MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING MANUAL C. C. LISTER THE MACMILLAN COMPANY MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING MANUAL MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING ELEMENTARY BOOK ADVANCED BOOK MANUAL MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING ANUAL BY C. C. LISTER DIRECTOR OF PENMANSHIP, BROOKLYN TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS Nefa fork THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1916 All rights reserved COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1915. Reprinted April, August, October, 1916. Nortaooli ^rtaa J. 8. Gushing Co. Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE THE successful teaching of writing is based upon well-estab- lished principles. The purpose of this book is to tell in as simple and concise a manner as possible just what these principles are and to furnish teachers such definite information and directions as will enable them to teach practical writing in an interesting and successful manner. The methods presented in this series of lessons have been care- fully planned, and thoroughly tested in practice with a view to furnishing an orderly presentation of the subject of Muscular Movement Writing. The chief features of this manual may be stated briefly as follows : 1. The importance of pedagogical methods of teaching writing is emphasized. 2. Sufficient treatment of the theory of the teaching of writing is given to enable teachers to realize the very definite purpose of each step in these lessons. 3. A definite purposeful plan is suggested for the teaching of each letter and figure. Common difficulties are anticipated and their remedies supplied. 4. Photo-engravings of common faults peculiar to each letter are given to guide the teacher in the development of each lesson. 5. The letters, both capital and small, are classified according to their fundamental movements and are presented in their natural sequence. Actuated by a desire to make the instruction in this useful subject interesting and effective, this manual has been written, and the author ventures to hope that it will commend itself to the favorable consideration of teachers of writing. C. C. LISTER. V 2056773 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAOB I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING 18 III. How TO TEACH CAPITAL LETTERS 24 IV. How TO TEACH SMALL LETTERS 30 V. How TO TEACH WORDS .35 VI. How TO TEACH THE SENTENCE 42 VII. THE FIRST LESSON 47 VIII. How TO TEACH LETTERS 58 IX. How TO TEACH FIGURES 105 X. THE USE OF THE BLACKBOARD 109 XI. AGE AND GRADE IN WRITING . . Ill VI MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING MANUAL MANUAL CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION SOCIAL and business standards in writing demand legi- bility, ease, and speed. In order to measure up to these requirements one should be able to write plainly and rapidly. All instruction and practice in writing should have these ends in view. The style of writing has undergone many changes during the past half century. One style after another has been tried and dropped. The prevailing opinion seems The ^ or to have been that the unsatisfactory results were tance of due to the particular style of writing in use. Some styles of writing are better than others, it is true, but the poor penmanship has been due more to inefficient methods of teaching than to the style of writing taught. The demand for freedom and ease in writing, as well as for good form, has developed a principle that controls largely the training in the movements and the practice of the move- ments which produce good writing. This principle expresses the fundamental conditions of writing, which are the health B 1 MANUAL of the body and of the special organs that are immediately concerned in writing. In teaching Muscular Movement Writing, the physical and mental training is of fundamental importance. Since writing is a means of expression, the movements required to write legibly and fluently should be made automatic. The nerve and muscular elements should be trained, co- ordinated, and fused into a definite habit of action in order that one may write freely yet legibly with the least amount of conscious effort. When pupils have secured, by practice, a skill and fluency in writing, which moves rhythmically in accord with thoughts and emotions at a fair rate of speed controlled by these thoughts and emotions, there is little or no attention to special elements or even words. The whole process becomes a unit, a single complex movement, which evolves these elements, but merely as elements merged into the given whole. The best style or type of writing to serve as a standard for study and imitation is one that is plain, devoid of needless The ideal li nes > that is, lines that neither add to legibility standard nor aid in execution ; a style in which there is a clear distinction between turns and angles, and clear spacing between letters. It is said that illegibility is due more to making such letters as ra's, n's, i's, and u's alike and to the crowding of letters together than to any- thing else. The best standard capitals are those that are plain and easy to make, and from which, with slight modifications, other pleasing types of capitals may be developed, with- 2 INTRODUCTION out bordering on freakish type forms. A type of capital which makes it con- venient to join to the letter following is preferable to any type that makes it necessary to break the movement by lifting the pen. For convenience in teaching, the fewer variations in the type forms, the bet- ter. This meets the principle of individ- ual differences by al- lowing variations in forms of letters after the standard letter forms have been learned. For the purpose of illustration the standard letters that are generally ap- proved are here in- serted. In teaching it is MANUAL important that the letters be classified according to their fundamental movements and their basic features. Capitals and small letters may be grouped as follows. Direct oval letters 0, C, E, A ; reverse oval and straight line letters M, N, W, H, K, X, Z, Q; reverse oval and under motion U, Y, V ; reverse oval J, I; straight line letters P, B, R; compound curve letters G, S, L, T, F, D. Oval letters o, a, c; under motion i, u, w, e, s, r; Small straight line t, d; upper loop letters I, b, f, letters. ^ ^ ft. J ower loop letters j, g, y, z, p, q. A secondary grouping of small letters may be made as follows : pointed oval letters a, d, g, q, p; over-under movement letters m, n, x, v, y, h; letters ending with a horizontal curve o, w, v, r, b. There are two very definite aims or purposes that should constantly be kept in mind by the teacher of thought. Muscular Movement Writing. These aims or writing purposes are (1) to establish writing habits that habits. are conducive to the physical welfare of the pupils, and (2) to teach pupils how to write legibly, easily, and rapidly. It is said that in and above the third grade in school pupils sit eighty per cent of the school day. When we con- sider that a pupil spends the greater part of the five or more hours in every school day doing some form of desk work, the importance of zealously guarding correct habits of posture at the desk is self-evident. Under normal con- ditions work requiring this position is continued six years, the most plastic, habit-forming years of life. 4 CORRECT POSTURE The pupil as a rule assumes a sitting posture in school for one of two purposes : to listen then the body is re- laxed and reclined against the back of the chair or seat; or to do some kind of work upon the desk then the body is inclined forward. The latter position is the one with which the teacher of writing should be particularly con- cerned. When the pupil is writing or drawing, an act which requires a forward inclination of the body, there is the greatest tendency to let the head droop forward and downward and to bend backward the middle of the back. CORRECT POSTURE The first important problem to be considered then in learning to write is that of correct posture. This means more than the position of the fingers, the hands, correct and the arms ; it means the position of the whole P sture - body. Correct posture should be maintained that writing may be done in a healthful and convenient manner. Children should be encouraged to follow directions for correct posture with enthusiasm. One of the best ways to create initiative on the part of the pupils is to Howto explain to them very carefully and clearly the teach cor- reason for doing the particular thing they are asked to do. It is a good plan to discuss the problem and each new step in the problem with the class. They should be told that sitting in a collapsed position with the body bent over the edge of the desk and with the chest curved in pre- vents natural breathing, interferes with digestion, circula- tion, and the natural functioning of the vital organs. When the chest curves inward the lungs do not have enough 5 MANUAL room in which to expand fully, and if the pupil cannot breathe enough good, fresh air, the blood will not be pure. If the blood is not kept pure, the body cannot resist disease. Unless the body is held up in good position, other organs of the body, which digest the food, cannot do their work well. Fig. 2 The correct writing posture The pupils should also be shown by demonstrations that it is impossible to get the best results in writing unless correct posture is maintained. The best writing can be done when the pupil sits in an easy, well-balanced position. It is fortunate that the most healthful posture is also the most convenient for writing. 6 CORRECT POSTURE The teacher should realize that merely telling pupils how they should sit is not teaching correct posture. One has not taught posture until the pupils assume correct posture habitually and maintain it as a result of persistent training. In teaching posture the teacher of writing can co- operate with the director of physical training in guarding the physical welfare of children. If pupils unconsciously assume incorrect posture, it is evident that the muscles which must hold the body in a correct posture are weak. These weakened muscles can be strengthened only through persistent exercise. This exercise necessitates cooperation on the part of the pupils and the teacher. The pupils must be taught the require- ments of correct posture and the reasons for doing what they are required to do. This instruction will furnish a motive for the effort necessary on the part of the pupil if the desired result is to be achieved. Then there must be frequent reminders on the part of the teacher to prevent lapses. Bain says, on the subject of habit training : " First, launch yourself into the habit you aspire to gain with as strong and decided an initiative as possible. Second, never suffer an exception until the new habit is securely rooted in your life. Third, seize the very first possible opportunity to act on every reso- lution you make, and on every emotional prompting you may experience, in the direction of the habits you aspire to gain. Fourth, keep the faculty of effort alive in you by a little gratuitous exercise every day." At first the reminders on the part of the teacher should consist of definite directions. After the directions and the reasons for them are understood by the pupils the reminders 7 MANUAL may be reduced to a word, or at most a phrase. To say, "Heads up," "Backs straight," "Feet in position," etc., may be made to mean as much to the class as a five-minute talk on any one of the foregoing points. But in the begin- ning the directions and the reasons for them must be given in such a way that these phrases will call back stimulating trains of thought. A healthful writing position is frequently made impos- sible because of desks that are not suited to the size of the children. A desk that is too high forces a pupil to The influ- . . ence of raise his elbows too high and to spread them too desks on f ar a p a rt ^ o b e comfortable. Or if he does not posture. spread his elbows too far apart, he forces his shoulders upward into an unnatural position. On the other hand, if the desk is too low, the pupil is constrained to bend forward to write, a position which leads to a droop- ing of the shoulders and contracting of the chest. The near-edge top of the desk should be about three inches higher than the point of the bent elbow when the pupil sits erect and holds his elbow against his side. Many modern school desks are easily adjustable. Some unfor- tunately require a mechanic to make adjustments. Desk adjustments should be made, otherwise the pupils are obliged to adjust themselves to the desks. If the chair or seat is too high, the pupil finds it difficult The impor- to place his feet flat on the floor ; and in the effort tance of the to do so the pupil slides forward so far as to cause seat, 'in excessive curvature of the lower part of his spine, posture. jf j-jjg cna i r j s t oo j OWj n { s knees are forced upward, causing a strain on the muscles of the back and 8 CORRECT POSTURE undue pressure on the organs of the body. The height of the chair or seat should be the length of the leg measured on the under side below the knee when it is bent, and when the feet rest flat on the floor as in a sitting posture. If the seat is placed too far from the desk, the pupil is forced to lean forward so far that his body is thrown out of balance and his weight is placed on his arms : or he is obliged to move forward and sit on the front edge of the seat. Either of these conditions is detrimental to the best hygienic posture and convenience in writing. The seat should be so placed that its front edge will be directly under the edge of the desk. The feet should be placed flat on the floor in front of the chair. In this position they serve to balance the body and relieve the weight that would otherwise be supported by the arms. It does not seem wise to insist upon any exact position of the feet, so long as they are kept flat on the floor in front of the chair. To insist that one foot should be just so far in front of the other would be to carry the matter to an extreme that would defeat the main purpose of making the pupil comfortable. There are two very common bad habits that should be avoided, however : (1) the placing of the feet back so that they rest upon the toes of the shoes, and (2) extending the legs forward so that the feet rest upon the heels of the shoes. When the feet rest upon the toes the weight of the body is thrown forward upon the arms ; when the feet rest upon the heels there is a constant strain to prevent the body from leaning back- ward against the back of the chair. The arms should rest on the desk with the elbows near MANUAL the edge of the desk. The point of the elbow of the right arm should be just a little off the desk to avoid bringing the elbow joint in contact with the top of the desk. See Fig. 3. The weight of the right arm should rest on the muscular cushion in front of the elbow. This flexible mus- cular support should be used as the pivotal point of move- ment. The elbow of the left arm should be on the edge of the desk. If it is permitted to hang off the desk, or if the Fig. 3 The correct position of the arms on the desk. left elbow is pushed too far forward from the edge of the desk, the left shoulder will drop lower than the right and curve the spine. The body should be steadied by the left arm. See Fig. 5. If the desk is too small to allow the pupil to take a straight front position, it is necessary to turn to a half right side position and place the right arm farther on the desk. The desk is too small to take the straight front position when there is not room on the desk to rest the arm 10 CORRECT POSTURE and push the paper forward from time to time while the page is being filled. The chief objection, however, to tak- ing the right side position is that the left elbow must be off the desk, thereby making it very difficult to keep the left shoulder on a level with the right. Although this might not produce any serious results for the adult, it should be avoided if possible for the growing pupil. Fig. 4 The correct manner of holding the penholder. The hand should glide on the nail of the little finger or on the nails of the little finger and the one next to it. The fingers should be turned back under the hand so Thehand that some part of the hard smooth nails will come and the in contact with the paper. Many of the best pen- p< men glide the hand on the side of the nail and a part of the first joint of the little finger only. This is because the back of the hand and wrist turns slightly to the right when the muscles of the arm are relaxed. See Figs. 4 and 6. The penholder should be held loosely between the first 11 MANUAL and second fingers and the thumb. The first finger should rest on the top of the holder. It should be slightly curved upward and there should be at least one inch between the end of the first finger and the point of the pen. The second finger should slip down under the holder so that the holder will cross just over the top of the nail of the second finger. The end of the thumb should be bent slightly and touch the holder opposite the first joint of the first finger. The Fig. 5 The direction in which the penholder should point. holder should rest against the hand just back of the large knuckle joint of the first finger. The holder should point over the arm between the elbow and shoulder, not over the shoulder. See Fig. 5. The wrist should be raised from the paper just a little The position so ^ iat ^ w ^ not P revent tne freedom of move- ofthe ment that must come from the muscles of the arm and shoulder. The top of the wrist should not be held flat, but be turned slightly to the right. This 12 THE POSITION OF THE PAPER is the natural, comfortable position of the wrist when the muscles are relaxed and when the arm is resting on a desk of the correct height for writing. See Fig. 6. Many teachers of penmanship have aimed to keep the wrists flat; but this was probably done as an extreme measure intended to correct the opposite extreme of turn- ing the hand so far to the right as to have the side of the hand rest on the paper. The right side of the hand should Fig. 6 The correct position of hand and wrist. never touch the paper, as it prevents the hand from gliding smoothly over the paper. THE POSITION OF THE PAPER Various rules for the position of the paper are suggested by teachers of writing ; but if the reason for turn- How to ing the paper on the desk is made clear to pupils place the little need be said about rules. There are two principal lines of direction that must be observed in writing : first, the line of vision, indicated by 13 MANUAL dotted line AA in Fig. 7 ; and second, the direction the pen must move across the page in writing. The paper should be so placed that when resting the arm on the large muscular cushion (B), it will be easy to swing the pen to the right and to the left along the writing line. This position should be maintained. It permits the hand Fig. 7 Diagram showing the position of the paper. to glide freely from the left to the right and makes possible the easy flowing movement desirable in rapid and legible writing. It is a good plan to have pupils form the habit of testing the position of the paper before beginning to write by swinging the dry pen back and forth along the line. If the pen swings above or below the line in moving to the right, 14 THE POSITION OF THE PAPER the bottom of the paper should be shifted accordingly. It should be made clear that the only reason for turning the paper in writing is to enable the hand to move across the page along the writing line, using the muscular cushion in front of the elbow as a pivot and support of motion. The direction of all downward strokes the slant should be toward the center of the body, along the line of vision as indicated by line A A, Fig. 7. If the downward lines lean too much toward the right, thereby producing too much for- ward slant (Fig. 8, AA) or if the downward lines are made the direction of the elbow in Fig. 8 Diagram showing the line of vision. of the right arm, producing a backward slant (BB) the line of vision will cross the downward lines diagonally. This constant diagonal view will cause eye strain. The line of vision ((7(7) straight forward and backward, to and from the center of the body indicates, therefore, the correct direction of all downward lines. Since the best writing can be done directly in front of the center of the body, it is necessary to stop writing and move the paper to the left two or three times in writing once across the page. In the lessons of the first part of this series, the exercises are so planned as to furnish quarter-line practice with a view to developing the habit of moving the paper. This is advisable in learning to write. If students will con- form to this line of vision, or direction, a uniform and individual slant will be developed. 