THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID THE SHOT-GUN SPORTING EIFLE: THE DOGS, PONIES, FEBBETS, &c., USED WITH THEM IN THE VARIOUS KINDS OF SHOOTING AND TRAPPING. BY STONEHENGE, r L SP I- AUTHOB OF "BRITISH RURAL SPOBTS. ) itum^rous LONDON: ROULTEDGE, WARNE, AND ROUTLEDGE, FARRINGDON STREET. NEW YORK : 56, WALKER STREET. 1859. [The Author reserves the right of Translation.'} LONDON t SAVILL AND EDWABDS, PBINTEBS, CHANDOS STBEET, COVENT GABDEN. PREFACE. THE circumstances which have led to the publication of this treatise on the Sliot-gun and Sporting-rifle are as follows : At the close of the year 1857, on undertaking the editor- ship of the department of the Field connected with shooting, I found its columns deluged with an angry correspondence on the comparative merits of the breech-loader and muzzle- loader statements and counter-statements were made, week after week, all of which could not possibly be true, since many of them were in direct opposition to each other. Theories were propounded of the most visionary kind, yet, as generally happens, their inventors expected them to be received as conclusive of the opinion to support which they were brought forward. The battle had raged for several months ; but after all this " Bubble, bubble, Toil and trouble," no one was convinced, and the question was left exactly where it was when the correspondence commenced. But, as numerous good sportsmen seemed really desirous of ascer- taining with something like exactness the real merits of these guns, it was determined to give them a public trial, M313088 IV PREFACE. and the task of making the arrangements was undertaken by myself. The two gun trials of 1858 and 1859 were carried out with great care and trouble, and the real pretensions of muzzle-loaders and breech-loaders have been settled for the present to the satisfaction of all reasonable men. As a natural result I have been brought into contact with guns and gunmakers in an unusual degree, and have had far greater opportunities of seeing varieties of principle and workmanship in this department of art than any other person out of the trade. Of course I do not claim to be acquainted with the details of the workmanship of guns and rifles to the extent which ought to pertain to the working gunmaker, whose life has been engaged in the mastery of them. The view which I have taken is that of the sports- man ; but having been all my life of a somewhat mechanical turn, I may perhaps have been more capable of fathoming the secrets of the trade than others who have no taste that way. Where those secrets have been openly and fairly obtained by my own resources, I have not hesitated to lay them before my readers; but there are many others which have been communicated freely to me by gunmakers, with- out the slightest idea on their part of having them published, and these I have thought myself compelled to confine to my own breast. They are chiefly, however, connected with matters of no practical interest to the sportsman, and can only be useful to the actual makers of the gun. For the opinions which are freely expressed throughout the book in reference to the various inventions I am alone responsible, no person connected with the gun trade having had the remotest influence upon them. Indeed, I have so PREFACE. V cautiously abstained from any risk of bias in favour of par- ticular interests, that even in the descriptions of the mecha- nical details of gunmaking I have not availed myself of the supervision of a professed gunmaker, although I might easily have obtained that assistance. This may possibly lead to some slight errors of commission or omission; but I con- sidered that it would be better to run the chance of these than to incur the suspicion of a tendency or leaning in some direction or other, which would probably be mani- fested. The book is, indeed, to be regarded more as a de- scription of the various shot-guns and rifles after they are made than of the processes by which they are brought to the state in which they are offered to the public. In addition to the three books on Tlie Theory of Gunnery, on The Shot-gun, and The Sporting -rifle, three others are appended, on Game, The Animals used in Pursuit of it, and The Methods of Preserving it from Vermin and the Poacher. Finally, a short chapter on the present Game Laws closes the volume, which it is thus hoped will be made a full com- pendium for the shooter. Most of the originals for the various elaborate drawings and sections of the guns included in this volume have been kindly lent me by their makers or inventors, to whom I beg to offer my thanks for their courtesy and constant readiness to afford to me every assistance in their power. STONEHENGE. CONTENTS. BOOK I. VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. PAGE General Kemarks First Lessons in Shooting Hedge Popping Kook Shooting with the Shotgun and Kifle 1 CHAPTER II. PIGEON AND SPARROW TRAP-SHOOTING. Remarks Laws of Pigeon Shooting Practical Directions for Pigeon and Sparrow Trap-shooting 7 CHAPTER III. OPEN SHOOTING. Grouse Shooting Partridge Shooting Snipe Shooting 14 CHAPTER IV. COVERT SHOOTING. Pheasant Shooting Cock Shooting Rabbit Shooting 56 CHAPTER V. WILDFOWL SHOOTING. Shooting Flappers Inland Winter Shooting Marine Wildfowl Shooting 78 CHAPTER VI. RIFLE SHOOTING. Objects for which the Rifle is Used Target Shooting Rook Shooting Rabbit Shooting Deer Stalking 93 VU1 CONTENTS. BOOK II. THE ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER, AND THEIR MANAGEMENT IN THE KENNEL AND THE FIELD. CHAPTER I. PAGE Pointers (Spanish and English) Setters (English, Irish, and Russian) Introductory Remarks on Breaking Preparatory Education Breaking at Pairing Time Autumnal Breaking to the Gun Remedies for Faults 113 CHAPTER II. FIELD SPANIELS AND THEIR BREAKING. General Remarks on Springers and Cockers The Clumber and Sussex Spaniels The Norfolk and other Breeds The Welsh and Devonshire Cocker The King Charles and Blenheims Hunting Spaniels by Foot-scent All Taught to Retrieve Pre- liminary Education Entering and Breaking 135 CHAPTER III. RETRIEVERS AND RETRIEVING BOTH ON LAND AND IN THE WATER. Land Retrievers The Deer-hound The Small Newfoundland Crossed with the Setter The Cross with the Pointer and Terrier The Beagle and Terrier Cross Water Retrievers The Pure St. John's Newfoundland The Pointer and Terrier Cross The Water Spaniel English and Irish Teaching to Retrieve on Land And on Water 143 CHAPTER IV. RABBITING RABBIT DOGS FERRETS AND FERRETING SHOOTING PONIES. Rabbit Terriers The English Terrier The Scotch Dog The Dandie Dinmont The Skye Terrier The Half-bred Dog- Ferrets used in Aid of the Gun Description Rearing and Feeding Diseases Management in Hunting 150 CHAPTER V. GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF SHOOTING DOGS. Kennels and Kennel Management Feeding Dressings and Physic Preparation for Work Management after Work 158 CONTENTS. IX BOOK III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY AND COMPO- SITION OF THE PARTS ESSENTIAL TO IT. CHAPTER I. DEFINITION OF GUNNERY AND GUNS AS APPLIED TO SPORTING PURPOSES. PAGE Gunnery in the Nineteenth Century as Applicable to Sporting Purposes Classification of Modern Guns and Rifles Shot-guns consist of a Tube more or less Cylindro-conoidal, capable of being Closed at one End Barrels Locks Modes of Exploding The Desiderata in the Shot-gun The Rifle 168 CHAPTER II. ON THE ACTION OF GUNPOWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVE COMPOUNDS. General Remarks Action of the Powder on the Projectile Mode of Determining its Velocity Eprouvettes Resistance to the Motion of Projectiles through the Air Recoil Composition of Gunpowder and Gun-cotton, and the Materials used for Firing them by Percussion 178 CHAPTER III. ON THE VARIETIES OF PROJECTILES AND THE SUBSTANCES USED IN AID OF THEM. All Sporting Projectiles made of Lead Either Cast or Pressed as in Balls, or Dropped from a Height as in Shot Shapes of Balls Sizes of Shot Wadding and Patches Cartridges CONTENTS. BOOK IV. THE VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS AND THE ACCESSORIES USED WITH THEM. CHAPTER I. THE PARTS COMMON TO ALL SHOT-GUNS. PAGE General Remarks The Barrel The Breech Proving The Lock The Stock The Trigger and Guard Percussioning Case- hardening Browning The Cleaning-rod and Ramrod . . .212 CHAPTER II. THE MUZZLE-LOADING PERCUSSION GUN. The Barrel Various Kinds of Breech The Lock The Stock- Ramrod Or Loading-rod The Entire Percussion Gun and its Performances Loading and Cartridges Cleaning The Gun- case and its Contents Price of Guns 233 CHAPTER III. BREECH-LOADING GUNS. General Principles The Lefaucheaux Gun Bastin's Modification of it The Needle-Gun of Needham Lancaster's Combination of the Two Count Chateauvillier's Gun Choice of Breech- loader Loading of Cartridges Cleaning 254 CHAPTER IV. PUNT-GUNS. Colonel Hawker's Punt-Guns Breech-loading Punt-Guns . . . .293 CHAPTER V. ON THE CHOICE OF GUNS AND THE MODES OF TRYING THEM. Desiderata in the Shot-gun Weight Length Pattern Penetra- tion Absence of Recoil Safety Quickness of Loading Result of the Field Gun Trial of 1859 Breech-loaders versus Muzzle-loaders . .295 CONTENTS. XI BOOK Y. THE SPORTING RIFLE. CHAPTER I. THE THEORY OF RIFLE SHOOTING, AND THE MODE OF RIFLING THE BARREL. PAGE Definition of the Rifle Velocity diminished by Rifling a Smooth Bore Greatest at the moment when the Ball leaves the Muzzle Varieties in the Form of the Grooves almost Infinite The Barrel Method of Rifling Technical Terms 305 CHAPTER II. THE MUZZLE-LOADING SPORTING RIFLE. General Remarks Purdey's Two-grooved Rifle The Single and Double Belted Ball The Enfield Rifle and Pritchett Ball- Lancaster's Oval Spiral General Jacob's Four-grooved Rifle The Four and Five-sided Bore, with Rounded Angles of Major Nuthall and Mr. Boucher Whitworth's Hexagonal Rifle Poly- Grooved Bores Varieties of Balls Single and Double Rifles . 315 CHAPTER III. BREECH-LOADING RIFLES AND REVOLVERS APPLICABLE TO SPORTING PURPOSES. General Remarks Prince's Rifle Terry and Calisher's Restell's Leetch's Westley Richards' The Lancaster Needham's The Lefaucheaux Bastin's Gilbert Smith's (American) Sharpe's Revolving Rifles and Pistols 328 CHAPTER IV. THE ACCESSORIES OF THE RIFLE. Bullet-moulds Casting Bullets Swedging Machine Patches Cartridges Ramrods Plain and Telescope Sights Rifle p ow der Flasks Rests 348 CHAPTER V. CHOICE OF A RIFLE FOR SPORTING PURPOSES. Requisites for a Sporting Rifle Comparison of the Three Principal Kinds Final Choice . ... 359 CONTENTS. BOOK IV. THE VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS AND THE ACCESSORIES USED WITH THEM. CHAPTEE I. THE PARTS COMMON TO ALL SHOT-GUNS. PAGE General Remarks The Barrel The Breech Proving The Lock The Stock The Trigger and Guard Percussioning Case- hardening Browning The Cleaning-rod and Ramrod . . .212 CHAPTER II. THE MUZZLE-LOADING PERCUSSION GUN. The Barrel Various Kinds of Breech The Lock The Stock- Ramrod Or Loading-rod The Entire Percussion Gun and its Performances Loading and Cartridges Cleaning The Gun- case and its Contents Price of Guns . 233 CHAPTER III. BREECH-LOADING GUNS. General Principles The Lefaucheaux Gun Bastin's Modification of it The Needle-Gun of Needham Lancaster's Combination of the Two Count Chateauvillier's Gun Choice of Breech- loader Loading of Cartridges Cleaning 254 CHAPTER IV. PUNT-GUNS. Colonel Hawker's Punt-Guns Breech-loading Punt-Guns . . . .293 CHAPTER Y. ON THE CHOICE OF GUNS AND THE MODES OF TRYING THEM. Desiderata in the Shot-gun "Weight Length Pattern Penetra- tion Absence of Recoil Safety Quickness of Loading Result of the Field Gun Trial of 1859 Breech-loaders versus Muzzle-loaders . 295 CONTENTS. XI BOOK Y. THE SPORTING RIFLE. CHAPTER I. THE THEORY OF RIFLE SHOOTING, AND THE MODE OF RIFLING THE BARREL. PAGE Definition of the Rifle Velocity diminished by Rifling a Smooth Bore Greatest at the moment when the Ball leaves the Muzzle Varieties in the Form of the Grooves almost Infinite The Barrel Method of Rifling Technical Terms 305 CHAPTER II. THE MUZZLE-LOADING SPORTING RIFLE. General Remarks Purdey's Two-grooved Rifle The Single and Double Belted Ball The Enfield Rifle and Pritchett Ball- Lancaster's Oval Spiral General Jacoh's Four-grooved Rifle The Four and Five-sided Bore, with Rounded Angles of Major Nuthall and Mr. Boucher Whitworth's Hexagonal Rifle Poly- Grooved Bores Varieties of Balls Single and Double Rifles .315 CHAPTER III. BREECH-LOADING RIFLES AND REVOLVERS APPLICABLE TO SPORTING PURPOSES. General Remarks Prince's Rifle Terry and Calisher's Restell's Leetch's Westley Richards' The Lancaster Needham's The Lefaucheaux Bastin's Gilbert Smith's (American) Sharpe's Revolving Rifles and Pistols 328 CHAPTER IV. THE ACCESSORIES OF THE RIFLE. Bullet-moulds Casting Bullets Swedging Machine Patches Cartridges Ramrods Plain and Telescope Sights Rifle Powder Flasks Rests 348 CHAPTER Y. CHOICE OF A RIFLE FOR SPORTING PURPOSES. Requisites for a Sporting Rifle Comparison of the Three Principal Kinds Final Choice . ... 359 Xll CONTENTS. BOOK VI. THE GAME PKESEKVER'S GUIDE. CHAPTER I. DUTIES OF THE GAMEKEEPER. PAGE Onerous Nature of the Task Honesty Knowledge of Law neces- sary Numbers required The Keeper's Gun Selection of Preserve or Shooting Contracts for taking Moors^or Manors Certificate 361 CHAPTER II. REARING GAME. The Kinds which can be reared artificially Methods of obtaining Eggs Hatching Bearing Keeping Tame Pheasants Turning Out Bearing Game in a Wild State 368 CHAPTER III. VERMIN AND THE MODES OP DESTROYING THEM. The Cat Marten Fox Polecat Stoat Weasel Bat Hedge- hog Eagle Kite Peregrine Falcon Buzzard Marsh Harrier Hen Harrier Montague's Harrier Sparrow Hawk Hobby Merlin Kestrel Barn Owl Brown Owl Baven Crow Hooded Crow Jackdaw Magpie Jay Traps and Trapping The Vermin Terrier Poison, and the Mode of laying it ... 381 CHAPTER IV. POACHERS, AND THE BEST MODES OF COUNTERACTING THEIR SCHEMES. General Bemarks Labourers the best Preservers of Game, as they are also the worst Poachers The Certificated Poacher The Regular Poacher, and his Proceedings 416 CHAPTER V. THE GAME LAWS. General Bemarks English. Game Law of 1831 Law for permitting the killing of Hares in England Scotch Law, including that permitting the killing of Hares, and also the Law of Trespass Irish Game Laws , . 423 LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. GUNS, PLANS, ETC. FIG. PAGE 1. Target Kifle Shooting 95 2. The Puzzle Peg 133 4. Ferret muzzle 155 5. Ditto 156 6. Gun Gauge 172 7. Ballistic Pendulum 183 8. Gun Carriage 196 9. Powder Flask, Shot Pouch, and Cap Holder 211 10. Bar of Damascus Iron 214 11 a. Damascus Barrels 215 11&. Fine-grained Damascus 215 lie. Imitation Damascus 216 12. Stub Twist 216 13. Laminated Iron 217 14. Stub Damascus 217 15. Charcoal Iron 218 16. Twopenny Iron 219 17. Sham Damn 219 18. Breadth of Rod in best Guns 220 1 9. Breadth of Rod in common Guns 220 20. Provisional Proof Marks 226 21. Definitive Proof Marks 226 22. Stock with Safety Guard 228 23. Safety Guard 230 24. Modern Breech 234 25. Joe Manton's Breech 234 26. Nipples 236 XIV LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. PIG. PAGE 27. The Greeiier-Horton Breech 237 28. Percussion Gun Lock 238 29. Lock Plate and Bridle 238 30. Striker and Tumbler 238 31. Mainspring and Swivel 239 32. Spring for Tumbler 239 33. The Lefaucheaux Gun 256 34. Back-actioned Lever 257 35. Section of Loaded Cartridge and Chamber 258 36. Bastin's Breech-Loader 263 37. Bastin's Gun, open 264 38. Lever and Slide to Bastin's Gun 265 39. Needham's Needle Gun, closed 267 40. Breech Plug and Lock, screwed up 268 41. Breech Plug and Lock-cylinder 268 42. Under surface of Barrels 269 43. The Needle 271 44. The Mainspring 272 45. The Screw Cam 272 46. Scear-spring, Scear, and Trigger 272 47. The Bolt 273 48. Section of Loaded Cartridge 274 49. Loaded Cartridge 274 50. Lancaster's Gun, closed 277 51. Cartridge Extractor 277 52. Lancaster's Shot-gun 278 53. Face of False Breech 280 54. Side View of Needle 280 55. Perforated Copper Disc 281 56. Section of Loaded Cartridge 281 57. Cartridge-case 282 58. The Chateauvillier Needle Gun 283 59. Chateauvillier Gun, open 284 60. Section of Chateauvillier Gun, with a perspective View of the Locks 285 61. Trulock and Harris's Cartridge- loading Tool 288 62. Bussey's Cartridge-holder 291 63. Shoulder Duck Gun 293 64. Needham's Breech-loading Punt Gun 294 65. Results of Shooting at Various Distances ....... 308 66. Rifling Machine 312 LIST OP ENGRAVINGS. XV PIG. FAGB 67. Driving Wheel of Rifling Machine 313 68. Double-barrelled Purdey Rifle 316 69. Purdey Rifle 316 70. Section of Purdey Rifle, and view of ball 317 71. Belted Spherical Balls 317 72. Major Nuthall's Rifle 320 73. Mr. Boucher's Ball 320 74. Section of Mr. Boucher's Rifle 320 75. Whitworth's Ball and Rifle 324 76. Greener's Bullet 325 77. Crenulated and Plain Cylindro-Conoidal Balls 326 78. Pritchett's Bullets 327 79. Prince's Rifle, closed 329 80. Prince's Rifle, open 330 81. Under side of Prince's Rifle 331 82. View of Terry and Calisher's Rifle 332 83. Section of Terry and Calisher's Rifle . 333 84. Restell's Rifle, open 337 85. Leetch's Rifle, opened for Loading 338 86. Westley Richards' new Rifle, open, and section of the Barrel . 339 87. Westley Richards' Rifle, closed 34- 88. Gilbert Smith's American Rifle 344 89. Dean's Revolving Rifle 346 90. Lock, Cylinder, and Trigger of Dean's Revolver 347 91. Greenfield's Swedge 352 92. Patch Cylinder . . 354 93. Captain Conolly's Rifle Rest 358 94. Pen for young Pheasants 374 95. Hurdle for Pheasant Pen . 377 96. Inhaler for Gapes 379 97. Hawk Trap .405 98. View and Section of Box Trap 406 99. Ground Plan of Box Trap 407 100. The Mock Pheasant 421 XVI LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. ANIMALS, ETC. FACING PAGE Pigeon Shooting at Hornsey Wood . 12 Group of Pointers 113 Setters 115 Springers 135 Cockers 136 Deerhounds 143 Retrievers 144 Water Spaniels 146 Rabbit Terriers 150 White and Dark Ferrets 152 The Marten and Polecat 382 The Stoat and Weasel - 384 The Kite 387 The Peregrine Falcon 389 The Buzzard 390 The Hen Harrier 392 The Sparrow Hawk 393 The Hobby 394 The Merlin 395 The Kestrel . . 396 THE SHOT-GUN AND SPOETING EIFLE, BOOK I. VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. GENERAL REMARKS FIRST LESSONS IN SHOOTING HEDGE POPPING ROOK SHOOTING WITH THE SHOT-GUN AND RIFLE. THE object of the following pages is to afford assistance to the young sportsman in the use of the shot-gun and rifle, and in the selection of the kinds of each best suited to the particular sport which may be chosen for his amusement. It must be obvious, that in the early stages of this inquiry something must be taken for granted, because, without a knowledge of the exact purposes for which a gun is wanted, it cannot be advantageously chosen; and, in the same way, those purposes cannot be fully entered into, unless the reader is acquainted with the accessories to his sport which may be essential to it. For the sake of convenience, the plan will be here adopted of giving a general description in Book I. of the various kinds of shooting; the more detailed particulars of the dogs, guns, rifles, &c., employed being added in the subsequent books. Whenever, therefore, the reader wants to know, for instance, how to load his gun or rifle, or the kind best suited to his purpose, he must search in Book IY. for what he wants; while the dogs, ponies, &c., used with the gun, will B 2 VARIETIES OP SHOOTING. be found described at length in Book II.; and the best modes of trapping vermin, and of rearing and preserving game in the FOURTH BOOK. It will thus be made clear, that in the present book I shall proceed to describe in general terms only the various sports known as grouse and par- tridge shooting, covert shooting, &c., giving such particular directions as will enable the tyro to master each, and beginning with those methods which are the most easily practised, and which are, at the same time, the most likely to make him ultimately expert in all branches of shooting. FIRST LESSONS IN SHOOTING. Before the intending shooter ventures to practise upon any living object, he should make himself completely master of the tool which he is to employ. It is not necessary, per- haps, in all cases, that he should understand the mechanism of its locks, or that he should know how it has been con- structed; but he should, at all events, have learned how to load his gun or rifle in a safe and proper manner, and the best and safest mode of putting the various parts together, as he takes them out of his gun case. For the purpose of gaining this information he will do well to consult some experienced person, from whom he will readily learn by demonstration that which would possibly take him a long time to acquire from the pages in which it is described in its proper place in this manual. But in whichever mode the knowledge is to be obtained, it is absolutely essential to the safety of the shooter and his friends that it should not be neglected ; and until he has learnt to put his gun together, to cock and uncock it, to load it and to discharge it properly, he must carefully avoid using it indoors or out. At the same time he should diligently study the following general rules for the preven- tion of accidents, which should never under any circum- stances, or with any gun, be overlooked : 1. Never let the muzzle of the gun be pointed at any living object, excepting that which is intended to be hit. 2. In carrying the gun three positions only are allow- able, excepting at the moment of firing. Firstly, with the trigger-guard on the forearm, and the muzzle pointing TAKING AIM. 3 towards the ground. Secondly, with the stock in the hand, the striker resting against the shoulder, and the muzzle point- ing towards the sky. And, thirdly, with the hands laying hold of the gun as in the position for firing, but with the stock against the right hip, and the muzzle pointing towards the sky. This last is the proper position at the moment when a shot is anxiously anticipated, as in walking up to dogs pointing, or when expecting rabbits to cross a narrow ride. 3. The directions for loading must vary according to the kind of gun used, the precautions proper to the muzzle-loader being quite useless if applied to the breech-loader. The young shooter is therefore referred to the directions for load- ing each in their proper places. 4. Every kind of gun with which I am acquainted may be left at half-cock, or bolted in a corresponding manner; and this is the safest position for it to be in when not imme.- diately wanted. It is of the greatest importance that the tyro should practise the cocking and uncocking of his gun, so as to be certain that he can accomplish it without any chance of the cock slipping from his fingers, and at the same time to avoid a partial cocking only, by which the striker, or cock, is only slightly held in its place, and is liable to slip down and cause a discharge on the slightest jar. The cause of this will be fully explained hereafter; but in practice all that is necessary is to take great care that the striker is raised to the half-cock, when there will be a peculiar click heard and felt. In letting down the lock from " full -cock" to "half-cock," the striker must be suffered to pass this notch, the finger being on the trigger, and when well below it must be brought up again till it is securely fixed. 5. Take care that the charge does not become loose in the barrel, from the wads being too small for its calibre. Avoid also any chance of snow or dirt getting into the muzzle. A neglect of any of these precautions may lead to the bursting of the gun. TAKING AIM. When the gun is thus mastered in the hand, the next thing to be done is to make the hand and eye combine together to take an aim, which may be either at a fixed 4 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. (dead or sitting) shot, or at a moveable one, as at a bird flying or a hare running. In learning to hit a dead mark) which is usually the first step in shooting, the gun may be made familiar to the eye in-doors as well as out; and with the ordinary percussion gun practice may be afforded with a cap only, which will put out a candle at the distance of a couple of yards. A small bore (16 or 18) should be chosen, and then putting the cap on, the gun is brought up to the shoulder, and carrying the eye along the barrel when the " sight" is seen to cover the candle, the trigger is pulled smartly, and if correctly aimed the light is extinguished. By repeating this again and again until the feat is performed with certainty and celerity, a sufficient amount of control over the gun is obtained, which will be found to serve the purpose of facilitating the subsequent stages. Next load the gun with a small charge, say two drachms of powder and three-quarters of an ounce of shot, and then carrying the left hand well forward beneath the bar- rel, so as to steady the aim, point the gun in the same way as before at some fixed object thirty yards off. This should be surrounded by a flat surface, which will show the whole pattern made by the shot; and if these are scattered pretty nearly all round the central point, the aim has been a good one. On the other hand, if there are more on one side than the other, there has been some fault committed, and the tyro must repeat his effort till he has acquired skill enough to throw the centre of his charge of shot on the object of his aim. It seems a very simple process to do this ; but the beginner will find that it will take him some days to master it satisfactorily, and until he has succeeded in this, he should not attempt more. He must remember that at thirty or forty yards the circle well covered by his shot is from forty to thirty-six inches in diameter ; and therefore it does not follow that because he kills a bird sitting on a post at that distance, he has really aimed correctly at it. It may have happened that the centre of the charge was nearly two feet on one side of it, but a stray shot on the outside proved fatal, and so his luck, and not his skill, served him. Hence an iron plate whitewashed, with a black centre, or a large sheet of paper having also a mark in the middle, will form TAKING AIM. 5 a far better target for practice than any small bird or other similar object, which is nevertheless much more tempting to the eye. Shooting flying is a much more difficult art, and a long apprenticeship is necessary to acquire it. Considerable differ- ence of opinion exists as to the use of both eyes in this kind of shooting, or of the right one only ; but my own belief is that few people really use both at the moment of shooting, even if they keep them both open. But, whether shutting the left or not, there must be no attempt at looking along the barrel, the correct pointing of the gun being acquired by looking at the object to be shot at, and then instinctively directing the gun towards it. In doing this the line of sight must coincide nearly with the upper surface of the barrel, if the butt of the gun is at the shoulder. Still the eye must not be taken off the object to look along the barrel, or the aim will be imperfect, and the shot probably a "miss." It is quite true that some sportsmen adopt the opposite plan, and invariably wait till they can bring the " sight" to cover the object aimed at ; but they are always slow shots, and are almost sure to shoot behind every variety of bird or ground game crossing them ; because in this case they should aim in front, proportioning the extent according to the velocity at which the animal is moving. I have heard of an instance in which a partridge flying down wind, was killed at a distance (carefully measured) of one hundred yards from the shooter, who assured me that he aimed, as he thought, fully five yards in front of the bird as it was crossing, and flying exactly parallel with the opposite hedge into which it fell. A very good plan for beginners is to get a friend to throw a potato or turnip into the air, varying its direction at each throw. It should not be sent directly up into the air, because there is then a moment of time at which it is stationary, and may be hit almost as easily as a dead mark ; but by throwing straight away, or from left to right and vice versa, the flight of birds may be imitated, and the shooter may obtain prac- tice in everything but the excitement produced by the " whirr" of the partridge or pheasant, to which, however, he must accustom himself by practice before his nerves will be steady enough to allow him to shoot well. VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. HEDGE POPPING. When the potato can be pretty certainly hit, let the young shooter try his hand at any bird flying by in the fields, hedges being generally beaten for this purpose ; or if he has no opportunity for this, let him procure some sparrows, and shoot them either from the hand or from a trap, such as is used in pigeon trap-shooting (which see p. 14). Should the sparrows be too quick, put their heads through a hole in a small piece of paper, which will retard their flight, and in course of time practice will enable this to be dispensed with. Swallows are bad marks because they are occasionally almost still while hawking, and can then be readily shot. In every case the shooter must endeavour to aim in front of a bird or other animal moving quickly, and for most birds of tolerably quick flight, at forty yards' distance a foot will not be too much to allow on the average. So also in animals approaching or leaving the gun, the aim must be over them, or they will inevitably be missed. With these directions, if patiently and assiduously carried out, the young sportsman will only want to acquire steadiness of nerve to become as skilful in shooting game as, after proper practice, he ought to be in dropping sparrows and other birds of similar small value. ROOK SHOOTING WITH TIIE SHOT-GUN AND RIFLE. Rook shooting with the sJiot-gun is an amusement which will be of little service in improving the young sportsman, because he will get few flying shots, and those at sitting birds are of very little more use in giving him practice than a target, or a sparrow on the housetop. Young rooks are on the average of seasons out of the nest towards the middle or end of May, and just before they can fly from the trees is the time generally seized by those who care about the " bag." If left till they can fly well, the first report of the gun or rifle sends them all off out of shot, and hence the air-gun and cross-bow are occasionally selected for rook shooting on account of their noiseless action. But even with the gun a PIGEON AND SPARROW TRAP-SHOOTING. 7 flying shot may occasionally be obtained, and no sportsman worthy of the name would think of shooting at rooks while sitting, excepting with the object of filling a pie. A strong shooting gun and No. 5 shot will be required, or a rifle of small bore specially made for rook and rabbit shooting, as will be explained under the head of THE EIFLE. When the latter is used, the rook may be shot sitting without any com- punction, because, at one hundred yards, which is often the distance of the shooter from his mark, it is by no means easy to hit so small an object. With the shot-gun, on the con- trary, the distance is the only difficulty, and it is often only by getting directly under the trees, that these birds can be brought within forty or fifty yards, which is a fair range for an ordinary gun. Eley's cartridges may be used even at one hundred yards, with a good prospect of cutting down young rooks ; but unless the trees are low, when loose shot will succeed, I should strongly recommend the rifle, as being more sportsmanlike than the shot-gun. The particular kind of rifle suited to this purpose will be hereafter described. CHAPTER II. PIGEON AND SPARROW TRAP-SHOOTING. REMARKS LAWS OP PIGEON SHOOTING PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR PIGEON AND SPARROW TRAP-SHOOTING. PIGEON SHOOTING for some years past has been confined to the frequenters of low public-houses in the large towns ; but in the year 1858 the amusement suddenly became fashion- able, Lord Huntiiigfield, the Earl of Stamford, the Hon. Dudley Ward, and Mr. Bateson, having repeatedly shot matches at Hornsey Wood House, which has now taken the place of the Red House, Battersea, once the scene of the triumphs of Mr. Osbaldeston, Captain Ross, and others of almost equal note. A great improvement has been intro- 8 VARIETIES OP SHOOTING. duced by getting rid of the small cannon which were for- merly in vogue, and substituting the ordinary sportsman's double-barrelled gun, with occasionally two birds to be shot at " right and left." Greater quickness than before even is consequently required in shooting; for not only has the shooter to take his first bird as soon as he can, but he has also to consider his second. The sport may now constitute pretty good practice preparatory to game-shooting ; but it has the objection that it encourages quick shooting too much, and in the early part of the season it tends to lead the young sportsman astray. Still it gives considerable command over the second barrel, and, though a good pigeon shot may not be equally clever at grouse or partridges, he will assuredly be better after this practice than he was before. Sparrows are thought by some to be more useful than pigeons in teaching shooting ; but the distance within which No. 7 or 8 will kill them with certainty is not more than thirty-five yards, and thus over-rapidity is still more likely to be acquired than in pigeon shooting. LAWS OF PIGEON TRAP-SHOOTING. Tlie following rules are those usually adopted in the present day, but they are not received as generally binding; and in any conditions for a match or sweepstakes the rules by which the shooting is to be regulated should be distinctly specified : 1. Two referees and an umpire to be chosen, whose decision shall be final. 2. A boundary to the shooting-ground must be provided, if not already in existence. It should be, if possible, a boarded fence or a wall, and situated at from eighty to one hundred yards from the traps. These should be placed at twenty-one to twenty-five yards from the shooter; and if five in number, in a curve before him, each being equi- distant from the mark, and from five to six yards apart. In the conditions the number of traps should be specified, and whether they are to be pulled at discretion or by tossing ; in the latter case, called H and T traps. A bird killed according to the conditions is scored "a fair bird;" if LAWS OP PIGEON TRAP-SHOOTING. 9 not so killed, a " lost bird j" and if another is to be allowed, a " no bird." 3. The bore and charge of the guns to be used must be specified ; also whether single or double barrels. Any shooter using a drachm more shot, or a bore of a size larger than that named, to be disqualified and forfeit his stake. 4. The shooter to call " pull" when he is at the mark ready to shoot. Should the trap be pulled without the word being given, the shooter may take the bird or not ; but if he shoots, the bird must be considered taken. If the trap is pulled and the bird does not rise, it is " no bird " at the option of the shooter ; but if he snoots at it either on the ground or trap, or after it rises, and miss, it is to be scored " lost." 5. A bird must be shot while on the wing in order to score a " fair bird," excepting with the second barrel in double guns, and it must be gathered before passing the boundary either by the shooter or deputy. In doing this one person only must officiate, and he must gather the bird without the aid of any kind of implement. Should the bird perch on the boundary, and then fall back into the ground, it is " lost ;" or if it should perch in any tree or building, and then fall to the ground, it is also " lost." But if a bird, so hard hit by the shooter that, in the opinion of the referee, it would have fallen within bounds, is shot at by a scout, the shooter may be allowed another bird on the order of the referee ; but if a bird is palpably missed, the referee may give it as a lost bird, even if killed within bounds by a scout. A bird once beyond the boundary is " lost," even if it falls dead within it. 6. In case of a miss-fire another bird is to be allowed, if the gun was properly loaded and cocked, and the miss arose from the cap or other detonating material not exploding ; put if, after giving the word "pull," the trigger is not bulled, or the gun is not properly loaded and capped, or does not go off owing to the shooter's own negligence, the bird is to be scored " lost." 7. If, in the opinion of the referee, the shooter is mechani- cally baulked by his antagonist, or by any person other than his own backers, he may be allowed another bird. 10 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. 8. Neither of the shooter's feet is to extend beyond the shooting mark, under any pretence whatever, until after his gun is discharged. 9. In single shooting, if more than one bird is liberated, the shooter may call "no bird" if he likes, and claim another; but if he shoots he must abide by the conse- quences. In shooting with H and T traps, according to the toss, the trap H or T must be pulled at each shot. 10. In double shooting, when more than two traps are pulled, the shooter may call "no bird," and claim two more; but if he shoots he must take the consequences. 11. Either party may, on depositing a sovereign in the hands of the referee, claim to have the charge of his antago- nist drawn ; but if it should prove not to be over the stipu- lated weight, he must forfeit the sum so deposited to his opponent. 12. Each shooter in a match or sweepstakes to be at the shooting mark at the expiration of five minutes from the last shot. But, in case of accident, he may claim an extra quarter of an hour once in the course of the match. 13. In case of a tie between two or more in a sweepstakes, it must be shot off during the same day, if there is sufficient light, unless the prize is divided by agreement. If, through want of light, it cannot be finished at once, it must be shot off on the first available day. PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR PIGEON AND SPARROW TRAP-SHOOTING. The gun for pigeon shooting should be a very hard hitter, for these birds, when really strong " blue rocks," will take a great deal of killing. For double shots, which of course re- quire two barrels, the usual bore selected is 12, and the charge 2f to 3 drachms of powder and 1 J to 1J ounce of shot, which may be No. 5 or 6, at the fancy of the shooter. If he is a very quick shot, and takes his bird at or very near to the trap, No. 6 will suit him well for his first barrel and No. 5 for his second. But a slow shot will do better to load both his barrels with No. 5. In Book IY., the question re- lating to muzzle loaders versus breech loaders will be fully PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 11 considered ; but I shall here remark that the latter kind can pretend to no advantage over the former in pigeon shooting, while it is still doubtful whether it quite comes up to it in strength of shooting. Most professed pigeon-shots, there- fore, use the muzzle-loader; but certainly I have seen very good work done with the new kind of gun. The kind of pigeon which is considered the best is the " blue rock," a fast and very hardy bird, which appears to be the nearest approach to the wild rock pigeon or dove, and is or should be marked and coloured like that bird. Many other varieties of the common domestic pigeon are, however, very generally used in pigeon matches ; but if the conditions specify " blue rocks only to be used," the birds should answer to the following description : Beak reddish brown ; iris pale orange, approaching to yellow; head and neck bluish grey, the sides of the latter with green and purple iridescent re- flections; shoulders, upper part of the back, and wing- coverts grey, the greater coverts having a black bar near the end; primary and secondary quill feathers bluish grey; tail feathers twelve, both ends being light grey, with a lead-grey middle; throat purplish green; all the under parts pearl grey ; legs and toes reddish brown ; claws brown. If the pigeons are not of a good sort, or are obtained from inn-yards or other places where they become tame, they do not fly the moment the trap is pulled, nor do they go off at a fast pace. Hence the person who supplies them ought to be particular in obtaining them from retired farm-houses, and it is no uncommon thing for Barber (the chief London purveyor) to send 200 miles for such birds before a great match. The usual price in London is 14s. to 15*. a dozen, but in the country they may often be obtained at 65. One of the most common tricks played off upon the match-shooter is by means of this difference in the birds, where the person who pulls the string is aware of the quality of each. Thus, supposing he sees that certain traps contain strong birds, and others the reverse, he pulls the latter for the shooter that he wishes to favour, and reserves the former for his opponent. Hence it should always be a condition that each shooter should pull for his opponent either by himself or a deputy, and this plan would tend to prevent occasional trickery, and still more 12 VARIETIES OP SHOOTING. frequently complaints of it without foundation. Just before putting the birds into the trap, it is usual for the man to pull a few feathers from the tail coverts, which is done to make them lively, and thus go off keenly. Sometimes, how- ever, one or two wing-feathers are included in the pull, with the intention of causing the flight to be slow, and for the purposes of fraud ; but the person supplying the birds gene- rally knows the quality of each too well to require to have recourse to so clumsy an expedient. In gathering a doubtful bird, great quickness of eye, legs, and hand are required ; for it often happens that one will drop from a momentary stunning without being winged or mortally wounded in the body or head. In such a case, the moment the man approaches within a yard or two, the pigeon rises, and probably just scrambles over the boundary. The skilful gatherer creeps stealthily and in a crouching attitude up to within a couple or three yards of his victim, when stooping as low as he can without interfering with the action of his legs, he rushes with a short and very quick action of them to and by the bird, and while passing, picks it up by the head, or sometimes, when he has a large hand, by the back, just behind the wings. To do this neatly requires great practice, and as it is of considerable importance to success in a match, a good gatherer is highly valued and pro- portionally paid. Dogs are sometimes used to retrieve pigeons, but they are not nearly so clever as such active men as the son of the celebrated Barber, the well-known London purveyor of pigeons. The attitude in shooting varies according to the number of traps used. Thus with one or even two traps only, it is customary to adopt the ordinary shooting attitude, with the left leg advanced ; but where five traps are used, this posi- tion does not give a sufficient command of ground, the five traps nearly occupying a fifth of the surrounding circle. Hence the skilful pigeon-shot stands square to the front, with both toes touching the mark, and with heels about two feet apart, more or less, according to his height. In this position, being opposite the centre trap, he can turn either way equally well; and it is found that it gives him far more facility, especially in using the second barrel, than the ordi- PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 13 nary shooting attitude. Formerly it was the custom to make it a rule that the gun should be held below the shoulder until the trap is pulled, but this led to so many wrangles, and on the whole there is so little gained by having the gun up, except with single traps, that there is now no restriction whatever. When one trap only is employed, which is very rarely the case in a match, the gun certainly ought not to be at the shoulder, because the shooter then covers the trap, and the moment it is open and the bird rises, he pulls, with a great chance of killing, especially if the bird goes straight away. If, however, it flies right or left, there is no great advantage, even with one trap. When five are used, it is a positive disadvantage to the shooter, unless there is collusion between him and the puller of the traps, who may in some way indicate which he is about to pull, and then the gun may cover that one in readiness each time. Or the shooter may make his selection, and the puller, seeing which he covers, may give him that bird every time; and this trick I have certainly seen played on more than one occasion. Where, however, there is any positive fraud practised, it is more commonly done by means of the quality of the birds used for each of the antagonists. It is to avoid these several chances of trickery that it is sometimes arranged for each shooter to pull for his antagonist, and certainly there can be no objec- tion to the plan if both are skilful enough to execute it well ; but it requires some little practice to avoid showing before- hand which string is going to be pulled, and at the same time run no risk of pulling more than one. In shooting at pigeons when they turn right or left, the gun must be aimed considerably in front of the bird, if it is a fast one, and turning either way, and over its back if going straight away. Where two barrels are allowed, and the bird is not killed dead, the second should be given as soon as possible if the wing is not evidently broken ; for otherwise it may get out of shot, and the second barrel is then useless. So also if the bird is hit and not disabled, and dropping to the ground, walks deliberately away, the second barrel should be let go, or the distance may be too great when it rises. A shot on the ground, when a bird is without doubt hit, is permitted ; and it reckons "dead," although it could probably have escaped the boundary if not shot a second time. 14 VARIETIES OP SHOOTING. In sparrow trap-shooting, the rise is twenty-one yards, and the boundary from forty to sixty yards from the traps. The rules are the same as for pigeons in all other respects, and the directions for shooting will also apply, the sole difference being in the size of the shot, which may be No. 8, 9, or 10. When two barrels are used, No. 10, or even dust-shot may be employed for the first barrel if the gun scatters very much, and No. 8 or 9 for the second ; but so much depends on the pattern made at thirty and forty yards by the gun intended to be used, that no positive directions can be given suitable to all cases. The best plan is to use the largest size which will cover a target sufficiently close to prevent a sparrow escaping at each of the above distances ; and as this can readily be tried, the experiment should never be neglected. Sparrows often get away when hard hit with No. 9 or 10, which sizes do not always break a wing-bone at forty yards, and therefore, unless, as before remarked, the gun scatters very much, No. 7 or 8 should be preferred. CHAPTER III. OPEN SHOOTING. GKOUSE SHOOTING PARTRIDGE SHOOTING SNIPE SHOOTING. BEFORE proceeding to describe the nature of each kind of shooting, it will be necessary to allude to the varieties of grouse, partridges, and snipe respectively, to the nature of their habitat, the dogs used in finding them, and the best kind of gun for killing them. GROUSE SHOOTING. The varieties of grouse which are met with in this country are four, but in America, and in other parts of the globe, they are vastly more numerous. Of these four the capercaillie is very rarely found in Great Britain, having only recently been VARIETIES OF GROUSE. 