THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. TORONTO THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION A TRAINING-MANUAL IN THE METHOD AND MECHAN- ICS OF WRITING, WITH A SUPPLEMENTARY DIVISION ON JOURNALISTIC WRITING AS A MEANS OF PRACTICE BY ROBERT WILSON NEAL A.M. (UNIV. KANSAS, HARVARD, YALE) English and Journalism, Massachusetts Agricultural College ; Sometime Instructor in the University of Kansas and the University of Cincinnati; Acting Head of Department, Rutgers College; and Member of the Editorial Department, The World's Work Nefo fffltfe THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1912 COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY EOBEET WILSON NEAL. COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1912. NorhjcotJ Berwick & Smith Co., Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. TABLE AND ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS FOB CONDENSED INDEX OF SECTIONS BY PAGES, SEE PAGE 165 PAGE FOREWORD 1 A manual of practice, not of theory. Reason for stating principles as rules. Attention centered upon thought and think- ing, not upon form. Adaptable to various stages of advancement. Acknowledgments . Treatment of the forms of discourse and the choice of words. THE AUTHOR'S METHOD WITH THE BOOK 6 To THE STUDENT 9 Mistakes concerning the reasons for study- ing English. The true object in studying English. SECTION I. COMPOSITION; PARAGRAPH AND WHOLE COM- POSITION 16 II. UNITY 18 General tests of unity in paragraphs and whole compositions. III. SUBJECT AND TOPIC 20 Subject a term; topic a declarative sentence. Subject of thought also the subject of the sentence. Necessity of precise statement of topic as writer's guide; working-thought. Subjects, large and small. The title. IV. UNITS OF THOUGHT (THOUGHT-BLOCKS) 26 iii IV TABLE AND ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS SECTION PAQB V. CONNECTEDNESS OF THOUGHT IN THE COM- POSITION (COHERENCE) 27 General tests of coherence in composition and paragraph. Clearness of thought essential to coherence. Connectedness of language as an element of coherence. VI. EMPHASIZING IMPORTANT THOUGHTS 32 Space emphasis and place emphasis. Emphasis in news reports. VII. PARAGRAPHS REALLY WHOLE COMPOSITIONS . . 34 VIII. STATING THE WORKING-THOUGHT (SUBJECT, TOPIC, WORKING-THOUGHT) 35 Importance of precise statement. Importance of subject. Importance of predicate. Descriptive, narrative, expository, and argu- mentative working-thought. The working-thought in the guise of a formula. Inclusion or omission of topic-statement or working-thought . IX. BUILDING UP THE COMPOSITION 43 X. INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION 44 XI. SELECTION OF THOUGHT-MATERIAL 49 Must support working-thought and be adapted to the reader. XII. DETERMINING THE ORDER OF THE THOUGHT- BLOCKS 54 XIII. CHOOSING A METHOD OF DEVELOPMENT. ... 56 XIV. BUILDING UP THOUGHT BY ENUMERATING IM- PLIED DETAILS 58 XV. BUILDING UP THOUGHT THROUGH ILLUSTRA- TION; COMPARING THE SUBJECT TO SOME- THING ELSE '. . 60 TABLE AND ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS BCT10N PAGE XVI. BUILDING UP THOUGHT THROUGH ILLUSTRA- TION; COMPARING ONE THING WITH AN- OTHER 62 Illustration through likeness and unlikeness. Illustration through contrast and opposition. XVII. BUILDING UP THOUGHT THROUGH ILLUSTRA- TION; CITING INSTANCES OR EXAMPLES. . 64 XVIII. BUILDING UP THOUGHT THROUGH DEFINITION. 67 XIX. BUILDING UP THOUGHT THROUGH DEFINITION; SYNONYMS AND SIMPLE EXPLANATORY TERMS 68 XX. BUILDING UP THOUGHT THROUGH DEFINITION; SHOWING THE CONTENT OF EXPRESSIONS EMPLOYED 71 XXI. BUILDING UP THOUGHT THROUGH DEFINITION; LOGICAL DEFINITION 74 ^ ^XXll. BUILDING UP THOUGHT BY APPLYING A PRIN- CIPLE 77 XXIII. BUILDING UP THOUGHT BY PRESENTING PROOF 80 (Various methods of thought-building amount to proof.) XXIV. BUILDING UP THOUGHT THROUGH EXPLANA- TION OF CAUSE OR EFFECT 83 XXV. WHAT is MEANT BY PLANNING 88 XXVI. TERMS TO BE AVOIDED (INTRODUCTION, BODY, CONCLUSION) 90 XXVII. FINDING THE STARTING-PLACE Introductions often unnecessary. 92 False beginnings. Important matter usually necessary in the beginning. Indicating at once what the composition con- cerns. XXVIII. FINDING THE STOPPING-PLACE 94 False endings to be avoided. Formal summaries not always needed. Directing the thought clearly to the main facts at the end. VI TABLE AND ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS SECTION PAGE XXIX. THE MAIN DEVELOPMENT OF THE THOUGHT. 96 XXX. THINKING our A COMPOSITION 97 Working out the main steps. Working out the minor steps. XXXI. REVIEW 101 XXXII. NUMBERING THE DIVISIONS 102 XXXIII. WORDING THE DIVISIONS 104 XXXIV. MAKING FALSE DIVISIONS 107 XXXV. MAKING SUBDIVISIONS EQUAL MAIN DIVI- SIONS 109 XXXVI. MAKING MAIN DIVISIONS INTO SUBDIVISIONS. Ill XXXVII. SUBDIVISIONS THAT DO NOT SUPPORT THEIR HEADINGS 113 XXXVIII. FILLING OUT THE PLAN 116 XXXIX. TESTING THE COMPOSITION FOR UNITY 118 XL. TESTING FOR UNITY; THE LOST POINT OF VIEW 120 Indication of the point of view. Physical and mental points of view. General and particular points of view. Impossible facts introduced in violation of r'nt of view, beginnings, false endings, digressions. Narrative view-point; the omniscient view- point. XLI. USING A LARGE TOPIC FOR A LITTLE COM- POSITION 127 XLII. TESTING THE COMPOSITION FOR COHERENCE. . 129 Unity of impression, of material, and of ex- pression. XLIII. COHERENCE; PUTTING THE THOUGHT-BLOCKS IN A LOGICAL ORDER 130 Chronological order; sequence in description, exposition, etc. TABLE AND ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS vii SECTION PAGE XLIV. COHERENCE; SHOWING FORTH THE ORDER OF THE THOUGHT 135 Devices for securing coherence: connective expressions, transitions, summaries, etc. XLV. COHERENCE AND EMPHASIS; KEEPING THE MAIN THOUGHT PROMINENT 138 XL VI. COHERENCE; HEADLESS BEGINNINGS 140 XL VII. COHERENCE; INFERENCE, CONCESSION, CON- TRAST, AND CUMULATIVE CONNECTIVES. . . 141 XL VIII. THOUGHT-BUILDING TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS; THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 144 Description; narration; exposition; argu- mentation. XLIX. THOUGHT-BUILDING IN JOURNALISM; THE PURPOSE OF NEWSPAPER WRITING 146 News reporting and news interpreting. Forms of discourse essentially involved in newspaper writing. L. NEWSPAPER WRITING; REPORTING 147 Definitions of news. Reporters and correspondents. Technical and cant terms of newspaper work. LI. REPORTING; WRITING THE NEWS STORY 149 The lead; the feature; illustrative " stories.' 7 LII. THOUGHT-BUILDING IN JOURNALISM; EDI- TORIAL WRITING 157 LIII. CONCLUSION; THE VALUE OF JOURNALISTIC PRACTICE 159 REPRESENTATIVE HEADLINES 163 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION FOREWORD A few words of explanation are in place to teachers who may chance to see this booklet. First. The manual has been prepared as a manual of practice, not of theory. Purposely, the theory has been limited to bare essentials; for the author, re- gretfully but surely, has been gradually forced to the conclusion that, under present educational condi- tions, the study of verbal expression in anything but its fundamentals is better postponed to later college years, or at least reserved for the comparatively few students who show especial ability or develop par- ticular interest in it. Moreover, even the gifted and the specially interested are, at the age of college fresh- men, ordinarily not so far advanced that extended practice in applying the foundation principles of the art will not be as good a training as they can have. Second. As this is a manual of practice, and as in practice the worker is concerned primarily with ap- plied method, the principles have been dogmatically stated in the form of precept and rule. And because 1 2 r THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION writing, in practice, may be called one of the " opera- tive " arts, having its own technique having in- deed its own mechanics, which the successful operator must know practically some of these rules have been made, not merely dogmatic, but mechanical. True, serious objections can be urged to either form of statement, and in these objections the author joins heartily. He dislikes dogma, and he knows that ultimately writing must not and cannot be me- chanical. But most college freshmen are unlikely ever to attain this " ultimately " in writing, and not one in a hundred is likely to approach it while still in college. Meantime, students badly need training in both the method and the mechanics of thinking and writing. Nor are the mechanical directions in this handbook more mechanical than many a principle that finds its place in the handbooks of logic, archi- tecture, and painting, and also in the practice of great thinkers, builders, and painters. The purpose of this manual, therefore, and the ease with which it can be supplemented with a book of specimens; the imma- turity of students; and indeed psychology itself; warrant this formalizing of principle into mechanical precept. Third. Attention is centered everywhere upon thought and the thinking of it, not upon form, except as an incorporation, or adequate outward embodi- ment of the thought itself. If the author's experience is to be depended on, this is the only safe method of approach with students of freshman age; and the FOREWORD 3 reports of teachers in other branches confirm his belief. Whether in agriculture or esthetics, physics or psychology, geology or German, by far the greatest difficulty that students seem to encounter is that of simple thinking of mastering the thought of the textbook or lecture, and of commanding their own faculties in dealing with it. With this fact must be considered another; namely, that nowadays, in the required part of courses of study, few subjects except English remain such as lend themselves readily to the purpose of a logical, or disciplinary, organon. But this English can be, and, as things are now, often must be, willy-nilly. In a manual intended for freshmen, it seems wise, therefore, to concentrate attention and effort upon thought and its management; especially as attention to clearness and accuracy in thinking does and must constantly direct attention to clearness and accuracy in word and sentence. Fourth. Although the author has prepared his manual for use in freshman classes in college, he deems the plan of study it contains quite adapted to study in the preparatory school. Indeed, he questions whether under different conditions determining the* programs of preparatory study and the number of pupils assigned to a single teacher English as an organon does not belong rather in the grammar and the high school than in the college. At least, he be- lieves himself not alone in the conviction that more intensive study of simple logic and thought-handling, through English or other fundamental subjects, were 4 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION it provided for in the curricula required of the high schools, would quite justify itself, proving a wise sub- stitute for more extensive, but less concentrated and disciplinary work. To these comments ought to be added at least a brief acknowledgment of indebtedness. All teach- ers will, in the treatment of the present handbook, recognize Professor Genung's " working idea " in combination with Professor Wendell's paragraph-con- densed-to-a-sentence. In a number of sections, also, will be found a simplifying, formalizing, and adapta- tion of method already presented, either explicitly or by suggestion, in some sections of the " Paragraph Writing " of Professors Scott and Denney, whose various textbooks have laid all the English-teaching profession under obligation. But in judging of the need of these adaptations, as throughout the manual, the author has been guided, first by his experience in the classroom, and, second, by his experience of writing, not as theory, but as art and craft, gained in an almost constant practice continued more than twenty years. Finally, to those who may seek an extended ex- planation here of the " forms of discourse/' so-called, the reminder may be given that the foundation aim of this manual is merely to present elementary, or rather primary, thought-processes in their method. Interesting and valuable as the distinctions may be between description and narration, exposition and argumentation, and so on, these distinctions do not FOREWORD 5 depend on a difference in methods of thinking, but on a difference in the purpose of utterance. As this manual is meant to give practice in the essential processes, not in their use toward special purposes, the theoretical discussion of description, narration, etc., has been intentionally omitted. The author be- lieves, however, that the foundation principles of each form of discourse are inevitably contained in the simple foundations of clear thinking, and that pupils who acquire method in thinking will naturally make application of this method to particular purposes as they find themselves confronted with particular prob- lems involving such application; see text passim. Nor has sentence form or the choice of words been treated formally or explicitly; for each is most seri- ously involved in the statement of the working- thought as insisted on in this manual, and each will many times come up for discussion in the course of conference, criticism, and direction. Therefore, al- though they are not formally presented here, they are always immediately involved; and for the student who has reached only the half-way post in composi- tion, this may produce better results than a detailed treatment. However that be, the author has found that young persons, when once they begin to com- mand their ideas, reveal the possession of a more comprehensive and accurate vocabulary and a power of effective simple sentence structure, such as he would before scarcely have expected. 6 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION THE AUTHOR'S METHOD WITH THE BOOK Others who use this book may care to know the plan according to which it is used by its author. This plan is very simple. 1. Every student is held responsible for knowledge, to be shown in oral or written recitation, of the sub- stance of each section and its notes. In view of the condensed presentation made, and of the accuracy of phrasing attempted in the explanations, verbatim repetition is advisable. 2. Every student must have a loose-leaf notebook. In this he keeps all his exercises, in order that they may be referred to at any time. 3. Themes are not treated as manual exercises, except that the working-thought of every theme must be stated at the head of the paper. It is convenient, however, to have the returned themes kept by the student in his notebook, but separate from the manual exercises. 4. The work of the year is laid out in advance. Time spent on manual exercises is treated as labora- tory time. Hence two hours spent in getting up manual work, either in or outside the classroom, counts as one hour of recitation and credit. It is not advisable to have students spend much more than four hours a week on manual work, two of which should be spent in the classroom. 5. In the classroom, from five to fifteen minutes are occupied by oral or written recitation. If the FOREWORD 7 recitation is written, the writing is done on a sheet in the notebook. Immediately thereafter, the students are set the day's exercise. Nearly always this is done in the notebook, although at times blackboard work is better. Through the period, the instructor is on the floor, inspecting the written recitation, the note- book exercises done outside the classroom, and the exercise then going on. If the classes are not too large, the instructor is able thus to come into personal conference with every student at every recitation; to give him individual advice; to estimate the grade quality of his work and his personality, and the quality of his individual effort; and in this way also to lessen somewhat the necessity of excessive theme correction outside of class. This last result is easier to attain if the themes are bound in the notebooks. 6. At the end of the period, an advance assignment in the manual is made. The student prepares this outside and presents it in his notebook at the next meeting. 7. If the classroom period is not long enough for the completion of the exercise, the instructor uses his judgment about requiring this exercise to be com- pleted outside. It frequently happens that the class- room exercise does not require the full time. The student can turn back and finish earlier exercises. 8. Two or three themes, quite distinct from the manual exercises, are required each week. Cor- rected themes are returned to the students at a separate meeting of the class. At this meeting, each 8 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION student is usually asked tojrewrite one of his themes, either (a) in accordance with specific directions or (6) in accordance with a different plan and method to be determined by him. In this period, as before, the instructor is among the men, commenting and advising, 9. For supplementary treatment of compositional principles, for illustrative extracts, and for collateral reference, an ordinary textbook, or several such books, prove helpful. For instance, the time comes when students are naturally directed to do mainly descrip- tive writing in their themes. They are then given assignments on description in the collateral textbooks. TO THE STUDENT The man who succeeds must think, and the man who thinks must get his thought clear in his own mind. To define his thought clearly to himself, he must put it accurately into words language. To use lan- guage accurately, he must learn what words mean words individually, words brought together in phrases and sentences, and words in sentences brought to- gether in still larger groups: paragraphs, speeches, books. To learn this, he must practise the using of words; and words are used most carefully and pre- cisely in writing. Therefore, the man who would think needs thorough exercise in writing. But a man cannot write without thinking. To learn to write is to learn to think; and to learn to think is vastly to increase one's chances of success. Hence no man who is in earnest about developing his mental powers, whether for their own sake or for the worldly success they may win him, will be strongly tempted to slight his English composition. This (therefore) is the best reason for studying composition that it helps and forces one to think. Every other reason is of less importance than this, and against it no convincing objection can be made. If, for instance, we assume (as some students do) that " English" is taught mainly to make students into 9 10 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION great writers, we imagine a vain thing. Great writers must be born before they can be made, and in college or out, few have been so blessed in their nativity. Yet even the great-writer-to-be needs to practise the handling of ideas. If the study of composition is good for him, much better is it for the man less gifted naturally. Or if we think that composition is taught mainly to prepare men to earn their living by the pen, we err. True, there was never a time before when every man was so likely to need ability to put into words what he knows or believes, or could so readily find a market for ideas couched in words. Yet even now many a man who most needs the discipline of think- ing may never speak in public or write for the public. But he can never escape the need of thinking, both for himself and at least indirectly for the public. Yet again, if we imagine composition to be taught primarily to cultivate refinement of speech, we err a third time. Fine language without fit thought or feeling is worth no more than any other frippery. Finished language is worth striving for through years; but it is the finished language that results from fine qualities of heart and mind disciplined and developed until they reveal themselves inevitably in our words, whether written or spoken. It is refinement of mind and spirit that produces refinement of speech; and men of high ideals and sound judgment pursue the substance, not the shadow strive for the develop- ment of njind and spirit, not for the acquirement of TO THE STUDENT 11 the velvet gown of pretentious language in which the intellectual and moral beggar often clothes himself. As the beggar parades into the city of Things-that-are- worth-while, he is badly mistaken in imagining (be- cause the little dogs do bark at him) that he is making an impression on the People-who-know-what's-what. It is not to acquire fine language that the sensible man studies English, but to acquire fine thought; and fine thought is fit thought, clear thought, accurate thought, and true thought. A man might well show good sense in refusing to spend time on a study that aimed at nothing beyond mere skill in wordiness, but it cer- tainly would not be good sense that he showed if he rejected a study that produces continual growth of mental and indeed of spiritual power. We might go on; but whatever the point of view from which we considered the study of composition, we should find its purpose always the same: to dis- cipline us to think. And this purpose is indisputably one of the great purposes, if not the one great purpose, of education. But how shall one learn to think? By thinking as by swimming, one learns to swim; by pitching a ball, to pitch; by riding a horse, to ride; and by working, to work. Nor is it harder to think well than it is to