15 MANUAL The paper should be held in position by the tips of the fingers of the left hand placed on the paper above the writing line. When the paper is held thus the left arm will be in a position to support the left shoulder properly, and prevent it from drooping forward and downward. Fig. 9 Blackboard diagram for line of vision. As has been explained, the line of vision for one writing How to on a desk is forward and backward to and S^ofri from the center of the body - See Fig - 7 ' line sion on the A A. This line of vision indicates the natural blackboard, direction o f a \\ downward lines when the paper is properly placed for writing. When one lifts the paper 16 THE POSITION OF THE PAPER from the desk and holds it upright in front of the eyes, as he would in reading, the letters slant toward the right in conformity with the slant of the letters written in the usual way on a horizontal line on the blackboard. But when the paper is properly placed on the desk for writing, the direction of all downward strokes corresponds to a perpen- dicular line on the blackboard, as in Fig. 9. Since they usually study their writing while the paper is placed in an oblique position on the desk, pupils will be enabled to get a clearer perception of the slant in writing and its visual advantages, if the teacher will sometimes illustrate by the use of oblique lines on the blackboard which correspond to the blue lines on the practice paper properly placed for writing. See Fig. 9. 17 CHAPTER II MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING UNDER normal conditions in writing the weight of the arm rests on the desk or table. The power which moves j and controls the pen in writing is either limited movement to the small and weaker muscles of the fingers, or ied comes from the larger, stronger, and more endur- ing muscles that are located in the arm and shoulder. When the power is limited to the muscles of the fingers it is called finger movement. When the power is supplied by the muscles of the arm and shoulder, and the weight of the arm rests on the muscular cushion of the forearm, it is called mus- cular movement. In finger movement writing the arm is inactive and the fingers alone are active. In muscular movement writing the fingers are inactive, or nearly so, and the arm is active. The untrained writer, as a rule, resorts to finger movement, largely for the same reason that a child creeps until he learns to walk and run it is a means, however inadequate, of achieving a certain end immediately. Muscular movement as a means of writing is not a new idea, though the name may be new. The use of the large muscles of the arm in writing has been a common practice 18 MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING for a long period of time; indeed it has been known as muscular movement writing and taught in the leading busi- ness schools for half a century or more. Owing to the in- sistent demands for efficient writing and to the conviction of progressive school men that practical writing involving ease and rapidity and good form can be taught in the pub- lic schools, muscular movement writing is the preferred and adopted method in practically all schools in which the authorities are sufficiently interested to require writing embodying legibility, ease, and speed. A movement drill in writing is the repetition of a single stroke or character with a view to making the process auto- matic. It may be the repetition of a straight line, Movement an oval form, a letter, a combination of the drills - straight line and oval, or the combination of the oval and a letter. The movement drills may be divided into two kinds : general and specific. General Movement Drills are the large exercises used to develop and train the muscles of the arm in writing, and to develop control and skill in movement which General executes writing with confidence and with a light movei but firm touch. The straight line and the oval (direct and reverse) are used as General Movement Drills. See pp. 13, 14, and 15, Advanced Book; and pp. 12, 13, and 14, Elementary Book. They should be made two full spaces in height at first, and later reduced to one space in height as an approach to the size of usual writing. Because of the simplicity of these exercises the move- ment required to make them becomes automatic in a short time. The pupil's attention can then be directed to other 19 ement drills. MANUAL essentials in correct writing. These drills are not merely incidental exercises, to be practised occasionally, but basic and prerequisite exercises to all that follows. It is well to begin for a long time each writing lesson with some form of the general movement drills. Pupils fall in line quickly for the proposed work, and do it much more satisfactorily because of such preliminary exercise. A Specific Movement drill is one in which a characteristic part of a letter to be taught is selected for practice. It cific is also a drill in which some form of a general movement movement drill and a letter form are combined. The purpose of a specific drill is to adapt the movement developed in the general movement drill to the production of letter forms : to help bridge a possible chasm between movement in general drill and movement in writ- ing letters, words, and sentences. See pp. 19, 23, 34, 38, Advanced Book. When pupils have achieved a desirable skill in a series of movements and can make characters that are continuous, firm, clear, and graceful, the movements may be taken up severally and gradually utilized in forming letters and words. The movements may be analyzed and parts selected and combined with parts of other movements in making still different characters. RHYTHMIC CONTROL An essential feature of Muscular Movement writing is rhythmic movement and control of the fingers, hand, arm, and body in writing. Rhythmic time and speed must be main- tained at all times. With the development of the control 20 MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING will come the clear, firm, graceful lines which both children and adults admire. The rhythm or time by which movement and speed are regulated during concert drills in writing practice may be indicated in various ways : by tapping a pencil lightly, by musical instruments, and in a limited regulate way even by the use of the phonograph. But movement no other means serves the purpose so conven- and speed. iently or so well as the human voice. The teacher who knows how to modulate the voice and count correctly, has little, if any, need of mechanical devices. The teacher who, without being noisy and fussy, can indicate an even continuous movement by a regular, evenly timed count ; who can indicate slight interruptions in the movement by accenting certain counts; and who can encourage care in forming letters requiring slightly more time than others by prolonging the count where needed, is able to wield a far greater influence over a writing class than one who, through lack of this ability, is obliged to conduct the practice with- out rhythmic movement drill, or rely upon a mechanical device. One who does not know how to count correctly is not able to make good use of a device for marking the time. Counting should always be done in a low, quiet tone. One needs quiet nerves for writing. Noisy counting is never soothing to the nerves, and is always more or less distracting to pupils and especially to those of a nervous temperament. The teacher should know that 1, 2, 3, may be counted in different ways. When three numbers are counted over 21 MANUAL and over in succession as one counts in writing, it is very easy to accent one of the numbers and thus to give to it the ictus, or beat, that is common to rhythm. If the accent is placed on the 1 in each measure, the significance of the count is quite different from what it is when the accent is placed on the 2 or the 3. If the 1 and 2 are spoken quickly and the 3 is prolonged, the influence on the movement is entirely different from what it is when the 1 is prolonged and the 2 and 3 are spoken quickly. These variations in rhythmic counting can be accommodated to the writing movement and used to govern the muscular movements perfectly. It must, therefore, be obvious that counting must be done with intelligence and feeling. The teacher will have little, if any, difficulty in discrimi- nating between the correct and the incorrect count for a letter or drill. A few trials will enable one who can make the exercise with the correct movement to count for the movement in the correct time. It has always been difficult to indicate in a text the cor- rect way to count for the different exercises owing to the accents and the little variations in time. The How to indicate the best way seems to be to indicate the correct time as clearly as possible by the punctuation. Where there is to be an even, running movement without any in- terruption, such as in the continuous oval drill, the count may be indicated as follows: 1-2-3-^-5-6-7 -8-9-10 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-20, etc. If an interruption is to be made on every second movement, it is indicated as follows : 1-2, 3-4, 5-6, 7-8, 9-10, etc. If the lengthened time oc- curs on every third count it may be 1-2-3, 1-2-3, 1-2-3. 22 MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING A warning is probably necessary at this point. The teacher should never continue the rhythmic counting or voice guidance until it becomes necessary to children in writing. The vocal control should gradually be withdrawn and the rhythm allowed to become incarnate in the children's mental-physical mechanisms. Children must learn to de- pend upon their own rhythmic promptings in the last resort. The element of time, or rhythm, constitutes a vital feature in the teaching of muscular movement writing. The intelligent adherence to correct time in con- The impor ducting concert drills is one thing that is revolu- tance of tionizing the teaching of writing. It is a well- T known fact that rhythmic time is a necessary stimulus to all kinds of muscular training, especially where grace, ease, and continuity of motion are desired. Rhythm encourages and regulates movement. In class instruction nothing else serves so well to create and maintain interest and to unify the work of the class. Rhythmic practice plays an im- portant role in diminishing the tensity and inducing the relaxed condition of the writing muscles a condition always necessary to easy, rapid writing. Rhythm is the most important aid in all motor activity. When we walk, especially when we have a long distance before us, we acquire a rhythmic motion or swing that carries us along with ease and at a good rate of speed over the ground to our destination. Tapping with a stylus in certain experiments in the psychological laboratory is continued longer and more efficiently when done rhythmically. 23 CHAPTER III HOW TO TEACH CAPITAL LETTERS IT may be assumed that the pupils are able to make the continuous oval, as shown in the drill on page 14, Advanced A lesson on ^^' at tne rate f two hundred per minute. The capital letter to be taught is the capital 0. Have the pupils study carefully the copy on page 17, Ad- vanced Book. Secure their attention to such features as size, shape, delicacy and firmness of lines, and the final stroke, before beginning to practise. Does the occupy the full space between two blue lines ? What is the shape of the capital ? Should the lines be light or heavy ? What would heavy, questions tremulous lines indicate? In making this capi- onthe tal in what direction should the pen be moving lesson. when it touches the paper? In what direction should the pen be moving when it is lifted from the paper ? The failure to emphasize these features is almost certain to lead to aimless practice and to result in imperfect letters. If, for example, form only is made the important feature, pupils will probably think that when they can write O's like 24 0*0-0- & MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING those of Fig. 10, line (1), they should be considered pro- ficient enough to pass to another letter. Of course the letters thus formed are legible, but the tremulous line is evidence that the letters were made slowly, with the finger movement. The fact that letters are clear-cut, smooth, and firm is pretty good evidence that they have been made with the muscular movement and at a good rate of speed. The rate of speed at which the capital should be made is easily calculated. Allow two counts, as 1-2, which is correct, for each 0, and one count, 3, for the transition, or swing to the point beginning the next letter. Divide 200, the num- ber of ovals made per minute, by 3 and you will have the approxi- mate number of O's to be made in one minute. A less number of O's should be required of pupils in the grades in which the Ele- , Fig. 10 mentary Books are used. Some benefit will be found in having the pupils swing the dry pen over the copy properly placed. This will insure them the correct sense of position and movement, Directions which will serve as a guide in practice. The for P ractice teacher should count 1-2 for each 0, at the rate above sug- gested per minute for this dry-pen practice. With this preliminary drill to develop sense of position and move- ment, pupils are ready to write O's at the same speed rate, and as well formed as possible. A necessary preliminary is to determine approximately how many letters should be written on a single line. It is 25 MANUAL well known that if letters are crowded the general appear- ance of the writing is bad. If they are unequally spaced or Preliminary spread over too large a surface, the result is not work satisfactory. A line eight inches long should be divided in four equal parts. One part, or space, will ac- commodate four capital O's, and the entire line will thus allow for sixteen O's. See page 17, Advanced Book. The appearance will be neat, and justify the attention given. This does not need to make the work mechanical, but it will tend to develop a sense of proportion which is indis- pensable in a well-written page. If after a few moments' practice the teacher observes that the rate of speed is too great, she should experiment to find a better rate. She may sit at her desk and write grade the with the class, counting for the class as she does so. This seldom fails to create initiative on the part of the pupils, and it guards against the com- mon tendency to count too rapidly. After different rates have been tried, find out which has met with the greatest measure of success. Adopt this for a time, but if the rate be below 60 letters a minute, work gradually to bring the whole class to a rate of 64, the number given in the copy on page 17, Advanced Book. The teacher will need to inspect the work of each pupil quickly, of course, and note the measure of success in maintaining the rate of speed, the form of the letters, position and movement of arm and hand, penliolding, and general posture. Correct quietly partic- ular faults of position and movement and encourage all to achieve the speed desired. In doing this the most common fault in the O's will be 26 MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING determined. This should usually be considered by the whole class. And in all criticism it is well to How to select for correction only one significant fault at correct a time. This may well be, for the first, the general form of the letter. The teacher of writing will find the most permanent benefit in having the class discover pre- cisely what the defect may be and how to correct it. Suppose that for this time the O's are too narrow, like those shown in Fig. 10, line (2). The teacher may write four or more well-formed O's on the blackboard, (i) The or if copies are at hand refer to the copy, and ^ orm " write in contrast with it a number of narrow O's like those made by the pupils. Then have the class consider carefully the difference between the two kinds of O's. Inquire as to their preference and so far as practicable their reasons for their choice. Have them try to explain how to correct the fault. With such discussion, practice may be resumed and attention directed to the making of an oval-formed 0. Possibly some such phrase as the following, Round 0, Round 0, Round 0, Round for four capital O's instead of the 1-2 count, will effectually direct the attention to the shape of the 0. This should maintain the same time and rhythm as the regular count. A few minutes of practice will show the teacher what progress is being made. Ask the pupils to select three or four of their best O's. Then practise again to secure skill in making similar or even better letters. Check up the best letters in each line, and compare with those selected as models to show improvement or acquired skill in making such letters continuously. 27 MANUAL This exercise should have made quite certain the pro- duction of the proper form of the letter. Then the pupils may be led to find another significant fault in the quality of letters they have made. We may suppose that the next general defect is in the quality of the line, which is heavy as in Fig. 10, line (3), and unlike the quality of line made in the general oval exercises. This defect should be studied and the correction made clear to all. As in the former exercise it was found that a change in the phrase used in indicating the time also emphasized the correction, so here a similar change will work advan- tageously. The phrase Light line, at the same rate of speed, will direct attention to the quality of the line. As other faults are detected suggest corrections in like manner. If pupils tend to finish the by swinging the pen toward the right, as in letters Fig. 10, line (4), instead of upward as in the copy, page 17, Advanced Book, direct them by the use of the phrase Swing up, Swing up. But take only one defect at a time and secure its correction before taking up another. Do not slacken the speed nor change the established rhythm. The results will justify the efforts made. The form, smoothness of line, grace and legibility of the letters will be more certainly secured if the same standard speed and free muscular movement are maintained throughout. The benefit It may be well to observe that pupils gain a to be de- twof old benefit from such a course of procedure rived from this as just outlined. They learn not only to practise criticism. and make good i etterS9 but a j so to study intelli- gently any specimen of writing. They also form a fairly 28 MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING dependable habit of looking systematically for faults and correcting them one by one. They recognize the marks of progress and are able to measure the improvement made from time to time. This gives them incentive and at the same time a reward that is more valuable than any "prize button" which the ambitious teacher may offer. 29 CHAPTER IV HOW TO TEACH SMALL LETTERS PRACTICE of the General Movement exercise gives skill in initiating and endurance in continuing regular movement of arms, hands, and pens. The real teaching of muscular movement writing comprises (1) the technical teaching of the twenty-six letters of the alphabet, and (2) the combin- ing of these letters into words. These letters must be made not only quickly and easily, but in such a way that they are legible, simple, and pleasing in appearance. The move- ments in making these letters are complexes of the move- ments acquired in the preliminary exercises. By practice, especially when the letters are arranged in groups in accord with their elements and forms, the movement used in writ- ing each letter is made automatic. There should be a definite, purposeful plan in each lesson. Exercises given without plan or purpose soon become mo- The lesson notonous, and are seldom productive of satisfactory plan. results. Pupils very quickly discover whether or not a definite plan is being followed. The following order for the development of a lesson is suggestive : (1) Have the pupils study the copy to be practised. (2) Have pupils become accustomed to the correct form and speed. 