A Public otion of The College of Agriculture university &f California ^IWWP**: * m : m '% "i^r^ftfif Turkey production IN CALIFORNIA V. S. Asmundson F. H. Kratzer 9m. m: CAM FO^Sl \0kGR\C U LTURM EXT E$fS ION SE R V LC E California has, in the last few years, become the leading turkey-producing state in the country. Valuable information about the possibilities of turkey raising as a means of making money may be found in Ext. Cir. 170, "The Turkey Business in California." This circular deals primarily with a discussion of the practices now being used or recommended for the breeding and raising of high-quality birds, for meat, hatching-eggs, or for breeding stock. The various subjects discussed are taken up as follows: PAGE The general picture of turkey production in California 3 Breeding for meat and egg production 4 Selecting breeding stock 5 Age of breeding stock 11 Trap-nesting and pedigree breeding 11 Inbreeding, outbreeding, crossbreeding 13 Management of the breeding stock 14 Incubation — the two types 18 Brooding methods 22 Management of growing birds 27 Sanitation 30 Diagnostic service for sick birds 31 Nutrition 32 Energy feeds 32 Proteins 36 Vitamins 38 Mineral requirements 42 Water 43 General considerations in feeding 47 Marketing practices 50 Condition of birds at marketing time 50 Dressing plant operations 51 Market grades of turkeys 54 Farm prices 54 Caponizing 56 Turkey specialties 56 Hatching-eggs 57 Sample production cost figures 57 Revised October, 1951 The authors: V. S. Asmundson is Professor of Poultry Husbandry and Poultry Husbandman in the Experiment Station, Davis. F. H. Kratzer is Associate Professor of Poultry Husbandry and Associate Poultry Hus- bandman in the Experiment Station, Davis. [2] In recent years, California has become one of the major turkey-producing areas The turkey industry is well estab- lished and highly specialized in Cali- fornia. Most of the turkeys are raised in large units where they are the main source of revenue. Turkey production in California has followed national trends with some de- crease in numbers raised from 1890 to 1910. Since then, turkey production has increased, at first slowly to 1920. By 1929 the number raised was about 1.25 million \SACRA\ iJoaOUII UN FXANCI6COI rV AALAMEDAl ■ ytTANlSLAUStV' „ v^y^ — \* #•• v2v • »*c tijf SANTA V****JC •xEBCpO \o*. CLARA \ ♦••>>•♦•♦♦ ?J ••• with an increase to over 2 million in 1936, over 3 million in 1939, and over 4 million in 1943. Since 1943 the number raised has fluctuated from about 4 to 8 million with California raising more turkeys than any other state. The growth of the turkey industry has undoubtedly been greatly aided by arti- ficial incubation and brooding which has facilitated complete segregation of poults from older turkeys and from chickens. The use of clean brooder houses, equip- ment, and ground has helped, together Where Turkeys Are Raised in California Each dot represents 10,000 birds. Where less than 5,000 birds were listed in any county, that county has been left blank. ••♦ • • • • • • • ♦ • (AN BERNARDINO Figures are from U. S. Census of Agriculture for the year 1945. • * • [3] with more knowledge of diseases and their control, to reduce losses from dis- ease. Greater knowledge of the nutritional requirements of turkeys has improved efficiency and prevented losses from nu- tritional deficiency diseases. Finally, im- proved marketing facilities have stabil- ized the industry. See Ext. Cir. 170, The Turkey Business in California, by Arthur Shultis and W. E. Newlon. Turkey production is widely distrib- uted in California as shown in the accom- panying map, although 75 per cent of the turkeys were raised in the 12 leading counties in 1944. Turkey production fluc- tuates over a period of years; so that the actual number raised and the relative position of the various counties have changed and undoubtedly will continue to change. Turkeys do better in a dry climate and should not be raised in low, damp areas. (As would be expected, the development of the industry has been most marked in localities with a favorable climate.) Ade- quate water supply, dependable sources of feed at regular market prices, depend- able market outlets, and reasonably good farm-to-market roads are among the other factors necessary for stable turkey pro- duction. The production of turkey hatching- eggs has assumed considerable impor- tance. Several million hatching-eggs are shipped annually to hatcheries in other states, in addition to the number of eggs required to furnish the poults raised within the state. The production of hatch- ing-eggs in general parallels the raising of turkeys for market. Most of the turkeys raised are pur- chased as day-old poults. Some growers also either have their own eggs custom- hatched, or they may purchase eggs and have them custom-hatched. The purchase of breeding stock or started-poults is much less common and generally is a less economical method of starting a flock. These are the elements involved in breeding for meat and egg production Varieties. The turkey is a native of America. The native turkeys of Central America or Mexico (presumably Melea- gris gallopavo mexicana) were taken by the Spanish conquistadors to Europe, perhaps in 1498, although about 20 years later is considered more likely. The tur- keys taken to Spain thrived, indicating that they were already domesticated. From Spain, turkeys were gradually in- troduced into other European countries. The descendants of these birds were later brought to America by the early New England settlers. They often crossed with the native wild turkey (Meleagris gallo- pavo sylveslris) of the Atlantic seaboard. The domesticated turkey, as now found, must be considered a mixture of the two principal geographic subspecies of the wild turkey, but in the Bronze the plum- age color of the Mexican turkey predomi- nates. Other geographic subspecies sup- posedly contributed little or nothing. Crossing with wild turkeys is no longer popular. There are comparatively few wild turkeys, whereas superior domesti- cated strains are now available. Crossing the two might now produce a less useful instead of a more useful bird. The Bronze or, more correctly, the Broad Breasted Bronze, is the most popu- lar variety of turkey on commercial farms in California. The Bronze is one of the 6 varieties described in the American Standard of Perfection published by the American Poultry Association. The other five are the Bourbon Red, Narragansett, White Holland, Black, and Slate. The last two named are seldom grown in commercial flocks in California. The Beltsville Small White has gained in popularity in recent years and there are [4] a limited number of Jersey Buff turkeys raised. The differences in weights of these varieties are indicated by the suggested minimum or maximum body weights in table 1. The minimum body weights sug- gested for Beltsville Small White will also serve for other small varieties such as the Jersey Buff, Nittany, and Royal Palm. Since the weights of the poults when hatched differ only slightly, the differ- ences in weight reflect differences in rate of growth. There are also differences in fleshing and, to a less extent, in feathering between varieties and strains as well as individual birds. Good strains of Beltsville Small White and other small- and medium-sized varie- ties are available, and excellent medium- sized strains of Broad Breasted Bronze have also been developed. More of these smaller birds will probably be raised commercially because the premium price on the Thanksgiving and Christmas mar- kets compensates for the larger amount of feed required to produce a pound of gain on the slower-growing, smaller birds. When turkeys and chickens are crossed by artificial insemination, fertile eggs are obtained; but none has hatched, with the possible exception of one case in Russia. Naked-neck chickens are sometimes rep- resented to have resulted from such a cross, but these claims are without foun- dation. The Naked-neck is a breed of chicken. Selection of breeding stock The plumage color of the Broad Breasted Bronze compares unfavorably with standard-bred Bronze. But since the plumage-color requirements described in the American Standard of Perfection are at best unrelated to market quality, the latter has been emphasized in the selec- tion of breeding stock. Now that so many flocks of superior market turkeys are available, there is no justification for the use of inferior stock for breeding. The characteristics desired for a good commercial strain are rapid growth, good conformation and fleshing, and early feathering. Considerable im- provement can be made in these charac- Table 1. Body Weights of Turkeys at Various Ages Minimum Body Weight Maximum Body Weight Broad Breasted Bronze Standard Varieties Other Than Bronze Standard Bronze Beltsville Small White Beltsville Small White Other Small Varieties Toms (Pounds) (Pounds) (Pounds) (Pounds) (Pounds) (Pounds) 24 weeks 18 14 15 12 16 17.5 26 weeks 20 15.5 16.5 13.5 18 19.5 28 weeks 22 17 18 15 20 21.5 30 weeks 23 18 19 16 22 23.5 32 weeks 24 19 20 17 23 24.5 Hens 24 weeks 12 8.5 9.5 7 10 11 26 weeks 12.5 9 10 7.5 10.5 11.5 28 weeks 13 9.5 10.5 8 11 12 30 weeks 13.5 10 11 8.5 12 13 32 weeks 14 10.5 11.5 9 12.5 13.5 [5] teristics by selecting the best individuals for breeding. Rate of growth. The growth rate of males and females differs as shown in the graph on page 6 and in table 2. Maximum weight during the first year is usually attained by spring-hatched, un- lighted females (not artificially lighted to start them laying sooner) at about 40- 44 weeks, by males at about 44-48 weeks, after which the weight decreases slightly. Hens stop increasing in weight when they start laying. Apparently the changes in weight are due partly to climatic condi- tions. Males grow more rapidly than females from the start and attain a higher weight, the hens weighing about two- thirds as much as the males at market age (26-30 weeks). Poults from strains of large body-size tend to grow more rapidly than those from smaller ones. As the data in table 2 also show, more feed is required to pro- duce a pound of the small- than of the large-strain turkeys. The difference here is evidently due to the more rapid growth of the Bronze and thus agrees with the finding that males require less feed than females in order to produce a pound of weight. As a rule, the birds that grow rapidly at first continue to make the best gains up to market age. For this reason, it is well to select for rapid early growth whenever possible. Early rapid growth is especially im- portant for economical fryer production. For this reason, poults from strains of the more rapidly growing varieties that have been carefully selected for early rapid growth should be used for turkey fryer production. Weight of birds. The birds to be kept for breeding should be selected be- fore any are sent to market. This may be at any time during the fall months. The weights in table 1 may be used as a guide. Since the birds continue to grow past the age at which they are normally marketed (see graph), the final weight will be greater than the minimum weights set for breeding stock. 32 40 Age in weeks This graph shows usual changes in weight in male and female birds to 72 weeks of age. [6] Conformation. Turkeys are grown mainly for their meat. In selecting breed- ing stock, accordingly, the following con- formation points should be particularly stressed : Back flat and uniformly wide through- out. Birds with crooked backs should not be used for breeding. Legs normal. Birds with abnormally short legs, abnormal hocks, or awkward gait should not be used. Keel bone of the sternum moderately long, straight, and free from deformities or defects such as knobs and calluses. The keel bone should be approximately paral- lel with the back. Breast wide and well fleshed. There is considerable difference in the fleshing of the breast, particularly among birds that are not fully grown. Strain differences between such birds indicate that much could be done to improve fleshing quali- ties by careful selection (table 3). The breast should be at least 3% inches wide, 1% inches above the keel when the birds are 6 months old. Feathering. The age at which birds acquire mature feathers may be in- fluenced by environmental conditions, in- cluding climate, but also by heredity. Birds should be selected that are rela- tively free from small pinfeathers at about 6 months of age. Those who wish to develop exceptionally early-maturing strains should select for feathering even earlier. Abnormalities. Special care should be taken not to use birds with abnormali- ties. Those known to occur in turkeys in- clude pendulous crop (see photo), split wings, abnormally short legs, crooked toes and deformed feet (crippled feet), deformed eyes (including poorly devel- oped or protruding eyes), deformed beaks, short neck, and rumplessness. Other deformities such as enlarged hocks, crooked keel bone, and deformed backs often appear to result from faulty rations or improper management. Even here, however, inherited weakness may be a factor; such birds should never be used for breeding. Birds with pendulous crop occur par- ticularly in districts where the summer temperature is high, the humidity low, and the sunshine bright. They seldom, if Table 2. Growth Rate of Turkeys at Various Ages Broad Breasted Bronze Beltsville Small White* Age in Weeks Average Weight in Pounds Pounds of Feed per Bird to Age Given Pounds of Feed per Pound of Gain to Age Given Average Weight in Pounds Pounds of Feed per Bird to Age Given Pounds of Feed per Pound Males Females Males Females of Gain to Age Given 2 4 0.11 0.34 0.95 3.66 7.33 11.42 14.55 18.35 22.89 0.11 0.29 0.82 3.04 6.15 9.08 10.67 12.51 14.01 0.40 1.59 7.35 17.84 34.17 51.48 68.35 87.72 1.96 2.07 2.28 2.70 3.39 4.15 4.50 4.84 0.12 0.30 0.80 2.86 5.49 8.39 10.74 13.77 17.26 0.11 0.26 0.64 2.15 4.12 5.85 7.06 8.20 9.04 0.34 1.50 6.41 14.91 26.06 40.31 55.16 70.54 2.06 2.48 8 12 2.69 3.19 16 3.74 20 4.61 24 5.10 28 5.45 * This strain of turkeys was hatched from eggs purchased from the National Research Center, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Md. Source of data: Previously unpublished records for Broad Breasted Bronze (44 males, 48 females) and Beltsville Small White (43 males, 45 females) turkeys in the flocks of the University of California at Davis. Both bird and feed weights are for survivors only. [7] Table 3 . Strain Differences in Weight and Conformation of 24-Week-Old Bronze Turkeys Strain Average Weight (Pounds) Average Length of Shank (Inches) Average Length of Keel (Inches) Width of Breast 2/5 Inches Above Keel (Inches) Males 3 17.71 17.78 14.65 7.93 7.91 7.62 6.60 6.64 6.08 1.42 1.54 1.41 4 5 Females 3 12.25 12.51 10.64 6.40 6.43 6.25 5.74 5.85 5.42 1.51 1.63 1.48 4 5 ever, occur in the coastal districts where the average daytime temperature is low. In the interior valleys, where condi- tions favor this abnormality, the number of cases is evidently affected by an in- herited tendency. Some families are en- tirely free. When pendulous-crop birds are mated together, the percentage of cases among the progeny varies from about 50 per cent to as high as 100 per cent. For this reason, great care should Bronze torn with pendulous crop. Such birds should never be used for breeding. be taken to avoid using any birds that develop the abnormality, whether or not they recover later. This can be done if the birds are identified by banding, slit- ting the web between their toes, or other- wise marking them so that they can be disposed of even if they recover. One case of abnormally short legs in Bronze proved to be a simple recessive. Few of the short-legged embryos hatched and few of those that hatched survived to market age; hence such birds should not be used for breeding. Less information is available about the other abnormalities listed. Some, however, have tended to run in families or have occurred in small flocks so often as to indicate that they may be inherited. These include crooked toes, and eye de- formities. But whether or not these ab- normalities are known to be inherited, birds having them should never be used for breeding. Bronze hens sometimes grow feathers with black tips on the breast when they molt at the end of the first laying year. This indicates inactivation of the ovary. Since such birds seldom lay, they should not be kept. [8] As stated above, the grower should select his breeding stock before market- ing any birds. The most convenient time is usually shortly before the flock is ready for market, but if he wishes to build up an earlier-maturing strain he should make the selection sooner. The practice of breeding the late-maturing birds that are not ready for market is likely to result in deterioration and eventually the grower will have to replace the flock by purchas- ing from someone who has been selecting for desired qualities such as rapid growth, good fleshing, and early feathering. Egg production. The large number of hatching-eggs produced in California points to the importance of using strains that have good reproductive performance. This includes egg production, egg char- acteristics, fertility, and hatchability. To improve egg production it is advisable to trap-nest, pedigree-breed, and sib-test;* that is, base selection on the performance of the family. On the other hand, changes in egg weight can usually be made fairly easily by setting eggs of the desired weights. The egg production of turkeys re- sembles that of chickens. Turkey hens show a greater tendency than chicken hens to lay a litter of eggs and then rest, or stop laying for a time. Many turkey hens, however, do not show this tendency and will lay throughout the season. The factors that influence egg produc- tion and should be selected for are: (1) early maturity, (2) absence of broodiness and nonbroody pauses of 7 or more days, or at least a tendency to take only very short rest periods, and (3) rate of pro- duction as measured by total production, but omitting pauses. Total egg produc- tion, as in chickens, is much higher for persistent layers, laying late into the fall. The later eggs, however, are usually not wanted for hatching and are too expen- sive to produce for food. Consequently * The word sib means sister or brother, and is used without reference to sex to indicate off- spring from the same parents. this character is of less importance than for chickens unless turkeys are to be hatched for fryer production throughout the year. Sexual maturity is influenced by hered- itary factors. In turkeys, the most useful and convenient measure of sexual ma- turity is the date of first egg. Table 4 shows that selection based on this date can be used to establish relatively early- maturing strains. Differences in the tend- ency to take rest periods are also in- herited. Rate of production is presumably also influenced by heredity. Egg characteristics. Egg size or weight, shape, shell color, and shell tex- ture show considerable variation. As these are unquestionably influenced by heredity, only eggs of suitable size, free from defects, should be used for hatching. Hatcheries usually will not accept eggs below about 2% ounces. These standards are purely arbitrary. They are important to the hatcheryman because the initial weight of the poult depends very largely on the weight of the egg, but they have little bearing on the bird's subsequent rate of growth or its mature weight. Set- ting large eggs, therefore, will not insure rapid growth, nor will the birds hatched be necessarily larger when mature than those from smaller eggs. Medium-sized eggs, about 3 ounces each, do, however, usually hatch better