swim well or to pitch well. The governing principles of any science or art, of any profession or trade or game, are alike comparatively few and sim- ple; their intricacy lies in the innumerable ways in which they can be applied. It follows, that skill con- 12 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION sists in knowing the fundamental principles and in being able to adapt them to the needs of the moment. In other words, skill grows from practice from much practice in applying the simple, basic prin- ciples, or theory; from practising what we know. The theory, we learn; the skill, we acquire; and skill is merely the ability to make use of our general knowledge of a subject in varied particular cases as they arise. In the preparation of this manual, all these con- siderations have been kept in mind. The aim of all its explanations, outlines, directions, and exercises is to make possible for the student to develop for him- self skill in thinking. It is a practice-book rather than a theory-book. True, it contains (directly stated or necessarily implied) all the fundamental theory of ordinary thinking, including utterance of the thought. But this theory is not presented for the sake of the theory; it is presented for the sake of the practice; and it is put mostly in the form of precept, direction, example, and formula, in order that the student may see more clearly what the principle is and how he is to make use of it. Nevertheless, the fact that the book is a practice-book does not remove it from the class of study-books. The man who undertakes to do the practice without doing the study also will be exceedingly impractical and unwise. His equation will not work. Skill = knowledge + prac- tice. But knowledge = theory + study. If there is to be any know-how, there must also be know-what. TO THE STUDENT 13 We may, then, in ordinary language speak of our manual and our study of composition as an introduc- tion to the everyday-useful methods of thought- building. They are just that. Not a man reciting in any class in school or college but uses these proc- esses and needs to use them skillfully. Not a man talking with a classmate whether about philosophy or fraternity, art or athletics, Divinity or dining-hall but employs them, and would wish to employ them well. Not a man who, college days past, finds himself engaged in the hard, necessary work of mak- ing a living and perhaps in sustaining the great ideals of the race, but in the thinking on which his success or failure much depends, uses just these simple, fundamental processes the homely methods of our daily thought and speech. We are, therefore, not dealing with an abstract, far-away, non-practical subject; we are dealing with a subject so concrete that some principle of it is in- volved every time we think or speak, and so closely allied with daily life that we could not get away from it if we tried. Whatever our state in life, whatever our fortunes, whatever our trade or profession, we use the same simple, everyday, common-sense processes of thinking and uttering. This we cannot help. But whether we use them well or ill, skillfully or blunder- ingly, effectually or ineffectually, depends on us, and on no one else. If we are men enough, we can train ourselves to correct thinking and effective utterance, as we can also train ourselves to correct walking and 14 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION right breathing; but whether a man does so, or fails to do so, depends largely on one thing: whether he be resolute, determined, and self-reliant, or be lacking in the resolution, persistence, and personal application that are necessary to achievement. For neither class- mate nor teacher can help him much in the part of his work that is hardest and yet of greatest benefit the doing of the work itself. It is each man for himself who must carry the work through. The way to learn to think is to think; and thinking like eating and love-making cannot be done by proxy. Each man's success and failure depends on him alone. In learn- ing, as in life, we can be the master of our fate. Let us, therefore, fix in mind the purpose of practice and study in English the practice and study of thought-management, of the building up and under- standing, and of the expression of thought in words; namely: Such study, as we said, is of great importance to the man of literary gifts; but we are not pursuing it for this reason, although every lesson in it, well learned, will develop literary sense and power. It is of equally great value to the man who expects to become a professional or semi-professional writer a reporter, editor, advertising man, magazine writer, compiler, lecturer, correspondence manager, bulletin writer, or writer of scientific articles, whether technical or popu- lar; but we are not pursuing it for this reason, although every lesson in it, well learned, will necessarily help to prepare the student for such work if he should TO THE STUDENT 15 chance to undertake it. Yet again, it is of the greatest value in polishing language, thus giving one outward culture, refinement, finish; but neither is this the main reason for pursuing it. The main reason is, that it deals with thought, disciplines the mind, de- velops and cultivates the man himself by cultivating and developing his most useful, most needful, most noble powers; that it helps him to attain control of the faculties most indispensable to a successful life (which means some worldly prosperity, constant mental activity, and spiritual elevation). But with each man, its purpose will be accomplished only through his own resolute and persistent application even, if the need be, to the extent of seeming drudg- ery. The drudgery ends, but the results increase from year to year. I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES A. WHOLE COMPOSITION AND PARAGRAPH I. Composition; paragraph and whole composition. - By composition we here mean any piece of writing extended enough to embody a main thought, and such subordinate ideas and thoughts as must be taken to- gether to constitute this more complex head thought. It is called a composition because it brings together these less complex ideas and thoughts in order through them to express the larger one; the word " composi- tion " coming from a Latin term that -means " to place together/ 7 As the expression of each of these subordinate facts frequently requires a clause, a sentence, or a group of sentences, it follows that a composition as always more than a sentence; a paragraph is the shortest piece of writing that, in this sense, can be called a composition. By paragraph we commonly mean any piece of writing extended enough to be called a com- position, yet not so long that, when written or printed on the page, it needs to be divided into parts in order to make it more clear or emphatic. (The name " paragraph " is applied arbitrarily to some very short specialized divisions of compositions; but at present we need not long concern ourselves with these. See questions 5, 6, 7, set i.) 16 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 17 By whole composition we mean any piece of writing consisting of two or more paragraphs that have to do with the central thought, or topic, in the same general way. Note: According to this definition, a single chapter in a book, or a single section in a chapter, may be deemed a whole com- position. So in a larger sense may the book itself. An editorial article, or a magazine article or story, is likewise a whole com- position. But in this book we shall nearly always have in mind whole compositions less than 1000 words long, consisting there- fore of a comparatively small number of paragraphs perhaps six or eight at most. i. EXERCISES ON SECTION I 1. Look up in dictionaries and encyclopedias all the meanings you can find for "composition"; come to class prepared to explain them orally or in writing. 2. Select and bring to class for discussion five good examples of whole composition. Examine newspapers, magazines, and books, choosing compositions of length ranging from that of the very short article up to that of chapters or even books in some volume that you are acquainted with. Make sure that each specimen is complete in itself. 3. Compare some of these whole compositions with writings that are not whole compositions, and set down briefly a state- ment of the things wherein you find whole compositions to differ essentially from part compositions. 4. In some current magazine or in a current novel, find some passages of dialog. Account for the paragraphing. 5. See the department headed "Topics in Brief," that is usually run in each issue of "The Literary Digest." News- paper men call these quips "paragraphs," and newspapers pay good paragraphers well. In what sense are such pieces of writing paragraphs? 18 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION 6. Write 10 "paragraphs" of the sort referred to in question 5. Base them on news items in the daily paper, or on incidents of recent occurrence in the school or town. If they are based on something not generally known, make them self-explanatory. 7. Study the paragraphs referred to in question 5, and make up your mind how much they owe their life and force to careful sentence-building and to careful choosing of words. Be prepared to discuss this question, supporting your opinion by citing apt examples of such paragraphs. II. Unity. All the divisions of a composition have to do closely with the central thought in the same general way. Therefore, all the paragraphs in a whole com- position must have to do closely in the same general way with the same topic thought. When they do so, the composition is said to have unity. Note 1 : Every paragraph in the composition must help either: a. To explain what the topic thought is; or b. To prove it; or c. To convey additional information about it; or d. In some other way to make us keep it in mind and com- prehend it more fully. Both before and after writing a paragraph, stop to ask yourself what important portion of the central thought (topic thought) it establishes; if it does not helpfully develop or make clear some such part, either reject it wholly or restate it so that it shall establish some definite portion of the topic thought. See V. Note 2: All that is here said about paragraphs, in the whole composition, applies also to the sentences that, either singly or in groups, make up the individual paragraphs; for within the para- graph there are divisions, exactly as there are in other compositions. These divisions may consist (a) either of a single sentence, or even part of a sentence, (6) or of several sentences together. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 19 2. EXERCISES ON SECTION II 1. State in a single sentence, but completely, the central thought, or idea, of each specimen selected under question 1, set i. 2. Test for unity each of the whole compositions selected under question 1, set i. In doing this, determine and state whether the paragraphs, taken singly, help (a) to explain what is the central thought, or (6) to prove this thought, or (c) to con- vey additional information about it, or (d) to make us in some other way comprehend it more fully. If the last be the case, explain how each one helps toward this fuller comprehension. If any part of the composition fails to do one of these things, that part has no rightful place in the composition. 3. State what part of the central thought each paragraph helps to establish. (A few paragraphs taken separately will be enough from the long selections.) 4. How would you need to treat the composition in omitting this part? Rewrite it accordingly. 5. Put together the parts of each of the central thoughts as they are included in the statements arrived at under question 3. Compare the resulting statement with your original statement of the same central thought (question 1, set 2). Ask yourself: a. If these parts, taken together, represent all of the cen- tral thought. If they do not completely cover this thought, analyze each paragraph anew to see whether you have not overlooked essential matter in your statement of its relation to the central thought. b. If these parts state more than the central thought seems to contain. If they do, revise your statement of the latter, making it broad enough to cover all the thought contained in the composition. 6. Repeat exercise 5 with other of your statements; or, selecting other short compositions, state the central thought of each, testing your statement by analysis as before. 20 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION 7. Think over these three terms: " unity of matter," " unity of impression," "unity of language." Explain them as well as you can. In a piece of writing, would any one of these kinds of unity be dependent on the other kinds? Explain. III. Subject and topic. Every composition con- cerns a central thought (topic thought). This topic is not the same as the subject. The subject is that general thing about which one has something to say; the topic is the particular thing that one has definitely to say about this subject. Note 1: Subjects are always indicated by more or less gen- eral TERMS: war; eating; the value of sleep. But topics are definitely stated THOUGHTS about subjects: war is unnecessary; eating can be made to afford refined enjoyment; the value of sleep lies in the opportunity it gives brain and body to rebuild. Each of these is a definitely stated thought about the subject, and there- fore is a topic. Note 2: A topic is always a thought, hence it will always be expressed in a sentence, not in a single word or a phrase (note 1 shows that the word or phrase is the proper form of expression for a subject; for the subject is an idea, or "concept," but the topic is a thought). Note 3 : Since the topic-statement is the assertion of a thought, it will naturally be expressed in a declarative sentence. Note 4: Moreover, because the topic asserts a thought about the subject, the name of this subject will naturally appear as the subject of this declarative sentence. 1 i It is worth while to adhere closely to this dictum. It represents sound logic, and departure from the practice here advised is likely to lead to complete, even though unnoticed, shifting of the subject. For example: Assume the subject to be wealth. Then, in "The prince was ruined by wealth," "wealth" is no longer the main idea with which the assertion is concerned; that importance has been usurped by "prince." Unless watched, young writers will frequently GENERAL PRINCIPLES 21 Note 5: Because the topic is the writer's guide, it should always be very precisely and fully worded in his mind and then set down in writing before he undertake to put his notes and ideas together into a composition. In this full and precise form, it is called the WORKING-THOUGHT. In the compositions for this class, the working-thought should be written down at the head of every paper and outline, immediately after the title, and separate from the composition that follows. The management of the working- thought is more fully explained in Section VIII. Note 6: Subjects may be "large" or "small," "broad" or "narrow." A large or broad subject is one that has not been much limited, or "narrowed down." For paragraphs and short papers, limited or narrowed subjects are likely to be better than unrestricted subjects; but it frequently happens that the fully stated topic contains the limitation of the subject that is necessary to adapt it to treatment in a short paper, as here : Subject: Smoking. Topic thought and limitation: Smoking became known to Europeans in the sixteenth century. (Observe that this topic thought corresponds to the phrase, " the introduction of smok- ing," which would serve as a limited subject.) Subject in limited or restricted forms: Smoking as a pas- time; smoking by women; smoking in the street cars; opium smoking; smoking that relieves a cold; smoking (that is done) about the camp fire. (State topics in which the restrictive part of these subjects shall be transferred to the predicate.) shift their thought thus. It is also best to keep the grammatical subject of the declarative sentence in unaltered form if possible. These two assertions, "The pursuit of wealth has ruined princes" and "Wealth has ruined princes," are essentially different propositions. If any departure from the rule be made, extreme care should be exercised to keep the logical subject prominent; it should have the leading place in the thought, even though it do not occupy the chief grammatical position. Especially should the name of the subject be kept as the grammatical subject. If qualifying ideas be coupled with it, they should be appended as adjective modifiers; thus: "Wealth as an object of pursuit has ruined princes." Compare note 6. 22 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION Note 7: Let the student fix in mind the important fact, that in a restricted subject the restrictive part ought always to be some kind of adjective qualifier (see the examples above). By observ- ing this principle, he will safeguard himself against losing sight of the true subject. (To teachers: On such forms as " opium smoking," see Sweet's "New English Grammar," Pt. I, sec. 173.) Note 8: The title is merely the name one chooses for his com- position. It may and it may not express the topic or the sub- ject clearly, though it should usually at least hint what the subject is. Titles should be made as interesting as they can be without rendering them incongruous (the title should always be in keeping with the character of the composition). 3. EXERCISES ON SECTION III 1. Tell which of these are subjects and which are topics: a. Being afraid in the dark. b. Sickness is an unnecessary evil. c. Glorious sport. d. Ski-ing as a sport. e. How Henry won his medal. 1 /. Mary's bravery fooled a burglar. g. John won the game by making a daring run. h. Birds fly by pushing against the air. i. Why write poorly? l j. Grammar and its uses. k. We learn to spell by noticing how every unfamiliar word is spelled. 1 These are not complete assertions, (e) contains no hint how Henry won his medal ; (i) tells nothing of the why of the poor writing. Therefore, if such forms be accepted at all as topic assertions, they should be accepted only after a specific indication of the why or the how has been added. For example, (e) when completed might read: How Henry won his medal : by saving a little Italian boy from drowning. But the simpler and better form is: Henry won his medal by saving a little Italian boy from drowning. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 23 I. A treacherous fountain pen. m. The view from the dome. n. Making lead pencils. o. One objection to study. 2. Turn all the topics in the list given above into subjects, and all the subjects into topics. 3. Turn all the subjects into more limited subjects. To illustrate: The subject " paper" may be turned into " brown paper"; this in turn may be limited to ''brown paper in its making"; and this again to " brown paper in its making at a mill known to the writer." Such limiting may be continued until a subject sufficiently restricted to permit of treatment in the proposed space is reached. But these limited subjects are strictly subjects, not topics. The most restricted subject given above may, for example, be made into a topic by adding some assertion; as, " Brown paper in its making at the mill goes through this peculiar process; namely" [complete the assertion]. 4. In the following topic assertions, are the names of all the rhetorical (logical) subjects used also as the subjects of the sentences? If not, are they made so prominent that they never- theless get our attention, although not standing as the gram- matical subjects? A. a. The processes in the making of brown paper are these; viz., (compare the topic assertion in note 3). b. In its manufacture, . brown paper goes through these processes; viz., c. The mills use a peculiar process in making brown paper; viz., B d. Exercise is necessary to preserve one's health. e. Health can be preserved by taking exercise. /. The preservation of the health calls for exercise. g. Exercise is important because it preserves the health. h. The importance of preserving the health leads us to take exercise. 24 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION C i. America is mainly an industrial nation. j. Industrial affairs are the chief American pursuit. k. The pursuit of industry occupies Americans more than does anything else. I. The complete occupation of the American in industrial affairs makes him a practical man. D m. "Dry farming " has redeemed the arid West. n. The arid portion of the West has become fruitful through "dry farming." o. The value of "dry farming" is shown by the change it has made in the arid regions of the West. p. The change made in the regions of the arid West by means of "dry farming" shows how even the most adverse conditions can be overcome. E q. Persia has many rose gardens. r. The rose gardens that abound in Persia give color, delicacy, and beauty to outdoor life, s. Rose gardens such as abound in Persia are common in Spain, but quite lack the oriental effect they have in the older country. t. Spain, like Persia, has many rose gardens; but they quite lose the oriental effect they have in the older country. 5. Show that each topic-statement as worded in the groups above expresses a thought that is essentially different from the other thoughts expressed in the same group. 