30 HOW TO TEACH SMALL LETTERS (3) Have the class discover chief fault and offer a way to overcome or correct it. (4) Have special practice in correcting the fault. (5) Have pupils select and mark the best letters, say three or four, and compare these with the copy. (6) Have pupils continue practising with the aim of making their letters equal to their best, and of improving the best wherever possible. (7) Correct faults one by one. Pupils should select the important characteristics and describe the letter. These characteristics distinguish a letter from all other letters, and are, therefore, A A lesson on indispensable in making writing legible. They the letter are also necessary in giving the letter a pleasing (1) HOW to appearance. Pupils will not usually see these char- study the acteristics by merely looking at the copy. The teacher must direct the pupils to observe closely and cor- rectly the characteristic features of the letter. A useful guide in questioning a class is the anticipation of the com- mon faults in the letter under consideration. These faults are usually limited to two or three. For example, in, teach- ing the small letter h the teacher knows that some pupils will make the loops too long, others will make them too narrow and pointed at the top, and some will make the final part of the h, which should be finished like the small n, sharply angular at the top. The teacher may direct attention to these points by ask- ing questions similar to the following: "Should the loops extend to the line above the one on which you are writing ? " "Is the top of the loop in the h pointed or round?" "Is 31 MANUAL the top of the last part of the h pointed or round ? " It is helpful to call attention to the fact that the letter h is made up of parts of letters which the pupils have previously prac- tised. The specific form of h is thus taught by comparison. Pupils are to study the small I and the small n to note the changes necessary in combining these letters into h. If there be time, pupils may review the I and n as a preparation for their combination into the letter h. It is better to avoid probable faults by emphasizing the correct features of letters instead of showing these probable faults. Let it be what to do, not what not to do. One of the chief aims of the lesson is to have the class acquire the skill to make the letter h at the correct rate of speed. Unless this rate of speed is gained and (2) HOW to ma i n tained pupils will tend to center their atten- develop the standard tion upon form only and fail to learn to make the letter well at the rate they should make it in rapid writing. Letters that are made too slowly, or with the finger movement, will generally be trem- ulous or wavy lines like those in Fig. 11 (1). Pupils should quickly acquire a rate of movement insur- ing at least 60 "h's" per minute. The count which the teacher will find useful is 1-2, 1-2, 1-2, 1-2 for each group of four letters. This rate is quite certain to produce smooth, clear-cut lines. Although pupils may later acquire a speed of 80 letters per minute, the rate of 60 will produce 32 HOW TO TEACH SMALL LETTERS the quality of line desired and is fast enough until uniformly well-formed letters can be made. The third step is the criticism by teacher and pupils of the work already done, with corrections to be made where needed. Remember that only the important de- ,. V.O_) JtlQW lO fects are first to be noted and that pupils should correct be led to discover them by their own efforts and d consideration. Let us assume that much of the writing has the appearance of line (2), Fig: 11. In this specimen the loops are too long. Pupils are to recall what was em- phasized at the beginning of this exercise, that the loops should not reach the line above that on which they were to write. The exercise is then proposed of making h's at the usual rate of speed for one minute without allowing them to touch the upper line. Some will succeed, but others will require two or more trials before securing the proper movement-range for making loops of the right height. In similar manner the other chief faults should be passed in review, with exercises especially adapted to correct them. In line (3) the loops are too narrow ; in (4) the final part of the h is angular. The discussion should always be directed to bring out clearly the fault and the manner of its correc- tion. It lies, as one may readily perceive, in securing the proper movement of arm, forearm, and hand, and the right range of movement. When pupils are able to perform the movement correctly, securing the right range or reach in all necessary directions, then they will be found to be mak- ing letters that are well formed, rightly proportioned, and easily legible, at the normal sustained speed. It frequently happens that the time for the writing lesson D 33 MANUAL is too short to cover all the points necessary in the develop- ment of a letter. It is hardly necessary to say that the study and practice of the letter should be continued at the succeeding lesson period. The purpose must be to secure the mastery of the muscular movements needed in making each letter in the best possible style, at the optimum speed, before taking up a new character for detailed study and practice. The advantages of this procedure may be summarily stated as follows : (1) Pupils study and practise intelligently, with definite purpose and increasingly clear idea of what is required. (2) The purpose in all practice is specific and definite, to be at- (3) Interest is awakened and maintained in the con- tained by scious recognition of progress in skill and results ^dTe" m writing. (4) Pupils become closely observant, critical of their own products, and also self-reliant in working out correc- tions of faulty production. (5) Although not to be taken in too literal a sense, pupils do form habits of concentration upon the project in hand, which may be made use of in certain allied kinds of activity and interest. (6) The teacher's experience is turned to the pupils' profit in fullest 34 CHAPTER V HOW TO TEACH WORDS IN writing letters, either capital or small, it is generally recognized that the most effective practice for developing muscular control and skill consists in rapid rhythmic move- ment done in concert and under counting direction and guidance. This sort of practice is certain to produce the desired results. A clear and correct idea of the form or characteristics of letters associated with skillful muscular control in executing the movements of writing will produce letters that have all the essentials of good useful writing. But this is so far only a beginning of actual writing. Letters, however well formed and graceful in appearance, must be combined in varying ways with one another in words, and the words in sentences, before one can really be counted a good writer. It should be kept in mind that almost all writing exercises presuppose a certain skill in letter combinations and word combinations upon which practice is based and which is to be improved. The exercises in individual letters have probably contributed something to the pupils' sense of balance, of proportion of letters to a line, of spacing between 35 MANUAL letters, and the like. But it is not wise to depend upon these matters too implicitly. Teachers will have to remind pupils of what they are supposed to have acquired in former exercises, and apply their knowledge and skill to the new problems. There are several points to which attention needs to be directed. First, one might imagine that pupils who can do Writing excellently the letter drills, at optimum rate of. words. speed and muscular control, and produce letters points to be of grace, simplicity, ease, and unmistakable legi- considered. bility, will naturally combine letters into mean- ingful words in the same manner and with like results. This is not always the case. Before we can reasonably expect pupils to write spelling, compositions, and other general written work well with the muscular movement, we must teach them how to write words. A valuable way of effecting skillful muscular control in word writing is at first to select certain words upon which practice and study may be concentrated. These selected words pupils should become able to write easily, quickly, with correct spacing between letters and with the most eco- nomical connections of letters. Take the word moon, Advanced Book, p. 22. Practically the same plan of development that is followed in teaching a letter may be employed here. There should be a brief study of the word, its general appearance, and changes in be- ginnings and endings of letters to meet the new situation. The size of the letters and the spaces between the letters should be considered. The spaces between letters should 36 HOW TO TEACH WORDS be compared with the width of the letters themselves, and the importance brought out clearly. The length and curva- ture of the initial and final strokes or lines should not be neg- lected in this preliminary study. Perhaps a rapid review drill on the individual letters may be judged necessary. Second, the determining of the optimum rate of speed is indispensable. Of course this must agree with the rate already attained in making ovals and straight lines. A simple method of calculating this rate is to take as the approximate number of movements rate of speed. in making ovals 200 per minute. It is easy to discover that for the word moon the count would be m3, o-2, o-2, n-2, or nine in total. If one count be allowed for the movement from one word to the next word, the total count will be 10 for each word. By dividing the standard rate of speed, 200, by 10, the number of counts to one word, one has as quotient 20, the approximate number of times the word moon may be written per minute. One should allow at the beginning for variation from this standard. Toward the close of the practice, when pupils are able to increase speed, raise the standard possibly to 22 or 25 words per minute. There is some difficulty usually experienced in counting helpfully for words. The counting for letters is compara- tively simple because of the repetition, which is decidedly rhythmic. Instead of counting for the words, as we do for individual letter drills, name, with due recognition of time required for each letter, the letters of the word to be written. The movement required in writing moon may be controlled by naming the Utters, m-o-o-n, prolonging the sound of m 37 MANUAL just enough to allow time to make the three over motions, and prolonging the sounds of the o's and the n slightly less. Dashes of different lengths would show it about like this: moon. In naming the letters of a word, the teacher must allow for the slight interruption in the movements required in making and connecting certain letters. Some letters require a sudden and decided change in the direction of the move- ment. Such a change occurs at the top of the letter o. These interruptions in direction of movement are slight, probably unnoticed by the experienced writer, but they should be recognized by those just learning to write with the muscular movement. One who stops the movement momentarily on each o will have better control and conse- quently will be able to form the letters better than one who rushes through the word. Another plan is to allow the pupils to swing along freely and easily for a minute without regulating the speed, to determine how much variation there is in the number of words written by the different pupils. If the variation is marked, or if the general rate of speed is too slow, there should be sufficient practice to bring them all to the approximate standard determined for the age and grade of pupils. There is also the way which has previously been stated in teaching letters. The teacher may write with the class for a few minutes, naming letters at proper rate and rhythm. It is best to spell a little slowly, rather than too rapidly, at first, and gradually increase the speed until a good movement is used. When the class as a whole has achieved the desired 38 HOW TO TEACH WORDS speed rate in writing a given word, the counting or naming may be stopped and attention be directed to other features of the word. The results of pupils' writing may at first show many de- fects. The more obvious will naturally be corrected by the pupils as they are brought to attentive considera- How to tion and repetition. But there may be more correct serious faults that need discussion and immediate correction. For example the writing may appear as that of line (1), Fig. 12. The lines are heavy, tremulous, or wavy, and show signs of having been done hesitantly and by wrong movement. In this, speed is the first thing that is to be secured. These words have been written slowly, with too much attention to the forms of the letters and not enough to the muscular movement involved. Demand increased speed and attention to muscular move- ment with only slight attention to the form of the letters at the start. Have pupils perform movements with dry pens, over copy if thought best, but secure their cooperation in right movements first of all. The spacing between letters will probably require atten- tion. The letters may be too broad and the spaces between them too narrow (Fig. 12, 2). An effective The spacing means of correcting this error is to have pupils of letters. draw lines down the first and last downward strokes of the m, a third line down the left side of the o, as shown in copy, 39 MANUAL Advanced Book, p. 22. The space between the last stroke of the m and the o should be as wide as that occupied by the m itself. If this is once corrected, the other defective spacings will be easily remedied by the pupils with perhaps no further instruction by the teacher. It is also well to designate the number of words to be written on each line, proper spacing between words, with right margin on each side of paper. After spacing between letters, the characteristics of in- dividual letters should be considered. The m's and n's The faults may be sharply angular at the top, see line in letters. (3)^ pjg 12; or the o's may not be closed at top, as in line (4) , or the final stroke may be made with a down- ward and not an upward movement, line (5) . These errors need to be corrected one by one, thoroughly and once for all time. See that pupils understand the criticism. And wherever possible have them suggest the remedy. At this point in the lesson the teacher should show the pupils individual faults which they should correct. A quiet word of criticism here, and a word of encouragefhent there, will bring the teacher into close touch with each The correc- tion of pupil and afford an opportunity to discover the errors* 1 general faults. As soon as a general fault is dis- covered the teacher should stop all practice, and point out on the board the fault so clearly that no doubt will be left in the minds of the pupils as to the change that must be made. It is by such patient and helpful work in teaching pupils to achieve success in details that the whole result becomes possible and assured through the pupils' own ideals and energetic application. 40 HOW TO TEACH WORDS If pupils show signs of dropping behind the standard time, resume counting or naming of letters at once or The failure have it done by one of the pupils. By so doing, to keep time, pupils become more firmly established in rhythmic habits of action and achieve better results. All of these features to which attention has been directed are essential in good, legible, rapid writing. Writing is a means of ready record and of communication with those afar. It is made mechanically dependable to perform itself automatically. With such perfected mechanism for writing, one may be almost wholly occupied with one's ideas, only from time to time initiating the movements needed to exe- cute the written words, sentences, or paragraphs that may convey our ideas to others. Others who may have to read our writing will be enabled to do so with least attention to the form of letters or words, and go straightway to the ideas conveyed. Writing that can be only with difficulty read makes an unnecessary task for the reader. 41 CHAPTER VI HOW TO TEACH THE SENTENCE PUPILS will have been writing sentences long before it is practicable to take up for special study and practice the tech- nique of sentence writing. In connecting sentences, as in writing letters and words, the special purpose is to improve the ability to write continuous discourse so as to comply with all the essentials of good writing. Study and practice are at first analytic, emphasizing now this aspect and now that; then synthetic, incorporating the improved detail into the writing. In the study of the structure of the sen- tence, from the point of view of good writing, it is in the first place necessary to determine what are the characteristics of a well-written sentence, and then of a well-written group of sentences. With this step taken it is necessary then to improve by practice the already developed skill of writing sentences until it is possible to produce such an arrangement of words and sentences that meets all standard requirements of good writing. This implies the ability to produce an orderly, easily legible, and pleasing page of hand writing. Such a product is a work of art as well as of utility. And training in writing is assuredly incomplete unless it applies 42 HOW TO TEACH THE SENTENCE the acquired skill of fashioning legible letters and words to the production of a page of sentences that exhibits the essen- tial qualities of good penmanship. It is common knowledge that although a well-written page of pleasing appearance is most desirable, it is conspicuously rare. The reasons for this are apparent. They may be ascribed for the most part to a neglect of the basal principles involved in a well-written page. These principles or condi- tions in their relation to the sentence we may consider very briefly. First of all is regularity. This has been found to be fun- damental in all previous study and practice, and it is equally important here. Not only must there be regu- xhechar- larity in the form and size of letters, the spacing acteristks between letters in words, but there must be regular- written ity in the spacing between words in sentences and sentence between sentences as well. It is necessary to emphasize also regularity in the initial and final strokes of letters or words, since irregularity in these respects impairs some- times seriously legibility and the general appearance of the page. The second characteristic is that the lines of writing must be smooth, even, firm, and clear. If they are broken, wavy, or tremulous, now heavy and now light, or in general devoid of that smoothness and sharp yet pleasing effect that muscu- lar technique gives, they cannot be considered satisfactory as regards either their utility or beauty. It seems necessary to repeat that the character of the lines reveals definitely the method of writing. The muscular movement produces fluent, continuous, clear, and graceful lines ; but lines which 43 MANUAL are labored, broken, and tremulous point almost certainly to a dominant finger movement in writing. This is most sharply presented in the written page, which depends in large measure for its excellence upon the character of the lines. A third characteristic, closely correlated with the first and the second, and yet distinct enough to require special mention, is the idea of form. Form lies at the very root of successful handwriting. The writing mechanism may be trained to the highest degree of efficiency, but it must be guided at every stage by the idea of the form. The form of the letters, of their arrangement into words, of the ar- rangement of words in sentences, and of the sentences on the page is obviously indispensable. While a perfectly satisfactory form of the written page is only slowly devel- oped, it may be accelerated by the study of good models arid by progressive exercises that begin with the repetition of one sentence thoroughly mastered to the combination of several sentences that present somewhat more of the varie- ties of actual written composition. For the reasons we have above offered, it is recommended that pupils begin with the single sentence as given in the HOW to Advanced Book, p. 65. A rapid review of the master the principles brought out in the study and practice of writing words will be advantageous. They should be led to recognize the essentials that have been cited in the previous pages, especially in connection with the sen- tence. In the practice work pupils will usually require more than one lesson to acquire the ability to write a sentence properly. 