicians deal in, are not worth the labor of those, who design cither of the three learned professions, as the business of life. This is the sentence of a consider- able man, namely, Dr George Cheyne, who was a very good proticient and wrijLer on these subjects. He affirms, that they are but barren and airy studies for a man entirely to live upon, and that for a man to indulge and riot in these exquisitely bewitching contemplations, is only proper for public professors, or for gentlemen of estates, v/ho have a strong propensity this way, and a genius fit to cultivate them. " But," says he, " to own a great but grievous truth, though they may quicken and sharpen tne invention, strengthen and extend the imagination, improve and refine the reasoning faculty, and are of use both in the necessary and the luxurious refinement of mechanical arts ; yet hav- ing no tendency to rectify the will, to sweeten the temper, or mend the heart, they often leave a stiffness, a positive- ness and sufficiency on weak minds, which is much more pernicious to society, and to the interests of the great end would prohaWy be more injurious i Would it not very much strength- than useful. \ en and improve tlieii minds 1 Pripon all the objects of thought, by ranging every being with all the absolute and relative perfections and properties, modes and attendants of it, in proper ranks or classes, iinu thereby it discovers the various relations of things to each other, and what are their general or special diff'ereiicos, wherein a great part of human knowledge con- sists. Aii'd by tliis means, it greatly conduces to instruct us in method, or tlu; disposition of every thing into its proper rank and class of l)eings, attributes or actions. XVI. If I Mere to say any tiling of natural philosophy, I would vpiitnrc to lay down my sentiments tiius ; I think, it must n;ieds be very useful to a divine to un- derstand something of natural science. The mere natural What has cnndncod to bring Ingir, and metnphysic!! into contempt 1 Wh.it hiive hoi-n minplod with those UHefiil p:irlH of !i!.irriin(»1 VVIiat have Boine ronsidcrcd a more valiiiihle lnle;ii, Ui.in lo iiiidcr- Wliat objects receive light from iiietaphyHJcsl VVIiat natural history does Wattfl include in natural philosophy, or natural wcionco ? 'I'u what, is natural philosophy dersiand tlifin 1— Meaniric oCrd//?/ 7 ! (;rn('rnlly ci>nlin(Ml 1 To inanimate Into wliat, does logic lirliiR llplit 1 j and nnorgani/.ed matter. OF THK SCIENCES, AMD THEIR USE. 217 liistory of birds, beasts and fislies, of insects, trees and f)lants, as well as of meteors, such as clouds, thunders, ightnings, snow, hail, frost, &c. in all their common or un- common appearances, may be of consid(3rable use to one who studies divinity, to give him a wider and more delight- ful view of the M'orks of Clod, and to, furnish him with lively and happy images and metaphors, drawn from the large volume ot nature, to display and represent the things of (Jod and religion in tiie most beautiful and aliecting colors. And if the mere history of these things is useful for this purpose, surely it will be of further advantage to be led into the reasons, causes and effects of these natural objects and aopearances, and to know the established laws of nature, matter and motion, whereby the great God has car- ried on his extensive works of providence from the Ration to this day. I confess, the old Aristotelean scheme of this science, will teach us very little, that is wortli knowing ; but the later writers, who have explained nature and its operations in a more sensible and geometrical manner, are well worth the moderate study of a divine ; especially of those, who have followed the principles of that wonder of our age and nation. Sir Isaac Newton. There is much pleasure and entertainment, as well as real profit, to be derived from those admirable improvements, which have been advanced in natural philosophy of late years, by the assistance of mathematical learning as well as from the multitude of ex- periments, which have been made, and are still making, in natural subjects. XVII. This IS a science, which indeed eminently be- longs to the physician. He ought to know all the parts of human nature, what are the sound and healthy functions of an animal body, and what are the distempers and dangers which attend it ; he should also be furnislied with a large knowledge of plants and minerals, and every thing, which makes up the materia mcdica, or the ingredients of which medicines are made ; and many other things in natural philosophy are subservient to his profession, as well as to the kindred art of surgery. Meaninjj of inanimate! — o( uiior- i More extensive sense of the word ganizcdl \' Zo-olvgij7 Tlie science, that treats What science treats of beasts? \ of all irrntiona! animals. Zo-olnpy. — Of birds'? Ornitliology. \ What advantage may divines and — Of insects'! Entomolosiy. — Uf | persons in (.'enoral, derive from some fishes'? Ichthyology. — Of vegeta- \ acquaintance with natnral history 1 ties'? Botany. 5 What science eminently Uelungs Meaning of ijiscft? — ot vegetable '\ \ to the physician 1 11) '218 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. XVIII. Questions about the powers and operations of nature, may also sometimes come into the lawji^er's cog- nizance, especially such, as relate to assaults, wounds, murders, &c. I remember, I have read a trial of a man for murder by drowning, wherein the judge on the bench heard several arguments concerning the lungs being filled or not filled with water, by inspiration or expiration, &c. to all which, he professed himself so much a stranger, as did not do him any great honor in public. XIX. But I think, no divine, who can obtain it, should be utterly destitute of this knowledge. By the assistance of this study, he will be better able to survey the various monuments of creating wisdom in the heavens, the earth and the seas, u'ith wonder and worship ; and by the use of a mod#ate skill in this science, he may communicate so much information of the astonishing works of God in the formation and government of tliis visible world, and so far instruct many of his hearers, as may assist the transfusion of the same ideas into their minds, and raise them to the same delightful exercises of devotion. "O Lord, how manifold are thy works ! In wisdom, hast thou made them all ! They are sought out by all that have pleasure in them." Besides, it is worthy of the notice of every student in theology, that he ouglit to have some acquaintance with the principles of nature, that lie may judge, how far they will go ; so tliat he