15 re-introduced into Scotland after being completely extermi- nated. It is, however, tolerably common in Sweden, but is every year becoming more and more scarce there. The black grouse (or black cock and grey hen, as the male and female birds are called) is, on the contrary, common enough; but the shooting of this variety is not to be compared with that of the red grouse, which is the kind usually meant in speak- ing of grouse or grouse shooting. Black grouse are met with in the south of England, as well as in the north; and in Scotland, and are also commonly found in Scandinavia, and occasionally in Russia, Poland, Germany, France, and Holland. On the other hand, red grouse are peculiar to the British isles, being found in England, Ireland, and Wales, as well as Scotland, which last has, however, given the distinc- tive name " Scoticus" to this species. Lastly, the ptarmigan, though occasionally met with in the Highlands of Scotland, is chiefly confined to still colder climes, being common in Sweden and Norway, from which many are annually sent to the markets of this country. The following is a more de- tailed description of each : The CAPERCAILLIE, WOOD GROUSE, or COCK OF THE WOOD (Tetrao urogallus) is so much larger than the other Tetrao- nidce, while at the same time it has enough of the family character to identify it, that it is needless to occupy space in minutely describing its generic characters. Since the year 1760, or thereabouts, this fine bird has been quite unknown in Scotland, but after several failures in other hands, Lord Breadalbane has now succeeded in rearing a stock, which it is hoped may become completely naturalized in Scotland. In 1838 and 1839 Thomas F. Buxton, Esq., collected forty- four birds, two-thirds of which were hens, and presented them to his lordship, who turned some out into the forest, retaining the rest in a large aviary. Both sections bred well, and the stock is now greatly increased, but disease within the last few years has somewhat thinned their numbers again. There seems, indeed, to be no difficulty in rearing the caper- caillie in confinement; the Duchess of Athol and the late Earl of Derby having each succeeded in effecting the object to some extent. It also freely breeds with the black grouse, the hybrid partaking of the characters of each. The male 16 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. bird is nearly as large as the turkey, the female being con- siderably less. The nest is made on the ground, and the hen lays about eight or nine eggs. The BLACK GROUSE or BLACK-COCK (Tetrao tetrix), the female of which is the GREY HEN, is chiefly confined in Great Britain to Scotland, and the most northern counties of Eng- land ; but it is also found in Sussex, Surrey, Berkshire, Hampshire, Dorsetshire, Devonshire, Somersetshire, Worces- tershire, Staffordshire, and Shropshire. On the Continent it is common enough in the most northerly countries, especially Scandinavia and Russia. The generic characters are as follows : Body of the male black, with a beautiful glossy blue over the neck and back; wing coverts brownish, greater coverts white, forming a white spot on the shoulder when the wing is closed ; tail black, and much forked ; legs and thighs covered with mottled feathers ; toes toothed ; the eye has a red spot above and a white one below it ; weight about four pounds. The hen is only half the weight of the cock ; in colour she is barred with dusky red and black above, and dusky red and white below ; her tail is slightly forked, but not nearly so much so as that of the cock. The length of the black cock is twenty-two inches, of the grey hen seventeen to eighteen. The nest is made on the ground, frequently under a low thick bush, and with very few materials. The eggs are about six or eight in number, of a yellowish white, spotted and speckled with orange brown ; they are two inches long, by one inch five lines. Black grouse do not pair, and the tens are not attended by the cocks from the time when the former begin to sit, after which the males assemble together, and until the latter part of the season are rarely seen to associate either with the young birds or with the old hens. In their first plumage all the young birds re- semble the hen, but towards the end of August or the be- ginning of September, the young cocks moult and assume the black colour peculiar to the adult condition of the sex. While undergoing this transformation, these young birds are mottled with black, and look very ragged and patchy; but as the old cocks are tough and dry when dressed, these marks of youth are eagerly sought after by the gourmand. A young black- cock which has still a few grey feathers is in perfection, the VARIETIES OP GROUSE. 17 flavour of those with most of the grey feathers remaining being somewhat insipid. The food of the black-cock varies with the season ; in summer he feeds upon the tops of the heath, grass seeds, &c. ; in autumn berries of various kinds will be found in his crop, together with corn and other seeds in districts where this kind of food is plentiful ; lastly, in the winter, the young shoots of the various pine trees afford these birds the means of support in the absence of corn, which is, however, sometimes supplied to them in the same way as for pheasants. Black grouse breed both with the capercaillie and the pheasant, and even between them and the red grouse it has been asserted that in some rare in- stances a hybrid has been produced, one of which is figured in " The Moor and the Loch," by Mr. Colquhoun. There is also no doubfc that a hybrid between the black grouse and subalpine ptarmigan has been met with, one of them being represented in Yarrell's " British Birds," at page 349, as a part of the fauna of Scandinavia, on the authority of M. Nileson. Black grouse are easily reared in confinement, but require plenty of space. The RED GROUSE (Lagopus Scoticus) is peculiar to the British isles ; in the higher and colder parts of which they are to be found, inhabiting wild and extensive heaths and moors. This species differs from the capercaillie and black grouse in pairing, while they are polygamous. Red grouse are found in coveys or packs throughout the winter ; in the early part of which each of these is composed of the two old birds and their young ones, called a covey; but towards the latter part of the year several of these join together, some- times to a number greatly exceeding that of one brood, and then properly denominated a pack. The nest is formed of hay and grass, arranged in a hollow of the ground, generally under a tuft of heather. The eggs are from eight to fifteen in number, the ground colour being reddish white, closely covered with blotches of umber brown; length, one inch and three-quarters ; breadth, one inch and a quarter. The laying generally begins at the end of March, and is con- cluded towards the latter part of April or beginning of May. The young brood leave the nest as soon as hatched, and both the cock and hen watch them closely, taking them c 18 VAKIETIES OF SHOOTING. into those parts of the moor where their food is near the ground. The young birds feed on the shoots of the ling and fine leaves of the heather, together with the leaves and berries of the fine-leaved wortle. Both old and young will take grain or seeds of any of the grass tribe when they meet with them, in addition to the food which I have already alluded to, and which forms their regular diet. The general characters of the red grouse are as follows : Bill very short, and clothed at the base with feathers; upper mandible convex, and bent down at the point ; eyebrows naked ; wings short, concave, with the third and fourth feathers the longest; tail square at the end in most cases; legs and feet completely feathered; hind toe very short, and barely touching the ground with the tip of the nail. There is a great difference in the size and also in the plumage of grouse, according to the district in which they are found. All are more or less marked with brown, white, and black, but the shades of these, and consequently the predominating colour, will vary from a dark to a light brown. Mr. Yarrell thus minutely describes a male bird in his first year's plumage, killed in December : Beak black ; irides hazel, with a cre- scentic patch of vermilion-red skin over the eye, fringed at its tipper free edges; head and neck reddish brown, more rufous than any other part of the bird ; back, wing, and tail coverts chesnut brown, barred transversely and speckled with black ; distributed among the plumage are several feathers in which the ground colour is of a bright yellowish brown; all the quill feathers dark umber brown; the secondaries and the tertials edged on the outside, and freckled with lighter brown; the tail of eighteen feathers the seven on each outside dark umber brown, the four middle feathers chesnut brown, barred with black; on the breast the plumage is darker than on the sides, almost black, and tipped with white; the chesnut-brown feathers on the sides, flanks, belly, vent, and under tail coverts, tipped with white; legs and toes covered with short greyish-white feathers; claws long, bluish-brown colour at the base, nearly white at the end. The old male has many of the body-feathers tipped with yellow, and the red colour is of a lighter tint. Sometimes grouse are met with of a cream colour, and of VARIETIES OP GROUSE. 19 all intermediate shades. The whole length of the cock is about sixteen inches on the average, and his weight about twenty-four ounces and a half. The hen is smaller, averaging in weight about twenty-three ounces. The patch of naked skin over the eye is also smaller. The red and brown tints are likewise lighter in colour, and the plumage is more variegated. In the summer, all the feathers of the upper part of the head and neck are a yellowish chesnut with a few black spots ; those of the lower neck, breast, back, wing, and tail coverts, are brown, transversely barred with black and tipped with yellow. Red grouse have been bred in aviaries, and in this way they may be brought up in con- siderable numbers, but they are difficult birds to rear, and the plan is not a profitable one. Although usually pairing, there is reliable evidence that a single cock has been seen to mate with two hens in several instances. The PTARMIGAN (Lagopus albus) is the smallest of the grouse found in this country, and is now confined to the tops of the high ranges of hills in the northern parts of Scot- land and also in the Hebrides and Orkneys. In Ireland and Wales it is not known. On the Continent of Europe it is met with on most of the elevated mountain ranges, and its range extends to Greenland and the most northerly parts of North America. In Norway another species (Lagopus sub- alpinus) is often confounded with it; but this is a larger bird, and inhabits a higher range of the mountains. The male ptarmigan of Scotland has the following changes of plumage : In winter, the beak, lore, and a small patch behind the eye, are black; irides yellowish brown; over the eye a naked red skin; almost all the plumage pure white; shafts of the primary quill feathers black; the four upper tail feathers white, the fourteen other tail feathers black tipped with white; legs and toes white ; the claws black. The male in May and November has the throat white; head and neck mottled with blackish and speckled-grey feathers, a few others with narrow bars of black and ochrous yellow; the white feathers assuming the greyish black by a change of the colour, as particularly observed in progress in a male bird in March, when the few feathers which were then growing were all greyish black ; the breast, back, and upper tail feathers. c2 20 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. nearly uniform speckled grey ; the fourteen under tail feathers black ; the wings, the under surface of the body, and the legs white. The length of a male is fifteen inches and a quarter; the female is smaller than the male, and is pure white in winter, like the male already described, except that she has no short black feather before or behind the eye. By the end of April, the female has assumed almost as much mixture of feather (barred black and ochrous yellow with white tips) as the male bird has of those which are grey. According to Yarrell, a female bird from Scotland bought in the London market, during the second week in May, 1839, was much further advanced, having the whole of the head, neck, back, rump, upper tail coverts, upper part of the breast and sides, covered with feathers of greyish black arid yellow in bars, many of them still retaining the white line (see " Yarrell's British Birds," vol. ii. p. 367.) In September the upper surface has become of a mottled grey, and the under patches have some grey feathers among the yellow ones; as the autumn advances, the yellow feathers are shed, and then the grey ones, leaving the plumage of a pure white. The length of the female averages fourteen inches and a half. Like the red grouse, the ptarmigan pairs early in spring, and the hen lays eight to ten eggs, generally on the bare ground, among large stones. The eggs are yellowish white, sparingly blotched and spotted with dark brown, length one inch and two- thirds, breadth one inch and a sixth. The ptarmigan feeds on the berries, seeds, and young shoots of alpine plants. The brood or family keep together till the depth of winter, when they break up. They have never been reared in confine- ment; but in a wild state they are not so difficult to approach as the red grouse, sometimes appearing to be actually so dull and stupid, that, as Mr. Colquhoun asserts, by throwing a stone at the pack they may frequently be made to crouch on the ground till they are walked up. According to Mr. Macgillivray, " When squatted, they utter no sound, their object being to conceal themselves; and if you discover the one from which the cry has proceeded, you generally find him on the top of a stone, ready to spring off the moment you show any sign of hostility. If you throw a stone at him, he rises, utters his call, and is immediately joined by all the THE MOORS. 21 individuals around, which, to your surprise, if it be your first rencontre, you see spring up one by one from the bare ground. They generally fly off in a loose body, with a direct and moderately rapid flight, resembling, but lighter than, that of the red grouse, and settle on a distant part of the mountain, or betake themselves to one of the neigh- bouring summits, perhaps more than a mile distant. In winter several families of ptarmigan associate, forming a flock, and fifty in number have been seen together." THE MOORS. The capercaillie and the ptarmigan are both so rare that it is scarcely necessary to allude to the ground upon which they are found, beyond the slight notice which has been given of each in the several descriptions of these birds. But red grouse and black game constitute the staple of the grouse shooter's amusement, and the nature of the ground which they frequent should be well known before the young sports- man commits himself to this kind of work. With the ex- ception of deerstalking, there is no species of British sport which so thoroughly tasks the energies of man as grouse shooting, if it is pursued with energy and spirit; for though it may be possible for the lover of nature to saunter away a morning among the beautiful scenery which is generally displayed to his gaze, without any great fatigue, yet if the bag is to be filled, he must keep up a steady, unflagging walk over hill and dale, and generally over heather or rough ground of some kind, which will make him lift his legs higher than is convenient to muscles uneducated to the task. Now and then, also, he must expect to sink ankle deep, or a little deeper perhaps, in a bog, which species of ground is to be found on almost every moor. Indeed, it is from the peaty and naturally poor nature of the soil that those ex- tensive districts known as " moors" are not cultivated in the ordinary way; grasses of a very poor description, heather, and ling being their chief products, as far as the vegetable kingdom is concerned. Independently of game, sheep and cattle are the only stock which are fed on these moors, and the proportion of these per acre is very small as compared even 22 VARIETIES OP SHOOTING. with the downs of England. Of late years, by burning a large tract of heather every year, which greatly encourages the growth of grass for a time, the amount of stock which the moors will carry has been enormously increased ; but this gain to the sheep-farmer is a loss to the sportsman, inasmuch as that grouse require a high growth of heather for protection, and plenty of young shoots for food, both of which wants are interfered with by burning; in addition to which, in proportion to the numbers of the sheep, is the dis- turbance to the grouse increased, not merely from these animals themselves, but from the necessary supervision by the shepherds and their dogs. All these circumstances com- bined, together with the grouse disease, which seems to in- crease in proportion to the inroads of the sheep, appear to be gradually interfering with the moors as nurseries for game; but more serious than all is the system of poaching which is carried on, both in the breeding season and also in the autumn. The nests of these birds are now systematically robbed of their eggs, which are sold, partly to stock other moors, and partly to satisfy the appetites of gourmands, who care nothing how they spoil sport so long as their palates are gratified. This subject, however, will be more satisfactorily discussed under Book VI., in which the various devices of poachers will be met with corresponding remedies as far as they are known; and the nature of the grouse disease will also be discussed. From these remarks it will be obvious that the fatigue of walking the moors is not to be lightly encountered except by those in possession of health and strength. The invalid, or naturally weakly sportsman, should make up his mind either to put up with an inferior bag, or else he must take to a shooting pony, which will enable him to get over nearly as much ground as his more active friends. Furnished with a well-broken animal of this class he may generally keep within reach of his dogs ; but it will often happen, nevertheless, that he will be obliged to make slight detours, where an active man on foot could readily go straight to his point. The air of the moors is generally of a very bracing character, and many men can take severe exercise on them who would be incapable of going through a walk of half-a-dozen miles in length after partridges in the south. On some moors the BEST DOGS FOR GROUSE SHOOTING. 23 accommodation is pretty good, but generally speaking the sportsman must be content to rough it; and unless he takes his cook with him, he will find the fare of a very primitive character. Mountain mutton, salmon, and grouse are deli- cacies of the most delicious kind, but toujours perdrix tires any stomach, and a month of this fare, with no other addi- tion, will generally satisfy the most ardent admirer of such viands, especially if the exercise has been confined to the amount which a shooting pony gives ; while, on the contrary, a hard day's walking will make even oat-cakes taste well to the Englishman's palate, and that is no slight test of its good effects. BEST DOGS FOR GROUSE SHOOTING. This is a subject which has been discussed with great ani- mation ever since the sport became general, and it is one which is by no means settled to this day. The prepon- derance of evidence is, however, in favour of the setter, though latterly, I think, the pointer has been gaining ground, especially with those who use their dogs for partridges as well. There can be no doubt that each has several good qualities more fully developed than the other, but to counterbalance these are nearly as many bad ones, so that it is only by striking a balance that any opinion can be arrived at ; and as most people judge from the facts which they themselves have witnessed, so each person who forms an opinion will be a setter or pointer fancier according as he happens to have had a good one, or, perhaps a superior brace, of either of these dogs. That extraordinary animals of each kind are occasionally met with, no one will deny ; and it would generally be a toss up in any company whether there would be more votes in favour of the experience of the majority supporting the claims of the pointer or the setter ; but still, perhaps, it may be assumed that a slight preponderance as regards grouse (per se) would be found to exist in favour of the latter. The quantity of ground required to be beaten, the extent of the range, the rough nature of the surface, which quickly strips the feet and legs of the delicate pointer, all demand a dog with great power of endurance, considerable speed and range, and legs and feet well clothed with hair. These are all found 24: VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. fully developed in the setter, and his want of steadiness, as compared with that of the pointer, is soon cured by the work which he has to perform. So, also, although the season for grouse is three weeks earlier than that for partridges, yet the air is so cool on the moors that the dogs do not suffer nearly so much in August from heat as they do in September on the low grounds of Norfolk and Suffolk frequented by the partridge shooter. Water is also generally in abundance; and hence it is found by experience that a team of good setters will, in grousing, beat an equally good lot of pointers, each being composed of first-rate animals of their kind. Very many excellent dogs of the latter variety are met with occasionally, but as a class they are deficient in courage, and, partly, from being bred for partridge shooting, their range is too limited, and their feet and legs soon become sore for want of the natural covering of hair peculiar to the setter. A cross between the two, called " the dropper," is sometimes found to produce an excellent dog, combining the good qualities of each ; but to breed one good one in a dozen puppies is quite the highest average, the other eleven being gene- rally defective in some respects. Russian setters have also been tried in the north, but their coats are too long and woolly to work well in heather, and they have never been approved of there, nor are they now very common anywhere in this country. My advice, therefore, to those who want dogs for grouse shooting only, is to have a team of setters, taking care that the breed is a good one, and that they are well broken, and worked up to the day before the 12th of August, so as to insure their steadiness. If, however, the same dogs are also to be used in partridge shooting, it is quite a doubtful question ; but I should be inclined to prefer a hardy and high-couraged breed of pointers, as they are more readily made to accommodate the nature and extent of their range than are setters, who are naturally more self-willed and headstrong. Indeed, as a rule, it may be said that the setter is never broken; for however steady he may be, if he is allowed to rest for a week, his courage is so high that he will show a little wildness, while a thoroughly broken pointer is to be depended on from season to season, unless he is spoilt by bad shooting or bad management of some kind. DRESS AND ACCESSORIES. 25 THE GUN FOR GROUSE SHOOTING. In the very early part of the season long shots do not often occur, but afterwards they are the rule, and unless a gun hits hard it is comparatively useless. Most men, therefore, select a particularly hard-shooting gun for this kind of sport, and if their strength is equal to the attendant weight, they like a large bore, No. 12 being that generally chosen. Whether it (or she as the gunniakers say) should be a breech loader or a muzzle loader must depend upon the comparative shooting of each, which we shall discuss in the fourth book. It must be remarked that scattered grouse are often met with, and consequently quick loading is an essential to a good bag; but unless the gun is also a strong hitter, the good quality is more than counterbalanced by this defect. The question requires a long experience to decide it; but I am persuaded, from the evidence of others who have tried both, and from my own experiments, that on the whole the breech loader will be found to be the more serviceable tool. It would occupy too much space to go into my reasons for this conclusion here, but they will be found at length in the fourth book. The shot most useful in the month of August is No. 6 ; afterwards, some people employ No. 5, or load one barrel with No. 6 and the other with No. 5. DRESS AND ACCESSORIES. In choosing the dress for grousing, two things are especially to be considered : First, what colour will least attract the attention of the grouse 3 and, secondly, what material will be most comfortable to the wearer ? It is found by experi- ence that a mixed pattern (such as the plainer Scotch plaids), will harmonize with the surrounding scenery, and on that account is found to suit well. The heather pattern is also especially recommended, being partly made up of the exact colour of the blossom of that plant. Such are the best colours, and this being settled, the only other requisite is the texture of which the dress should be composed. I have already remarked that the temperature of the moors is much colder than that of more southerly and less exposed regions, 26 VARIETIES OP SHOOTING. while from their elevated range they seem to attract the clouds, and hence rain and mist are constantly to be ex- pected. Now, every one of experience knows that woollen materials are the most proper for such changes from dry to wet, and from a warm to a cold temperature, and so woollen plaids and friezes are the only proper articles for the upper garments of the grouse shooter. In fine weather a thin fabric, but still of wool, may be adopted ; but when the air is cold or there is a chance of rain or mist, a stouter kind should be put on, and the chance of a hot sun risked in pre- ference to attacks of rheumatism, which are sure when the skin is not sufficiently protected. Flannel should also be invariably worn next the skin, without which safeguard even the most robust will occasionally contract a severe cold or rheumatic attack. It is true that the lower moors are sometimes extremely hot in August, and in such cases a linen jacket, may be worn over thin flannel; but few sportsmen go through the day without a rest in the middle of it for luncheon, and if they have nothing on but a thin linen jacket, a chill is almost sure to result. The fashion of the day will of course be consulted by those who follow the dictates of this exlgeant goddess ; but let what will be generally worn, the clothing for grouse shooting should be loose, so as to give the limbs full liberty of action. For the head, a cap or light felt hat is the best protection; the former being of some woollen material rendered waterproof by the preparation which is now used for that purpose, without impeding the evaporation from the skin. As to the feet, they should be invested with lamb's-wool socks, and in case they are inclined to blister, these should be well rubbed, both inside and out, with slightly damped soap. Of boots or shoes every one should wear that particular kind to which his feet are accustomed ; for a change from one to another causes pressure in fresh places, and is often very distressing. Some wear laced ankle boots, others " Bal- morals," and others, again, "Wellingtons made on purpose, that is, with nailed soles ; but in any case the soles should be stout, and rendered rough by means of nails, while the fit should be insured by previously wearing them. To render them waterproof there are numberless receipts, which must MANAGEMENT OP THE BEAT. 27 vary according to the nature of the leather used. Some men now wear enamelled leather, which for a time is in itself impervious to water, and this must be dressed, as the surface cracks, with a polish sold on purpose, composed partly of india rubber. Calf skin, on the contrary, will not take this kind of varnish, and it should be kept well saturated with a composition made of boiled linseed oil one pint, bees' wax, resin, of each four ounces, melted together and stirred till cold. The accessories will depend upon the nature of the gun which is used, that is, whether a breech loader or a muzzle loader. If the former, nothing is required but the loaded cartridges, which may be carried in a case, or loose in the pocket, and in addition, the little instrument which is some- times required to extract cartridge cases after firing. For the latter, you must take a powder flask, shot pouch, cap holder, wadding, and nipple -wrench. In addition to these, a dog whistle is required, and if you work your own dogs, a whip should never be forgotten. The " gillie" will also carry the essentials for the game which you are to kill, and any spare ammunition, as well as a gun cover, and if you are not regardless of weather, a waterproof coat for yourself. MANAGEMENT OP THE BEAT. This exciting sport is conducted very differently in the early part of the season, and towards the latter end of it. In the former, unless the birds are unusually wild, almost any method of beating, so long as the dogs can work up wind, will enable you to obtain a fair proportion of shots ; but towards the end of September, or, indeed, sometimes much earlier, some precautions will be necessary to secure good sport. A good marker is almost as essential to grouse shooting as a good dog, and among equally good shots, he who is best provided in this particular will show by far the best bag at the end of the season. In grouse shooting, it is a bad plan to leave any ground unbeaten in the hope of reaching better ; these birds are most capricious in their fancies, and they will be found on one day where not a bird, perhaps, was to be seen on the previous one. It will, however, always 28 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. be desirable to beat towards the centre of the moor, so as to avoid driving the game off it, and for this purpose the ex- perienced hand begins from the leeward side, so as to beat up wind, and towards the middle of his moor. Having com- menced at eight or nine o'clock, by one or two the whole of that side will have been beaten ; for when the grouse are as numerous as they ought to be early in the season, it will scarcely answer to follow up each pack, as must be done later on in the year. At the same time the centre of the moor will have been filled with the disturbed coveys, many of which are more or less scattered. Then, with a careful brace of dogs, he must proceed to beat this ground systema- tically, which will probably occupy the shooter till the end of the day ; but on no account should he work on farther, towards the windward side of his moor, for fear of sending his birds off it and into another. Beyond these simple directions, experience must be the guide in conducting the beat, and on hilly ground no one but a person accustomed to that particular locality can give useful advice. Generally speaking, grouse dislike leaving their own hill, and will fly round and round its sides if they are followed up, just putting the brow between them and their persecutor. Later on in the season they take long flights, either from hill to hill, or from the high ground to the low, but in August they do not often go so far in their flight. Of course, bare ground without covert of any kind will very rarely hold game, and when this occurs it may be left untried, as may freshly burnt heather, which is never the haunt of grouse by any chance. On the other hand, -when he falls in with patches of heather of all ages, interspersed with green moss and bogs, with here and there a small pool of water, the sports- man may be in constant expectation of a point. In hot weather, during the middle of the day, grouse lie close, and it requires a good nose in the dog which finds them. In wet weather 110 sport can be obtained, the birds being in sheltered situations, where they are with difficulty found. So also in very windy weather they are so wild that they rarely suffer an approach, but get up out of shot, and are off to the next hill side. is the plan to be pursued early in t/ie season, but, later MANAGEMENT OP THE BEAT. 29 on, a very different one must be adopted. It is very seldom after the first month of grouse shooting that a shot can be obtained until the covey or pack is broken, and hence it must be marked and followed up with the greatest care to avoid losing sight of it. At any moderate range say within fifty or sixty yards the leading bird should be fired at, as, if it drops, the pack are almost sure to disperse. In such a case, the " gillie" must carefully mark down as many as he can, and these should at once be followed up, even if the flight is a long one, beating the ground towards them, so as to avoid loss of time. At this season grouse almost always run before the dog, and therefore when he points, unless the shooter is in a line behind him, he should make for a spot considerably in front of the dog, with both barrels of his gun cocked, so as to get a quick " right and left." In this way single birds will be picked up, and sometimes the whole covey will be bagged one after another. Towards evening, grouse lie better, and the scent also improves, so that good sport is often met with at this time after a disappointing day. The number of dogs required by each party of shooters will vary a good deal according to the nature of the dogs them- selves, and to that of their masters, as well as the ground. On the average, however, it is of little use to go to the moors with less than three brace, as there are few dogs which will work longer than half a day, and generally one will be lame or sick. Where two or three guns beat in company, three dogs will generally be required; but for one gun a brace is sufficient, if they are good rangers ; sometimes a third dog working close to the sportsman is an advantage, but he is very apt to disturb the equanimity of the ranging dogs, who become jealous of him, and think their master is paying attention to another behind them. Six brace of average dogs will not be at all too large a kennel to take to the north by a party who intend to keep at their work day after day, especially if they consist of pointers, which will not do much more than half what will be accomplished by first-rate setters. Black-game shooting early in the season is a very easy affair, the hen and the young birds being then found in the high grass or rushes near water, the latter lying very close, 30 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. and when put up, flying slowly and heavily. The old cocks are not with the young broods, being met with either singly or in twos, threes, or fours together, according to the number of black game on the moor. These last fly strong and fast, and are seldom to be found a second time, if not bagged at once, as their flight will generally be far out of bounds. Later in the season, black game are very wild, and are seldom to be killed on the open moors, small coverts near cultivated ground, where they feed on the corn, being their most likely haunts, especially if there are juniper trees in them. In order to get shots at this time, these plantations must be beaten towards the gun, who should be thirty or forty yards in advance, and on the upper side. The beater should keep outside and below, and sending in a couple of steady spaniels, he should make a slight noise by tapping the bushes, which will drive the game out on the shooter's side. Both red grouse and Hack game may be driven as well as stalked. In the former mode the sportsman conceals himself behind a wall, a rock, or other similar covert by or near which his game may be expected to fly ; then sending the men round, they begin to beat the ground towards him, the more experienced being very skilful in sending them ex- actly in the direction of the shooter. This sport, however, requires a quick eye and hand as well as great coolness, for these birds fly with great velocity when fairly on the wing. Some advantage may be gained by the shooter rising suddenly just as the grouse is nearly over head, the abrupt view of his person causing the latter to ascend, and thus stopping the rapidity of flight, an easier shot is obtained. In stalking, the grouse or black game are first discovered with the glass, and then advantage is taken of every inequality of ground to approach within shot, avoiding going down wind with the greatest care. Retrieving grouse may be effected either by means of the pointers or setters which are employed to find them, or by special retrievers set apart and broken for the purpose. The former plan is strongly advocated by Colonel Hutchin- son, and is adopted by a great many grouse shooters; but I am strongly of opinion that in all kinds of shooting where pointers MANAGEMENT OF THE BEAT. 31 and setters are employed, these dogs should not be allowed to retrieve. Nothing is so fertile a source of jealousy among them as the seeing one of their own body sent for the purpose of " seeking dead," while the rest are expected to be steady " down charge." The same bad effect is not produced when they see a special retriever employed; for even if they are jealous of him, it does not make them unsteady after- wards, because they are not working together with him in their own peculiar department. All the setters cannot re- trieve at one time, but one must be selected to do the work and hence the others consider themselves ill-used, and will either refuse to back the favoured one, or will work in a way to lead to the loss of sport. Great practice, moreover, is essential to success in retrieving, and if this is divided amongst three or four instead of being concentrated in one dog, a loss is sustained which will tell greatly against the "bag." For these reasons, therefore, I should strongly advise that every team of pointers or setters should be strengthened by the addition of a thoroughly well-broken retriever, which may be of any of the following kinds. The LAND EETKIEVER proper is no doubt the small or St. John's Newfoundland, more or less crossed with the setter. This produces the hand- some animal shown in the engraving in the second book, and he will be found to do all that is required. He may be used for water as well as land, but he is not capable of so much work as the water spaniel. From his large size also he is sometimes unable to follow the pheasant through the runs of a covert, and in this case he is beaten by the smaller dogs broken to retrieve, such as the cross of the terrier and beagle exhibited in the background. The cross of the rough terrier and pointer, advocated by Mr. Colquhoun, is a very good one, and for general purposes is admirable. A dog of this sort is represented in the coloured engraving in the second book, being intermediate in size between the other two. A little dog, between the beagle or spaniel and the terrier, is sometimes employed for retrieving partridges and even pheasants, but this variety is too small for carrying hares. One of these also is represented in the same illus- tration. 