44 HOW TO TEACH THE SENTENCE It is wise to make haste slowly, remembering that old habits may have to be reformed, a process that always proceeds more slowly than the formation of new habits. If the writing period were twenty minutes, two or three such periods would be necessary to develop the desired result. If it is only fifteen minutes, three or four such periods may well be given to the initial exercise. If the class is to begin the practice of the sentence given in the Advanced Book, p. 65, "Combine legibility, ease, and speed," somewhat the following order might be observed. Have a brief practice of the capital C, procedure, then m and n, and if it seems needed, of b. Then (1) The sentence. have the class write the word Combine, which may indeed fill up the period. At the next writing period it may be well to review all the upper loop letters appearing in the sentence, and the lower loop letters, and then practise the word legibility. A third lesson may comprise exercises of similar character with the remaining words, ease, and speed. At the next period the complete sentence will provide ample material for practice. And as already suggested it may be necessary to devote more than one period to secure a satis- factory product. A more advanced step is provided in the sentence exercises in Advanced Book, pp. 87 to 93. In these appear certain important features not possible in the mere repeti- (2) sen- tion of a sentence regardless of the page appear- tence o rou P 8 - ance. Indentation of paragraphs, margin on right and left sides of page, together with the qualities already pointed out, require careful study and much practice to insure auto- matic and correct observance. After pupils have become 45 MANUAL sufficiently proficient in writing the copies given in the text, they may, under the direction of the teacher, apply what they have learned to longer compositions, personal letters, and to the simpler letters of business correspondence. The more usual business forms, as those in Advanced Book, pp. 92-93 or those found in the arithmetic textbooks, may be taken as copy. 46 CHAPTER VII THE FIRST LESSON WHEN the teacher meets the class for the first writing lesson she should begin with a short talk about the work to be done. No attempt should be made to discuss the sub- ject exhaustively ; many things will necessarily be taken up and explained from day to day ; but the phases of the work with which the pupils must deal at once should be made very clear. In this talk correct posture should be explained and the reason should be given. Muscular movement, as dis- tinguished from finger movement, should be defined. The class should then be taught the first easy steps in muscular movement. Have the pupils drop both arms on the desk with the points of the elbows at the The g^ edge of the desk, and the hands touching each easy steps in muscular other on the desk, directly in front of the center movement of the body. Then have them open the right hands and place the palms flat on the desks, dse to secure The elbows of the right arms will then form fl ex ' llnllt v- square turns, or right angles, as they should when 47 MANUAL writing ; and the thick muscular cushions will be on the under side of the arms. Then have the pupils raise their right hands just a little off the desks, keeping the fingers extended, and the hands will be as in Fig. 13. The ad- vantage of practising with the fingers extended in this manner is that in this position the muscles are always re- /ON D . laxed. In the next step have the children move (2) Practice of their hands forward and backward as far as the muscles will stretch, in the direction in which the fingers point. Fig. 13 In producing this exercise the pupils are to be guided in a study of the movement. Ask questions as follows : Where are the muscles that move the hands forward and backward located? They are, as you know, above the elbow and around the shoulder. Where is the muscle on which the arm moves ? It is on the under side of the arm in front of the elbow. Should this muscle move backward and forward at the point on which it rests on the desk? 48 THE FIRST LESSON Of course it should not. Should the muscle stretch forward and backward when the hand moves as directed? Pupils may readily be led to observe and to feel the stretching of this muscle as the hand moves forward and backward. Keep the pupils practising the movement con- stantly during the discussion just outlined. Note, however, that the movements of the different pupils vary considerably, some rapid and some slow. These movements must be regulated by the teacher through rhythmic counting. Fig. 14 As soon as this step is mastered the fingers may be turned under so that the nails of the third and fourth fingers will touch the paper as shown in Fig. 14. This and the other figures illustrating the position of the ^ J^. arm and hand show two points of contact the ing the finger large muscle which stretches, and the finger nails which glide. The wrist should not touch the paper at any time in writing. a 49 n< i II on the MANUAL Fig. 15 Have pupils practise this movement in the position shown in Fig. 15 to a regular count until all can do tice in move- it at the rate of about 200 a minute. ment with When the movement is understood, penholding counting. as explained in Figs. 6 and 7, Advanced Book and Elementary Book, should be taken up. The pupils should practise (Fig. 16) holding the penholders correctly and run- THE FIRST LESSON ning them with dry pens, forward and backward in regular time controlled by counting. The time required to teach the first easy steps will de- pend upon the ability of the class. It may be made perfectly clear in one writing period, or it donate 1 may require two or more periods. It is a matter amount of of judgment on the part of the teacher. In teach- g en ^ the ing writing, as in teaching any subject, one step preliminary must be taught before advancing to the next. And the teacher has not taught efficiently until the pupils have learned. THE STRAIGHT LINE MOVEMENT DRILL Pupils are supposed to have mastered the following steps : (1) The movement of the arm on the muscular cushion on the under side of the forearm. (2) This movement to cover two full spaces on the practice paper. (3) The ability to make the hand glide smoothly on the nails. (4) The correct holding of the penholder. The next step is the practice of the straight line exercise as shown, Elementary Book, p. 12, and Advanced Book, p. 13. Some benefit will be derived if pupils run the dry pens up and down over the copy, properly placed. General This will give them the correct muscular sense di^ 118 of the direction and movement before attempting the exercise. The paper is to be placed so that the pen will swing along the blue line from left to right. Then the first line should 51 MANUAL be divided into quarters by making check (vO marks, as directed, Elementary Book, p. 12, Advanced Book, p. 13. The pupils may then dip the pens into the ink, take posi- tion, and begin running the pens forward and backward without touching the paper until the teacher begins directions, counting. Have the first count as the signal to (1) Count- touch the paper while the pens are in motion. The counting by the teacher should be as follows: 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10 1-2-3-1^-5-6-7 -8-9-20, etc. up to 100, in a half minute. The pen should run forward and backward on one count. At first, the pupils will be unable to make 100 strokes within one quarter of the line. Instruct each pupil to (2) The follow the count until a check mark is reached, then closeness of lines. to stop and record the number of strokes made. For instance, if the count were 65 just as the check mark was reached, the pupil should stop, write 65 at the point, then wait until the 100 count is finished. Let the aim be to increase the number of strokes in each quarter-space by making the lines closer and closer, until 100 strokes are easily made. The lines must always run forward and backward along the line of vision, and to this the teacher must give careful attention. When pupils can make 100 strokes or lines on a quarter-space with the right movement and at the standard rate of speed, they will have the satisfaction of knowing that they are getting control of the pen, and can make it do something which was before not practicable. Usually when pupils gain sufficient control to make very close lines, they may make the exercise too black. This is 52 THE FIRST LESSON usually due to too heavy pressure on the pen. They may cultivate lighter lines by making the pens run over the paper just as lightly and delicately as possible. (3) Tkg This the pupils can attain by holding the pen- lightness of holders as loosely as possible. Gripping the pen- h holders is a most common and harmful fault. When the penholders are gripped tightly, the result is that the muscles extending back through the wrist and arm are stretched tense and taut like the strings on a violin, which utterly prevents the freedom and fluent ease of movement indis- pensable to good writing. This movement is also most effective in correcting wrong habits of writing. The full, free swing which the hand and arm acquire by this exercise and which is gradually brought within the size desired develops control, skill, and the necessary confidence in ability to advance to more difficult tasks. The pupils should now be instructed to shift their papers to the left just about the same distance as that over which they have written. This should be done with the (4) Moving left hand, and should allow the right hand to retain the paper - the writing position without change. Have the pupils begin swinging their pens in the necessary way preparatory to the beginning of the count and the making of the lines in the next quarter-space. The two-space straight line should gradually be reduced until it conforms to the size of letters in which it is The one-space exercise, see Elementary Book, from the p.' 14, Advanced Book, p. 15, may be taken as a second step in the preliminary drills. 53 MANUAL Practice of the straight line should be continued until the pupils are masters of these items : (1) Holding correctly the penholder, without gripping or pressing too heavily upon it. (2) Skill and standard speed in moving pen forward and backward in the right direction, and (3) Making as nearly as possible just one hundred strokes in each quarter space. This drill needs to be reviewed frequently after these things are mastered, and especially in preparatory exercises to letters of which the straight line is an essential part. THE OVAL MOVEMENT DRILL No other exercise has served as well to develop power, freedom, control, quality of line, and confidence as the com- pact oval. See Elementary Book, p. 14, Advanced pact oval Book, p. 15. It is simple in execution, for it is merely the repetition of a single rotary motion. The movement required to produce it soon becomes auto- matic. As soon as the movement becomes automatic, or nearly so, the pupils' attention can be directed to details that are important in muscular movement writing. They may successively notice the form and slant of the ovals, observe the arm, and see that it moves freely on the muscular cushion. They may observe position of the third and fourth fingers, which should be turned under the hand and gliding smoothly and fluently on the paper. The wrist, they may notice, is raised just a little above the paper. The teacher may lead them to consider how they hold the 54 THE FIRST LESSON penholder, whether pinching or holding it loosely, between the thumb and the first and second fingers. They may also observe the direction in which the penholder is pointing, and see that it points back over the arm, between the elbow and shoulder. The drill to be practised in preparation for the compact oval drill is that presented in Elementary Book, p. 13, No. 1, and Advanced Book, p. 14, No. 1. In beginning this, the pupils place the copy of the book parallel teach the with the blue lines on the practice paper, then co ^ P j C j!i with dry pens swing over the copy a few times to d) Prepar- see how it feels to make the movements used in the atory wc ovals. Make the straight-line movements first, and then swing round and round the ends of the straight lines. After a few trials with the dry pen, they may, with ink, make on the practice paper the straight line and oval ten times on a line. The straight lines are first made to the count of eight; with pens raised the least bit from the paper, two ovals are swung around the straight lines to the count of 1-2 before touching the paper and making the eight ovals to the 3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10 count. The two oval swings taken before touching the paper give pupils a moment to think of the oval form before mak- ing it on the paper and to get the hand and the arm moving fluently in the necessary fashion. A very good way to regulate the time for a class is to say, ''Straight 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8, Round 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10" for the retraced ovals. By saying straight before counting for the straight lines and round before counting for the ovals, the pupils are given a command of preparation for the required 55 MANUAL movement and also time to change from one movement to the next. If these commands are given in the right tone and with the proper emphasis while counting, all the pupils will be kept together making the straight lines or the ovals in simultaneous movement. If the results of this practice be too narrow, as are shown in Fig. 17, (1), then effort must be made to secure a more (2) The circular movement. It may be that the slant of correction the ovals (2) is not that of the straight lines. This is probably due to the neglect of pupils to swing around the ends of the straight lines. If the lines are too far apart (3), they show most plainly very poor control and the need of more prac- tice in tracing with dry pens the copy of straight and oval lines. Strive always to have pupils make light, smooth, but firm lines, close together, and the oval lines just barely touching one another. (See copy, Elementary Book, p. 13, Advanced Book, p. 14.) When the right slant of the ovals is secured by the straight- line-oval drill, the compact oval two spaces high (Drill 2, p. 14, Advanced Book) should be practised. The (3) Prac- \ , ticethe shape of an oval or ellipse should be clearly correct visualized as each circular movement is made. form. The lines are to be made close enough together to allow 400 ovals to a seven-inch line. After each 100 counts, the pupils should stop, and shift the paper about one and a half inches toward the left as previously suggested. 56 THE FIRST LESSON The quality of line developed by the straight-line and the oval exercises, and the optimum rate of speed which is gained in the practice, serve as the basis for all writing. The standard rate of speed for straight-line and oval practice is approximately 200 in one minute - 100 to each quarter line, in one half minute. Pupils should become equally skillful in the direct and reverse oval drills one space high, as shown in Drill No. 2, p. 15, Advanced Book, and p. 14, Elementary Book. Important points to emphasize during practice are (1) cor- rect posture, (2) relaxed muscles, (3) correct slant, or direc- tion, (4) roundness, or oval forms, (5) lightness of touch, and (6) compactness. 57 CHAPTER VIII HOW TO TEACH LETTERS IT is generally agreed among teachers of muscular move- ment writing that the capital 0, which is closely related in How to form to the oval exercises, is the best letter to teach the begin in the first specific application of movement (1) study to the making of letters. Questions such as the the letter. following suggest the chief characteristics of the capital : What general movement is used in making the ? How large is the ? Is it made with a heavy or a light line ? In what direction should the pen be moving when it touches the paper? In what direction should the pen be moving when lifted from the paper ? It has been proven by experiments that pupils who are skillful in the oval exercises will frequently revert to the (2) Base the finger movement in the attempt to make a letter. practice on fo prevent this tendency, associate by preparatory movement practice the retraced oval which embodies the exercise. movement required for making the capital with the letter itself. Advanced Book, p. 16. The purpose of this is obviously to employ the same free swing used in the retraced oval in making the capital 0. The pupils should be led to observe that the loop at the top of the retraced oval is like that of the 0, and that the 58 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS final stroke is made with an upward motion. The size of the letter is a full space between two blue lines. Count six, rather quickly, for the retraced oval, careful at- and without hesitating say, " swing 1, swing 2, swing ienhon <0 3" This encourages continuation of the move- ment of the retraced oval in writing the capital at least three times. Repeat the retraced oval and three O's on each quarter line. The paper should be moved to the left as formerly. While the aim is to form the letters as nearly like those in the copy as possible, it is primarily to secure and establish as a habit a movement that is skilled or controlled, and also fluent and easy. Further suggestions for teaching the capital are given under How to Teach Capital Letters, p. 24. The small o is a very much reduced form of the capital 0. The final loop in the capital becomes a dot, or point in the small o. It is necessary to stop at teac i, the the top of each, in order to close it and swing drill. toward the next letter properly. d> p re . The special purpose in this practice is to develop lim ^ ar ^ confidence and control in moving the hand and pen across the page. See Elementary Book, p. 17, Advanced Book, p. 18. The letters in this exercise are separated a little more than they are in regular writing, for the purpose of giving practice in passing from one letter to another. There are two movements in this drill, one in forming the small oval and one in swinging to the succeeding letter. The count is -1-2 for each o. Faults may best be corrected by making the child critical 59 MANUAL of his own work. Questions to draw the attention of chil- dren to the points of perfection in the model may be asked to encourage the child in intelligent self-direction of his work. Such questions as the following are suggested : What is the form of an o ? Is the o open or closed at the top? What letter will the o resemble if the top is not closed ? Is the line connecting one o with the following letter straight or curved ? How many o's are there in each group? How many groups on one line? Are the lines tremulous or smooth ? What causes tremulous lines ? In advanced classes make four groups of five o's each on a line. The speed at first should be four lines or 80 letters (2) Prac- in one minute. This may be increased gradually vanc&d until five lines a minute can be made, a rate which classes. corresponds closely to the speed gained in prac- tising the general movement exercises. The rate of speed may be calculated as follows. The count for one o is 1-2 and for a group of five o's ten. Add to this two counts, or the time of one letter, to allow for passing from the final stroke of one group to the beginning of the next group, which gives 12. Two hundred, the standard rate of movement per minute, divided by 12, gives the approximate number of groups to be made in one minute. This rate of speed will insure smooth lines and correct the fault shown in Fig. 18 (1). If pupils do not allow wide enough space between letters to make the twenty letters extend across the page, Fig. 18 (2), (3) The ^ey ma y ke instructed to give a longer swing correction between them. Attention may be directed to this by counting thus : 1 swing, 2 swing, 3 swing, 4 swing, 5 swing. If the o's are too large, Fig. 18 (3), the 60 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS phrase small o, small o, small o, etc., will direct attention to the correction of this fault. If they are too narrow, Fig. 18 (4), as is frequently the case, use the phrase round o, round o, round o. The aim should be to make the o's small, round, closed, and evenly spaced with a free, easy movement. Questions like the following seldom fail to arouse interest in the work: How many are failing to close the o's at the top? See (5), Fig. 18. By watching closely, can you make three lines of o's and not leave one open at the top ? Children are usually optimistic and feel certain they can do so. When the three lines are made at the standard rate of speed, ascer- tain whether they all succeeded in closing every o. Perhaps not more than three or four have suc- ceeded. This will arouse a desire to try it again and again. It becomes a race a contest, until many or all can close every o. There is scarcely a more inter- esting way than this to correct any fault ; and the pupils are not likely soon to forget a lesson learned in this manner. In the elementary grades four groups of 4 o's each are suggested for one line. See p. 17, Elementary Book. The two fundamental movements used in all letter forma- tions are the direct and reverse oval and the HOW to straight-line movements. Application of the direct oval movement was made in the o, both capital and.y. and small. We have now to apply the straight- line movement to M and N, capital and small. work - 61 Fig. 18 MANUAL Fig. 19 As a preparation to make the capitals M and N, the straight- line and reverse oval drills (pp. 13 and 15, Advanced Book) and the specific drills (p. 19, Advanced Book) should be practised. The directions given on p. 19, Advanced Book, for the specific drills are to be followed. All downward strokes should be as light as the upward strokes. This will keep pupils from making the pens scrape or scratch the paper on the downward stroke. If any of the pupils make the down strokes in Drill No. 3, p. 19, Advanced Book, too short, as shown in Fig. 19, (1), a corrective exer- cise is to practise them a full space high, as shown in Fig. 19, (2). Study the capital M on p. 20, Advanced Book, or p. 19, Elementary Book. Observe that the initial stroke com- (2) study prises a small loop and a broad turn which becomes of the model. a straight line as it approaches the base line ; that there are three overturns in the top of the letter ; that the first overturn is broader than the other two ; and that the three downward strokes have the same slant. A common fault in making these letters is to make angles at the top as in Fig. 19, (3). To correct this fault the over (3) The motion must be practised and round form securely correction established. Another fault may appear. The downward strokes may be too widely separated (4) which consequently makes the M's and N's too broad. A corrective exercise is to have pupils make the complete 62 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS exercise six times on a line, as in the copy. But, until pupils can make the specific drill overturns with regularity, it may be advisable to reduce the number to five or even four on a line. This specific drill should have the same rate of speed as in the general movement drills; i.e. eighteen or twenty times in one minute. The rate of speed is estimated as in former exercises by dividing 200, the number of movements a minute in a general drill, by 10, the number of movements required for the specific drill. ^A small allowance is to be made for the time needed in passing from one group to another. The small initial loop and the three overturns at the top of capital M should be studied carefully. Consider also the curvature of the final stroke, which is finished by a down- ward stroke until the letter is well and easily made with fluent muscular movement. See Elementary Book, p. 19, and Advanced Book, p. 20. The first overturn should be broader than either of the others. The space between the straight lines of the M should be equal in width. The down strokes should be as light as the upward strokes. There are no angles at the tops of the M and N. Aim to make the last part of the M or N almost as high as the first part. One may ask questions as follows : How tall is the capital J/ ? How many overturns are made in the top of the letter? Have the turns all the same width? Are all the turns the same in height? In what direction should the pen be moving when it is lifted from the paper? Is the final stroke straight or curved ? 