6. Reword the topic-statements in (4) whenever this seems necessary to bring the rhetorical subject into the position of the grammatical subject also. (The "rhetorical subject" is the sub- ject of the composition; the "grammatical subject" is the sub- ject of the sentence.) GENERAL PRINCIPLES 25 7. Reword these topic-statements in such way that the present grammatical subject shall be made the rhetorical sub- ject. Which of the sentences now express their original thought more clearly or accurately than they did before? 8. Choose an article from one of the current magazines. From this article, select five complete, but separate, paragraphs. State in sentence form the central thought of each paragraph separately. 9. Taking the paragraphs one by one, see if the sentences they contain can be made to fall into groups. Mark off these groups within the paragraph, and show what part of the central thought each group concerns. 10. Bring to class from four to eight clippings or extracts from magazines, newspapers, or books. The extracts should not be more than three or four paragraphs long; titles should not be included. Exchange these clippings with other members of the class. Each pupil is now to find three good titles for every extract that he has received. 11. Write the three titles of an extract (10) on the board; then read the extract to the class, and explain what makes each of your titles appropriate to the composition. After this, tell which of the three you deem best, and give the reasons for your judgment. 12. Each pupil will bring to class a composition of his own, without title. The compositions are to be read aloud, the class suggesting titles. 13-14. Keep a record of fifteen conversations that you hear or take part in. Note whether: a. The subjects are interesting. b. The subjects are unusual or are common. *c. Each speaker is familiar with his subject. '*d. Any of the speakers who appear to know less about the subject are nevertheless more interesting or con- vincing than other speakers who know more. If any are, what is the reason? 26 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION *e. The speakers talk best about things they like, or about things they dislike. If they seem to talk poorly about the things they dislike, observe whether they really know these things familiarly enough to talk about them. /. Note also how many of the conversations are about games and amusements, how many about studies and matters of culture, how many about questions of life and the best way of living it, and how many about matters that are merely personal; g. How many speakers gave you new ideas or added to your previous information; h. How many intelligently followed a continuous course of thought, and how many just "said things" as the things "popped into their heads." 15, 16, 17. As the teacher directs, write themes stating and discussing the results of your observations, especially those based on the starred directions. IV. Units of thought. Whole compositions con- sist of two or more closely related paragraphs. Each of these paragraphs represents a natural division one fraction of the thought. There must, then, be one paragraph for every important division found natu- rally in the main, or central, thought. 1 We may call these natural divisions of the thought, thought-blocks i This assertion is usually true of whole compositions such as are commonly written in high school or lower college classes (Section I, note). It is not true of larger compositions. The natural divisions of a book, for example, are usually chapters. These in turn may fall into section divisions. But the sections naturally fall into paragraphs. It is true, then, that the paragraph is the unit of thought and therefore the unit of structure the smallest complete part out of which ex- tended discourse can be built up . GENERAL PRINCIPLES 27 or units of thought. The writer who takes the trouble to find out, first, how many units his main working- thought is composed of, and second, what is the working-thought of each of these units, or thought-block divisions, will have little further trouble in writing a clear, logical composition. Note: There are units of thought in paragraphs, as there are in whole compositions. In a paragraph, the unit of thought will be expressed sometimes in a single sentence, sometimes in a group of two or more sentences. Each of these sentences or sentence-groups is a thought-Hock within its paragraph. Remem- ber this important fact. V. Connectedness of thought in the composition, All the paragraphs in a composition have to do closely with the same topic. Every paragraph, therefore, is connected with this working-thought; that is, it must help to explain it, or to prove it, or to add further necessary information about it, or otherwise to give us a better comprehension of it (Section II). More- over, all the paragraphs must deal with the working- thought in such a way that, taken together ', they give us a complete understanding of it (Sections II and note; IV). Hence the various thought-units have also a very close connection with one another. If a composition have not been planned so as to show continuously this coherence, or connectedness of thought, it proves a failure. It proves a failure, like- wise, if it have not been so expressed as to make this connectedness of the thought manifest. The usual name for this connectedness is coherence. 28 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION Note 1: It is just as important that the thought within a para- graph show connectedness as it is that the thought of a whole composition be coherent. The principle applies to sentences likewise. Note 2: Two drafts of a plan on the same topic are given below to illustrate the advantage of coherence and the general method by which it may be secured. Subject: The collection of a six-cent fare by the Valley Trolley Company. Topic-thought: The collection of a six-cent fare by the Valley Trolley Company is unjust. Working-thought: [to be supplied by the student]. Incoherent form: I. Conditions unchanged. II. Cost of the road. III. Trolley lines in the region chosen. Coherent form: I. Because conditions are unchanged and a five-cent fare was formerly enough. II. Because the cost of the road was not (as the Com- pany asserts) unusually great, for a. Though the River Bridge was unusually ex- pensive, yet 6. The general character of the right-of-way made construction unusually cheap. III. Because other trolley lines operating under equiv- alent conditions make a profit from five-cent fares. In the first outline, the incoherence appears to be in the statement rather than in the thought: (1) The divisions are not worded definitely enough to amount to assertions. (2) They are not worded fully enough to convey any clear meaning. (3) They are not so worded as to show any connection between them and the topic-statement. (4) They do not show that they have any logical connection one with another. On the contrary, the second outline is coherently expressed throughout: (1) Each division is put as an assertion. (2) Each division is so fully expressed that the exact thought it embodies is made plain. (3) Each division is so GENERAL PRINCIPLES 29 worded as to show the connection between it and the main topic-statement. (4) Each division is plainly shown to have a logical connection with the other divisions. A rewording seems, therefore, to have been all that was needed to give coherence to this plan. But a moment's reflection will convince one that some- thing more than a mere rewording has taken place in the making of the second outline. The thought had to be cleared up and made definite before it could be definitely stated, and the connectedness of each part with all the rest had to be clearly realized before it could be clearly shown. Really t then, the incoherence of the first outline was the result of jumbled, blurred, confused thought; and the coherence of the second was the result of well-ordered, clear-minded thinking. True, the in- coherence of the former was increased because a slovenly manner of thinking was continued in a lazy manner of expression; but laziness and slovenliness of mind are merely other names for incoherence. Note 3 : The following paragraph lacks connectedness of lan- guage. Rewrite it carefully, so that it shall clearly show forth the coherence of the thought. In some villages they [1] used to have cent schools [2]. If the child lost or forgot his cent, there was much trouble [3] for him. When he went back [4], he got scolded there as well as at school [5]. One cent was carried every day [6]. The littlest children went [6-7], and this [8] paid their tuition [6]. The modern kindergarten [9] would have seemed foolish to them [1]. They didn't send children to school to play [10], but to work [10]. They [1] had to do all sorts of household work. 1. Who? Whom? 2. What were cent schools? What was the cent for? 3. What kind of trouble? Exactly what happened to him? 4. Back where? How did he come to go there? When? 5. Is the order right? Where was he first scolded? 6. Does this fact stand in the right part of the paragraph? Does the sentence clearly express the meaning? Recast it. 7. Which does this clause mean: "even the littlest" or "only the littlest"? 8. What? 9. The three closing sentences form a new division, or thought- block. Is the connection between this and the preceding part of the paragraph clear? 10. How are these ideas connected with the idea of "kinder- garten" and "cent school"? 30 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION 4-5. EXERCISES ON SECTIONS IV-V 1, 2, 3. Select three long paragraphs, and endeavor to break them up into smaller thought-blocks, or paragraphs. The paragraphs found in the editorial pages of The Outlook are suited to this exercise, but examples should be sought elsewhere too; for instance, in Green's " Short History of the English Peo- ple," in lesson and reading books, reviews, magazines, and newspapers. Mark the thought-blocks. 4, 5, 6. Taking a chapter of the "authorized version" of the Bible (the teacher will assign one), group the verses it contains into paragraphs, each paragraph to include a definite part of the contents of the chapter. Among the chapters that may be so used are: Gen. i, vii.; Exod. x.; Joshua i, ii.; Ruth i, ii.; i Kings xvii; ii Chron. ix, xxxii; Jere. lii; Math, xxvii; Mark xi; Luke ii (as far as verse 20), xv; Acts xxvi, xxvii; Rev. xxi. Do the same with an editorial article from one of Mr. Hearst's papers (The Boston American, The New York American or Journal, The Chicago Examiner, or the San Francisco Examiner) . 7. In the light of Section IV, review the exercises that you did under set 2, questions 3 and 4, noting the function of each of the paragraphs as a thought-unit. 8. Review as in (7) : note the connection of the thought-blocks with (a) the topic, and (6) one another. 9. Taking one of the selections made in accordance with (1) above, make a coherent outline like the coherent outline given in Section V, note 2. 10-14. State topics as follows (it is permissible to limit the subjects further), upon the subjects here listed: a. Six topics of three divisions each. b. Six topics of four divisions each. Subjects: Mush; milking cows; studying history; taking a kodak picture; school concerts; psychology; color-combinations in girls' costumes; the neatness in dress shown by boys; shoot- ing ducks; loading shot-gun shells; frying beef-steak; dropping (poaching) eggs; cooking in camp; camp-life; street cleaners; GENERAL PRINCIPLES 31 mules for all-round work; motormen; scissors needed in home sewing; pictures that are suitable for a girl's room; the needed qualities in a school dress; appropriate hair ribbons; sweaters for school wear; kinds of skates; back-yard garden crops; rowdy boys; boisterous girls; running away from home; "jumping" trains; homemade " wireless " outfits; " sissy " boys; cultivating beans (strawberries, blackberries, sweet corn or roasting ears, etc.); cooking with paper bags; rag carpets; canoe models; desk outfits for high school students; points to consider in buying a farm horse (milk cow, pig, pony, etc.); fudge as a dissipation; afternoon newspapers; farm papers; gum-chewing as athletic exercise. 15. Return to the paragraphs selected under questions 1, 2, 3. First, underscore every expression that serves as a connection between one thought-group and another. Second, mark the places where no such connective expressions are used. Third, determine in these instances what if anything gives the impres- sion of connectedness between the units of thought. 16. Using colored pencil or some bright ink, insert connect- ing expressions (words, phrases, etc.), between the units of thought in the paragraphs you built up out of the Bible verses in questions 4, 5, 6; do the same in the paragraphs built up from the editorial article. 17-22. Write paragraphs of 150 or 200 words upon the three- division topics stated in questions 10-14. 23-25. Make detailed outlines (Section V, note 2) for papers of four paragraphs each upon any three of the four-division topics stated in questions 10-14. 26. Mark in colored ink or pencil the division-points between the units of thought in the paragraphs called for in questions 17-22. If the connection is not plain already, insert words or phrases enough at these points to make it plain. 27. State the working-thought that each paragraph in each of the compositions called for by questions 23-25 will have. 28-33. Write out the compositions that you have laid the foundations for in questions 23-25 and 27. 32 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION VI. Emphasizing the important thoughts. Some thoughts in a composition are more important than others; and common sense directs us to lay more stress on the more important than on the less important. We can emphasize thoughts either (a) by writing about them more fully (proportion), or (6) by putting them very near the beginning or the end of the composition, where they will be the first or the last to have atten- tion (massing, or grouping). The end is the position of greater emphasis. The two methods may be combined. Note 1 : For further development of this principle, see XXVII, notes 1, 2, 3; XXVIII, notes 1, 2; and especially XXIX and XXXVI, note 3. Note 2: In newspaper reports, or " stories," the gist of the article nearly always comes at the very first. The reason is, that newspaper writing is a highly specialized form of composi- tion, in which, for the sake of immediate interest and of great quickness of understanding, the principle of emphasis is applied in a special way to accomplish a special purpose. [The accepted theory is stated in Section VI that the end is the position of greater importance. But this theory is undergoing question. It is safe to say that most professional writers, when writing mainly to give information, follow the news-writer's rule that stated in this note.] 6. EXERCISES ON SECTION VI. 1. Examine five paragraphs of one of Macaulay's essays, making an outline of each paragraph to show the main divisions of the thought that it contains. Then note the amount of space given to each division. 2. Continuing the examination of the Macaulay paragraphs, seek and explain the reason for the varying space emphasis given the different thought divisions. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 33 3, 4. With five paragraphs of Lamb's "South Sea House," or "Mackery End," do as directed in questions 1-2. 5. Examine the beginning and the end of twenty paragraphs from Macaulay. In how many do you find the chief thought, or one of the chief thoughts, of the paragraphs, at the beginning or very near it? Near the end? 6. Rewrite five of the paragraphs, placing these thoughts in less prominent positions; can their place thus be changed with- out causing a decrease in their importance? 7. Try similar experiments with ten paragraphs from Lamb; with ten from a novel (for instance, The Master of Ballan- trae) . 8. From each of three newspapers clip two editorial articles. Let one from each paper consist of a single paragraph, and the other of several paragraphs at least three. Study these for space-emphasis as directed in (1) and (2) above, and for place emphasis as directed in (5) and (6). 9. Write a long paragraph upon " Three books I should like to read: The Bible, The Iliad, and Nicholas Nickleby." Assign space to each division in proportion to its importance. Follow the order here used. 10. Write another long paragraph; choose your own sub- ject; pay particular attention to space-emphasis. 11. Using the topic stated in question 9, but reconstructing it to indicate the required order, write a paragraph in which you wholly disregard space-emphasis for the most important book, and produce the sense of its importance by relying solely on place-emphasis. (Observe that place-emphasis can be aided by using quick, forceful, concrete, vivid words and sentences.) 12. Return to questions 17-22, set 4-5. Study three of these paragraphs to see if space-emphasis were well managed. Reconstruct as needed. 13. Rewrite the remaining three of these paragraphs (ques- tions 17-22, set 4-5), with the especial aim of emphasizing by position (place-emphasis). 34 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION VII. Paragraphs really whole compositions. We have seen already that the general principles applicable in the case of whole compositions apply equally in the case of paragraphs. This would not be if there were any fundamental difference between the whole composi- tion and the paragraph. But there is no fundamental difference. The whole composition is theoretically longer than the paragraph, and therefore consists of two or more paragraphs; that is all. In turn, each of the paragraphs is in the same way likely to consist of two or more groups of sentences (Sections I; IV and note). It is easy to prove this conclusively. Examine three or four long paragraphs to discover the thought-blocks (sentences or sentence-groups dealing with distinct parts of the thought), and set off each of these blocks by itself. Each block will then appear as a distinct paragraph, and the original paragraph will appear as a whole composition. Note: As the paragraph is not fundamentally different from the whole composition, it will have- as the whole composition has a topic and a working-thought developed from that topic. The working-thought is therefore always to be stated in papers of a single paragraph, as in longer compositions. (See Section VIII and notes for directions.) 7. EXEKCISES ON SECTION VII. 1-2. Using this outline, write a whole composition consisting of three long paragraphs: Topic-thought: Squirrels, birds, and dogs make desirable pets. Paragraph 1 : Squirrels as desirable pets. Paragraph 2: Birds as desirable pets. Paragraph 3: Dogs as desirable pets. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 35 3. Reduce this composition to a single paragraph without sacrificing any of the essential fact. Now examine the new paragraph. Does it contain three groups of sentences one about squirrels, one about birds, and one about dogs, as pets? (Disregard sentences that are used merely by way of introduc- tion or conclusion.) 4. Treat an editorial article of medium length as directed in question 3. 5. Do the same with passages of several paragraphs each from your textbooks in history, science, literature, etc. 6. Write a paragraph, based on Section VII and the accom- panying exercises, to prove that paragraphs are short whole compositions. 7. Throw together all the paragraph titles in a chapter of a history or other textbook, turning them into sentences and providing connection. Do they produce a composition? B. TOPIC AND WORKING-THOUGHT VIII. Stating the working-thought. The first step in building up a composition is that of settling upon a topic the one particular thing that is to be definitely expressed about the general subject. The second step is that of stating this topic more precisely and in more detail, so that it will serve as a working- thought (compare III and notes; XII and notes). Note 1: Great care is necessary in developing the working- thought from the topic. Observe carefully these principles; namely, Note 2: The working-thought is the topic thought stated very fully and precisely. It takes the form of a declarative sentence, and the grammatical subject of this sentence is the name of the logical subject with which the composition deals. Example: 36 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION Subject (Logical and Topic thought Working-thought Grammatical) Mohammed l[Mohammed] 2[was a Mohammed. was a fanatic, fanatic] 3[as is shown by] 4[his religious mania,] 5[his contempt for law] 6[and his extreme, con- tradictory traits of char- acter.] Note 3: The working-thought definitely asserts some particular fact or facts about the logical subject. The statement of these particular facts will appear in the predicate of this declarative sentence. See example above. Note 4: Each of the leading ideas and thoughts that the paragraph is to contain will appear in the sentence; it may be indicated by (l) a word, (2) a phrase, or (3) a clause. In the example under note 2, we find the word " Mohammed," the phrase " was a fanatic/' and the clause " as [this] is shown by," etc. Note 5: The leading ideas and thoughts mentioned in note 4 will, in the sentence, appear in the order that they are to have in the composition. Compare Section X. Note 6: Observe that the precise, definite working-thought is an unfailing guide (1) to the contents and (2) to the order of the most important thought-blocks in the composition. Note 7: Observe this: It is always the name of the logical sub- ject of the thing in general about which we are thinking that will be the subject of our working-thought. Observe too: There may be many sentences that embody the same thought, yet do not express it in the form of a topic thought. Remember that for our purposes, such sentences cannot safely be used as the foundation of the working-thought sentence. Example: In the sentence, "Some persons read; some merely run the eye over words," the logical subject is "true reading." The sentence clearly embodies a topic thought to the effect that GENERAL PRINCIPLES 37 "true reading implies close attention and deep thinking;" but it does not turn this thought into a topic thought. Therefore, it is not in correct form to use as the foundation of a working- thought sentence. Note 8: The topics and working-thoughts that are easiest to state are those requiring only to be proved. The next easiest are those calling for explanation. The hardest are those that call for description and narration. The following topic-state- ments will show in a general way how different kinds of topics can be stated. (Observe that these are topic thoughts, not working-thoughts; turn them into working-thoughts by making each one more precise and complete.) Subject: College football. Topics that call for proof. 