32 VARIETIES OP SHOOTING. PARTRIDGE SHOOTING. As in the case of grouse shooting, I shall here first allude to the various birds likely to be met with on partridge manors, then the nature of that ground, the best dogs for the purpose of finding these birds, and the gun most suitable for the sport. BIRDS FOUND ON OUR SOUTHERN MANORS. The Common Partridge and the French or Red-legged Partridge are the only two varieties met with in this country, the latter being now very rare. Some years ago it was introduced, and bred in considerable numbers in Norfolk and Suffolk; but it was found to give such bad sport, that it has been almost exterminated. The COMMON PARTRIDGE (Perdix cineria) is so well-known as to make it unnecessary to describe its appearance, and I shall therefore do little more than allude to its habits. The length of the cock bird averages twelve inches and a half, the female being generally a little smaller. The latter is also distinguished by having the chesnut-coloured patch round the beak of a lighter shade and smaller in size than that of the male, so that it does not extend backwards beyond the perpendicular of the eyes. The lower breast also is white, and does not put on the dark chesnut patch till the second or sometimes the third year. The bars on the flanks are like- wise broader than on the male. Young birds before their first moult may be known by the absence of the red mark behind the eye and by the uniformly brownish-yellow shade of the ground-colour of their plumage, the bars being of a dark brown. Partridges pair in February, and begin to lay in April. The nest is made on the ground with a few leaves and bents, and the spot selected is generally either in mowing grass or clover, or in corn. The hen lays from twelve to twenty eggs, which are of an olive-brown colour, one inch and four lines long by one inch in breadth. From thirty to thirty-six eggs have been found in one nest; but in such instances, two hens must have laid in it, as not unfrequently happens. The partridge sits twenty-one days, and the general hatching time in the south of England is in the latter BIRDS FOUND ON OUR SOUTHERN MANORS. 33 part of June, but occasionally the young birds come out much earlier in the year. The young birds leave the nest directly, but they are carefully watched over by both the old birds till they are strong on the wing and able to take care of themselves. The stratagems of the old cock and hen to draw attention from their young ones are most marvellously inte- resting to the lover of nature, and sometimes lead to the belief that their reasoning power is of a high order. These mani- festations, however, are considered to be purely instinctive, but they certainly assume at times the appearance of a higher order of mental power. Both the cock and hen will perform the most curious gyrations, turning and twisting about with apparently a broken wing, just as if they were in the agonies of death. This of course induces any inexperienced person to approach with the view either of giving assistance or of making a capture, but a near proximity speedily cures the attack, and the old hypocrite moves off just beyond the reach of the witness of his or her antics. In the meantime, the other partner has been leading off the young brood to a place of safety, where they are speedily joined by the one which has been playing off the tricks that have just been described. Two partridges, when together, are called " a pair," and when, after the breeding season is over, they are unaccompanied by young, they are denominated " a barren pair," which may be either caused by having lost their nest, or from both being of the same sex, as will some- times happen when there is a preponderance of either. The old and young together constitute " a covey." These during the day are seldom seen on the wing, unless they are dis- turbed, but when not on the feed, they frequent the hedge sides of grass fields or the banks of brooks, or they " bather" in the dusty banks of hedgerows, in order to get rid of the parasitical insects which infest their skins. In the morning and afternoon they are on the feed, which is either in the standing corn or in the stubble after it is cut. At dusk they " call" to one another, and having assembled, they move off lo their resting-place for the night, which is gene- rally on seeds or grass, where they "jug" or nestle close together on the ground, with their heads directed outwards. They feed on corn and other seeds, varying their diet with a D 34 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. small proportion of insects. Early in the season partridges fly a very short distance, generally dropping in the next field when they are disturbed; but towards November they become very wild, and often fly for a mile or more, and at a great pace. On hilly ground they are particularly inclined to these long flights. The scent of the partridge is not so strong as that of the grouse, nor is the ground which they frequent so favourable to finding them as that on the moors; hence partridge shooting requires dogs with a better nose and more careful hunting than that of the grouse, and for this reason the pointer is preferred to the setter in the south. The RED-LEGGED or FRENCH PARTRIDGE (Cacabis rufa), sometimes also called the GUERNSEY PARTRIDGE, has long been an occasional visitant to the manors on the eastern coast ; but in the early part of the nineteenth century con- siderable numbers were imported and turned out in Suffolk and Norfolk. Being more hardy than the common partridge, it was hoped that a larger stock could be obtained, and this opinion has been verified by the result; but they are so in- jurious to sport by their habit of running before the dogs, and also so dry and insipid when put on the table, that they are now pursued to extermination. Still in some districts a few birds remain, but it is probable that in the course of ten years the breed will be almost unknown again. The old cock has the beak red, from which a black streak passes to the eye; in front of the throat is a black gorget, ending in streaks which descend on the breast; iris reddish orange; eyelids of a rich vermilion ; top of the head with a line of white both before and behind the eye; all the upper parts of the body uniformly brown; wing feathers greyish black, with a brown margin to each feather; tail chesnut; breast pencil grey; under parts fawn colour; sides and thighs covered with feathers barred transversely with black and fawn-coloured marks on a pearl-grey ground, approaching to a pure white in some parts; legs and toes vermilion; a knob in place of a spur; claws brown. The length is about thirteen inches and a half in the male, the female being some- what smaller. In other respects there is not much difference between the sexes, except that the plumage of the hen is not BIRDS FOUND ON OUR SOUTHERN MANORS. 35 so bright as that of the cock, and she has no knob in place of a spur. The flesh is white, dry, and tasteless, which is also another reason for the dislike which is taken to this bird by game preservers. They are stronger on the wing than the common partridge, and if they can be approached near enough when in the air, they afford good sport; but they run so far in front of the dogs before they rise, that a shot can seldom be obtained. Sometimes they perch on trees or hedge-rows, but this is not by any means a common habit with them. If they are in very great abundance, close- ranging spaniels drive them up better than pointers, which latter dogs allow them to get out of shot. They make their nest in the same way and in the same places as the common partridge, and lay from fifteen to eighteen eggs, which are of a reddish yellow white, spotted and speckled with reddish brown ; in length one inch and a half by one and a quarter in breadth. The young birds leave the nest directly, and are reared and fed in the same way as the common partridge. The QUAIL (Coturnix communis) is recognised by the fol- lowing characters : Beak strong, shorter than the head, and with the upper mandible curved ; nostrils basal, lateral, half closed by an arched membrane; feet with four toes, the anterior ones connected by a membrane as far as the first joint; tail short, rounded, recumbent, almost hid by the tail coverts. The colour is as follows in the adult male : Beak brownish grey ; iris hazel ; top of the head dark brown, with a pale wood-brown streak of the same colour over the crown of the head to the nape of the neck ; feathers of the upper parts brown, with lighter-coloured shafts, and each having a longitudinal streak of wood brown ; wing primaries dusky brown, mottled with light brown ; chin and throat white, bounded by two half-circular dark-brown bands descending from the ear coverts, and with a black patch at the bottom in front ; breast pale chesnut brown, with the shafts of the feathers straw coloured, all the under parts yellowish white ; flanks streaked with pale chesnut ; legs, toes, and claws pale brown. The length seven inches. The female does not differ in size, but has no dark, half-circular marks down the sides of her neck, nor the black patch in front ; and the D2 36 VARIETIES OP SHOOTING. feathers on her breast are strongly marked with a small dark spot on each side of the light straw-coloured shaft. The young birds resemble the female, the black patch on the front of the neck not being assumed by the cocks till their second year. Quails are polygamous in their habits ; the hen makes her nest on the ground, with the aid of a few bits of grass or straw ; she lays from seven to twelve eggs, which are of a dull yellowish white blotched with umber brown, in length one inch and one line, and eleven lines in breadth. The period of incubation is about three weeks, the young birds, like those of the partridge, at once leaving the nest and feeding on insects, seeds, and green leaves. They are found in September in " bevies" (as the broods are called) on the stubbles, and many are killed on the eastern coast by par- tridge shooters. The quail is generally only a summer visitant to this country, but occasionally exceptions to the rule occur, and individuals are met with during the winter. Africa is the country where they chiefly spend this season, crossing the Mediterranean in countless thousands in April and March, and a few arriving in this country in May and leaving in October. Great quantities are imported alive from France, and are fed by the London poulterers on hemp- seed till they become fat. The flesh is considered a great delicacy, and coming as it does in the height of the London season, it is much valued. They fly quickly, and generally straight and low, but it is difficult to make them rise a second time after being once flushed. The LANDRAIL (Onygometra crex) is also, like the quail, a summer visitant, appearing in England about April or May, and leaving us in October or early in November. The generic characters are as follows : Bill shorter than the head, thick at the base, . subcultrated and compressed ; lateral furrow of the upper mandible broad, and extending more than half its length ; angle of the under mandible bending upwards, both being of an equal length ; nostrils concave, lateral, linear, ovoid, pierced in a membrane occu- pying the furrow in the middle of the bill ; wings armed with a spine, and having the second and third quill feather the longest ; legs strong, of medium length, with the lower part of the tibise naked j feet four-toed j toes long, slender, and BIRDS FOUND ON OUR SOUTHERN MANORS. 37 without any lateral membrane, hind toe resting almost wholly on the ground ; claws compressed and sharp. Colours as follows : Beak, pale brown ; iris hazel ; cheeks and ear covert ash grey ; all the upper parts of the body, head, and tail, pale yellowish brown, each feather having a streak of very dark brown ; wings and wing coverts rich reddish chesnut ; quills reddish brown ; under parts pale buff, the feathers of the sides and flanks being transversely barred with darker reddish brown ; legs, toes, and claws pale yellowish brown ; whole length rather less than ten, inches. The females are smaller than the males, and have the ash grey on the sides of their heads less distinct and pure, and the ches- nut colour on the wings mixed with darker reddish brown. The young birds resemble the females. The landrail fre- quents the long grass of marshy meadows, osier beds, reeds, vetches, rye, and rye grass, as well as fields of young corn. Its presence may always be known in the spring time by its harsh, creaking note, which has given it the name of corn- crake. This call-note, which is used by the male only to attract the attention of the female, is easily imitated by drawing briskly a thin piece of bone or horn over a notched piece of metal, which is used for the purpose of decoying these birds. The note ceases when incubation commences, and in the shooting season this call is of no use. Landrails feed on worms, slugs, and other insects, together with green vegetable matter, and in the autumn oil seeds. The nest is made on the ground, and is composed of dry fibres of plants, afield of grass or corn being generally selected. Here, about June or early in July, the hen lays from seven to ten eggs, which are of a pale reddish white, speckled with ash grey and pale red brown ; in length one inch and a half, by one inch and a line in breadth. The young birds are covered with black down from the first, and leave the nest as soon as they are hatched. In September, landrails are constantly found by the patient shooter either on the stubbles or in seed clover. It is somewhat difficult to make them rise, and they will often run before the dog for a long distance. When on the wing the flight is slow and very soft, and resembling that of the bat in all but velocity, and affording a very easy shot ; but the bird is very difficult to put up a second time if missed 38 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. on the first occasion. The flesh is considered extremely deli- cate, but the body being small, weighing only six ounces, there is not much of it ; occasionally a landrail is met with of seven or eight ounces weight. This bird is met with in Scotland, but chiefly in the low lands near the rivers, and consequently it does not often come in the way of the grouse shooter. The SPOTTED CRAKE and LITTLE CRAKE are also occa- sionally seen by the partridge shooter, but they are so rare as hardly to require a minute description. The GREAT PLOVER, NORFOLK PLOVER, or STONE CURLEW (CEdicnemus orepitans) is a summer visitant only, arriving in April and leaving in September or October. It, like all birds that migrate to us from the south, is more common on the south-eastern coast than elsewhere, and is so frequently found in Norfolk, that it has derived one of its familiar names from that county. It is also met with in Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Sussex, Essex, Kent, and Hamp- shire ; but not so often as in the first-named county, whose sandy plains are exactly suited to its habits. Its generic characters may be thus summed up : Beak stout, strong, and straight, a little depressed at the base ; ridge of the upper mandible elevated ; under mandible with an angle at the point of junction ; nostrils placed in the middle of the beak, extending as far forward as the horny portion, open in front ; legs long and slender, with three toes only, united by a mem- brane as far as the second joint; wings of moderate length, second quill feather the longest. In the adult bird the beak is black at the point with a yellowish-green base ; iris golden yellow; top of the head and back of the neck pale wood brown, each feather having a streak of black in the centre ; a light-coloured streak under the eye, extending to the ear coverts, having a darker streak of brown under it, which extends beyond the ear coverts ; upper parts pale brown, each feather having a dark brownish-black streak; wing primaries almost black, the first and second with a white patch towards the end; the tail feathers with the basal halves mottled with two shades of brown, the next portion white, the ends black ; outside tail feathers shorter than those in the middle ; chin and throat white ; neck and breast pale BIRDS FOUND ON OUR SOUTHERN MANORS. 39 brownish white, each feather having a central streak of blackish brown ; under parts almost white, with long, narrow, longitudinal streaks of brown ; vent and under tail coverts buffy white without streaks; legs and toes yellow; claws black ; whole length seventeen inches, the females resembling the males in size and colour. In the young birds also the colours are the same, but the markings less bright and dis- tinct. The great plover is usually found in large unenclosed fields, heaths, and warrens, and is very wary, so as to be difficult of approach. They lay on the ground, the eggs being of a pale clay brown, blotched and spotted with ash blue and . dark brown ; in length two inches and two lines by one inch and seven lines in breadth. These birds feed on worms, slugs, and insects. The GOLDEN PLOVER (Charadrius pluvialis), also called the YELLOW PLOVER and GREEN PLOVER, is often a difficult bird to make out, in consequence of the change of plumage which takes place between the winter and summer. Thus in the summer the adult bird has the beak black ; iris very dark brown, almost black ; on the forehead a band of white ; all the upper parts greyish black, the edges of all the feathers having triangular-shaped spots of gamboge yellow ; wing primaries black ; tail feathers obliquely barred with shades of greyish white and brownish black ; the lore, chin, sides of the neck, and all the under parts of the body jet black as far as the vent, the black being bounded on the sides by a baud of white under the wing ; axillary plume elongated and pure white ; under tail coverts white. On the other hand, in winter the chin is white ; front of neck and breast white, tinged and spotted with dull yellow ; the upper parts of the body nearly as in the summer. Thirdly, at the periods between the two seasons, these birds may be seen for a time with the under parts of a mixed plumage between the two. The length of the golden plover is eleven inches, both male and female being alike in that respect as well as iii plumage at the same season of the year. Young birds during their first autumn have the breast much darker in colour than the same part of the old birds in winter. The hen lays four eggs of a yellowish stone colour, blotched with brownish black, in length two inches by one inch and four lines. These 40 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. are deposited in a small depression of the ground lined with a few bents of grass, of a covert, 'Oh yes, it must be capital covert for cocks, it is so full of springs.' What has a cock to do at a spring, ^except in a long and severe frost, when he may be starving 1 Like all our land-birds, except a snipe, a woodcock likes to lie dry, and, unless disturbed, remains in his resting-place during the day; towards night flying often to a great dis- tance to his feeding-ground, which generally is open, soft, grassy land, particularly that pastured by cattle, as muddy adjacent ground, springs, or the rivulets flowing from them, .are not the natural feeding-places of a woodcock. " In ordinarily open weather a woodcock satisfies himself -with, food at his natural feeding-places during the night, returning in the morning to his dry resting-place ; but often it happens that in very severe frost he is unable to feed himself to his satisfaction during the night, and goes about during the day also, seeking for some soft grounds into which he can poke his beak, which, of course, he does not find except at or near a spring; but when he is found trying , to feed at a spring during the daytime you will find he is so HAUNTS AXD HABITS OF THE WOODCOCK. G7 much reduced as not to be worth shooting. It is curious to observe how few days of very hard weather reduce a wood- cock to something very much like a skeleton; and also how few days of open weather restore him to excellent condition. A woodcock feeds in an extraordinary manner; he seems never to be at rest for a second of time, running very fast, and poking his beak into the ground with a degree of rapidity almost inconceivable. I don't know what they feed upon, but think their natural food consists of small worms and insects. In very hard weather, however, he will poke his beak into almost any soft substance. A few years ago, during a severe frost, my cook went out one forenoon to the meat-larder, which is at a distance of about fifty yards from the house, for a roast of beef, to be prepared for dinner; having cut what she required, in the hurry of the moment she left the remainder on a block of wood which is by the larder, returning to the house ; in about three minutes she paid a second visit to the larder for the purpose of cutting a steak, when the beef had disappeared and was not to be found. It appears that the shepherd was passing by with his dog, which ran off with the beef. Missing his dog, the man called and whistled, upon which the dog dropped the beef and returned to him. Late in the after- noon a sportsman who was staying with us, on returning home from shooting, stepped over a low wall enclosing a small plantation close to this house, when three woodcocks rose almost from under his feet. He shot at two and killed one; at his feet he found the missing piece of beef, and brought it home, completely perforated by the woodcocks' beaks. I had in the morning beaten the plantation, of scarcely an acre in extent, very carefully ; found four cocks in it, and killed three of them two of the three which he saw must have come from adjacent plantations in search of food. It has often occurred to me that there exists much less sympathy between woodcocks than between any other birds I have shot. In most other game birds I have ob- served that they generally, when flushed, pursue nearly the same course, and if one of two or more be w r ourided, the other, or others, very often sympathize so much with their comrade as to light near the spot where he, from exhaustion, 68 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. pitched. In my experience I never have seen any instance of the sort in woodcocks. Woodcocks, even paired for the purpose of breeding, when flushed, pursue courses as nearly opposite as possible. "A woodcock is the most silent bird I know. Other game birds very generally call when flushed a black-cock, hotvever, very seldom, except in covert. A woodcock occa- sionally, though very seldom indeed, calls. When I have heard him do so, it has generally been at the approach either of night or of a heavy fall of snow. The call is not musical, though magically game-like once heard never again to be mistaken for the call of any other bird. In flight-time at night and morning they constantly call, and may be heard a long time before they are seen. " In this country woodcocks are found either in covert or in long heather. A strange peculiarity exists with regard to the finds for woodcocks in covert, generally on the sunny side, on banks facing the south-east ; in the heather, very nearly invariably the reverse is the fact you won't find one cock in long heather, on the sunny side of a heathery hill, for some hundreds you will find on the side which never sees the sun in the winter time. On those shaded hill-sides, and in the adjacent heathery and brush- wooded burns, I have enjoyed most excellent sport. "I think a woodcock is generally more easily brought down in covert than in the open. In covert you take great pains to do it well; in the open you imagine the shot to be a much more simple one than it is." A south-country sportsman has also given us the results of his experience in the same periodical in the following terms : " On bright moonlight nights woodcocks all leave the thick coverts of wood and copse about the hour of twilight, and betake themselves to the open downs and hills, meadows, fields, and plains, to feed, returning in the morning as daylight appears to their former coverts. At the head of a long wooded valley, in the twilight if a moonlight night, the woodcocks may be seen, many of them together, to play about like swallows in the air at about the height of a church tower for HAUNTS AND HABITS OP THE WOODCOCK. 69 some minutes, and then depart to their several feeding-places on the hills and downs; and towards the morning's dawn, upon their return, they will again circle around in company at the head or entrance of the goil or valley ere they retire to their separate quarters in the woods. This they will do night after night during the continuance of the moon, if not disturbed in their passage by being tired at a too common practice, I am sorry to say, on moonlight evenings in this neighbourhood. But the gun is not the only engine of de- struction awaiting the poor cocks on their moonlight pere- grinations. " It used to be the constant practice on all the hill downs in these parts to place cut underwood or furze, about a foot in height, to a very great extent along the ground, in the shape of the letter V, at the apex of which an opening would be left where a hair-noose or springle would be set, which seldom failed to yield the pot-hunter a nightly supply, as the cock would run along the side of the brushwood feed- ing, not taking the trouble to top over it, until he was led into the snare; but this plan is now, owing to the scarcity of cocks when compared with former years, very seldom practised. " But to return to my point. On regaining the woods, after his moonlight wanderings, the woodcock drops like a stone into his bush, and immediately goes to sleep, con- tinuing immovable, unless disturbed, until about three o'clock in the afternoon, when he begins to move a little round his cubiculum. On these days, after moonlight nights, woodcocks are very difficult to find in covert that is, they lie very close, frequently allowing man and dog to pass within a very few feet of them without moving; and now it is when a first-rate cocker is invaluable, and mani- fests his superiority in winding the sleeping cock on coming within a gun-shot of him, when perhaps ten other cockers, first-rate dogs for finding the cock by the scent which his running and feeding leaves behind him, will pass by within a few feet without noticing the bird in the slightest degree. " On dark nights the woodcock never leaves the covert, nor does he feed at all during the night, but sleeps through- out the silent hours ; but on the first dawn of day he begins 70 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. to move about and feed without leaving the wood or copsey and generally without taking wing at all, working his way for the most part upwards if the covert is in a valley or on the side of a hill. On bright days they do not move nearly so much as on dark days; and I have invariably found, as a rule, that my sport has been inferior on bright sunny days to what it has been on dark and gloomy ones. "In decidedly misty weather the woodcocks are much more on the move than even on dark and gloomy days, and certainly take wing continually, feeding for an hour perhaps in one place, then flying on for about 100, 200, or more yards, then feeding again, and then taking another flight; and generally, I think, working up towards the open country. On these misty days I have been sometimes dis- appointed in finding the cock at all, especially if not out in the morning, though perhaps I have hit on two or three places where he has been feeding during the previous part of the day; though frequently, on the other hand, by knowing the ground well, I have at last overtaken him. JAM SATIS." DOGS EMPLOYED IN COCK SHOOTING. Spaniels of all kinds are used in cock shooting ; but the- smaller kind known as cockers, from being devoted to this sport, are most suited to it, in consequence of their being, able to follow out the runs in the thick coverts better than the larger kinds generally known as springers, and kept for pheasant shooting. Two or three couple of cockers are hunted together, and when well broken they afford good sport, but the most successful cock shooters prefer using beaters almost unassisted by the dog. An excellent nose is a sine qud non in the cocker ; but more than this is wanted, as is very ably shown by the writer above alluded to under the signature of " Jam Satis." " There are some dogs," he says, "that seem to have a most extraordinary instinct for finding the sleeping or lying cock, and get greatly excited, and rush towards his hiding- place, and flush him with a spring and a howl of delight. These are the dogs for finding a cock that has dropped into- THE FINDING AND KILLING OF WOODCOCKS. 71 short thick gorse, and will, as a rule, never fail to find him a second time in covert if they have seen, or have the direction of his flight given them. The dogs I have had, endowed with this faculty, have been generally half-bred, sometimes- between a spaniel and a setter; but they are very few and far between. I think much depends on their having first- rate brains, noses of a ne plus ultra quality of course, carry in g- their heads high in the air, and being entered and kept to cock shooting, and little else, with constant practice ; and I have- observed that the dog that finds the sleeping cock in the way above described, finds him in a similar manner, although he may have been running about the woods feeding all the day, and left a quarter of a mile of trail and scent in his path behind him finds him, that is, not by hunting up his scent, but by a kind of instinct." The group which faces this page consists of an old-fashioned Welsh cocker, which closely resembles the Devonshire dog,, both being of a rich liver colour ; and an ordinary liver-and- white cocking spaniel, such as is met with throughout England without any peculiar designation, and variously- bred. Indeed, with the exception of the Welsh and Devon- shire strains, there are no cockers now with any pretensions to purity of blood. THE GUN FOR COCKS. The ordinary covert gun, as described at page 59, is the weapon which is used for this kind of sport. Cocks do not carry off much lead, and therefore a particularly hard hitter- is not required. Nor is a breech loader so pre-eminently serviceable as in pheasant shooting, because the cocks are not driven up into one corner, as they are in the battue ; still, it is occasionally serviceable, from the power ot loading it more quickly than the muzzle loader. No. 7 is the proper- size of shot. THE FINDING AND KILLING OF WOODCOCKS. Mr. Colquhoun is so practised a hand not only in finding and killing cocks, but also in describing what he has seen and done, that I cannot do better than let him speak for himself in the matter. He says : 72 VARIETIES OP SHOOTING. " Irrespective of the woodcock being the most difficult bird to bring down which Scotland affords, there is a sort of charm attached to cock shooting which even to a penman would, I think, be difficult to describe. In the first place, the almost extra high physical condition which the bracing and invigorating air, peculiar to this coast, imparts in the enjoyment of this fascinating sport, independently of in- creased mental energy and higher spirits; the great variety of rugged, wild, grand scenery which is presented; the un- mistakeable rattle of the cock's wings as he rises, followed by the magically-sounding words, 'Mark cock!' are, when taken together, rather apt to produce an effect contrary to that of strengthening the nerves. I have met with many men, particularly young ones, and especially when over their wine, who attempted to lay down the law at great length ' Let me assure you, old fellow, you are mistaken ; there is no bird more easily shot than a cock.' I never yet have seen one of those talkers whose performances on the fol- lowing, or on any other day, did not present a sad contrast to his professions. But they are always handy with excuses of various descriptions : ' The effects of the smoking room on the previous evening;' 'That infernal toasted cheese;' and, if nothing else will go down, the gunpowder is damp ' I won't have any more of that fellow's gunpowder.' " Those excuses may be well enough got up, but are of no use, because there is no doubt of the woodcock's being the most difficult bird to shoot of all those we know in Scotland. "Ask the best shot you know one who has had great experience in all sorts of shooting which Scotland affords ask him how many hill or low-ground game birds he ever has consecutively bagged, taking all birds as they rose within shot 1 ? Then ask him how many woodcocks he has under the same circumstances bagged? You will find the latter one to the former three. Then, it will be said, that in covert woodcocks are protected by the trees ; so they often are, but trees nearly as often present an obstacle as a protection to them. " For many years past I have observed most accurately the shooting of a man who, I think, is a very good shot. I have seen him bag some thousands of both woodcocks and THE FINDING AND KILLING OP WOODCOCKS. 73 moor and other game ; I have seen him, in circumstances extremely disadvantageous to himself, bag twenty -nine grouse and old black-cocks in as many consecutive shots, taking every bird as he rose; he then stopped early in the day and went home. The thirtieth bird required the second barrel, and that broke the ice. Although I have seen him bag thousands of woodcocks, I never saw him bag more than nine consecutive shots, taking every bird as he rose within shot. I saw him on one day, in difficult covert, flush twelve woodcocks and a snipe only ; he took every bird as it rose, and brought them all home only the -ninth cock was the better of the second barrel. I have seen him have nearly fifty fair shots at woodcocks in a day; but never have seen him bag more than nine cocks consecutively; and I never have seen any other man kill as many. " The difficulty of woodcock shooting is so evident to every one who has had experience in it as to render any remarks of mine on the subject unnecessary; but to those sportsmen who, to their own loss, have not had much of this sport, I may remark that the flight of a woodcock is very much quicker than a novice would be led to suppose, from the apparently slow movement of his wings; then, in about the best of woodcock ground, your footing is very insecure; and, when the frozen-over brooks and pools of water, which you must continually cross, are covered with a coating of snow, you require quite as many hands and legs as you are possessed of to save your gun and your head from destruction. " In moor and general open game-shooting there is very little variety in the appearances of shots which are offered to you. The variation is between a shot going right away, and one crossing you either more or less; but in woodcock shooting there is an almost endless variety of shots offered, very seldom indeed two of the same description presenting themselves in succession now descending almost perpen- dicularly over your head from a high overhanging cliff, with a degree of rapidity almost inconceivable; then descending from the top of a precipice, over which you are standing, with equal velocity, to a very great depth below; again, suddenly appearing within five yards of you, flying (at the same rate) right at you, and passing over your head within 74 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. a few yards of you, almost instantly dodging behind a rock or tree, and no more seen of him. " It would be endless to attempt to describe the variety of shots which present themselves to a woodcock shooter in this country. I neither pretend nor presume to interfere with the observations of gentlemen who have been accustomed to shoot woodcocks in champagne districts, such as in planta- tions of larch or fir of a moderate height; but to do even that well requires practice. My woodcock-shooting expe- rience extends little beyond a very rugged part of the West Highlands of Argyllshire, comprising a good deal of open shooting in heather and short brushwood ; but I can't say it is easier than shooting in covert. " Woodcock shooters enjoy two considerable advantages the one is, that very little shot brings the bird down ; and the other is, that a wounded woodcock, if unable to fly, is the least running of all birds I have shot, and is easily re- covered. "I have generally shot woodcocks alone, and have been accustomed to make all my arrangements; consequently, if anything goes wrong I know who is to blame. I like to use No. 7 shot, and to be accompanied by three beaters and a well-nosed, slow-going dog of the retrieving species. My beaters must be strong and active men, well fed and well clothed, and wearing strong leather gloves, each carrying a stout walking-stick, with which the trees and stones are smartly struck as the man goes along. I never allow a word to be spoken, except " Mark /" that remnant of ignorance, " Whirr cock," is, I am glad to observe, fast falling into dis- use, and for many years past has been totally disused in my coverts. The sound of all the bacchanalian-like screeches which I so often have been condemned to listen to tends directly to defeat the object of the yellers. In a covert so beaten I have observed that roe-deer, hares, and pheasants sit close, allowing the howlers to pass them, when they start and run back. Woodcocks also sit close, and when the beaters have passed, take wing and fly back. If a game- keeper wishes to save his birds, let him instruct his beaters to make as much noise as they can; but if the object is to show game, even the foot-fall (if possible) of a man should BABBIT SHOOTING. 75 not be heard ; a sharp crack of a stick against the trees, but not too frequently repeated, will show you more game by far than the howling system. " I have had forty consecutive years of experience of wood- cock as well as all other shooting which Scotland affords. I never have kept a note of birds killed by me except of wood- cocks, and of them only for the last thirty- three seasons. During that space of time my sport has been extremely variable, from want of favourable seasons and other circum- stances. In three seasons, taken together, I have killed 43 woodcocks; and in three others, 885. I have my register by me ; and in the last thirty-three years find I have bagged, besides all other sorts of game, 4102 woodcocks; and may remark that during that space of time I never have seen any- thing occur worthy of remark beyond my having often missed when I did not expect to have done so, and some- times killed when I did not think I should have done so. My two best consecutive days, 'shooting alone,' were 37 cocks one day and 27 the other 64 birds in two days. I killed 130 cocks in ten consecutive days' shooting." RABBIT SHOOTING. Rabbit shooting is a different affair altogether from shoot- ing hares, and affords, in my opinion, the very best sport in covert of all, excepting only wild pheasant and woodcock sooting. This, of course, has reference to the hunting them with dogs, and shooting them while going at their best pace, which is undoubtedly a racing one. Rabbits breed in warrens, in hedgerows, and in covert, and multiply very fast indeed. There are said to be several distinct varieties j but I believe there is no truth in the assertion, the kind of food only causing a temporary difference, and not permanently causing a distinct variety. Warren rabbits removed to a covert, and there allowed to breed, soon attain the same cha- racters as the prior denizens of the same locality. The sport of shooting rabbits is never carried on in the warrens, be- cause the warren er does not wish his property wasted, and prefers trapping them, for obvious reasons me being, that the wounded rabbits often escape into the holes and die out 76 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. of reach. In hedgerows, they may be hunted with spaniels or terriers, and shot as they come out; but they generally have holes in the banks, and then soon reach them in safety. When driven to their fastnesses, the ferret is the only re- source; and these animals, after being muzzled, soon drive them either to the gun or into bag-nets placed over the holes. But it is to the covert-shooting of rabbits that I wish to draw attention, that being the only kind of rabbit shooting which is to be considered deserving the attention of the true sportsman, and which, I have already remarked, is really worth it. Rabbits are now much encouraged in large pheasant preserves, partly for the sake of the keepers, whose perquisite they are, but chiefly because they afford food for the foxes preserved for fox hunting, which would otherwise prey upon the pheasants. The keeper feeds foxes when young regularly upon rabbits wounded and left near their earths ; and, consequently, these rabbit-fed animals keep to the same fare, and are thus prevented from interfering with the pleasures of the battue. The keeper continues to shoot a few outlying rabbits round the covert, and those which are thus wounded suffice to keep up the supply for the foxes, in addition to those which the keeper may purposely leave for him, or the fox may himself succeed in laying hold of. When the pheasant season is over, and the foxes also have been thinned, it will be found that the rabbits must be kept down on account of the young crops, which they begin to bite off most cruelly. In February and March, therefore, good spoft is usually afforded by this thinning of the rabbits, several hundred couple being often killed in a single preserve. At this time a great number of rabbits lie above ground, pre- paring for their young, or driven to seek the pleasures of love, or from other causes, of which we, in our ignorance of their language, have not yet fathomed the motive. How- ever, there they are ; and in the springfalls of a large wood they may be found lying in tussocks of grass, or in little bushes. For these the vermin terriers of the keepers are the best dogs, as they hunt them very quietly, yet strongly, and your regular springers or cockers would be utterly spoilt for pheasant or cock if allowed to hunt rabbit. By sending the keeper and his terriers into the wood, the rabbits are driven RABBIT-SHOOT1XG DOGS. 77 across the drives, where the guns should be posted at sixty yards' distance from one another; or, if the springfalls are quite open, they may walk them in line. As the rabbits are put up, they cut in and out of the rides or runs, and require great quickness of eye to catch them before they are lost to sight. The guns must be carried on the arm full-cocked; and great care must be taken not to shoot the terriers as they are hunting close upon the scut of the rabbit. I once shot a very valuable dog in this way, with the rabbit actually in his mouth. This was as the rabbit was coming out of a "bush, and the dog so close upon her, that, as she sprang through, the terrier did the same, and received my charge in his breast, killing both dog and rabbit. It is needful to shoot well before the rabbit, as they run so quickly by you, that if you do not take this precaution you are sure to shoot behind them. The knack is easily acquired by a quick eye and hand, but a slow man had better not attempt what he will be certain to fail in. RABBIT-SHOOTING DOGS. Terriers of all kinds are employed in this kind of sport, with or without ferrets. In the illustration given in the second book are examples of those most commonly used, consisting of the smooth black-and-tanned dog with a slight cross of the bull to make him stand the severity of the work which he has to accomplish; the Dandie Dimnont, which is an excellent rabbit dog; and the Scotch terrier. 