63 MANUAL It is advisable to allow a full stop at the base line on the first downward stroke, until the form of the M is practically perfect. Then the stop may be cut shorter until it is scarcely noticeable. The count is 1 stop, 3-4, or 1-2, 3-4, or 1-2, 3 swing. In Fig. 20, (1), the first turn at the top is too narrow and (4) mua *ke l etter as a whole is too broad ; in (2) the initial tration of stroke is too high and the remainder of the letter is too low ; in (3) there are angles at the top and the last stroke is too high. The number of M's to be made in a minute is determined as already explained. The 200 basis is to be divided by 5 (4 counts for M and 1 for swing to next letter) which gives as quotient 40, or the number of M 's to be made in a minute. Of N's 5 to 10 more can be made as the simple computation will show. More detailed treatment of the capitals M and N is given pp. 67 and 68, Advanced Book. The small m and n should be studied, practised, and re- viewed frequently until they can be made skillfully. Per- Howto haps no other letters serve to develop the highly ImaUm* specialized movement so well as do these letters, and n. The straight-line or push-and-pull movement predominates in the small m and n, as it does in the corresponding capitals. Therefore the straight- line drill one space high should be practised as a preliminary. See Drill No. i, p. 15, Advanced Book. The reverse oval drill may also refresh the muscular memory of the over motion. 64 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS Frequently pupils who can apply the muscular move- ment to the larger drills will unintentionally resort to finger movement in reducing the length of the push-and-pull movement to the size of the small m. This tendency may be avoided by first practising the over motion as in a rather large m, about half the height between two ruled lines. See Drill No. i, p. 21, Advanced Book. When pupils can make the form of this intermediate size with free mus- cular movement, they may assume the practice of the smaller form. When the form is being reduced in height it should also be made more compact. The width of an m should be approximately twice the height. For spacing between letters see Advanced Book, p. 21, Drill 3. The downward lines should be close enough together to allow five groups of ten downward strokes each on a line. As in former exercises on capitals M and N, care should be exercised to avoid angular tops, and to make the final stroke just as it is in the copy. The over-under motion at the end of the letters or forms is the difficult part to perfect. This exercise, comprising in all ten movements, should be executed twenty times a minute. Analysis shows that small m is made by three over- motions. The count for an m is therefore 1-2-3; and for a group of four m's the count is 1-2-3, 1-2-3, The 1-2-3, 1-2-3. In the early attempts to write m's correction at full standard speed (52 or more per minute), J pupils may make such mistakes as the following : The m's may, Fig. 21, (1), be too broad, with the space between the letters too narrow. The space is shown in copy to be F 65 MANUAL exactly as wide as is an m. Instead of counting 1-2-3, say "glide 2-3, glide 2-3, glide 2-3, glide 2-3" for a group of four ra's. This method of counting may often be used to advantage. In seeking to space better between the letters, the tend- ency may be encouraged to form sharply angular tops in the latter part of each group as Fig. 21, (2). And one needs constantly to recognize that in correcting one fault, others may be multiplied or at least made possible. So in this case, the corrective meas- ure is largely responsible for a new fault, Fig. 21, (3). The final stroke of each letter is made with p . 21 the wrong movement. It should be executed with the under movement, which gives a curving, not a straight line connecting with the next letter. In the course of all corrective and developmental exercises, keep the rate of speed as nearly to the standard as possible. If, in some difficulty, a slower speed is for a moment neces- sary, the standard should quickly be resumed. The neces- sity for this will be most obvious in the general character of the lines of the letters. In the elementary grades it is better to make but three letters in a group and four groups on an eight-inch line. See Elementary Book, p. 20. Children of the ages and grades for which the Elementary Book is intended do not have, and can not reasonably be forced to acquire, the highly specialized control of the movements necessary to 66 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS the production of small, fine lines and characters. They should be encouraged to write in rather large and always fluent manner. The muscular movement should for them be first of all made habitual, reflex, automatic. All needed preventives and safeguards against wrong methods of writing will then be most effectually established. One right useful habit is an incomparably better preventive of wrong habits in the same domain than all the correctives that can be applied. For further discussion of this topic see How to Teach Words, p. 35. A special application of the direct oval movement was made in the letter o, both capital and small. An application f the straight line was made in the capital and teach the small M and N. The letter A, capital and small, capital A. (i) Corre- combines both of these movements. This is a particularly interesting and profitable letter for practice. The oval motion, necessitating fluent movement, and the full stop at the angular joining, aid in acquiring control and confidence. For this reason the A exercise can be treated as a basic drill. The large oval exercise should frequently be practised in connection with it. Review Drill No. 3, p. 15, Advanced Book, as a preparation to the capital A. A study of Drills i and 2, p. 23, Advanced Book, will give a correct idea of the form. Observe the slant and shape of the oval part of the letter as compared with the slant and shape of the oval in capital 0. By retracing the oval before swinging the oval part of the A, the hand is put into motion, which checks any pos- sible tendency to a finger movement. By swinging the pen first to the top of the oval, then making the final stroke 67 MANUAL down through its center, the pupil will quickly perceive that there is a definite aim in the practice. A full stop at the top of the oval will insure against making a loop. The purpose of Drill No. 3, p. 23, Advanced Book, is to test and develop the pupil's ability to initiate the correct motion and to continue it until A is made three times. The pen is lifted from the retraced oval on the downward stroke and swung in continuous motion to the first A. The A must be closed at the top, at the point marked x. As soon as this drill can be executed with free swinging (2) Pre movement and a resulting form that is fairly Uminary good, drop it, and proceed at once to make four ^4's on each quarter space, or 16 on a line. See Ad- vanced Book, p. 24. The first line exercise shows the swing from one A to the next. A good plan is to trace with the dry pen a few times over Drill No. i, to get the swing of it and to feel the uninter- rupted swing from below the line up and around to the next following A. Do not forget a momentary stop at the top, where the lines meet, which prevents making a loop. Make exercise No. 2, p. 24, by swinging as in the preceding exercise No. i. Lift the pen in passing from one A to an- other as the dotted lines indicate. See directions for count- ing on p. 24, Advanced Book. If pupils loop the tops of the A's as in Fig. 22, (1), it is probably due to their failure to stop at the top of the A (3) The before starting on the final stroke. If the A's are correction open at the top, the defect may be remedied by urging pupils to push their pens forward far enough to touch the beginning point. See copy, p. 24, 68 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS Fig. 22 Advanced Book. If such a fault as (3) of Fig. 22 appear it is evident that the pupils, in applying good movement, make the pens touch the paper in the upward swing. The pens must not touch the paper until the downward movement is begun. Pupils who make A's too narrow, like (4) in Fig. 22, should apply more circular motion. For treatment of other features of capital A see Advanced Book, pp. 33 and 64, and Elementary Book, p. 23. In deciding what points to emphasize at the beginning of the study and practice of a new letter, it is well to ascer- tain what letter or letters the new letter may re- semble. When this question is answered, one teach the should also try to foresee what faults may appear and how most economically and certainly to block or correct them. The letter a obviously resembles in important parts both u and o. The second problem will plainly bring into view the facts, (1) that if a is left open at the top (1) Com; it will be confused with u, Fig. 23, (1), and if the fated final stroke is curved toward the next letter, in- stead of dropping to the base line before starting toward the next letter, it will necessarily resemble o, Fig. 23, (2). These points should be clearly fore- seen before presenting the letter to the class. The pupils' 69 Fig. 23 MANUAL attention should be led to observe that in all a's in the copy, p. 25, Advanced Book, and Elementary Book, p. 24, the tops are closed, and that the final stroke in- variably touches the line before the motion to the next letter is begun. The a should be narrow and the connecting line between (2) study two a's should be nearly straight. Pupils often of the model. nee( J O De cautioned against exaggerating the curvature of the connecting line. Observe the regular spacing, which is about as wide as two a's between the a's. For advanced grades the word manna, Advanced Book, p. 25, is an especially profitable word for practice, com- (3) Prac- prising as it does five letters, which correspond tice. j n number to the letter drill above, and furnishing a review of the m and n. The word can be written four times on a line with clear and regular spacing between letters and between words. The spacing between letters should be equal to the width of m. If necessary, have pupils employ dotted lines as illustrated in the first word. The rate of speed that corresponds, approximately, to the rate of speed for oval exercises is 16 words in a minute. Note the supplementary words for practice. In all word practice, at least one page of each word should be written. For elementary classes shorter exercises and words are provided. The size of letters, and spacing between letters and words are adapted to the probable abilities of children of these grades. See Elementary Book, p. 24. The small i and u are chosen here because they con- tribute to the development of ease and freedom in an under motion of accurate spacing, and a uniform slant. See 70 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS Advanced Book, p. 26, Elementary Book, pp. 22 and 27, for copies with full directions for practice. The downward stroke is short, but straight, and should slant How to toward the center of the body. The hand must teach the move with the pen. Never allow any finger ^ maU * and movement in making these letters, however (i) General strong the tendency. The under motion be- direction - tween the letters is distinct and must be so made in- variably. Counting for a group of u's is best done by 1-2, 1-2, 1-2, 1-2, at first, instead of 1-2, 3-4, 5-6, 7-8. Changing the figures seems to be distracting. When the rhythm is es- tablished the count given in Advanced Book, p. 26, may be used. Avoid too much rolling motion, which gives such a product as shown in Fig. 24. Flg ' 24 Letters n and u are frequently confused with each other. The n requires a distinct over motion, and the u a distinct under motion. Exercise No. i, page 27, Advanced Book, is in- valuable for developing skill in making these letters clear and distinctive, free from any possible confusion with each other. The time and rhythm to be observed in this practice may be suggested by saying 1-2, 3-4, 1-2, 3-4, 1-2 or n-u-n-n-n. The latter is probably the better. In writing the word minion, pupils should let the pen run continuously to the top of the o, where a slight stop, in the movement will insure control of the next stroke and also result in better letters. Remember that the o is closed and the tops of w's and n's are round. 71 MANUAL The letter e is often made like, and mistaken for, the small i. The loop of e is often closed through carelessness. Give, therefore, attention to the loop and see that the teach the correct movement is made to produce it. It may small e. g{ ve a correct idea to the pupils to say "Make the (1) General * * J . directions. e so you can see the white paper through its top. The final stroke is made with a full under motion. Six e's in a group with continuous movement and to an even, regular count of 1-2-3-^-5-6, will meet the normal require- ments. Regular spacing will allow five groups to a seven- inch line. The standard speed is 22 to 25 groups a minute. See Advanced Book, pp. 28 and 29, and Elementary Book, p. 22. The word mine (Advanced Book, p. 29) involves especial emphasis of these points : good movement ; over motion in m and n ; a sharp point at the top of i ; a loop in the upper part of e ; the space between the letters equal to the width of an m ; and the final stroke swung decidedly upward. The rhythm may be clearly indicated by naming the letters, as m-l-n-e. The word mine is an excellent movement drill, and as such should be practised frequently until the pupils can write it from 20 to 25 times per minute easily and well with the muscular movement. See instructions, Advanced Book, p. 29. The initial stroke of this letter is a short under motion which should begin on the line, never below it. Unless the initial stroke begins on the line, it will be straight, teach the a condition which causes the letter to slant too small s. much. The top of the s should be sharply directions, pointed, and the bottom should be entirely closed. The space between the upward and downward strokes is narrow. 72 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS The attention of pupils may well be directed to specific points through questions. Say : " Is the s round or angular at the top ? Is the s open or closed at the bottom ? Is the s wide or narrow ? Is the initial stroke straight or curved ?" Pupils should answer these questions on the basis of their study of the copy, Advanced Book, p. 30, Drill i. The count for the s is 12, with a slight prolongation of the 2 to insure its being closed at the bottom. If pupils are inclined to make the top of the 5 round, as Fig. 25, line (1), they should make a short stop at the top as well as at the bottom. If the letters are crowded together, as in line (2), a wider swing be- tween letters will correct this. The closing of s at the bottom is important. It should not be as in line (3) nor as in line (4), .where they are closed too near the top. If the downward stroke is heavy as in line (5), too heavy pressure on the pen is probably the cause. The downward strokes should be as light as the upward strokes. The correct speed for writing s's is 16 groups per minute. The word misses is especially good as a practice Exercise (1) because the space between the letters may be meas- ured exactly by the width of the ra, and (2) be- (2) Dir&> cause following the m in which the over motion is tionsfvr dominant, the remainder of the word is made with J the under motion. In this the exercise, Advanced Book, p. 30, No. 2, has given preparation. 73 Fig. 25 MANUAL Fig. 26 Common faults that may appear in pupils' work are illus- trated in Fig. 26. In the first specimen the ra is too wide and the spacing between the letters is too narrow. In the second line the m is angular at the top and the loop of the e is closed. In the third the s's are round at the top ; and in the last line they are open at the bottom. Attention should be directed continually to the correct form of the letter so that these faults can be avoided through Attention preparatory training. The teacher may make use to correct of suggestive phrases in the count controls and at the same time maintain the necessary speed and rhythm. Such phrases have already been presented. New and appropriate forms may easily be devised for any letter or exercise, the principal requirement being that they must not distract attention from the real work in hand or retard and disturb the rate of speed and rhythm. It is quite too easy and cheap to employ phrases that seriously interfere with pupils' work, and provoke detrimental emotional reac- tions, a decidedly harmful attitude that cannot readily be con- verted into a better or be fully repressed later. As has been repeatedly stated, the emotional tone and the attitude of pupils must be favorable if the results are to be at all educa- tive and productive of skill. Emotion dominates in much of our behavior and in most marked degree in this mode, which may of course ultimately be quite fully mechanized or automatized. 