than unusually large or small eggs. To insure reasonable egg size, a minimum weight of 2% ounces per egg and a maximum of 3% ounces may be tentatively suggested. The average will then be about 3 ounces. Unless the birds begin laying when relatively young, the first eggs will be only slightly smaller than those laid later. Since late-hatched birds begin laying at an earlier age than early-hatched birds, their first eggs are usually smaller. Common defects in turkey eggs include rough, calcareous lumps of shell material on the surface, ridges, thin shells or parts of the shell. Eggs having these defects, and all abnormally long and narrow, or [9] Table 4. Egg Production Basec on Date of First Egg Early-maturing Birds Late-maturing Birds * Year Average Date of First Egg Average Egg Production Average Date of First Egg Average Egg Production In April To End of May Total for First Year In April To End of May Total for First Year 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1 Feb. 26 Feb. 16 Feb. 16 Feb. 28 15.7 17.5 15.8 17.5 53.8 60.6 58.9 56.2 1 83.4 84.4 96.6 89.1 Mar. 15 Mar. 11 Mar. 15 Mar. 9 Mar. 16 17.9 8.2 16.7 8.2 16.1 44.8 31.3 38.1 31.5 40.5 68.0 53.2 55.3 59.3 67.3 * The birds used for breeding in the late-maturing line were also selected to some extent for their ten- dency to pause and to lay few eggs during the year. t Matings of birds selected for early and late maturity were first made in 1934; hence data for only one group are given in 1933. The eggs on the left show normal variation and should be suitable for hatching. Those on the right include double-yolked, dwarf, and thin-shelled eggs which may either fail to hatch, or hatch poorly. [10 short and round eggs, double-yolked eggs, and dwarf eggs should be discarded. Cal- careous lumps on the shell do not affect hatchability, but are unattractive. As the tendency to lay eggs with calcareous lumps is probably inherited, the breeder should not set such eggs. What about age of breeding stock? Most of the hens used for breeding are in their first laying year, and most of the toms are one-year-old birds. On the aver- age, Bronze toms are not fertile until 7 months (210 or more days) old. This should be taken into account when hatch- ing breeding stock and using artificial light to bring hens into egg production. If the hens start laying before the toms are mature, most of the early eggs may be infertile. The egg production of hens is highest in the first laying year and decreases by about one-third from then to the second laying year (table 5). There continue to be slight decreases, for the older birds usually begin to lay later in the season and lay at a lower rate. Those who are trap-nesting and pedi- gree breeding will find it desirable to keep the best hens, as measured by the trap-nest records, hatchability of eggs, and livability of poults, since such hens may prove to be valuable breeders. Be- cause of the short breeding season, hens and toms cannot be used effectively in their second season unless production records are available. Moreover, the com- mercial grower is not justified in using breeding stock for more than one season unless his program of improvement will compensate him for the added expense. Another point to consider is that the fer- tility obtained with the older males is usually lower. The fertility of the eggs laid by older hens is generally satisfac- tory, but the hatchability tends to drop after about the second year. Trap-nesting and pedigree breeding To be effective, trap-nesting should be followed by pedigree breeding and pro- geny testing. The records needed include: (1) egg records, (2) mating records, (3) incubation records, and (4) poult index. Record of egg production. The record of egg production may be kept on individual egg records (see page 12) or on a large sheet, or sheets similar to the individual egg record, with a separate line for each hen and a separate column for each day of the month. The eggs should be entered on the record sheet when the hen is removed from the trap nest. The trap nests (see photo) should be visited once every 2 hours in cool weather, every hour in hot weather. Table 5. Effect of Age on Egg Production and Egg Weight Average Date of First Egg Average Total « Egg . Production for Year* Average Number of Eggs Laid in April Average Weight of Eggs Average Weights Laying Tear Day-old Poults Poults 16 Weeks Old First Second Third Fourth March 8 March 20 March 21 March 29 76.6 49.5 44.2 44.6 17.6 12.9 11.8 10.4 Ounces f 3.01 3.20 Pounds t 0.12 0.13 Pounds f 6.87 7.02 * Slightly less than half the eggs were usually laid before the end of April. These data are based on seven years' records. f The data for egg and poult weights are based on one year's records. Source of data: Asmundson, V. S., and W. E. Lloyd. Effect of age on reproduction of the turkey hen. Poul- try Science 14:259-66. 1935. [ii] Mating record. The minimum infor- mation required is the leg-band number of the male heading each pen, and a list of the hens to which he was mated. The leg-band number of the sire and dam of each bird in the breeding pen should also be entered in this record. Where egg pro- duction, weight of bird, and other data are available for the hens used, this in- formation might well be noted. Incubation record. The incubation record should provide columns for the leg-band number of the hen, number of eggs set, number of infertile eggs, num- ber of dead germs, and number of poults hatched, with a separate column for the number of vigorous poults banded. Poult index. This is a list of the wing- band numbers of the poults hatched, ar- ranged in numerical order with columns for the sire and dam of each. Summary of records for each hen. From these records a summary should be prepared for each hen. This should show sexual maturity (the date of first egg) ; absence or presence of pauses and their length in days; rate (per cent production, eliminating nonlaying periods of 7 or more days) ; total number of eggs laid during the trap-nesting period, which might well extend to the end of May; number of eggs set; per cent fertile; per cent vigorous poults hatched from fertile eggs. The weight of the bird and the aver- age weight of eggs laid, if available, should also be entered in the summary. The records of full sisters and the daugh- ters of each sire should be grouped to- gether and an average obtained for the females of each family. When selecting birds for further pedigree breeding, one should consider the average for the fam- ily. The occasional good bird of inferior stock is not likely to prove as desirable a breeder as a good bird out of a superior family. BrcedErojwe Mated to 3M-19Q 36 IN DIVIDUAL EGG RECORC H Year 19 37 to 19 Legband No.. T" 594 Age in days at 1st Matin, n„ 1M- 176 : T-499 Month 1 2 3 * 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ie 17 18 19 20 >] 22 23 24 25 26 27 2, 29 30 31 Totals Month Tod.t. January February / / / / / / / 7 7 March / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 23 30 April / / / / / / / / L / / / / / / / / / / / / / 22 52 May / / 1 ]_ / / / / 1 / / / / / / / / / / / / 21 73 June ! / / ]_ / / / / / / / / / / / / 16 89 July / / / / / 5 94 AURUSt To tal 94 INDIVIDUAL EGG RECORD fll y™ ,9 37 to ,9 Mated to....™-l?§. „ SL_ _..._... Legband N.„..T- 6 *5. WingbandNo .465 Mating No. TM-1?8;T-519 Age in days at 1st 1 2 3 4 5 « '7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Totala Month Month Tod»t» January February March / / / / / / / / 8 8 April / / / / / / j_ 1 1 / / / / / / / / 17 25 May / / / / / / / / / / 10 35 / / J_ / / / / / / 9 44 July 1 / 1 ( 1 1 6 50 To tal 50 Samples of individual egg records for a good hen (above), and for a poor one (below). [12 A battery of five trapnests, each nest 16 inches wide, 27 inches high and 24 inches deep. The ground serves as a floor and the hens may be removed from the top, if desired. For pedigree breeding, the number of the hen and the date should be marked on the egg when the hen is removed from the trap nest. If there are several breeding pens, the pen number should also be marked on the egg. The eggs from the trap-nested hens are then set in the usual way, those from the same hen being placed together in the incubator trays to reduce the amount of sorting. On the 20th day of incubation the eggs should be candled, and the infertile eggs and dead germs removed. On the 24th or 25th day, the remaining eggs should be placed in pedigree baskets, the eggs from each hen being kept separate. In each basket should be placed a piece of cardboard with the hen number and the number of eggs from the hen. The side of the card on which this information is written should be turned down, for the sake of cleanness. When the poults are removed from the incubator they should be banded, and a record (poult index) made of the dam's and sire's numbers and the band number of the poults. The wing band may be placed either in the wing or around the leg and later, usually at about 2 weeks, transferred to the web of the wing. This band permanently identifies the poult. Inbreeding, outbreeding, and crossbreeding Inbreeding is the mating of related birds. Close inbreeding is the mating of brother to sister, parent to offspring, or first cousins. Outbreeding is the mating of birds of the same variety but unrelated. Crossbreeding is mating between differ- ent varieties. Close inbreeding even with careful se- lection usually results in lowered hatch- ability and, if continued, is likely to cause lowered fertility, increased mortality, slower growth, and later maturity. Some ri3] inbreeding combined with careful selec- tion may be expected to give good results. The hatchery flock owner should regu- larly (preferably each year) purchase enough eggs to furnish all the males re- quired to head his flocks. There is no danger of harmfully close inbreeding from the purchase of males from the same breeder year after year, provided the breeder is carrying on an adequate breed- ing program. Unrelated stock need not be purchased. The practice of trading males, although common, is undesirable. It does not result in any improvement and, in fact, often causes definite deterioration of the flock. It also discourages selection for improve- ment. Those who are selecting for improve- ment and wish to use their own males can usually do so without difficulty from in- breeding provided there are several hundred hens in the breeding flock. To make certain that there will not be too close inbreeding, the following 4-pen scheme may be used. Several other schemes will accomplish the same pur- pose. It is assumed that all birds are used in their first year only, and the birds are marked to identify the ones from the dif- ferent pens which are indicated by the letters A, B, C, and D. After the shifting of males is started (years 1, 2, etc.) the first letter indicates the pen from which females are used, the second letter indi- cates the pen from which males are used. YEAR Pen A Pen B Pen C Pen D AB BC CD DA AC BD CA BD AB BC CD DA AC BD CA DB AB BC CD DA This 4-pen scheme cannot be used by the pedigree breeder. He should, however, as far as possible, avoid mating birds with a common ancestor in the preceding two generations. When different varieties are crossed, the fertility and hatchability of the eggs are usually high. At the California Agri- cultural Experiment Station, however, there have been exceptions, since some of the crosses failed to improve hatchability. Weight when ready for market may ex- ceed that of the parent varieties when these resemble each other in weight ; when one of the parent varieties weighs a little more than the other the crossbreds are likely to weigh about the same as the larger parent; when large and small va- rieties (such as the Broad Breasted Bronze and Beltsville Small White) are mated, the crossbreds are intermediate in weight. To obtain best results with the breeding stock, practice careful management The size of the breeding flock may vary from a single unit headed by one male up to 1,000 or more birds. The exact size of the unit will depend upon condi- tions on the particular farm. The average number of breeding fe- males is 10 for each male. The necessary number of toms may be placed with the breeding flock at the beginning of the season and left there until the birds are marketed at the end of the breeding sea- son. An alternative practice is to have the same total number of males, but rotate them by dividing them into two or three groups. One group is placed with the hens for a week and the following week is removed, being replaced by the second group. If the toms are divided into three groups, this is repeated, the birds being out of the pens 2 weeks and in the pens one week. This practice appears to give good results (slightly better fertility than [14] when the birds are left in the pens all the time), although adequate comparative data are not available. Suggestions. The length of time necessary to establish fertility in turkeys is 2 weeks or longer. The matings should therefore be made up 3 or 4 weeks before eggs are set. Fertility does not decrease appreciably for about 2 weeks after the toms are removed. It is frequently low late in the season, the reduction appar- ently depending on climatic and other conditions. Individual birds show consid- erable differences in this respect. For best fertility the males should be of about average weight for the strain, be active and have normal gait as shown by walking. If the difference in weight between males and females is too great, it may result in reduced fertility. To protect from tearing by the toms, the backs of the hens are covered with saddles fastened around the wings with straps. Saddles of different sizes are avail- able. If saddles are not used, the toes of the toms should be trimmed with heavy shears; bleeding may be allowed to stop naturally, or a cautery can be used. Equipment, It is important to supply breeding stock with adequate space and equipment. In general the recommenda- tions for growing birds regarding feeders, waterers, roosts, and shade apply also to breeder turkeys (see page 29). The turkeys should be given a good breeder ration about a month before eggs are expected. One or more series of four broody pens are useful for breaking up broody hens. The broody hens are identified by their presence on the nest late in the afternoon or early evening, and the absence of a hard-shelled egg in the oviduct. The pres- ence of an egg can be determined by palpation or by inserting a finger a dis- tance of about one inch into the oviduct to determine whether there is an egg in the shell gland. The hens that are broody are started in the first pen and moved each day until returned to their regular pen on the fourth day. The broody hens should have water, mash, and oystershell or limestone grit. Reserve males may be left in the broody pens if individual, or pen pedigreeing is not being done. Artificial insemination. Low fertil- ity is sometimes experienced with turkeys, particularly when the males are too heavy, sag down in front, and walk awkwardly. When fertility is low correctly applied artificial insemination will improve fer- tility. It is very important that the hens be properly handled since rough handling may stop, or at least reduce egg pro- duction. With two men working together, the semen is usually obtained by abdominal massage followed by squeezing the bul- bous ducts, which open into the cloaca, to force the semen into a glass vial. The semen is taken up into a glass syringe and % cc introduced into the oviduct (not just the cloaca) of the hen about half an inch beyond its opening. Not more than one collection should be made from a torn in one day — once every other day is bet- ter. The semen from different males may be mixed, but should be used within a few minutes after being collected. The average male will, as a rule, yield enough semen for 8 hens. A turkey hen equipped with a typical saddle to protect her back from tearing. [15 If the males are with the hens, it is advisable to separate them a day or two before semen is to be collected. It is ad- visable to handle each male at least once before starting insemination. Only trained persons should attempt to artifi- cially inseminate breeder flocks. Use of lights. Earlier eggs may be obtained by selective breeding or by the use of artificial lights. The birds may or may not be housed when electric lights are used. The lights should shine on the roosts, the feeders, and the waterers. If the feeders and waterers are some dis- tance from the roosts, care should be taken to light the intervening space. The birds should find feed and water available when they come off the roosts, although they will respond to lights even if fed only during the natural day. They should receive an adequate breeder ration at least a month before eggs are expected. This may be when lights are started, or earlier. Turkeys respond to white or red light, but not to blue. For turkeys an intensity of over 2.0 foot-candles is required. In practice more than the minimum amount of light should be provided — for example, by using a 100-watt inside-frosted lamp at a height of 8 feet for each 300 square feet of area. These lamps can be 100- to 300-watt or larger, depending on the area to be served by each lamp. For all-night lighting, much less intense light is gen- erally used, but turkey hens do not re- spond to very dim light. All-night bright lights are not recommended except under special conditions, for example to bring hens into egg production in very foggy weather. Birds on all-night bright lights tend to lay a higher percentage of cracked and other waste eggs that are unfit for hatching, as compared with those on a 14-hour day. The efficiency of the lamps can be in- creased by reflectors. Where the space directly underneath is to be lighted, a wide-angle reflector will be best. Such a reflector is also likely to prove best in most cases where a beam of light is wanted, although narrow types may sometimes prove useful. Flat reflectors are least desirable. The lights should be at least 6 feet above the ground and should never be so placed that the birds will fly against them when leaving the roost. Morning lights are most commonly used. A 13- to 14-hour day is long enough to give a maximum response. Many growers have lengthened the day gradu- ally, but there is apparently no advantage over simply starting the light at the de- sired time. Thus, if the birds are on the roosts at 5:30 p.m. and a 13- or 14-hour day is desired, the lights would be turned on at 3:30 or 4:30 a.m. The lights should not be discontinued until the birds would normally be laying well — usually at some time between the latter part of February and the middle of March. When the lights are to be discontinued, they should be turned on 15 minutes later each day until they are being turned on at dawn, at which time they are stopped. If the lights stop too soon some birds will go out of production. The time required to start the birds lay- ing depends on their age and upon the time of the year when the lights are turned on. If, in November or December, lights are turned on birds that would not lay until March, it will be 3 or 4 weeks before any eggs are received, and the first peak in production will occur 6 to 8 weeks after the lights are started. During March, April, and May such birds lay at the same or a lower rate than birds that begin later. If the birds do not lay until shortly before the regular season, their rate of egg production will usually be the same as that of unlighted birds, but may be higher. If lights are not started until Feb- ruary, an increase in egg production may be expected