78 VARIETIES OP SHOOTING. CHAPTER V. WILDFOWL SHOOTING. SHOOTING FLAPPERS INLAND WINTER SHOOTING MARINE WILDFOWL SHOOTING. VARIETIES OF WILDFOWL. THE varieties of wild fowlwhich are occasionally shot on the rivers, ponds, lakes, and coasts of this country, are so great as to defy anything more than a bare enumeration in a book like the present. Some few, however, of the more common kinds may be cursorily alluded to, and the re- mainder summed up in a bare catalogue of names. The following terms are in use among wildfowl shooters : A flock of widgeon is termed " a company ;" of swans, cranes, and curlews, " a herd ;" of teal, " a spring ;" of geese, " a gaggle ;" of ducks, " a badelynge ;" of mallards, " a sord ;" of coots, " a covert ;" of sheldrakes, " a dopping." The WILD MALLARD and DUCK (Anas boschas) is supposed to be the original of our tame ducks, which have changed their colours in many cases and have also increased in size. The Rouen variety is, however, very much like the wild duck in colour, and there can be little doubt that it is really a domesticated Anas boschas. There is, however, one point in which they differ, and that a most important one, which would almost lead to the belief that they are distinct in their origin. I allude to the fact that the wild duck pairs, while the tame duck is polygamous. It is scarcely necessary to describe minutely the appearance of this bird, as it differs little from the tame duck known as " the Rouen," except in size. The drakes are twenty-four inches long, while the ducks measure only twenty-two. They feed on grain and grass seeds, worms, young frogs, insects, and fish. The nest is made of grass, lined with down, from the breast of the parent bird, and is placed on the ground, either on the banks VARIETIES OF WILDFOWL. 79 of some inland water, or often at a considerable distance from it. A double hedgerow is a favourite place for their nidification, and instances are recorded of a pollard tree having been chosen for the purpose. The duck lays about fifteen or eighteen eggs, which are of a greenish white colour, two inches and a quarter long, by one inch seven lines broad. The young ducks take the water soon after they are hatched, but they are at least two months old before they can fly. At this time they are called " flappers," and are shot, on account of their delicacy, for the purposes of the table. They are generally to be found on the brooks and rivers frequented by them about the latter part of July, varying from the 15th to the 31st, according to the season. Besides the wild ducks bred in Great Britain, great numbers migrate to our rivers and coasts in the winter season. WIDGEON (Mareca Penelope) come next to the wild duck in size and importance to the sportsman. They very rarely breed here, but migrate to us from the north of Europe in large flocks, which begin to come over in the end of September and beginning of October, and leave us in March and April. They resemble the wild duck in most of their habits, and like it are monogamous. A whistling noise is made by them which may be heard for some distance, and marks their presence to those who have once heard it. The inland waters of this country are seldom frequented by this bird, which is found in large flocks on the coast, where it forms one of the chief objects of search by the puntsman. In the adult male the bill is brownish black, tinged with lead colour ; iris dark brown ; a green streak passes back- wards from the eye ; forehead and top of the head a creamy white ; cheeks and back of the neck a rich chesnut ; upper parts greyish white, crossed with irregular lines of black ; upper tail coverts freckled with grey ; tail pointed and nearly black ; wing coverts white, tipped with black ; primaries uniformly of a dark brown ; secondaries the same, but their outer webs form a green speculum tipped with black ; tertials have their outer webs edged with white ; chin and throat black ; lower part of the neck pale reddish brown ; sides and flanks marked with transverse lines of brown on a white ground ; breast, belly, and vent white ; under tail 80 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. coverts black ; legs and toes dark brown. Lengtli eighteen inches. The females and young males have the bill bluish black ; iris brown ; head and neck light brown, tinged with red, and speckled with dark brown : feathers of the back dark brown on the centre of each, with paler edges slightly- tinged with red ; wings and tail like those of the male ; the whole under surface white. The nest is made among rushes or sedge, and the female lays from six to eight eggs, which are of a creamy white, two inches and an eighth in length, by an inch and a half. The TEAL (Querquedula crecca) is the smallest of British ducks, but on account of the delicious flavour of its flesh, it is one of the most highly valued. Like the widgeon, though more frequently than that bird, it only occasionally breeds here, the immense flocks which are found in severe winters on our waters migrating from the north. These begin to appear in September, and leave in March or April. Its flight is rapid but uniform, so that a good shot may be sure of his mark. The nest is made among rushes, of a mass of vegetable matter lined with down and feathers, and usually contains eight or nine eggs, sometimes, but rarely, twelve. The male has the beak nearly black ; iris hazel ; forehead, and a narrow band over the top of the head dark chesnut ; a narrow line of buff extends backwards from the gape, and this dividing in front of the eye, passes above and below it to the nape of the neck ; between these two lines is a patch of dark glossy green ; cheeks and sides of the neck below this patch chesnut ; upper parts white, barred with narrow transverse lines ; wings brown in various shades ; a speculum of green, purple, and black on the secondaries, tipped with white ; tail dark brown and pointed ; chin black ; front of neck chesnut above, with spots of black on a white ground below ; legs and toes brownish grey. Length fourteen inches and a half. The female has the whole of the head speckled with dark brown, on a ground colour of light brown ; after part of back and scapular dark brown, each feather having two transverse bars of buffy brown; wing like the male, but the speculum, is blacker and without the shade of purple seen in the male ; chin pale brown ; lower part of the neck varied with two shades of brown in crescentic VARIETIES OF WILDFOWL. 81 marks ; breast white ; under parts dull white, spotted with dark brown. The POCHARD or DUNBIRD (Nyroca ferina) is also a winter visitor, first coming over in October and leaving in March. It is a very shy bird, and frequents fresh water as well as our sea-coasts and bays. The flesh is of excellent favour, and is highly prized for the table, resembling the famous canvas-backed duck of the United States, though but a humble imitation, in my opinion. The length of this duck is 19-J inches. The male has a pale blue bill with a black point and base; iris red; head and upper part of neck rich chesnut ; lower part of neck and upper part of breast deep black; back of a freckled grey; rump and upper tail coverts black; tail greyish brown; lower breast and belly grey; legs and toes blueish grey. The female has the bill all black ; iris brown; head and neck dusky brown; lower part of neck and breast dark brown. The PIXTAILED DUCK (Dafila acuta) is also occasionally found on our internal waters, and is one of the first taken in the decoys in October. It is, however, chiefly a frequenter of our creeks and bays. It is not common in Wales, nor is it often met with on the south-western coast of Devon and Cornwall, but from Poole Harbour to Lymington it is fre- quently seen, and has obtained there the name of the sea- pheasant, from its peculiarly shaped tail. As its flight is extremely rapid, it is not a very easy shot, but it is not so shy and difficult of access as the widgeon. It forms its nest in rushes and strong herbage, where it lays seven or eight eggs of a greenish- white colour, two inches and one line in length by one inch five lines in breadth. In winter the adult male has the bill lead grey on the sides, the central ridge and base being of a brownish black ; iris dark brown ; head and neck dark brown, the feathers on the back of the neck being tinged with purple ; upper parts a rich grey, formed by a mixture of fine lines of black and white ; pri- maries greyish brown ; secondaries black, with a speculum of dark green ; tertials elongated, black in the centre, with a white outer margin, and the inner one grey ; tail coverts ash grey ; elongated tail feathers black ; short ones dark brown, edged with white ; a white stripe on the side of the neck, G 82 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. running up from the breast to the ear coverts ; sides grey ;* vent and under tail coverts black ; legs and toes blackish brown ; length from tw^enty-six to twenty-eight inches. The female has the head reddish brown ; neck pale brown, both being speckled with very dark brown; upper parts dark brown, each feather being black in the centre with a pale brown edge ; under surface of a pale brown, as in the case of many other ducks. In July the male assumes the same plumage as the female, but recovers his masculine colours in the autumnal moult. The length of tail will always serve to distinguish this duck from the widgeon, whose plumage it resembles in other respects. The flavour for the table is- excellent, and the bird bears a high price in the poulterers' shops. The MOORHEN or GALLINULE (Gfallinula cliloropus) is very commonly met with in our rivers and ponds, where it swims gracefully, searching for aquatic insects, and nodding its head at every instant. It dives remarkably well and quickly, and remains in the reeds with only its beak above the water. On account of its diving so rapidly, it is rarely bagged without the aid of a dog, as it does not rise to the surface if death takes place under the water. On land it runs rapidly, cocking up the feathers of its tail, which are white beneath, and seeking the secure retreats afforded by the water as rapidly as possible. Its nest is built among the sedge, and it lays seven or eight eggs of a yellow colour with brown spots. The young birds appear only like a brownish black mass of fur or down, and swim about in the most lively manner. In the male the beak is yellowish green, with a red base ; on the forehead is a naked patch of red ; iris hazel ; back, wings, rump, and tail dark olive brown ; head, neck, breast, and sides dark slate j belly and vent greyish white; above the tarsus a ring of red ; legs and toes green. The WATER-RAIL (Rallus aquaticus) resembles the moor- hen in general figure, though differing in colour, which is more like that of the land-rail. The back is spotted or speckled brown ; cheeks, chin, sides, and front of neck and breast lead grey ; vent buff colour ; legs and toes brownish red ; length eleven inches and a half. The GREBES (Podiceps cristatus, P. auritus, and P. VARIETIES OF WILDFOWL. 83 minor) are like the moorhens in diving powers, and resemble them much in habits. All the grebes feed upon fish and water insects. The lesser grebe is also called the Dabchick.. It is a very timid bird, and disappears by diving on the slightest alarm. It is easily domesticated on our ornamental waters, and dives and comes up again, over and over again r as if for the amusement of the spectators. The COMMON COOT (Fulica, atra), of which the GREATER COOT is only a variety, is constantly met with on our in- ternal waters, and also to some extent upon our sea-coasts. Indeed, on the Southampton Water it is common enough, as well as in the creeks on the coast of Essex. It breeds in this country to some extent, but also migrates from the north. The nest is formed of flags, &c., among the reeds or- rushes, of a clumsy but compact form. Here the female lays seven or eight eggs of a stone colour, two inches and one line- in length by one inch and a half. The young broods appear at the end of May or the beginning of June. Coots are not in much request for the table, as may be supposed from the- price, which is rarely above eighteen-pence a couple. The beak is of a pale rose red, the naked patch on the forehead being of a pure white, from which the name "bald" is given, to them; iris crimson; a semicircular streak of white below the eye ; the whole body covered with black feathers tinged with slate grey ; primaries pure black ; secondaries the same, but tipped with white, forming a narrow bar across the wing ; legs, toes, and membranes dark green, with a ring of orange above the tarsal joint; length sixteen inches. The above are common to our internal waters as \vell as our sea-coasts, but the following are almost confined to the latter, though a specimen may occasionally be met with some few miles inland, especially in severe winters. The WILD SWAN or HOOPER (Cygnus ferus). Of this bird there are several varieties the common wild swan, Bewick's swan, the Polish swan, and two small sub-varieties of the Bewick swan. This last swan resembles the common wild swan in the colour of the base of the upper mandible ; but the Polish swan has this part of a pale yellow instead of the bright orange. The internal structure of the three is shown to differ by Mr. Yarrell, and therefore, though the 5 84 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. external difference is so slight, there can be but little doubt that they are distinct varieties of this bird. The adult swan is of a pure white, but the young birds, like those of the tame or mute swan, are grey in plumage. They breed in the Arctic Ocean, and only visit these shores in the winter season, when the colds of their summer residence are too severe for them. They are easily shot, till rendered wild and cunning by incessant firing at them. A charge of shot from an ordinary gun, if directed against the head or under the wing, will often kill them; but not even swan-shot will penetrate the feathers of the back and upper surface of the wings. They weigh from twelve to twenty pounds, and strike with such force of wing as to break the arm of a care- less or ignorant person. The COMMON WILD GOOSE (Anser ferus), generally called the GREY LAG, is more an inland bird than one frequenting the coast ; but it can scarcely ever be shot on the feed, which is its only reason for seeking the interior. In Scotland it is often stalked among the lochs, which are accessible to the shooter from their bold and partially-wooded shores ; but in the south nothing but the punt-gun has a chance with this wary bird. The flavour of a wild goose, when in good order, is most delicious, and is even superior, in the opinion of some gourmands, to that of the wild duck or teal. Formerly the grey lag used to breed in our fens and marshes, but such a thing is now unknown, and in some mild winters such as that of 1858-9 not a goose is to be seen on any of our coasts. The beak is of a pink-flesh colour, with the horny nail at the point white, as in the tame goose ; iris brown ; legs, toes, and membranes dull flesh colour; the plumage re- sembles that of the tame goose. The adult male measures thirty-five inches in length, and the female thirty inches. The BEAN GOOSE [Anser segetuni) very rarely breeds in this country, the greater proportion of those which appear in September and October having migrated here from the north. It differs from the grey lag in having the nail, edges and base of the bill black, the middle portion being orange. The plumage also is darker. The legs and toes also are orange. In length and weight there is very little difference between the two kinds. VARIETIES OF WILDFOWL. 85 The WHITE-FRONTED or LAUGHING GOOSE (Anser ery- thropus), though not so numerous in this country as the bean goose, is yet a regular winter visitor. It has a bill somewhat like that of the grey lag, having the nail white; but the feet and legs are orange coloured, like those of the bean goose. The general plumage is very similar to that of the latter bird, with the exception of the breast, which is nearly white, with patches and broad bars of black. In length it is less than either, being only twenty-seven inches from tip to tail. The BERNICLE GOOSE (Bernicla leucopsis) appears in large nocks in severe winters, especially on our western coasts. It is even more shy than the rest of its congeners, and is still smaller than the last its length being twenty-five inches. The bill is black, a stripe of the same colour ex- tending to the eye; the legs and toes are also black; the forehead, cheeks, and throat are white; top of the head, neck, and breast black ; upper parts black and white ; tail black ; and all the under parts greyish- white, the vent being pure white. The BRENT GOOSE (Bernicla brenta) is the smallest, and at the same time the most numerous, of the geese frequenting our coasts, in the bays and creeks of which it is to be found in large flocks whenever the winter is severe enough to draw it from the north. It is never known to breed in this country. Like the bernicle goose, it has a black beak, and also legs and toes of the same colour; the head, neck, and breast are black, with the exception of a small patch of white feathers tipped with black on each side of the neck ; the plumage of the upper part of the body is brownish black, with more or less grey edging to each feather; wing feathers and tail black; tail coverts and vent white; belly slate grey, the feathers being edged with white; length twenty-one inches. The following catalogue embraces the more common varieties of waterfowl wliich are likely to be met with by the sportsman on our coasts. For a more detailed description of these I must refer my readers to the pages of Yarrell, Bewick, and other writers on this branch of natural history. 86 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. The SHELDRAKE or BURROUGH DUCK (Tadorna vul- panser), and the RUDDY SHELDRAKE (Casarka rutila). The BLACK SCOTER (Oidemia nigra), and the VELVET SCOTER (Oidemia fusca). The SHOVELLER (Spatula clypeata). The EIDER DUCK (Somateria mollissima). The LONG-TAILED DUCK (Harelda glacialis). The GADWALL (Chaulelasmus strepera). The GOLDEN EYE (Clangula glaucion), of which the ;young is the MORILLON. The HARLEQUIN DUCK (Clangula histrionica). The SCAUP DUCK (Fuligula marila). The TUFTED DUCK (Fuligula cristata). The GARGANEY or SUMMER TEAL (Pterocyanea drcia). The DIVERS (Colymbus glacialis, G. arcticus and C. sep- ientrionalis). The CURLEW and WHIMBREL (Numemius arquata and N. In addition to the above list, almost every sea-bird which frequents our coasts is occasionally included within the deadly range of the punt-gun or shot from the shoulder at a long range, when the more coveted birds are not to be come ^at. However much the puntsman may mentally exclaim, " Dilly, dilly, dilly, come and be killed," those constantly tormented birds, which are the special objects of his desire, ^will not always be so accommodating ; and, in spite of every manoeuvre, they manage to escape. Among those which he is most apt to turn his attention to under these circumstances may be enumerated the Hinged Plover; Turnstone San- derling; Oyster Catcher; Redshank, common and spotted; Little Stint; Dunlin, or Purre and Purple Sandpiper; the 'Oxbird, and the Dotterel; also, the Cormorant, Gannet, and Gulls. The Rockbirds, including the Guillemots, Auks, Puffins, and Razorbills, also sometimes attract the fatal aim ; "but they afford no sport, and can only gratify the desire for blood which is so strong in some breasts as to call for con- stant gratification. In juvenile gunners this may be ex- cusable, though not to be encouraged; but among those who -call themselves proficients, they may surely be left to enjoy life as long as nature will permit. 87 DUCK AND PUNT-GUNS. In the shooting of game birds it is not considered sports- manlike to use a larger bore than No. 12 ; but in the species of sport which we are now considering, the object is to get birds, never mind how; and, as a consequence, there is no limit to the bore, or to the charge which may be used, so that the sportsman is not knocked over by the recoil. For inland shooting, especially of " flappers," a. common game-gun is sufficient; but for general winter shooting what is called a duck -gun must be chosen, it being capable, from its bore, of carrying a large charge, and of killing at greater distances than the game-gun from its barrels being nearly a foot longer. Of course these increase the weight very con- siderably, and this point limits the two qualities above mentioned, according to the strength of the shooter. Few men are strong enough to carry a gun of more than twelve -or fourteen pounds weight, and yet this is the lowest at which a duck-gun is fixed by Colonel Hawker. The fol- lowing are his directions. The duck-gun "should weigh from 12 to 201bs. ; should have a substantial stock, such as u fancy workman would be ashamed of; it should be made :so large at the breech, that neat gunmakers would laugh at it ; the stock should rise well up to the eye, because you have not the power to lower your head when holding out a heavy weight; and, above all, the barrel should lie level, and well up to the eye, instead of being let down, into the stock so as to pitch under the mark in quick firing. A duck-gun should have either no heel-plate at all, or one of a metal which will not rust after loading in a wet place. The ad- vantage of a duck-gun is, that it will carry large shot more compactly, and may be fired with double or treble the charge for a piece of ordinary size. You are, therefore, enabled to use large shot with the same advantage that No. 7 may be lired from a double gun; by which means, at a large object, you may kill considerably farther, and, in a flock, many more birds at a shot. The recoil of a duck-gun, can only be checked by weight of metal; and there are two ways to dispose of it: the one, by immense thickness, whereby the 88 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. gun may be short, portable, and easily managed; and the other, by increasing the length, by which you may kill farther, and take more accurate aim. The former was the plan of Mr. Joseph Manton, the latter that of the late Mr. D. Egg ; and, in order to partake a little of both advantages, I should steer between the two, and have barrels never less than three feet eight inches, nor more than four feet four inches, unless I used a rest. For pond and river shooting these guns may be from 12 to IGlbs. ; but more than that greatly fatigues the arm; and with a gun of this weight a good charge is carried a very considerable distance. A broad butt lessens the recoil, and a piece of sponge adapted to it will still further diminish that unpleasant feeling." For marine shooting a punt-gun is employed, which is a small cannon, and cannot be shot without an apparatus to break the recoil. This is effected either by means of a rope, or a spiral spring the latter being the invention of Colonel Hawker. A single gun for this purpose weighs from 60 to 801bs., and a double as much as 1201bs. As, however, this kind of sport is a speciality in itself, I shall refer my readers to Colonel Hawker's book, which gives minute directions for all its details. It may be mentioned, how- ever, that since the colonel's time a great improvement has been made in punt-guns, by the invention of the system of loading at the breech, which considerably facilitates the management of this otherwise unwieldy machine. One of the chief difficulties in the way of the puntsman consists in the necessity, under the old system, of running the gun in before loading, and also in the exposure of the person and ramrod to the view of the birds. This is done away with by the breech loader, which merely requires to be opened by one hand the other, if necessary, using the paddle, and without altering the breech ropes at all. Hence a second shot is sometimes practicable at the same flock before it has got out of distance; but in any case much time is saved, and the operation of loading is conducted without anything likely to alarm the birds. Whether punt-guns made on this principle perform as well as muzzle loaders I do not pretend to say; but unless they are very inferior to them in strength of shooting, their manifest advantages already described FLAPPER SHOOTING. 80 must make them entirely supersede the old plan. Their construction will be found in the chapter devoted to punt- guns, including muzzle loaders as well as breech loaders. BEST DOG FOR WILDFOWL SHOOTING. The small Newfoundland and the water-spaniel divide between them the favours of the wildfowl shooter, but the latter is generally preferred. In the second book the former is represented in the shape of the land-retriever, with a slight cross of the setter; and there will also be found an exact re- presentation of the northern Irish water-spaniel and of the south-country dog as well, the latter being free from white. A considerable difference of opinion exists as to the dog most suited to wildfowl shooting ; but there can be no hesitation in affirming that the following points are essential to success : In the first place, he must be hardy in constitution, with a woolly undercoat impervious to wet, and good powers of swimming. Then he should be completely under command, not requiring more than a look or movement of the hand to tell him what to do. Thirdly, he should be free from white, so as to be as little visible as may be, a liver colour being better than a black. Fourthly, a good nose must be super- added, and he must be taught to retrieve without injuring a feather. When these good qualities are combined in any animal, the shooter should not be inquisitive about his breed, nor should he care about appearances, which are often extremely deceitful. If, however, a water-retriever is to be reared and broken, the Irish water-spaniel, or the English dog of that breed, should be chosen, or the crosu with the Scotch terrier and pointer, as recommended by Mr. Colqu- houn, and represented among the retrievers. The small Newfoundland is very generally used, but his colour and size are against him. FLAPPER SHOOTING. The young broods of the wild duck which are bred in this country are just fledged and barely able to fly about the end of Julv, earlier or later according to the season. The method of proceeding will depend upon the breeding ground, 90 VARIETIES OP SHOOTING. which may be either the banks of a small brook or of a lake. If the former, a good spaniel or setter must be employed to search the banks, and push out the ducks, the old one being generally the first to show herself, but usually out of shot, unless her brood are unable to fly, when she will often sacrifice herself in trying to draw off attention from them. On lakes or large rivers a boat or punt must be used, in which the shooter proceeds to the reeds on the banks, or on any small islets where he suspects the ducks to harbour; then sending his dog quietly into them, he picks off the flappers as they make their appearance. They are easily shot, No. 6 being quite sufficiently large, and a common game-gun is the proper one for the purpose. As the indi- viduals composing the brood generally get iip pretty quickly one after the other, a breech loader will be found to be a great convenience. Young ducks, a little older than to be called flappers, are often met with in August and September on the small pools where dogs go for water, either in grouse or partridge shooting. WINTER WILDFOWL SHOOTING ON INLAND WATERS. From the watchful nature of all wildfowl, they demand the greatest possible caution in approaching them, and to get a shot at them requires almost as much preparation as at a red deer in the forest. The shooter, dressed in the quietest colours possible, and provided with his well- trained retriever, his telescope, and his heavy double-barrelled gun, which should carry two ounces of shot, proceeds first of all to make out, by means of his glass, the exact position of the flock he is about to stalk ; or if this is impossible, from the nature of the water, he must approach the bank as quietly as possible, and as near as may be to the most probable feeding- grounds. When at last he sees the surface of the water, he must be prepared for a quick shot either at a group on it, or at single birds on the wing. From the constant windings of narrow rivers and small streams, and from the disturbance on large ones caused by the traffic, it is seldom that sitting shots can be obtained on them, and the shooter must be con- tent with flying shots, which are usually long ones and WINTER WILDFOWL SHOOTING. 91 require a hard-hitting gun. On the lochs of Scotland, how- ever, and the large inland waters of England, by careful stalking a flock may be approached, and the greater part of the two ounces of shot in each barrel may be brought into use. The art of stalking, however, is only to be learnt by practice, and no written description will be of much avail. The shooter may nevertheless, be cautioned to get to leeward of the fowl ; for, though it is doubtful whether their sense of smell is very acute, there can be no question that the slightest noise puts them on their guard. As soon as the approach can no longer be concealed, let the shooter sud- denly rise, when in all probability the ducks will dive instead of taking wing, and while they are under the water a run may be made towards them, which will probably bring them within shot when they come to the surface again. At this moment a snap shot will often succeed in killing one or two, but the gun must be ready and almost at the shoulder, or they will be down again before the trigger is pulled. If a sailing boat can be launched on the water it is by far the best means of approaching wildfowl, as they will lie to it when a punt would immediately disturb them. For this kind of sport the shot must be large, and No. 4 will probably suit the best on the average. As all wildfowl fly fast, the aim must be from a foot to two feet in front of them, or they will inevitably be missed. Ducks rise almost perpendicu- larly, and therefore the aim must also be raised as well as directed forwards. In shooting teal on rivers, good sport may often be obtained ; as they do not take long nights like the ducks, but soon alight again on the same river or brook. They fly very fast, and take a good deal of shooting; but to a practised hand and eye they afford extremely good sport when they happen to frequent any river of which he has the control. In marking them down the eye should be kept well forward after the teal appears to drop, as this bird is very apt to skim along the surface of the water for a long distance before he really settles. It is necessary, therefore, to send a man below, keeping him at some little distance from the bank till the teal fly, when he should at once show him- self and so stop them. Coots and water-hens are most diffi- cult birds to catch on the wing, while they dive so quickly 92 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. that they can seldom be shot on the water, and if not killed dead they do not rise to the surface. The most likely method is to conceal yourself and send a man to hunt them out on the other side, when they will sometimes rise fear- lessly and expose themselves to your shot. DECOY-DUCK SHOOTING. It is a very common practice in France, and occasionally also in this country, to entice wild ducks within reach of an ambushed gun by means of decoy ducks. A hut is first built and carefully concealed by bushes, &c., near a small piece of water, which must of course be within call of the haunts of the ducks. Then fastening down five or six decoy ducks near one another on the water, their incessant quacking calls down the wild birds, and as these alight on the water they are swept off by the guns in ambush. It is not a very digni- fied sport, nor can I understand how it can be considered as anything more than a business ; but there is no accounting for tastes, and I therefore mention it here as one of the means of shooting wildfowl. Both ducks and teal answer to the call of the decoy duck, but widgeon refuse altogether. MARINE WILDFOWL SHOOTING. Until the example and writings of Colonel Hawker intro- duced this sport to public notice, it was almost entirely con- fined to those who sought wildfowl for the poulterers, and were actuated solely by the love of gain. Nor has this kind of shooting even since his time become general, the difficulties and hardships in it being sufficient to deter most men. In the work on " Shooting," which has made the name of Hawker universally known, the details are given at great length, not only of the mode of carrying out the sport, but also of the punt-guns, punts, mud-boards, &c., which are necessary for it. In the present day small yachts of six or eight tons are preferred by gentlemen to the punt, being more safe than those frail machines, and also being sufficiently roomy to carry a friend as well as the proprietor and a couple of men. Birds seem to bear the approach of a sailing boat much OBJECTS FOR WHICH THE RIFLE IS USED. 93 better than a punt propelled by a paddle, which necessarily makes some slight noise, however carefully it may be used. Besides which, they have generally been accustomed to see sails without being injured by them, whereas the punt is never without its sting. The various modes of carrying out the shooting of wildfowl by means of the punt and punt- gun must, however, be studied in the pages of nature, with the assistance of Colonel Hawker as far as theory can be made available. CHAPTER VI. EIFLE SHOOTING. OBJECTS FOR WHICH THE RIFLE IS USED TARGET SHOOTING ROOK SHOOTING RABBIT SHOOTING DEER STALKING. OBJECTS FOR WHICH THE RIFLE IS USED. THERE are two general purposes to which the rifle is adapted, the more important being the destruction of man by his fellows in war, while the subsidiary one is for amusement, either by means of target shooting, deer stalking, rook, or rabbit shooting. Where game is sought for in order to sup- port life, as in the backwoods of America, the rifle comes into play as a necessary, but in this country it can scarcely ever be adopted excepting for purposes of sport or war; and as this book does not profess to treat of the latter, the limits of the tool are readily assigned. There is a great difference between the military rifle and that intended for sporting purposes, chiefly depending upon the range, which in the former must be as extensive as possible, while in the latter it is rarely required to extend beyond two or three hundred yards, and, indeed, few sporting rifles are sighted beyond this. For our island purposes a small ball is sufficient, but in India and Africa, where the elephant or the lion must be despatched by a crashing and immediately fatal injury to the brain or some other vital organ, nothing less than two or three ounces of lead is thought sufficient. Again, in the 94 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. military rifle it is thought a sine qud non for the purpose of safety that the cartridges should not contain any detonating powder, because they may explode, when collected in masses, with a most disastrous result. But in the sporting rifle there is little or no danger of such an accident ; and several very efficient breech-loading pieces are used with cartridges containing detonating powder. All this will, however, be fully described in alluding to each particular rifle. TARGET SHOOTING with the rifle is a very common amuse- ment in some countries, and in Switzerland it is quite a national pastime. Latterly it has been gradually becoming more popular in England, but as yet it cannot be said to have obtained a hold upon the people. In the army it is, of course, regularly practised as a part of the business of the profession; but what I am now alluding to is target shoot- ing with the rifle as an amusement, conducted in the same way as modern archery. There is a Swiss club in London, whose members meet at regular intervals at the Hornsey Wood Tavern ; ' and there are two rifle regiments of volun- teers the Victoria, and the Honourable Artillery Company, but the two last are of a military rather than a civil character, though composed of civilians. The TARGETS, whether for civil or military purposes, should be carefully backed by some dense substance imper- vious to balls, and no mere fence of planks should be relied on. A wall or a faggot pile will either of them suffice, but nothing less impervious will do. The height should depend upon the distance at which the shots are fired ; but for two or three hundred yards, a height of twenty feet and a breadth of thirty will secure against accident, though I have seen even this missed; but then such an unpractised shot should not be allowed to display his ignorance at a longer distance than fifty yards, when he could not fail to effect a hit. In the middle of this large bulk an iron or brick target is placed six feet high, and for sporting purposes generally square or circular, with a bull's-eye in the centre, surrounded by rings, as in archery. In military shooting the target is six feet by two, and is marked off by perpen- dicular and transverse lines into small squares. The Swiss use linen squares set in frames, each of which is marked OBJECTS FOR WHICH THE RIFLE IS USED. with a bull's-eye surrounded by three rings, which score in the same way as in archery. Another plan is to measure every shot in inches from the centre of the bull's-eye, and the average of the measures of the whole number shot by each person is called the average string," while the sum lengths is " the total string." of the This is the best test for sporting rifles, because most of the objects which are likely to be shot at are of an irregularly square or circular form, and not like man, three squares of two feet each, placed one on the top of the other. Those therefore who like to practise target rifle shooting with the intention of becoming good game shots will do well to procure an iron target six feet in diameter, and back this with a wall or faggot pile about forty feet wide by twenty high, after which they may fire away and endeavour to make the best " string " they can. An average string of one inch at one hundred yards, and two inches at two hun- dred yards, is first-rate practice, and is seldom attained. Where expense is an object, and the screen must be reduced as much as possible in size, an archway is constructed at a dis- tance of a few yards from the shooter, so that his balls cannot possibly es- cape the screen ; for if they are di- rected outside it they are stopped by the arch. This is shown in the ac- companying cut, in which a repre- sents the rifle, which is directed to the upper edge of the screen d, A I ' 1 1 96 VARIETIES OF SHOOTING. and passes through the trajectory c ; but if it were held any higher, the ball, before it could pass in a higher line so as to rise above d, would be stopped by the arch b, which may be placed conveniently at the front of the loading- shed; e is the target. This plan is very commonly adopted in France. ROOKS and RABBITS need scarcely be alluded to as pabulum for the rifle, each being too well known to need any description. The STAG, or RED DEER (Cervus elephas), is the largest of the British deer, of which three varieties are known viz., the red deer, the fallow deer, and the roebuck. The first is considerably the largest; and the following dimen- sions given by Mr. Scrope in his interesting work on deer- stalking will afford some idea of his enormous size : ft. in. Height at shoulder 3 11^ Girth at shoulder . . , 47 Height from top of head to fore-foot ..56 Length of antler 26 From top of antler to ground . . . . 7 10 Gross weight . . . 