may not 1)C imposed upon, to take every strange appearance in nature for a miracle ; that he may reason the clearer upon tliis subject, that he may better confirm the miracles of Moses and of Clirist, nor yield up lii.s faith to any pretences to prodigies and wonders, which are either tlic occasional and uncommon opera- tions of the elements, or the cratly sleights of men, well skilled in jjhilosophy and mechanical operations, to delude the simple. XX. The knowledge also of animal nature and of the rational soul of man, and the mutual influence of these two Why slidiild divines know souk;- j Hcst writfr ii|>(in inciitnl pliiloso- thing of till! aiiiinal uiiU ruliunal ! pliy ^ I'lcjlialily VVaUa. nature ject .' Ncplecl of the Ililile. { In what, is every branch of na- Why is tlie Bible the bfSt source ! tiiial rclicion and yioral duty cou of information, respectinji the bu- \ taiiied and implied 1 220 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. tained, and necessarily implied in revealed religion. We may well suspect, that religion does not come from God, which renounces any part of natural duty. Whether mankind live under the dispensation of the patriarchs or of Moses or the prophets or of our Lord Jesus Christ, still we are bound toknow the one true God, and to practise all that adoration and reverence, all that love to him, that faith in his perfections, with that obedience and submission to his will, which natural religion requires. We are stiil bound to exercise that justice, truth and good- ness towards our neighbors, tliat restraint and moderation of our own appetites and passions, and that regular be- havior toward ourselves and all our fellow-creatures around us, which moral philosophy teaches. There is no sort of revealed religion, that will dispense with these natural obligations ; and a happy acquaintance with the several appetites, inclinations and passions of human nature, and the best methods to rule and restrain, to direct and govern them, are our constant business, and ought to be our ever- lasting study. ' Yet I would lay down this caution, namely, that since students are instructed in the knowledge of the true God, in tijeir lectures on Christianity, and since among the Chris- tian duties, they are also taught all the moral dictates of the light of nature, or a complete scheme of etliics, there is no absolute necessity of learning these two parts of natural religion, as distmct sciences, separate and by them- selves ; but still, it is of great miportance for a tutor, while he is reading to his pupils these parts of the Ciiristian reli- gion, to give tiicm notice, how far tlie light of nature or mere reason will instruct us in these doctrines and duties, and how far we are obliged to divine revelation and scrip- ture, for clearing up and estal)]isliing the firm foundation of the one, for aflording us suix'rior motives and jiowers to practisp the otlicr, for raising them to more exalteu degrees, and buiMinff so glorious a superstructure upon iheni. XX III. The study of natural religion, namely, the knowl- edge of God, and the rules of virtue and piety, as far as they are discovered by the light of nature, is needful indeed to prove; tlie truth of divine; revelation or scrij)ture, in the most effectual manner. Hut alter the divine nuthority of scripture is established, that will be a very sufficient spring, V\'liy in it not .■ilisiiliil('ly norp« | What hIikIv Ih jirevioiisly necon- sfiry li) stmly natur.il rcli((i \ What does Puffendoif call this From what, did the Uonians take J law 1 222 OF THE SCIENCES, AND TUEIR U3E. that most valuable folio, he has Avrilten on the subject; which is well worthy the study of every man of learnmg, particularly lawyers and divines, together with other trea- tises on the same theme. If any question proposed relate to right and property, and justice between man and man, in any polite and civilized country, though it must be adjudged chiefly according to the particular statutes and laws of that country, yet- tiie knowledge of the law of nature will very considerably assist the lawyer and the civU judge in determination. And this knowledge will be of great use to divines, not only in deciding cases of conscience among men, and answering any dilHcult enquiries, which ma^' be proposed to them on this subject, but it will greatly assist them also in their studies relating to the law of God, and the performance or violation of it, tiie nature of duty and sm, reward and punishment. XXVI. I have spoken something of the languages be- fore ; but let me here resume the subject, and put in a few thoughts about those studies, whicii are wont to be called philological ; such as history, languages, grammar, rhetoric, poesy and criticism. An acquaintimce with some of the learned languages at least, is necessary for all the three learned professions. XXVII. The lawyers, who have the least need of foreign tongues, ought to understand Latin. During many agesj very important matters in the law were always written and managed in that language by the lawyers, as prescriptions in mcdicme by the physicums, ancf citations of the scrip- tures in divinity were always made in J.atin by the divines. Prayers also were ordained to be said ])ublicly and private- ly in the Roman tongue. P a tor- n osiers niid Ave-marias were half tiie devotion of tliose ages. These cruel im- positions upon the people, would not suffer them to read in their own mother toMgu(>, what was done, either to or for llieir own souls, their bodins or their estates. I am ready to suspect, this was all owing to the craft and policy of the priesthood and church of Rome, who endeavorctf to ag- grandize theniselves, and e,\alt tlieir own profession into a sovereign tyranny, and to make mere slaves of the laity, by How will .1 knowledge oftliU law fy ? The LoripH prayer. asHlst (llviiie.s I.ller^il incnning of paternoster? rjiir nulinr. Wliut l3 tlic phrano usnd to signi Me;uiiiin of nvr.-.Mnrial Ilnll, Mary.