74 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS If in the employment of such phrases there should for a brief moment be a slight retardation of the speed of move- ment, the aim should be definitely in mind to regain the desired speed very quickly. It is always possible to trace a rich crop of faults in movement and product to a rate of speed that is too far below the standard. And these errors are often refractory to the very end, as experience abundantly confirms. The standard rate of production, as may readily be verified by computation, will be about 16, possibly more, words in a minute. . When the pronunciation of the names of the letters of the word is used as speed and rhythm control, the quantity of the letters may be somewhat as follows. The m must be prolonged perhaps twice as long as the s. The i is shorter, perhaps about one-fourth the length of m. Dashes of differ- ent lengths may suggest their relative value, as m I s s e s. Both styles of script r are given in ,this series. We consider first the shoulder-form of r, Advanced w ^ h Book, p. 32. This form is more widely used than small r. the form described in the Advanced Book, p. 42, and it is far less likely to be confused with other letters. The practice of s in the preceding lesson is directly pre- paratory to the r. The initial stroke of s corresponds with the initial stroke of r. The turning point of the top of r is just a little higher than that of i. The chief characteristic of this style of r is the little angular shoulder in upper part. This shoulder depends for its value upon the full recognition of the two distinct angles required in its construction. Pupils will quickly perceive the rhythm of the movement 75 MANUAL in writing r, if the manner of counting suggestively controls their efforts. The count should suggest a momentary pause at the apex of the letter to insure the correct formation of the necessary angles. It must be admitted that r presents peculiar difficulties for counting or oral control of rhythm and speed. Experiments seem to show that the proper count is less than 1-2-3 and more than 1-2. Probably the phrase 1 an' 2 that is sometimes used in musical tempo expresses the time most satisfactorily. It needs to be said in singing fashion, if one may so express it. When the feeling of the movement is rightly interpreted and expressed in the 1 an 2, 1 an' 2, there will be no obstacle to early success in the making of this letter. If r is made too narrow at the top it will re- (2) The es- sem bl e ^ as m j me (j) j^ g 2 7 ; if it is too broad, tabhshment of correct or the curve in the top is exaggerated, it will re- JJJrwifc*. sem le e, as in line (2) . If the upward stroke of r is straight, the downward stroke will usually tend to curve too much, as line (3). In the practice of the e-r-e-r-e-r combination, it is best to indicate the rhythm by pronouncing the names of the letters, as e-r-e-r-e-^r. The script models, arrears and runners, Advanced Book, Direc _ p. 32, should be thoroughly practised, as they tionsfor not only present r in connection with other letters already studied, but also afford a review of these letters ; namely, a, e, s, u, and n. The regular and there- 76 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS fore clear spacing between the letters is especially to be observed and followed in practice. The second style of >r, Advanced Book, p. 42, is not new by any means, as some seem to suppose, but has been in use several hundred years. Its chief advantage is The second that it can be made slightly more rapidly than the form of r - first style of r. It is quite as legible when made correctly. But precision and accuracy are indispensable if it is to be made so that it cannot be confused with v, n, or x. This type of r is made by combining the first stroke of m and the last stroke of w. Be sure to retrace the downward stroke to avoid the appearance of a v, as in Fig. (1) The 28, line (1). Swing the final stroke up to prevent correct form. a resemblance to n, as line (2), and do not retrace the upward stroke so far that it will resemble x, as line (3). The count for this r is 1-2, the 1 slightly prolonged and the 2 stac- cato or short and quick. The capital C is another of the direct oval group of letters. A review of the direct oval movement exercise and capital will be an appropriate and helpful preliminary practice for C. In the Advanced Book, pp. 34, 35, 36, especially p. 34, Exercise No. i, there are directions that combine C and the retraced oval in directions. a specific movement drill. Here one may direct the child's attention to the correct form of the letter through questions as follows : In what direction is the first stroke of the C made ? 77 MANUAL Is the first stroke straight or curved ? Is the starting point the highest point in the letter ? Which is wider, the loop in the C or the part to the left of the loop ? What is the length of the loop ? In what direction should the pen be moving when it is lifted from the paper ? These questions should help the pupils form a correct idea of the chief features of the letter and the movement required to write it. It will be beneficial here to swing with the dry pen over the copy a few times to get definitely the actual feeling of the movement in making the letter. The next step is to put the hand in motion, then at the right instant write C and without hesitating complete four ovals around it. Count 1-2-3-^-5-6, with the value of the 1 count very much less than, possibly one-half that of, the succeeding counts. This is due to the fact that it represents the shortest stroke in the letter. Exercise No. 2, on page 34, Advanced Book, is one that will constrain pupils to develop the ability to make C with the muscular movement. The oval is a full space high and C a little less than a full space. The count is 1-2-3-^-5-6 for the retraced oval, and 1-2, 1-2, 1-2, for each group of three C"s. The count for three C"s may also be given as follows : 1-2, 3-4, 5-6 ; or 1 swing, 2 swing, 3 swing. While the form of the C is not to be neglected, the chief aim in the practice of this drill is to develop and establish securely a good, free, and accurately controlled swinging movement. An important item is to have the lines in C as light and smooth as those of the retraced ovals. 78 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS In making C"s, the next practice step, the count should be, as stated in Advanced Book, p. 35 ; Elementary Book, p. 30, 1-2, 3-4, or 1-swing, 2-swing, etc. The number of C's to be made in a minute is determined by dividing 200, the number of ovals per minute, by 3. Remember that the aim is to learn how to make good letters at the rate of speed that is demanded in practical writing. In Fig. 29, (1) shows C's that were made too (2) Direc ~ tions to slowly; (2) C s that are too narrow; (3) C"s with secure cor- tops too narrow; (4) C"s with loops mere dots. Tectform - While learning to make C with the muscular movement, some pupils may tend to make it with an impulsive swing brought to a sudden Direc full Stop Of the Writ- ticms for /$ /ft fft fi) ft) ing machinery at the applicatiotl - /- C (^ C end. Special training is needed to enable them to make C with a free movement and still reserve the power to continue the move- ment in forming other letters * t 11 Fig. 29 of a following word. The first line Co, Advanced Book, pp. 36 and 65, and the first line, Advanced Book, p. 31, are suggested for practice to develop the desired skill. When the first letter following C makes necessary a slight stop in the movement, as o or a, this stop should emphatically be utilized as an aid in ac- quiring better control. Pupils will realize its advantage by first practising Co as a unit with the counting control ex- pressed by the phrase capital C-o. When they respond to this with confidence, pupils will find it easy to control the 79 MANUAL pen in writing the remainder of the word, to capital C-o, m-e, the comma, as elsewhere in these counting devices, marking a slight stop, at the top of o. In writing Come it is best to allow a slight pause after the o is made ; but in Cannon, it is necessary to stop also momentarily before the a is made. Therefore in having class drill on the word Cannon the naming of the letters should be as follows : Capital C, a-w-n-o, n. The chief faults to be looked for are shown in Fig. 30. (1) The o is finished by a stroke in the wrong direction; (2) the spacing is irregular and ill pro- portioned; (3) the o resembles a v, and there is an angle in the top of the m ', (4) the final stroke is made in the wrong direction. The movement making c is quite like that of i, the only difference being the dot or hook in the top of c. This dot or hook is what gives distinctive character to c, differen- Howto tiating it from i or, perhaps, e. The down- teach the ward stroke of c should for study purposes be CD General compared with the downward stroke of o. Al- directions. t h ou gh this stroke may be somewhat curved with- out rendering it illegible, a nearly straight downward stroke gives it a very pleasing appearance. The count is 1-2 for each c, with a slight accent on the 1 . Five c's may be counted as follows : dot 1, dot 2, dot 3, dot 4, dot 5. The writing lessons for teaching small c are found in the author's Elementary Book, p. 32, and Advanced Book, p. 37. 80 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS If the dot is omitted as in Fig. 31, line (1), the (2) letter will resemble i ; if there be too much circu- lar motion in the downward stroke, the letter will rect form. have an ungainly appearance, as in line (2). In writing the word access, Advanced Book, p. 37, as a movement exercise, stop the movement slightly at the top of each c and at the bot- , g , ^ torn of each s. See tions for Ap- that dots or hooks are plio in the tops of the c's, that an open loop is in e, and that each s has a sharp top and is closed at the bottom. The capital E is another of the direct oval group of letters. For preliminary practice the direct oval, Advanced Book, p. 15, and the capital How to C, p. 35, should be re- teach the . , ' . capital E. Viewed. I he specific ex- (1) General ercise, Advanced Book, Directions. p. 38, should then be traced with the dry pen to get the motor Fi 32 sensation of its form and size, after which there should be thor- ough practice with ink to the count of 1-2, 3-4, 5-6, 7-8, 9-10. Begin the E with a dot. Make the top and bottom nearly the same size. The top and bottom consist of parts of two small circles. For lesson directions see the author's Advanced Book, pp. 38 and 66. The attention of the class may be directed to the critical points in the form of the letter by questions as follows: G 81 MANUAL Should E occupy the full space between two blue lines ? (2) Direc- Does E begin with a dot? Where is the loop in E located? In what direction does the loop secure cor- rect form. seem to point? In completing an E, in what direction should the pen be moving as it is lifted from the paper? Make E to a count of 1-2-3, or dot, 2-3, with a slight accent on the 1 or dot. Exercise No. 2, p. 38, Advanced Book, is excellent for use in developing continuity of motion after making the capital E. The count for this exercise is 1, 2-3-4-5-6-7. Note the number to be made on a line. Pupils should make about forty -five good capital E's in a minute. Common faults are illustrated in Fig. 32. (1) in- stead of the dot at the top there is a loop, which, moreover, touches the loop in the middle of the letter ; (2) the left side of E is too flat, and reveals lack of the circular motion ; (3) the E is not well proportioned, that is, the top is too small, and the lower part is too large. In a well-formed E the loop invariably points directly toward the right or possibly slightly downward, but never upward as in line (2) . How to The w is a combination of u and the last part teach the o f ^g sma ii O- This fact should be clearly per- small w. . (i) General ceived by the class. directions. rffas lesson will be found fully developed in the author's Advanced Book, p. 39, and in the Elementary Book, p. 28. There is no better way to give the pupils the idea of the (2) The correct formation of a letter than by comparing it d 7oara^ t w ^ 1 ^ ers ^ey have previously practised, parts form. of which are used in the construction of a new letter. 82 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS Suggestive questions may be used to direct attention to critical points. Of what letters previously practised is the w composed ? Are there points or turns at the bottom of the w ? Compare the width of the last part of the w with the width of the first part. Is the connecting line between two w's straight or curved ? These and similar questions may be asked to focus attention on the correct form. Pupils nearly always make w too wide. This fault may be corrected (1) by having pupils leave a space between two w's a little wider than a w ; and (2) by having them make the w's narrow enough to write four groups of four w's each 16 w's on a line. See Advanced Book, p. 39. Count 1-2-3 for each w, and say the 2-3 more quickly than the 1, as I 2 3. Pause slightly in finishing the w and Fig 33 see that the first part is like u. The faults which the teacher may expect are shown in Fig. 33. In line (1) the w's are too wide and the spacing between them is too narrow; in line (2) there are angles, and not turns, in the bottoms of the w's ; in line (3) the third point or dot in the top of the w is omitted ; in (4) the first part is too wide and the last part too narrow, making w resemble an i and a carelessly formed o, or a v. The word answers can be written four times (3) Direc _ on a line, with proper and regular spacing, as just tionsfor above defined, between letters. To do this will constrain pupils to make w narrow. In spelling the word 83 MANUAL The lessons on the small in class drill, a slight pause in the movement should be suggested at the bottom of s, and another after the w, as a-n-s, w-e-r-s. A little extra time is required to finish w properly, and fortunately extra time is given by pronouncing the w properly. See that no angles appear in n, and give time to form the top of r correctly. The small letter v is a combination of the last part of small H m and the last part of the small w. Begin v, as teach the in beginning m, with a combination of the over and the under motion, and finish it with a point and a horizontal curve. Make a slight pause in finishing this letter. may be found in the author's Advanced Book, p. 40; and Elementary Book, p. 29. You may find such faults as those shown in Fig. 34. In line (1) the v's resemble o's that are left open, probably because of the wrong move- ment in making the first part of the letter, a movement which gives it an angular top and not a turn. In line (2) the 0's resemble one style of r, because they are sharply angular at the bottom. In line (3) the identity of the letter is in doubt, because the dot or point in the last part of the v is omitted. In line (4) the v's are far too wide, and irregular both in size and spacing. Questions may be asked as follows : From what letters do we derive the parts which are combined to make letter v ? 84 Fig. 34 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS How many turns are made in a correctly formed v ? How many angles ? What kind of movement or motion is made between the v's ? What kind of connecting line ? Count 1-2 for each v ; and have pupils swing out just enough between the v's to make four groups of five letters each on a line. In the application of this lesson give special attention to the writing of the words river, revive, vain, move, waive. These words comprise letters previously practised. The x may be made in three different ways ; but the way most commonly practised, and least likely to cause the letter to lose its identity, is that shown in the Howto copies referred to above. The x involves the teach the over-under motion, as in the last part of m and n, and an upward stroke just halfway between the two turns. The x will be crossed more accurately by those who habit- ually make the stroke upward. The stroke making this line should have the same slant as the connecting strokes, which are always upward. Words in which x is used should be written entirely through, and then the x crossed, i's dotted, and t's crossed. Ti n i i It is well to note any such x s as are shown in Fig. 35. The chief cause of these faults is the crossing of the x. It should slant more and should cross the downward stroke. Corrective exercises will be necessary in individual cases which the teacher will easily find by casual inspection of the pupils' work. 85 MANUAL THE UPPER LOOP LETTERS Those who write fluently, easily, and rapidly, without fa- tigue, depend, as we have already shown, almost entirely upon the muscles of the arm and shoulder. These larger muscles are so trained and brought under control as to be used almost exclusively, not only in carrying the hand and pen across the page but also in making the countless detailed and specific movements that form the letters, weave them into words, and the words into sentences. It is therefore dangerous to suggest even a slight use of the finger movement in writing. It certainly should not be suggested without proper qualification. But it is the con- sensus of opinion that a slight movement of the fingers in connection with, but subordinate to, the arm movements may well be used in making the upper loop letters. The I forms the basic drill for the development of all the upper loop letters, /, 6, /, h, k, and d. It consists of a well- Teaching curved upward stroke and a downward stroke the small l. na j s as ne arly straight as it can be made without stopping the movement. Pupils should be taught to make Vs to a single count, and at a rate of speed which conforms to the movement and speed required in general writing. See the author's Muscular Movement Writing, Advanced Book, p. 47. The first exercise (Advanced Book, p. 47) is valuable in developing skill in writing the upper loop letters. Begin- ning, as it does, with the straight-line movement forward and backward along the line of vision, when the paper is properly placed, it establishes the slant of all upper loop letters. It is to be made a full space high with a continuous 86 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS movement and an even, regular count of 20, as follows: 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10 1-2-3-^-5-6-7-8-9-20. Pupils should be instructed to make the straight-line motion at first for from seven to ten counts, and then gradually to change to the loop motion without changing the speed. This has proved to be a better plan than to have pupils make a definite number of straight lines and then of loops. It is advisable to let the class practise this exercise a few min- utes before specifying the number of times it is to be written on a line. This enables the pupils to get the feeling of the necessary movement, before they are called upon to con- centrate their attention upon spacing and other features involved. This exercise may well be taken as a preliminary drill in each lesson in which upper loop letters, /, 6, /, h, k, and d, are to be studied and practised. Questions may be used to direct attention to critical points as follows : Is the top of the / angular or round ? What is to be the height of this letter? Is the The critical upward stroke straight or curved? What of P " 1 * 8 downward stroke? Should the turn at the bottom be broad or narrow ? Does the I begin above, below, or on the base line ? Look for faults, especially such as those shown in Fig. 36. In (1) the tremulous lines show that the rate of speed was far too slow ; (2) the Z's are too tall ; (3) the slant too great, probably because the upward strokes were too nearly straight ; (4) the Ts are too narrow. 