in 2 or 3 weeks. Lights will apparently not reduce broodiness, nor pauses between litters. These purposes can be achieved by trap- nesting, pedigree breeding, and progeny 16 testing. (See Trap-nesting and pedigree breeding, pages 11 to 14.) Lights have little effect on the weight of the eggs laid during the regular breed- ing season; but the earlier eggs (2 to 3 months before the regular laying season) will be slightly smaller than later ones. Where low temperatures and severe storms are experienced during the winter, the fertility of eggs from lighted birds has been improved early in the season by housing. In California, housing may im- prove fertility, particularly when the winters are wet. The fertility of the eggs from lighted birds is usually satisfactory, and their hatchability is, with some exceptions, equal to that of eggs from unlighted birds. The decrease in fertility and hatchability of turkey eggs, commonly observed late in the season, occurs at about the same time with both lighted and unlighted birds. Hence, with lighted birds starting to lay earlier than the rest, and maintain- ing fertility and hatchability just as late, one can get hatching-eggs over a longer period by the use of lights. Care of hatching-eggs. Turkey hatching-eggs should be gathered in wire pails twice a day — oftener in warm weather — and cooled overnight at 50° to 60° F. The eggs may be packed in 120 or 200 cases, equipped with special filler or with 5x5 fillers and flats, and held at 50° to 60° F until incubated. Tempera- tures down to 40° F and up to 70° F will usually reduce hatches only slightly or not at all if the eggs are held only a few days before they are incubated. Eggs held for one week at near freezing (32° F) or 80° F suffer a definite reduction in hatch- ability. It is, therefore, important to hold eggs at or near the optimum temperature of 55° until placed in the incubator. The hatchability may decrease about one per cent per day after the first week 90 70- 50 Incubation mortality Preincubation mortality © - I @ 3 day 2 3 Weeks held prior to incubation Graph showing the effect of time hatching-eggs were held prior to incubation on preincubation mortality, incubation mortality, and hatchability. [17] even when the eggs are held at optimum temperatures. The rate of decrease in hatchability is likely to be even greater if the eggs are held more than two weeks (see graph). Therefore, eggs that must travel any distance should preferably not be more than about 4 days old when shipped. Misshapen, excessively large or small, thin-shelled, or cracked eggs should be discarded. The hatchability of very dirty eggs is likely to be 10 to 20 per cent or more less than that of clean eggs, whether or not the dirty eggs are cleaned or washed. Such eggs are, therefore, best discarded. Slightly dirty eggs should be cleaned. Eggs with movable or tremulous aircells seldom hatch and should there- fore, not be set. Turkey eggs should always be packed with the large end up. Fillers designed for shipping turkey hatching-eggs may be purchased. Nests may be one of the several deep- litter, community types (see photos) or individual nests. If individual nests are used they should be of the balanced-door type so that only one hen can use the nest at a time. This helps to reduce losses from dirty and broken eggs. The large number of these individual nests re- quired — one to every 3 or 4 hens — and extra labor of gathering eggs from the numerous nests should be carefully con- sidered before adopting this type. The nesting material may be rice hulls, shav- ings, or straw, and should be changed when necessary, so as to have clean ma- terial to a depth of several inches in the nests. Incubation — two types are in common use Natural incubation. Turkey eggs can be hatched under turkey hens or chicken hens, the number set under either depending upon the size of the bird. Set only as many eggs as the hen will com- fortably cover. The number may be slightly greater in warm weather than in cool. For turkey hens it will vary from 15 to 18 eggs; for chicken hens, from about 8 to 11. A turkey hen will brood up to 20 poults. Broocf/ness* When a hen shows signs of being broody, she should be moved to a permanent nest. Such a nest is built on the ground by scooping out a small amount of earth. A spoonful of coal tar disinfectant should be placed in the bot- tom of the nest, and on top of this should be straw or other material for litter. The Left, individual, balanced-door type nests. Right, community type nests with deep litter. r is i hen should be treated with sodium flu- oride powder for lice at the time she is put on the nest and once again (10 days later) or twice, if necessary, during the time that she is setting, but well ahead of the time when the poults will hatch. The bird can be placed on infertile eggs for a day or so to test her ; the fertile eggs can then be substituted if she shows no tendency to desert the nest. If it is necessary to change the location of the setting hens, the moving should be done after dark. When large numbers of eggs are being set under hens, a good practice is to wait until several hens are available. While setting, hens should have water, grit, grain, mash, and some green feed. Besides making sure that they are eating, the grower should examine them regularly for parasites. By such inspec- tion he can avoid difficulties that might result in the hen's deserting the nest. When the eggs are ready to hatch, the hen might well be confined to the nest so that she cannot leave with the first poults hatched. If she shows any restless- ness, the first poults should be removed and kept warm until hatching is com- pleted, at which time all the poults can be placed with the hen. After hatching. While the poults are with the hen, it is usually advisable to confine her to a small enclosure, allowing the poults to get outside after the first few days. Losses are likely to be heavy if the hens are allowed free range from the beginning. The hens can be removed after the poults are too large and well feathered to need additional heat from the mother. While natural incubation is fairly suc- cessful as a means of getting eggs hatched, the turkey hens may transmit diseases to the poults. The danger of pullorum dis- ease and blackhead is even greater when chicken hens are used. Thus under arti- ficial incubation and brooding (discussed below) there is less danger of disease transmission. Since chicks may carry the pullorum organism, turkey and chicken eggs should not be hatched together, even (under artificial incubation) in the same machine. Where possible, they should not be hatched in the same room. For similar reasons, poults should be raised by themselves, not with chickens or mature turkeys. Artificial incubation. The tremen- dous increase in the artificial incubation of turkey eggs has resulted in the building of a large hatchery industry in California. Many factors contribute to the success of such a business, one of the most im- portant of which is the quality of the stock from which the eggs are obtained. Only by getting eggs from good stock can the hatchery hope to produce poults of sufficient quality to influence the suc- cess of growers who buy from them. Even so, unless hatches are satisfac- tory, failure will be inevitable. Ventilation. The incubator can be operated in any kind of room, but for consistently good results the incubator room should be well insulated and venti- lated. Room temperature may be regu- lated somewhat by building partly under- ground. When built aboveground, the room should be well insulated and air- conditioned to control temperatures, par- ticularly in hot weather. Ventilation should be adequate in all parts of the room when the room is filled to capacity with incubators. Incubators. Incubators are either of the forced-draft or gravity-ventilated type. Eggs incubated in most fan-venti- lated, forced-draft incubators are usually transferred to a separate hatcher, a hatch- ing compartment, or a naturally venti- lated incubator on about the 25th day. Standby plant. Electricity is used almost universally to maintain the proper temperature in the incubator. Since power failure may cause heavy losses, every hatchery should have a suitable standby generator plant. Operating the incubator. Forced- draft, fan-ventilated incubators are usu- ally operated at 99.25 ± .25° F; some [19] forced-draft incubators are operated at a slightly higher temperature up to 100° F. Separate hatchers and hatching com- partments are usually operated at 1 or 2° F less than the forced-draft type in- cubator. Naturally ventilated incubators may be operated at a temperature of 102.5° F throughout, or at a temperature of 100.5° the first week, 101.5° the second week, 102.5° the third week, and 103° F (but no higher) the fourth and last week. The temperature is read with the bulb of the thermometer at a level with, but not touching, the top of the eggs. Eggs should lose about 14 per cent of their initial weight during the first 25 days of incubation. A slightly lower weight loss is not likely to reduce hatch- ability. The correct rate of water loss is obtained with a relative humidity of 50 to 60 per cent to the 25th day of incuba- tion. For the last 3 days of incubation, the relative humidity should be increased to 70 per cent. The manufacturer's instructions should be followed. If the temperature and rela- tive humidity are correct, the eggs (unless exceptionally large) will usually begin to pip on the 26th or 27th day and the hatch will be completed on the 28th day. Eggs held too long prior to incubation are likely to hatch late and fewer of such eggs hatch (see page 17) . The eggs are placed on the tray with the large end up, or on their sides. They should never be placed with the small end up. If they are, the embryos may develop with the head in the small end and so be less likely to hatch. In incubators with automatic turning devices the eggs are turned at regular three-hour intervals, or 8 times in 24 hours. If done by hand, the eggs are turned 2 or 3 times a day. The eggs are kept out of the incubator for only a few minutes and the door of the incubator is kept closed while the eggs are being turned. The eggs are not turned after the 25th day of incubation. Testing the eggs. Eggs are usually tested when they are moved from the in- cubator trays to the hatching trays, and the infertile eggs and dead germs are removed. Pedigree breeders may well test on the 10th day to remove infertile eggs and dead germs and again on the 20th day to remove dead germs. The eggs re- moved are noted on the incubation record and provision is made to pedigree the eggs still in the machine. Infertile eggs show no apparent devel- opment, while dead germs are easily identified by their color and the absence of blood vessels (see photo). The pro- cedure used is to hold the large end of the egg up to a small round hole in a candler (a box containing a light). A flashlight type of candler that can be moved over the eggs may also be used. Another fairly rapid, but perhaps less accurate method, is to use a box as wide as the tray with a light in it, and a slit the width of the box in the top. The whole tray of eggs is moved across this light. Taking off the hatch. A certain per- centage of the poults will pip the shell but will fail to get out. Many hatcherymen help some of these. If such poults have not dried down too much, and are normal, the majority may develop into satisfac- tory birds. The mortality, however, ap- pears to be somewhat greater in such poults than among those able to hatch without assistance. The practice of help- ing may be permissible in custom-hatch- ing, and may also be used commercially, provided the buyer knows that the poults have been helped out of the shell. They should not be sold as first-class stock. Breeders should not make a practice of helping poults out of the shell but should, rather, breed for improved hatchability. Spraddle-legged poults are considered apt to occur where the temperature in the incubator has been too high or too low; but the evidence is contradictory. A fac- tor that may increase the number of such poults, however, is the use of smooth and very-fine-mesh wire in the incubator tray. [20 Dead germ egg, 10th day Live embryo, 10th day Live embryo, 20th day Live embryo, 24th day Drawings of a "candler's-eye" view of eggs at different stages of incubation. [21] Prompt removal of newly hatched poults to boxes with excelsior pads may help to prevent spraddle legs. All spraddle-legged or otherwise badly crippled poults, to- gether with obviously weak poults, should be discarded. Causes of poor hatches. Low fer- tility may be caused by : too few, or much too many, males in the breeding flock; prolonged wet weather when birds are not housed; too cold weather, or excessively hot weather late in the season. Apparent low fertility may be due to holding the eggs too long, to storing them at unfavor- able (low or high) temperatures, or to rough handling. Failure of fertile eggs to hatch may re- sult from improper incubation. Too high a temperature will cause an early hatch; too low a temperature, a delay. Too high or too low humidity during the first 3 weeks or so may reduce hatchability, while insufficient moisture during hatch- ing may prevent many poults from getting out of the shell. Poor ventilation of the incubator room, which causes the air to have too high a percentage of carbon dioxide, will also lower hatchability. Too rapid a change in air, combined with low humidity, may also decrease hatchability. At high elevations, oxygen may have to be introduced into the incubator to obtain good hatches. Nutritional deficiencies in the parent birds may be a cause of poor hatches. Besides the necessary protein, carbohy- drates, fats, and minerals, it is very im- portant to supply breeding flocks with enough of the vitamins, particularly vita- mins A, D, and riboflavin (see page 38) . Inbreeding birds carrying (but not necessarily showing) undesirable traits such as abnormally short legs may in- crease the percentage of such birds in the offspring, and thereby reduce hatch- ability. To improve hatches it is necessary to know if the unhatched eggs are infertile or dead germs. Infertility is apparently the commonest cause of low hatches. Brooding methods and practices While there is considerable variation in the houses and equipment used for brooding poults, standard methods are gradually evolving. However, certain types of equipment seem to be common in some districts but are not used in others. In general, brooder houses and brooder equipment satisfactory for brooding chicks will also serve well for poults, BUT NEVER AT THE SAME TIME. A brooder house with an alleyway has been found very satisfactory for poults. With this type one man can take care of 3,000 or more birds. Such a house, when built with a concrete floor, is easily cleaned, requires relatively little extra attention, protects the poults, and can be adjusted readily to meet variations in weather. It is easily disinfected and may be used for brooding two or three succes- sive lots during the season. The size of pen may be varied accord- ing to the number of poults. For commer- cial brooding, 200 to 400 are usually placed in one pen. Better results may be expected if the number does not exceed 300, and the growth is likely to be more uniform if even fewer are brooded to- gether. The greater the number in one lot, the greater the danger of crowding, which results in uneven growth if not in actual mortality. At least 70 square feet of floor space should be provided for each 100 poults, and 100 square feet is better. Wire floors with elevated wire yards are being increasingly used for turkey brooding. Slat floors are sometimes used for the yards in place of wire. A wire pen in a brooder house and an outside wire yard such as illustrated in the photo on page 23 lessens the danger of loss from ground-borne parasites. Permanent brooder houses should be well built and carefully planned. Some may prefer a colony type, but one man cannot take care of as many poults when such houses are used. Some may also feel that the investment is too great. Cheaper [22] Poults on wire floors inside a brooder house. Note that feeders and waterers are provided. construction may be satisfactory where the poults are brooded late in the season. A well-built brooder house is likely to be more economical; it is more useful under all conditions, lessens the labor required to look after the poults, and — through better care and sanitation — re- duces mortality. A brooder should, above all else, be constructed to maintain the correct tem- perature under all conditions. Humidity cannot be accurately regulated, but should be kept low so that the floor is reasonably dry. Many of the brooders now in use require too much labor to operate and to keep clean. Brooders usually are heated by elec- tricity, gas, oil, coal, or wood, or one of View of outside of wire-floored brooder pen. The metal strips along the side are feeders. [23] these fuels is used to heat water (see below) . In California electricity is used for brooding in at least 5 ways : the elec- trically heated, insulated hover ; the elec- tric contact brooder; the small outdoor brooder; the electric battery brooder; and the electric cable-heated brooder. The most important type has an elec- trically heated, insulated hover. The air under these brooders is heated from above, but relatively little heat escapes into the room. For this reason, even large hovers can be operated effectively in a small space, provided the number of poults brooded does not exceed the room capacity. Eight-inch curtains at the edge of the canopy help to conserve heat and to reduce the amount of electricity used. The brooder may well be equipped with a fan to insure adequate ventilation. If there is no fan or other means of removing stale air, proper ventilation can be pro- vided by raising or lowering the hover; by removing or adjusting the curtains; or by placing the brooder on a ^-rndi mesh hardware cloth platform such as shown in the photo below. This is raised 2 to 4 inches off the floor. When used early in the season, electric brooders should be capable of producing enough heat to maintain the right hover temperature, unless they are operated in a room with auxiliary heat. To maintain sufficient warmth under the hover, when operated in a room without auxiliary heat, the resistance wires, or heating ele- ments, should carry 5 or more watts per poult when the hover has curtains; 12 or more watts if it has none. Hover space of 14 square inches should be allowed per poult. Such brooders are easy to op- erate, and the temperature can be regu- lated accurately. If not overcrowded, they give excellent results where cheap, de- pendable electricity is available. The electric contact brooder consists of a heated rubber sheet, or other mate- rial, so placed that by adjusting the height of the hover the backs of the poults are in contact with it. The outdoor brooder is a small com- partment heated with electricity or gas. The heated compartment is connected with a small outside run, which is usually enclosed with wire and has a floor made of %- or %-inch mesh hardware cloth. For older poults 1-inch mesh hardware cloth; or chicken netting may be used. The entire unit is raised off the ground. These brooders can be operated most Left, placing feeders and waterers on wire helps prevent some types of diseases. Right, guard surrounding electric brooder. This prevents poults from piling in corners. It may be removed after a few days. [24] successfully where the climate is dry and mild. The electric battery