— Usfd to Bicnify 1 An ad- dress to tha virgin Mary. OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 223 keeping them in utter ignorance, darkness and dependence. And tliey were willing to compound the matter with the physicians and the laywers, and allow them a small share in this tyranny over the populace, to maintain their own supreme dominion over all. But, we thank God, the world has grown somewhat wiser ; and oi' late years, the British Parliament has been pleased to give relief from that bondage in matters relating to the law also, as in the age of the Reformation, we were de- livered from saying- our prayers in Latin, from being bound to read the word of God in a tongue unknown to the peo- ple, and from living in an everlasting subjection to the clergy in matters of this life and the lif^o come. But to return. There are still so many forms of proceed- ings in judicature, and things called by Iiatin names in the profession of the law, and so many barbarous words with Latin terminations, that it is necessary,, lawyers should understand this language. Some acquaintance also with the old i'Vench tongue, is needful for the same persons and profession, since tiie tenures of Lyttleton, which are a sort of Bible to tiie gentlemen of tbe long robe, were Avritten in that language ; and this tongue has been interwoven in some forms of the ihiglish law, from the days of William the Conqueror, who came from Normandy in France. XXVIII. Physicians should be skilled in the Greek, as well as in the Latin ; because their great master Hippocra- tes wrote in that tongue, and his writings arc still of good value and use. A multitude of the names, both of the parts of the body, of diseases, and of medicines, are derived from the Greek language ; and there are many excellent books of physic both, in the tlieoretical and practical parts of it, which arc delivered to the world in the Roman tongue, and of which that profession should not be ignorant. XXIX. Such, as intend the study of tlieology, should be well acquainted also with the Latin, because it has been for many hundred years the language of the schools of learning. Their disputations are generally limited to that language, and many excellent books of divinity must be entirely concealed from the students, unless they are ac- quainted with Latin authors. But those, that design the sacred profession of theology, should make it their labor of cliief importance to be con- versant with their Bibles, both in the Old and New Testa- Witli wliat book, sliniilU ministers be best acquaiiitedl 19** 234 OF TUE SCIEA'CKSj AND THEIR LTSE. ment ; and tliis requires some kno^vled^e of those original languages, Greek and Hebrew, in wTiicli the scriptures were written. All that will pursue tliese studies with honor, should be able to read the Old Testament tolerably in the Hebrew tongue ; at least, they should be so fur ac- quainted with it, as to find out the sense of a text, by the help of a lexicon. But scarcely any man should be thought worthy of the name of a solid divine or a skilful teacher of the gospel in these days of light and liberty, unless he has pretty good knowledge oftlie Greek; since all the impor- tant points of the Christian religion are derived' from the New Testament, which was first written in tliat language. XXX. As for i^ Syriac and Arabic tongues, if one divine in thirty or in three hundred, travel far into tliese regions, it is enough. A few learned men skilled in tliese languages, will make sufficient remarks upon them for the service of tlie whole Cliristian world; whicii remarks may sometimes happen to be of use to those divines, who are unacquainted witli them in reading the Bible. But the advantage of these tongues is not of so great importance, as it has been too often represented. My reader will agree with me, when he considers, that the chief uses of tlicm are these. The Arabic is a languaife which has some kindred and affinity to the Hebrew, ann perhaps we may now and then fjuess at the sense of some uncommon and doubtful He- brew word, which is found but once or twice in the Bible, by its supposed affinity to the Arabic. But wliatsoevcr conjectures may be made by some kindred of a Hcbre.v word to an Arabic root, yet there is no certainty to be gathered from it : for even words oftlie same language, which arc undoubtedly derived from the same theme or primitive, will give us but very doubtful and sorry infor- mation concerning the true sense of kindred words, whicli spring- from the same root. Let me give a plnin instance or two of this uncertninty. The word slidf^cs signifies shiughter; slratuin is liatui for a bf'd ; slrnmcn is straw , and straij^nliun is a quilt or coverlet. They are nil drawn and derived from slcnw, which signifies to tlirow down, to kill, or to spread abroad. (ifit the critics sny, what certain sense they could put upon either of those four words by their mere cognation with Porriun IntiiriiaKuH, inn'it impnr- | (Ircfik, liettcr tlnn I!cl>ri'\v ? mm fur iiiiniHtiTSlo know 1— Why .' j Wli:it pmportion nf ininislrrg Why should a tiiiiiistcr know ) kIiuuIiI know ."yrinc and Arabict OF THE SCIEiVCES, AND THEIR USE. 225 each other, or their derivation from one common verb. Again, who could tell me tlie certain meaning and precise idea of the word honest in English, and assure me, that it signifies a man of integrity, justice and probity, though it is evidently derived from honestus in Latin ? whereas honestus has a very different idea, and signifies a man of some figure in the world, or a man of honor. Let any man judge, tnen, how little service toward explaining the Hebrew tongue can be furnished from all the language of Arabia. Surely a great part of the long, learned fatigues and tiresome travels of men through this country, is almost vain and useless, to make the Hebrew Bible better understood. As for the Syriac language, it is granted, there may be some small advantage drawn from the knowledge of it , because there is a very ancient translation of the New Testament in that tongue ; and perhaps this may sometimes give a proper and apposite meaning to a difficult and doubt- ful text, and offer a fair hint for recovering the true mean- ing of the scripture from the perverse glosses of other writers. But there are several commentators and lexicogra- phers, who have been acquainted with the Syriac language, and have given us the chief of these hints in their writings. And after all, since none of these assistances can yield us a sufficient proof of a true interpretation, and give us the certain sense of a text, who would be persuaded to waste any great number of his better hours in such dry studies, and in labors of so little profit? XXXL The Chaldean language indeed is much nearer to the Hebrew ; and it is proper for a divine to have some acquaintance with it, because there are several verses or chapters of Ezra and Daniel, which are written in that lan- guage ; and the oH Jewisli targums or commentaries, which are written in the Chaldean tongue, may sometimes happen to cast a little light upon a doubtful scripture of the Old Testament. But it must still be owned, that the knowledge of the Eastern tongues docs not deserve to be magnified to such a degree, as some of the proficients in them have indulged; wherein they have carried matters beyond all reason and justice, since scarcely any of the most important subjects of the gospel of Christ and the way of salvation, can gain any advantage from them. XXXn. The art of grammar comes now to be men- From what Ian!;uaees, does W^atts say that the doctrines of the gospel derive scarcely any advantage ? 