1. College football is in danger from professionalism. 2. College football is an important influence in college education. 3. College football does not benefit most students enough to compensate them for the time it consumes. Topics that call for explanation. 4. College football is played thus: 5. College football may be harmful in these ways; namely, 6. College football is interesting because of its appeal to our primitive love of physical combat. (This is probably complete enough to serve as a working- thought. In treating it, one would first explain what he means by this love; then he would explain how football appeals to it. See XXXIX, note 1.) Topics that call for description or narration. The subject, college football, is too general to permit of descrip- tion or narration. Let us, therefore, find a narrower form of sub- ject, such as A college football game, or The football game; then, a narrower form of this second subject, such as The appearance presented by the game. 1 Observe that a very concrete or a very 1 Or the football game, in the appearance it presented. 38 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION specific thing is best as a subject for description or narration, because with such a subject the writer can determine more easily what he needs to fix attention upon. 7. The appearances presented by the football game were: [mention the leading appearances that you wish to describe the bleachers, the field, the grouped or moving teams, etc.]. 8. The exciting plays in the game were those here re- counted: namely, [complete by enumerating them.] 9. The course of the football game, in its important plays, was: [complete by outlining the game.] Descriptive or narrative topics about other subjects. 10. The appearance of the college campus, (namely, [ask yourself just what that appearance is]) results from these especially noteworthy things: [follow with men- tion of the aspects that you wish to present.] 11. [Fuller example.] The appearance beauty of the college campus lies in (a) symmetry of outline, (6) ex- tensive spaces varied in detail, and (c) the picturesque- ness of several of the buildings and their surroundings. [Observe that this working-thought provides com- pletely for a description that is intended to emphasize the beauty of the campus; for if some other purpose were in mind, a different statement would be needed. Under (a) would be mentioned the shape and size of the campus; under (6) the broad expanses of meadow, lawn, and yard, varied by slopes, walks, pond, trees, etc.; and under (c) the more picturesque buildings, with the surroundings that add to this picture-quality, such as North College, a little " fancy" in style, al- most hidden among the fine trees.] 12. John's appearance was repulsive on account of [com- plete]. 13. The decisive encounter at Waterloo (the charge of the Old Guard) was made up of the incidents here re- counted; namely, GENERAL PRINCIPLES 39 Note 9: The examples of topic-statement in note 8 show that in many cases the statement mil virtually consist of a formula, to complete which one has only to determine what are the natural divisions, or leading parts, of his working-thought, and to include these in the statement itself. Fuller develop- ment of this principle will be found in Sections IX-XXIV, notes. Note 10: The working-thought as stated will not necessarily appear in the composition itself. This working-thought, let the writer remember, exists to express formally for him a guiding assertion, or thought, and is to be used by him mainly for his CONVENIENCE and SAFETY. It should on this account be as clear, as precise, and as matter-of-fact, as it can be made. But to employ so mechanical a form in the completed composition would be to show oneself sadly lacking in literary resourcefulness. Often a little consideration will discover easier and more liter- ary forms of expression that are more suitable for the finished paper. For a suggestion, study the sentences in the example, note 7. Note 11: Sometimes a formal phrasing even of the topic thought is not included in the composition. At other times, the topic thought is presented with scrupulous fulness and care. Whether a formal statement of the topic be included, however, or whether it be omitted, the reader must be able surely to gather this thought from the composition itself. There is no rule for in- cluding or omitting this statement; the writer's judgment and experience must guide him. But the writer who is inexperienced will do well to observe the following hint: When in doubt, include a statement of the topic thought. Note 12: The position to be given the formal statement of the topic thought when this statement is included, must likewise be determined by the writer. The topic-statement may come at the beginning or at the end, or at some intermediate place in the paragraph. The inexperienced writer will, however, do well to study carefully, at this time, Sections VI, XXVII, and XXVIII, with their notes. 40 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION Note 13 : Remember that the form in which the working-thought, the topic, and even the subject itself, is stated, will vary according to the purpose which the writer has in mind. Success depends on deciding exactly what one wishes to write about, and exactly what he wishes to say about it. Note 14: As preliminary exercises, work out the following directions: a. Make for yourself a list of ten working-thoughts that you judge will require but one paragraph each for development. b. Make a list of ten working-thoughts that you judge will need at least two paragraphs for development. Show how your statement indicates this fact. c. Make another list, stating working-thoughts that will require four or more paragraphs. Show how this need is indicated by your statement. 8. EXERCISES ON SECTION VIII This set of exercises is based on set 3, to which reference should be made. 1. Develop all the subjects and topics in question 1, set 3, into working-thoughts. 2. Point out how each of these working-thoughts differs from the topic out of which it was developed; how each of these topics differs from the subject out of which it was developed. 3. Write a paragraph, based upon Sections III and VIII and questions 1 and 2, set 8, explaining the nature and purpose of the working-thought in writing. 4. Does division A of question 4, set 3, consist of topic- statements or of working-thoughts? Support your position with arguments. 5-8. Turn the topic-statements of divisions B, C, D, E, set 3, question 4, into working-thoughts. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 41 9. Write out what you think to have been the working- thought of the magazine paragraphs chosen under question 9, set 3. 10. Each student will write in or bring to class, as may be directed, an original paragraph. The paragraphs will be read to the class, each member of the class writing down what he thinks is its working-thought. The author will then write on the black-board the working-thought he used. Discussion and criticism may follow. 11. Select from a history, reader, or other book five para- graphs. State the working-thought of each; mark off the groups into which its sentences fall, as directed in set 3, question 9. 12. Do the same with five other paragraphs. 13. State a working-thought having two divisions, and write a paragraph on it. After the paragraph is completed, mark off the two sentence-groups that it contains. 14. Repeat the exercise, giving the working-thought three divisions. 15. State a two-division working-thought, each division of which shall itself have two divisions. Write a para- graph on this working-thought, and mark off in it the two main sentence-groups and the two subordinate sentence-groups contained in each main part. 16. "Benjamin Bastings, although [he was] a notorious infidel, was an exceedingly kind-hearted and gener- ously philanthropic man." About this working- thought, answer these questions: (a) How many thought-blocks would a paragraph built up on it con- tain? (6) What would they be? (c) Would all of them appear in some way as parts of the predicate? (d) Would any of them appear in a subordinate con- struction (grammatical division) of the sentence? (e) Would this fact at all interfere with the usefulness of the part so subordinated as a division of the work- ing-thought? 42 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION 17. Answer the same questions about the working-thought when stated in this different form: " Benjamin Bast- ings, who was a notorious infidel, was an exceedingly kindhearted and generously philanthropic man. " In addition, answer these questions also: (/) Does the clause "who was," etc., form part of the predicate or part of the subject, as the working-thought is here stated? (/ the divisions are stated t others being implied, though not stated. Wrong: II. His character. A. Cause of peculiarities. (See also note 1.) Right: II. His character. A. Moodiness. B. Inclination to dissipation. C. Dislike of clergymen. D. Cause of these peculiarities. Second right form: II. His character. A. Its peculiarities. 1. Moodiness. 2. Inclination to dissipation. 3. Dislike of cjergymen. B. Cause of its peculiarities. Third right form: II. Peculiarities of his character. A. Moodiness. B. Inclination to dissipation. C. Dislike of clergymen. III. Cause of these peculiarities. 34. FOR EXERCISES ON SECTION XXXIV, SEE EXERCISES FOLLOWING XXXVI XXXV. Making subdivisions equal main divisions. In a composition that has not been thought out clearly, subdivisions are likely to appear as main divisions. Bear in mind this: The main headings must stand for the larger blocks of thought that together build up the composition. Parts of the thought that are 110 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION too small in themselves to serve as thought-blocks must therefore be stated as subheadings. The main thought- blocks are divisions of the working-thought. Note 1: In many cases, a more explicit statement of the head thought will prevent the writer from making a subthought into a main thought. Wrong division: III. Evils of cribbing. A. Unjust to honest students. B. Unfair to the school. IV. Injurious to the student's own character. Right division: III. Evils of cribbing (or, three evils of cribbing). A. Unjust to honest students. B. Unfair to the school. C. Injurious to the student's own character. Had the head thought been stated explicitly thus: "The evils of cribbing are three, namely" it is unlikely that the third evil would have been mentioned in a main heading when it so manifestly belongs in a subheading. " Three evils of cribbing " is explicit and would prevent the error. Note 2 : Sometimes a heading or a subheading will be so broadly stated that it is equivalent to the topic , or indeed to the subject, of the composition. Thus: Subject: Building our log cabin. Topic thought: The building of our log cabin involved procedure as follows: Wrong (the fault is in heading IV) : I. Introductory: The how and the why of our cabin. II. Selecting a site. III. Getting materials. IV. Building the cabin (identical with subject). PLANNING THE COMPOSITION 111 Right: I-III. (as before). IV. Preparing the materials. V. Raising the cabin. VI. Finishing the cabin. Clearly IV, V, and VI, as last given, are all included in IV of the " wrong" example. Indeed, this is so broadly worded that it is equivalent to the subject itself; that is, what should be a portion of the working-thought is so stated that it includes as much as the topic itself includes. Compare XXXIV, note 2. 35. FOR EXERCISES ON SECTION XXXV, SEE EXERCISES FOLLOWING XXXVI XXXVI. Making main divisions into subdivisions. The stating of main headings as if they were sub- headings is likewise a common fault in loosely thought out plans (compare XXXV). Note 1: An inspection of the following plan shows that it concerns " Experiences on a trip to New York," and that five headings will indicate all the matters of interest that make up the day's experiences. But the plan contains only three main headings. Wrong: I. The start from home. II. Arrival at Grand Central station. 1. Walk to department store. a. Purchases at the store (see also XXXIV and XXXVII). III. Return home. Right: I. The start from home. II. Arrival at Grand Central station. 112 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION III. The walk to the department store. IV. Purchases at the store. V. The return home. Numbers III, IV, and V are no part of II, though the wrong plan makes them subdivisions under it. Second right form: I. The start from home. II. Experiences in New York. A. Arrival at Grand Central station. B. The walk to the department store. C. Purchases at the store. III. The return home. Note 2: The form of plan, given last above, may seem to disregard what was said in IV (and also in XXXV); namely, that each main heading in the plan represents a thought-block in the composition. In reality, however, it does not do so. Division II in this plan represents^ not a single thought-block, but a group of thought-blocks; hence A, B, and C represent so many paragraphs, just as divisions II, III, and IV do in the first "right" form of the plan. Note 3: The student will do well now to begin to develop his sense of proportion in composition (see VI). The "second right plan" above will impress on him visually this principle: The matters of greatest interest deserve most space; those of less interest deserve less space. Clearly I and III of the plan are of somewhat less interest than II; the main interest of the narrative lies in the latter. For this reason, II should have more space than either I or III. A glance at the plan here stated would show this: one paragraph is needed for division I, and one for division III; but for division II three paragraphs are needed. These paragraphs will of course vary in length, yet we can roughly estimate that division II (or division II, III, and IV, in the preceding plan) will require three-fifths of our space and the other two divisions two-fifths of it. PLANNING THE COMPOSITION 113 34-36. EXERCISES ON SECTIONS XXXIV, XXXV, XXXVI 1. Examine all your outlines and correct any false divisions that you discover. 2, 3, 4, 5. State additional topics and develop plans, or out- lines, for them. 6-7. Study Section XXXVI, notes 2-3 anew, and rebuild two of the plans prepared under 2-5 above, making them show the relative space importance of the divisions (compare note 1, " second right form"). 8-10. Construct entirely new outlines on some topics of your own choosing, paying strict attention to indication of propor- tion. XXXVII. Subdivisions that do not support their headings. In every composition the first requisite is unity. This is to be secured by making every thought-block of the composition directly support the working-thought in some important part (see II and V). But there must also be unity within the paragraph; hence every subheading must as clearly sup- port its main heading as this main heading must sup- port the topic heading. Note 1: An excellent example of the subdivision that has nothing to do with its heading will be found in XXXVI, note 1, " Wrong," in which subdivisions I and A have nothing to do with the division under which they are placed. Another exam- ple follows (italicized parts) : Subject: Leading matters of interest concerning a town familiar to the writer. Topic thought: The leading matters of interest concerning the town of are : Working-thought: [to be stated.] 114 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION Wrong: I. Its situation. A. Inland (or otherwise). B. Among the mountains (or on the plains). C. Size and appearance. II. Its neighboring towns. A. . B. - . C. . D. Excellent trolley service. III. Its industries. Etc. Right: I. Its situation. A. Inland; location in state and section. B. Among the mountains; natural scenery. C. On steam and trolley lines; ready communication 1. With cities near by. , 2. With remoter parts of the country. II. Its size and appearance. A. - . B. . 1. 2. III. Its industries. Etc. Note 2: The errors in unity in the " Wrong' 7 plan of note 1 are these: I. C. The size and appearance of the town have noth- ing to do with its situation. II. We are not discussing the neighboring towns; the insertion of this heading in any but a very sub- ordinate position is a gross violation of the principle of unity (it may be inserted as it is in the "right" plan, I. C. 1, where its thought appears in logical connection with more important ones). PLANNING THE COMPOSITION 115 II. D. The excellence of the town's trolley service can not logically be explained in a paragraph that con- cerns, not the town, but the neighboring towns. But that this is near other important towns and has transportation lines that give easy communication with these places may be an important fact about its situation; if so, this fact would be included (as it is in the "right" plan) under " Situation." Note 3: In the arrangement of the divisions under the "right" plan, one might find it better to put II in place of I and I in place of II. If this change were made, it would be made in order to secure a more interesting and less matter-of-fact beginning (see XXVII, note 2). 37. EXERCISES ON SECTION XXXVII. 1, 2, 3, 4. Test various plans already prepared, such as those under sets 34-36, questions 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 above. Does each subheading support the heading under which it stands? (Note : First test all the headings numbered I, II, etc.; then all the A, B, C headings under I, then all those under II, etc.; then all the 1, 2, 3 headings under A, then all those under B, etc.) 5. Plan a paper about your own town, following the general plan suggested by the outline in note 1. 6. In a gazetteer, encyclopedia, or similar publication, find the article that describes your own town. Make an analytical outline of the article. If the article is short, choose one that describes a larger city in your county or state. 7-9. Prepare detailed outlines on topics assigned by the instructor from exercises, sets 14-24. Place these outlines on the black-board, or submit them to classmates for testing and criticizing. III. TESTING THE COMPLETED COMPOSI- TION XXXVIII. Filling out the plan. With his com- pleted plan before him, the student should stop to consider what steps he has taken toward completing the composition itself. He has: A. Decided upon something of interest for his subject. B. Determined the one definite principal thought that he wishes to express about this subject (topic thought). C. Decided what leading things he must say in order to produce the result he wishes his composition to pro- duce (i.e., conceived fully the working-thought and selected his working material D. Decided what will be the best order in which to say these things, and made out the head divisions of his plan accordingly. E. Determined (finally) what things of less importance he must say in order to make clear each of these headings in its turn, and inserted these as subheadings under the main divisions (provided for filling in and ampli- fying). What remains to do is, therefore, to write out the composition from the plan. This is called filling out, or amplifying the plan. If we think of the latter as a skeleton outline, we may say that in filling it out we are merely giving body to the skeleton. A com- pleted composition has much the same relation to its plan as the human body has to its skeleton. The 116 TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 117 skeleton of bones is a framework without which the graceful, beautiful body could not exist, and the skeleton outline of a composition represents a frame- work of thought without which the graceful, beautiful composition could not exist; and just as the well-built human body is admirable and beautiful, so is the well- built composition admirable and beautiful. With this realization in mind, let the writer now turn his plan into a composition by filling out, as attractively and as effectively as he can, the skeleton of his thought. 38. EXERCISES ON SECTION XXXVIII 1. Closely examine together the Macaulay paragraphs and the outlines of them that you prepared in set 6, questions 1-2. Observe especially how the paragraphs fill out, or amplify, the plan, and give body to the thought. Do the same with the Lamb paragraphs in set 6, questions 3-4. 