87 Fig. 36 MANUAL Regulate the movement by a count of al-2-3-4-5-6 for each group of six Us. The very short a preceding the first The rate of count is a signal for the first swing upward. Pupils speed. should make about 18 groups of 6 I's each at first and gradually increase the speed until they can make 23 groups in a minute. This is the average speed at which good I's must be made in general writing. In practising, the words miller and allow (see Advanced Book, p. 48) are particularly good words for advanced classes. In the former word aim to make a space between letters equal to the width of the m (see copy) ; and in the latter word make the space between the letters equal to the width of w. Until the pupils become accustomed to the correct move- ment the teacher should name the letters, thus m-i-l-l-e-r and alLo-w. Prolong the sound of such letters as m and w as formerly suggested. See that pupils make the I's alike ; avoid angles in m ; close o and a ; and form properly the top of r. Each class of letters is based upon some particular move- ment exercise. Throughout this series the appropriate HOW to movement exercises for each lesson have either teach the been given in the lesson or suggested in the text. (i) General Each lesson, for instance, in which upper loop direct. i etters are taught, should begin with a drill on the first exercise on p. 47, Advanced Book. For reference see the author's Advanced Book, p. 49, and Elementary Book, p. 39. , The small b is a combination of the I and the last part of the w, both of which were presented in the word allow, HOW TO TEACH LETTERS Advanced Book, page 48. These letters should now be re- viewed. Review letters previously taught whenever they are used in whole or in part in the construction of new letters. This provides systematic and thorough review of all im- portant letters. Direct attention of the pupils to the points in previous practice that are produced in making the letter. Ask ques- tions as follows : Of what letters that you have practised is b made up ? How high should the top of b extend above the line on which you are writing ? Should it reach the line above? Should the top be round or sharp? Should the bottom part be sharp ? How high should the final dot be placed ? What is the final stroke of the letter ? The count for b is 1-2. The approximate rate of speed is 15 groups of 5 b's in each, in a minute. This is rapid enough to insure a free movement but not so rapid as to prevent the pupils from forming the letters well. Five common faults are shown in Fig. 37. In (1) tremu- lous lines indicate a slow and excessive finger movement. In (2) the loops are too long. In tions to (3) the letters slant too much, because the up securecor - ^ reel forms. strokes do not curve enough. In (4) the tops and bottoms of the letters are not round. In (5) the final dot which distinguishes the b from the / is omitted. The words bubbles and sublime are particularly good words 89 Fig. 37 MANUAL for practice. Pupils should check the movement slightly in (3) Direc- making the final dot of each b. This may be sug- ezfended gested to pupils by prolonging slightly the sound practice. of b: as, b, u-b, b, le-s and s-u-b, lim-e. These prolonged sounds or pauses should not be too strongly emphasized, just enough to cause pupils to think of the letters to be formed and to stimulate them to control defi- nitely the necessary movement in making the letters. These words give practice in making b as an initial and as a medial letter. The letter / may be prepared for by reviewing the exer- cise in Advanced Book, p. 13. This gives practice in the HOW to extended movement necessary in making this teach the letter. The motion of the pen in making / is quite like that in making b, the chief difference being in the length of the former letter. The top of / is round as is that of b and should nearly reach the line above the base line ; the bottom, also round, should extend about half the space below the base line. The upward stroke of the lower part of / should reach the base line and there join the down stroke. The final stroke is a horizontal curve adaptable to the next following letter, if any. For reference, see the author's Advanced Book, p. 50; Elementary Book, p. 40. The count as given in copy is 1-2 for each /. As to the number per minute, see Advanced Book, p. 50. Attention may well be directed to critical points by sug- gestive questions as follows : How high should the top of / reach? How far below base line should the bottom of / 90 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS extend? Should the top and the bottom be angular or round? Should the down stroke be straight or curved? Where should the final up stroke join the down stroke? What is the direction of the final stroke? Common fau'ts are illustrated in Fig. 38. In (1) the /'s were made too slowly. In (2) the /'s are too long. In (3) they are sharply pointed, and in (4) the final up stroke joins down stroke too high. p . g 3g In making the application in the lesson the writing of the words finest and baffle must be done with care. The movement is checked slightly on completing the / and the 6. All the loops alike should be regular in size and form. The letter q is a combination of a and the lower part of /. It is therefore advisable to take it up for study and prac- tice directly after /. It is not without benefit to How to the pupils to practise a few minutes both a and / teach the in preparation for the construction of the new letter q. As in a, so in q, the top must be closed as in a point. The lower part of the letter extends about half a space below the base line of writing. It is necessary some- times to caution pupils to make a round, not a sharp turn at the bottom of the letter. With a count of 1-2-3, keep an optimum speed rate as previously determined. See Advanced Book, p. 51 ; Elementary Book, p. 41. Attention should be given to the critical points as shown in Fig. 39. The g's in (1) are open at the top. Those in 91 MANUAL (2) are angular at the bottom. Those in (3) show the joining too high. In applying the lesson to the writing, the words squire and sequel require a momentary stop in the movement in joining the final up stroke with the down stroke at the base line, as indicated by commas in the following : s-q, u-i-r-e and s-e-q, u-e-L Flg- 39 It may be necessary to repeat that s's are sharp at top and closed at bottom ; that open loops HOW to are m e ' s anc ^ ^ s; anc ^ an an S u l ar top and shoulder teach the are needed in r. The small h was taught in the lesson How to Teach Small Letters, p. 30. The small k is the last of the upper loop group of letters. The loop in k is exactly like that in h. The last part of k How to needs close study and careful practice until it can teach the ^ e ma( J e j us t right and easily. The loop and the (i) General stop at the base line are followed with a full over directions. mo ti O n that retraces the lower part of the down stroke of the loop ; then folding under it forms a very small oval. The movement should be checked slightly after forming the little oval or loop, and the second down stroke should be made, as nearly parallel with the down stroke of the loop as possible. The bottom of k should be narrower than the bottom of h. See Advanced Book, p. 53. Attention may be directed to the critical points through suggestive questions. How tall is the loop in k ? Should the top of the loop be pointed or round ? How does the 92 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS jr. Fig. 40 width of the bottom of k compare with the width of the bot- tom of h ? Should the two down strokes in the bottom of the k be on the same or different slants ? Questions similar to these may well be asked. The count for k is more than two and less than three. The phrase 1 an' 2, 1 an' 2, 1 an' 2, 1 an' 2, when said just right, indi- cates the rhythm and time of the movement in making a group of four k's. Prolong the 1 a little on account of the length of the loop and the slight stop at the base line, as 1 an' 2. The faults that commonly occur in writing k are illus- trated in Fig. 40. The tremulous lines in (1) show (2) Di rec . lack of freedom in movement, an overstrain per- tions f r haps to write with a finger movement. The slant correct shown in (2) is too marked. In (3) the loops are form - quite too long. The lower part of k in (4) is too wide by much, and in. (5) a very familiar fault is in the size of the loop of the last part of the letter. See that pupils in practising the words thinkers and bankers make the loops alike in fe's, h's and k's. , 3) Direc _ Remind them if necessary about taking ample time tions for to form correctly the upper part of the top of r. The last part of each b, h, and k should be finished carefully. Begin t with a short, full under motion that starts exactly on the base line. The top of t should be short and so well 93 MANUAL retraced as to appear like a single straight line. Do not form a loop in the top of t. The height is somewhat less HOW to than that of /. If pupils make a small e before teach the eacn i ( see Exercise i, p. 54, Advanced Book), 3, (i) General well-curved initial stroke in the t will be developed. directions. The t is crossed near the top. Observe the final t made without a cross stroke. Make the top short and sharp. The final stroke is a short aver motion retracing slightly the down stroke. See Advanced Book, p. 54. Develop the letter by asking questions on the critical points. Is t a retraced line or a loop ? How does the height of the t compare with that of /? What is the dis- tinguishing characteristic of this letter? How is it distin- guished from I ? Fig. 41 Fig. 42 The faults shown in Fig. 41 are frequently met in writ- ing. The t's of (1) slant too much, because the tionsfor up strokes are too nearly straight. The t's of (2) securing cor- naye j j fa t The t Q f ^ ^ m ^ reel form. are not retraced, probably because the upward stroke is not curved enough. (3) Direc- -^ n tne WOI> d s intent and tumults, special atten- tionsfor tion is to be directed to the formation of the t's, application. 5 j m s and n s. 94 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS For copy and suggestions avoid the common faults in Fig. 42. Note the following : small d (1) The oval is not closed. (2) The top is not retraced. (3) The oval is too flat and the top slants too much. See Advanced Book, p. 55 ; Elementary Book, p. 37. The capital S is a combination of the upper loop, as in /, b, f, h, and k, and a part of a flat oval. Prac- How to tice of the upper loop letters serves as a prepara- teach the tion to' make capitals S and G of which the upper capl s ' loop forms a part. See Advanced Book, p. 36 ; Elementary Book, p. 45. The angular endings of S, G, I, T, F, and B are recom- mended to make it convenient to unite these capitals and the letters following in words. The class may be ques- tioned as follows : Where does the initial stroke of S start ? Is the initial stroke straight or curved? Is the top of S pointed or round ? At what height do the upward and the downward lines cross? See suggestions on p. 56, Advanced Book. Avoid the common faults shown in Fig. 43. Note the following : (1) The initial stroke starts below the base line and is too nearly straight. (2) The lines cross too near the top, making the top too small. (3) The lines cross too near the bottom, making the top too large. (4) There is not enough space between the upward and the down- ward strokes. 95 MANUAL Exercises No. i and No. 2, p. 57, Advanced Book, should be reviewed as a preparation to make the G. teach the Follow the suggestions on p. 57, Advanced Book, capital G. m Developing this lesson. See Advanced Book, p. 57, and Elementary Book, p. 44. Pupils will always be benefited by tracing each new exercise with the dry pen before attempting to make it. This tracing trains the muscular sense whereby pupils know how it feels to make the movement required to form the letters correctly. It should always be done to correct time or rhythm, regulated by the teacher's count. Question pupils as follows : In what particulars is the G like the S ? In what particulars do they differ ? At what height do the lines cross ? p . 44 At what height is the point? See No. 2, p. 57, Advanced Book. Avoid the faults shown in Fig. 44. (1) The loop is too short. (2) The loop is too long. (3) The top slants too much because the initial stroke is too nearly straight. THE LOWER LOOP LETTERS All the lower loop letters (g, y, z, j, p) are based upon a HOW to combination of the straight line and the reverse teach the oval movement. The first exercise on p. 58, Advanced Book, is an excellent one to use in de- veloping the movement used in making these letters. See Advanced Book, p. 58 ; and Elementary Book, p. 47. 96 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS Count 10 twice for each exercise, as follows : 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-101-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-20. Have pu- pils make the straight lines during nearly all of the first ten counts and then gradually change to the loop motion with- out changing the time. In counting 1-2 for the g, prolong the second count slightly to give time to form the loop. Ask questions as follows : What letter previously prac- tised forms a part of the g ? Is the oval part of the g open or closed? If left open what letter might it resemble? Is the bottom of the loop sharp or round? How long is the loop? (It should extend down about halfway between two blue lines). Attention should be given to critical points as indicated in Fig. 45- Fig. 45 (1) These g's resemble y's because the ovals are open. (2) The loops are too narrow. (3) The loops are too long. The first part of the y is like the last stroke of m, n, and h, and like the first part of v. The loop, of course, How to is like the loop in the g. See Advanced Book, teach the p. 59 ; Elementary Book, 8I p. 48. Have the pupils review the first exercise on p. 58, Advanced Book, as a preliminary movement drill. The y is a combination of parts of what letters ? How long is the 97 Fig. 46 MANUAL Suggestive loop ? Is the downward stroke straight or curved ? questions. j s tne bottom of the loop pointed or round ? Study Fig. 46 and note the following critical points : (1) The first part of the y has an angle at the base line where an under motion should be made. (2) The tops of the y's are too wide and the loops are too narrow. (3) The loops are too long. HOW to Follow the directions for writing these letters small letters gi yen m the Advanced Book of Muscular Move- z , j, and p. men t Writing, on pp. 60, 62, and 63 respectively. Follow the directions on pp. 69 and 70, Advanced Book. Ob- How to serve that the first part of the H curves much more capital^ than does the first or corresponding part of the K. and H. Avoid the faults shown in Fig. 47. (1) The first stroke is curved too much. (2) The last part of the K is joined to the first part too near the Fig. 47 (3) The two parts of K are not united. (4) There is a loop at the bottom of H. (5) The loop uniting the two parts of H is too low. (6) The lines forming H are too nearly straight. See Advanced Book, p. 71 ; and Elementary Book, p. 54. This letter is based almost wholly on the straight-line Howto movement. Therefore, Exercise No. i, p. 15 of teach the the Advanced Book, should be reviewed in con- nection with the specific drill, first line, p. 71, Ad- vanced Book, as a preparation to make the W. 98 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS The first part of the W is well curved, like the first part of H in the preceding lesson. The point in the center at the top is higher than the first part of the W. The final stroke is a short over motion. Have pupils make a slight stop in the movement at the base line on the first downward stroke. Note the following critical points, Fig. 48 : Fig. 48 (1) The point at the center is too short. (2) The points at the bottom are too close together. (3) The final stroke is too long. (4) The bottom points are retraced. The J belongs to the reverse oval group of letters. Have pupils practise the reverse oval exercise, Advanced Book, p. 15, as a preparation to make the J. The prac- Howto tice of the specific movement drill, Advanced Book, teach the p. 72, first line, establishes the form of the J and capltal J ' makes certain the application of the muscular movement. Count six for the reverse oval and the top of J, and finish the letter on the seventh count. See the author's Advanced Book, p. 72; and the Elemen- tary Book, p. 63. The second line exercise, p. 72, Advanced Book, is to be used in developing the ability to continue the movement after making the J. A very helpful count for this exercise is swing 2-3-4-5. The word swing suggests the full oval motion necessary to make the top of J. Questions may be employed as follows to direct attention : In making J what direction should the pen be moving 99 MANUAL when it touches the paper? How do the top and bottom of J compare in length? in width? Where do the lines cross t Avoid the faults shown in Fig. 49. Fig. 49 (4) The top is made on a back slant. (1) The initial stroke is made downward. (2) The lines do not cross at the base line. (3) The first upward stroke does not curve enough. Follow the directions on p. 73, Advanced Book, in de- veloping the lesson on the 7. HOW to The following questions are suggestive : In what capital /. direction should the pen be moving when it touches the paper? In what direction should the pen be moving when it is lifted from the paper ? Where do the lines cross ? See Advanced Book, pp. 73 and 74; and Elementary Book, p. 62. Avoid the faults shown in Fig. 50. Fig. 50 (1) The pen was moving downward when it touched the paper. (2) The top of the letter is sharply angular. (3) The letter is finished with a turn and swing instead of an angle and swing. (4) The top slants backward. See the Advanced Book, p. 78 ; and the Elementary Book, p. 56. 100 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS Follow the directions on the above pages in Howto developing the lesson. Note particularly the teach the flat loop and final stroke, as this will serve as a capltal * preparation to complete the L properly. See the Advanced Book, p. 79 ; and the Elementary Book, p. 57. In making L the pen should be in motion when it touches the paper and it should continue in motion until it is lifted from the paper. The L is made with three well- How to controlled swings of the pen. The movement teach the may be regulated by counting 1-2-3, or by saying capltal L ' swing 2, swing. The latter phrase suggests action. The purpose of the first exercise on p. 79, Advanced Book, is to put the hand in motion before making the L, and thereby make the application of a free movement certain. Question pupils as follows : In making the L, in what direction should the pen be moving when it touches the paper? In what direction should the pen be moving when it is lifted from the paper? The lines cross each other at two points; locate the upper crossing of the lines. Is the top pointed or round ? What is the direction of the upper loop ? What is the di- rection of the bottom loop ? Is the final stroke above or below the base line? What other letter is finished just like the L ? Avoid the faults shown in Fig. 51. (1) The lines cross too high, making the top too small. (2) The downward stroke is too nearly straight. 101 MANUAL (3) The bottom loop is not made flat on the line. (4) The final stroke is above the base line. The downward stroke in the D is made quite like the downward stroke in the L in the previous lesson. The How to small loop at the bottom of the D is like the loop teach the at the bottom of the L except that it is much smaller. The final part of the D is like the corre- sponding part of the capital 0. It would aid in the forma- tion of the D to review the 0, as given on page 17, Advanced Book. Be sure to have pupils loop the final stroke of the D around the starting point and swing upward. See Ad- vanced Book, p. 80 ; and Elementary Book, p. 58. Questions may be asked as follows : In what di- rection should the pen be p . 