226 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. tioned. It is a distinct thing from tlie mere knowledge of the languages ; for all mankind are taught from their in- fancy to speak their mother tongue, by a natural imitation of their mothers and nurses, and those who are roundabout them, without any knowledge of the art of grammar, and the various observations and rules that relate to it. Gram- mar, indeed, is nothing else but rules and observations drawn from the common speech of mankind in their several languages ; and it teaches us to speak and pronounce, to epell and write, witii propriety and exactness, according to the custom of those in every nation, who are or were sup- posed to speak and write tlieir own language best. Now it IS a shame for a man to pretend to science and study in any of the three learned professions, who is not in some meas- ure acquainted with the propriety of those languages, witli which, he ought to be conversant in his daily studies, and more especially in such, as he may sometimes be called upon to write, as well as read. XXXIII. Next to grammar, we proceed to consider rhetoric. Now rhetoric in general is the art of persuading, which may be distinguisheu-into these three parts, namely, 1. Conveying the sense of the speaker to the understand- ing of the hearers in the clearest and most intelligent man- ner, by the plainest expressions and the most lively and striking representations, so tliutthc mind may be thoroughly convinced of tlie thing proposed. 2. Pi?rsuading the will effectually to choose or refuse the thilig suggested and represented. 3. Raising tlie passions |in tlie most vivid and forcible manner, so as to set all me soul and every power of nature at work, to pursue or Lavoid tlie tiling in debate. ^ To attain this end, there is not only a grieat ^al of art necessary in the representation of matters to tf^ auditory, but also in the disposition or metliod of intriiducing these particular representations, togi:thor with the reasons, which miglit convince, and tlie various mctho/ls, which might persuade and prevail upon the hoarors. -There arc certain seasons, wliereiii a violent torrent of oration in a disguised and concealed method, may be more effectual, than all the nice forms of logic and reasoning. The figures of inter- rogation and exclamation, have* sometimes a large place and happy effect in this sort uf discourse ; and no figure of llow (IncB liR (\eS\i\i: firamiiinr 1 \ cotiiplislnMl hy rhetoric ? Toinstruct, Gt^ncral definition dC rhi'torir. ! j persuailu aifJ inflame. Three |iriiir.i|ial things, to be ac- | OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 227 speech should be wanting here, where the speaker has art enough happily to introduce it. There are many remarks and rules laid down by the teachers of this art, to improve a young genius in those glorious talents whereby Tully and Demosthenes acquired that amazing influence and success in their own respective ages and nations, and that immortal fame through all nations and ages. And it is with great advantage, these rules may be perused and learned. But a happy genius, a lively imagination and warm passions, together with a due degree of knowledge and skill in the subject to be debated, and a perpetual perusal of the writings of the best orators, and hearing the best speakers, will do more to make an orator, than all the rules of art in the world, wituout those natural taleaits and this careful imitation of the most approved and happiest orators. XXXIV. Now you will presently suppose, that pleaders at the bar have great need of this art of rhetoric ; but it has been a just doubt, whether pleading in our British courts onuslicc, before a skilful judge, should a(hnit of any other alu from rlietoric, than that which teaches to open a cause clearly, and spread it in the most perspicuous, complete and impartial manner, before the eyes of him that judges ; for impartial justice being the thing which is sought, there should be no artifices used, no eloquence or powers of lan- guage employed, to persuade the will, or work upon the pas- sions, lest the decisive sentence of the judge should be biassed or warped into injustice. For this reason, Mr. Locke would banish all pleaders in the law for fees, out of his government of Carolina, in his posthumous works ; though perhaps that great man might possibly be too severe, in so universal a censure of the profession. XXXV. But the case is very different with regard to divines. The eloquence of the pulpit, beyond all contro- versy, has a much larger extent. Their business is not to plead a cause of right and wrong before a wise and skilful ^ Wh.1t onitoirs have acquired im- ! Why ia eloquence very desirable morlal fame though all nations and j in a minister? ages 1 I Wliy sl)ould a lawyer have some Advantujre of rules in rbetonc 1 | eloquence? To keep the atteatioa To avoid what is bad, to select vvhat | fixed upon the subject. is good, and to express and arrange | Why is it not desirable, that a it in the best manner. " | lawyer sliould he very eloquent 1 What will do more to make an 1 Judge and jury are not so likely to orator, than a!', the rules of art? j see the truth by the i;lare of great To which, is oloqueiKC most need- \ eloquence, as liy mure calm auvr;ilR .' Wlicn they wuuld would pcrKiiiidt! (iilicrfl to .iclnccord- j iiiNtnict and convince, lug to ackiiDtvii-dgcd triilli. j OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 229 XXXVI. Shall I now speak something of my sentiments concerning poesy ? As for books of poesy, whether in the learned or in the modern languages, they are of great use to be read at hours of leisure, by all persons, that make any pretence to good education or learning ; and that for several reasons, 1. There are many couplets or stanzas written in poetic measures, which contain a variety of morals or rules of practice, relating to the common prudentials of mankind, as well as to matters of religion ; and the poetic numbers, or rhyme, if there be any, add very considerable force to the memory. Besides, many elegant and admirable sentiments or descriptions of things, which are found among the poets, are well worth committing to memory ; and the particular measures of verse greatly assist us in recollecting such excellent passages, which might sometimes raise our con- versation from low and groveling subjects. 