brooder can be used to start poults, but ordinarily is not used long enough each season to justify the expense of purchase. Many systems are used to a limited ex- tent for brooding poults. These include electric soil-heating cable buried in sand; hot water circulated through copper or wrought-iron pipe laid in concrete and heated with a thermostatically controlled gas, electric, or other heater; large gas or other heaters with a fan to circulate the heat through a large brooder room. Except for the soil-heating cable, these are expensive to install and therefore not usually suitable for use when there are only one or two broods in a year. Infra- red lamps are also being used in mild climates, but the cost of operation is higher than for other types of electric brooders. Gas brooders are widely used for brooding poults. Since they heat the room, yet are easy to regulate, they make an excellent brooder at all seasons of the year. Gas-, oil-, coal-, or wood-burning brooders all heat the room more than the electrical type. The room, therefore, must be large enough for the brooder stove. If too large a stove is used, the poults may be overheated, which is just as detri- mental to them as chilling. If they are seen to crowd to the walls, away from the stove, the temperature should be checked to make sure that it is not too high. Brooders can be heated by natural gas from local mains or by compressed gas from steel cylinders or tanks. The tem- perature can be regulated by a simple thermostat. Oil-burning brooders come next in ease of regulation; then coal. Wood-burning brooders usually require even more labor than coal ; they give good results when properly attended. Small brooders made of feathers, felt, or similar material, while difficult to keep sanitary, are satisfactory for small lots of poults. An electric bulb may be used to supply heat but it should be in free air, and should not touch any of the felt, cloth, or feathers because of the danger of fire. Cost of brooder fuel. Mortality and rate of growth seem to be little affected by type of fuel. However, dependability, ease, and cost of operation do differ. Fuel cost is a minor item in the cost of raising a turkey, amounting to about 3 to 5 cents per turkey. The cost varies with the sea- son (weather), per cent of the brooder capacity used, and, of course, mortality. Since the cost of brooder fuel is low, de- pendability and ease of operation appear to be the most important factors to con- sider. Both gas and electric brooders rate high in this regard. Brooder equipment, A thermometer should be suspended under the brooder with the bulb about 2 inches above the floor and 3 or 4 inches in from the edge of the canopy. A hover ring, or guard, made of building paper, roofing paper, or chicken netting covered with burlap should be provided. This should be about 12 inches wide (see photo). A 1-gallon drinking fountain should be furnished for each 75 poults; also feed troughs to supply about 1 inch or more of feeding space per poult. (A trough 4 feet long is usually adequate for 100 poults to 3 weeks of age.) Grit hoppers and green- feed racks will be required later. Some of the equipment required is illustrated. Brooder management. Under no circumstances should turkeys be brooded with chicks, even where the chicks are from pullorum-tested stock; the practice has often caused heavy mortality among poults. As stated previously, the turkeys should also be reared away from mature stock, whether chickens, turkeys, or other species, to lessen the risk of blackhead and other diseases. Obviously, natural in- cubation and brooding are hazardous from this standpoint. The poults can be fed just as soon as they are dried off — usually 24 to 36 hours from the time they hatch. There may be [25] considerable variation in the time of hatching and in such cases, those that hatch earliest may have to be fed before the others. There is no advantage in keep- ing feed away from the birds; to do this for long periods, such as 2 or 3 days, is definitely detrimental. If left without food too long, some will become weak and may die. Vigorous poults usually learn to eat readily. If, however, difficulty is experi- enced, putting the feed on egg flats or in shallow pans will help to get them started. Some growers have found that putting colored pebbles or marbles in the feed will attract the poults. These should be too large to be swallowed. A small amount of chick-sized cracked yellow corn or other grain mixed with the starting mash will also help. The temperature under the part of the hover used by the poults should be about 95° F. It may be reduced when the poults feather, but should always be adjusted for their comfort. In electric brooders the temperature under the center may go to 100°, since these brooders do not ordi- narily heat the room. The temperature under the brooder should be kept up dur- ing the daytime, at least for the first 3 weeks, so that the poults can get warm quickly. Room temperatures outside of electric hovers may sometimes become too cold. If, under these circumstances, the poults refuse to go out, water and feed should be placed partly under the hover. The guard (see photo) helps to prevent too much heat loss from the brooder for the first few days, but its main function is to keep the poults from wandering too far, and to train them to go back inside for heat. When used with a gas or simi- lar type of brooder, the guard may be placed 18 to 24 inches from the edge of the canopy. With a curtained electric brooder, it may be placed about the same distance away but should come up to the edge of the canopy at least at one place in order to guide the poults under the brooder. After the first few days the guard should be removed, but the birds must not get into corners and pile. Crowding causes uneven growth and increased mor- tality; hence the poults should receive special care at dusk, when they are set- tling down for the night. When first al- lowed outside they may be driven out and in two or three times to make sure they know their way. Even in warm weather the strangeness of the surroundings out- side may cause them to crowd. The dan- ger of such crowding is much greater on cool days. If the birds are fed well- balanced rations with adequate vitamin D, it is not necessary to get them out at any particular time. They should not be exposed to much dampness or cold. In warm weather they can be fed and watered outside. In hot weather shade in the yard is needed. Because roosting helps to prevent crowding, the birds may soon be taught to get onto the roosts. If they learn too young, however, or if the roosts are too narrow, the proportion of birds with crooked keels is likely to be increased. The first roosts may be made of frames similar to those in the photo. They stand about 1 foot above the floor and are 1 inch x 2 inches laid flat (not on edge), with the edges beveled. Roosts may be put into the brooder room when the birds are five weeks old. Growing birds need space, as well as shade, water, and adequate care The poults are kept in the brooder house 6 to 8 weeks — sometimes longer, particularly in cold weather. In warm weather, heat may be discontinued even before they are 6 weeks old, but it is not good practice to move them outside be- fore this time, and if the weather turns cool, heat should be applied. In general, there are 3 methods of growing turkeys: to rear in close confine- ment and provide all feed; to rear on open range but provide all feed; and to rear on more or less open range, with the birds getting a part of their feed from the range. The first method is relatively intensive, the birds being reared in restricted yards. One hundred birds can be put into a yard 50 feet by 100 feet in area and will grow satisfactorily under such conditions until marketed. When greater numbers are reared together, the area allowed should be correspondingly larger. Where only limited space is available, care should be taken, however, not to allow the yards to get dirty. By a second method, turkeys are reared on open range with up to 5,000 in each band. The usual number looked after by one man is 2,500 to 3,000, but with good equipment one man may be able to look after twice this number. If all feed is sup- plied in hoppers the birds will be ready for market at about the same age as if they had been closely confined. Commercial growers in grain-growing sections of California often finish their turkeys on barley stubble or on rice fields. This method has proved economical and satisfactory where supplementary mash is provided. The birds may be given roosts or they can roost on the ground. While this third method has proved cheaper, the birds are usually not mar- keted until later than those reared under intensive conditions or on range with all feed hopper-fed. Besides receiving proper supplementary concentrates the birds must have access to uncontaminated water at all times. A variation of the third method is to allow small flocks to range over a general farm. The results are good except where the birds mix with chickens, in which case the losses from blackhead and other dis- eases may be heavy. Preventing feather picking. Occa- sionally reports are received of poults' picking feathers off each other in the brooder house — or later, after they have been moved out. Although the exact cause can seldom be determined, several fac- tors may be involved in starting the vice. One of these factors is crowding. Another is extreme discomfort such as caused by overheating. The vice seems to be more common on wire floors, perhaps because of the tendency to crowd the birds when they are kept on wire. It may occasion- ally be caused by a specific dietary de- ficiency or by a ration that is lacking in bulk. Increasing the salt content to 2 or 3 per cent of the ration for a few days has sometimes checked cannibalism in game Young turkeys (about five weeks old) with part of upper beaks removed with debeaker. birds. This method is not always effective, but deserves a trial if an outbreak occurs. Irregular feeding may also be a factor. Probably, however, the diet ordinarily plays a relatively minor role in causing this trouble. With young poults, darken- ing the brooder house may help. Painting the window glass with red lacquer or in- stalling ruby-colored electric bulbs as the only source of light will stop cannibal- ism; but obviously these measures cannot always be used. For young birds, the vice may also be controlled by applying coal tar or an antipick preparation. This is Above, example of good wing clipping on a live bird. Below, examples of wing clipping on dressed bird: wing at left clipped too close; wing at right is clipped correctly. not practical with larger birds. For them, the grower may need to use one of the antipick devices (turkey bits, pig rings) on the market. A method that works well in stopping cannibalism and feather picking in birds of all ages, is to remove one-third to not more than one-half of the upper beak with a debeaker which cuts off the beak and cauterizes it, thus preventing bleeding. Debeaked birds may have difficulty pick- ing grain off the ground and therefore should be hopper-fed. The chief difficulty resulting from feather picking is a discoloration of the back (blue back) — caused by the pig- ment from the picked feathers diffusing into the tissues — which may reduce the market value. It may prove difficult to stop feather picking once it has begun. Consequently, every effort should be made to prevent it by giving the birds plenty of room, by spreading the feeders and waterers over a sufficient area, and by feeding a balanced ration. Preventing flight. It is often desir- able to confine turkeys with a low fence. The simplest method is to clip off the right wing, just outside the second wing joint (see photo) when the poults are about 2 to 10 days old. Sharp scissors or pruning shears may be used to make a quick, clean cut. A debeaker may be used to prevent bleeding. However, losses of wing-clipped birds from bleeding and other effects of the operation, have been very low. The flight feathers may also be clipped to prevent flight but the clipping must be repeated to be effective. If roosts are used for wing-clipped birds they should be low. Moving young turkeys. Poults do not always begin feeding readily, as has previously been mentioned. Furthermore, it is sometimes difficult to get the birds to eat and drink after they are moved from the brooder house to the rearing range or from one range to another. This difficulty may be lessened by using the same feed- ing and watering equipment for the first 28 2 or 3 days in the new quarters and by feeding the same ration. If the equipment is being changed, this should be done by putting some of the new equipment in the pens with the old until the birds get used to it. Special attention should be given to birds recently moved to see that they are eating and drinking properly. Careless- ness in this regard is likely to result in increased mortality. Feeders. Most feeders are similar in construction details. They hold a limited amount of feed and must be refilled daily. If filled too full the birds bill out the feed and waste some of it. A glance will usually tell whether the birds have feed. Large storage feed hoppers are also used for growing turkeys. There is some tendency for mash to "bridge over" and not drop down into the bottom where the birds can get at it. This is less likely to occur if grain and mash are mixed, or pellets are fed. However, such feeders should be inspected twice a day to make sure the birds can reach the feed, even if it is known that there is ample feed in the hopper. About 3 inches of feeder space per turkey is required or 3 eight- foot feeders for 200 turkeys. Roosts. While roosts are not always provided on a range, birds reared in con- finement usually have them. The roosts should be raised 2 or 3 feet off the ground and are usually made of 2 x 4's laid flat, with the upper edges beveled and spaced 20 to 24 inches apart. Allow 8 to 12-plus inches of space per bird according to size of the birds (see photo) . If narrow roosts are used, more birds may have crooked or dented keels. Shade* If natural shade from trees, corn, or sunflowers is not available, arti- ficial shade should be provided, because without it turkeys may suffer heat pros- tration in very hot weather. Allow about 130 square feet of shaded space for 100 turkeys. Water. When birds are reared in con- finement, running water should be pro- vided if at all possible. On range, every precaution should be taken to prevent ac- cess to contaminated water. Fresh, clean water should always be available, and in very hot weather should be kept in the shade. A trough 2% feet long and ac- cessible from both sides is usually ade- quate for 100 turkeys. Stampedes. Turkeys may stampede when disturbed, particularly in bright moonlight. They may also stampede or fly in different directions if startled at any time. Since a certain percentage are likely to be injured when this occurs, always try to avoid anything that would scare them. The use of dim lights on the birds Turkeys need shade during the hot weather. Trees (above) provide good shade and so does standing corn or sunflower stalks (below). [29] at night will help to prevent stampeding. If bright lights are used, do not have them shine directly on growing birds. Range vs. pen finishing. Birds reared on range do not readily take to confinement. Putting them in limited quarters for fattening is likely to prove expensive. They are usually restless in the new environment and fail to gain until thoroughly accustomed to it. The best practice with such birds is, therefore, to finish them for market on range. If they get all the feed they can consume, they will acquire a satisfactory finish more economically than if penned up. Segregating. There is no advantage in segregating the sexes in the brooder. This may be done later, by size, or by the lighter color of the tip of the breast feathers in the case of the female Bronze, Narragansett, and Bourbon Red. The sexes can be readily distinguished by the breast feathers at the age of 16 weeks, which is usually early enough. It is of some practical importance to segregate the birds according to develop- ment. Birds that have not grown properly during the earlier stages will do better if placed with others of their own size. Later on, they can be reunited with the nock. Such slow-growing poults should be marked for identification and should never be used as breeders. Stunted birds that have recovered from some disease should not be placed with younger, healthy poults, since they may still carry the disease organism. Simi- larly, any new stock should be kept iso- lated for 2 weeks or more. As a rule, partly reared stock should not be brought in. A much safer practice is to buy eggs or day-old poults. Marking to prevent theft. Where losses from theft are troublesome, a brand may be tattooed in the web of the wing of the growing turkeys. This process is rapid and cheap. The brand adopted should be registered as provided in the Agricultural Code of California, Division III, Chapter 1, Article 4. Sanitation is vital in preventing losses Losses among growing turkeys cannot be entirely eliminated; but they can be reduced to a minimum by good manage- ment and proper sanitation. Although most of the mortality is among young, growing stock, losses that can properly be considered mortality may occur to some extent at all stages, from the time the eggs are put into the incubator until the last bird is sent to market. Since many of the points have been dealt with else- where in this circular, only a few will be considered here. 1. Test all breeding turkeys for pullorum disease, and remove reactors. 2. Incubate and hatch all turkey eggs in a machine separate from the eggs of any other poultry, preferably in a separate room. 3. At the end of each hatch, thoroughly wash the hatching compartment or machine, and disinfect it with any standard poultry disinfectant. Clean and disinfect all incubating equip- ment at the beginning and end of the season. Fumigation between hatches also helps to control some diseases. 4. Clean and disinfect the brooder house and equipment several days before the poults are due to hatch. Make sure that the brooder house is in a sanitary condition. 5. Keep the brooder floors clean and dry. If built-up litter is used, it should be maintained in good mechanical condition by frequent stirring. It is safer to change the litter every week. Clean fountains or other waterers daily. Do not let water spill on the floor where the poults have access to it. 6. Clean and disinfect the brooder house and equipment thoroughly after each brood regardless of whether another lot will be brooded immediately. 7. Brood and rear poults by them- selves — never with chicks or other species. [30] 8. Rear poults on ground which has been vacant for several months, and which has not been used by mature stock. A rotation of the range so that it is used for turkeys only every third year is desirable. 9. Clean, disinfect, and dry the rearing equipment thoroughly before moving the poults from the brooder. 