3081bs. In colour, the stag is usually of a reddish brown, with blackish muzzle, and mane mingled with grey ; the inside of the thighs and flank being lighter, and approaching to a fawn colour. Deer under one year are called calves; till three, a male a brocket, and the female a hearst ; at three, the male a spire, and the female a hind ; at four, a staggart; at five, a stag ; at six, a warrantable stag; and after this, a hart. The female does not breed till three years old, and has only one calf. The male is known from the female by having a pair of horns, which are shed yearly, and change in form with every succeeding year. Each fully-developed horn has a brow, bay, and tray antler, and two points also on the top. The three first are termed the rights; the two points, the crockets; the horn itself, the beam; the width, the span; and the rough part at the junction with the skull, the pearls. The age is known by the horns and by the slot. The BROCKET has only small projections, called OBJECTS FOR WHICH THE EIFLE IS USED. 97 knobbers, with small brow antlers ; the SPIRE, a brow antler and half- developed beam, called uprights; a STAGGART, brow, tray, and uprights ; a STAG, brow, bay, and tray, with one horn crocket ted and the other single; a WARRANTABLE STAG has brow, bay, and tray antlers, with crockets on both horns. After this no rule can be given, as the horns constantly vary in all points ; but if they have three points, the harts are called royal. The slot is the proper name, according to the laws of venerie, for the tread of the deer, which in the hind is much narrower and longer than that of the stag, especially at the toe. In the warrantable stag the heel measures fully two inches; if more than this, and deeply indented into the ground, he is a large heavy old hart ; and such usually bring up their hind feet to the impression made by their fore feet. The deer's haunt is called his lair ; where he lies, his har- bour; where he rolls, his soiling-pool ; where he breaks through a fence, his rack; if he go to water, he takes soil ; if headed back, he is blanched ; if he lies down in water he is said to be sinking himself; an unwounded deer is called a cold hart. The red deer is rather a delicate animal, and bites close like a sheep, requiring an enormous range of pasturage to afford him such a choice and change as shall keep him in health. The hart ruts about the end of September, or beginning of October; and this period is exceedingly short, as compared with the sheep and goat, only lasting a single week. They show the change by a peculiar swelling of the neck, where they throw out a ruff of long hair; and at this time their flanks are tucked up, from their refusing food and their tendency to fret. While rutting they are very restless, and roll constantly in the peat mosses, becoming often perfectly black with the soil that adheres to them. They are now wholly unfit for human food, and are never sought after by the sportsman, who selects, in preference, the more backward harts and the hinds, which are then just coming into season, but seldom yet fat and of good flavour. The rutting harts are exceed- ingly pugnacious, and terrible battles are constantly taking place for the possession of the females, a whole harem of which are the spoil of the conqueror. The period of gesta- H 98 VAEIETIES OF SHOOTING. tion in the hind is eight months ; the fawn is left during the day concealed in the heather, and is only suckled at night. The suckling hind is poor and tasteless, and should be allowed to escape from the rifle-ball. Hinds which do not breed are called yeld-hinds. The direction of the deer's flight is almost always up-wind, in order to be forewarned, by their acute sense of smell, of any approaching danger. There is great difficulty in changing this instinctive course, but it may be done under certain circumstances. The hinds are always the most vigilant, and are set to give notice to the harts. The hinds are also always put first in the run, except in cases of great danger, when the master-hart comes forward and boldly faces it. The timidity of the red deer is very remarkable, and he can scarcely, except by compulsion, be induced to remain near the haunts of man. Every move- ment alarms him, from the cry of the plover to the flight of the hill-fox. He is more especially timid when he cannot make out the exact nature of the danger which threatens him; while, if he sees his great enemy man, even com- paratively close to him, he is much more composed, though still wary, and never confused or flurried. When pressed he stands at bay, and in this position is a very dangerous antagonist for both dog and man, as he will defend himself with horns and hoof till the last extremity. By choice he selects water if pursued by dogs, as his instinct tells him that in this element his superior size and length of leg will give him a great advantage. Here few dogs can pull him down, and when they attempt to reach him by swimming they soon fall victims to the sharp points of his formidable horns. The red deer in Great Britain are confined to the most retired and inaccessible parts of the Highlands of Scot- land, to the Quantock Hills of Somersetshire, and to some of the adjacent ranges of Devonshire; but, in addition to these, may be mentioned the deer confined in certain parks, as Richmond Park, which this one was meant to be preparatory. If, then, this is true, the plan fails altogether; but nothing short of actual experience can demonstrate the truth or fallacy of his directions. I have never yet heard of his more minute instructions being carried out by any practical man ; and as I know that the dog may be rendered perfectly complete in his education without them, I must continue to think that they are un- necessary, until I am shown to the contrary. I am quite satisfied, that if the seven points which I have described are carefully instilled before taking a dog into the field to show him game, there will be very little to do when there ; the only respect in which no preparatory teaching will be of any service being in the method of beating his ground, which will be alluded to in the next stage. BREAKING AT PAIRING TIME WITHOUT THE GUN. In the month of March and early in April, partridges and grouse have paired, and are so tame, that they will lie like stones. At this time, also, the wheat is high enough to con- ceal them, while the weather being cool and the ground damp, the scent is so good as to enable the dog to find his game without difficulty. This, therefore, is the time to be chosen for commencing the education in the field of the pointer and setter. Premising that the pupil is under good command, and that he will readily carry out the seven orders which are specified under the article on Preparatory Education, the next points to be taught are 1st. The range; that is, the method of beating the ground so as to avoid missing game. 2nd. The point ; that is, the art of standing steadily the moment that the scent of game is felt with certainty. 3rd. To back ; in which the dog stops in a more or less excited attitude the moment he sees another dog point or back. 4th. To draw ; that is, when he feels a scent, but is un- certain about it, or is led to believe that game is moving BREAKING AT PAIRING TIME. 125 away, to approach in such a careful manner as to lead the sportsman in the right direction without disturbing the game. Besides these four chief points which are now to be taught, the seven preliminary lessons will also have to be repeated day by day and hour by hour. If they have been neglected, they must be taught at the same time ; but the task is thereby increased tenfold, and dogs which are not obedient to nearly all these words of command before they are shown game, rarely become steady at any subsequent period. It is a disputed point whether puppies should be broken to game at all without the gun, and Colonel Hutchinson decides in favour of postponing the education in this department till the autumn. He says : " I cannot believe it is the best way to attain great excel- lence, though the plan has many followers ; it does not culti- vate the intelligence of his" (the keeper's) " pupils, nor enlarge their ideas by making them sensible of the object for which such pains are taken in hunting them. Moreover, their natural ardour (a feeling that it should be his aim rather to increase than weaken) is more or less damped by having often to stand at game before they can be rewarded for their exer- tions by having it killed to them ; it prevents rather than imparts the zeal and perseverance for which Irish dogs are so remarkable. Particularly ought a breaker whose pupil is of a nervous temperament, or of too gentle a disposition, to consider well that the want of all recompence for finding paired birds must make a timid dog far more likely to become a ' blinker' when he is checked for not pointing them, than when he is checked for not pointing birds which his own impetuosity alone deprives him of every chance of impetuously ' touseling.' The very fact that the birds lie will frequently lead to mis- chief; for if the instructor be not very watchful, there is a fear that his youngsters may succeed in getting too close to their game before he forces them to come to a stand point." Now, this is all very pretty in theory, but practically I believe it to be utterly fallacious. In the first place, the chief difficulty always is in getting the dog to begin to point; for after he has once shown the disposition, the subsequent progress is a matter of patience and firmness on the part of 126 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. the breaker. Then granting this, how can the dog be bene- fited up to this time by the killing of game to his point, when he has not yet arrived at that stage ? No one would attempt to work dogs unnecessarily at pairing time, but I do contend that a great deal may be done then far better than can be effected in September, and that if the breaking is put off altogether till that month, nearly the whole season will be wasted in " making" the dog. On the other hand, I have had dogs which, in the previous spring, had been made as per- fect as possible without the gun, and which only required one day, or at the utmost two, in September, to complete them. I do not mean to say that subsequent experience did not im- prove them, but I assert that they were on the third of the month very much more steady and trustworthy than any dog I ever saw at the end of September, whose education had been deferred till the first of that month. There is another reason why spring teaching is to be preferred to autumn : the keeper or master has then no other object, and his temper is not liable to be ruffled by want of success in finding game or in killing it. He is not tempted to sacrifice his dogs to his " bag," or to blame them for faults for which he or his friends are really responsible. Again, there are few days in September when the scent is good; either the ground is dry and the air hot, or rain has recently fallen, and the steam produced by it inter- feres with the scent. Such a state of things as is likely to exist in this month demands the experience and caution of the old dog, rather than that of the untried puppy ; and even if the young dog has been well drilled in the spring, and has come out with flying colours then, he will often have enough to do to make out his game. There are other reasons against following the colonel's advice, not the least of which is that the dog is rendered useless for the whole of one season ; for no one can do much during that period with an animal which has never seen game till its commencement. I am an advocate for every sportsman breaking his own dogs, but I should cer- tainly not recommend his doing so to the loss of his sport, and yet this must be the result if the practice which I am now disputing is adopted. For these several reasons, therefore, I protest against the postponement till the autumn of what may well be done in the spring. It is quite true that a dog steady BREAKING AT PAIRING TIME. 127 enough then will become so excited when he sees game killed, that he will rim riot for a short time ; but he knows what is right, and it is only necessary to correct his faults. There is little to be instilled into him, which is the most difficult part of all education, and after an hour's work he will settle down into a useful assistant. The RANGE is the first of these four acts of education, and it is at once the most easy to teach to a certain extent, and the most difficult to teach fully. Almost any dog with good breeding, and unspoilt by confinement or the whip, will start off and keep galloping about in a meaningless manner ; and this is sometimes called " beating ;" but it is very wide of what is meant by the real sportsman when he says that his dog beats his ground in a proper way. Ranging should be so carried out that every portion of the field or moor is crossed by the dog nearly at right angles to the wind, and at the smallest possible distance from the shooter consistent with the act itself. The dog has already been taught to run forward at the words " Hie on" or " Hold up," but he must now be shown how to proceed in the best manner to find his game. Some dogs, from not being thus taught, are apt to run straight into the middle of the field, and when they find a covey there, as they often do, it is supposed to be by a kind of special instinct. But if the sportsman desires that his ground, either in a manor or on a moor, should be thoroughly and effectively beaten, he will direct his dog to begin to leeward, and then crossing from side to side nearly at right angles with the wind, but with a slight tendency forwards, the ground is ulti- mately all crossed and re-crossed with intervals of from fifty to a hundred yards, according to circumstances. In doing this, the wind blows the scent of the game sideways on the dog, and a good one will always be observed to carry his head obliquely in the wind's eye, as he crosses his ground ; but the angle is in any case such that the scent is perceived just as well as if it was blown directly in front of him. If the dog is shy, he will perhaps refuse to beat, and then an older com- panion must be made to show him the way, which most puppies have enough of the faculty of imitation to be led to follow. Then for a time let both start off, the young one playing around his older leader, and without any idea of what 128 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. he is about. Presently the old dog "finds," and stands steadily, while the puppy looks like a fool for a short time ; then his curiosity being excited, he tries forward, puts up the birds, and has a good chase after them. Encouraged by the scent and chase, and stimulated also by example, he soon begins to work on his own account, and as soon as he will do so, withdraw the old dog, and let the young one beat by him- self. Never mind his chasing birds, hares, or any other game let him enjoy himself and get a zest for the sport, forwithout this he will never be worth a farthing. Well-bred pointers become sufficiently excited in the spring without the gun, if they are not checked, and it is only by mismanagement that they can be made " blinkers." The moment they begin to work in earnest, whistle, and by that means attract their attention, then make them work to the hand that is right or left, forward or towards you, according as the hand is waved in either of those directions. Some time and patience will be spent in carrying out this lesson, but it is all important, and upon it is based the whole system of ranging. Nothing else is to be attempted till the dog is tolerably perfect in this lesson that is, till he understands what he has to do, though he may not always be willing to do it. Perfection in it will require a long time, but two or three days will generally effect what is now wanted. The young dog should alwaysbe "hied on" from the leeward side, so as to give him the wind, and then waving him to the right (or left, as the case may be), he is allowed to work on for a certain distance, which in enclosed districts is bounded by the nearest hedge, or in open ones ends at two or three hundred yards from the shooter. Here he is stopped by a whistle, waved forward for a few yards, then whistled again, and waved to the left, in which direc- tion he proceeds till he has arrived at a similar point on the other side of the shooter, when the operation is repeated, but in the reverse order, and so the ground is beaten out. When two dogs are used together, one is started off to the right and the other to the left, and each being turned at equal dis- tances from the shooter, and moved in opposite directions, they ought as nearly as possible to cross each time in front of him as he walks forward. But this is a subsequent pro- ceeding to the first teaching the beat. During this part of BREAKING AT PAIRING TIME. 129 these lessons, the seven preliminary words of command will be constantly useful, and beyond these little more will be needed except the meaning of the wave of the arm, which is soon learnt, and which can hardly be taught well till the dog has some object in view. He soon begins to understand what he is wanted to do, and as he has learnt to obey his master and to believe in his superior powers and knowledge, so he now readily gives way to him in this particular. When, there- fore, he works steadily on, he is encouraged by his master's voice occasionally with " good dog;" but should he "break fence," or chase birds or hares after the first few hours, he is stopped by " ware fence" or " ware chase," as the case may be. Pursuing these methods, the highly-bred pointer almost in variably begins TO POINT at the end of a few hours' work that is, as soon as the acquired instinct of the individual breed is not over- powered by the natural appetite which all dogs have to chase anything which runs away. At first the stop is very hesi- tating, and the dog draws forward and puts the game up. Now is the time to come forward with " Toho !" which is quite useless and will be sure to be disregarded, if adopted before the disposition to point is shown in some slight degree. The point becomes dwelt on longer and longer as the dog becomes more tired, and the encouragement to do right by the word " Toho !" soon makes it last long enough for the breaker to reach the dog before he has sprung his birds ; then patting him and encouraging him in every possible manner, the breaker waits patiently with his pupil for ten minutes, if the birds will lie as long; beyond which time there is no use in keeping up the state of excitement. Next walking crouchingly forwards, and keeping his eye on the dog all the time, with his hand up to restrain him from following, he puts up the birds, calling out " Down charge" at the same moment in a loud voice. The dog will perhaps come forward, but he must at once be made to crouch, and it is well to keep him down for a few minutes, repeating the " down" in an encouraging but sonorous tone. In this way I the two first acts are completed, and then it devolves upon I the teacher to begin the third, or BACKING, which is taught I as follows: A steady companion, whose point is always to depended on, is put to work with the young one, who K 130 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. should at the time be somewhat tired, and therefore ready to obey orders. Let the old dog work forward, and keep the young one either near the breaker, or in such a position that the latter can interpose between the two as soon as the old one finds. The moment this takes place, the breaker sings out " Toho !" and, with his hand up, stops the young one wherever he is. At first his attitude, when thus stopped, is merely that of irresolution; but in process of time, as he finds by experience that his fellow-dog has game before him, the association of ideas induces the rigid attitude peculiar to the breed, and the firm " backing" is the result, which comes at various periods and in different degrees of intensity, according to the purity of the blood in each individual. A half-bred pointer may be made to point with a little extra trouble, and he may be also made to stop when he sees another point; but his backing thus induced is without rigidity, and it can rarely be depended on except in positions where it is of little use that is, whenever the master is close at hand. If there is much difficulty in developing this " steadiness behind," the young dog must be hunted in a check-cord; and when he rushes up to his fellow to deprive him of his point, he must be severely checked, and made to stand till his master comes up ; when the position is still to be maintained, but with encourage- ment, by the use of the words " Toho ! good dog, toho !" The great point is to stop at once any tendency to draw up to the pointing dog, for this unsteadiness behind has two ill effects : it induces jealousy in the old dog, and it makes the birds lie worse than they otherwise would. The fourth quality, or DRAWING, is one which cannot be fully taught at this time, inasmuch as it requires great experience on the part of the dog. Neither should it be permitted until he is quite to be relied on for steadiness, for it is apt to degenerate into the opposite extreme until the dog fully appreciates the object for which he is used, and is ready to work with and for his master instead of himself. On the moors, " drawing" or "roading" is especially necessary, for sometimes a dog catches scent and stands, but before his master reaches him the grouse are a hundred or a hundred and fifty yards off. Here, if he can gain no information as to their whereabouts, the -shooter has little chance of getting within shot, while the AUTUMNAL COMPLETION OF BREAKING. 131 thoroughly educated animal would carefully draw up to his game, and if first-rate, would leave his point, go round them, and head them. Such examples as these are, however, rare, and when met with, they cannot be too highly prized. No education can instil these faculties into a dog of limited brains, and therefore the owner of a brace of puppies must not expect that they will come back to him from the breaker with a full development of them. AUTUMNAL COMPLETION OF BREAKING. In the two previous divisions of the breaking process the dog has been taught to do nearly all which he will be re- quired to perform in the shooting season, but he has been barely taught the various acts required j for if he were to be severely drilled he would become disgusted, and " blinking" would be developed. Now, however, there must be no flinching on the part of the breaker, who must firmly correct everv fault, however slight, proportioning the punishment to it; but in all cases making the dog understand his error. It will inevitably happen that something wrong is done, but the faults will be venial if the previous education has been conducted by the same person as is now shooting over him, and if that person has been firm and consistent in carrying out his orders in the spring. The range being the first act which must be performed, should at once be attended to, and the dog should be worked by hand most carefully, not allow- ing him to take his own way for a single yard. This, how- ever, should have been previously carried out during the last few days of the close time, for no one ought to shoot over a puppy (nor, indeed, an old dog), however steady he might have shown himself in the spring, without running him over similar ground two or three times previously. According to the nature of the beat must now be the range : if on an enclosed manor full of birds, the quartering must be so arranged as to keep the dog always within a hundred or a hundred and fifty yards at most of the shooter : if, on the other hand, it is a wild partridge country, or a northern moor, the dogs are made to range two or three hundred yards right and left, and their parallels are also wider apart. There is a considerable difference of opinion and practice as to the K2 132 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. best modes of beating ground, but so much depends upon the individual dogs, and upon the pedestrian powers of their masters, that very few directions can be given. The pace of the shooter should never be so great as to hurry his dogs, and yet he should not be so slow as to be long in reaching them when pointing. Here, as in most similar cases, a happy medium, which can only be learnt by experience, is the proper rule, but this is more easily understood than described. But supposing the nature of the range settled, and the dogs started off and kept at such parallels as shall be suited to the ground or to the fancy of the shooter, he must also exercise his temper in checking his dogs when they attempt to break through any of the rules previously made. When one points the other must be made steady behind him, and this with as little noise as possible, merely by holding up the hand. Walking quietly but quickly up to the standing dog, the game is put up, and, it is to be hoped, shot; and now comes the moment when the fitness of the shooter for breaking is tried to the utmost. If he is a pot hunter, he will either rush in and pick up his game, or he will disregard the dogs altogether and suffer them to move towards it or to leave their ground. Any of these acts is fatal to their progress and to his sport j the dogs should both be made to drop, if they have not done so, and should remain down till the gun is reloaded, when they may be (one or both) allowed to mouth the bird, or to aid in retrieving it if it is not killed, but only wounded. I do not myself like that pointers or setters should be used for this purpose, but others think differently, and shooters will of course please themselves. When this is done the game is disposed of, the beating begins again, and the whole act is repeated as often as the shooter can effect it. But there are many minutice and delicacies of the art which demand practice in their proper fulfilment, as, for in- stance, in the drawing upon running game, or in sending the dog round to head them when so occupied. All this must be seen and practised to be carried out pr6perly; and no direc- tions for special cases can be of any avail. The principle only can be instilled, and this I have endeavoured to do in the directions already given, leaving the details to be filled up at discretion. REMEDIES FOR FAULTS. 133 REMEDIES FOR FAULTS. In conducting the breaking of dogs to the gun, it will be found that certain individuals contract faults, which must be remedied as far as possible. These are : 1st. Hunting too low, or puzzling on all occasions com- monly known as " pottering." 2ndly. Chasing when hares are on foot. 3rdly. Refusing to stop when another dog points, or to " down charge," when the gun goes off, as the case may be. For the first of these faults a mechanical contrivance has been invented, called the puzzle-peg, which is a projecting peg strapped on to the lower jaw in such away as to prevent the animal reaching the ground with his nose, thus. Colonel is; THE PUZZLE PEG. Hutchinson has invented and described a mode of super- seding the necessity for this, which I shall give in his own words. He is describing the preliminary education of a puppy : " Your pup having become a tolerable proficient in these lessons, you may beneficially extend them by employing the word ' Up,' as a command that he is to sniff high in the air to find the hidden bread or meat, lying, say, on a 134 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTEE. shelf, or on the back of a sofa. He will, comparatively speaking, be some time in acquiring a knowledge of the meaning of the word, and many would probably term it an over-refinement in canine education; but I must own I think you will act judiciously if you teach it perfectly as the initiatory lessons; for the word 'Up,' if well understood, will frequently save your putting on the puzzle-peg. For this you might be tempted to employ, should your dog be acquiring the execrable habit of ' raking,' as it is termed, instead of searching for the delicious effluvia with his nose carried high in the air." Now, undoubtedly, if the dog can be taught to understand the word " Up," it is a gain; but let any one try to do this, and he will find the difficulty is not trifling, nor, if overcome, will it suffice at any great distance from the shooter. Yet it is chiefly under such circumstances that the dog " potters;* 1 for few sportsmen care about it being done near them, inas- much as they can encourage the dog by the voice, and with this aid he will seldom dwell for any time on a foot scent. But it is at a distance that the mischief chiefly occurs, and when the steady point is wanted, to which birds will lie. Here the voice is altogether objectionable, for it either cannot be heard by the dog, or if it can, it will at the same time disturb the game. I therefore hold that Colonel Hutchinson's plan is utterly useless, and that the puzzle-peg must still continue to be the only remedy for this fault. By strapping it on for days together, the dog at length learns the habit of hunting with his head high, though it will generally be necessary to return to it occasionally for some time. For the second and third faults the check-cord is applied in a variety of ways ; but it is always intended to apply to those dogs which range too wide, or refuse to " back," or to " point," even, when very troublesome to break. It is merely a line of various degrees of size and length, according to the strength and courage of the dog; it may be generally of the length of twenty yards, and of good stout cord, well twisted, yet not too heavy. The object is not always to tire the dog, but to gain absolute command over his motions, in bringing him back to you, or in stopping him from chasing. Of course, the longer and heavier the cord, the more it tires the GENERAL REMARKS ON SPRINGERS AND COCKERS. 135 dog : but some animals are so delicate, that they refuse to range with it, and yet are difficult to stop ; altogether, how- ever, it is an exceedingly useful mode of bringing dogs under command, but it is not so necessary for the pointer as for the spaniel, or even the setter, which is a bolder, hardier, and more headstrong dog than the pointer. In very unruly animals it is applied to a leathern collar containing short spikes in its internal surface, and the cord being suddenly pulled, the " spiked collar" enters the skin and gives consi- derable pain. With a hearty pull, however, the plain collar punishes sufficiently for most cases, and 1 should rarely think of using anything more for the purpose of breaking the dog from either of the vices for which this remedy is provided. CHAPTER II. FIELD SPANIELS AND THEIR BREAKING. GENERAL REMARKS ON SPRINGERS AND COCKERS THE CLUMBER AND SUSSEX SPANIELS THE NORFOLK AND OTHER BREEDS THE WELSH AND DEVONSHIRE COCKER THE KING CHARLES AND BLENHEIMS HUNTING SPANIELS BY FOOT-SCENT ALL TAUGHT TO RETRIEVE PRELIMINARY EDUCATION ENTERING AND BREAKING. GENERAL REMARKS ON SPRINGERS AND COCKERS. FIELD spaniels, as distinguished from water spaniels and toy dogs, are divided into springers and cockers the former being used for hunting pheasants and hares, while the latter are chiefly employed as is designated by their name, for the woodcock. The springer is considerably larger than the cocker, and heavier in frame, as well as in the head. From this large size he is unable to follow out any but large runs in covert, and will often pass the woodcock as a consequence of this. Indeed it sometimes happens that the pheasant or the hare will pass where he cannot squeeze his body, but generally he will contrive to thrust it through with great fatigue to him- self. Of the springers there are three chief varieties the 136 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTEK. Clumber, the Sussex, and the Norfolk as shown in the annexed illustration; while among the cockers there are no specific and well-marked kinds now in use, but the Welsh and the Devonshire, though in many parts we meet with small spaniels used for the purpose which cannot be referred to either of these subdivisions of the dog. The Clumber Spaniel is a large, very long, and low spaniel, of a white and lemon colour, with a wide and flat head, and long ears. This breed has been confined to the Duke of Newcastle's kennels until within the last few years, and hence its name "Clumber;" but it is now very generally dispersed over the south of England indeed, wherever preserves of pheasants are met with, this spaniel is almost sure to be treasured. His legs are remarkably short and strong, and his pace in hunting is slow; while his muteness is admired by those who only require him in aid of the beaters in a battue. For wild pheasant shooting he is not so useful, as his master cannot tell where he is, or when he is on game. His coat is thick, but silky rather than woolly, and he is well feathered all round. A good team of these spaniels is worth 301. a piece. The Sussex Spaniel resembles the Clumber in being a long, low, and strong dog, but he is not so weasel-like in his pro- portions, and is of a deep liver colour instead of being lemon and white. He is also rather stronger and heavier, especially in the forehead, but the chief difference is in his " questing," or giving tongue instead of being mute. This dog is admi- rably represented in the engraving which faces this article. The Norfolk Spaniel is shorter in the back than either of the two above described, and he is generally of a black and white colour, sometimes liver and white, but almost always having more or less ticks about the body. All the large varieties of field spaniels, without any crisp curl of the hair, and not coming under the designation of Clumber or Sussex, are iisually called Norfolk spaniels. The Devonshire and Welsh Cockers are two breeds, each used in the part of Great Britain which is implied by the name, and so closely resembling each other that I know no means of distinguishing the one from the other. Both may be described as light- working and active dogs, considerably : . ALL SHOULD BE TAUGHT TO RETRIEVE. 137 less than the springers, and showing far more liveliness in their actions. All the field spaniels carry their tails low and work them in the same position, but this property is very remarkable in the cockers, which also work them more quickly than the springer. The Devonshire and Welsh breeds are always of a rich liver colour, as represented in the accompanying group, where the dogs in the background are two of the ruany nondescript varieties of this subdivision. The King Charles s and Blenheims originally belonged to the group known as cockers, but they are now only used as toy-dogs. HUNTING OP SPANIELS BY FOOT-SCENT. Unlike tlie pointer and setter, the spaniel always works with his nose on the ground, and does not carry his head in the air feeling for a body-scent as it is wafted towards him on the gale. It is quite true that occasionally he looks for and finds a pheasant in covert, which has been for a long time lying, and here he undoubtedly recognises the scent given off by the body, but this is done at no great distance off; and though he tries all heights to which he can reach, his carriage is not limited to the one, steady and bold, which is found to suit the pointer. Hence there is, in my opinion, no objection to a whole team being taught to retrieve, if it can be done, excepting that where the task is divided among a number, it is not so well performed for want of sufficient practice. Nor does it often happen that an average dog will retrieve thoroughly, the task being a very difficult one, and requiring the selection of one dog out of a goodly number in order to obtain a really accomplished retriever. I need scarcely remark that if, as I have known, spaniels are used in the open, they work somewhat differently to their covert style, with a higher carriage, but still not at all like the pointer. There are here, as in all rules, exceptions; but, nevertheless, the rule holds good with which I commenced this paragraph. ALL SHOULD BE TAUGHT TO RETRIEVE. Although, as I before remarked, all spaniels are not capable of being converted into good special retrievers, yet all should 138 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. be taught to bring game to their masters, when they have it in their possession. Without this quality they are apt to remain with a wounded or dead hare or pheasant which they may come upon in covert, and their services are thus lost for hours. Still it is by no means necessary that the power should be employed, and a special dog, whose talents can be relied on, may be put on the scent of wounded game when- ever there is a necessity for the services of such a dog. Every spaniel must be made perfectly steady at " down charge;" and until the gun is reloaded, not even the regular retriever must be allowed to move towards the wounded game. Then the rest of the team being called to heel, or kept " down," the retriever is set to work under his master's or the keeper's superintendence, and while he is carrying out his office the beat may proceed, if the services of the one or the other can be dispensed with. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. Whether for covert hunting or retrieving there must be a preliminary education of the young dog, which should em- brace all the acts directed for that of the pointer, excepting the " Toho !" (see p. 127.) This last is unnecessary, because the spaniel is not wanted to stand, and thus the six first which are there enumerated are all that can be required. These must be diligently instilled, for steadiness is wanted to a greater extent in covert than out. Dogs, when concealed from view, are more tempted to do wrong, inasmuch as they also lose sight of the controlling power, and hence the power of habit must be more complete ; so that it is seldom till these dogs have been used for a couple of seasons at least that they are sufficiently under command. But by constantly taking them out when young and keeping them very steadily under com- mand much may be done. But, nevertheless, in almost all cases, from their naturally high courage, when they are shown game, it will be found that it has all to be gone over again ; and though the task is rendered far more easy from having been early commenced, it is still a long and a tedious one. ENTERING AND BREAKING THE SPANIEL. 139 ENTERING AND BREAKING THE SPANIEL. I have already said that the spaniel's preliminary education must be commenced very early, and the same may be said of his entry to game and breaking to the gun. A dog which is left till he is a year and a half old will give a world of trouble, while a young puppy of seven or eight months may be broken in half the time. Spaniels are naturally of a most impetuous temper, and moreover they have not the instinctive tendency to stop or stand, which so much assists the breaker in his education of the pointer. When quite young say at six or seven months of age they should be taken out and worked in hedgerows and little spinneys and coverts, where they cannot get away far. Here they soon learn to know the scent of game, which is in itself more delightful to game-dogs than that of other animals. In some breeds, indeed, the fond- ness for particular kinds of game is well marked, and the " cock," for instance, will be recognised with a whimper indi- cating much greater pleasure and enjoyment than that which is displayed on ordinary occasions when a pheasant or a hare is owned. Great caution is necessary, lest the young dog takes to " self-hunting." He should rigidly be made to work with and for his master, and should never be allowed to feel that he is at liberty to search for game on his own account. If he does this, he will be quite useless, and not only will he start off whenever he is loose, in season or out, but he will get away to the other side of the covert, and play such pranks as will spoil the day's shooting. When spaniels are intended to be kept to any special game, such as cocks or pheasants, they should never be allowed to hunt anything else, but generally they are taught to work out all that comes before them, and if they will only indicate the nature of that which they are after, they are to be the more highly prized. In order to keep them to one kind, it is only necessary to "rate" them for hunting any other when it is discovered. " Fur" is often discouraged, and for those who do not want to kill rabbits or hares in covert, it is desirable to stop a spaniel from speaking to it the moment his error is discovered. But the grand essential in breaking covert spaniels is to make them keep 140 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. within forty or fifty yards of their masters, so as to provide against their pushing up game out of shot. If this is well carried out, and they are made steady to " down charge," while at the same time they possess good noses, there is little more necessary ; but this, little as it looks on paper, will be found much more difficult to teach than the more complicated task of the pointer. The temptations to the spaniel are constant; he crosses foot-scents at every few yards, to follow out which may perhaps lead him a long way off, and yet his appetite is against leaving them unworked out. Nevertheless, he ought to abandon them, unless he finds, on giving tongue, that his master is not following him; and it is in producing this wait- ing for orders that the special difficulty resides. The pointer must also wait till he finds, but when he is under the stimulus of scent, he is no longer required to hesitate what he shall do : he knows his duty, and must stop dead, unless under circum- stances when he may be called upon to " draw." The diffe- rence between the two tasks is here clearly shown, and it need not occasion surprise that the one is so much more difficult to teach than the other, because it supposes reasoning power to be displayed under circumstances of great temptation. But the first thing to be done is to instil the desire to hunt, without which the puppy must remain useless. If no incli- nation is shown when first taken out, let him be put on the scent of pheasants just as they come off their feed, and as they are returning up the hedgerows. At this time the young dog will only drive them into their secure retreats, and will do little harm, if the practice is not continued day after day in the same place. Until the young pheasants are able to fly, this must not be attempted, as they may then be easily caught and killed, but as soon as they can rise into the trees, they are safe. It is well to avoid entering dogs intended for feather to fur; and if this is done, pheasants are the only winged game that can be selected. Spaniels should always be taught to drop to the gun and hand, as I have already explained, this being a part of their preliminary education, when it may be taught by means of the pistol ; but it must be enforced on all occasions when game is before them. A retriever is very useful, as it is very difficult to prevent the whole train of spaniels from bringing game, if any one is ENTERING AND BREAKING THE SPANIEL. 