2. In heroic verse, but especially in the grander lyrics, there are sometimes such noble elevations of thought and passion, as illuminate all things around us, and convey to the soul most exalted and magnificent images and sublime sentiments. These furnish us with glorious springs and mediums, to raise and aggrandize our conceptions, to warm our' souls, to aAvaken the better passions, and to elevate them even to a divine pitch, and that for devotional pur- poses. It is the lyric ode, which has shown to the Avorld some of the happiest examples of this kind ; and I cannot say but this part of poesy has been my favorite amusement above 'all otiicrs. And for tliis reason it is, that I have never thought the heroic poems, Greek, Latin or English, which have obtained the highest fame in the M'orld, are sufficiently diversified, exalted or animated, for want of the inters persion of now and then an elegiac or a lyric ode. This might have been done with great and beautiful proprietj'^, where the poet has introduced a song at a feast, or the joys of a victory, or the soliloquies of a divine satisfaction, or the pensive and despairing agonies of distressing sorrow. VVhy should that, which is called the most glorious form of poesy, be Who should read poetry 1 i Meaning of Acro/c /loem? A poem First reason for readins poetr}- 1 — | that celebrates the achievements of second 1— third i—(ni;itir! | heroes'! What objection does Watts make ! Meaning of ac/i!>rfmen£? to the most famous hei\)ic poems '? I SKJO of the sciences, and TUEIR USE. bound down and confined to such a lono; and endless uniformity of measures, when it should kindle or melt the soul, swell or sink it into all the various and transporting changes, of which human nature is capable ? Cowley, in his unfinished fragment of tiie Uavideis, has shown us this way to improvement ; and whatever blem- ishes may be found in other parts of that heroic essay, this beauty and glory of it ought to be preserved for imitation. I am well assured, that if Homer and Virgil had happened to practise it, it would have been renowned and glorified by every critic. I greatly mistake, if this wise mixture of numbers would not be a further reach of perfection, than they have ever attained. Let it be rcmem\)cred, that it is not nature and strict reason, but a weak and awful rever- ence for antiquity and of the vogue of fallible men, that has establislied tiiose Greek and Roman writings as absolute and complete patterns. In several ages, there have been some men of learning, who have very justly disputed tliis glory, and have pointed to many of their mistakes. 3. But still there is another end of reading poesy, and perhaps the most considerable advantage to be obtained from it by the bulk of mankind ; and that is, to furnish our tongues v.'ith the richest and the most polite variety of fhrases and words upon all occasions of life and religion, le, that writes well in verse, will of>en find a necessity to send his thoughts in search through all the treasure of words, that express any one idea in the same language, that so ho may comport with the measures or the rhyme of the verse which he writes, or with his own most beauti- ful and vivid sentiments of the thing he describes. Now by much reading of tliis kind, we sliall insensibly acquire the habit and skill of diversifying our phrases upon all oc- casion«, iind of expressing f)ur ideas in the most proper and beautiful language, whether we write or speak of the things of (lod or men. It is a nily, that some of these Jiarmonious writers have ever indulged in any tiling impure, to defile their paper, and abuse the ears of their readers, or to ofVend ai.'ainst the rules of th(Miicest virtue anil p()Iitene>ss. 15ut still, among the writings of Mr. Dryden aiul Mr. I'ope and Dr. Young, as well as fitli'Ms, tiii;re is a sulliciiint choice in our own lannriiage, wherein we shall not find any indecency to shock ilie most modest tongue or car. Wnat does Watts lament, as a fault 'irsoiiio of our hariiiunioiia writersl OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. 231 Perhaps there has«hardly been a writer in any nation, and 1 may dare to affirm, tliere is none in ours, who has a richer and happier talent of painting to the life, or has ever discovered such a lar^e and inoxJiausted variety of descrip- tion, as the celebrated Mr. Pope. If you read his transla- tion of liomer's Iliad, you will find almost all the terms or phrases in our tongue, that are needful to express any thing that is grand or magnificent. But if you peruse his Odyssey, which descends much more into common life, there is scarcely any usual subject of discourse or thought, orany ordinary occurrence, which he has not cultivated and dressed in the most proper language ; and yet still he has ennobled and enlivened even the lower subjects, with the brightest and most agreeable ornaments. I should add here also, that if the same author had more frequently employed his pen on divine themes, his short poem on the Messiah, and some parts of his letters between Abelard and Eloisa, with that ode of the dying Christian, &c. sufficiently assuj^ us, that his pen would have honor- ably imitated some ot the tender scenes of penitential sor- row, as well as the sublimer odes of the Hebrew psalmist ; and perhaps discovered to us, in a better manner, than anj other translation has done, how great a poet sat upon the throne of Israel. 4. After all that I have said, there is yet a further use of reading poesy, and that is, when the mind has been fatigued with studies "of a more laborious kind, or when it is in any way unfit for the pursuit of more difficult subjects, it may be as it were unbent, and repose itself a while on the flowery meadows, where the muses dwell. It is a very sensible relief to the soul, when it is over-tired, to amuse itself with the numbers and Ihe beautiful sentiments of the poets ; and in a little time, this agreeable anmsemcnt may recover the languid spirits to activity, and more important service. XXXVII. All this I propose to the world, as my best observations about reading of verse. But if the question were offered to me, " Shall a student of a bright genius never divert himself with writing poesy ?" I would answer, " Yes, when he cannot possibly help it." A lower geniua Wliat En!:lisli poet does Watts i student's writing poetry, even when consider as havins; tlie happiest tal- j he can help it ? It may conduce to ent for paintiufr and description 