10. Keep poults away from stagnant, dirty water; supply them with plenty of fresh, pure water and clean, fresh feed. 11. If an outbreak of disease does occur: (a) get a diagnosis by sending affected birds to the nearest state diagnostic laboratory, (b) segregate affected birds, if possible, (c) make sure that everything is clean and dry, that the temperature under the hover is right (if the poults are still in the brooder house), and that the birds are eating and drinking properly and that birds on range have shade, (d) feed small amounts and renew frequently, (e) avoid radical changes in feed, equip- ment, or management that are apt to upset the birds, (f) correct any de- ficiencies in feeding and management, and try to keep the birds eating and drinking; but do not treat them for diseases or parasites until after the diagnosis by a laboratory or a quali- fied veterinarian. How to get diagnostic service for sick birds Specimens can be taken or sent to the State Department of Agriculture Laboratories at Kermouth Street, Tur- lock; Route 5, Box 210, Orange at Highway 99, Fresno; Tenth and L streets, Sacramento ; 627 F Street, Pet- aluma; 714 S. Santa Anita Street, San Gabriel; and School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis. In shipping specimens the sender should : (1) Be certain that the specimens selected are representative of the major illness in the flock. (2) Send sick rather than dead turkeys if a selection of representative speci- mens can be made on the basis of symptoms. (3) Select dead turkeys as soon after death as possible; thoroughly chill them in a refrigerator or by other means and wrap them in several layers of paper. (4) Ship by prepaid express. (5) Take the specimens to the express office just prior to the departure of a train that will insure delivery to the person making the examination on the same day as shipped or in the morning after an overnight journey; ship to arrive at the laboratory early in the week — avoid Saturday and Sunday arrivals. (6) Attach to the package in a sealed, stamped envelope, a statement telling the age of the turkeys affected, the size of the flock, the number already affected, symptoms shown by the sick, whether the same or similar condition has previously existed on the farm, and other pertinent information. (7) Give the name and address of both owner and sender, if shipment is not made by the owner. [31] Nutrition — what turkeys need for health, and directions for providing it The nutritional requirements for tur- keys resemble somewhat those for chick- ens. There are certain important differ- ences, however, which make it inadvisable to use rations formulated for chickens for turkey feeding. The requirements for turkeys will be considered for energy, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. Most natural feedstuffs contain a combi- nation of nutrients, although they may be grouped conveniently according to the class of nutrient which they supply most abundantly. Successful turkey rations are based on combinations of energy con- centrates, protein concentrates, vitamin supplements, and mineral supplements, which together supply all of the necessary nutrients. Tables 6, 7, and 8 give the ap- proximate composition of some common feedstuffs. The turkeys' diet should supply energy Energy may be supplied to the bird by carbohydrates, fats, and to a lesser extent, by proteins. Carbohydrates. These compounds contain three chemical elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Certain carbo- hydrates, such as starch, are digestible. Others, such as cellulose, are indigestible but may play some part in the mechanical functioning of the intestines. Starch is by far the most common digestible carbo- hydrate in turkey rations. It occurs in large amounts in cereal grains and is the principal source of energy in turkey nutrition. When starch is digested, it is turned into glucose — a simple sugar — which is absorbed into the blood stream. Other digestible carbohydrates, such as lactose, undergo similar changes. Carbo- hydrate is the main food of turkeys. It supplies them with energy for muscular movement; it produces heat to keep their bodies warm ; and it is converted into fat, which is stored in the flesh. Turkey ra- tions should contain fairly large amounts of digestible carbohydrates. Energy concentrates are mostly grains and grain by-products. Such feeds are comparatively high in digestible carbo- hydrates and supply some protein, as well as important vitamins and minerals. Barley is a deservedly popular feed for turkeys in California. A large amount of barley of excellent quality is grown in California and is often cheaper than the other grains, particularly at harvest-time. It is a satisfactory grain for turkeys, both in the whole grain mixture and in the mash. Sorghum grains. Milo, Egyptian corn, kafir, and the like are excellent for turkeys and may often be obtained at a favorable price. Their feed value is nearly as high as that of corn. The supply of sorghum grains is sometimes limited, and at certain seasons they are difficult to obtain; but, if available, they may well be used. Rice. When rice is cheap, it is a valu- able feed for turkeys. It is often fed as whole paddy rice in the scratch-grain mixture. Turkeys in the Sacramento Val- ley are often turned on the fields in the fall, after harvest, to pick up rice from the ground. This grain is comparatively high in carbohydrate but it is low in protein. Corn, besides being palatable, is richer than some of the other grains in total digestible nutrients. Often, however, it is relatively expensive. Under these circum- stances California-grown grains are more economical for turkeys, particularly for the older birds, which consume large quantities. Wheat is popular for turkey feeding and, when reasonably priced, may well be included in the ration. It ranks nearly as high as corn in feeding value. [32] Wheat bran. Good results are ob- tained when turkeys receive 10 to 20 per cent wheat bran in the mash. Rice bran is a valuable feed if ob- tained fresh and fed immediately. Its wheat bran. Being rich in fat, however, it has a tendency to spoil. Rancid rice bran should never be fed to turkeys. Sol- vent-extracted rice bran has the fat re- moved and is equivalent to wheat bran nutritional properties resemble those of in feeding value. Table 6. Average Proximate Composition of Feedstuffs Used for Poultry* Feedstuff Alfalfa leaf meal Alfalfa meal Alfalfa, fresh Babassu oil cake meal Barley Beans, cull lima Blood meal Bone meal, raw Bone meal, special steamed Brewers' dried grains Buttermilk, condensed Buttermilk, dried Coconut meal Corn Corn germ meal Corn gluten feed Corn gluten meal Corn oil meal Cottonseed meal (40% protein) Distillers' grains with solubles Fish meal Fish solubles, condensed (50% solids) . Linseed oil meal Liver meal Meat scrap Meat and bone scrap Milk, dried skim Milo Molasses, cane Oats, Pacific Coast Peanut oil meal Potatoes, dried Rice bran oil cake meal Rice millrun bran Safflower seed oil meal Screenings oil feed Sesame seed oil meal Soybean oil meal Sunflower seeds Sunflower seed oil meal Wheat Wheat bran Wheat middlings Wheat millrun Wheat shorts Whey, condensed Whey, dried Yeast, pure dried Yeast culture Crude Protein Per Cent 20.3 16.6 4.7 23.9 9.7 22.3 81.6 24.6 7.5 26.2 10.9 32.9 20.5 9.9 14.3 24.8 45.0 23.2 40.6 29. 66.3 33.5 30.9 67.9 60.1 50.6 34.8 9.6 3.6 9.8 45.9 10.4 16.0 11.7 17.4 33.7 41.8 44.0 16.1 49.2 10.8 15.6 14.8 15.6 15.8 16.3 12.5 47.1 13.7 Crude Fat Per Cent 3.2 2.6 0.8 6.9 2.3 1.1 0.9 5.6 0.7 6.6 1.9 5.9 7.8 4.2 6.0 2.8 2.1 5.5 6.6 9. 7.7 4. 6.1 15.4 10.0 9.7 1.2 3.0 0. 5.4 7.0 0.3 8.2 15.7 2.8 7.6 9.9 5.4 24.7 1.6 2.1 4.0 3.5 4.1 4.5 0. 0. 1.9 4.5 Crude Fiber Per Cent 17.9 25.6 8.0 12.0 6.2 4.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 14.7 0. 0. 10.4 2.1 5.1 7.4 4.1 10.4 11.3 7. 0.5 0. 9.5 1.4 2.2 1.8 0. 2.0 0. 10.5 6.1 2.0 9.2 9.5 40.0 10.2 6.1 5.6 27.9 10.4 2.7 8.5 3.0 7.7 5.8 0. 0. 4.6 3.8 Ash Per Cent 10.2 8.8 2.3 5.7 2.7 6.0 5.1 58.8 80.5 4.0 2.2 7.9 6.8 1.5 4.2 6.1 2.6 2.4 6.5 4. 15.6 8.9 5.5 5.4 20.9 29.9 7.6 1.9 9.8 3.6 5.2 4.3 13.4 9.8 2.5 5.8 12.1 5.5 3.1 6.9 1.8 5.4 2.4 4.7 3.8 4.8 10.4 6.8 3.6 * From data obtained by Feed Control Laboratory, Bureau of Field Crops, California Department of Agri- culture. r 33 1 i . <*=! * * * Gl-i ooooooooooooooooooooooooo 888 38 8 ooooooo ft cot>co coo t-T oococo tH O bo ooooooooiooooooooooo ooo o oooco o ocooooo ooooo ocooo • "* t}< ^ lO lO NHNlOlOO 00 t- CO CO io • CO ^ t- • ooooooo oo ■"* co coo o ga co co ^ ^ ti* oi ic T-Tcfi-Tr-T xtfr-Tr-T r-Ti-T i-i u 2*> C* C5 CO ^ ^ N lO lO t- CO • # co Mt»NCOOOOMtfi«ONNOOOWt>eONlO^N^^NO co ; id r-i co tjh o HHH CN iH iH *tf tH CN t>* rH CN CO tfc 3 *5 lO lO lO lO co c» »o t-coioioco lO lO CN OI o COJOtDOO^OOO'J'tOMWOHlOWNt-OOOrlNO rA ; o r-J r-i oj d tH iH CO C o p. v^— v E E CO 2 « 1 0} o §£ CM lOlO • ••£ CO >v . V u SPJf ^NN«idd : O eS c > •a Srt OCOCOW HCt 00 CO i-H 00 00 CO 3 a> OJ tIJ tjh p # 'tf ^HNCOWO CO t^ t> OJ CO O CD r-J i-J O > "5 2" O p, THHriddHodddddiododddoooHodddNoi d ! d d d r-i th 1 to c CM ^H CO iH CO 0) fl > hs' 1 I o 0) JQ to" bo o > ^ — ^ 9) 4) to ^1 a >>:p o " 03 CO > > 8H CO 0> ^ ea O 0) •d 03 s P*T> P " >» V — ;j3 c «T3 £ jjlTcl c9 » 4 a "5 PC I ■n to a> | o CO "to « 11 •3.S a> CO d -a § o CO a> si CO C £3 a E 1 a tr P 5 "5 a) s 1 ee tr CO « 2 O tr a: C c c a3 -u <^ a: a It c ' O 0, p n o tr 03 tr tr JS C s tr 1 "5 a: 6 "c p B 03 Ph ■a ^£ 03 03 tr 2 £ cl tr 03 w 03 I C c5 £ 1 __ > a 03 E 1 s 03 g "el CD s ! 0) 03 CO M s 11 03 P 1 R 03 ,P a i > 03 0. T p __ p iS •2 o3 gT3 >l 10 "* 0) CO si > HP * -i- Table 8. The Amino Acid Composition of Some Feedstuffs* Feedstuff Protein per cent Arginine per cent Lysine per cent Methionine per cent Cystine per cent Tryptophan per cent Alfalfa meal Barley Corn Corn gluten meal Cottonseed meal Fish meal Fish solubles, condensed Linseed oil meal Meat scrap Milk, dried skim Milo Oats Peanut oil meal Sesame seed oil meal Soybean oil meal Sunflower seed oil meal . Wheat Wheat bran Whey, dried 17 10 10 43 43 65 35 32 55 35 10 10 44 42 44 46 13 16 12 1.1 0.48 0.38 1.4 3.2 3.8 1.5 2.3 3.9 1.4 0.34 0.60 4.4 3.7 2.8 3.8 0.52 0.96 0.36 0.85 0.18 0.22 0.86 1.2 3.7 1.7 0.93 2.8 2.6 0.25 0.33 1.3 1.2 2.7 2.0 0.36 0.53 0.90 0.39 0.29 0.27 1.0 0.78 1.9 0.52 0.73 0.94 1.0 0.15 0.23 0.57 1.4 0.79 1.6 0.17 0.19 0.38 0.31 0.18 0.19 0.82 0.95 0.65 0.21 0.61 0.66 0.42 0.20 0.18 0.70 0.55 0.66 0.73 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.32 0.11 0.07 0.34 0.47 0.78 0.14 0.55 0.38 0.46 0.08 0.13 0.40 0.63 0.53 0.60 0.14 0.24 0.24 Ideal ration for poult growth . 24 1.35 1.3 0.5 0.3 0.25 * Adapted from Almquist, H. J., The amino acid requirements of avian species, in Proteins and Amino Acids in Nutrition, p. 231, M. Sahyun, Ed., Reinhold (1948). Cane molasses is a laxative when given in amounts exceeding 5 per cent of the ration. It is somewhat difficult to mix,* but this problem may be solved by using dried molasses. A small amount of molasses is very palatable to turkeys, and its dampness helps to keep the mash from blowing in the wind. Cane molasses con- tains pantothenic acid (see page 34). Beans and peas. Cull beans or cull peas up to 5 or 10 per cent may be in- cluded in the turkey ration if they can be obtained cheaply. They are similar in composition to the grains, but are higher in protein. Watergrass seed. Small quantities of watergrass seed are sometimes avail- able as a by-product of the rice industry. * Information on mixing molasses in feeds is given in detail in: Fairbank, J. P., and J. R. Travernetti, Handling Feed Molasses on the Farm. Univ. of Calif. Agr. Engin. Inform. Ser. No. 11:1-7. 1937 (mimeo). This seed may be included in the grain mixture, if the price justifies it, at a level not exceeding 25 per cent. Potatoes which have been sun-dried or oven-dried and ground, are not satis- factory for turkeys. They require cooking before being fed so that they may be utilized properly. Cheap methods of cook- ing would have to be developed before potatoes could be an important turkey feedstuff. Dried fruit. Dried prunes may be fed at a level of 5 to 10 per cent in place of barley, when the price is favorable. Cull raisins may be fed replacing up to 30 per cent of the grains. When raisins are fed in a separate hopper they may not be consumed readily at first. Fats. Fats are also compounds of car- bon, hydrogen, and oxygen but are much richer in energy than carbohydrates. They are expensive and are valued for [35 their use in human diets, hence only small quantities find their way into turkey ra- tions. Turkeys can readily form fat from carbohydrates. However, fats need con- sideration here for two reasons. First, they are carriers of the fat-soluble vita- mins; fish oils, for example, are used for this purpose. Second, feeds that contain much fat are likely to become rancid if exposed to the air for a long time, and rancid feeds may be injurious to birds. Proteins are complicated substances which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, usually sulfur, and fre- quently phosphorus. They are the main constituents of flesh and feathers and form the greater part of the weight of a bird's body. Proteins are a necessary part of the diet. They are extremely complex, being composed of many simple units called "amino acids." During digestion, the proteins in the food are broken down into amino acids which pass into the blood stream and are carried to various parts of the body, to be used for several purposes. The first use is for building and repairing tissue; flesh, feathers, and eggs are largely formed from protein. The sec- ond use is for fuel to provide energy. It is cheaper to provide carbohydrate as fuel rather than protein ; but, in any case, much of the protein in a turkey's diet is used for fuel. When protein is burned in this manner, the nitrogenous part is turned into uric acid and excreted through the kidneys. The third, if there are large amounts of protein in the diet, is for the formation of fat. Some proteins are indigestible and hence are valueless in turkey rations. Ex- amples are horn, hoof, and feathers when not finely ground. Others, such as the protein of corn, are digestible but not very nutritious. On the other hand, cer- tain proteins such as those in fish meal are digestible and have a high value for producing growth and eggs. Baby poults require more protein than baby chicks for rapid early growth. A poult starting mash should contain from 24 to 27 per cent crude protein. Since grains contain only 9 to 12 per cent crude protein, a protein concentrate must be provided in the mash. Fish meal, meat scrap, and soybean oil meal are examples of protein sources which are widely used in turkey rations. The quality of protein in the ration is as important as the amount present. Pro- teins vary in their feeding value accord- ing to their content of essential amino acids. Arginine, glycine, lysine, trypto- phan, and methionine are amino acids which have been shown to be needed for rapid growth of poults. Cystine can re- place part of the methionine. Lysine is particularly important for growth, and a deficiency of this amino acid also causes a failure in the formation of feather pig- ment. This results in white feathers which show about two weeks after the lysine- deficient ration is fed (see photos) . Most vegetable proteins with the exception of soybean oil meal, are deficient in lysine (see table 8) and must be used very cau- tiously, if at all, in poult starting rations. As poults grow older they may gain in weight faster, but their rate of growth, when measured by the percentage gain in weight, decreases from the time they are hatched. This results in a gradual de- crease in the protein requirement as they grow older. From 24 to 27 per cent pro- tein is suitable for the first 2 or 3 weeks, depending upon the density (page 48) of the ration. After 6 weeks the protein level may be reduced as is shown in table 13. After 16 weeks of age about 15 per cent protein is sufficient to carry the turkeys to market age. No sudden changes should be made in turkey rations at any time, or birds will be thrown off their feed. One way of lowering the protein con- tent of the ration is to add grain. (Grain feeding should be started gradually.) Another way is to change the composition of the mash. At about 10 weeks of age one should change from a starting to a grow- ing mash because the mash for baby poults is necessarily more expensive than [36] •■:: :-'.- '"''.' Above, poults fed rations containing subnormal (left) and adequate levels of lysine. Note small size and white bars in deficient poult. Below, wing of poult fed lysine-deficient ration for 24 days. Note failure to form pigment in feathers. a mash for growing turkeys. Formulas for mashes are given on pages 45 to 48. Animal protein concentrates Fish meat* Pacific coast fish meal con- tains protein of high biological value and is a deservedly popular constituent of turkey rations. It is a good source of both lysine and methionine (see table 8) . Only high-grade fish meals should be fed to turkeys. In tests at the California Agri- cultural Experiment Station, this feed did not impart any undesirable flavor to the meat. Meat scrap is a valuable animal pro- tein concentrate. It is somewhat lower in protein and higher in bone than fish meal, and tends to contain more low-grade ma- terial than a fish meal of good quality, such as whole sardine meal. Some forms of meat scrap are excessively high in ground bone. If too much bone is fed to [37] young poults, slipped tendon may de- velop. It is a good source of lysine but low in methionine and tryptophan. Milk products. Dried skim milk, dried buttermilk, and dried whey are popular poultry feedstuffs, principally because of their content of the vitamin B- complex. The protein which they add, although limited in amount, is valuable because it is a good source of lysine and methionine. Vegetable protein concentrates Soybean oil meal is a valuable pro- tein concentrate and has been used in large amounts in all turkey rations. It is slightly low in methionine, but is a good source of the other amino acids for start- ing poults. It is a particularly rich source of lysine which is the most difficult amino acid to supply to young poults. Hydraulic processed cottonseed meal has been shown to be deficient in lysine and methionine, but may be fed to growing turkeys at levels up to 10 per cent of the mash. Chick experiments have shown expeller-processed cottonseed meal to be an adequate amino acid source for chicks. Sesame seed oil meal is de- ficient in lysine, but may be used in grow- ing rations in combination with soybean oil meal or other good lysine sources. Peanut oil meal is low in lysine, methi- onine, and tryptophan and if it is used must be combined with other proteins for growing or mature turkeys. Linseed oil meal is deficient in lysine in addition to containing a growth-depressing factor. Unless treated with water and dried, it should be limited to 5 per cent or less of the mash in growing rations. Vitamins — another need in the turkeys' diet Vitamins are needed only in traces, but must be provided so that nutritional de- ficiency diseases will not develop. Vita- mins are necessary to keep the body in good working order. Traces of them must be present so that such feedstuffs as car- bohydrates and proteins can be used in [38] the body. The known vitamins will be discussed below. Most of the vitamins which have been shown to be needed by chickens are also needed by turkeys. Certain vitamins are particularly important in the starting ration because baby poults have a higher requirement for them than baby chicks. Natural feedstuffs are sources of the vita- mins (see table 7). Commercially avail- able vitamin concentrates may also be considered for inclusion in feeds when the prices for the synthetic vitamins sup- plied are comparable to those in natural feedstuffs. Vitamin A is formed in the animal body from carotene, a substance found in leaves of plants. Vitamin A is also present in certain fish oils. Turkeys have a high requirement for vitamin A. Deficiency is characterized by loss in weight, and an inflamed condition of the eyes, nose, and sinuses, known as nutritional roup (see photos) .The ureters are distended by an accumulation of urates. One of the earliest symptoms is a thickening of the third eyelid and the tendency to keep the eyelid drawn over a portion of the eye. The birds die soon after the appearance of the symptoms un- Mouth and esophagus of turkey deficient in vitamin A. Note the pustules on the esophagus. Feedstuff Approximate Units of Vitamin A per Pound Per cent in Ration to Supply 4000 Units per Pound Amount in Pounds per Ton of Ration Dry "A" concentrate (4,000 A per gram) Fish oil (2,250 A per gram) Alfalfa meal Fresh green leaves Yellow corn 1,816,000 1,021,500 67,000 45,000 3,100 0.22 0.39 6 9 50% would supply only 1,550 units 4.4 7.8 120.0 180.0 less vitamin A is fed promptly, in which case they may recover. Breeder hens show lowered egg production and reduced hatchability. There may also be increased poult mortality. According to the National Research Council, both poults and mature turkeys should receive 4000 units of vitamin A per pound of feed to be on the safe side. The tabulation above, which gives the approximate potency of common vitamin A supplements, indicates the level at which they would be needed to supply 4000 units per pound. Obviously if more than one vitamin A source is provided, the amount of each source will be less than if only one source is provided. Alfalfa meal is a very important source of vitamin A activity in turkey rations. The carotene content decreases rapidly when alfalfa meal is stored, especially in warm weather. Vitamin A from fish oils also decreases rapidly when in mixed feeds. It is thus important that mixed feed supplies be fresh and not stored for ex- tended periods of time. Vitamin D is present in certain fish oils. It is also supplied by direct sunlight, which changes certain substances in the skin to vitamin D. It is important for poults, because they have a high require- ment for this factor. A deficiency pro- duces rickets in young birds. This disease is marked by slow growth, soft bones, softness of the beak, ruffled feathers, and a tendency to squat. If vitamin D is not provided soon after the symptoms ap- pear, the poults will die. The vitamin is Left, blindness in a turkey caused by deficiency in vitamin A. Right, vitamin A-deficient and normal poults that have been dissected for comparison. Note distended ureters in bird on left of photo. 