141 allowed to do so; but they soon learn to "down charge" strictly, and then the retriever goes to the dead bird, and retrieves it for his master. In first entering young spaniels to hunting the hedgerows, if the breaker is out alone, they should not be allowed to go through to the other side, but should be kept carefully on the same side as the shooter ; afterwards, however, when they are accustomed to the range, and keep watchfully eyeing the sportsman, to see that he is within reach, they may be sent to the other side, and put to hunt everything out on the same side as the gun, which is always the most effectual mode with a single shooter. When the young spaniel is first put into a large wood, and is beyond the supervision of his master, he often ranges the entire covert, and does immense mischief to the sport, driving everything out of shot. He should be well loaded with lead in a leathern collar, or one of his legs should be taken up into his collar, or a strap should be buckled tightly just above the hock, which will prevent his using that leg. He must be put to hunt with two couple of steady old dogs, even if he is so confined as to do nothing. He will soon learn to imitate his fellows, when he sees them pay all attention to the gun, and when he finds that game falls to their hunting, whereas he has never yet succeeded in obtaining such a result. After a time, his leg may be set at liberty, and he may perhaps take to his work kindly enough, and refuse to leave the other dogs far. He will not probably do much good, as this work requires great experience, but he will do little harm. It cannot be ex- pected that the spaniel will learn his business in one season, and he is seldom perfect in two ; but he will help to do the looking-on part, and will animate the old, stale, but steady and clever dogs, to increased exertions. Many sportsmen are constantly encouraging their spaniels by cries of " Have at *em!" "Cock! cock! cock!" &c. &c. ; but this is perfectly useless, the slightest whistle being sufficient to indicate the whereabouts of the gun, and more than this, interfering with the sport, because it shows the game what they have to avoid, and when to avoid it. If the spaniel is fond of his master, and accustomed to work for him, he is as much occupied in watching his motions as in seeking for game. These dogs have a very strong love of approbation, and very fortunately 142 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. this is so, because they are so much more beyond the master's control than the pointer or setter. There is no objection to beginning to beat the coverts early in the morning, which is as good a time as any for pheasant shooting ; and most ardent sportsmen of the old school select that time, especially if they mean to beat the hedgerows. This they can do as the birds are returning from their feed, after which they should follow them into covert, and with a wave of the hand order in the spaniels, with " Have at" pronounced " Haave aat" which should only be used just at first, by way of encouragement* After this keeping them carefully near him the shooter should watch for the one which " opens," and press forward to that dog; as soon as he gets to him, the little creature is sure to push on, and will, if of a good nose, soon either undeceive him by silence, or drive up a pheasant or cock. The great point is to rush well into the thick of the scent, getting to the dog throwing his tongue, wherever he may be, and being regardless of thorns or brambles. Nothing can be effected without this rush, as pheasants will run for many yards before dogs, if not rapidly pushed, and will generally get up far out of shot, or so protected by the trees as to be defended by them from the gun. Little light men have consequently a worse chance at this sport than strong and tall ones, who are able to raise their arms and guns above the underwood, and carry all before them. It is seldom that a pheasant can be marked into another part of the same covert, and indeed, if it is so, the bird seldom remains near where he alighted, but runs a long distance, and then lies quietly in the thickest and most impenetrable part. If wild-pheasant shooting is to be followed with much success, the spaniels must be broken from "fur" both in the form of hares and rabbits, as they will otherwise neglect the pheasants, and take to the four-footed game. This can only be done with spaniels whose breed is very pure and free from the stain of the beagle, which so many of our old spaniels are crossed with. The Clumber and also the Sussex spaniels, when pure, are said to disregard hares and rabbits, until thoroughly entered to them, and always to prefer " feather" to " fur " and no doubt it is the case where the ancestors have been strictly kept for generations to pheasants and cocks. But when they are allowed to hunt all THE DEER-HOUND. 143 kinds of game, they are not so very oblivious of their natural instincts as is commonly reported. Such is the method of breaking the spaniel, with the exception of that part which treats of his education as a retriever; but as the mode of effecting this is the same as for a dog specially provided for that purpose, and as this latter subject will next come under consideration, it will be desirable to treat of the two together. CHAPTER III. RETRIEVERS AND RETRIEVING BOTH ON LAND AND IN THE WATER. LAND RETRIEVERS THE DEER-HOUND THE SMALL NEWFOUNDLAND CROSSED WITH THE SETTER THE CROSS WITH THE POINTER AND TERRIER THE BEAGLE AND TERRIER CROSS WATER RETRIEVERS THE PURE ST. JOHN'S NEWFOUNDLAND THE POINTER AND TERROR CROSS THE WATER SPANIEL ENGLISH AND IRISH TEACHING TO RETRIEVE ON LAND AND ON WATER. Retrieving is the art of recovering animals after they are partially disabled by the gun or rifle. Thua the deer-hound is slipped when the stag is not brought down by the rifle, and follows him up either by scent or view. The land retriever works out the many windings of the wounded pheasant, grouse, or partridge; and the water retriever brings to his master the crippled duck, which would otherwise escape, or sometimes the dead bird which lies beyond the reach of man when he has not the aid of a boat, or of the assistant which I am now describing. The Deer-hound is a large and very elegant specimen of the 1 dog, his proportions being quite as good as those of the grey- hound, and resembling exactly in shape the rough variety of that beautiful dog. The appearance and shape of the deer- hound are better described by pictorial representation such as that which faces this page than by pen-and-ink sketches. It may, however, be mentioned, that the purity of 144 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTEK. the deer-hound is judged of a good deal by the coat, which should be very wiry and somewhat long, without being woolly. In colour these dogs are fawn, red, black, or brindled, and often of a greyish shade, composed of a mixture of bluish black and white hairs. A cross of the foxhound with either the smooth or rough greyhound is now very often substituted for the old deer-hound, which is every year becoming more and more scarce. The object is to obtain a fine nose, so as to hunt a cold scent, if necessary, but united with such speed as to be able to keep the stag in view when once the dog has been sighted. High courage must also be combined; but there is an objection to the use of the bulldog in breeding these dogs, because the tendency of the former is to go to the head, where the horns are dangerous weapons. Hence, though nothing gives such an utter disregard of these horns, the cross with the most courageous of dogs is obliged to be abandoned. The entering of the deer-hound is a very simple process, requiring merely the example of an older companion, and plenty of practice. THE LAND RETRIEVER. In the group which accompanies this article three kinds of retrievers are drawn with great accuracy. 1st. The cross between the small Newfoundland and the setter, which is almost always black. 2nd. That between the pointer and rough terrier, the use of which is advocated by Mr. Col- quhoun. And 3rd. The small retriever, which is sometimes used in partridge shooting, and is the result of a cross between the beagle and terrier. The large black Retriever is intermediate in form between the Newfoundland and the setter. The body is lighter and less unwieldy than the former, but more massive than most of our setters. Head heavier than the setter's, with shorter ears, and less vivacity of expression about the eyes. Indeed, in every point he may be described as partaking of both sides of his parentage, so much so that he readily takes the water, like the Newfoundland, and may easily be taught to stand and back like the setter. The nose of this dog is often very WATER RETRIEVEES. 145 good, and he will retrieve wounded game as well as, or per- haps better, than any other kind. The Cross of the Pointer and Terrier is not so much used, but it is strongly advocated by that excellent sportsman, Mr. Colquhoun, and on that account it is worth a trial. A strong, useful frame, with great hardiness of constitution, is the result, capable of bearing cold and wet as long as any other dog. A specimen is represented as one of the group of retrievers opposite this page. The Little Terrier and Beagle Cross, which is seen in the background of this group, is a great favourite with me, and I have never seen any kind of dog perform more extraordinary feats in retrieving than this. The drawback is that he is too small to carry a hare, but for all other purposes he is invaluable. The best cross is about three parts rough terrier to one of the beagle. The terrier may be either the Dandie Dinmont or the Scotch dog ; but in selecting one he should possess a good nose, and should have been used for hunting game. WATER RETRIEVERS. Besides the Newfoundland and its cross with the setter or spaniel, there are also two or three breeds of pure water spaniels used in wild-fowl shooting. The form of the New- foundland cross does not differ from the land retriever of that breed, as represented in the last engraving. The Old English Water Spaniel is a large, rough, and curly- haired dog, generally of a liver colour, with or without a little white about the legs and breast. The head is narrow and long ; ears of the average length in the spaniel ; body strong, especially in the loins; limbs large and bony; feet spreading, and therefore said to be web-footed ; tail covered thickly with short hair, without any brush, and ending in a point; Coat curly, and not liable to get wet to the skin, from possessing an oiliness at its roots, which is very essential to the power of resisting the action of water. This dog swims and dives well, but he requires a vast deal of breaking to render him sufficiently obedient. He is represented in the illustration on the left-hand side. Of the 7mA Water Spaniel there are two kinds; the North 146 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTEK. of Ireland dog, which is given in the annexed engraving; and the South Country water spaniel, of which I have never seen a well-marked specimen. Both are of a liver colour, but the former has often more or less white, while in the latter this is entirely absent. The northern dog is also longer on the legs, with short ears, having little or no feather on them, and both the legs and tail being also almost free from this ornament, and covered instead with a short curly coat, as is also the rest of the body. The southern dog, on the contrary, has long and well-feathered ears, tail round also, and pointed, never being carried above the back ; head covered with a perfect top-knot, coming down over the forehead in a peak. These dogs are valued very highly in Ireland, but they are little known out of that country. The northern Irish spaniel is, however, common enough in England and Scotland. TEACHING TO RETRIEVE. The fondness for carrying is displayed by some puppies to a remarkable extent, while others are altogether without it. The latter will never make good retrievers, in spite of all the efforts of the best breakers, but the former will only require a little practice to become the most valuable assistants in shooting. I am often asked, " How am I to begin to teach my puppy to fetch and carry T Now, this is rather a diffi- cult question to answer satisfactorily, because in itself it plainly shows that there is an absence in the individual for whose benefit it is asked of the special faculty to which I am now drawing attention. If the puppy is likely to become good in this line, he will naturally display his " fetch-and- carry" propensities, and will be constantly seen with a ball or a piece of stick, or perhaps a stone in his mouth, asking you to throw it for him. Every one accustomed to dogs of this kind must have seen this, though it is not so common among animals which are not generally long in the company of their masters, house-pets being particularly likely to display it. There are means by which young dogs may be taught to carry, but then the act of teaching is almost sure to render them " hard-mouthed," an effect which spoils them entirely and for ever, for no fault is more difficult to eradicate. The TEACHING TO KETRIEVE. 147 mode by which carrying may be taught consists in letting the puppy, especially when teething, lay hold of a handker- chief or towel, or a bunch of feathers tied to a cord, and drag it towards him ; a slight resistance aggravates him exceed- ingly, and makes him fond of possession, which he may be allowed to have for a few seconds, and will then proudly carry off his trophy, the other end of which is still to be held, but not checked. In a few seconds he may be again warned by a gentle pull that he is not yet master of it, and this renews the desire, which ultimately becomes confirmed, and any dog may thus be taught to carry a stick ; but, as I before re- marked, he will inevitably become " hard-mouthed." After giving him only a few of these lessons daily, and not nauseating, he is, as he grows older, accustomed to fetch anything which is thrown, and often may be made to pick up whatever he is told to lift, by the words " Fetch it," pointing to the particular article. In throwing the glove for him to fetch, occasionally throw it into high grass, or in the garden, into carrots or potatoes, then cry " seek, seek," and encourage the dog to look for it, by appearing to look for it yourself. After six months of age, the puppy may be taught to find and bring young rabbits, purposely concealed in grass, &c. : but should never be allowed to hunt rats, since they, by their bite, raise the animal's ire, and cause him to retaliate, and consequently to become hard-mouthed with his game. When the retriever has learnt to find and bring young rabbits without injury, and is under very good command, he may safely be taken out with pointers, but at first should be led by a servant, and only suffered to go loose when a bird is killed. He will then at once proceed to find it, and bring it to you, during all which time the pointers must be still " down," let the search be ever so long and distant. After a short time, when the retriever has been thoroughly accustomed to the work he has to do, he may be allowed to go at large, keeping him always at the heel of the shooter, and only suffering him to retrieve at the words "Seek, seek," if the birds are wounded, or " Fetch it," if dead. The retriever should always be made to bring the game to the actual foot, or even the hand of the shooter, and not lay it down at a distance, as he may choose L2 148 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. sometimes to leave it on the wrong side of a fence or river. In teaching these dogs to take water, it is only necessary to begin in the summer, and to avoid throwing them in. They will always, at that season, readily enter the water, and fetch anything floating out of it. Nothing is so easy as to teach a retriever to do his work, but the difficulty is to keep him at heel till ordered off; yet by firmness, and a little system of rewards and punishments, this may always be effected. A "hard-mouthed" dog is most difficult to break of his bad habit, and indeed he may almost be said to be irretrievably spoiled. When, however, a puppy has shown natural abilities for this office, and has only taken to pinch game from over-eagerness, he may be mended in this respect by putting on a check collar, and taking him up very steadily and slowly to his game. Give him, in the course of the walk-up to it, several monitory pieces of advice, such as " Steady, boy, steady," by which his ardour will be damped, and if these fail, check his collar smartly. Then let him very gradually and slowly take the bird into his mouth, keeping his nose just away from it till he has had time to inhale the scent. When he grasps it, still caution him, but let him keep possession for two or three minutes, and then make him drop it into the hand. By pro- ceeding in this slow and cautious manner, the dog may get over his tendency to grip his game, but in the majority of instances, such an animal never becomes quite what he ought to be. Balls stuck full of needles, steel bits which keep the mouth slightly open, and other similar devices, have been invented, but none of them are of much service. The bit or bridle, as it is sometimes called, answers as long as it is worn, but few people would care to have a retriever which bears the unmistakeable marks of being a bad one. The WATER RETRIEVER requires very little special teaching in addition to that which has been already alluded to as necessary on land. But he must have a great deal of practice before he is really useful, and a good water-retriever is not often to be met with. Of course he must be induced to " take water" readily, but those breeds which are likely to become good in this capacity require very little education in this particular. The water retriever should commence on land, like the land retriever, to seek for gloves and young TEACHING TO RETRIEVE. 149 rabbits, &c., and to bring them uninjured to his master. After a time, he may be taught to bring a ball or glove from the water, which he does more readily even than on land, but is very apt at first to deposit it on the shore, as soon as he reaches it, in order that he may shake himself clear of the water hanging to his coat. This should be discouraged, as it is very apt to induce the dog to leave his game on the edge of the water as soon as he comes out. When these dogs are required for punt-shooting as well as river-hunting, their education is better commenced on the river-side than in the punt. Nothing answers better for this purpose than the shooting of" flappers," which usually comes on in July and August. The water being then warm, and the young birds awkward, and not very good divers, great encouragement to persevere is afforded to the dog, and he may be easily induced to swim more or less for hours, and to hunt the side of a brook in the most ardent manner. There is very little difficulty in entering these dogs to wildfowl, as they seem to have a natural bias that way j but they should be carefully broken from rats, which abound on the banks of rivers and ponds. The only art consists in confining their range, by making them beat to hand, and in persuading them to retrieve wounded or dead birds. The range is much more easily taught the water spaniel than the land variety, because he is almost always in sight of the shooter, and always within the sound of his voice. If, there- fore, the puppy has been taught to come in at the word " Back," and to turn to the right and left on land, in obedience to the hand, as in ordinary spaniel-breaking, he will be sure to obey in the water, where he seems to ask for the directions of his master. The eye of the swimming dog is only able to command a small circle, being very little raised above the level of the water, and therefore he cannot see far from his nose ; but by watching the hand of his master for the voice should not be used more than necessary he is often directed to the right spot, and afterwards is glad to claim the assistance which is found to be so useful. 150 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. CHAPTER IV. BABBITING EABBIT DOGS FEKRETS AND FERRETING SHOOTING PONIES. EABBIT TERRIERS THE ENGLISH TERRIER THE SCOTCH DOG THE DANDIE D1NMONT THE 8KYE TERRIER THE HALF-BRED DOG FERRETS USED IN AID OF THE GUN DESCRIPTION REARING AND FEEDING DISEASES MANAGEMENT IN HUNTING. RABBIT TERRIERS. THE Terriers which are used for rabbiting, either with or without ferrets, are the smooth English dog, more or less crossed with the bulldog, the Scotch terrier, also, more or less similarly crossed, and the Dandie Dinmont. The Skye terrier is sometimes used for this purpose, but he is not equal to the above kinds. In any of these varieties, the terrier is a strong, useful little dog, but unless he has a cross of the bulldog, he is generally a rank coward. Whatever dogs are employed for the purpose of working rabbits out of hedgerows and small coppices, whether terriers, spaniels, or beagles, if ferrets are also employed, should be carefully broken to them, for otherwise a valuable ferret may easily be killed or spoiled. No dog answers better than a good terrier, which is easily kept in command, and is more readily quieted at the moment when silence is all-important ; I shall therefore merely allude to the varieties of this dog which may be used. The Old English Terrier is a smooth-haired dog, weighing from seven to twelve pounds. His head is flat, with a jaw tapering neatly off, and slightly overhung, if not crossed with the bulldog ; eye small and bright ; ears, when not cropped, short and slightly pricked, but turning over at the points ; neck strong and long ; body very neat and compact, with strong loins and deep chest, the back ribs not being very deep j fore legs strong and straight, and the feet round and RABBIT TERRIERS. 151 hare-like, not resembling those of the cat ; tail fine, not carried over the back ; colour most frequently black and tan, but some breeders assert that true terriers are of almost every colour which can be mentioned. My own opinion is that, unless they are crossed with the bulldog, the colour should be black and tan, with as little white as possible. This dog hunts rabbits well, but he has not courage enough for vermin. The Scotch Terrier resembles the English dog in all but his coat, which is rough, wiry, or broken haired, three terms for the same thing. The colour may be black and tan mixed with white hairs, or red, mixed in the same way, or white with more or less of the other colours above mentioned. This dog is more hardy in all respects than the English terrier, and has an equally good nose. The Skye Terrier is a very long, low, and strong dog, and if bred in or near his native country, he is quite capable of being used to hunt rabbits ; but in the south he has so long been kept for toy purposes only, that it is scarcely necessary to allude to him here. The Dandie Dinmont Terrier immortalized by Sir Walter Scott, is intermediate in size, roughness, and length between the Scotch and Skye dogs. When of a good strain, he is an excellent rabbit dog. In colour he is invariably either "pepper" or "mustard," the former being greyish black with tan legs and muzzle, and the latter red shot with grey hairs. Both have long, silky hair over the eyes, and standing out from the muzzle ; the legs are short, body long, shoulder low, back slightly curved, head large, jaws long and square, ears large, and hanging close to the face, eye full and intelligent, tail slightly curved and carried over the back like that of the hound ; weight about fourteen pounds. The Half-bred Terrier consists of any of the above kinds crossed with the bulldog, and shows the general appearance of the particular stock with a larger head and jaw, which is more or less overhung. These dogs are far more courageous than the pure bred terrier, and will stand wet and cold, as well as hard work, much better ; the cross is, therefore, generally preferred for ferreting or hunting rabbits, but it should not be nearer than the third or fourth remove from the bulldog. 152 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. FERRETS USED IN AID OF THE GUN. The ferret is used for taking rabbits either with the aid of nets placed at the mouths of their holes, or by shooting them as they come out. The latter is the method which more particularly brings them under our notice in the present book. The FERRET (the two varieties of which are delineated in the accompanying engravings) originally came from Africa, through Spain, from which latter country the whole of Europe has been supplied. In length it is about fourteen inches, the ears are round, eyes red and fiery, colour pale yellowish white. The dark-coloured variety is crossed with the polecat, and is not a pure bred animal. These cross- bred ferrets are supposed by some to be more hardy than the white, but there is no such difference in reality between them, and for some generations they are wild and unmanage- able. In choosing ferrets for rabbiting, the largest should be taken in preference, especially for rocky ground, but in some soils where there are no chasms likely to occur in the earth, a small ferret will answer well enough. REARING AND FEEDING. The hutches in which ferrets are kept should be placed in a dry room well protected from the weather. The floor of the hutch must be kept very clean, and for this purpose a false wire bottom answers well, having in a drawer below it sawdust or chaff, which will absorb the moisture, and can be removed with it every day. By adopting this plan, ferrets may be kept comparatively sweet, and even without the wire, by changing the sawdust, or chaff daily, a sufficiently whole- some result may be produced. The retiring box, or sleeping place, should be small and without any false bottom, as the ferrets, unless they are mismanaged, will never dirty it : it should be freely supplied with clean hay and wool, as they like to be warm, but the box should be ventilated in proportion. A trustworthy correspondent of The Field (High Elms), thus describes the hutch used by him : " The box itself should Tin WHITE FERHET. THE POLECAT-FEBRET. REARING AND FEEDING. 153 be three feet six inches long, one foot six inches wide, and one foot six inches deep. The feeding compartment (formed at one end) must be one foot taken out of the whole space, the sleeping place adjoining it one foot three inches, and the other compartment one foot three inches also. To divide each place from the other, strips of wood must be nailed inside the box to the back and front, leaving spaces between the strips to allow of a thin board sliding down pretty tight. About four inches from the foot of these partitions cut out a round hole three inches diameter. Over each of these holes make a small door to work on a screw. To each of these doors have a stiff wire, put on to the door with a scr o vr but with the end of the wire projecting through a hole in the front of the ferret box. Each of the three compartments must have a separate lid. When I describe the rest of the arrangement, the uses of these sliding doors and separate lids will be apparent. For the last compartment have two wooden trays made, lined and covered on the sides with zinc plate. Have to these trays wire handles, nailed at two op- posite corners, and rising up like a bow. The trays being made to fit easily into this compartment are lifted out by the two handles. The box is now complete. The sliding door to cover the hole in the feeding compartment may be on whichever side is preferred. The other sliding door must be in the sleeping side, so as not to interfere with the slipping down of the tray. The sides of these trays must be four inches high. They will thus come just under the hole in the division. I should be inclined, however, to recommend the sides as being about six inches high except at the hole, where a piece can be hollowed out. People acquainted with the habit of ferrets will see why I recommend the sides to be pretty high. Mine were about four inches, but six would be none the worse. Into the tray you must put some dry sand or sawdust, about an inch or two deep, and every day, or at most every two days, empty it out, wash the tray and put it in the air to dry, while you substitute the other. Let the ferrets have a warm bed of hay and wool. When you. feed or clean them, pull the wire of the place you are about to open, and thus close the door. This is a very needful pre- caution, for I should say that the task set to our friend 154 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. ' Sisyphus,' of unhappy memory, was a joke in comparison to that of keeping three or four ferrets from oozing out of the open box when you want to shut the lid again. Keep the box in a dry place, not cold." For food, bread and milk should form the staple, with the addition two or three times a week of a little animal food, such as butcher's meat, heads and necks of poultry, or what is best of all, small birds or young rabbits. They should be fed once a day, the bread and milk being given lukewarm, and the birds as soon after they are killed as possible. Some milk is injurious, and the pans in which they are fed must be scalded daily/ Q nd should be of earthenware or metal, not wood. The quantity must depend upon the condition, which will vary greatly in different animals, they should be so fed as to be rather low than fat, and especially when they are about to be used. The bitch ferret must be allowed to breed, or she pines and becomes diseased. She goes with young forty days, and the young are born blind and remain blind about a month or six weeks, but they feed on their mother's bread and milk before they can see, as well as upon the milk which they obtain by sucking her. In a fortnight after they can see they may be weaned, and then their tuition must at once be commenced. For rabbits very little more is required in this way except to let the young ones become accustomed to the appearance and voice of their master, so as to come to him when called. This is easily effected by constantly feeding them, but for ratting they must be taught to attack the rats. In handling them roughness should always be avoided, and they should be accustomed to be taken up without fear, the neck being the proper place to lay hold of. With a pair of leather gloves, if they do bite at first, the pain can be en- dured, and they soon leave off the attempt to hurt their feeder when they find no resistance offered. They must also be accustomed to the muzzle, which is applied in various ways, as will presently be described. MANAGEMENT IN FERRETING. 155 DISEASES OF FERRETS. These little animals are subject to a kind of distemper generally when they are just weaned, which is called " sweating," and which is better let alone. Foot rot is also common, caused by a want of proper cleanliness and ventila- tion, and here prevention is much more easy than cure. When it appears, the claws grow long and ragged, from the animal not wearing them away by friction ; the toes are red and raw, and the poor creature is terribly lame. Several remedies are adopted, but the first thing to be done is to cut the claws as close as they can be shortened without reaching the quick, then touch the raw parts with blue- stone, and keep them dressed with an ointment composed of equal parts of mild mercurial ointment, simple sulphur ointment, and tar ointment. By repeatedly applying these remedies, and the use of great cleanliness, the foot rot may generally be got rid of. MANAGEMENT IN FERRETING. After hunting the young ferret two or three times with the old bitch, she generally takes to the work, and will readily enter the rabbits' holes and drive them without further trouble. The ferret should have been fed with only half the usual allowance on the day previously, and this will make it the more eager. Sometimes ferrets are allowed to enter rabbit holes without being muzzled, but the usual plan is to muzzle them in someway. Of the various modes adopted, the most efficient is that by means of a fine cord, which is tied over the nose and neck in the following manner: Get some fine whipcord or strong twine, cut off a piece long enough to go round the neck, and about four inches over. In the middle of this tie a small loop, as at Fig. 4 ; then take another piece about eight inches long, and double it, tying two knots (Fig. 5, b c) at such a distance as to allow the nose to be admitted between them. To put these on, first tie the string (Fig. 4) round the neck so that 156 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. the loop (a) is underneath ; next place the nose in the loop (b c, Fig. 5), and slipping one of the ends of the first string (Fig. 4) through the noose (d, Fig. 5), tie the two tightly together ; next pass one of the ends at e (Fig. 5) through the small loop (a, Fig. 4), and tie them also tightly, when the ferret is muzzled. Any person may put this on with a little practice, but it requires rather more to use a single piece of whipcord, as the struggles of the ferret have to be overcome. The plan is to slip first a noose over the jaws, then bringing the ends round the neck, they are tied above, and one of the ends being slipped through the string as it lies over the nose, it is tied to the other on the forehead. Net bags are made to take in the whole head, but they hold the claws of the ferret when it attempts to scratch them off, and are not at all useful. Leather muzzles are also bometimes employed, but they do not answer so well as the cord. When the ferrets are thus guarded they are put into the earths, in such a posi- tion that the rabbits will be bolted on the other side of a hedge or bank, which must be silently watched by the sports- man, who shoots them as they bolt. But the worst of the plan is, that after the first discharge of the gun the rabbits do not bolt freely, and they are very apt to cause the ferrets to " lie up," even though they are securely muzzled. When this is the case, all that can be done is either to watch patiently till they come out, or to dig them out, which latter plan cannot always be carried out in strong or rocky ground. THE SHOOTING PONY. On the moors especially, but sometimes also in partridge shooting, and even in the battue, the shooter prefers four legs to two. This may arise either from inability to walk, or from disinclination, or perhaps from both combined in many instances. Colonel Hawker advised that the sportsman should have a pony calculated to carry double, and that in THE SHOOTING PONY. 157 this way not only he, but his marker, would be able to get over the ground better than on foot. On the moors, no doubt a bad walker has a poor chance, and as the distance to be got over is very considerable, we can hardly wonder that those gentlemen who only walk should require assistance. Wlien a pony is used for this purpose, the shot is some- times taken from his back, but generally speaking, the rider dismounts when his dogs find, and leaves his quadruped to take care of himself while he re-loads. In either case the pony must be carefully broken to stand fire, and he should be also made extremely clever in leaping " in hand," and also in standing without being held wherever he is left. A high-couraged horse will seldom serve the purpose, as he will demand a very long-continued education; nor will the stubborn temper so often displayed among the Welsh gallo- ways be likely to submit to the discipline of the breakers in the implicit manner which is essential to success. But the Highland pony will generally be found to combine the various requisites, and is also instructed by practice in his early life in the treacherous nature of bogs. Nothing is more common on the moors than for a mounted sportsman to get stuck in one of these traps, and if he then is on an animal which is not " up to trap," he will flounder deeper and deeper, and at last perhaps be obliged to call assistance to get himself and his stupid brute out. On the other hand, the Scotch pony may get him into a bog, but then he will stand till his master quietly gets off upon the surface, which will bear the weight of the latter, with the aid of his broader feet, but will allow the more bulky proportions supported upon the smaller pedestals of the pony, to sink through. In selecting ponies for making into shooting cobs, this quality should be taken into conside- ration, if they are wanted for the moors, but very many are required by the less ambitious partridge shot, who is too unwieldy for the active exercise in any case required in grouse shooting. Generally in the north the pony is only re- quired (except for the lazy and infirm) to take the shooter to the moor; once there, he can scarcely avail himself of his pony's assistance without sacrificing his sport. During the time in which a man is dismounting, the grouse are getting on the run, and the interval, short as it is, will very often enable 158 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. them to rise out of shot. Few active men try the experi- ment, but I fancy if they did, they would find that they could kill more birds with than without a pony. With his aid, you may get up to- the birds much more quickly; and I do not think that the noise made by the canter of the pony occasions any disturbance to them. No doubt the increased height is a disadvantage, but to balance this is the increased speed in getting to your dog's point. How often do we see the pointer stand at 150 or 200 yards off, and what a time it takes to get up to him, especially if against the steep side of a hill ; on the other hand, many parts of the moors are not rideable. In making the comparison, it is generally the case that the shooter on foot is an active young man, and the pony-man an old and infirm one, who takes five minutes to et off, and perhaps rides up as slowly as the other walks, till, I should never advise any good walker to adopt the use of the pony, but at the same time, on most moors, I fully believe an active, wary man may, if he likes, use one with advantage, and especially when birds are running much. The pony only requires to be broken to stand the gun, to leap in hand, or follow over a fence, and to be handy, and used to stand without holding. All this is so easily taught, that it is unnecessary to allude to it here. CHAPTER V. GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF SHOOTING DOGS. KENNELS AND KENNEL MANAGEMENT FEEDING DRESSINGS AND PHYSIC PREPARATION FOR WORK MANAGEMENT AFTER WORK. KENNELS AND KENNEL MANAGEMENT. THE KENNELS intended for pointers and setters should be dry and well protected from the weather, but they should be kept cool, on account of the exposure to wet and cold which shooting dogs must incur. This is especially needful with spaniels, who are often wet for hours together in the coldest KENNELS AND KENNEL MANAGEMENT. 159 days of winter. Some people keep them chained up to a small yard-kennel, similar to that of a watch-dog, but the plan is not a good one, as there is not sufficient exercise taken. In a pointer-kennel there should always be a yard twelve or fourteen feet long, and paved with hard bricks, the less porous the better. If, however, it is washed down two or three times a week, there is no necessity for their being glazed. The yard should not be roofed in, as the rain serves to keep the floor sweet, and a little wet only serves to harden these dogs, who will not suffer from it if their beds are dry. An inner or lodging-room must also be provided, and this is better if floored with cemented bricks or asphalte. Nothing is so injurious to the health of dogs as a damp floor, except, perhaps, a dirty one ; and as in the case of porous bricks, it must be either one or the other, they should be rejected, or if used, they must be covered with cement. The additional cost of a layer of this material is not great, and for the ordinary size of floor required, it will not exceed ten or twelve shillings. If the cement is carried a foot up the walls, an additional guarantee is afforded against the absorp- tion of urine, and the dogs are rendered all the more healthy at a very slight extra outlay. For the benches, deal laths set pretty close together, answer every purpose, but they should be lined towards the walls, so as to prevent the cold striking into the backs of the dogs. These benches are better not more than a foot from the floor; as if they are higher, some of the dogs are very apt to get under them and become covered with the dirt falling through the interstices of the laths. Ventilation is provided for by having the door always open, but it is as well to have a provision for it in the upper part of the lodging-house. A light should also be provided, though for the same reason it is seldom wanted. In order to keep the yard as sweet as possible, it should have a fall towards the centre, where there should be the trapped grating of a drain to carry off the washings of the yard. Close to this it is a good plan to put up a low post, which will be used by the dogs to lift their legs against, and will thereby save the door-post from constant pollution. Tiles form the best covering for the lodging-room, being warmer in winter and cooler in summer than slate. Thatch is still less influ- 160 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. enced by heat and cold, but it harbours fleas and other vermin so much as to be negatived on that account. A layer of felt under the tiles is a good addition, but by itself it is so liable to become rotten, that it is not to be recommended. FEEDING. All shooting dogs are fed upon oatmeal more or less mixed with other kinds of meal such as that of barley and Indian corn. It is found that the slightly aperient nature of the oat keeps the dogs in good health, and this meal therefore does not heat them when kept for a time in kennel, as is the case with barley-meal, or Indian corn meal, or wheat flour. If they are regularly exercised, which they ought to be, there is nothing better than a mixture of Indian corn and oatmeal, in such proportions as to keep the dog's bowels gently moved. The foreign meal is somewhat cheaper than oatmeal, and on that account it is used by many people ; but unless the precaution is taken to exercise the dogs, it is almost sure to heat them, and produce eruptions of some kind or other. Green vegetables, such as cabbages, cauli- flowers, &c., or potatoes, carrots, or turnips, should be added two or three times a week during the summer, dogs being ready enough to eat the mixture if it is flavoured by broth made either of flesh or greaves. Bones also are essential to health, for unless the dog has something to gnaw, he does not produce the amount of saliva which is required for his digestion. With these several elements he may be kept in good health, provided always that he is not exposed to in- fectious diseases, and is not infested with vermin. Through- out the months when shooting dogs are idle they require no flesh, and their meal need only be flavoured with broth. The materials generally employed for making this are greaves, which being always purchaseable at the chandler's, are on that account very convenient. They are the refuse mem- branes left after melting fat for candles, and contain some considerable nourishment of a mild nature, though from being stale the smell is strong, and not very appetizing to the stomach of man. The dog, however, is naturally fond of high flavours, and will ravenously devour flesh when it has DRESSING AND PHYSIC. 