1 j fire his penius, to wing his iniai;ina- VVhen would Watts have a stii- > lion, to improve his taste, and give dent writB poetry 1 | him a hetier command of language What may he the advantage of a | firand advantageof improving his 232 OF THE SCIENCES, AND THEIR USE. in mature years, would heartily wish,4;hat he had spent much more time in reading the best authors of this kind, and employed much fewer hours in writing. But it must be confessed, or supposed at least, that there may be seasons, when it is hardly possible for a poetic soul to restrain the fancy, or quench the flame, when it is hard to suppress the exuberant flow of lofty sentiments, and prevent the imagi- nation from this sort of style or language. That is tlic only season, I think, wherein this inclination should bo in- dulged ; especially by persons, who have devoted them- selves to professions of a diflTcrent kind ; and one reason is, because what they write in that hour, is more likely to carry in it some appearances above nature, some happy imitation of the dictates of the muse.* XXXVIII. There are other things besides history, gram- mar and languages, rhetoric and poesy, which have been included under the name of philological knowledge ; such as, an acquaintance with the notions, customs, manners, tempers, polity, &lc, of the various nations of the earth, or the distinct sects and tribes of maimind. This is neces- sary, in order to understand history the better ; and every man who is a lawyer or a gentlemen, ought to obtain some acquaintance with these tilings, without which, he can never read history to any great advantage ; nor can he maintain his own station and character in life with honor and dignity, without some insight into them. XXXIa. Students in divinity ought to seek a larger acquaintance with tiie Jewisli laws, polity, customs, &.c. in order to understand many passages of the Old Testament and the New, and to vindicate the sacred writers from the reproaches of infidels. An acquaintance also with many a poetic taste ? It will rnnblp liiiii to i Ilfathen sense of the noun miusfl roatl Willi more pleasure and profit, i — pliilosopic sense'! tlie best poems in Our lanpiiage, i Meaning of podti/? esperially tlio poetic parts oC llio j Literal ineanins of critic? Ajiidge. Uilile. I What is criticism ? Tlic art oi What passaRes of poetry are most j jii(1<;in);. worthy of beinp committed to me- mory ? Thnse that are best suited to direct the conduct, and fit the «onl for heaven. What poem in our lancnace, has probably more Hiich passnL'es than any olher ? Young's Niphl 'I'lionqhlH. 'J'o what. Is the word more gen- erally applied .■" To. induing literary prodiirtioiis, and to the line arts. What are tlii^ fine arts! I'hose arts, which relate in a great meas- ure. In nrnainent and elocpience What are the other arts culled t • The muse in the ancient heathen sense is supposed to be a goddess but in the philos avoided, together with a spelling lesson of words selected from Ihe read- ' ine lesson. They are prepared by a practical and intelligent country teacher, and ' are consequenlly better adapted than most olliers lo the. use of country \ schools. Testimony from teachers who have used the book uniformly favorable , — one of whom says, " that his scliolars learn more in one month's use of this series than in thrice ihe time from any other." Numerous recom- < mendalions have been received by the publishers, but a few only are ap- ' pendecl, as we rely upon tlie merits of the books, and requesl for them a ' ' candid examination. ' The books are printed on good paper, substantially bound, and are fur- \ \ nished at els low rales as any of tlie less meritorious works. They are in , \ extensive use in nearly all parts of the United Slates. , , [From Mr. Ambrose Wellington, Principal of Ihe Smith School, Boston.] "Worcester's Reading Books have been used in the school under my \ charge for several months past. I consider them decidedly sujierior to any \ , other books of the kind, that I have examined. , " Boston, April 12, 1847." : SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED By JENKS, PALMER & CO. ; WORCESTER'S IMPROVED SERIES OF READ- ' ERS, WITH EXERCISES IN EXUXCIATIOX, ' PRONUNCIATION, INFLECTION, ETC. ; Recomniendations o/l/ie above Series. George B. Emerson, Esq., an einineiU teacher of Boston, who, with Dr. ' Poller, prepared " The School and Schoolmaster," remarka, iu a letter \o [ [ the puljli»hers: " Ever since I became acquainted with Mr. Worcester's hooks, they have seemed to me belter adapted, than any other stries that has come to my knowledce, to the capacities and wants both of learners and teachers of Elementary Schools. They are not, like most others intended for this purjjose, a mere compilation; to a great extent, they are original. " The remarks to teachers, the notices of errors to be avoided, and the ' questions to aid the underslandinj of the learner, are all of ijreat value; but , what is of far greater, is the elevated moral tone which pervades these les- sons, filling them not only to exercise the mind and comniunicale the art of reading, hut to do much for that heller and usually neglected part of ' education, the formation of the moral character, and the education of the ' moral ad'ections." ', And, in regard to the Introduction to the Third Book, just published. , Mr. Emerson adds, " I welcome this as an addition to an invaluable series." [From William Russell, Teacher of Elocution.] • In a letter received by the publishers, Mr. Russell remarks — "I con- ' siller them the best adapted of any to youthful readers. They are more simple in mailer and style, and more interesting to children, than any other that 1 have tried, and finely suited, in particular, to maleriial iuslruc tion at home. "Tliey are, further, excellently adapted to the improvement of young readers in articulation and pronunciation, as many prevailing errors are carefully indicated in them. The senlimenls embodied in these books are suciiurt [)aients would wish to have inculcated during the early part ol life." (From Ebenezcr Bailey, Author of llie " Youii.T Lmliei' Clasi Book," and "Firtl Les- ions in Al^elira.