52 moving when it touches the paper? In what direction should the pen be moving when it is lifted from the paper? At how many points does the D touch the base line ? Avoid the faults in Fig. 52. (1) The downward stroke is curved too much. (2) and (3) The D does not touch the base line at two points. (4) The top of the D is not closed. The stem of the T and F is a slanting line, slightly curved How to at the top, and well curved at the bottom. It is capitals T quite like the downward stroke in S, L, and D. By and F. omitting the upward stroke in a correctly formed capital S, the stem of a correctly formed T or F would be 102 HOW TO TEACH LETTERS made. A review of the S, see p. 56, Advanced Book, would aid in establishing the form of the stem of the T or F. See Advanced Book, pp. 81 and 82 ; and Elementary Book, p. 46. See pp. 81 and 82, Advanced Book, for further suggestions. These letters are combinations of the straight-line and the reverse oval movements. As a preparation to make these letters the general movement drills on page 15, Advanced Book, should be reviewed. The pur- teach ^g pose of the first exercise in each lesson (pp. 75, 76, ca P itals p > 77) is to make certain that the hand is put in motion before making the letter. In making the P, B, and R, have the pupils retrace the first downward stroke in each letter. See Advanced Book, pp. 75, 76, 77; Elementary Book, pp. 64, 65, 66. Follow the suggestions on the pages indicated above, in teaching these letters. Fig ' 53 Avoid the faults shown in Fig. 53. (1, 2, and 3) The posts, or straight lines are not retraced. (4) The final stroke crosses the upward stroke instead of the down- ward straight line or post. (5) The B is closed at the bottom, whereas it should be open. See copy, Advanced Book, p. 76. (6) The top of B is too narrow. These letters are based upon the straight-line movement primarily, combined with a distinct over-under motion. The downward lines in the U and the Y should be parallel. There should be nicely rounded turns at the base line. 103 How to teach the capitals U, Y, and V. Have MANUAL The Y should be finished with a short, full loop extending half the distance between two blue lines. The final stroke of V should be short. The pen should be mov- ing toward the right side of the paper when it is lifted from the paper. See Advanced Book, pp. 84, 85, 86; and Elementary Book, pp. 59, 60, 61. the pupils avoid the faults indicated in Fig. 54. In (1), (2), and (3) the U, Y, and V are angularly pointed at the base line where these letters should be nicely rounded. In (4), (5), and (6) the first turns at the top are too narrow and the turns at the bottom, or base line, are too broad. The should not be as wide as those at Fig. 54 turns at the bottom the top. 104 CHAPTER IX HOW TO TEACH FIGURES FIGURES should be legible, small, and arranged in an orderly way. They are made best with a sharp, How to clear-cut line that evidences snap and quickness, figures. An expert figure maker places the pen on the paper with precision, forms the figures, and lifts the pen quickly. See Advanced Book, pp. 43, 44, 45, and 46. The plan of practice outlined in the pages above cited has proved effective in developing all the qualities just men- tioned. By making figures across the blue lines as indicated in the Advanced Book, regular and orderly arrangement will be emphatically encouraged from the very beginning. By gradually reducing their size until the figures do not seem to be crowded when they are written on and between the lines, the size and spacing will be regulated. If the teacher counts to regulate the rhythmic time, sharp and clear-cut lines and orderly columns will quite certainly be developed. By making the figures on and between the lines in unison with the count, accuracy, precision and speed will be secured. Legibility is a result of emphasizing in practice the chief characteristics of individual figures. Each figure must stand for itself. The legibility of a figure is not improved by its context, as is that of individual letters. Certain figures are easily mistaken for each other ; other 105 ' 77777^7 2, ////// l/ if ^ MANUAL figures are never mistaken for each other. One never mis- takes a 4 for a 3, a 5 for a 6 ; but 4 is sometimes made so that it resembles 7, as in Fig. 55. Made correctly these figures are quite easily distinguished. But it is due to the careless tendency shown in Fig. 55, against which precaution must be taken in practice, that possible confusion occurs. Other figures sometimes mistaken for each other are 7 and 9, 1 and 0, and 6, and 8, 5 and 3, and 9. A discussion of careless tendencies in making figures never fails to create class interest in the subject. By examining figures one by one to detect possible faulty tendencies, the correct formation of each figure is emphasized and the reason ~ ~ ' for making it as in the model is pretty clearly brought out. For instance, in discussing figures 4 and 7, the teacher may write a line of 7's, similar to those in Fig. 55, on the black- board. The class is to observe and note what change takes place in the formation of the figure 7 that causes it to resemble a figure 4- It will be noted that the points in the top of the 7 are exaggerated and the final downward stroke stops too short. If the final downward stroke had been continued farther ; i.e. well below the base line, the product would be an unmistakable 7. This, then, should be a sufficient reason for finishing 7 with a line that reaches well below the blue line. In like manner the figure 4 should be considered. It will be observed that the same kind of strokes is employed in the last few specimens of 4 in Fig. 55, as in the first few; 106 HOW TO TEACH FIGURES but there is a change in the placing of the last stroke. In the first 4, the last stroke begins at a point higher than that of the first stroke, and is ended abruptly just below the lateral line. But in the last 4, the final stroke begins barely above the lateral stroke and is carried too far below. This gives a good reason for beginning the last stroke high and ending it, or lifting the pen from the paper, just after the lateral line is crossed. Figure 1 is a short, light, slanting line. Figure 4 is made of light lines that are straight, or nearly so. It should suggest a small square or rectangle in appearance. The two slanting lines should be acteristic parallel, and the last line, somewhat taller than features f the figures. the first, should intersect the lateral line. Figure 0, or naught, is like the letter o except as to size. It should be made round to avoid the appearance of the figure 1, and should be definitely closed at the top. Make it with pen in circular motion both before touching and in leaving the paper. Figure 6 begins at a point a little higher than the other figures to prevent its being mistaken for the naught. The initial stroke is straight, which yields gradually to a well- rounded turn at the bottom and ends in a small loop. Figure 9 is a combination of letter a and figure 1. The final stroke passes through the base line and ends somewhat below the base of other figures. This averts its possible resemblance to 0. The 9 should be definitely closed at the top ; for otherwise it may closely resemble figure 7. Figure 7 consists of a dot or a short slanting line, a short lateral stroke, and a slanting line extending to a point 107 MANUAL below the base line. At least one half of the down stroke should be below the base line. The reasons for this have been stated in connection with Fig. 55. Figure 2 is begun with a dot or a short slanting line. The top of the figure 2 should be neatly rounded, made with the over motion ; and the bottom, made as the bottom of -4, consists of an angle and a short lateral stroke made as the pen is being lifted from the paper. This style of figure 2 can be made more accurately and more rapidly than that with a loop. For this reason it is used more generally by expert accountants. Figure 3 is begun with a dot or a short slanting line and is finished with two very small circular motions. Use a short lateral movement toward the left. The round motion at the center of the 3 should be so restricted as to produce an angle rather than a loop. The pen should swing to the left and upward as it is being lifted from the paper. Figure 5 is begun with a short, straight, slanting line which is about one half the length of figure 1. The bottom is just like that of figure 3. A short lateral stroke, which should always be joined to the first stroke, completes it. Figure 8 begins with a dot and the letter s, made with downward motion. The final stroke should pass upward through the initial dot. The figures 1, 4, 5, 6, 9, and are made with the pen moving as it touches and leaves the paper. The figures The general ^' 3 > 7 > an( * 8 begin with a definite starting point features of or dot. The figures 4 and 6 begin at a point above the other figures. The figures 7 and 9 are ended at a point below the base line and the other figures. 108 CHAPTER X THE USE OF THE BLACKBOARD THE blackboard is indispensable for class instruction in writing. It is the only practical means of showing whole classes by concrete demonstrations the important Theuse phases of the lesson, as well as the process by of the which good writing is done. Special emphasis should constantly be placed upon the process of writing. By the use of the blackboard, the teacher who can wield the crayon skillfully can inspire confidence and can create initiative on the part of the pupils by appealing to The uge of them through the desire to emulate her skillful the black- blackboard demonstrations. By the use of the blackboard the teacher can correct the prevailing faults of the entire class in the time that would be required to make the correction for one pupil individually. Not only is there economy of time in avoiding exceptions by the use of the blackboard, but by enlarging the correct and the incorrect letter forms upon the board, the contrast is made the more striking and vivid. The blackboard becomes the teacher's "magnifying glass." However, the blackboard should not be used as a means of placing the copy before the pupils for study and visualization. 109 MANUAL Pupils cannot reproduce on paper what they have not clearly conceived in the mind, and a clear conception of Good desk 8d writing results only from a careful study copy neces- of good copies. To do this to the best advantage, pupils should have copies of the size and general style that they are expected to approximate in their own writing. And in order that pupils may visualize these copies to the best advantage, they should be studied at close range, not more than twelve or fifteen inches from the eyes. This study will be all the more profitable if done through the guidance of a teacher whose eyes have been trained to see in the copy what pupils may not see if left to themselves. Those who are obliged to study the copy written upon the blackboard experience many disadvantages. Each of forty pupils in a class must necessarily view the copy from a different point in the room. Therefore the distance and angle at which the copy must be studied will vary greatly. And there are always points in the classroom from which it is difficult, if not impossible, to see the copy on the black- board because of the reflection of the light. Therefore, if the best possible results are to be achieved, pupils must be supplied with desk copies both because they afford an advantage in visualization, and because they re- duce to a minimum the expenditure of energy and time of the teacher and the pupils. 110 CHAPTER XI AGE AND GRADE IN WRITING AT what age children should begin to write is an un- settled question. From the standpoint of psychology and physiology, it may be said that it is important not to begin too early. The health and growth of the child must be considered in setting the time. It is safe to say that few if any children can write when they enter the first year of school. It frequently happens that these children are not even familiar with the script letters. Under such circumstances, if the children are required to do any con- siderable amount of writing as such on paper during the first school year they will form a large number of wrong and harmful habits. These bad habits retard the progress of the child and serve no useful purpose in preparing him for future work in writing. It requires many weeks for children who are older and more mature than those in the first and second years in school to acquire sufficient muscular control to perform written tasks with the muscular movement. It must therefore be self-evident that any written work, such as spelling, lan- guage, required of these little ones must be done in some manner other than muscular movement. In most instances, when the children are required to do much writing on paper before there has been sufficient time to teach correct writing 111 MANUAL habits, all the harmful habits to which children are subject, such as cramped positions, pinching of pencils or penholders, heavy pressure on the writing instrument, and finger move- ment are fostered. Teachers and parents should not be overzealous, lest they neglect or create conditions that vitally affect the health in addition to crippling the writing of the child. The fundamental and accessory muscles must have reached a pretty definite degree of coordination, where such movements as those used in writing do not force or constrain, but afford only healthful exercise. It is a matter of all too common practice to begin writing at the desk during the first school year. Indeed it is some- times begun as soon as children begin the first year of school. Even at this early age they have sometimes been made to show wonderful results. Whether or not this early beginning is best for the ner- vous and muscular development and fitness of children for such work is altogether irrelevant, if one judges by the approval generally meted out to such precocious achieve- ments. There must be of course a certain sanction for this ; and some teachers have an ambition to fulfill expectations regardless of consequences. Fond parents are keenly alive to any possible neglect of the native capabilities of their children at this early age, despite all that experience may say to the contrary. Where this spirit prevails children are inevitably infected and exhibit an eagerness to do some things, whether or not they are physically and mentally prepared to do them. There is but one way to begin the teaching of writing at 112 AGE AND GRADE IN WRITING an early age and still avoid the harmful tendencies referred to above. It is by a liberal use of the blackboard. None of the technical writing habits required in writing at the desk enter into the board work. Sitting posture at the desk, correct movement, penholding, none of these enter into blackboard writing. Good letter formation and freedom of movement can be taught at the blackboard in a manner that is interesting and delightful to the children, without overtaxing the nervous and mental energy of the when to teacher. Therefore, as a general proposition it beg" 1 - may be stated that whenever children show the ability to handle crayon they may begin the use of it at the black- board in making simple exercises under supervision. These exercises should consist of simple oval exercises, fol- lowed by letters requiring the least modification of the ovals in their formation, such as capitals : 0, C, A. These should be followed by the easier and simpler small letters, as, i, u, e, m, n, and easy words in which the letters taught are applied. These letters should be made to a rhythmic repetition of descriptive phrases, such as Big round 0, Down around for C, Round up drop for A, Up down up for i, Up round up for e, Over over over up for m, etc. In the foregoing manner children may be taught form and freedom in writing without fostering any bad or harmful writing habits. When this has been done it will be early enough to begin teaching children how to sit at the desk, how to place the right arm on the little muscular cushion in front of the elbow, how to turn the finger under and glide on the nails, how to hold the pen or pencil and make it run on the paper. All these steps are fully explained in the 113 MANUAL author's Elementary Book and the Advanced Book, Muscular Movement Writing. Then the children will be ready to make at the desk with the muscular movement what they are now familiar with and know how to make at the blackboard. The question may arise as to the grading of Muscular Movement Writing in the books themselves. We have left out all reference to it in the books of the series because teachers and superintendents many times prefer to make their own gradation. For those who desire an outline we suggest the following : Teach the letter forms as given on page 1 1 of the Elemen- Firstand ^ ar ^ Book, and short easy words selected from second this book during the first two years in school by the use of the blackboard. This will familiarize the little ones with the letter forms and give them a working knowledge of script. Pupils should be supplied with the Elementary Book at the beginning of the third year and they should be taught The third as thoroughly as possible the drills in this book year - up to and including page 51. This covers the movement drills, figures, and ten important capitals. The fourth Review what was taught during the third year yean and complete the Elementary Book. The fifth Begin the Advanced Book and teach the lessons year - to page 64. Review the lessons taught during the fifth year and com- The sixth plete the Advanced Book. If writing is taught year> above the sixth year, the Advanced Book should be reviewed with a view to achieving a still higher degree of efficiency. 114 Printed in the United States of America. T HE following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan publications on Education THE HEALTH SERIES OF PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE By M. V. O'SHEA, Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin; Author of " Dynamic Factors in Education," etc. ; and J. H. KELLOGG, Super- intendent of the Battle Creek Sanitarium; Author of "Man, the Master- piece," etc. Health Habits . Health and Cleanliness The Body in Health . Making the Most of Life Cloth, 111., 12mo, $.45 Cloth, 111., 12mo, $.55 Cloth, 111., 12mo, $.65 Cloth, 111., 12mo, $.65 Health Habits. The purpose here is to establish the child in the physical habits and forms of conduct that make for bodily health. Health and Cleanliness. The purpose of this book is to interest children in social service in health ; to show the dependence of health and well-being upon protection, and especially against infections through germs, and to teach children what to do for themselves and others in case of an emergency. The Body in Health. The human body is here presented as the most remark- able thing in nature, in the variety and delicacy of its action and in the marvelous adaptation of its parts and functions. It presents knowledge with sympathy and it leads to an appreciative understanding. Making the Most of Life. This book directs attention to the chief factors in modern life which reduce the vitality and the health of people. It is a forceful and constructive treatment of health. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY BOSTON CHICAGO NEW YORK SAN FRANCISCO DALLAS ATLANTA MUSCULAR MOVEMENT WRITING By C. C. LISTER Director of Penmanship, Brooklyn Training School for Teachers Elementary Book 16 cents Advanced Book 20 cents Teachers Manual Muscular Movement Writing organizes systematically into two books the in- struction in writing. The Elementary Book is adapted to the needs and abilities of children in the elementary school and is intended for use in grades beginning with the third. The Advanced Book is planned to follow the Elementary Book, and completes the course of instruction in writing. The treatment of'Muscular Movement Writing in this system places emphasis upon the following points : Correct posture to secure uniformity and ease in writing and to establish hygienic habits. Muscular Movement Practice to secure perfect motor control and muscular coordination. Rhythmic drill to develop freedom, elasticity, and individuality in writing. Good form in the models. Writing lessons, not copy lessons; and writing books, not copy books. Posture, movement, good form, and individuality in writ- ing may be developed through practice. The writing lessons in this Series have been carefully worked out so as to pro- vide the utmost help for teacher and pupil. The lessons are self-explanatory; there is close correlation in the lessons ; and they make it possible to produce satisfactory results in the teaching of writing. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY BOSTON SAW FRANCISCO DALLAS CHICAGO NEW YORK ATLANTA NEW GEOGRAPHIES First Book (complete), $0.65 First Book, Part One, .40 First Book, Part Two, .50 Second Book (complete), 91.10 Second Book, Part One, .65 Second Book, Part Two, .65 The Tarr and McMurry New Geographies. The Tarr and McMurry New Geographies make Home Geography the basis of study for World Geography. They use type-forms developed from Home Geography as a basis for interpre- tation, appreciation, understanding, and definition. They make descriptive matter vivid by appropriate illustration ; the facts plain by diagram, graph, or product-map; the visualization complete by appropriate physical or colored map, studied in connection with the text. They emphasize the essentials by synoptical outline. The leading facts stand They retain interest and make sure the application by timely suggestions, reviews, and comparisons. They treat each topic in its relation to man, introduce the problem question, and bring out cause and effect relation. They appeal to the child's interest in human life and activity, his wonder and curiosity, his sympathy and self-activity. They are adapted to the best methods of teaching and they suggest methods of study. ^ The books are mechanically perfect. The maps are bound in. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY BOSTON CHICAGO NEW YORK SAN FRANCISCO DALLAS ATLANTA THE GOLDEN RULE SERIES By E. HERSHEY SNEATH, GEORGE HODGES, and the late EDWARD LAWRENCE STEVENS The Golden Ladder Book, Third Grade . . . $.40 The Golden Path Book, Fourth Grade . . . .45 The Golden Door Book, Fifth Grade . . .50 The Golden Key Book, Sixth Grade . . .55 The Golden Word Book, Seventh Grade . . .55 The Golden Deed Book, Eighth Grade . . . .55 The Golden Rule Series of literary readers contains selections that have been carefully chosen for their pleasing literary quality. Every selection gives to the reading a pleasure and a satisfaction that leads the child on to read. The purpose of the series is to provide a definite scheme of moral training year by year and grade by grade as the child progresses through school. For this it uses these literary selections and literary masterpieces. MORAL TRAINING IN THE SCHOOL AND HOME Dr. E. 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