161 been kept till it is high. The usual method of preparation is to break up the greaves, and boil them in water till they are soft, then stir in the oatmeal, and boil for a quarter or half an hour, stirring constantly to prevent burning. Take oif the pot, or if in a copper, rake the fire out, and let the whole cool, when it becomes stiff, and is known as " pud- dings." The quantity of meal necessary for making this varies so much, according to the quality, that no directions can be given, and practice will soon show how much will suffice. Of the greaves a pound per week is plenty for dogs out of work; and of the puddings thus made somewhere about a pound and a half to two pounds will be the average consumption per head daily. I may mention that the pud- dings should be so stiff as to bear to be cut in masses without losing shape, or sticking to the knife or spade with which this is done. When dogs are hard at work, and indeed, while they are strongly exercised in preparation for it, a little flesh should be given to them; and for this purpose there is nothing better than sound horse-flesh, boiled, and the broth used for the puddings. The change, however, should be gradual, and it is well to give them an occasional meal of it during the summer, to avoid the chance of its disagreeing in the autumn, which it often does when given for the first time. DRESSING AND PHYSIC. WJien dogs are kept long in kennel they are almost sure to contract some eruption of the skin, which is often caused by parasites of one kind or other. Many of these are so minute as to require the microscope to detect, but others are visible to the naked eye. Of the latter kind are fleas, ticks, and lice, which are great pests, and very difficult to exterminate. The usual method adopted is to dress the dogs once or twice in every year, and the dressing adopted is very generally a mixture of train oil and brimstone, which is rubbed into the roots of the hair over the whole body. This answers well enough in killing the vermin above named, none of which can live when covered with oil, but it is very apt to chill the dogs themselves, as the oil has nearly as cooling an effect M 162 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTEK. upon the skin as water, and we all know that a dog kept wet for days together would be sure to contract some kind of disease. There are several remedies which have no such ill- effect, and for valuable dogs they are well worth the adop- tion, though attended with some little trouble and expense. But to please all parties, each shall be enumerated in the following list. A good Dressing. Take of spirit of turpentine four ounces, train oil twelve ounces, brimstone two ounces ; mix. To kill Fleas. Take of soft soap two ounces, carbonate of soda one ounce ; mix, and add a little water to form a paste ; rub this well in to the roots of the hair, let it remain an hour, then wash all out with warm water and dry. For any Vermin. Rub Keating's Persian insect de- stroying powder into the roots of the hair. It is quite innocent in its action on the dog, and kills the insects at once with which it comes in contact. To kill Ticks or Lice. Take white precipitate in powder, rub it well into the roots of the hair ; let it remain for two or three hours, keeping the dog carefully muzzled; then brush all out, and keep the dog dry for some days. To remove the Ticks from the Walls and Benches. Take of corrosive sublimate two drachms, sal ammoniac four drachms ; rub together in a mortar, then dissolve in half a gallon of water, and brush the walls and benches over with it, saturating them well. Next day go over them with quicklime wash, to which is added a little size to prevent its coming off afterwards on the dogs' coats. By adopting any of these measures, kennels may be cleared of all of these vermin, and their denizens also kept free from them. There is no doubt that, by keeping dogs scru- pulously clean vermin will not collect at all, but they must be washed once a week in order to ensure this desirable obj ect. During the summer fleas will collect upon dogs under any circumstances, especially if they are allowed plenty of litter and it is not frequently changed. There is no neces- sity for this, for dogs do not care to lie in straw when the weather is warm, but prefer the cool flags or a bare bench, on account of the heat of the litter. Shavings of red deal are also good preventives of fleas, all insects disliking the DRESSING AND PHYSIC. 163 turpentine which they contain. But, besides these visible parasites, as I before mentioned, there are other and smaller ones which attack the dog's skin, causing what is popularly called virulent mange. For their removal a dressing is absolutely necessary, and in addition medicine will often be required. Here much depends upon the nature of the parasite, and the extent to which the mange produced by it has gone, but the following applications may be tried, and if one does not succeed the other probably will. Dressing for Virulent Mange. Take of compound sulphur ointment four ounces, spirit of turpentine two ounces ; mix, and rub well into the skin twice a week. Or, take of iodide of mercury one drachm, lard one ounce ; mix, and rub a very little into the roots of the hair every day. Red tnange is a constitutional malady, and can seldom be cured without internal medicine, as indeed is often the case with the virulent form. Arsenic in minute doses, continued for months together, is almost a specific against the foul con- dition of the blood which exists in either case. It should be given with the food, and not on an empty stomach. For an ordinary pointer, setter, or spaniel, proceed as follows : Take of Fowler's solution of arsenic five to eight drops, add to the food, and give twice a day ; the dog being fed night and morning. If in a month the whites of the eyes do not become red, increase the dose gradually till they do ; then diminish a drop per week till the redness disappears, when continue the dose till the eruption is gone. Physic is given regularly in some kennels, but this can only be necessary when the dogs have been previously neglected. No care will prevent infectious diseases from en- tering a kennel, and distemper will revel in it in spite of every precaution. But the physic usually given is not for such diseases as these, but to counteract the effects of too much food, coupled with the omission to exercise the dogs. An occasional dose of castor-oil will certainly do no harm, and indeed the dog is by nature inclined to adopt some such irritating remedy, for the effect of the grass which he eats is nearly the same. If, therefore, a dog becomes dull and devoid of appetite, it is well at all times to give him a dose ; but as long as he keeps in health and spirits there is not the slightest M2 164: ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. occasion to interfere. An excellent kennel remedy is the following : Take of castor-oil three parts, syrup of buck- thorn two parts, syrup of poppies one part ; mix, and give two tablespoonfuls to a large dog, and in proportion to a smaller one. Worms are the most troublesome pests of all in every large kennel, for though there are occasional exceptions, the rule is that they exist in every dog during most parts of his life. When in small numbers, and especially if they are only the variety called maw- worms, little injury is done, but tape- worms and round-worms interfere sadly with the health and strength. When, therefore, either of these kinds is found to exist, the remedies proper for their removal should be ad- ministered. It is impossible to find space here for a complete treatise on " worms and their removal," and, indeed, in re- ference to them as well as to other maladies, the reader should consult those books which are specially devoted to the subject. All that can here be done is to indicate the most simple treat- ment, preventive as well as curative. The cause of the presence of worms is very mysterious, but of late many discoveries have been made, which tend to show that though only a limited number of species are found in the dog, they are produced from the ova of a greater variety of parasites infesting the sheep, the rabbit, and other animals upon the flesh of which the dog is fed. Hence it becomes doubly important that precautions should be taken against the introduction into the stomach of any flesh, paunch, trotters, &c., without boiling, which will destroy the life of these eggs, supposing them to exist. Practically it has long been found that such a proceeding was necessary, and butcher-fed dogs have been always supposed to be peculiarly liable to worms. The ova deposited in the bowels of the dog are likewise supposed to be retained in a state of vitality for months and even years, attached to the walls of the kennel, so that it is desirable as far as possible to destroy them in that position, or to avoid keeping dogs year after year in the same building. The latter precaution, however, is a most troublesome one, and few sportsmen will be inclined to build new kennels for their dogs every two or three years. But by using the wash ordered at page 162, for ticks, the DRESSING AND PHYSIC. 165 double purpose will be served of destroying them as well as the presumed ova of the parasitical worms. Another pre- ventive is to be found in the preservation of the health of the dog, for if he is kept well, and accustomed to regular exercise in fresh air, his stomach will be so vigorous and the secretions so healthy, that worms will have a hard battle to maintain their existence. Still, in spite of the adoption of all these plans, worms will be found to exist in many dogs, and then they must be removed, or the health will be found to suffer in the course of time. Whatever remedy is used to destroy worms, it must be of an irritating nature, and those drugs which are fatal to the parasite cannot but be more or less injurious to the animal on which it preys. The choice is therefore to be made of the remedy which is least so, and this is found to be the areca nut. There are also several advantages peculiar to this remedy, such as the absence of any disagreeable taste, and its cheapness. But although the areca nut may be given without any risk worth consideration, it cannot be said to be wholly innocuous, as I have known it produce very severe symptoms in one or two instances ; but as these were the only ones out of perhaps tens of thousands in which it has been given, the drug may be said to be a safe one. Powdered glass is equally innocent, but then it is not nearly so effective, and it may, I think, be discarded from use on that account. Turpentine and kousso for tape-worm, and Indian pink for round-worm, are the most potent remedies for these varieties, but they are far from safe, and must be given with caution in all cases. The dose for a pointer, setter, or large spaniel in each case is as follows : Take of powdered areca nut two drachms; mix with some thick broth, and give it directly after mixture to a fasting dog. In six hours follow it up with a dose of oil. Take of kousso two drachms to three drachms, boiling water half a pint ; mix, and when nearly cold, add the juice of half a lemon ; then drench the dog after twenty-four hours' fasting. Follow this up also with oil. Take of spirit of turpentine two drachms to four drachms; tie it up in apiece of bladder, and give as a bolus. Four hours afterwards, let the dog have half a pint of broth, in which is stirred up a tablespoonful of castor-oil. Take of Indian 166 ANIMALS USED BY THE SHOOTER. pink two drachms, boiling water four ounces j mix, and let it stand till cold, then pour off the infusion, and give as a drench. PREPARATION FOR WORK. Until tJie shooting season the dogs are too apt to be neglected, and are often left in kennel for weeks and even months at a time. When this is allowed they become fat, inside and out, and they are not able to work for want of muscular power and wind, as well as from the tenderness to which the feet are subject. Without constant use all the organs of the body become inefficient, and this is more par- ticularly the case with the muscular system. The shooter is well aware of this fact, as exhibited in his own person, and yet he will often ignore it as concerns the inmates of his kennel. He should remember that the pointer travels over six times the ground which he does, and at a fast pace, instead of a walk. But the experienced sportsman is well aware of the necessity of preparation in the case of his dogs, and for at least a month before they will be wanted he sends them to exercise daily. Even this time is not long enough if they have been confined throughout the summer, for though their muscles and wind may be got right in that time, their feet will not be sufficiently hardened. It is in this part that dogs generally fail, and to keep them hard and tough throughout the month of September, in a dry season, they must have been regularly inured to the road by a good run on it once a week, at least, all through the summer. The horny matter which covers the pads inevitably wears away in work, and if it is not rapidly formed again, the foot becomes tender and the dog is lamed. A habit of quick growth in this part is therefore essential, and this is produced by con- stant friction. Some dogs naturally have thin soles, but even these may be made thicker by use ; while the strong, horny pad may be rendered perfectly invulnerable. Let every shooter see that these precautions are used, and he will not suffer from the disappointments which are so fre- quent, owing to their neglect. Many a mistake is caused by want of condition, and not from want of nose, for a blown and exhausted animal is not in possession of the sense of smell. 167 MANAGEMENT AFTER WORK. Pointers and setters, as well as spaniels, often come home in a state of great exhaustion, partly caused by exposure to cold and wet. In this state they are very liable to conges- tion of some internal organ, and great numbers every year die of "the yellows" in consequence. When a valuable animal is in this state, with cold legs, ears, and feet, a dry nose, and a look of exhaustion, he should be put into a warm bath and kept there for a quarter of an hour. Just before immersion in it, if he is in a very low state, give him a little spirit and water as a drench, and after he comes out rub him dry, finishing up with a glass of spirit (whisky or brandy), rubbed into his back and sides. Then feed, or if the dog refuses this, drench him with a teacupful of good broth, or of gruel with a little brandy in it. Afterwards let him be put by himself in a moderately warm stable or kennel, with plenty of clean straw in which he can roll himself. Should these measures not be sufficient, recourse must be had to ve- terinary assistance. Wlien sore feet are produced by neglect of preparation, they should be soaked in hot water by placing the dog up to his knees in a tub, or a couple of pans if a tub large enough to hold all four is not at hand. A tablespoonful of salt and powdered alum may be added to the water with advantage, unless the pads are absolutely raw, when they are better omitted. After taking the feet out, dry them thoroughly with a cloth, and then dress them with tar ointment. Apply a little of this every six hours, and in a short time the tenderness will disappear ; but it takes a long time, if the dog has not been used to hard ground, before the horny sole is restored in sufficient thickness to bear work. BOOK IIL ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY, AND COMPOSITION OF THE PARTS ESSENTIAL TO IT. CHAPTER I. DEFINITION OF GUNNERY AND GUNS AS APPLIED TO SPORTING PURPOSES. GUNNERY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AS APPLICABLE TO SPORTING PURPOSES CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN GUNS AND RIFLES SHOT GUNS CONSIST OF A TUBE MORE OR LESS CYLINDRO-CONOIDAL, CAPABLE OF BEING CLOSED AT ONE END BARRELS LOCKS MODES OF EXPLODING THE DESIDERATA IN THE SHOT-GUN THE RIFLE. GUNNERY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AS APPLICABLE TO SPORTING PURPOSES. IT does not come within the scope of this work to enter upon the history of projectiles from the earliest times, a subject which interests greatly the mechanic and the antiquary, but is not always approved of by the sportsman. Nor is it necessary to enter upon a description of great guns, which are used only in war, or upon military small arms, those with which the sportsman operates being called " bird guns" in the trade, in contradistinction to " small arms," which is a military term. The principle is, however, in all cases the same, that is to say, a sudden impulse is given to a body previously at rest, and in such a way as to drive it forcibly in the direction of the object which is to be struck. In the arrow and the bird-bolt used with the bow or crossbow, this im- pulse is communicated by the string on its release from a notch which has held it behind the arrow or bolt until it is CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN GUNS AND RIFLES. 169 let go. The string itself, however, is only the passive agent, the active power residing in the bow. This has an elastic property inherent to it by which it strives to resume its original position when it has been drawn from it. So again in the air-gun, ordinary atmospheric air is compressed by a pump, and its elastic property induces its expansion when the pressure is taken off. In both these cases, then, we have a previous compression of an elastic agent, the release of which causes an impulse to be given to the projectile in front of it. In gunnery, however, the elastic agent is naturally compressed into a small space, and when confined in a chamber open in one direction only, and made to expand by ignition, its elastic power is so great as to give a far greater impulse to any body impeding its expansion, than either the bow or compressed air. In the present century, therefore, advantage is taken of this natural agent, and whether in the shape of gunpowder, guncotton, or any other still more active material, in all cases there is an extraordinary impulse com- municated to some projectile which is placed between one or other of these, and the only passage by which the elastic gas resulting from the explosion can escape. The conditions at present essential to our branch of gunnery are, first, the existence of a tube of iron capable of being closed at one end, with the exception of a small opening for firing its contents. Within this and at the closed end is a charge of some explosive matter, which may be either gun- powder or guncotton, or any other agent, provided that it will suddenly expand to a sufficient extent when fired by contact with a burning substance. Between this and the muzzle is the projectile, which may consist of one mass of lead or of many smaller ones (in the latter case being called shot), which by the sudden explosion of the powder or cotton is driven in the direction of the long axis of the tube, with a tendency to fall to the earth as it progresses, in conformity with the law of gravitation. CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN GUNS AND RIFLES. All guns, therefore, consist of a tube more or less cylindro- conoidal, closed at one end, with the exception of a small 170 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. firing-hole, and either smooth in the interior, or if great accuracy is required, when intended to be used with ball, grooved in a spiral direction. Here, then, we have one great subdivision into smooth bores and rifles, the former being used with shot or ball, while the latter is intended for ball only. But in addition to this subdivision, we have also another most important one, and gradually becoming more so every year. This consists in the method of putting in the charge, which may be either at the muzzle, and the guns are then called muzzle-loaders, or at the breech, when they are denominated breech-loaders. SHOT-GUNS CONSIST OF A TUBE MORE OR LESS CYLINDRO- CONOIDAL, CLOSED AT ONE END. Whatever may be the method of firing and loading adopted, every shot-gun is composed of a tube of iron, bored so as to represent a cylinder in the greater part of its extent, but more or less conical in the remainder. One end is left open, to allow of the shot escaping when the explosion behind it takes place j the other is closed either by a plug of iron being screwed into it, as in the ordinary muzzle-loader, or by some method to supply the place of this solid breeching, after the charge is introduced at the breech end. Besides the cylinder or barrel, as it is called, there is also a provision for the ex- plosion of the powder, which is effected in different ways, according to the kind of gun which is to be employed. Lastly, the barrels must be made capable of being handled quickly, and applied to the eye so as to get a " sight" of the object against which they are to be directed, and for this purpose a wooden handle called a " stock" is provided, so shaped as to be adapted to the individual for whom it is intended. Here, then, we have the gun divided into the barrel, which is the essential part, the lock which provides for the firing of its charge, and the stock which is added to attach these two together, and also to allow of the ad- justment of the barrel in a straight line with the mark to be hit. In the early part of this century, and during the whole of the last, the gun used for sporting purposes was that known THE GAUGE. 171 as the flint-gun. This was a similar tube to that now used, as far as its principle of action is concerned, with the exception that the charge was fired by means of a spark (arising from the striking together of flint and steel), which fell into a small cup of powder outside the barrel, but communicating with its interior through a small canal (the touch-hole) also filled with gunpowder. By means of this comparatively rude invention, the sportsmen of that day were able to shoot flying, but not with the same accuracy as at present ; and the prac- tice required to make a "good shot" was ten times as great as with the percussion gun. The explosion was much longer about, and the aim was consequently behind the object, unless allowance was made for the loss of time, which would neces- sarily vary greatly according to distance. The same principle of allowing for loss of time is still required, but this is now so trifling, that by aiming at a hare's head, the shoulder will be struck, and the same proportion will hold good with flying objects. BARRELS. Tlwugli the barrels of all guns and rifles are of iron, they are not all made in the same way, or of material corresponding in strength. In the infancy of the art, a flat piece, or some- times two pieces of iron, were welded longitudinally round a mandril into a tube, but in process of time it was discovered that by twisting narrow strips of iron spirally round, and welding these together, a much stronger tube was produced with less metal. This plan is therefore adopted in the present day in all the best guns, and in rifles where weight is objectionable. In these latter guns, however, a solid bar of steel is sometimes perforated and grooved, but weight for weight it will not compete with the twisted barrel. THE GAUGE. All guns are measured according to their diameter, which is technically called the gauge or calibre. There are two ways of estimating this, first according to the weight of a spherical leaden ball which will fit the gauge, and secondly, according to the diameter in decimal parts of an inch. 172 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. Fig 6. 75 19 Inch 28 29 SO 32 34 3ff ... JS 26 27 JS LOCKS. 173 The former is always adopted with shot-guns and sporting rifles, while the latter is generally applied to military arms. Thus a gun of 12 gauge carries a ball weighing the twelfth part of a pound avoirdupois ; a 14 gauge carries one of fourteen to the pound, and so on. For sporting purposes, shot-guns are now generally made of 12 or 14 bore : but where great lightness is required, 16 or 18 even may be adopted. These gauges measure severally in inches or parts of an inch, as shown in the opposite table : It is therefore easy for any one knowing the gauge of his gun or rifle to get an approximate idea of its diameter in inches; and on the other hand, if the diameter is known in. inches, a sufficiently accurate guess for practical purposes may be made at its gauge, or in other words, at the weight of the spJierical ball which it will carry. The diameter of the intermediate gauges is not exactly in proportion to those above and below, as the scale between 4 and 16 does not descend in a straight line, but in a slightly concave one. Without actual measurement, therefore, the precise diameter in decimal parts of an inch cannot be given, but for practical purposes the fractional parts here introduced are sufficient. LOCKS. The first spring locks for the use of the flint-gun were made in the beginning of the sixteenth century, but they were rude in the extreme, and though they effected the discharge of the gun, they took their time to do it. Previously to this, the powder was exploded by a match, which would forbid the use of the barrel except towards sitting objects. The spring flint-lock was therefore a considerable step, and by the aid of various clever inventors, it was brought to great perfection. Indeed, so useful and deadly was the flint-gun in the time of the Mantons, that they were long before they could be in- duced to adopt the next invention, to which we are now indebted for the quick shooting which all our modern kinds give. This was the discovery of the mode of firing gunpowder by exploding close to it a small quantity of a composition -which would take fire on being sharply struck with a hard body. From this circumstance the plan was called the per- 174 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OP GUNNERY. cussion principle, although the flint equally requires percussion with the steel to elicit the spark which drops into the powder and ignites it. But in the former case there is no necessity for an external reservoir of powder, and the blow of the hammer is more evidently the cause of the explosion; so that though there is no great difference between the principles of the two methods, it is apparently very considerable, and in practice it really is so. But whether the name is correctly given or not, the plan was introduced, and is now universally employed, a flint-gun in the present day being only occa- sionally kept as a curiosity, and an order for one being as great a rarity as the Koh-i-noor. The Forsyth lock, which was the first on the percussion principle, was brought out by its inventor, a clergyman, resident at Bethelvie, under very good patronage, and with high-sounding pretensions. An advertisement announced to the world that a gun had been invented which went off without flash or smoke, and that consequently "flash in the pans" would be hereafter unknown. Now, every sportsman up to that time was constantly annoyed by these little acci- dents, and therefore the novelty was accepted by all but those bigoted to old-fashioned ways, simply because they are old, as a step in the right direction. The plan was pro- posed soon after the discovery of the new fulminating powders, which are now so well known, and it was used by means of a small magazine which held enough powder to effect thirty discharges. But in practice it was open to the objection that sometimes the quantity was too small, and at others the whole of it contained in the magazine exploded ; again, the tube leading to the powder was small and with a sharp angle in it, so that missfires were almost as common as with the old flint lock. MODES OF EXPLODING. The Invention of the Percussion Cap has been the greatest improvement in firearms during the present century; for, though it is not outwardly apparent, yet in almost every variety of shot-gun or rifle it is now employed in some shape or other. Lancaster's needle-gun, it is true, has no THE DESIDERATA IN THE SHOT-GUN. 175 cap, and Sharp's rifle also is without one; but in each case a copper disk is substituted for it, and as there is merely an alteration of form, they can scarcely be said to be exceptions. We may, therefore, assume that in all cases our modern guns are made so that the charge is exploded by means of a cap or disk containing fulminating powder, and exploded by means of percussion. In this point, therefore, there is little difference to be found in the principle adopted, and we must look further to discover the particular element in which the various guns now in use differ from each other. We find them to consist chiefly of, first, the original percussion gun, which has been in general use among sportsmen for about forty years; secondly, of the French crutch gun, introduced into England within the last four or five years, but known on the Continent for about twenty years ; thirdly, of Lan- caster's additions to this ; and fourthly, of Needham's needle- gun. There are minor points of difference adopted by gun- makers in the two first divisions ; but the two last, being patented by their respective inventors, are each of one pattern only. Now, among all these four the barrel is nearly the same, and the charge is fired by means of a per- cussion cap or disk; but, while in the first this charge is introduced by the muzzle, in all the three last the breech is opened for its insertion and then closed again by a mecha- nical contrivance. Hence, in the list of the various shot- guns of the present day, a distinction is now made between muzzle-loaders and breech-loaders, and these must be sepa- rately examined before their merits can be compared, with a view to ascertain how nearly each of them comes to the standard of efficiency which is desired. In order to ascertain what that is, we must first consider what are THE DESIDERATA IN THE SHOT-GUN. It is found by experience, as far as our present knowledge goes, that a gun can only be made to combine a certain amount of strength with regularity of pattern. By a par- ticular method of boring its cylinder, it is comparatively easy to obtain either of these objects, but the other cannot be added without a sacrifice of the first in some degree. 176 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. Hence it is the practice of our best makers to bore their guns so that at from forty to sixty yards they shall give such a pattern on the target as will prevent the escape of a partridge or grouse, and at the same time drive their shot with as much force as possible. These two points may, therefore, be considered as the two essentials ; and, in addition, it is considered desirable to avoid encumbering the sportsman with a tool which shall be too heavy for him to carry without fatigue, or, with one whose recoil shall be unpleasant to him from its severity. A practical man knows that a heavy gun shoots better than a light one, and that the recoil must to a certain extent be in proportion to the force with which the charge is driven forwards; but he also knows that either one which is too heavy, or which recoils too much, even if its shooting is very good, is wholly useless to most sportsmen. He therefore endeavours to make his guns with the following good qualities, which are those that are generally regarded as the requisites for a shot- gun. These are, first, a good pattern on the target made by them at forty and sixty yards; secondly, as much force in driving the shot as possible, in combination with the first quality; thirdly, lightness as far as is compatible with safety and good shooting; and fourthly, the absence of such recoil as is unpleasant to the shooter. Every gun may, of course, be made clumsily or the reverse, but the maker who does not turn out his productions in a workmanlike manner must be rejected on that account, since there is no excuse for him in this respect. All should be well balanced and the parts accurately fitted together, while the mechanism of the locks, &c., should be of the most highly-finished kind consistent with the price. A cheap gun may shoot strongly and make a good pattern, but its parts will be seen to fit badly and its locks will be sure to be faulty. Hence it soon wears out, and, in addition to its want of safety, it will generally be found to be the dearest in the end. By the word cheap I mean the opposite extreme to the high price which is charged by our fashionable makers, and not the medium charge made by our best provincial gun- makers, who are content with profits which would not support the expensive establishments of some London makers. It is THE DESIDERATA IX THE SIIOT-GUX. 177 essential to the safety of the sportsman that he should select a tradesman who has a character to lose, and who is nob driven by necessity to risk the lives of his customers by underselling his rivals. On this point every man of any prudence will take care to protect himself; but if he will only be guided by the rules of common sense, and by his practical knowledge of human nature, he is just as likely to be furnished with a safe gun, and a good shooting one too, at one-fourth below the top price, as if he paid that sum to one of the most fashionable makers of the day. The final boring of a gun that is to say, the operation which determines the exact shape of its interior, will vary greatly according to the materials and shape of its breech, and to the length of the barrel. None are made of a truly cylindrical shape, and it is usual to " open" or " relieve" them, or sometimes both processes are adopted. By opening is to be understood the formation of a slight cone with its base at the breech ; and by relieving, the production of a cone with its base at the muzzle. The exact proportion of these parts is, however, one of the secrets of trade, and almost every gunmaker professes to have a plan of his own, which he considers superior to all others. The old flint gun was both opened and relieved ; the detonator is generally also slightly opened ; but a considerable degree of this causes a good deal of recoil, and some makers only relieve their guns. I believe that there is no absolute certainty in the practice of boring, and that in almost every case some attention will be required after trial. This is what is called " regulating " the gun, and hence we so constantly see gunmakers shooting at an iron plate to enable them to ascertain what is to be remedied. If the gun spreads too wide it is relieved, while if it has not driving power enough, it is opened till it performs to the satisfaction of the trier. The rifle consists of an iron or steel tube similar in its external form to that of the shot-gun, but grooved internally in a spiral direction, so as to make the ball which it carries revolve or spin around the long axis of the barrel when continued forwards. These grooves may be narrow or wide, deep or shallow, and of any number from two upwards. In the oval-bore, as it is called, the rifle appears at first sight to N 178 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. be similar to a smooth bore, but it really is merely a two- grooved rifle with the edges of the grooves rounded off. It is unnecessary, however, here to go into the details of these different methods of grooving, which will be found fully described in the Fifth Book. CHAPTER II. ON THE ACTION OF GUNPOWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVE COMPOUNDS. GENERAL REMARKS ACTION OP THE POWDER ON THE PROJECTILE MODE OP DETERMINING ITS VELOCITY EPROUVETTES RESISTANCE TO THE MOTION OP PROJECTILES THROUGH THE AIR RECOIL COMPOSITION OP GUNPOWDER AND GUN-COTTON, AND THE MATERIALS USED FOR FIRING THEM BY PERCUSSION. ALTHOUGH much has been done within the last few years in improving the machinery by which bodies are projected through the air, yet little has been discovered since the days of Robins and Hutton, in reference to the principles upon which they act. Indeed many so-called novelties of 1858 and 59 are merely old inventions warmed up, and this is more especially the case with regard to Mr. Lancaster's oval bore, which was described in the clearest language in the year 1808, as will be fully shown in the proper place. The fol- lowing propositions are chiefly taken from the pages of the celebrated Robins, who is still accepted as the highest authority on the subject. Gunpowder when exploded produces a permanently Mastic Fluid. If, says Robins, a red-hot iron be included in a receiver, and the receiver be exhausted, and gunpowder be then let fall on the iron, the powder will take fire, and the mercurial gauge will suddenly descend upon the ex- plosion; and though it immediately ascends again, yet it will never rise to the height it stood at before, but will continue depressed in proportion to the quantity of powder which was let fall. The same fact may be shown when gun- QUANTITY OF ELASTIC FLUID FROM GUNPOWDER. 179 powder is fired under the ordinary pressure of the air, as for instance in a glass tube, the mouth of which is im- mersed in water, leaving only space enough for the powder at the top. If in this state the powder is fired either by a burning-glass or by galvanism, it will be found to displace water to the extent of nearly two hundred and fifty times its bulk, and as soon as the gas produced by the explosion cools to the temperature of the surrounding air it ceases to contract, and remains a permanently elastic fluid. Modes of determining the Quantity of this Elastic Fluid produced from tJie Explosion of a given Quantity of Gun- powder. Different qualities of powder produce different quantities of gas, and therefore in any calculations which are made public, it is necessary to specify the powder which has been used. Most of that sold now is probably far superior to the powder with which Robins made his experi- ments ; but, nevertheless, they approximate to the truth suf- ficiently for our purpose. He used the Government powder of his day, which was, I have reason to believe, not within thirty per cent, of the strength of the Government powder of 1859. He says that " 1 drachm of powder avoirdupois, on explosion, sinks the mercurial gauge 2 inches ; and the mercury in the barometer standing at near 30 inches, 15 drachms avoirdupois, or 410 grains troy, would have filled the receiver with a fluid whose elasticity would have been equal to the whole pressure of the atmosphere, or the same with the elasticity of the air we breathe; and the contents of the receiver being about 520 cubic inches, it follows that 15 drachms of powder will produce 520 cubic inches of a fluid possessing the same degree of elasticity with common air ; whence an ounce of powder will produce near 555 cubic inches of such a fluid." " But in order to ascertain the density of this fluid, we must . consider what part of its elasticity at the time of this experi- ment was owing to the heat it received from the included hot , iron and the warm receiver, and this is estimated by Robins at about one-fifth of the whole, which brings 555 clown to 444. And this last number represents the cubic inches of elastic fluid, equal in density and elasticity with common air, which are produced from the explosion of 1 ounce of powder; the weight of which quantity of fluid, according to N2 180 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. the usual estimation of the weight of air, is 131 grains. If the ratio of the bulk of the gunpowder to the bulk of this fluid is wanted, it will be determined by knowing that 17 drachms of powder fill 2 cubic inches; so that, proportioning the one to the other, it will be found that 472 cubic inches of elastic fluid are obtained from 2 cubic inches of powder. But the amount of gas given off from a fixed quantity of powder is not always a test of its utility in throwing pro- jectiles. Thus many explosive powders, such as fulminating silver and mercury, generate a much greater proportion of gas and far more rapidly than ordinary gunpowder; but the explosion being too sudden, they have not so good an effect upon the projectile in proportion to the power which they exert, and which, from its great suddenness, is apt to burst the tube in which it is contained. Up to the present time two substances only have been found which combine the exact properties required, and these are gunpowder and gun- cotton. In experimenting on different kinds of gunpowder, with a view to determine the relative powers of each, it is found that the density of the air has no effect whatever, but in proportion to its dryness will the elastic force of the powder be exerted. This is very important to know, for it very often happens that powder which has been used on a damp day with less effect than other powder tried in dry weather, loses credit, although, perhaps, really equal, or even superior to the antagonistic material. So also powder which is rendered damp by being poured down a foul barrel is weakened greatly in its effects; and here again is another element which must be taken into the account. In all trials of gunpowder, there- fore, dry days should be selected. ACTION OF THE POWDER ON THE PROJECTILE. The action of the powder on the projectile ceases as soon as the latter escapes from the barrel. This fact is capable of demonstration mathematically; but as it is not disputed, I shall not go into the calculation. But there is another theory propounded by Robins on this subject which demands a little consideration, because it is contrary to the opinions of most other writers, and was subsequently modified by himself. He asserts, in his earlier writings, that all the powder in tJie ACTION OF THE POWDER ON THE PROJECTILE. 