2. Amplify (fill out) two of the plans prepared in accordance with set 33, 1-4. 3. Do the same with two of the plans called for by set 33, questions 5-6. 4. Do the same with two of the plans called for by set 33, questions 7-9. 5. Test two of these completed themes according to set 2, question 2. 6. Same as in question 5. 7. Same, testing according to set 2, question 4. 8. Same: according to set 27, question 6. 9. Same: according to set 27, question 1. 10. Same: according to set 27, question 3. 11-14. Amplify several of the outlines prepared under set 34-36, questions 2-5. 15. Amplify the outline prepared in accordance with set 33, question 15. 118 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION XXXIX. Testing the composition for unity. If there be unity in the plan, there should be unity in the completed composition. But nevertheless unity is not always present. Therefore the composition must itself be tested for this indispensable quality. Unity may be lacking (a) because the plan itself was not really unified, or (&) because the writer did not follow his plan, or (c) because through unskilful use of language he failed to show that he had a well-considered plan. Note 1: In a composition that has been outlined in advance and yet seems to lack unity, the fault is likely to lie in the un- skilful use of language. First, therefore, such a composition should be tested for directness and clearness of expression. Taking each thought-block (paragraph or sentence-group) by itself, make sure that it puts forth fully, clearly, and precisely THAT PART of the main thought which it is intended to develop. Make sure, too, that it is so worded that the reader cannot fail to see with what part of the working-thought it is concerned (see V and note). Example: Working-thought (uncompleted): The interest of football lies in three things, namely : I. The fact that it is a stirring physical encounter. Poor (we are not led to see what the assertions in the completed paper have to do with this heading): In the early days men liked to fight. Much of their enjoyment lay in hard and even brutal encounters. They would wound and even kill one another, or have others do so, for the sake of sport. So we all like football. Right (we are made to see clearly how the facts advanced bear on this one part of the topic thought): Football interests nearly everyone, and it does so first of all because it is stirring physical encounter. We like to see men come together in a hard bodily contest; and we have always liked it. In primitive TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 119 times, men fought hotly and brutally for the love of fighting, and their fellows gathered round to watch them for the same reason. The jousts of chivalry owed much of their popularity to this one thing; the same thing gives interest to bull fights and shall we say it? to dog fights. The same pleasure in rude physical encounter keeps boxing and prize fighting alive. We cannot help being stirred when we see resolute men meeting one another grimly and forcibly in personal contest; it heats our own fighting blood; it arouses in us the love of physical en- counter. For this reason, football excites us. It is the one form of sport that enables us unblushingly to indulge our love of physical combat. Note 2: If the thought-blocks, as individual wholes, prove to have each a clear relation to the working-thought, there may yet be, within one or more of them, material that reveals no essential connection with the central thought of the individual paragraph. Should this be the case, recast the vague or obscure part until it shows clearly what it means and how it bears on the paragraph topic. The example under note 1 will serve to illustrate the fault here mentioned. Note 3: If the composition still seem to lack unity, it prob- ably does not adhere to its plan. This departure will usually be discovered in the course of the examination directed under note 1. The remedy is, to rewrite the composition so that it shall closely follow the outline. Note 4: If even yet unity be lacking, the fault is in the plan itself. If this be the case, the working-thought must be analyzed anew until all errors in arrangement, in the admission or rejec- tion of thought-blocks, or in other of the logical or thought processes, be corrected, and the plan revised accordingly. 39. EXERCISES ON SECTION XXXIX. 1-5. Carefully examine five of the completed papers called for under set 38, testing each of the thought-blocks in each paper to see if it follow the plan. Write a theme stating what you discover. 120 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION 6-10. Same: Test the language to see if it adequately and clearly conveys the thought that was intended. Write a para- graph stating the result of your examination. 11-15. Same: Test the contents of the individual paragraphs for unity. Write a paper stating the result .of your exami- nation. 16. Carefully test the plan and completed theme of a class- mate for unity. Go over his work with him, pointing out such violations of unity as you detect, and the means of improving the paper. 17-18. The same as (16). XL. Testing for unity; the lost point of view. Young writers frequently lose the point of view, sometimes in making the plan and sometimes in ampli- fying the plan into the composition. There can be no unity unless the point of view be maintained. Note 1 : The point of view is the position the writer takes from which to regard his subject. It may be either physical or mental. In a composition descriptive of "The town seen from the north windows of the University library, " the point of view is physical (observe how carefully precise the statement of it is made). A mental point of view is indicated by each of the following phrases (subjects): "Unwholesome conditions in sweatshops," "A ludicrous performance by the school board." The wording of these phrases indicates the mood of the writer, or the attitude of mind he will show in discussing his subject. In writing about the sweatshops, he will all the time regard them as unwholesome, thus assuming an attitude of condemnation; and in writing about the school board, he will regard the board as guilty of some ludicrous action, maintaining toward it, therefore, the mood of ridicule or derision. That is, the object has made a definite impression on him, and this impression he now tries to produce in turn on the reader. TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 121 These assertions being so, it is plain that, in the description of the town, the writer must write of nothing that cannot be seen from the north windows of the library; in the sweatshop paper, he must confine himself to matters that are naturally associated with the unwholesomeness of the sweatshops and that, therefore, connect themselves readily with a condemnation of these places; and in the school-board paper, he must take care to say nothing that will not agree with the mood of satire and derision. In keeping the position or the mood with which he began, the writer is maintaining the point of view and preserving unity. Note 2: A common reason for lack of unity is the attempt to combine a general account of a thing with some particular account of it to do which requires much skill, because it re- quires that two points of view be maintained. For example, to write in one composition about "Boat trips to Province- town," and "The boat trip I made to Provincetown, " is to get into confusion immediately through attempting to present the subject as seen from two points of view at once. In the para- graph that follows, the italicized part has to do with "The trip that I made," the rest has to do with "Trips that people (in general) make." Poor (two points of view) : Every day through the summer a steamer makes the round trip from Boston to Provincetown. / found myself at the wharf one Saturday morning with three dollars in my pocket and nothing to do, and I boarded the vessel. The fare is $1.00 for the round trip, and the time each way about four hours, with a two-hour stop in Provincetown. Very unwisely (as it turned out) I took a chair forward, under the edge of the upper deck. As the boat works down the thirteen miles of channel before Minot's Light is passed and the open water of the bay is reached, the pas- sengers have an opportunity to see some very interesting things. / was sitting, etc. Better (for personal narrative): I found myself one Saturday morning on the Boston waterfront, with three dollars in my 122 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION pocket and the day before me. A trim, slim steamer was lying at the wharf, above which hung the sign, " Steamer for Provincetown. " 11 What's the round-trip fare?" I asked. "One dollar." "How long does it take?" "Leave here at ten, get back about seven." Provided with a ticket, I hunted out a place well forward. ... As the boat worked through the thirteen miles of channel. ... I found myself deeply interested in what we passed. First, etc. Better (for account of the trips in general) : Exclude all refer- ence to personal experiences; tell only what are the customary sights and incidents of the trip. The omission of the italicized parts in the "Poor" example will turn that paragraph into one of this impersonal type. Note 3: If, keeping strictly in mind the point of view he has assumed, a writer perceives that it is quite possible and natural for him to be in possession of the necessary injormation about the facts that he wishes to report, he may then embody a statement of these facts in his composition. If, however, he perceives that still keeping his point of view it is either (i) impossible or (ii) unnatural for him to be in possession of this information, he must not try to report the facts. 1 Note 4: In descriptions of physical objects, one may not men- tion anything that would not be visible from his chosen standing- point. For instance, in describing the New York customs house as seen from the front, such information as this is not admissible (one cannot see the rear from the front) : 1 The rule is here stated absolutely. The skilled writer will be able to make the necessary exceptions. There will be cases in which the author does, through some chance, possess the necessary infor- mation. To use it convincingly, however, he will almost always find himself compelled to tell how he came by it; see note 7. This is likely to clog his story and lessen its interest through the introduction of details but remotely connected with his topic. TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 123 "The rear of the building shows little ornamentation. It rises above a narrow street, across which one of the earlier type of 'sky-scrapers' rears itself, a barrier to the view." If one wish to describe more than one side of a building, he must in his plan provide for a succession of viewpoints front, sides, back, etc. But even then he must, so long as he is using any one of these viewpoints, be exceedingly careful how he mentions anything except what is visible from that one position. Note 5: We can now see why false beginnings (XXVII and note 2) and false endings (XXVIII and notes) interfere with unity; they introduce matter that does not constitute an essential part of the topic thought and is therefore not necessarily within the writer's knowledge. For this reason, too, digressions destroy unity. One usually digresses because interesting, yet irrelevant, thoughts are suggested to him by what he is writing; and he lets himself be drawn into writing about these instead of keeping on with the development of his central, or topic, thought. Example: Topic thought: My hardest study is history. Working-thought: [to be stated.] Poor: My hardest study is history. I try and "try, try again" to master it, but I cannot. In fact, I cannot find any interest in it. Chemistry is always interesting. I can put things together in chemistry and something happens, so that there is always interest. Once when I was just beginning chemistry / put saltpeter and sulphur together in a big mortar and pounded them. There was a panic in the laboratory, and I had to pay twenty-five dollars for damage. I like experimenting even when I get blown up. Hence I think that chemistry is far more interesting than history. This paragraph is not uninteresting, but it lacks unity. After the third sentence, it ceases to develop its topic, and digresses. All the italicized part is digression. The writer, having chanced to mention chemistry, is led quite away from his topic thought. 124 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION As a result, he states in the closing sentence a topic thought wholly different from the topic with which he began. (With a working-thought, would digression have been likely?) Note 6: In narrative, regard to viewpoint forbids the reporting of what the narrator has no manifest means of knowing, as is the case in the example that follows (italicized part) : Wrong: Round the point half a mile away, Jo saw Harry and Kate emerge on their ponies. They were talking excitedly. 11 You know it's so, Harry, }} Kate was saying. In this, it appears that Jo, although half a mile distant, could not only see that Harry and Kate were talking excitedly, but even could tell what they were saying. This would be impossible; but a proper management of viewpoint would enable the writer to report these facts without absurdity. Right: Round the point half a mile away, Jo saw Harry and Kate emerge on their ponies. Had he possessed a field-glass, he would have seen that they were talking excitedly. They were in fact speaking about him. [Observe how the shift is made. Whose is the viewpoint in this paragraph?] " You know it's so, Harry," Kate was saying. But poor Jo could barely see who the riders were, and could not guess the conversation that might have meant so much to him. He turned away impatiently, etc. Note 7: In the example above, the story is told by a third person, one who has what is called the omniscient, or know-all, viewpoint one who is frankly assumed to know everything that belongs to the story. If, however, the narrator should himself be one of the characters, he cannot be assumed to know anything except what he sees, hears, or does himself. Accordingly, if he needs to report anything further than this, he must make clear how he comes to know it. Suppose, for illustration, that Jo is telling the story. He must use some device to indicate how he has come to know about the conversation. TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 125 Right: Round the point half a mile away, so far I could barely tell who they were, I saw Harry and Kate emerge on their ponies. // only I had known then what I did not learn until wrongs had been done that could never be repaired and friendships broken that could never be restored not until my mother, who had heard the story from Kate, explained it all to me, months later! But how was I to know that they were talking excitedly .about me? Had I known it, Kate was that moment say- ing, " You know it's so, Harry." 40. EXERCISES ON SECTION XL 1. Write from memory a description of the college or school building as it appears from the front. Make this descrip- tion matter-of-fact. Take pains to state the working-thought well. 1 2. Write from memory a similar description of the building as it appears from one side. 3. Study the building, and revise your descriptions. 4. Taking some actual object indicated below, write a de- scription that shall give an impression, not a view (such a de- scription should be made more suggestive, and less matter-of-fact). Construct the working-thought sentence carefully. 2 a. A church (e.g., is it old? lonely? stately? ruinous? grim? oppressive? solemn?) b. A bridge. c. An island, or some spot on the banks of a stream near your home. d. A person. e. An animal. 1 The predicate of the sentence should indicate the leading out- lines of the building as they show to the eye. 2 The predicate of the sentence should indicate the impression clearly. It will be the better if it also enumerates the chief elements that enter into this impression, such as the ivy, the color of the stone, etc. 126 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION 5. Indicate a physical point of view for a description of each of these objects (select the point of view after trying several). a. The city hall. b. Your house and grounds. c. The village green, or the public square. d. The town (an inclusive view). e. The town residence street. /. A drove of cattle. 6. Indicate a mental point of view for descriptions of the same objects. 7. Which of the following subjects indicate a physical and which indicate a mental point of view? If any of them permit both points of view, restate them to indicate each separately. a. The west side of Main street. b. The Sorrows of Werther (Gothe). c. The Outcast (Cowper). d. The tariff is unjust. 1 e. The city of Balbec. /. Japanese statesmen. g. Morning-glories. h. The building of our camp. 1. The value of habit. j. Butter-making. k. Uncle Ned's old spring wagon. 2. The representative in Congress from our district, ra. The school house heating equipment. n. Poultry raising. o. My experience with hens. 8-9. Is it likely that any of these subjects would call for a combination of the two points of view? Which ones? Write a paper about one of the subjects that call for this combination. 10. Write a paper comparing two buildings that you know, which are a good deal alike. Pay especial attention to the management of viewpoint. Must the question be decided by physical fact or by mental operation, i.e., by a course of reasoning? TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 127 11. Perhaps you know some person who behaves differently in some circumstances from the way in which he behaves in others; for instance, at home and away from home. Write a description of his behavior. (Be careful, of course, not to use his true name, and not to write about anyone whom your paper can offend or hurt.) 12. Tell about a pleasure trip that you took. (See next question for other directions.) 13. Tell about some series of excursions, or pleasure-trips, open to the public; for example, trolley trips to a park outside of town. (Mention only the more interesting facts. Keep the connection clear. Test your paper for false beginning and ending and for digression.) 14-19. Write a paper in which the point of view shall be that of (a) an angry man; (6) a silly woman; (c) a servant who has broken a dish; (d) the mistress whose dish has been broken; (e) a chauffeur who has been arrested; (/) the policemen who arrested him; (g) a workman on a strike; (h) the employer against whom the workman is striking; (i) a hunter driven off a farmer's land; (j) the farmer on whose land the hunter was trespassing. 20. Write a paper in the first person, telling of something that affected you but occurred outside of your own range of observation; for example, what Jack and Harry did that caused your father to keep you from attending a baseball game. XLI. Using a large topic for a little composition. We have already seen that even limited subjects must be limited further by means of topic-statements, and these topics restated as working-thoughts, before they can be discussed with definiteness and effect. We must remember further that many subjects and topics are en- tirely too " large " to permit effective treatment; that is, they include too much and call for too extended treat- ment to be well handled in a short composition. 128 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION Note: "The History of the Tariff" cannot be compressed into five hundred words; but that " a noted manufacturer wrote the steel schedule finally incorporated in the Wilson tariff law " is so concrete and limited a fact that it can readily be presented in a short paragraph. To treat overlarge topics in little space is destructive of unity (of impression), because such topics are composed of so large and so important divisions (thought-blocks) that these cannot possibly be clearly developed in the short paper. At best they can only be enumerated; and with bare enumeration the connectedness of the thought (V) cannot be shown. Hence, in such compositions there seems to be no central or nucleus thought to give unity. 41. EXERCISES ON SECTION XLI 1. Using two of these subjects, state working-thoughts as directed below: Money, Straw-rides, Liberty, Athletics, Local option, The condition of the farmer, Good roads in our town, Easter styles, Spring flowers, The situation in Russia, Milk cows, Garden crops, Little industries. a. Three working-thoughts, each of which can be developed in one page. b. Three working-thoughts, each of which will require two pages for development. c. Three working-thoughts, each of which will require five pages for development. 2. Write a one-page paper upon this topic thought : "Industry is beneficial." 3. Study your paper. Is it convincing? Is it concrete? Are its assertions too general? Do the sentences seem closely connected? Write a theme discussing it with reference to these questions. 4. Write a one-page paper on this topic thought: "In one case, industry proved of direct benefit to me." Compare this paper with the other. Which is the more definite? the more interesting? the more impressive? the more coherent? TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 129 Which seems to be the more original? the more individual in style? 