*'j " I have used Worcester's series of Heading Books in my school ever since they were published, and regard Ihem as among the most valuable works of the kind with which I am acquainted." (Procn Paliner'i Prize Ei>,iy on Education.) "Worcester's Primer is an admirable little book for beginners. Tha author of the Primer has furnished an excellent series of books." A writer in the Massachusella Conmion School Journal remarks, for teaching reailing, " Worcester's Books seem to possess as high claims as any oihcrs." "And anKuig the highest recommendations of the series, are the u.'ieful hints and notes that accompany each lesson." [From Joihua Da(<^i, Jr., Eii|., Principal o( the Brimmer Grammar School, Boiton,] In a letter dated April 9, 18-17, Mr. B. says : " I have examined with much care ' Worcester's Scries of Heading I Cooks,' which you had the j>olilene.''3 to send mo. ' " I think llicm most admirably ndapled to our Common Schools. ' "The pieces selected are jtitficious and appropriate, and such us will ' secure the attention and interest uf the scholar. ' "'I'lie plan of the Rrrirs I like much, and think it embodies all that is neccHsary to make Rood render.s. I " The lust three bmks I think the liost I have ever seen. They contain I n complete, sysieinatic analysis of the pr/nciplcs of Elocution, and I think ( will, upon examination, he extensively and de.-iervcdly used in our Common ► Schools." SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY JENKS, PALMER & CO. W ORCESTER'S COMPREHENSIVE DICTIOX- • ARY. ; A Comprehensive Pronouncing and Explanatory Dictionary of the Eng- ■ lish I^inirimse, with pronouncing Vocabularies of Classical, Scripture, and ' Modern Geographical Names. By J. E. Worcester. Carefully revised ] and enlarged. • ] This nictinnary, in regard to those words for the orlTiography, pronun- | cialion, or defijiilion of which an intelligent reader has the most occasion , to consnil a dictionary, is the most complete work of the kind e.xtant. It . contains a very full vocabulary of coniinon English words, many technical • terms, and a copious listof such icords and pitrases /rom /oreigtters Ian- • guages as are often found in English books, very full vocabularies ofClas- • aical and Scriphirt Proper Natties, and a vocabulary of words of ' doubtful or various orthography, which, together with the rules and re- ' marks, ernbriice all the dUficull and doubtful cases that often occur in | English orthoi:raphy,and an Appendix containing additional words, and a , pronouncing Vocabulary. The whole work containing over 67,000 words. , "This Dictionary exhibits, in its different parts, ample evidence of in- ■ quiry, careful comparison, and sound judgment. It contains, in a very ' conden.sed, yet intelligible form, a greater quantity of valuable matter than ' any other similar work ; and as a Pronouncing Dictionary, it possesses de- ' cided ailvantages over all others, by its superior system of notation, and by | its exhiliilion of all the principal authorities respecting words of doubtful ', and various ijronunciation. We do not hesitate to pronounce it, in our , judgment, t/ie most coviprehensive, accurate, and useful compendium , tcilkin OUT knowledge. i JUSKf'H STORY LL. D., Professor Law, Cambridge, Mass. SIDNEY ■ WII.LARn, A J\T., Professor Hebrew, Latin, &c., Cambridge, Mass. E. ' T. CHANNING, A. M., Professor Rhetoric and Oratory, Cambridge, Mass. ' JOHN PICKERING, LL. D., Boston. VVM. ALLEN, D. D., President Bow- ' doin Collese, I\Ie. J. K. KINGSLEY, LL. D., Professor Latin, Yale College, ' Conn. ALONZO POTTER, Professor Rhetoric, Union College, N. York. , C. ANTHON. LL. D., Professor Greek and Latin, Columbia College, New , York. J. P. GUSHING, A. M., President Hampden Sydney College, Va. , JASPER ADAMS, D. D., President Charleston College, S. C. ALONZO ' CHURCH, D. D , President University of Georgia. PHILIP LINDSEY, ' D. D., President Nashville University, Tenn. EDWARD BEECHER, ' A. M.. President Illinois College. Also, highly recommended by PETER ' S. DUPONCKaU, LL. D., Philadelphia. H. HUMPHREY, President of ' St. John's College, Annapolis, Md. ROBLEY DUNGLISON, Professor ' University of Maryland, &c., &c. , WORCESTER'S ELEMENTARY DICTIONARY. \ An Elementary Dictionary for Common Schools, with Pronouncing Vo- J cabularies of Classical, Scripture, and Modern Geographical Names. By ^ J. E. Worcester. 324 pp., 12 mo. ' < The Elenientarij Dictionary is, for substance, a reduced form of the ' Comprehensive Dictionary, and is especially adapted to the use of Com- ' mon Schools. It contains a very full list of the words of the English Ian- ' guage which are in good use; and, including its vocabularies, it possesses ^ important advantages over all other common school dictionaries. The ^ pronunciation of the words is carefully given, in a form very easily under- < stood, and in accordance with the best usage and the most approved au- i thorilies. The best edition of Walker's School Dictionary, together with ( its vocabularies, contains about 31,200 words, upwards of 12,000 less than * this, which contains 44,000 words. J SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY JENKS, PALMER & CO, EMERSON'S NORTH AMERICAIV ARITHMETIC. [ The above is the common title of three books, by Frederick Emerson, late Principal in tlie department of Arithmetic, Buylsloa ijcbool, liostoo. The hooka are severally denominated, EMERSON'S FIRST PART, " EMERSON'S SECOND PART, EMERSON'S THIRD PART. Part First is a small book, designed for children from five to eight years of age. The plan of this little book is entirely original and very pe- culiar. The lessons are illustrated with cuts anJ unit marks, and are ren- dered at once interesting and impressive. Part Second contains within itself a complete system of Mental and Written Arithmetic, sulhcienlly extensive for all common purposes of busi- ness, and is designed as a standard book for common schools. Tliis work is so gradual in its progress, that each lesson prepares the learner for that which follows, and comparatively little instruction is required from the teacher. Part Third is designed for advanced scholars. It comprises a synthetic viewof the science of numbers, a copious development of the higher opera- tions, and an extensive range of commercial information. Scholars, who are lobe educated for the tiusiness of the counting-room, or for llie duties of any public ofTxe, as well as those who are to prosecute a full course of mathematica' studies, will find this honk suited to their purpose. Almost every other system of arithmetic is printed wholly in OTie book, and if the system be plaiji and copious, the book must be a large one. Every scholar, therefore, must buy a large and expensive book, 'vhile not one scholar in ten can over have occasion or opportunity to stmly more than half of it. Emerson's system being printed In tlirce books, no scholar is obliged to buy more of the system than ho has op|xirtunily to learn. Thi.ssyslein of Arithmetic has been ailoptod by the Roslon School Board, to take the place of Colburn's First Lessons and Sequel ; by the Providence Board, In take the place of Smith's Arithmetic; and by the Philadelphia , I5i>ard, to take the place of Pike's. The recommendations of the work are from gentlemen who do not lend their names to IndifTorent publications. They are such as the following: — To Mr. Frederiok Emerson: Sir, — I have received the First and Second Parts of your North American Arithmetic, and am highly pleased with the plan of the work, and the manner of its execution thus far. It unites simplicity with fulness, and will thus be sure to interest the begin-, ncr, wliilc it furnishes, at the same time, an ample guide to the more ad- vanced pupil. Respectfully and truly yours, ALBERT HOPKINS, \ Late Prof, of Muthrmatics and Natural Philosophy in \ Williamstown College. , [Concluilon of ii Luier lo (he Author.] I I should think It Iiardly possible that a child could he fiithriilly con- > dueled through these two works (Firnt anil Second P:irt.