39 Left. Poults at left were hatched from eggs of a hen deficient in vitamin D. Note small size and weak legs compared with normal poult. Right. Poult with slipped tendon (perosis). also necessary for egg production and hatchability. A deficiency contributes to the development of crooked keels. There are several forms of vitamin D, some of which are very effective for the prevention of rickets in rats but vitamin D 3 is the only common form active for chickens and turkeys. For this reason, the potency of vitamin D sources for turkeys should be determined by chick assay. Poults need several times as much vita- min D as chicks ; they sometimes develop rickets when placed on chick starting mashes. Mash containing 600 Interna- tional chick units of vitamin D per pound of feed will completely protect poults against rickets even in the total absence of direct sunlight. This may be supplied by 0.45 per cent of a 300-D concentrate (containing 300 I.C. of vitamin D per gram), or by an equivalent percentage, of a vitamin D carrier of some other strength. This equals 9 pounds of 300-D concentrate per ton of feed. Vitamin B-complex is now known to consist of several factors. Experiments with poults show that riboflavin, panto- thenic acid, niacin, pyridoxine, biotin, folic acid, choline, and vitamin B 12 are needed by turkeys. Riboflavin is very important for growth and for the production of hatch- able eggs. Fresh greens and alfalfa meal are the cheapest sources of this factor, which is also present in milk and whey (see table 7) . Poults require slightly more riboflavin in their rations than chicks. Poult starting mashes should contain al- falfa meal and, in addition, another ribo- flavin-rich material such as a milk prod- uct, fermentation product, or synthetic riboflavin. Older turkeys, however, may secure their complete riboflavin require- ment from alfalfa meal, from fresh greens, or both. They should receive 10 per cent or more alfalfa meal in their mash. It is a good plan to supply them with fresh greens and alfalfa hay also, if these are available. The poults deficient in riboflavin have ragged feathers and a listless, unthrifty appearance; their hock joints are en- larged and they have difficulty in stand- ing. They grow very slowly, and mortality is high. Pantothenic acid is required by poults in slightly greater amounts than chicks. Poults fed a diet deficient in this factor grow slowly, develop dermatitis, and may die. Pantothenic acid is present in fair amounts in many poultry feeds (see table 7) ; therefore a deficiency is unlikely. A deficiency of niacin may cause poor growth, inflammation of the mouth, poor feathering, and perosis. A deficiency is unlikely in rations of natural feedstuffs unless rations high in corn, and sub- optimal in tryptophan, are used. Poults on a ration deficient in pyri- doxine lose their appetite and grow slowly. They are apathetic but, when dis- turbed, become nervous and excited. Eventually they go into convulsions and die. A deficiency in rations is unlikely. Poults lacking in biotin develop pero- sis (see photo) and encrustations on the feet. This vitamin, together with choline, [40] niacin, and manganese, is required to pre- vent perosis. Again, a deficiency in prac- tical rations is unlikely. Folic acid is required by poults for growth and the prevention of a paralysis of the neck. Practical turkey rations that contain alfalfa meal and soybean oil meal contain enough folic acid. Choline, sometimes grouped with the B-complex vitamins, is required in much larger amounts than the vitamins named, or at a level of 900 milligrams per pound. Turkeys fed a ration deficient in choline develop perosis and may grow slowly. Although choline is widely distributed in feedstuffs (see table 7), some practical diets may be marginal in it, or in man- ganese, or in both. Such a deficiency would account for certain cases of perosis in commercial flocks, although there is always the possibility that the cause is an excess of calcium or phosphorus. Vitamin B 12 which is contained in certain animal protein concentrates is re- quired for maximum growth in poults, although its need is not as critical as is indicated in chickens. It may be supplied by fish meal, fish solubles, liver meal, meat scrap, milk products, or by certain fermentation products which are avail- able commercially. The need for this vi- tamin for hatchability has not been shown, although it is needed for repro- duction in chickens. Livability of poults from hens receiving adequate vitamin B 12 is much better than from hens fed rations containing none of the products listed. Vitamin B and vitamin K are both needed by turkeys, but are so abundant in all ordinary rations that a deficiency is almost impossible. Other vitamins, such as E, are prob- ably required but are supplied by feed- stuffs commonly used in turkey feeding, so that special provision for them is not considered necessary. Vitamin supplements An elementary knowledge of vitamins and their sources will enable the grower to mix economical rations. The vitamins are present in natural feeds; certain widely used feedstuffs, which do not come under the heading of energy concentrates and protein concentrates, are important as sources of vitamins. Particular atten- tion should be given to sources of vita- mins A, D, and B-complex in the feed. Fresh greens. Turkeys may receive their entire vitamin A supply from fresh greens when these are available. Fresh greens are also a source of riboflavin, which is important for growth and hatch- ability. Although fresh greens are richer in vitamin A than in riboflavin, they can supply a large part of the riboflavin re- quirement, especially in older birds. Fresh greens also contain other vitamins. Green pasture will supplement the ration not only with vitamins, but to a certain extent, with protein, carbohydrates, and minerals. On green pasture, birds eat relatively less mash but more grain than they do in confinement or on dry range; there is also some reduction in feed (grain and mash) consumption per pound of gain in growing birds, and feed consumption per bird in mature stock. Alfalfa meal. Since alfalfa meal con- sists of dried alfalfa leaves, it has most of the feeding value of fresh greens. Cer- tain vitamins present in fresh alfalfa leaves may, however, be partly destroyed by drying. The extent of such destruction will depend upon the curing process. Vi- tamin A is seriously damaged by pro- longed drying in the sun; hence only rapidly cured alfalfa should be used in making sun-cured alfalfa meal. Riboflavin is less easily destroyed than vitamin A; but there is a loss if the alfalfa lies in the field a long while after being cut, espe- cially if it is rained on. Alfalfa meal is a highly important constituent of turkey rations. It supplies not only vitamins, but also some protein, carbohydrate, and minerals. Alfalfa hay is often fed in bales to older turkeys. If of good quality, it has properties similar to those of alfalfa meal. [41] Milk products. Dried skim milk, dried buttermilk, and dried whey are de- servedly popular in turkey rations be- cause of their palatability and their con- tent of vitamin B-complex. Dried milk products are especially valuable in the poult starting mash. Older turkeys can consume sufficient fresh and dried greens to make milk products unnecessary in their rations. Many growers, however, feed milk products to turkeys of all ages with excellent results. Although condensed milk products, which contain 60 to 70 per cent water, are sometimes fed, their price seldom justifies their use. They may be advan- tageous when the grower wishes to stimu- late feed consumption after a disease out- break or during adverse weather. Dried milk products are usually cheaper on the basis of their solid matter. Fermentation products. Products of fermentations, intended primarily for the production of vitamin-rich materials and by-products of other fermentation proc- esses, are available for poultry feeding. These commercial preparations are as- sayed and the vitamin content given so they may be used intelligently as sources of the B-complex in turkey rations. Synthetic vitamins. Several B-com- plex vitamins and vitamin D 3 are avail- able in synthetic form at prices such that they can be considered for use in turkey rations. They can be compared directly with the natural products, but it must be remembered that natural materials sup- ply a variety of nutrients not supplied by the synthetic products. Vitamin A and D concentrates. A biologically tested fish oil or other vita- min A and D carrier should be added to the poult starting mash. Older birds that are outside can usually obtain sufficient vitamin D from the sun, under California conditions. An exception may be breeder turkeys in the cloudy winter months. Only fish oils that have been biologically tested with chickens, or activated animal sterols should be used. Antibiotic supplements It has been shown that the addition of a substance with antibiotic activity to the ration will result in more rapid early growth in poults. The antibiotic may be added to the poult starting ration by the use of a commercial antibiotic supple- ment which will supply from 10 to 50 grams of the antibiotic per ton of feed. Natural feedstuffs do not contain anti- biotic activity. There is as yet no evidence to indicate that there is any advantage in adding an antibiotic supplement to tur- key growing or breeding rations. The mechanism of action of the antibiotics is unknown, although it is presumed to be through a change in the microflora of the intestinal tract. Mineral requirements in turkey feed All living animals, including birds, need certain mineral elements — calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, so- dium, chlorine, small amounts of iron, traces of iodine and manganese, and pos- sibly minute amounts of others. Many of the common feedstuffs are richly supplied with minerals. Grains and their by- products contain potassium, magnesium, iron, and a little manganese. Iron is pres- ent in fish meal and meat scrap; iodine in fish meal and oystershell. Sodium and chlorine are provided by common salt; calcium and phosphorus by steamed bone meal, fish meal, meat scrap, and, to some extent, milk. Calcium is also secured from ground limestone or oystershell. The cal- cium, phosphorus, and manganese con- tent of feedstuffs in shown in table 7. Turkey rations must contain enough calcium and phosphorus, although exces- sive amounts are injurious. For this rea- son, calcium and phosphorus are com- monly balanced in a ration by adding the required amount of steamed bone meal and ground limestone, or ground oyster- shell to the mash. Hopper feeding of cal- cium carbonate in the form of limestone [42 grit or oystershell to growing birds is unnecessary and dangerous because it throws the minerals in the ration out of balance. Growing turkeys are particularly susceptible to the injurious effects of ex- cessive calcium and phosphorus; the re- sult is sometimes a bone deformity known as slipped tendon, perosis, or hock dis- ease. Other causes may lead to slipped tendon; but in practice the most common cause is too much bone meal or too much meat scrap that contains large amounts of added bone meal. A dietary factor that tends to prevent slipped tendon is the mineral element manganese. Manganese salts are poison- ous in large amounts; but the addition of % pound of manganese sulfate to 1 ton of mash, together with adequate amounts of choline, biotin, and another unidenti- fied factor, has been found to prevent slipped tendon in turkey poults. Cereal by-products such as wheat bran, rice bran, and soybean oil meal furnish these antiperotic nutrients. A poult ration con- taining 1.8 to 2.0 per cent calcium and 0.8 to 1.0 per cent phosphorus will pro- vide enough calcium and phosphorus for bone formation without causing slipped tendon under ordinary conditions. Table 7 lists the approximate calcium and phos- phorus content of common feedstuffs. Mineral supplements Salt. A little salt is considered a desir- able addition to a turkey ration; 0.5 per cent in the mash is probably enough. Too much salt (over 4 per cent) causes digestive disturbances and ascites or "water belly." When the ration contains high levels of vegetable protein concen- trates, iodized salt should be used. Calcium carbonate. This mineral may be supplied cheaply in any of its common natural forms such as ground limestone or ground oystershell. Expen- sive forms are therefore not necessary. Phosphorus. When phosphorus as well as calcium is to be added to the ration, the grower may use steamed bone meal or its equivalent, such as any edible sterile bone, spent bone black, or de- fluorinated rock phosphate. Steamed bone meal is the most satisfactory bone product. Defluorinated rock phosphate with part of the fluorine removed may be given at the levels recommended in the mash formulas on subsequent pages. Phosphatic clay or raw rock phosphate containing 3 to 4 per cent fluorine should be fed at a level of not more than 0.5 per cent. Manganese. The relation of manga- nese to slipped tendon is discussed on page 41. If a manganese salt such as man- ganese sulfate (manganous sulfate) is used, % pound should be added to a ton of mash. It may be mixed with the amount of calcium carbonate carrier used per ton of mash. Mineral supplements other than those mentioned above are not necessary in practical turkey rations. Water is as vital as food for turkeys Water is, of course, just as essential as the other forms of food for turkeys; a supply must be kept before the birds at all times. Lack of pure water for even a short period will cause a setback from which recovery will take a long time. The facilities for providing water for poults and for growing birds are dis- cussed in the section dealing with man- agement, starting on page 27. How to use the tables and formulas The nutrient allowances for poult starting, turkey growing, and turkey breeding mashes are shown in table 9. From the data given in other tables it is possible to calculate the nutrient content of the ration and to compare it with the recommended allowances. The calculated analyses give only a rough estimation of the value of a feed, since undoubtedly the feedstuffs actually used will vary some- what from the average values used in the [43] Table 9. Nutrient Allowances for Turkeys* Nutrient Poult Starting Mash Growing Mash Breeding Mash (to be fed 50-50 with grain) Crude protein, per cent Arginine, per cent Lysine, per cent 24f 1.35 1.3 0.5 0.3 0.25 2.0 1.0 25 2.0 6.0 900 4,000 600 + 0.5 20 20 Methionine, per cent Cystine, per cent Tryptophan, per cent Calcium, per cent 2.0 1.0 2.0J 1.0 25 2.7 Phosphorus, per cent Manganese, mg/lb Riboflavin, mg/lb Pantothenic acid, mg/lb Choline, mg/lb Vitamin A activity, I.U./lb. . 