5. Write a paper presenting the conclusions that you come to from doing exercises 2, 3, and 4 above. XLII. Testing the composition for coherence. In V we saw that the thought must have coherence, or connectedness, throughout. But it is not enough that the thought shall be coherent in the mind of the writer. The connectedness must be made to show forth clearly to the reader, and it must do so as much in the composi- tion as in the plan (XXXIII, with notes 2, 3, 4). Note: Really, coherence is involved in unity; if one's thought be unified, it must be connected. But the expression of the thought does not always show forth this unity (XXXIX, notes 1-2), and we therefore use the term coherence when we are dealing with the expression given to the thought. Some rhetorics speak of unity of impression, unity of material, and unity of expression. By the first, they mean the single, clear impression that a composi- tion ought to leave in the mind of the reader. By the second, they mean the general agreement of the materials selected by the writer, so that all the substance of the composition directly helps to produce the desired impression. By the third, they mean what we here call coherence a oneness in the language such as makes quite apparent the oneness of the thought. As all writing aims at unity of impression, and as a lack of unity in the substance nearly always produces incoherence, it is always well, in seeking the cause of incoherence in a composition, also to test the composition for unity. 42. EXERCISES ON SECTION XLII 1-18. See set 39. Proceed as there directed, testing for coherence (unity of expression), however, instead of unity of impression and of material. 19. Study three editorial articles from an important paper. To what do they owe their coherence? 130 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION XLIII. Coherence; putting the thought-blocks in a logical order. All the material in a composition may belong there, yet it may be arranged so poorly that the thought will appear incoherent. What the order shall be, each writer must determine for him- self; but it must group together what is related, and must separate what is distinct. Above all, the order must be clear, must be natural, and must be emphatic (compare XXV; XXVII, note 2; XXVIII). The order of thought in the composition, of course, depends on the order it has in the plan; the composition follows the order of the plan. Note 1: The most obvious order in which to arrange the thought-blocks and their subdivisions is called the chronological, or time, order. This is useful when action is to be recounted, that is, in narration. For example: In telling of a fight one would begin with the quarrel, tell then of the first blow, of the succeeding blows, of the knocking down of one fighter, and finally of the arrival of the police. Note 2: In description, the writer seeks some easily perceived order. For example: Using an important part of the subject as a middle point with which to begin, one describes first what is on one side of this middle point, then what is on the other side; or he begins with the nearest part of a scene and passes from this to what is more and more distant; or he begins with the distant and comes nearer; or (finally) he finds some other natural arrange- ment that already exists in the object itself, and uses this. Example of the last-named method: Looking at the ground- sketch of our new high-school building, one sees a great letter H. (The plan would have at least two main divisions, one for each upright; and perhaps a third, for the cross-bar of the letter.) Example 2 (having to do with an immaterial object): His character was so plainly revealed in his face that merely to look TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 131 at him was like eating crab-apples dressed with vinegar and pepper; a more crabbed, biting and fiery old man did not exist in all the Berkshires. (The three parts of the plan would concern the old man's crabbedness, his biting sharpness, and his fiery disposition.) Note 3: In exposition, or explanatory composition, it is best, after stating the topic (see XXVII, note 3) to begin with mention of some relevant fact that is well known. This may serve merely as a starting-fact, or it may be employed by way of illustration throughout the composition. Example: The steam engine is nothing but a pump reversed. In the water pump, the pump moves the water; but in the steam engine, the steam moves the engine. In truth, however, the principle involved is much the same. In building up a composition on this working-thought, the obvious process would be, to explain the parts of the pump, and then their operation, one by one; and then to show step by step how the essential parts and workings of the engine corre- spond to those of the pump. But whatever the order of arrange- ment of the thought-blocks, the purpose will be, to secure the greatest possible clearness and progress in the thought. Note 4: In argument, it is better to begin with what everyone knows and believes, gradually moving forward to the portion that one wishes to make-others understand or accept (see XXVII, note 4). 43. EXERCISES ON SECTION XLIII 1. Tell how a line of telephone wires is raised. Use the chronological order; begin with the time when the poles are being distributed along the proposed line. 2. Tell how a cow lies down; how she gets up. 3. Explain the process of reloading a shot-gun shell. 4. Tell in proper order the things that are done in getting breakfast. 5. Explain how to make a "sleeve" apron. 132 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION 6. Select for description a building with a main middle part and two wings, or annexes. Describe it. 7. Select a scene for description. Describe it, beginning with the part near at hand. 8. Describe the same scene, beginning with what is most remote. 9. (Based on note 2.) Try to discover the natural outline, arrangement, or plan of,: a. Several buildings; examine especially Catholic and Episcopal churches, new-style apartment houses, and public buildings. 6. A public square, plaza, or concourse, or a ward or dis- trict of the city. c. Well-known parks, gardens, fields, or woodlots in the neighborhood. 10. (Based on note 2.) Try to discover the natural outline to follow in describing the character or disposition of: a. Some workman you know motorman, conductor, cabman, hostler, carpenter, etc. b. A young man whom you observe on the streets or hang- ing about billiard rooms, saloons, etc. c. An animal a livery-stable horse, a dog, the family cow, etc. d. A man for whom you once worked. e. An office boy whom you know. 11-13. Make plans for descriptions to be based on outlines discovered in working on questions 9 and 10. 14. Write a paper explaining the working of the motor in a street car, or of a dynamo. Keep the explanation simple. See note 3, Section XLIII. 15. Explain the structure of a boy's express wagon. 16. Explain the structure of the boiler used to generate steam for the heating of a house. 17. Explain how the bell of the schoolhouse (or a church) is rung. 18. Explain the working of a pipe-organ. TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 133 19. Explain the ringing of a set of chimes. 20. Other subjects for explanation or description: a. Air brakes on railway cars. b. Fireless cookers. c. Gas ranges. d. Gas engines. e. Spinning tops. /. A film camera. g. Typesetting (by hand). h. A pair of roller skates. i. A pair of snowshoes. j. How to use snowshoes (or ski). fc. How to waltz; how to two-step. I. How to plait the hair. m. How to make accordion plaiting. n. How to wipe a dish. o. How to make coffee. p. The way to board and to leave a streetcar. q. How to tell a sugar maple from a soft maple. r. How oats differ from wheat. s. How to tell a Jersey cow from a Holstein. t. How to tell all-wool goods. u. A typewriting machine. v. How to tell Dent from Flint corn, etc. w. A student lamp. x. A gas (or electric) iron. y. Making buttonholes. z. Cutting out an apron (or dress). 21. Additional subjects of the same sort: a. How to prepare a Latin lesson (or German, etc.). 6. How to read and take notes for an essay. c. How to paddle a canoe. d. How to scull. e. How to kick a football. /. How mail goes through the local post office. g. A telephone exchange. 134 THO.UGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION h. A pump. i. Sending in a fire alarm. j. The block signals on the nearest railway. k. Making up a freight train in the yards. I. How to plant potatoes. m. How to cure hay. n. Taking a photograph. 0. How to make a hotbed. p. Pruning berrybushes. q. How to fight the currantworm. r. How to lay off a land for plowing. 22. Subjects involving definition and discrimination of terms (the student is to explain what the term means, including the way in which the thing it names is different from others that closely resemble it, or with which it stands in contrast. 1 ) See Sec- tions XIX-XXI. a. Student honor. 6. The honor system. c. Ladies' tailoring. d. Industry. e. Study. /. Right. g. Law. h. Crime. 1. Country life. j. Cook, chef. k. Walking and running. I. Breathing and panting. m. Singing. n. Deceptive, misleading. o. Amusement, recreation. p. Bashful, modest. 1 Only a few terms are here presented; every instructor will have accessible an abundance of such material. Young people suffer sadly from a lack of training in the definition and discrimination of terms; therefore frequent practice of this sort is desirable. TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 135 q. Defeat, overthrow. r. Skilful, dexterous. s. Debate, deliberate. t. Bravery. u. Growth. v. Horticulture and pomology. w. Agriculture, farming. x. Tree surgery, pruning. y. Believing, knowing. z. Comprehending, apprehending. XLI V. Coherence ; showing forth the order of the thought. Coherence of expression exists when the connectedness of the thought is plainly shown forth. The reader must be made to see (a) how each thought- block bears on the main topic, and (6) how it relates itself both with the thought-blocks that precede and with those that follow it (V). In the simplest lan- guage, this means that when a writer passes from one thought-block (or subthought-block) to another , he must show clearly (a) that the thought is changing and (b) how the new part of the thought is related to all that has gone before. The devices for indicating this are very simple. Note 1: A command of the devices for securing coherence (which is, in fact, but the precise indication of shades of meaning in sentences and paragraphs) is indispensable to the writer who aspires to think and to express his thought in any manner less crude than that of the grammar-school pupil. Note 2: The simplest indication of connection depends on the introduction of connective words or phrases. Examples: First ; second ; Further ; Again ; Another reason ; No less significant ; The next step ; More- 136 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION over ; However ; Likewise ; In addition ; But ; Yet ; etc., etc. Note 3: Transitional phrases or paragraphs (" pass-over" or "bridge-across" sentences or paragraphs) are as indispensable as connective words. They are necessary to make the connec- tion more complete, as it is desirable to do when one wishes to refer to or summarize or reassert what has gone before and at the same time to introduce what is to come. The first sentence in this note is a transition sentence, bridging over from the thought of note 2 to that of note 3. Example (paragraph that summarizes preceding thought): "It is evident, therefore, that under the present organization of society, women as a class are dependent dependent in the home, whether as daughter or wife, and dependent outside the home and that they are dependent because they are not able to demand economic equality with men. Let us now see what would be the probable effect of giving the ballot to this dependent class of citizens." (Notice that one sentence points back to what has already been said, and that the other points forward to what is yet to be said.) Note 4: The use of frequent summaries, as a means of keeping the reader fully aware of the thought and the advance it has made, is advisable. The paragraph quoted in note 3 is a para- graph both of summary and of transition. Summarizing paragraphs inserted between divisions of the thought, even though no transitional expressions be used in them, are notices to the reader that here one part of the thought is brought to a close. Note 5: Sometimes it is sufficient merely to place near the beginning of a division the words that indicate the new topic. Example: "The source of his dissatisfaction is easily dis- covered." (Of course it is understood that the dissatisfaction has already been the subject of discussion hi the composition.) In relying on this method, one should make sure that the words are prominent enough and the change of the thought evident enough to attract attention immediately. TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 137 44. EXERCISES ON SECTION XLIV 1-4. Review twelve of the themes that you prepared some time ago. Of these, lay aside the four that seem least connected, or coherent. Examine these four themes one by one, noting in each: a. The places where the thought changes. b. Whether this change of thought is clearly indicated. c. Whether the change of thought is indicated in such a way as to make plain why what follows belongs with what precedes. In ekch of these four themes, insert connective words wherever you think they would not be out of place. Compare the effect produced by the remodeled theme with that produced by the original. 5. Write a paragraph in which the connection shall be made plain without the use of connective words. If possible, avoid abruptness; but certainly avoid incoherence. 6. Rewrite this paragraph, using connective words wherever they can be introduced. 7. Write two quite distinct paragraphs about some subject in which you are interested. 8. Write a transitional paragraph (preferably short) that will serve to connect these two paragraphs. Combine the three paragraphs into a complete paper, making any adjustments that you find necessary. In doing so, notice whether there be need of as much as a paragraph of transition, or whether a sentence or two, worked into the paragraphs first written, will not connect then sufficiently. 9. Vary the exercises of 7-8 thus: Let A write paragraph 1; B add sentences or a paragraph of transition; and C supply the closing paragraph. Or, let B supply the last paragraph, and C afterward supply the transition. 10. Taking a paragraph from one of Emerson's essays, endeavor to supply connective expressions to make the thought 138 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION clearer. Do the same with a paragraph from one of Bacon's essays. 11. Write a theme about coherence in the writing of Emer- son or of Bacon. 12. Strike out all the connective expressions you find in a paragraph of one of Macaulay's essays. Note the result. Write a theme about coherence in Macaulay's writing. 13. Read several paragraphs from Matthew Arnold (say from the essay on "The Function of Criticism"). Strike out all the expressions that give connectedness. Does he use any means other than connectives for securing coherence? For instance, does he repeat in some form what he has already said? Does he use demonstrative expressions that point either back to previous ideas, or forward to ideas that he is about to introduce? Does he letter, number, or otherwise mark, the separate stages of his thought? Does he invert his sentences, thus making them couple together more securely? Write a theme of three paragraphs about Arnold's methods of securing coherence. XLV. Coherence and emphasis; keeping the main thought prominent. No composition will be coherent in which the topic thought is not made the center of attention. There are ways of writing that quite obscure this topic thought, and there are ways of writing that will keep it always present in the reader's mind. No composition is well written the topic thought of which has not been made unmistakably the central thought of the paper; so that, no matter what phase of the topic is discussing, the topic itself will still be clearly in mind. Note 1 : This is as true of paragraphs as it is of whole composi- tions. TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 139 Note 2: Among the means of keeping a thought prominent are: a. Putting it in emphatic positions (VI; XXVII, note 3; XXVIII, note 3). 6. Giving it more space than is given to other thoughts associated with it (XXXVI, note 3). c. Referring to it often, reasserting it, repeating it in varied ways, etc. 45. EXERCISES ON SECTION XLV 1. Select two of the themes you have already written. Re- construct them so that the topic thought shall be very prominent at the beginning. 2. Again reconstruct them, making the topic thought espe- cially prominent at the close. 3. Again reconstruct them, making the topic thought most prominent near the middle. 4. Pick out four or five of your themes that appear ineffective. Rewrite them, saying as little as you can, without becoming obscure, about the subordinate matters their working-thought involves, and dwelling as much as possible upon the main thought. Are the papers improved? Write a paragraph based upon your observation. 5. Write a paragraph in which you make the central thought prominent by referring to it frequently. 6. Write a paragraph in which you make the topic thought prominent by reasserting and repeating it several times. (In this, try at the same time to vary the forms in which you repeat the thought.) 7. Write a paragraph as directed in (5), but do not actually state the central thought except at the end. Does the employ- ment of suspense and place-emphasis make the thought more prominent? 8. Write a paragraph beginning with the assertion of the central thought, repeating this thought in some form in each of the thought-blocks and at the end. Is the paragraph clearer? 140 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION Is there any monotonous repetition of terms? With a little care, can you substitute equivalent expressions for enough of these terms to prevent this monotony? Try it. What has this attempt taught you about your vocabulary? XL VI. Coherence ; headless beginnings. The be- ginning of a composition should contain all that is essen- tial to an understanding of the composition , even though some of this matter be expressed also in the title. Poor: GOING TO AUNT JANE'S This trip was one of the most delightful I ever took . Right: GOING TO AUNT JANE'S Our trip last winter to Aunt Jane's was one of the most delightful . Poor: HARMFUL BOOKS Some may not think they do any harm, but I know they do; I have been there. Right: HARMFUL BOOKS Some may not think that books can do harm that there are no harmful books. But I know there are, for books some books have harmed me. 46. EXERCISES ON SECTION XL VI 1. Review two of your themes. Do you find headless beginnings? 2. Follow the editorial articles in a daily paper for three days. Observe the way in which they begin. Do you find any headless or otherwise obscure beginnings? 3. Write a paragraph embodying your observations. TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 141 XLVII. Coherence ; inference, concession, contrast and cumulative connectives. Connectives are fre- quently omitted unwisely between clauses or sentences of certain kinds. Make sure that no mistake in the meaning will result from the omission before leaving out the connectives in such positions; namely: a. Between clauses, sentences, or paragraphs one of which states a consequence of the other. Example: He was very poor. [As a result] he had no political influ- ence. 6. Between expressions the second of which makes a con- cession or reservation concerning that which the first asserts. Example: He is unworthy of belief. [To be sure] he has numerous friends who seem to believe in him. c. Between expressions one of which is in contrast with or contradiction to the other. Example (contradiction): We hear frequently of the happy lot of the teacher. [But is his lot happy?] He teaches year after year things he has long known by heart; he has to deal almost entirely with persons whose minds are imma- ture, whose prejudices are still uncurbed, whose judgments are as quick as they are illogical, and whose experience of men and the world has been so slight that they have but an inadequate conception of even the rudiments of life. In addition to work in the classroom, he has often an excessive amount of home work to do in the reading of class and exami- nation papers and the preparation of exercises. His vacation time, supposed to be his own, . . . Example two (contrast) : Against boats of this type, builders urge the objection, that they are too heavy for speed. [On the other hand, however] we may urge that they are stronger and are able to receive and to endure 142 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION the bufferings of far stormier waters than can those of the rival type. d. Between a part that precedes and a part that follows, when the part that follows takes up the idea of the part that precedes and adds a further accumulation of fact about it. Example: [The preceding part has dealt with the misbehavior of a man when drunk; the following part gathers together a new set of facts about such misbehavior.] [Moreover, his misbe- havior is not confined to humiliating performances in public.] For when he returns home, he miscarries himself toward his family. He abuses his wife. Often he strikes her. He is violent toward his children. His language is vile; his behavior is threatening. He forgets his love and his duty, and knows only the irritation produced on his overtried nerves by these innocent dear ones. . . . 