-(] without being ' vastly belter acquaintnil with the sn'';rcl than cliildn;n formerly were. ' Jieing judiciously compelled In some moasuro to Invent their own rules, ' ' thoy can scarcely fail of being able to assign a prrt|)er reason for the pro- ' I re.ss, ns well aa to recollect it for future u.se. Indeed, 1 do not know any ' , one iMrtlctilar In which, for the use of very young pupils, they roid the University of Vermont. i SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY JENKS, PALMER & CO. EMERSON'S ARITHMETIC. Part I. for besinners. Part II. for all scholars. Part III. containing ' tho higher operations. To THB PcBLisHERS OP Embrson's ARITHMETIC : Gentlemen, — I have ' examiiieil the Third Part o'f Mr. Emerson's Arithmetic with great pleas- ure. The perspicuity of its arrangements, and the clearness and brevity of its explanations, combined with its happy adaptation to the purpose of practical business, are its great recommcnilalion. I hope it will soon be introduced into all our schools, and take the place of illdi jested treatises, to which our instructors have hitherto been compelleil to resort. Respectfully, BENJAMIN FIERCE, Professor of Mat/iematics and Nat. Philosophy, Harvard University. [From the Masters of the Public Sehools of Boston, in th« Department of Arithmetic] Emerson's System of Arithmetic [First, Second, and Third Part] has been in use in the Public Schools of Boston for several years, and it affords ns pleasure to say, that our opinion of its value has been confirmed by ob- serving its effects in the business of instruction. It is written in a perspic- uous style; its illustrations are lucid, its arrangement is judicious, and the gradation of its exercises is exact. We consider the work to be justly en- titled to the high reputation it has acquired, and we sincerely recommend it to the attenUon of teachers who have not had opportunity to become acnuainted with its merits. P. MACKINTOSH. Jr., Hancock School. JAMES ROBINSON, Bq,wdoin School. LEVI CONANT, Eliot School. Boston, Ja*. 2S, 1842. AARON D. CAPEN. Mayhcw School. JOSIAH FAIRBANK, Adajyis School. JOHN A. HARRIS, Hatres School. REUBEN SWAN, Jr., Wells School. NATHAN MERRILL, Franklin School. LORING LOTHROP, Endicotl School. CHARLES KIMBALL, Boylston School. JOSEPH HALE. Johnson School. SAMUEL L. GOULD Winthrop School. Emerson's Arithmetic, Part Third, has for several years been a text-book in the Boston English High School. I think that it is a highly useful book for those scholars who have faithfully learned the Second Part, which, in my opinion, is an excellent work. THOMAS SHERWIN, Principal of the Boston English nigh School. Recommended also by Messrs. Lcthbr Robinson, Sub-master, and Francis S. Williams, Usher, of th« Boston English High School (From the Mutert of the Public Schooit of Providence,] Emerson's Arithmetic has been used for several years in the Public \ Schools of Providence, and we regard it as decidetlly the best system of Arithmetic with which we are aajuainted. C. T. Keith, Benefit st. School. I J. D. Giddi.vgs, Fountain st. School. CFarnvm, Ik., Elm St. " \D. EvnuAUK, Prospect st. " N. B. Nichols, Arnold st. •' \ Amos Perry, Summer st. " Providence, Dec. 15, 1S42. KEY TO EMERSON'S ARITmiETIC, containing Solutions and Answers, for the use of Teachers. Also, Questions to the Third Part | of do. SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY JENKS, PALMER & CO. PARLEY'S HISTORIES FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. < THE FTUST BOOK OF HISTORY, OR HISTORY ON THE BASIS < OF GEOGRAPHY, comprehending Ihe countries of the Western Heml- J sphere, with sixty Engravings, from original ilesigns, and sixteen l\Iaps of . the dilTereiit sections of the United Stales and the various countries of the ^ Western Hemisphere, executed in ihe most beautiful manner, on steel < plates ; revised edition. < The work contains the history of all ihe countries in North and South < America, including Greenland, Iceland, and the West Indies, down to the < present lime. It is on the inductive plan, beginning at home and leading ' the pupil gradually into the subject, while the introduction of numerous " cuts, authentic and modern maps, lively anecdotes, ami descriptions of , natural scenery, curiosities, manners and customs, render it the most at- , tractive and useful introduction to history ever published ; and as Geogra- , phy and History ought never to be separated, ihe child naturally desiring < to know somethirig of the history of the countries wliich are described to ' him, there are exercises previous to each lesson, to test and fix his geo- ' graphical knowledge in his mind; for he can have but little correct and ' lasting knowledge of the history of a country with whoso geograpliy he is , unaaiuaintcd. ( THE SECOND BOOK OF HISTORY; comprehending the Modem' History of Europe, Asia, Africa, tec, illustrated with fifty Engravings and ' sixteen M.tps, (from steel plates,) of the diiTcronl countries. \ This book is designed as a Sequel to the " First Book of History. By , the Author of Parley's Tales," and is on the same plan. i THE THIKU BOOK OF HISTORY; by the same author, and on the < same plan ; comprehending Ancient History, in connection with Ancient ' Geography ; with Ulaps and Engravings. ' In preparing this series of HistorxtB, two prominent things have been ' kept constantly in view, — In the first place to make it vsi'ful — and in ' the Kecond, to make it pntfrtnining. To accomplish these ends, each of ' ihe books is provided with finely and distinctly engraved maps, and the , pupil, before he enters upon the history of any state oreountry, is re