4,000 600 0.5 8,000 1,200 + 1.0 Vitamin D, I.C./lb Vitamin Bi 2 Salt, per cent * Adapted and modified from "Recommended Nutrient Allowances for Poultry," National Research Council. t See table 13. t In addition to these amounts of calcium in the mash, shell or limestone should be fed free choice. calculations. The values also do not show the extent to which a feed can be digested and metabolized. This can be found only by actually giving the feed to turkeys, under controlled conditions, and observ- ing the effect. Although digestibility is important, little is known at present about the digestibility of feeds for turkeys. Poult starting mashes. Poults should be started on an all-mash ration that is well supplied with vitamins. It is poor economy to feed poults a cheap mash during the first 6 weeks of their lives, when they consume comparatively little food. Satisfactory poult starting mashes are shown in table 10. These contain about 24 per cent protein, 2 per cent cal- cium, and 1 per cent phosphorus, and are intended to be fed without supple- ments of any kind. They are balanced completely; if the poults receive grain in addition, they may consume too much grain and thus not get enough protein and vitamins. Fish meal of good quality, such as sardine meal containing 65 per cent protein, should be used. High-energy starting mash. Slightly more rapid early growth may be produced by feeding a mash which has a higher protein and energy content than the rations given in table 10. Such a ra- tion might contain the following per ton : fishmeal, 293 pounds; meat scrap, 100 pounds; soybean oil meal, 500 pounds; liver meal, 40 pounds; alfalfa meal, 100 pounds; ground wheat, 200 pounds; ground corn, 600 pounds; molasses, 50 pounds; bone meal, 10 pounds; ground limestone, 30 pounds; iodized salt, 10 pounds; manganese sulfate, % pound; dried whey, 50 pounds; fish oil (2,250 A, 300 D), 3 pounds; vitamin D carrier ( 1,500 D) , % pound ; and riboflavin sup- plement (225 milligrams per pound), 7 pounds; and antibiotic supplement. The poults may be fed this ration for the first 2 to 4 weeks and then be changed over to one of the 24 per cent protein starters. This may be done conveniently [44] Table 10. Poult Starter Mashes Feedstuff Pounds per Ton 1 2 3 4 (1) Fish meal 200 500 100 200 200 265 400 25 50 10 V2 40 3 5 1 + 140 140 450 100 200 200 270 400 40 10 V* 40 3 V/2 5 1 + 150 50 500 100 200 200 270 400 30 40 10 40 3 5 1 + 100 100 525 100 200 200 255 400 20 40 10 H 40 3 VA 5 1 + (2) Meat scrap (3) Soybean oil meal (4) Alfalfameal* (5) Wheat bran (6) Ground wheat (7) Ground barley (8) Ground corn (9) Bone meal, special steamed f. . . (10) Ground limestone (11) Salt, iodized (12) Manganese sulfate (13) Dried whey (14) Fish oil (2,250 A, 300 D) J (15) Vitamin D carrier (l,500D/gm.) (16) Riboflavin supplement§ (17) Choline chloride (18) Antibiotic supplement * Should contain carotene equivalent to at least 67,000 1.U. of vitamin A per pound. t Other products of equivalent calcium and phosphorus content may be used. j Proportionate amounts of products of other potency may be used. § Containing 225 milligrams of riboflavin per pound. A proportionate amount of a product of different potency may be used. by mixing about 1 or 2 pounds of the high-energy mash per poult hatched, and then switching to the 24 per cent ration when more feed is required. Experiments have indicated that there is no advantage in rate of growth to be obtained by feed- ing high-energy rations to turkeys older than 12 weeks, although the efficiency of feed utilization may be increased. Poult growing and developing rations. After poults are 6 weeks old they no longer need such a high level of protein, and the protein content of their ration may be reduced by feeding them some grain, or by feeding them a lower- protein mash and after substituting this for the starting mash, feeding 3ome grain (see table 13). The grain should be started very grad- ually, because sudden changes in the ra- tion will slow up growth. A little grain may be scattered oh top of the mash in the afternoon at first. When the poults leave the brooder house, they do not need vitamin D in their ration because they will receive enough from the sunlight. A suitable growing ration for poults that are running outside may consist of any starting mash with the fish oil omitted or of the growing, or high-protein mashes with whole grains added, as shown in tables 11 and 12. Fresh greens are a valuable supple- ment to the growing ration, and, indeed, to all turkey rations except the poult starting mash. Fresh, coarse, stemmy, green feed may cause impaction of the digestive tract when fed to young poults. Developing and finishing rations. The developing and finishing ration may consist of a growing mash (table 11) fed in conjunction with whole grains (table 13), or of a high-protein mash (some- times termed high-protein concentrate) [45 Table 11. Turkey Growing Mashes (20 per cent protein) Feedstuff Pounds per Ton Fish meal Meat scrap Soybean oil meal* Alfalfa mealf Wheat bran Ground grains Molasses Bone meal, special steamed |. . . Ground limestone Salt, iodized Manganese sulfate Dried whey Vitamin D carrier (1,500 D/gm.) Riboflavins 100 400 200 300 897 40 40 20 100 400 200 300 907 30 40 20 50 450 200 300 849 40 40 20 : 50 1 100 400 300 300 779 20 40 40 20 100 400 300 300 789 20 30 40 20 H * Soybean oil meal may be partly replaced by cottonseed meal 10 per cent (200 pounds) , or sesame seed oil meal 5 per cent (100 pounds). t Should contain carotene equivalent to at least 67,000 I.U. of vitamin A per pound. X Other products of equivalent calcium and phosphorus content may be used. § Containing 225 milligrams of riboflavin per pound. A proportionate amount of a product of different potency may be used. Table 12. Concentrate Turkey Growing Mashes (30 per cent protein) Feedstuff Pounds per Ton 1 2 3 (1) Fish meal 200 800 400 300 94 80 80 40 H 2 4 100 100 800 500 250 68 60 80 40 H 2 200 (2) Meat scrap (3) Soybean oil meal* (4) Alfalfamealf (5) Wheat bran 800 500 250 (6) Ground grains (7) Molasses (8) Bone meal, special steamed { . . (9) Ground limestone 50 80 80 (10) Salt, iodized 40 (11) Manganese sulfate % ( 12) Vitamin D carrier ( 1 , 500 D/gm.)§ 2 (13) Riboflavin supplement! * Soybean oil meal may be partly replaced by cottonseed meal 20 per cent (400 pounds), or sesame seed oil meal 10 per cent (200 pounds) . t Should contain carotene equivalent to at least 67,000 I.U. of vitamin A per pound. % Other products of equivalent calcium and phosphorus content may be used. § Proportionate amounts of products of different potency may be used. 1 Containing 225 milligrams per pound. A proportionate amount of a product of different potency may be used. [46] (table 12) fed with large amounts of scratch grains (table 13). The turkeys must not be permitted to eat too large a proportion of the palat- able high-protein mashes. Such mashes as these can be used to advantage for birds on barley or rice range, and where home-grown or cheap, local grains are available. Alfalfa hay and fresh greens are valuable supplements to the developing and finishing ration. Many turkey grow- ers provide bales of alfalfa hay for the birds to pick at. The ration fed during the last 2 or 3 months before the birds are marketed should not contain fish oil; an excess of fish oil fed at this time will cause an off- flavor in turkey flesh. Feeding breeder hens. For good hatchability, the mash fed to breeders should be rich in vitamins. During the cloudy months, some vitamin D should be included in the breeder mash. The formulas suggested in table 14 as mashes for breeder turkeys should be fed with equal parts of scratch grain. Fresh greens may be fed when available and if they are abundant, the alfalfa meal may be reduced to 200 pounds and the ground grains increased to 1,000 pounds. These mashes contain about 20 per cent pro- tein, 20 per cent calcium, and 1 per cent phosphorus. When fed with an equal weight of scratch grain, the mixture sup- plies about 15 per cent protein, 1 per cent calcium, and 0.7 per cent phos- phorus. Additional calcium may be fur- nished by placing cracked oystershell or limestone before the birds. Turkeys kept for breeding may be con- tinued on growing mash and grain until a month before eggs are expected when they should be fed a regular breeder ration. The growing mash fed to birds held for breeding might well contain added alfalfa meal and wheat bran (up to 20 per cent of each) . Fattening rations should not be fed to birds held for breeding. General considerations of feed and feeding Wet feeding. Many growers think that giving the birds wet feed at least once a day is desirable. The turkeys relish it and eat it rapidly. They will, however, also eat dry feed well, and the latter is cheaper and more convenient. Moreover, wet feed easily becomes stale and putrid. Dry feed is used exclusively for turkeys at the California Agricultural Experi- ment Station, and no difficulty is experi- enced in getting the birds to eat enough. Roughage. The digestive tract of young poults is not sufficiently large to Table 13. Approximate Percentage of Protein Required by Growing Turkeys at Various Ages Age of Poults in Weeks Recommended Per Cent Protein Starting Mash 24% Growing Mash 20% Growing Mash 30% Pounds of GrainTto be Fed with 100 Pounds of Mash 0-6 24 20 19 18 17 16 15 14-15 Mash alone 20 30 30 50 67 100 100+ 150 200 250 300 300+ 7-8 9-10 11-12 13-14 15-16 17-20 After 20 [47] Table 14. Turkey Breeder Mashes Feedstuff Pounds per Ton 1 2 3 4 (1) Fish meal 100 100 200 300 300 805 20 40 20 100 6 3 6 200 200 300 300 843 30 40 20 V* 50 6 3 8 50 150 250 300 300 813 10 40 20 h 50 6 3 8 100 350 300 300 773 50 40 20 50 6 3 8 (2) Meat scrap (3) Soybean oil meal (4) Alfalfa meal* (5) Wheat bran or millrun (6) Ground grains (7) Bone meal, special steamed f. . . (8) Ground limestone (9) Salt, iodized (10) Manganese sulfate (11) Dried whey (12) Vitamin A and D feeding oil (2,250A,300D/gm.)t (13) Vitamin D source (1,500 D/gm.)| (14) Riboflavin source § * Should contain carotene equivalent to at least 67,000 I.U. of vitamin A per pound. f Other products of equivalent calcium and phosphorus content may be used. t Proportionate amounts of products of other potency may be used. § Containing 225 milligrams of riboflavin per pound. A proportionate amount of a product of different potency may be used. allow them to eat enough bulky feed to meet their needs. Therefore, for the first few weeks, better growth may be ob- tained by using a ration which is quite concentrated. This may be achieved by using large proportions of feedstuffs such as corn and wheat, which are relatively dense, or by mechanically compressing a ration composed of less dense feedstuffs. In some instances pellets which have been partially broken have proved very satis- factory for feeding young poults. Older turkeys eat large amounts of bulky feed without harm. In this respect they appear to differ from chickens. This fact gives the turkey grower an advan- tage, because his birds can consume a greater proportion of green feed and al- falfa meal than chickens. Green feed sup- plies many of the vitamins needed by poultry and when it can be grown eco- nomically is much cheaper than certain other feedstuffs commonly used for this purpose. Moreover, birds on green range may eat less mash than confined birds; the range may thus effect a saving in feed cost. Fine vs. coarse grinding. Feed too finely ground may make the turkeys' mouths sore. A coarsely ground mash is better than finely ground mash. In fact, most or all of the grain can be fed whole to older turkeys because the birds can grind it in their gizzards. This saves the expense of grinding grain and, when the birds are fed outside, helps to prevent the feed from being blown away by the wind. Pellets. Some growers prefer to feed at least a part of their mash in the form of pellets to older, growing turkeys, but the extra expense involved may not be justified unless there is danger that the mash may be blown away by the wind. Use of "remedies." Purgatives, medicines, spices, sulfur, charcoal, cop- per sulfate (bluestone), and the like are harmful rather than beneficial to healthy [48] turkeys. If the birds become sick, a diag- nosis should be obtained and the birds treated accordingly (see page 31). Feed consumption. The approximate daily feed consumption of turkeys at dif- ferent ages and the average total feed consumption to different ages are given in table 15. As a simple calculation will show, the amount of feed required to pro- duce a pound of gain increases as the birds grow older. This is largely due to an increase in the maintenance requirements and a slower rate of growth. Males con- sume more than females, but utilize their feed slightly more efficiently than the lat- ter during the growing period. Rapidly growing turkeys at different ages require less feed to produce a pound of gain than slower-growing birds of the same age (table 2) . However, since mod- erate growth during the first few weeks may be compensated for by more rapid growth later, it is important to obtain consistent gains. In practice, high mortality, particu- larly after the first few weeks, will mate- rially increase the amount of feed re- quired to produce a pound of live turkey. Feed cost per pound of mature turkey, therefore, depends on both rate of growth and mortality. Table 15 shows that the amount of grain and mash required to produce a pound of live turkey increases as the birds get older. Other factors such as type of ration, strain or variety, rate of growth, and mortality influence these figures. This will also vary to some extent accord- ing to the amount of fresh greens fed. A total of about 13 and 19 pounds of grain and mash each month is required to feed mature females and males, respectively, of average size. Table 15. Estimated Weight and Feed Consumption of Broad Breasted Bronze Turkeys Age Average Weight Males and Females Total Feed Consumed to Age Given Feed Per Pound Gain Approximate Daily Feed Consumption per Bird at Age Given Weeks Pounds 0.12 1.2 3.7 7.1 10.6 13.8 16.9 19.9 22.1 28.0 17.0 Pounds 1.8 8.3 18.9 32.4 47.7 64.9 86.3 110.7 Pounds 1.67 2.32 2.71 3.09 3.49 3.87 4.36 5.04 Pounds 0.13 0.30 0.43 0.52 0.60 0.70 0.82 0.87 0.65 0.50* 4 8 12 . 16 20 24 28 32 Mature males Mature females * Plus 1 male per 10 females. [49 Marketing — a description of ways and means for obtaining adequate returns Practically all turkeys raised in Cali- fornia are delivered alive to killing plants that are equipped with adequate cooling facilities. Farm killing and dressing is done by a relatively few growers who market their own birds, or birds under their control, direct to consumers or restaurants. Such growers usually estab- lish their own killing plants. Therefore, while the operations of kill- ing, plucking, etc., discussed below, are seldom carried out on the farm, it is felt that growers will benefit from a knowl- edge of the processes involved, and may perhaps be able to adjust their own pro- cedures to the needs of their outlets. Condition of birds at marketing time When marketing, the first step is to determine whether the turkeys are ready. For handling them a catching chute is useful. The birds should be driven into the chute slowly to avoid crowding, which may result in bruising and in lower grades. If no chute is available, the tur- keys may be driven into a small enclosure, a few at a time, to help reduce bruising. A catching chute, similar to the one shown, is useful when sorting birds for the market. Birds ready to market will be in good health, well fleshed, and reasonably free from pinfeathers less than % inch long. They should preferably have passed the stage where weight increases are greatest (see graph on page 6, and table 15). Since a relatively large amount of feed is required to maintain a finished bird (see table 15) it seldom pays to hold such birds for a higher price. Females are usu- ally ready to market 2 to 4 weeks earlier than the males. A good rule is never to market turkeys that are obviously not ready, and to sell promptly all that are properly finished. Starving. Unless the birds will be eviscerated when killed, all feed should be taken away 18 to 24 hours before they are slaughtered. Free access to water should be allowed but birds not starved long enough deteriorate rapidly when dressed. Where proper cold storage facilities are available, eviscerating, or drawing, immediately after killing not only will help to reduce spoilage and deterioration in flavor, but will also make the starving unnecessary. However, if the birds are killed, dressed, and left frozen or un- frozen for sometime before they are evis- cerated, then it is necessary to starve as if they were blood and feather (New York) dressed only. Those who put turkeys in freezing- locker storage should eviscerate and split the birds beforehand and vacuum-pack them in cellophane bags; eviscerating prevents off-flavors, and splitting con- serves space. Weight loss caused by over- night starving is about 3 per cent. Dressing shrinkages are shown in table 16. Dressing and drawing does not seem to reduce the weight of males con- sistently more than that of females. The differences in weight loss between large and small birds, whether male or female, [50] are more consistent; the larger birds los- ing relatively less weight. The average total loss in weight for birds starved long enough is about 24 per cent, of which 10 per cent is lost when the birds are dressed and 14 per cent is lost when they are drawn. The range in total shrinkage of individual birds — about 19 to 26 per cent — shows that there are large individual differences. The best market birds (as shown by grade) shrink least. The percentages of the initial weight of the unstarved live bird, based on male and female Broad Breasted Bronze tur- keys, are about as follows: starved, 97; dressed, 88; drawn, 73; edible portion, 55. Dressing plant operations Killing. The bird is usually suspended from a shackle before killing, by putting the feet through the hooks, which are 8 to 12 inches apart; or it may be sus- pended by strong, light cord tied to a rafter. The cord is wrapped around both legs and kept in place by a small block of wood or an iron washer on the end of the cord. A good killing knife has a straight cut- ting edge, with the back of the blade curved to the point, the blade being % inch wide, 4 to 4% inches long, and so strongly built that it will not break when twisted. With the back of the head lying in the palm of the left hand, the mouth is held open so that the knife can be inserted. The cut is made diagonally across the upper surface of the throat just behind the angle of the jaw so as to sever the jugular veins and carotid arteries. The knife is next inserted in the cleft in the roof of the mouth and pushed in a line just below the eye to the rear lobe (the medulla oblongata) of the brain. The knife can also be inserted past the eye so that it enters the skull through the opening for the optic nerve. When this is properly done, there is a characteristic squawk, with a convulsion of the bird's body. The feathers are more difficult to dry-pick if the bird is not properly killed in this way. A 5- to 7-pound weight, or a blood cup, weighted with 4 or 5 pounds of lead or concrete, is hooked in the lower jaw. The bird should not be allowed to raise its head after bleeding starts; it may swal- low blood which will discolor the crop. In commercial killing plants, the birds are usually semiscalded (or softscalded) . They are bled by cutting the veins in the neck from outside, taking care to cut deep Table 16. Weight Losses of Dressed and Drawn Birds Sex Number Average Live Weight Weight Losses from Live Weight Variety Dressed Weight Oven- ready Weight Total Edible Portion Broad Breasted Bronze* Broad Breasted Bronze* Small White* Small White* Bronze unstarved Bronze starved 24 hours Bronze starved 48 hours Male Female Male Female Female Female Female 9 59 6 Pounds 23.2 15.7 15.5 9.2 13.5 13.4 12.6 Per Cent 9.5 8.2 11.2 11.5 11.1 11.1 12.9 Per Cent 24.3 22.2 27.9 28.1 25.2 24.6 23.0 Per Cent 45.2 41.0 46.9 45.5 * Adapted from Harshaw, H. M., W. L. Kellogg, R. R. Rector, and S. J. Marsden. The composition of tur- keys of different varieties and strains. Poultry Science 22:126-36. 