47. EXERCISES ON SECTION XL VII 1. Write sentences, or groups of sentences, as directed below: a. Ten, in which one part states a result or consequence of the fact mentioned in the other part. b. Ten, in which the second part makes a concession or reservation concerning that which the first part asserts. c. Ten, in which the second part stands in contrast with or contradiction to the first part. d. Ten, in which the following part takes up anew the idea of the preceding part, and adds a new set of facts about it. In all these expressions, omit the connectives, endeavoring to put in place of them such punctuation marks as will make the meaning clear. Do you find any in which the punctuation marks are not sufficient to show forth the relation between the parts? TESTING COMPLETED COMPOSITION 143 2. Take those sentences in which punctuation proved inade- quate as a means of revealing the relation between the parts, and throw them into a different form, in which the thought shall be as clear as it was before the connectives were omitted. 3. Write two connected paragraphs, one stating a conse- quence of the other. 4. Write two connected paragraphs, one making a conces- sion or reservation concerning that which the other asserts. 5. Write two connected paragraphs, one standing in contrast with or contradiction to the other. 6. Write two connected paragraphs, of which the second takes up anew and again deals with the topic of the first. IV. THOUGHT-BUILDING TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS; THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE AND JOURNALISTIC WRITING. XL VIII. Thought-building toward special ends; the forms of discourse. Two fundamental purposes lead us to build up thought. The first is, to increase and order our own store of knowledge; the other is, to put this knowledge in such form that it will be of influence on others. Speaking or writing always accompanies the second purpose; neither need ac- company the first, although each is very helpful toward it. When we are building up thought in language in order to influence others, we decide what one particu- lar thing we wish definitely to say about our subject, why we wish to say it, and finally the method that will be most effective in saying it. (Review sections III and XIII carefully.) There may be various reasons why we wish to express our thought, and there are many ways in which to express it; but scholars and teachers have decided that all these aims and methods fall into four general classes. These classes are represented by four types of writing which are called the four FORMS OF DISCOURSE. This is a very general classification, however, and the classes often overlap one another. 144 TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS 145 This classification depends more on the general sort of effect that the writer wishes to have on his reader more on the general sort of thought-influence that he wishes the reader to undergo than it does on anything else. This general sort of thought-effect aimed at we describe as the purpose of the composi- tion. The writer may desire (a) to tell a story about something, (b) to picture something forth, (c) to explain something, or (d) to prove something. Accordingly, the purpose of a composition may be (a) narrative, (b) descriptive, (c) explanatory (expository), or (d) argu- mentative. Whichever of these aims it adopts, however, it may employ all the means of thought-building that we have studied. In DESCRIPTION it will employ them to por- tray, or picture forth, the subject in a particular aspect. In NARRATION it will employ them to give an account, or history, of the subject passing through a certain series of events. In EXPOSITION it will employ them to give an explanation of the subject, in order to make certain facts about it clearly understood. In ARGUMENTATION it will employ them to show that certain things about the subject are true. Note: From these facts, anyone can see that there naturally must be numerous special applications of the principles of thought- building in order to construct a description, a narrative, an exposition, or an argument. But the student who carefully and persistently applies the principles already explained in this book, in undertaking to describe, to narrate, to explain, or to argue, will find that he has the foundation for successful work, and next needs to gain the necessary skill through practising. There- 146 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION fore, the more detailed study of the special principles of forms of discourse is left until he takes up more advanced courses in composition. He should, however, carefully review at this time sections XL and XLIII, with their notes. Other sections that contain hints especially applicable to one or more of the forms of discourse are indexed, under " Description," " Narration," etc. XLIX. Thought-building in journalism; the pur- pose of newspaper writing. The term " journalism" includes more than newspaper journalism, but, as the newspaper is the most common and best-known form of journal, we will speak of journalism only in the sense of newspaper journalism. We can fairly do this, because newspapers are more and more assuming the characteristics of magazines and other periodicals, and because even the reviews are assuming somewhat the character of news journals. We have already seen (especially in section VI and its notes) that newspaper writing has a specialized method. This fact must not, however, lead us to think that the usual forms of discourse in other types of writing do not occur in newspaper writing. On the contrary, they are the very foundation of it. Let us see why. The great aim of journalism as a profession 1 is (a) to present the news and (6) to inter- pret it. Speaking broadly, we say that the work of presenting the news is done by reporters, and that the work of interpreting the news is done by editorial writers. When a reporter presents news, he either tells a story (narration) or describes a person, scene, 1 The profession of journalism is inseparably connected with the business of publishing. TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS 147 or thing (description). When an editorial writer interprets news, he either explains it (exposition) or attempts to prove something about or by it (argu- mentation). In addition to this, most newspapers now contain a great deal of writing that is intended to interest, inform, or amuse us in about the same way that a book would interest, inform, or amuse us. Naturally, these general-interest articles contain all the forms of discourse. The newspapers, therefore, contain literary articles, news articles, and editorial articles. This amounts to saying that all the principles of thought-building and of literary form, structure, method, and style are funda- mentally involved in journalistic writing. Note: As an exercise, the student should examine a Saturday afternoon or a Sunday morning newspaper, picking out all the news articles, all the editorial articles, and all the general-interest articles. He should also observe the occurrence in each sort of article of the different forms of discourse narration, descrip- tion, exposition, and argumentation. (By this time the student of course understands that in practical writing, all the methods of thought-building may be found commingled; as may also all the forms of discourse, some one of them appearing more or less clearly as the main form, and the others as subordinate, or auxiliary forms.) L. Newspaper writing; reporting. By reporting is meant the gathering and the writing of news. News may be broadly defined as information that is worth while, carried in good form to persons who will be benefited by it or interested in it. More narrowly 148 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION and more accurately defined for the immediate guid- ance of the reporter, news is a new, uncommon, and more or less unexpected thing or event, or intelligence of something that has recently taken place, not necessarily unexpected, which as yet is not generally or but imper- fectly known. In other words, the elements of news in this narrower sense are novelty, timeliness, interest, and information. Not all of these are necessary at the same time. Note 1: The reporter is the man who gathers and writes up news. He is either a staff reporter or a correspondent. The correspondent is a reporter who lives and does his reporting out- side of the town where the paper is published, sending in by mail, telegraph, or telephone the news that he gathers. Note 2: At this point the student should learn a few terms of the newspaper cant, or slang. A " story" is any piece of news that a reporter is set to get or write; if told to report a funeral, he says that he is on a funeral "story." When his report is printed, he says, "How did you like my story?" If he is set to describe a new automobile or explain a new chemical process, that also is a "story." The part of his town that the reporter is expected to go over every day for news is his "cover," "run," or "beat." A reporter who is sent out specially to get a particular story is on " assignment." When a story appears in print, it is "under a head." The "head" is the row or rows of large type standing above the story proper. Some heads have two divisions or more; these are called "decks" or "banks." Ordinarily, to be a good head, the head must give an abstract of the news contained in the story. Only a skilful writer can produce good headlines. A subhead is a line across the column, separating parts of a story and serving as a sort of title to that part which immediately follows it (see LI, note 3, examples 1 and 2). TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS 149 LI. Reporting; writing the news story. The most important thing in reporting, except ability to get the news, is ability to write a good story. No one, who is not thoroughly skilled in all the fundamental processes of thought-building, and who has not an extensive vocabulary and a good style, can hope to turn out a a story that will deserve praise. The structure of the news story, however, is not itself difficult when one begins to acquire skill. Note 1: Most important in the news story is the "lead," or introduction. The lead is not, however, an introduction in the common sense; it is the leading part of the report, or story, and it substantially corresponds to what we have learned to know as the working-thought, except that it does not have to be in a single sentence. The ideal lead is so complete in telling the whole story in comparatively few words that if no one read anything but the lead itself, everyone would, nevertheless, know all the main facts of the event. Associated Press stories are so written that any part of them after the lead can be cut off or omitted without de- priving the readers of the essential news or breaking the continuity of the story. The " A. P." stories are telegraphed all over the country. When the account of an event in New York City is telegraphed to Albany, N. Y., all the story is likely to be sent, as being of interest to Albany readers because of their nearness to and association with New York. As sent to Chicago, however, the story will consist of the lead and two or three of the following paragraphs, which contain the more detailed outline of the most notable facts. For San Francisco, however, only the lead is likely to be put on the wire, unless the story is one of exceptional interest. Note 2: As the lead summarizes the whole story, it must give the principal place to the most important news part of the story. (See index: "Proportion.") This important part is called tha "feature" of the story. Only experienced newsmen can detect 150 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION the feature infallibly, but attempting to do so gives the student excellent training in using his wits and his judgment. The feature is that which makes the story especially interesting. Often it does not appear prominently in the accounts the reporter gets about what has happened; he has to see it himself. Time after time, it will be merely something novel, that distinguishes the story from a dead monotony of stories of the same kind that are all the time turning up. Example: A shed worth $250 is partly burned. As usual the fire department is called out. Even in a small town these facts may be so ordinary that no report will be printed, or nothing more than a line or two. But in the shed loft pigeons have nested. The heat cooks them. In trying to do something for them, a homeless little bootblack gets himself scorched so badly that the police send him to the hospital. Here are two unusual elements of interest. The story is no longer merely the story of a shed fire; it is the story of gentle birds lost and the tender-heartedness of a boy of the streets. Plainly the pigeons and the bootblack make the feature of this story. Another example: An ordinary athletic contest is going on; nothing unusual depends on it. One of the contestants, waiting to go in, sinks to the ground. It turns out that he has been ill for some time, and has been warned by the doctor not to engage in violent exercise, but has disregarded the advice in order to keep another man from getting his position. Such an incident has enough of the unusual about it to become a feature, and a good story would "play up" this feature prominently in the lead. It is a case of the romance of actual life; ambition, jealousy, and rivalry are revealed in ordinary events. Another example: Observe that in this story the feature and the substantial information are not the same. The unusual part of the story (i.e., the " news " feature) is the fact that these merchants and other prominent men had to walk to end their trip. The less unusual part is the account of the trip itself. The feature occupies the first two decks of the head (p. 162), and the place of the lead in the story itself. This is an excel- TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS 151 lent illustration of a " feature " that is not an essential part of the facts at all. [Lead.] The Commercial Club trade-raisers were compelled to walk the last three blocks of their twenty-third annual trip, which ended last night. Their train " stalled " on the hill leading into the Grand Central Depot at Second and Wyan- dotte Streets. [Story.] The trip was the most successful ever made by the Commercial Club, those who made the trip said. Several ex- pressed the belief that the whole of the population of Kansas and Nebraska would move immediately to Kansas City, so hard and persistently was the campaign pushed in the ninety-one towns visited. The trip which ended last night began last Sunday night. The special train was made up of thirteen coaches. There were 162 excursionists aboard. Every effort was made to make all on the train comfortable and all agreed last night that this had been accomplished. The itinerary of the trip included most of the important towns in Northern Kansas and Southern Nebraska. The first stop was made at Falls City, Neb., at 7.45 o'clock last Mon- day morning. From then until the last stop at Hiawatha, Kas., yesterday afternoon, there was little rest for the excursion- ists aboard. There was something going on all the time. Note 3 : When the story has no element of novelty or unusual interest to be emphasized as a feature in the lead, and when the body of information contained in the story is varied and de- tailed, the lead is sometimes modified into a general statement, which is followed up by development, explanation, or other amplification in the body of the story; see sections XIV-XXIV, and especially XIV, XVII, XXII and XXIV. In writing agri- cultural and industrial news, or other scientific facts for popular reading, this modified form of lead is common. The nearer the lead comes to the news form, the better. Stories of the sort just mentioned very frequently have poor leads. Several examples 152 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION of satisfactory leads follow. Many papers now print the lead in more prominent type than is used for the rest of the story. Example i: [Lead.] President White of the United Mine Workers is expected to arrive in New York to-night to take a hand in the anthracite coal situation. A telegram from him to the miners' committee here was reported to have expressed astonishment and dismay at the action of the full committee in repudiating the agreement with the operators to which the miners' sub-committee had subscribed. The full committee of the miners held a long session to-day with the district board of the three anthracite miners' unions, without coming to an agreement on what was best to do next. Chairman Green of this committee declared this afternoon that he still hoped for peace. [Story.] "We are between two evils," said another member of the committee. "We were practically all of us for the tenta- tive agreement drawn up by our sub-committee, and it would have gone through if details of the agreement had not leaked to the public. The radicals then got up the Wilkesbarre mass meeting, and now the miners are clamoring for no surrender. "They want an actual raise of 10 per cent in wages and they demand the check-off system. What can we do?" The miners say they object to a revival of the Anthracite Strike Commission because of its long delays in settling disputes delays which ran up to seven months in some cases, causing the union to lose thousands in wages. The Agreement Proposed. As the case now stands, the miners have rejected an agreement which Abolishes the sliding scale. Grants a so-called 10 per cent advance in wages over the Anthracite Strike Commission's scale of April 1, 1903. This raise, the miners say, amounts, with the abolition of the sliding TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS 153 scale, to 5i 4 ff per cent, as against a raise of 5i^ per cent granted the other day when the soft coal troubles were ended. Names the control period at four years. Refuses a check-off system. This check-off system is one of the most urgent demands of the miners. Under it the operators take out so much each month from every miner's wages, say 50 to 90 cents, and turn it into the union's fund. Under the scheme every miner is practically forced into the union. The system has long been in use in the soft coal field, but has never been adopted in the anthracite districts. A Complete Surprise. So far as presidents of the railroads and the other coal opera- tors were concerned, the break in the negotiations yesterday came as a complete surprise. Five minutes after the two committees of ten, respectively of the operators and the miners, had come together at 2.30 P. M., at 143 Liberty street, for what was supposed would be their final and ratifying session, the sub-committee of four of the miners announced that the Tri-District Committee which had appointed them would not stand by the tentative joint agreement signed by the respective committees of four of the miners and the operators. The repudiation of the joint agreement was the result of recent miners' mass meetings at Wilkesbarre and elsewhere in the hard coal regions, but it was not actually resolved upon by the miners' committee of ten until an hour or so before they went down to Liberty street to hold the " final" session. The miners had wrestled with the problem all night at the Victoria Hotel. Example 2: [Lead.] The method employed by the all-wise head of "The Swiss Family Robinson," that of plunging deep into knowledge of each object in turn that attracts the attention, is a method of education so strongly recommended by Dr. A. A. Nemand of Nomanville that he claims thereby to save five out of the re- quired 12 years of schooling to a child. 