1943. [51] Two types of shackles that may be used for suspending birds for killing. enough to. cause the blood to flow freely, yet not so deep that blood collects, which may later cause mustiness. The bird is killed by sticking under the eye, or it may be allowed to bleed to death. It is then dipped for about 30 seconds into a tank of water kept at 128° to 130° F. The heads of birds killed in this way should always be wrapped unless they are to be sold dressed and drawn, with the head and feet removed. Picking. In dry-picking, the wings are held together firmly with the left hand. The feathers are then removed — first the tail feathers, then the long flight feathers (primaries and secondaries) — with the right hand. The rest of the feathers may be picked in the following order : breast, sides, legs, back, hips, neck, body feathers between the legs, and small wing feathers. The tail and wing feathers are removed by the rough picker, who usually does the kill- ing as well. The labor of picking can be reduced by using rubber-fingered picking machines, wing strippers, and other me- chanical aids; but whatever the method used, care should be taken not to bruise or tear the skin. Pinners or pickers usually remove the pinfeathers and other small feathers left by the roughers or mechanical pickers, when large numbers of birds are being killed. The bird should be picked clean. Instead of removing the small feathers and pinfeathers by hand, the birds may be dipped into a specially prepared wax, which is melted and kept at about 125° F. The birds are first rough-picked dry or after semiscalding, and are then cooled and dried. Next they are dipped into the wax twice, or oftener if necessary. They are then allowed to cool, or are dipped into cold water to harden the wax, which is afterwards removed. This wax can be remelted and used repeatedly. Cooling. When picked, the birds are hung up to cool. They should be far enough apart to allow prompt cooling. Cooling to an internal temperature of 34° F is desirable. If a temperature of 40° or less is not available, the birds should be delivered immediately to a re- frigerating plant or butcher shop for [52 Poultry Head Wrapping f~ *! Directions for poultry head wrapping (as recommended by Carl L. Alsberg, United States Department of Agriculture Bureau of Chemistry). Getting started: Hang the bird by the feet in a shackle or rope loop. Hold the head firmly, bill to the front. Slant the paper as shown, being sure that the longer edge is uppermost. There must be plenty of thumbhold on the pointed end over the neck. Pull tight: Pull the upper long edge downward and to the left. Be sure the edge of the paper at the neck is tight. Notice how it dents the flesh a little. Changing hands to get bell shape: As the left hand swings the paper around, the right loosens its hold, and the left hand catches neck and paper firmly. This makes a "bell" with even overlapping edges at the bottom, and the edge (x) almost a vertical line from the grasping fingers downward. Close the bell: Holding with the left hand, turn the head so that you can see inside the "bell." With the thumb and just a little assistance from the fingers, push the edge of the "bell" up and in. Neat and clean: The finished head wrap. Holding the bird by the legs, you can "snap" it hard without making the head wrap come off. [53] cooling. Under some circumstances, as where there is a local demand for turkeys over an extended period, it may be ad- visable to install cooling facilities. Re- frigerating units are now available at comparatively low cost; a small cooling room, suitable for holding a limited num- ber of birds for a week or two, can be built for a few hundred dollars. Cold running water from artesian wells or other sources may be used as a spray or dip to cool the birds, washing off any blood or dirt at the same time. Birds should not be left long in water to cool, since they will then not keep as well when stored. The cooling should therefore be completed in a cool room or refrigerator plant. Whatever the method, promptness is important, since birds not cooled prop- erly within about 12 hours may turn green in a few days. The market grades of turkeys Grading places a premium on quality above the average, but penalizes low qual- ity and thus discourages the marketing of birds that are not ready for market, or are unattractive because of improper handling at any stage. Since inferior birds are likely to affect the entire market unfavorably, all turkeys should be bought and sold according to grade. The tentative United States government grades are widely used and are gaining in popularity, although it is not com- pulsory to buy and pay for turkeys ac- cording to grade. Some cooperative or- ganizations and many firms use their own systems of grading; but since all such systems have the same objective of desig- nating the relative quality of the dressed or oven-ready bird, the tentative U. S. grades for young females shown on page 55 will serve to indicate some of the points considered. Allowances are made for sex and age differences in grading young males, old hens, and old males. The grades for individual birds take into consideration deformities (particu- larly of the keel), fleshing, feathering, and injuries. The birds are classified as male or female, old or young. In most years a higher price per pound is paid in the fall for hens than for toms. Small, well-fleshed toms in such cases may sell for the same price per pound as hens. Later toms may sell for a higher price per pound than hens. Farm prices will vary from year to year Most of the turkeys marketed are sold in the months from October to February, inclusive. Although birds kept for breed- ing are sometimes marketed in April, many of them are kept until May or later. There has been a consistent trend toward marketing turkeys earlier. About 20 per cent of the California crop of turkeys is marketed before November, about 35 per cent in November, about 30 per cent in December, with the balance sold in Jan- uary and February or at the end of the breeding season. The percentage varies from year to year. As a rule, birds raised in confinement are disposed of earlier than range-finished birds; and this, as well as the time of hatching, largely de- termines the marketing date. Birds are sometimes sent to market in the early fall, but in many sections of California it is difficult to finish them at that season be- cause of hot weather. Prices paid to producers vary consider- ably from year to year and from month to month. Farm prices of turkeys are shown in table 17. They are based on all classes, grades, and sizes. As can be seen from the table, to predict prices is ex- tremely difficult. Estimates must take into consideration so many factors that the safest procedure for the individual grower would be to market his birds when they are ready (page 50) through a cooperative organization, or a reliable, licensed dealer. The birds, whether live or dressed, should in all cases be sold, and all arrangements should be made before they are sent to market. [54] Summary of Specifications for Standards of Quality for Individual Carcasses of Dressed and Ready-to-Cook Turkeys (Minimum Requirements and Maximum Defects Permitted) Factor A Quality B Quality C Quality CONFORMATION: Breastbone Back Legs and Wings Normal Slight curve, M " dent Normal (except slight curve) Normal Practically normal Dented, curved, slightly crooked Moderately crooked Moderately misshapen Abnormal Seriously crooked Seriously crooked Misshapen If fairly • well fleshed FLESHING: Breastbone Pouchiness Well fleshed, moderately long and broad breast Not prominent Slight Fairly well fleshed on breast and legs Not prominent Definite Poorly fleshed May be prominent Extended FAT COVERING: Well covered — some fat under skin over entire carcass Fryers and young toms only moderate cover- ing Sufficient fat on breast and legs to prevent a distinct appear- ance of flesh through skin Lacking in fat cover- ing over all parts of carcass PINFEATHERS : Dressed: Pins and hair Ready-to-Cook: Non-protruding pins Protruding pins and hair Breast and Legs Elsewhere Breast and Legs Elsewhere Breast and Legs Elsewhere Pract. free Pract. free Free Pract. free Pract. free Free Relatively few Few scattered Free SI. scattering Few scattered Free Numerous Scattering Free Numerous Scattering Free CUTS AND TEARS:* Free 3" 3" 6" No limit Disjointed bones Broken bones 1 None 2 1 Non-protruding No limit No limit DISCOLORATIONS : t Flesh bruises Skin bruises All discolorations 1" 2" 3" 1" 3" 1H' 3" 3" 6* No limit! No limitj No limit* FREEZER BURN: Few small Q4 " diam- eter) pockmarks Moderate-dried areas not in excess of % " in diameter Numerous pockmarks and large dried areas The quality designations specified herein are not applicable to birds possessing any of the following con- ditions: dirty or bloody head or carcass, dirty feet or vent, fan feathers or neck feathers or garter feathers, or feed in the crop. * Total aggregate length of all cuts and tears including incision for removal of the crop or its contents. f Maximum diameter of aggregate areas of all flesh bruises, skin bruises, and discolorations. X No limit on size and number of areas of discoloration and flesh bruises if such areas do not render parts of carcass unfit for food. [55 Caponizing Turkeys can be grown into sufficiently large birds to meet all ordinary demands before sexual maturity causes a deterior- ation in the quality of the flesh. Damage to males from fighting may be reduced by debeaking. Hormone treatment of tur- key males with two 15-milligram pellets of diethylstilbestrol for fattening and pre- venting fighting is being used. Rate of growth and feed utilization is not im- proved, but feathering may be. Bruising is increased. In most cases results of using pellets have been disappointing. Since caponizing of turkeys has little or no influence on growth or feed con- sumption, it is therefore not justified. Turkey capons have typical male plum- age, but small head furnishings like those of the female. Turkey specialties Most turkeys are sold through the regu- lar channels. A few specialties have been developed in recent years, the most suc- cessful of which are: half, quarter, parts (breast, legs, wings, etc.), and boned turkey. The deboned turkey may be rolled in such a way that the different layers are surrounded by the skin. Turkeys in these forms have become regularly available on some markets. Table 17. Farm Prices of Turkeys on Fifteenth of Each Month in California, 1925-1950 Year Jan. Feb. March April October November December 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 Cents per Pound 33.0 43.4 41.0 35.0 31.0 29.0 28.0 23.0 13.0 15.0 20.0 22.0 17.0 20.0 20.0 14.0 15.0 22.0 34.0 32.0 34.0 31.0 27.0 39.0 53.0 28.0 13.0 15.0 20.0 20.0 17.0 20.0 19.0 15.0 15.0 21.0 33.0 33.0 34.0 31.0 27.0 39.0 45.0 26.0 12.0 15.0 19.0 21.0 14.0 15.0 21.0 33.0 32.5 35.0 28.0 26.0 38.0 44.0 25.0 13.( 15.( 19.( 20.( 21.( 34.( 32.( 35.( 28.( 27.( 38.( 45.( 25.( ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 32.7 33.4 35.0 36.0 32.0 28.0 27.0 18.0 17.0 17.0 22.0 20.0 21.0 20.0 16.0 14.0 23.0 30.0 34.0 34.0 32.0 41.0 34.0 44.0 32.0 29.0 39.5 40.8 39.0 36.0 32.0 28.0 25.0 17.0 17.0 18.0 23.0 20.0 22.0 18.0 15.0 14.0 23.0 30.2 34.0 34.0 32.0 35.0 34.5 54.0 33.0 27.0 42.1 45.0 38.0 33.0 30.0 26.0 25.0 14.0 15.0 20.0 23.0 18.0 21.0 20.0 16.0 15.0 22.0 35.0 33.0 34.0 32.0 32.0 38.0 54.0 33.0 30.0 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 Source of data: California Crop and Livestock reporting service. [56] Other specialties include: fryer or "squab" turkeys — young birds in good flesh but having little fat. Bronze and other dark-plumaged birds may look dark and unattractive. For this reason most of the turkey fryers produced are Beltsville Small White or White Holland. Poults of these varieties usually grow more slowly than Broad Breasted Bronze poults. Hence the poult feed and other costs (per pound of fryer sold) may be higher for poults of smaller varieties. Fryers have a good flavor and sometimes bring a premium. Unless a premium is obtained, the marketing of such immature birds may not pay. Smoked turkeys are sold in limited amount. The birds are dressed and drawn in the ordinary way, then rubbed with the preserving fluid and cooled to about 38° F (24 hours) ; placed in a home- mixed or commercial preserving fluid for a week. They are then split and smoked (48 to 60 hours), using hardwood or a commercial smoke product; and finally allowed to age for about a week. Feathers have some market value if properly prepared. Marketing of hatching-eggs Turkey hatching-eggs are usually shipped in standard 200- or 120-egg, wood or corrugated paper cases. Special fillers are available, and turkey or duck- egg fillers and flats may also be used. The package may be made firm with cushions, but the use of bran or other material seems unnecessary. The eggs, except those produced by breeders who market their own eggs and poults, are usually sold to local hatcheries or through cooperative marketing or- ganizations. Many growers have lost money by sell- ing to distant customers of undetermined reputation and financial standing, accept- ing future payment on the basis of guar- anteed fertility. There should be a definite price per egg, which usually decreases as the season advances because of increased egg production and reduced fertility. These sample production cost figures will furnish a basis for comparison The costs of production vary from year to year and, to a less extent, from one district to another. They also vary con- siderably on different farms in the same district and in the same year. For these reasons data on costs can, at best, give only an approximation to the average expenses involved. Market turkeys. The more impor- tant items entering into the cost of pro- ducing turkeys for market are summar- ized in table 18. The largest item is for feed. Stock purchases and labor come next. Minor items include brooder fuel, litter, insurance, depreciation, and inter- est on the investment. Since the surveys indicate that feed costs are 60 per cent or more of the total costs of raising turkeys for market, spe- cial care should be taken to get good stock that will make economical use of feed; to use well-balanced rations, good equipment, and skillful management to insure uninterrupted growth and prevent mortality; and to avoid paying excessive prices for feed used to grow poults, par- ticularly after the first few weeks and when finishing them for market. Mortality, which formerly was exces- sively high, has apparently decreased. It will be observed that labor costs as a per- centage of total costs are lower than for- merly, presumably because of a change in the methods of hatching and brooding. Since labor and mortality are such im- portant factors, any improvement in [57] Table 18. Costs of Producing Market Turkeys Item Tehama County, 1928 Riverside County Stanis- laus County, 1941 Fresno County 1938 1939 1947 1948 1949 Per cent raised Average number raised Hours of labor per bird Average live weight per bird Grain in pounds per bird Mash in pounds per bird Grain and mash in pounds per bird .... Grain and mash in pounds per pound of turkey 58.7 632 12.8 62.2 5.4 78.0 1,219 1.3 15.5 22.4 51.9 74.3 4.8 77.2 1,166 0.8 14.9 29.4 43.4 72.8 4.9 77.5 3,412 0.7 19.4 34.6 58.2 92.8 4.8 82.8 8,033 0.4 19.1 33.4 65.2 98.6 5.2 85.8 7,191 0.5 19.6 34 62 96 4.9 85.8 9,948 0.5 20.1 30 69 99 4.9 Costs and Returns in Dollars per Bird Cost of grain and mash Cost of range Other feed costs Total feed costs . . Cost of hired labor. . . Value of labor of oper- ator and family Value of all labor Stock purchases . . . Depreciation Interest on investment Miscellaneous Total costs per bird Total income per bird Average investment per bird $1.25 0.38 $1.34 0.10 $1.30 0.12 $1.84 0.08 $4.50 0.05 $4.35 0.09 $1.63 $1.44 $1.42 $1.92 $4.55 $4.44 $0.20 $0.12 $0.18 $0.30 0.96 0.10 0.18 0.14 $1.16 $0.40 $0.23 $0.22 $0.36 $0.44 $0.03 0.02 0.06 0.22 $0.38 0.05 0.06 0.08 $0.38 0.02 0.06 0.04 $0.45 0.04 0.08 0.08 $0.72 0.06 0.04 0.22 $0.85 0.08 0.10 0.23 $3.12 $2.41 $2.15 $2.79 $5.95 $6.14 $3.83 $3.17 $2.45 $4.05 $6.90 $9.30 $1.00 $1.20 $1.20 $1.60 $0.80 $2.00 $4.15 0.07 $4.22 $0.36 0.09 $0.45 $0.92 0.14 0.10 0.24 $6.07 $6.08 $2.00 Costs and Returns in Cents per Pound Total costs 24.4 29.9 15.6 20.5 14.4 16.4 14.4 20.9 31.2 36.1 31.3 47.4 30.2 Total income 30.2 buildings and equipment that will reduce the cost of these items should prove a good investment. Hatching-eggs. Figures on the cost of producing turkey eggs are available from three counties in California (table 19). The records do not necessarily fur- nish a correct average, nor complete de- [58 tails concerning all cost items; rather, they give some information concerning the more important items entering into costs and returns. Feed was the largest item, amounting to, on the average, 50 per cent of the total cost, with labor and net stock cost coming next. Feed costs varied with the ] Table 19. Costs of Producing Turkey Hatching-Eggs Item Number of records Average number of breeding hens per record Average number of days per record . Average number of eggs per hen. . . . Hatching-eggs sold or used per hen . Hatching-eggs sold as a percentage of all eggs Pounds of grain, mash, and pellets per hen Per cent of feed-mash and pellets . . . Hours of labor per hen Stanislaus County, 1940 Riverside County, 1938-1940 San Diego Coui 1938-1941 1942 4 39 37 9 1,184 324 367 317 127 159 189 161 28.7 58.9 57 58 25.9 53.3 50 51 90.1 90.5 87.7 89.5 58.4 84.5 104.2 102.8 45.9 65.1 74.2 74.4 0.9 1.7 2.0 2.3 1943-1945 36 414 190 67 60 89.6 113.1 61.9 2.6 Costs and Returns in Dollars per Bird Feed cost per hen Cost of hired labor Value of labor of operator and family Miscellaneous costs Depreciation on buildings and equipment Interest on investment at 5% Net stock cost Total cost per hen Less income not from hatching-eggs Net cost per hen of hatching-eggs . . . Income per hen from hatching-eggs . $1.13 $1.74 $2.48 $3.21 0.15 0.12 0.15 .28 0.14 0.40 0.51 .58 0.27 0.24 0.31 .35 0.10 0.09 0.11 .13 0.11 0.13 0.13 .19 1.06 1.18 0.94 .80 $2.96 $3.89 $4.63 $5.54 0.04 0.11 0.14 0.25 $2.92 $3.78 $4.49 $5.25 $3.22 $7.24 $6.44 $8.28 $ 3.71 .28 1.57 .50 .19 .26 1.44 $ 7.95 0.34 $ 7.61 $ 15.55 Costs and Returns in Cents per Egg Average price per hatching egg Net cost per hatching egg 12.5 11.3 13.6 7.2 13.1 9.3 16.4 10.5 25.7 12.6 Average investment per hen $4.52 $5.06 $5.06 $7.07 $ 10.08 Source of data: Figures collected from cooperating turkey growers and analyzed by the California Agricultural Extension Service. price of feed, the length of the record period, and, to some extent, the propor- tion of grain and mash fed. Some growers apparently fed uneconomically large pro- portions of mash. Although the variation in average hours of labor per hen was not great, the differences between individual flock rec- ords were quite large, ranging from less than 1 hour to more than 7 hours per hen. Net stock cost was influenced by three items: mortality, which ranged from averages of 1.5 to 7.0 per cent for hens and from 2.2 to 19.6 per cent for males; [59 Number of eggs sold Relation of the number of eggs sold from each hen and the cost of feed to the cost of producing each egg sold in cents. The cost of production was arbitrarily based on the assump- tion that each hen consumed 100 pounds of feed and that the cost of feed represented 50 per cent of the total cost. These assumptions agree reasonably well with the results of sur- veys. See also table 19. decrease in weight; and decrease in the market price received for turkeys. The average number of hens per torn was about 9, with most flocks within the range of 8 to 10 and with an extreme range for individual flocks of 5.2 to 12.6. The income per hen obviously de- pended on the average number of eggs sold per hen and on the average price received for the eggs. The average num- ber of eggs sold per hen was important not only in determining income, but also in lowering costs of production per egg by spreading the cost per hen over a larger number of units. The conclusion is justified that it is necessary to obtain and sell many eggs per hen for efficient production of turkey hatching-eggs. This is shown by the Stanislaus County survey, for example, where the average egg production and the cost of production per egg for the four flocks were as follows: 58.4 eggs, 8.8 cents; 45.9 eggs, 8.2 cents; 22.0 eggs, 11.9 cents; 12.3 eggs, 18.4 cents. The relation between the cost of pro- duction and number of eggs sold on the one hand, and the average cost per egg sold on the other hand, is shown in the graph at left. It was assumed that feed represented 50 per cent of the total cost, but obviously this is an estimate subject to wide fluctuations on different farms. The data show the importance of sell- ing a reasonable number of eggs per hen kept (preferably 40 or more) in order to insure a relatively low cost of produc- tion. This in turn requires that demand (that is, the hatching of poults) be spread over a sufficiently long time (about 3 months at 50 per cent production) to have the hens kept lay about 45 or more eggs (see table 19 for percentage sold of eggs laid). Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914. J. Earl Coke, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. 15m-10,'51(6444)W.P. [60