154 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION School in the Home. [Story.] His theory of the school in the home, on which he has been lecturing for several years, he has at last embodied in a book by that name which has just been published. It is known that Dr. Nemand's own children, one of whom is now in Harvard and one in Radcliffe, are living illustrations. He writes: "The juvenile mind can work at a pressure, with- out loss of strength, health, or diminution of any power. On the side of personal efficiency, American education is one of the most wasteful things in the whole American organization of life. I have again and again found children to be able to do three and four times the work of ordinary school children, and that in a third or half the time usually consumed. To be sure, a little work was kept up throughout the long vacation, one of the absurdities of American life. Can Grasp Important Things. "The child mind can grasp important and fundamental things quite as readily as foolish and absurd things. Some sort of information the child is bound to gather. "The silver at the table, the food and its sources, the glass, the china, and so on throughout the field of daily observation, all things become the media for the conveying of exact and in- teresting knowledge. There are great treasures in the libraries which even young children would enjoy if they only had the tool by which they could use them. "But children should be made to go to the encyclopedia, and to think for themselves. Perhaps the natural alliance between genius and irregularities of one kind or another is due to just the fact that the genius has kept his power of observation and initia- tive unimpaired and perhaps in early youth escaped the brutaliz- ing and leveling process which we call education, and so brought forth something which was at least his own and not the crass product passed on from one generation to the next. Ambition follows interest." TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS 155 Example 3: [Lead.] Most inexperienced and many old agriculturists think that good crops are produced by rich soils. This is true only if all the elements of soil richness are present in sufficient proportions, yet not too plenty. [Story.] It is quite possible for a soil to be so rich that it can be sold just as it is for fertilizer, and yet not produce any crop itself. The explanation is that, although it is exceedingly rich in some elements of plant food, it is not a balanced soil. It lacks some element or elements that are necessary for plant growth. The experienced farmer, therefore, prefers a poorer, balanced soil to a richer soil that is deficient in plant-food elements. Though there are all sorts of fertilizers, or manures, to be had under various names, and although all sorts of combinations are made of these manures to fit them to the needs of the particular soil and crop with which they are to be used, yet there are only three fundamental fertilizer elements nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid. Whatever else the soil lacks, it must have these. Theoretically, a " complete" fertilizer has one part of nitrogen, two parts of phosphoric acid, and three parts (or a little less) of potash. Some persons regard lime as a fertilizer, but this it is not, in the strict sense of the word. Lime counter- acts acid in the soil; its use is, therefore, mainly to restore a balance. Remembering these simple facts, any agriculturist has the basis of knowledge necessary to deal with the problems of manur- ing. These problems consist in finding out first ; whether the soil is balanced or not and what it needs to balance it; and second, whether the crop to be raised demands a standard soil, or whether instead it needs more of one element than it does of another in proportion. When this is known the rest of the fertilizing problem is merely a matter of computation and judgment. Example 4: [Lead.] Bee-keeping is a profitable investment for any farmer, not only because of the market value of honey, but be- cause of the fact that bees bring a heavier fruit yield. 156 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION [Story.] In an apple region in the West stood two orchards within half a mile of each other. Both orchards had the identical soil, moisture, and climatic conditions. One of the orchards bore remarkably; the other gave a poorer and poorer yield each year. Finally, on the border of the heavy bearing orchard was found a fallen log in which was located a colony of wild bees. The other orchard had no bees to cross-pollenize it, and so slowly degenerated. A colony of bees was placed in the orchard, and beginning with the next season it bore as abundant a crop as the other orchard. It has been found very recently that even cranberry growers are greatly benefited by bees. A colony placed on the margin of a Cape Cod cranberry bog has increased the yield tremendously, though a small portion of the bog, unprotected from the wind, bore almost as few berries as ever. The bees had not visited it as much! Other Examples: [Lead.] Experiments carried on by many of the experiment stations show much in favor of the cultivation of orchards. The trees are healthier, grow larger, have better fruit, and produce larger profits. [Story.] Consists of a detailed development of the lead, which, in this instance, is a statement between a topic thought and a working-thought. [Lead.] Most farmers in Western Massachusetts may be unaware that the soil of the Connecticut Valley has been surveyed and classified into a series of well-defined types. [Story.] Consists of detailed development by method of section XIV (particulars; history of the survey), section XXIV (enumeration of effects), and XXII (application of principle). The principle of the news lead is not enough observed in articles dealing with industrial, agricultural and scientific news (infor- mation). Note 4 : The experienced Writer can make the lead exceedingly flexible without turning it from its purpose. General-interest TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS 157 articles permit great freedom in the form and contents of the lead. As was indicated before, these are substantially literary articles used for journalistic purposes. The journalistic quality, if notably present, lies in the style and manner rather than in the structure. Note 5: If the working-thought be clearly outlined in the writer's mind, and the lead be based directly on the working- thought, the rest of the story will develop itself naturally by taking up the thought-divisions in the working-thought one by one. Let it be borne in mind, however, that the rule of climax as ordinarily stated is often reversed in news writing (see section VI and notes). That is, in the news story, the most important thing comes first, the next important comes second, and so on. This is very common in practice. Nevertheless, it is not to be regarded as an absolute rule. How far it shall be followed is one of those things that must, in each particular instance, be left to the judgment and experience of the writer. The practical hint is this: What is written up as a matter of news follows the news rule; what is written up as a matter of more literary purpose and appeal tends to follow more strictly the artistic rules of literary emphasis, and, therefore, to have climax. The skilful news writer, how- ever, is able, to a considerable extent, to follow the news rule and yet to observe the conventional literary rule of emphasis. LIL Thought-building in journalism; editorial writing. Editorial writing is the writing of com- ment upon matters of current interest, which, of course, means mainly matters of current news. Any one of the forms of discourse may be employed in editorial writing, but the two forms most common are exposition and argumentation. The qualifications of a good editorial writer are broad reading, accurate recollection, im- passionate judgment, fair-mindedness, and thorough skill in writing. His business is to interpret the 158 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION doings and the thought of the world, or of some part of it, from day to day. The subjects with which he may deal are unlimited in number, and the ways in which he may deal with them are equally numerous. Only the requirements of good taste and good judg- ment lay restraint on him. Great thought and great genius can, therefore, find expression through journal- ism. Note 1: The beginner in editorial writing should heed a few cautions. First, he should not write upon a subject that he does not understand. Second, it is better to write about a limited aspect of a subject and write effectively, than it is to write about a larger subject and fail to write understandingly and con- vincingly. Third, the subjects that are close at hand are likely to be the subjects that one can discuss best, because he knows them most intimately; for a student, an editorial article about school or college, or class or fraternity affairs, or about his subjects of study, and the like, will often be worth more than an article upon some more remote matter. Fourth, few persons can write well about "things in general," or vague and abstract ideas; men of genius and great talent can do so, but the chances are that they would usually avoid such subjects were they writing editorials. The editorial article should be concrete and definite. Fifth, the tendency to make editorial articles short is increasing; men are discovering how much can be said in a few words. Sixth, simple words and clear sentences should prevail, but the vocabulary should be abundant, the diction skilful, and the style pleasing as well as forceful. Note 2: Certain departments of newspaper work are mainly editorial, but involve some degree of reporting. Others call mainly for reporting, but involve some editorial writing. Of the first kind are dramatic criticism and book-reviewing. Of the second kind are real estate and financial reporting, and the report- ing of sports. TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS 159 LIII. Conclusion: the value of journalistic prac- tice in writing. Journalistic writing supplies an excellent means of approach to composition, for it depends on fundamental principles and is practical in purpose. Moreover, many persons think that modern education keeps the student from entering early enough into the spirit and the needs of his own times, and a study of journalism, notwithstanding all that is alleged against the press, is one of the best introductions to contemporary thought and history. Note: Among the reasons why journalistic writing gives unusually good training in thought-building and composition are these: Practice in observing what goes on about one, analyzing it, and reporting it accurately and promptly gives excellent discipline in the use of the faculties and in the handling of language. It is interesting. The attempt by a student to form sound opinions on matters of news and current thought leads him to realize the insufficiency of his vocabulary and command of languages, and of his reading, his reasoning powers, and his knowledge of the world, alike in its present and its past; for it sets him by turn before many open gate- ways, through which are to be caught glimpses into the world of learning and into life. All this ought to stimulate him to more earnest effort toward acquiring discipline, knowledge, and power ought to make him a more interested and energetic student of men and of books. If it fail to do so, there is something wrong with him. 48-53. EXERCISES ON SECTIONS XLVIII-LIII. No exercises are suggested to the teacher for these sections. To suggest such exercises would be all but futile. News cannot be foreseen; the con- 160 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION ditions under which the individual teacher must work in assigning students to do newspaper writing cannot be foreseen; the best subjects for editorial writing at any particular time cannot be guessed in advance. The daily events of the school and of the town can be made subjects for reporting. Scientific, technical, industrial, agricultural, educational, and literary in- formation can be treated in information-stories, and the work of the reporters thus made to contribute directly to their interest in other studies, and their interest in the other studies thus utilized also to increase their interest in composition. Matters of school and local interest and, with stu- dents who are sufficiently advanced, matters of state, national, and international importance are an in- exhaustible source of editorial subjects. Teachers who wish to do so will not find it difficult to provide local newspapers with school news gathered by their students. From such a column, the school and the community will both benefit. Under the author's direction, a class of college juniors and seniors supply one of the important daily papers of the State with a page of rural matter every Sunday, and he is able also to use a limited amount of their copy in a feature- page of which he is editor in one of the metropoli- tan papers. He would not recommend that work of such importance be attempted with freshmen; yet doubtless lesser undertakings of the like sort can often be carried out with beginners. Cooperation with the TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS 161 college papers and magazines ought frequently to be possible, to the benefit of both the periodical and the class. Professor Frank L. Martin, of the School of Jour- nalism of the University of Missouri, gives this outline to suggest what in general constitutes school news for the newspapers : l New courses of study. Winning of prizes and honors. Entertainments by pupils. Debating contests. Attendance. New methods in teaching. \ Experiments by students. Improvements and added equipment. Meetings of societies. Lectures (outside of classroom). Commencement exercises. Class meetings, activities, etc. Rules governing discipline, study, etc. Changes in teaching force. Teachers' meetings. Institute meetings. School board meetings. One more suggestion, but an important one: Students should study the best journals and model the structure of the reports and editorials they write upon 1 Bulletins of the University of Missouri, Education Series, Vol. I, No. 3, "Journalism for Teachers" (1912). 162 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION the stories and editorials found in these journals. Metropolitan papers are to be preferred as more likely to contain the best models of newspaper structure. The Associated Press reports are good models for the news story. A few characteristic heads are illustrated here. Students who are interested will find it worth while to study the forms of head used in some good newspaper. Observe the kind of story, the length of the story, and its importance; the number of decks in the head ; the number of lines and the size of the type in each deck; the number of letters and spaces in each line; whether punctuation is permitted within the line or deck; whether the same word is used twice in the same head; the arrangement of lines in each deck; etc. [No. 1 (see story on p. 11.)] TRADE TRIP ENDS IN A WALK THE SPECIAL TRAIN BALKED" THREE BLOCKS FROM THE DEPOT. Most Successful of All the Journeys, the Commercial Club Boosters Say A Reunion Tuesday Night to Talk it Over. TOWARD SPECIAL ENDS 163 [No. 2.] STORE THE EXTRA EGGS. [No. 3.} WITH WATER GLASS THEY CAN BE PRESERVED FOR EIGHT MONTHS. Now, When the Hens Are Laying Best, is a Good Time to Prepare for a Scar- city Next Winter Method is Simple. Miss Helen F. Kolba, Just About of Age, Has a Business of Her Own. FATHER TAUGHT HER She Started Helping Him at 15 and Likes the Work Well Enough. 164 THOUGHT-BUILDING IN COMPOSITION [No. 4.} NARKING TINE IN THE GREAT DOCK STRIKE London Streets Take on a Sun- day Appearance Due to the Absence of Trucks Grave Events Are Ahead. [No. 5.] PRINCETON IN FANCY DRESS Thousands Back for the Yale Game Wilson and Tener There. [No. 6.] "DEAD" MAN ALIGHTS FROM TRAIN; FUNERAL IS OFF [No. 7.] BIG OCTOPUS HOOKED. AVALON, Cal., June 8. The combined efforts of six men were necessary to loosen the tentacles of a 12-ft. devil fish from the hull of the launch of Mike Marincovinch, who hooked the monster while fishing for grouper off Catalina Island. INDEX OF SECTIONS BY PAGES I... ...16 XIX... ...68 XXXVII... ..113 II... ...18 XX... ...71 XXXVIII... ..116 III... ...20 XXI... ...74 XXXIX.. . . 118 IV... ...26 XXII... ...77 XL.. . . 120 V... ...27 XXIII... ...80 XLI... , . . 127 VI... ...32 XXIV. . . ...83 XLII.. . . 129 VII... ...34 XXV. . . ...88 XLIII... . . 130 VIII... ...35 XXVI... ...90 XLIV.. . . 135 IX... ...43 XXVII... ...92 XLV.. , . . 138 X... ...44 XXVIII.. ...94 XLVI.. , . . 140 XI... ...49 XXIX... ...96 XLVII.. . . 141 XII... ...54 XXX.. ...97 XLVIII.. . . . 144 XIII... ...56 XXXI... ..101 XLIX.. , . . 146 XIV... ...58 XXXII... ..102 L.. , . . 147 XV... ...60 XXXIII... . . 104 LI.. . . 149 XVI... ...62 XXXIV... ..107 LII... . . 157 XVII... ...64 XXXV. . . ..109 LIII... . . 159 XVIII.. ..67 XXXVI.. ..111 106 INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND TOPICS Adapting Thought, see Selec- tion. Argumentation, XLIII, note 4, p. 131; XLVIII-XLIX, pp. (144)-145, 146-147. Cause or Effect, Thought- Building by Explaining, XXIV, p. 83. Central Thought, see Topic Thought. Coherence (Connectedness of Thought or Language) is involved in nearly all that concerns outlines (see Planning). Specif- ically, see V, pp. 27-31; XLI-XLVII, pp. 127- 143; Special Means of Securing, XLIV, notes, p. 135. Composition, I, 16-18; IX, p. 43. Journalistic, XLVIII-LIII, pp. 144-162. Processes of, see Processes. Comparing to and with, XV- XVI, pp. 60-64. Conclusion, XXVI, p. 90; XXVIII, p. 94. (See also False Beginning, False Ending, Sequence, Emphasis.) Connectedness of Thought or Language, see Coher- ence.' 167 Connectives, Connection, see under Coherence. Content of Terms, Thought- Building by Showing, XX, p. 71. Contrast, Development by, XVI, p. 62. Deduction, see Induction. Definition, XVIII-XXI, pp. 67-77. Description, p. 37; XLIII, note 2, p. 130; XL VIII, pp. (144)-145; XLIX, pp. 146-147. Description, Viewpoint in, see Point of View. Development, Methods of, XIII, p. 56; also X, p. 44; XIV-XXIV, pp. 58-87. Development by Enumerating Details, XIV, p. 58. Illustration (comparison to and with), XV-XVII, pp. 60-67. Contrast, XVI, p. 62. Example, XVII, p. 64. Definition, XVIII-XXI, pp. 67-83; by Synonym and Simpler Terms, XIX, p. 68; Showing Content. XX, p. 71; Logical Definition, XXI, p. 74; 168 INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND TOPICS Development by (continued) Applying a Principle, XXII, p. 77. Presenting Proof, XXIII, p. 80. Explaining Cause or Effect, XXIV, p. 83. Differentia, see Logical Defi- nition. Discourse, see Forms of Dis- course. Divisions of Outline, see Plan- ning. Editorial Writing, see News- paper Writing. Effect, see Cause. Emphasis is involved in nearly all that concerns out- lines; see under Plan- ning; Introduction; Con- clusion; Order. Spe- cifically, see VI, pp. 32- 33; XLV, pp. 138-140; in News Writing, VI, pp. 32-33, and LI, note 5, p. 157. English, Reasons for Studying, 9-15. Enumeration of Details, XIV, p. 58. Example, Development by, XVII, p. 64. Exposition, XLIII, note 3, p. 131;XLVIII,pp. (144)- 145; XLIX, pp. 146- 147. False Beginning, XXVII, note 2, p. 92. (See also Planning.) False Ending, XXVIII, note 1, p. 95. (See also Con- clusion, Planning.) Forms of Discourse, XL VIII, pp. 144-145; XLIX, pp. 146-147. (See also Description; Narration; Exposition; Argumen- tation.) General Principles, pp. 16-87. Genus, see Logical Definition. Grammatical Subject, see Rhe- torical Subject. Headings of Outline, see Plan- ning. Headlines, L, note 2, p. 148; pp. 162-164. Illustration, XV-XVII, pp. 60- 67. Induction and Deduction, X, p. 44; XVIII-XXI, pp. 67-77; see also XIII, p. 56; XIV- XXIV, pp. 58-87. Instance and Example, De- velopment by, XVII, p. 64. Introduction, see Conclusion; False Beginning; Se- quence; Emphasis. Journalistic Principles, see Newspaper. Lead, see Newspaper Writing. Limitation of Subject, see Sub- ject; Topic; Working- Thought. Specifically, see III, note 3. Logical Definition, XXI, p. 74, Methods of Developing Thought, XIII, p. 56. INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND TOPICS 169 Narration, p. 37; XLIII, note 1, p. 130; XLVIH, pp. (144)-145; XLIX, pp. 146-147. News, XLIX, pp. 146-147; L-LI, pp. 147-158. Newspaper " Paragraphs," (i: 5), p. 17. Newspaper Writing, Aims of, XLIX, pp. 146-147. Editorial Writing, XLIX, pp. 146-147; LII, pp. 157-158. Feature, LI, note 2, pp. 149- 151. Lead in News Story, LI, pp. 149-158. Order and Emphasis, VI, pp. 32-33. Reporters and Reporting, XLIX, pp. 146-147; L-LI, pp. 147-158. "Story," L, note 2, p. 148. Order (Sequence; Arrange- ment), VI, pp. 32-33; XII, p. 54; XLIII- XLIV, pp. 130-138; LI, note 5, p. 157. (Also seePlanning; Emphasis.) Outlines, see Planning. All the book di- rectly concerns para- graph building. See spe- cifically I, II, 16-18; IV, note, p. 27; V, note 1, p. 28; VII, pp. 34-35. Place Emphasis, Ex. 6, qn. 2, p. 32; note 12, p. 39. (See also Emphasis, Space Emphasis.) Point of View, XL, pp. 120- 127. (See also Unity.) Predicate, see Working- Thought. Principle, Thought-Building by Applying, XXII, p. 77. Processes of Thought-Build- ing, X, p. 44; XIV- XXIV, pp. 58-87. Proof, Thought-Building by Presenting, XXIII, p. 80. Proportion, XXXVI, note 3, p. 112. (See also Em- phasis; Space Empha- sis.) Purpose (see also Method; Forms of Discourse) , note 13, p. 40. Reasons for Studying English, 9-15. Reporters and Reporting, see Newspaper Writing. Rhetorical Subject (3,6), p. 24. Selection of Material, XI, p. 49; XII, note 2, p. 54. Sequence, see Emphasis, Order, Planning. Skeleton, see Planning. Space Emphasis, 6, 1, p. 32. Subject and Topic, III, pp. 20- 26; Large, Small, III, note 6, p. 21; Rhetori- cal, Grammatical, p. 24. Summaries, see Coherence. Synonyms and Simpler Terms, Thought-Building by, XIX, p. 68. Term, III, notes 1-2, p. 20; XXI, note 3, p. 75. Thought-Blocks, see Units of Thought. Thought-Material, see Selec- tion. Title, III, note 8, pp. 22, 25. (See also Headings.) 170 INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND TOPICS Topic, Topic Statement, and Subject, III, pp. 20-26; and Working-Thought, III, pp. 20-21. See also VIII, pp. 35-43. (See Working-Thought.) Transitions, see Coherence, XLIV, pp. 135-138. Unity is involved in nearly all that concerns outlines; see Planning. Specif- ically, see II, pp. 18-20; V, 27; XXXIX-XLII, pp. 118-130. Units of Thought, II, pp. 18- 20; IV, pp. 26-27; VII, pp. 34r-35. Viewpoint, see Point of View. Whole Composition, I, pp. 16- 18; VII, p. 34. Working-Thought, III. pp. 20- 26; VIII, pp. 35-43; XII, note 2, p. 54; XXX (p. 98); in News Writing, LI, note 1, p. 149. See everywhere through the book. 'TVHE following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects BY SAMUEL C. 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