181 is fired and converted into an elastic fluid, before the bullet (or charge of shot) is sensibly moved from its place. This proposition he attempts to demonstrate as follows: " It might perhaps be sufficient for the proof of this position to observe the prodigious compression of the flame in the chamber of the piece. Those who will attend to this circum- stance, and to the easy passage of the flame through the intervals of the grains, may soon satisfy themselves that no one grain contained in that chamber can continue for any time uninflamed when thus surrounded and violently pressed by so active a fire. However, not to rely on a mere specu- lation on a point of so much consequence, I considered that if part only of the powder is fired, and that successively, then by laying a greater weight before the charge (suppose two or three bullets instead of one), a greater quantity of powder would necessarily be fired, since a heavier weight would be a longer time in passing through the barrel. Whence it should follow that two or three bullets would be impelled by a much greater force than one only. But the contrary of this appears by experiment, for firing one, two, and three bullets laid contiguous to each other, with the same charge respectively, I have found (by a method to be mentioned hereafter) that their velocities were not much different from the reciprocal of the subduplicate of their quantities of matter ; that is, if a given charge will communicate to one bullet a velocity of 1700 feet in 1", the same charge would communicate to two bullets a velocity from 1250 to 1300 feet in 1", and to three bullets a velocity from 1050 to 1100 feet in 1". From hence it appears that, whether the piece be loaded with a greater or less weight of bullet, the action of the powder is nearly the same, since all mathematicians know that, if bodies containing different quantities of matter are successively impelled through the same space by the same power, acting with a determined force at each point of that space, then the velocities given to those different bodies will be reciprocally on the subduplicate ratio of their quantities of matter. The excess of the velo- cities of the two and three bullets above what they should have been by this rule (namely, 1200 and 980 each in 1"), does doubtless arise from the flame, which, escaping by the side of the first bullet, acts on the surface of the second and 182 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OP GUNNERY. third. Now, this excess has in many experiments been im- perceptible, and the velocities have been reciprocally on the subcluplicate ratios of the number of bullets to sufficient exactness; and where this error has been the greater, it has never arisen to an eighth part of the whole; but if the common opinion was true, that a small part only of the powder fires at first, and other parts of it successively, as the bullet passes through the barrel, and that a considerable part of it is often blown out of the piece without firing at all ; then the velocity which three bullets received from the explosion ought to have been much greater than we have ever found it to be, since the time of the passage of three bullets through the barrel being nearly double the time in which one passes, it should happen, according to this vulgar supposition, that in a double time a much greater quantity of the powder should be fired, and consequently a greater force should have been produced, than what acted on the single bullet only, contrary to all our experiments. But further, the truth of the second postulate will be more fully evinced when it shall appear, as it will hereafter, that the rules founded on this supposition ascertain the velocities of bullets impelled by powder to the same exactness when they are acted on through a barrel of four inches in length only, as when they are discharged from one of four feet." Robins's New Principles of Gunnery, pp. 80-82. Now all the facts here adduced may, and I believe are, correctly stated, and yet they do not prove the proposition with which this ingenious author sets out. Moreover, the difference which he explains by supposing that the flame escapes by the side of the first bullet, may far more readily be understood to be in consequence of the increased time which the powder is allowed for explosion. The counter argument may more readily be supported by extending the charge of powder, by loading a small tube several inches in length with it, when the grains in front are evidently blown out in an entire state, proving that there is a point beyond which instantaneous explosion does not go. All that Robins shows by this experiment is, that the charge of powder which he used burns entirely before the one ball leaves the muzzle; and, if that is the case, it can do no more if one or MODE OF DETERMINING VELOCITY OF PROJECTILE. 183 even two other balls are added. It is now generally ad- mitted, in accordance with the experiments made by a com- mittee of the Royal Society in 1742, that Robins was wrong in his theory on this point ; and not only is it shown that the combustion of all the grains in a charge of powder is not simultaneous, but it is pretty well ascertained that coarse-grained powder burns more slowly than fine, and for that reason it is preferred for mining charges. Indeed, so satisfied are practical miners of the importance of slow com- bustion, that they mix sawdust with their powder, for the purpose of producing it. In the old flint gun combustion was too slow, and for that reason very fine powder answered the best ; but in detonators a coarser grain is preferred, and in needle-guns, or in those cartridges when the cap itself is introduced into the charge of powder, a coarser grain still is adopted. By the use of coarse powder, also, the pro- jectile in front of it being more gradually moved, the recoil is diminished, and thereby a larger quantity can be used with comfort to the shooter and safety to his barrels. MODE OF DETERMINING THE VELOCITY OF THE PROJECTILE. In order to determine the velocity with which a ball moves at any distance from the piece, a simple plan, now commonly known as the ballistic pendulum, was invented by Robins, and has never yet been improved upon, though, from the difficulty of hitting its centre, it can only be used at short ranges. A square plate of iron faced with wood (Fig. 7, a) is suspended like a pen- dulum from a tripod ; and to the lower part of two of the legs of this a cross bar (6) is attached. Then fixing a piece of tape to the lower edge of the pendulum, and letting it slide through a notch in a brass plate fixed upon the cross bar, the extent to which the pendulum, when struck by the ball, draws the tape, shows the force of the blow, and the velocity 184 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. with which the ball has travelled. As Robins remarks, " This instrument thus fitted, if the weight of the pendulum be known, and likewise the respective distances of its centre of gravity, and of its centre of oscillation from its axis of suspension, it will thence be known what motion will be communicated to this pendulum by the percussion of a body of a known weight, moving with a known degree of celerity, and striking it at a given point ; that is, if the pendulum be supposed at rest before the percussion, it will be known what vibration it ought to make in consequence of such a de- termined blow; and, on the contrary, if the pendulum, being at rest, is struck by a body of a known weight, and the vibration which the pendulum makes after the blow is known, the velocity of the striking body may from thence be determined. . . . The computation by which the velocity of the ball is determined from the vibration of the pendulum after the stroke requires a more particular explication ; and for this purpose we will exhibit, as an example, the pen- dulum made use of by us in some of our experiments. The weight of the whole pendulum was 561bs. 3oz. ; its centre of gravity was 52 inches distant from its axis of sus- pension, and 200 of its small swings were performed in the time of 253 seconds; whence its centre of oscillation is 62| inches distant from that axis. In the compound ratio of 66 to 62| and 66 to 52, take the quantity of matter of the pendulum to a fourth quantity, which will be 421bs. ^oz. Now geometers will know that, if the blow be struck in the centre of the plate (a), the pendulum will resent the stroke, as if this last quantity of matter only (421bs. ^oz.) was con- centrated in that point, and the rest of the pendulum was taken away; whence, supposing the weight of the bullet impinging on that point to be the twelfth of a pound, or the -5~J- of this quantity of matter nearly, the velocity of the point of oscillation after the stroke will, by the laws observed in the congress of such bodies as rebound not from each other, be the -gfo of the velocity the bullet moved with before the stroke ; whence the velocity of this point of oscillation being ascertained, that, multiplied by 505, will give the velocity with which the ball impinged. " But the velocity of the point of oscillation after the MODE OF DETERMINING VELOCITY OF PROJECTILE. 185 stroke is easily deduced from the chord of the arch, through which it ascends by the blow ; for it is a well-known pro- position, that all pendulous bodies ascend to the same height by their vibratory motion, as they would do if they were projected directly upwards from their lowest point with the same velocity they have in that point; wherefore, if the versed sine of the ascending arch be found (which is easily determined, from the chord and radius being given), this versed sine is the perpendicular height to which a body projected upwards with the velocity of the point of oscil- lation would arise ; and consequently what that velocity is can be easily computed by the common theory of falling bodies. " To determine the velocity with which the bullet im- pinged on the centre of the wood, when the chord of the arch described by the ascent of the pendulum, in con- sequence of the blow, was 17 inches as measured on the ribbon, no more is necessary than to multiply 3^ by 505, and the resulting number (1641) will be the feet which the bullet would describe in 1" if it moved with the velocity it had at the moment of its percussion. The velocity of the foot of the pendulum on which the bullet struck is determined to be 3 feet in V by the following calcula- tion : The distance of the ribbon from the axis of sus- pension being 711 inches, reduce 17^ in the ratio of 71 J to 66; the resulting number, which is nearly 16 inches, will be the chord of the arch through which the centre of the plate ascended after the strike : now, the versed sine of an arch whose chord is 16 inches and its radius 66 inches, is 1 -93939; and the velocity which would carry a body to this height, or, which is the same thing, what a body would acquire by descending through this space, is nearly that of 3J feet in 1"." Velocity, or its equivalent, penetration, is measured by English military authorities in a much more practical manner, but at the same time, in a way which is open to serious objections, as will be hereafter shown. Their machine is composed of a series of twenty elm planks half an inch thick, with an inch between them. These are made to slide into the grooves of a metal frame, and after being soaked in 186 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. water, the rifles to be tried are fired at them from a distance usually of 200 yards, the penetration being estimated by the number of planks pierced. Three rounds are fired from each rifle, and the average of the three shots is taken to be the penetrating power of that particular rifle. The force of dif- ferent kinds of gunpowder is estimated in the same way, using one rifle and similar bullets and charges of powder. The machine for private purposes may be made entirely of wood, and is then within the reach of every sportsman; but the elm boards of course require constant renewal as they are shot to pieces. In trying these experiments, the result should be recorded in a tabular form, as follows : ' 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n 12 1314 15 16 it 18 1920 Aug. 8th, 1859, fine clear day, no wind. Enfield rifle, Charge 2J drs., C.&H. Pritchett ball, 520 grs., fired from the rest. Which will always give the result at one glance, without the necessity for a written description. In the military trials the amount of perforation, if any, in the last board is also expressed in tenths : thus, first shot, 13'1 j second shot, 12*4; third shot, 14'1 average, 13*2. EPROUVETTES. The above are the most correct modes of estimating the explosive force of powder, but the former is seldom used, on account of the complicated nature of the calculations required, and of the necessity for the impingement of the ball upon the ON RECOIL. 187 proper centre of gravity of the pendulum. In common prac- tice various contrivances, called eprouvettes, are employed. One of these consists of a small pistol with the muzzle closed by a valve, acted on by a spring. This valve is in con- nexion with a ratchet-wheel, which marks the extent to which it is opened by the explosion of the powder, but the spring varying in strength, the test is imperfect. The ordi- nary plan adopted by large sellers and purchasers is to load a small mortar with a given weight of powder, and then a ball, being accurately ground to fit it, in proportion to the strength of the powder will be the distance to which the ball is thrown. The eprouvette of the French Government is a small mortar capable of containing three ounces of powder, and this is expected to throw a copper ball of sixty pounds weight 300 feet. Sometimes the amount of recoil is made the test, and then a little mortar is suspended and loaded with ball, when the extent of the arc of the circle which it describes marks the strength of the powder. RESISTANCE TO THE MOTION OF PROJECTILES THROUGH THE AIR, In a state of rest the air offers considerable resistance to the passage of balls and shot through it, and when moving in a direction different from that of the course of either, it is still more perceptible. It is calculated that this resistance increases nearly in a duplicate proportion to the velocity of the resisted body; that is, it is four times as much when the resisted body moves with twice the velocity; nine times as much when it moves with three times the velocity, and so on. In addition to this resistance there is also the force of gravity constantly tending to bring the body towards the centre of the earth. ON RECOIL. Tlie expansion of gunpowder wJien converted into gas being in all directions, it follows that at the moment of firing a blow is given to the breech end of the gun equal to that on the projectile which is to be moved. In proportion to the difficulty of moving the charge up the barrel will this force 183 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. be continuously exerted, so that a large charge of powder exploded, with a light bullet in front of it, will exert less force upon the breech end of the gun, than a smaller charge of powder used to move a larger and heavier ball. So, also, the recoil varies with the same charge when the barrel is held horizontally, and when the muzzle is raised or depressed, being increased in the former position and diminished in the latter, in accordance with the laws of gravity. In shoot- ing from the shoulder, the recoil is apparently increased still more than is really the case when the muzzle is pointed directly upwards, because the body cannot yield as it can do when the butt of the gun is held against the muscles of the chest and arm in a horizontal position. Again, in propor- tion to the weight of the whole piece will the recoil be affected, because a force which will move a body six pounds in weight readily enough will not have the same effect on one of nine pounds or more, having, in the language of science, to overcome a greater degree of vis inertice. Hold a heavy piece of wood or iron in the hand and a severe blow on it will not be felt, while the same, or even a much less force on a much lighter piece would occasion considerable punishment. This fact is well known to all those who have had any experience with guns ; and hence it has been con- sidered necessary, independently of the question of safety, to have all guns made of sufficient weight to give the vis inertice required. It will be found that in proportion to the resis- tance offered by the shot or ball, and to the weight of the whole gun, and more especially at the breech, will be the recoil, but the former is not to be measured by its weight alone, being affected by the friction between it and the barrel. A highly polished surface has a tendency to diminish it, and, on the contrary, a rough one increases it. So, also, if the charge has to be driven through a smaller opening, as in barrels opened behind, the resistance is increased. Again, an ounce of lead causes a much greater amount of friction in propor- tion to the number of pellets into which it is divided, a single spherical ball producing the least, and dust-shot the most friction of all. On this subject I cannot do better than to give in extenso, as far as this point is concerned, a most interesting letter, by Mr. Boucher, which appeared in the ON RECOIL. 189 Field on the 5th of June, 1858, in support of some previous statements of opinion made by me on the same side of the argument. He says : "Being one of those who deny that great recoil in the gun is any test whatever of great velocity in the shot, I beg to offer a few practical remarks in support of my opinion, drawn partly from lectures delivered by me at the United Service Institution previous to the report of your gun trials. " In transcribing these remarks, I have little hope of being able to change the opinions of those who are wedded to other principles ; but, as the law of action and reaction seems tome to be. misunderstood, or rather misapplied, by many with respect to fire-arms, I trust to be able to induce the unbiassed to re-examine the subject, and judge for them- selves. I trust also to be able to show that my opinion is not at all inconsistent with your idea of a model gun (Field, April 17) namely, that 'it is one with which the greatest execution can be done upon the object shot at, without such a severe recoil as to make its use disagreeable to the sportsman.' " ' Gunpowder, when ignited,' says a high authority, ' ex- pands with equal forces in every direction, and, consequently, it acts equally on the bottom of the bore and upon the ball during the passage of the latter along the cylinder, supposing it to fit tightly. Hence, neglecting the allowance which should be made for the frictions of the ball and the guii- carriage, the velocity of the recoil will be to that of the shot inversely as the weight of the gun to that of the shot. Thus, supposing the initial velocity of a 241b. shot to be 1600 feet per second, and the weight of the gun with its carriage to be 57 '7 cwt., or 64621bs., we shall have 5 '9 feet per second for the velocity of the recoil.' ' The proportion,' says another military writer, ' which the velocity of the recoil bears to that of the ball is inversely as their weights, due allowance being made for friction.' " Such is the formula which is employed for computing, from the recoil, the velocity of the shot at the instant of its leaving the gun. This theory has been a recognised doc- trine lor more than a century. It is now spoken of as an 190 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. ascertained fact, and has, consequently, been laid aside as that which need never again be questioned. It has become so intimately associated with the science of gunnery, that the attempt to substitute another theory, to assign another law of force, may be deemed by many the wandering of an erratic mind, or the presumption of an ignorant man. But the general acceptance of a theory is no proof that it is the most true and most perfect that will ever be presented ; nor is it any evidence of a want of reverence for such men as Robins and Hutton, that we believe and assert that no indi- vidual is without error or has attained the whole truth ; that no authority, however great, should determine and settle every principle in philosophy. " The theory of recoil, as at present established, has, no doubt, formed the groundwork for the belief of many who, unfortunately, in making their calculations, make no allow- ance whatever for the friction alluded to in the formula, nor for other causes of retardation. Military experiments, which were carried on in the United States on a large scale, have proved, that * by increasing the charge of powder beyond one-third of the weight of the shot, the recoil is increased in a much higher ratio than the initial velocity of the shot.' The results of experiments with the gun-pendulum have also been found to be frequently at variance with those obtained from the ballistic pendulum ; and these variations I have found increased more and more as the distance was increased from the gun. Indeed, the great difficulty of hitting the ballistic pendulum fairly in the centre at long ranges has rendered that mode of carrying on experiments next to im- possible. There are, however, other methods of conducting experiments, by which, with collateral evidence, great addi- tional light may be thrown on the subject in question. " The cause of all motion is the presence of force in the moving body. The degree of the effect is in proportion to the cause j in other words, add to, or take from, the force in action upon given matter, and the quantity of motion is changed proportionally. A certain quantity of gunpowder contains a certain amount of force ; the question then is, how can we employ that force so as to obtain the greatest bene- ficial result from it ? The explosion or force of gunpowder ON RECOIL. 191 is repulsion among the atoms when assuming the form of air. The force of repulsion does not operate by a single impulse, but through a repetition of impulses, or a continued action, of which the effect is accumulated in the inertia of matter ; thus, all great velocities are tJie terminations of an accelerated motion. As in every case of repulsion, two objects at least must be concerned, there can be no motion or action without a concomitant or opposite motion or reaction ; it is therefore clear that the one must be repelled just as much as the other, although with a difference of velocity proportioned to the difference of size. The extraordinary action of gun- powder on the shot, the barrel, and the fore part of the stock, although appearing so sudden, is not an instantaneous but a gradual and therefore accelerating action ; so is the recoil or reaction of the back part of the gun. The action or movement of the charge commences comparatively slowly at first, so does the reaction or recoil. The action of the charge and gradual increase of the gas, all along the barrel, is the cause ; the action of recoil is the effect. The cause begins with the first movement of charge, and ends with the charge leaving the barrel. The retardation of the shot in passing up the barrel and the acceleration of the recoil take place within so short a time that it is not apparent to our senses, and, therefore, to some may appear momentary ; but the mind perceives the nature of the phenomenon as dis- tinctly as if a large ball were rolled against the end of a long steel spring, and thrown back again from it. " For the same reason that all great velocities require con- tinued action or repeated impulse to produce them, so do they also to destroy them the inertia of motion and of rest being exactly equal. The perfection of machinery depends much on diminishing among the moving parts the resistance which arises from friction. The explosion of gunpowder being a repulsion among the atoms when assuming the form of air, its greatest efficacy would be destroyed if the shot were prevented by unnecessary friction from starting gra- dually on its course with the very slightest force which first affects it. Even such apparent trifles as certain unguents increase, and others decrease the friction of quiescence that is, increase or diminish the force requisite to produce the 192 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OP GUNNERY. first movement. At this instant the action of the powder is comparatively slight, so is the reaction by friction, &c., and so is also the force of the recoil ; for the action of the charge in passing through the last three quarters of the barrel over- coming friction and other causes of retardation is the great cause of the recoil which is felt, unless, indeed, the charge is improperly jammed down when loading. This may be proved by cutting off three-fourths of the barrel and firing the same quantity of powder and shot from a recoil-rest. It would then be seen that it is not the original repulsion which caused the motion that man uses as his servant, but the momentum gradually accumulated by such free and unopposed repulsion, and the progressive, though rapid, ignition of all the particles of the powder. " Of friction there are two kinds. The first is denominated sliding, and the second rolling friction. They are governed by the same laws, though the former is much greater in amount than the latter, under given circumstances. A round ball fired from a smooth bore will leave the muzzle with greater velocity than an elongated bullet fired from a rifle the calibre of both and the charge of powder being the same but the recoil of the smooth-bore gun will be less than that of the rifle, simply because a very small proportion of the surface of the round ball, which has a rolling motion, can ever come in contact at the same time with the sides of the barrel. There is, therefore, less friction, and, conse- quently, less retardation to the accumulating speed of the round ball before it reaches the muzzle : still action and reaction will be equal, as the extra force which the bullet carries with it, after leaving the muzzle, is just so much force deducted or taken from the friction and recoil the first being the cause of the greater effect in the second. This is easily proved by firing both bullets through a revolving meter from a recoil-rest. It maybe added, however, that, if both bullets were fired at the same instant, at the same elevation, the elongated bullet would soon overtake the round one and pass it, as the latter, being lighter, would sooner be retarded by the friction and resistance of the external air. This may also be easily proved by noting the degrees of elevation necessary to make both bullets range the same distance. OX RECOIL. 193 " If a similar round ball were cast into smaller shot, say thirty-two to the ounce, it would be found, by the revolving meter and recoil-rest, that the initial velocity of these would be less than the single ball, and the recoil considerably greater. The explanation is this : in consequence of there being a number of small shot instead of a single large one, they would lie, when loaded, in a cylindrical position, each shot of the outer circle touching the sides of the barrel ; so that in the aggregate they would occasion greater friction, and, consequently, greater retardation to their own progress in passing up the barrel action and reaction would, how- ever, still be equal. " In like manner an equal weight of No. 1, or eighty pellets to the ounce, will leave the muzzle with a greater velocity and less recoil than No. 6, or two hundred and seventy pellets to the ounce ; the smaller shot approaching nearer (and the ] m ire so as it is smaller) to the solid form of an elongated cylindrical bullet ; in fact, an elongated bullet is but a more considerable number of particles or atoms of lead lying close together, and, if of a cylindrical form, causing greater friction on the sides of the barrel. " This closeness of the pellets and their tendency to cause more or less friction in passing up the barrel may be seen at a glance, by those who are acquainted with the nature of friction, on pouring an ounce and a half or two ounces of each sort of shot into a glass tube the size of a gun barrel the one sort to be poured on the top of the other, with a wadding between each two. A careful examination of such a collection should teach the sportsman, that the smaller the shot the less in weight he should use, if he wishes to insure a high velocity. By reducing the quantity he would also reduce the recoil. " Any addition to the usual quantity of shot will cause a greater amount of friction in its passage, just the same as adding to the length of the cylindrical portion of a rifle bullet. Thick tight wadding also retards, and adds to the friction of the charge. When the barrel becomes foul the friction is also increased. Cartridges, which might easily be made on an improved plan, cause more friction than loose shot; and cartridges with bone dust still more, though, in consequence o 194: ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. of the shot being longer kept together in a mass, the shot ranges farther. In fact, anything that increases the friction increases also the recoil, and lessens the initial velocity of the shot. The very reprehensible method of freeing or relieving the bore that is, making it somewhat wider towards the breech creates also a greater amount of friction, by retarding the passage of the shot. This plan was much patronized at one time by the Americans, but it has lately, and very pro- perly, been exploded by the United States Government as unscientific, and worse than useless. It would be difficult, however, to convince some people that it is so : for many have an idea that an advantage is gained by retarding the shot until the gases evolved by the ignited powder have time to act ; but, as these gases are rapidly though progressively evolved, any resistance must operate injuriously, as the velocity of the shot cannot possibly increase after it has left the muzzle. Moreover, if a cartridge be used, it must sit too easy in a freed bore, allowing a portion of the gases to escape past it, and mix with the already condensing air in front of the charge in the barrel, causing greater recoil and retarda- tion to the shot. If loaded with loose shot it must cause greater friction, as the mass of shot must be contracted and lengthened before it can leave the muzzle, greater recoil and diminished velocity being the result. A barrel so relieved may shoot with more velocity than one which is supposed to be a perfect cylinder ; but a careful examination of both, with all their accessories, will show that such relief alone is not the true cause of the superiority. " In firing with some barrels and certain charges it often happens that a portion of the powder employed is driven out in an unconsumed state ; it may therefore appear feasible that by retaining the shot a sufficient length of time this portion may be brought to bear upon it ; but the cause of the powder not being wholly consumed must be attributed to the practice of ramming down the charge too tightly, or charging with more powder than the length and calibre of the barrel will beneficially burn, and not to the shot passing out too freely. The object of granulating or corning powder is to enable the flame to play freely amongst the mass. The charge, therefore, should never be tightly rammed down, or ON RECOIL. 195 tliis great improvement in the manufacture of gunpowder will either be partially or wholly nullified. In arranging the proper quantity of powder and size of grain for a charge the fact should not be overlooked, that though there may appear to be no powder thrown out unburnt, yet, as the charge is ignited gradually, and the combustion is quick or slow according to the size of the grains, a considerable portion is often burnt outside the barrel without falling ; the im- mense velocity of the flame enveloping the unburnt grains, and setting fire to them even after they have left the muzzle of the piece. Any extra amount of powder, therefore, that may thus be used will add to the force of the recoil, but not to the velocity of the shot, as it adds to the dead weight which the inflamed portion of the powder has to lift. " As a further practical illustration that great recoil is 110 test of great velocity, let any man take a three-grooved rifle, having the lands as broad or broader than the grooves, and test its initial velocity and recoil, as before, with a nicely fitting bullet and a proper charge of powder. Let him then place the rifle in the hands of a careful rifle-maker, to have a circular shallow groove run up on each land, exactly parallel to the others. Let him then test the rifle again, and he will find that the velocity of the bullet is now greater and the recoil less, and the rifle, consequently, considerably improved. The intelligent marksman or gun-maker will at once perceive that the result is simply owing to there being less friction ; for be it remembered that in the act of expanding, the bullet is also in the act of moving forward, and until it is fully expanded, into the grooves, the pressure and retarding friction is caused by the lands alone, and which, being so broad, must also, to a certain extent, retard the quick expansion of the lead into the grooves. In fact, a portion of that power which should be beneficially employed in expelling the shot is use- lessly expended in overcoming friction, causing at the same time more recoil action and reaction being still, and always, equal." With every word that bears directly on the subject of recoil in this letter I fully agree, though there are some points which may be disputed, as for instance the opinion o 2 196 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. which is expressed adverse to the adoption of relief, a term used by Mr. Boucher for what is commonly called " opening behind." This, however, will be discussed hereafter. In order to show practically the truth of the opinions held by Mr. Boucher, the results of the gun trial held at Hornsey Wood House on the 4th and oth of July, 1859, are here appended. It will be ne- cessary to exclude from the list all those guns which were fired with a different charge of powder, and to compare together only those of which all the essential elements were alike. The machine adopted was merely a wooden carriage (Fig. Sab) containing the gun securely fixed in a horizontal posi- tion. This carriage slides back- wards and forwards in a frame which is firmly fixed to the ground, and it is attached in front to one of Baiter's balances (c d), fitted with a slide which registers exactly the extent to which the index is drawn out by the recoil of the gun. The carriage is carefully padded with Indian rubber to prevent injury to the stock or barrels, which latter are secured by the block (fg)> At the trial, the carriage was made to run on wheels, but it is better to construct it as here represented, running freely on metal slides. A thumbscrew (e) in front presses the carriage back till it draws out the index to lOlbs., that being at least the pressure with which the gun is OX RECOIL. 197 brought against the shoulder, and many people using as much force as would amount to 25 or 301bs. By examining the whole table given elsewhere, it will be .seen that the average recoil of the guns of a 12 and 13-bore was 66|-lbs., and of 14, 15, and 16-bore 64Ubs., the highest recoil in Class 1 being 761b., and the lowest 591b. In Class 2 the highest was also 7 Gib., and the lowest 441b. These results are of great interest, and establish the fact which I have always contended for, that the recoil is not in exact proportion to the shooting force of each gun j for, taking the gun which heads the first class, the two barrels penetrated through 28 and 33 sheets respectively at 40 yards, yet the recoil was less than that of the next, by Mr. Prince, which pierced 28 and 22 sheets, and still less than the third in that class, which penetrated 25 and 28. The same holds good throughout the series, and I think it may be alleged that, granting the truth of the test, the proportion of recoil to shooting power varies considerably, and that the greatest kicker is not necessarily the strongest shooting gun. Another interesting point established by the trial is, that the Joe Man ton gun sent by Colonel White is by no means remarkable for its amount of recoil, the average of its two barrels being 31b. under that of the average of all the guns tested in its class ; and, lastly, the breech-loaders are shown to be quite equal in recoil to the average of the muzzle- loaders. Thus, in the first class, the three guns standing highest on the list, and showing nearly as great a power of penetration as any, have respectively three, two, and one degrees below the average of recoil, and exactly in an inverse ratio to their performances. The want of relation between penetration and recoil is still more remarkable in the second class, in which Mr. O. Smith's gun showed a penetration of 38 and 22, with the two barrels, and a recoil 8 degrees below the a\ 7 crage ; while one of Mr. Reilly's guns, with a slight diminution of pene- tration, was thirteen over the average in recoil, and this is still more remarkable with the other two guns. I believe, therefore, it may be asserted, that within certain limits it is possible to obtain an increase of penetration without an increase of recoil. 198 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. 03 1^ ^ ^ 8 8 8 Ill* o .S I 1 CO CO (N S IS JO OOT2J no TOOX *> - - O 00 O O 1-1 co o o o g S jo anSjo CN CN CM cr f CM CO C*^ C>J CO C^ . 2 CJ 1 1 "8 5 o, W- Ci PM PH I M 1 ? S 4? i2 * 2 ^3 "-" S d . J . tf 1 COMPOSITION OF GUNPOWDER, ETC. 190 The amount of recoil which can be pleasantly borne by the shoulder, will vary somewhat with the weight of the gun. Thus, a light one of 61bs. will show perhaps a recoil, according to the machine, of only 651bs., yet it will be more unpleasant to shoot than another weighing 81bs., which recoils- TOlbs. according to the same test. According to iny ex- periments, I believe that with guns of the usual weight and bore, that is, from Tibs, to T|lbs. for 12-bore, and a quarter of a pound less for each diminution of size, the recoil, in order to be pleasantly borne, should not on any account exceed TOlbs. Those who are particular in this matter will prefer to have one showing lOlbs. or even 151bs. less, but to get the highest degree of penetration, the amount of recoil above fixed must be incurred. The chief causes of undue recoil, are the disproportion of the projectile to the powder, the excessive quantity of the latter, inordinate opening of the barrel, roughness of the metal, or fouling of the barrel, and lastly, a want of sufficient weight of the whole gun to give vis inertice to resist the force of the explosion. Some of these vary with the state of cleanness in which the gun is, and with the charge with which it is loaded, but the others continue the same under all cir- cumstances. COMPOSITION OF GUNPOWDER, GUNCOTTON, AND OTHER EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES USED WITH THE GUN. In order to force the projectile to its proper destination, two explosive substances only have as yet been usefully applied namely, gunpowder and guncotton ; but there are others which are used merely to procure ignition by percus- sion in some shape or other, being introduced into small metal capsules denominated percussion caps, or into some similar convenient vehicle such as Lancaster's copper disk. Gunpowder is composed, in all cases, of three substances nitre, sulphur, and charcoal but the proportions adopted by different makers vary to some extent. In a work of this nature, intended for the sportsman only, it is scarcely neces- sary to enter upon the new chemical combinations which follow the explosion of this potent agent, but it may be men- 200 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. tioned that in theory every particle of the original substances of which it is composed should be converted into gas, leaving no residuum to foul the barrel. In practice this is never the case, for though a powder may be made so correctly as to burn away almost entirely on a piece of white paper, yet in a tube it will always leave a stain over and above the sul- phuret of potassium, which is a necessary product, and this increases if not wiped away with each succeeding discharge. The reason of this is, that there is no air admitted to supply extra oxygen for the sulphur to combine with, and this material, therefore, robs the nitre of a small portion of that element which is wanted to effect a perfect union with the carbon in order to form the carbonic oxide and acid which result. Gunpowder may be made entirely of nitre and char- coal, and for large charges it answers perfectly well, but for sporting purposes the addition of sulphur has many advan- tages, preserving the other two materials from the effects of damp, and also maintaining the granulation which is so im- portant in effecting perfect combustion. In this country the proportions which are thought to answer best in prac- tice are Nitre 77|lbs. Charcoal 16 Sulphur 10i,, This will make 1041bs. of powder, leaving the 41bs. for loss by waste in the various operations of mixing, pressing, granulating, &c. These three substances must first be ground into a very fine powder, and mixed together most intimately, so that the atoms are mechanically prepared for instantaneous combination as soon as they are heated to the temperature which admits of it. But if left in this state of fine powder, though the combination is very rapid in the parts first heated, yet the flame cannot permeate the mass, and it burns imperfectly as a whole. To avoid this difficulty the powder is first wetted, then pressed and dried, and afterwards made up into grains of various sizes and shapes, according to the use for which it is designed. This COMPOSITION OF GUNPOWDER, ETC. 201 is called granulating; and powder is sold of several degrees of coarseness, commencing with No. 1, which is the finest in use, and increasing in the size of the grain up to No. 5. After the granulation is effected the grains are generally more or less glazed by friction, in barrels which are made to revolve rapidly; and, finally, the resulting dust being sifted out, the powder is packed. As fine-grained powder explodes more rapidly than coarse when not crushed, or in large quantities, it follows that it is more suited for short barrels and small charges, such as, for instance, in pistols or carbines. The aim, in all cases, should be to use powder in such quantity and quality that the whole of it is burnt just as the projectile leaves the muzzle of the gun ; for if it is all converted into gas before that period of time, the projectile has to overcome the friction of the sides of the tube without any increasing force as it goes on, and consequently loses some of its propellant power. If, on,the other hand, all the powder is not burnt before the projectile escapes, there is a waste of powder, and this is the most frequent and the least injurious result. On firing a full charge over the snow, a few grains of powder entire may almost always be picked up beneath the line of flight of the charge. Those, therefore, who are careful in such matters, will adopt the necessary precaution to ensure the proper charge of the right kind of powder for the particular gun they are using. The desiderata, in gunpowder will therefore vary con- siderably according to the charge, to the length of barrel, and to the mode of firing it. In every case, however, it should be clean, that is to say, it should leave no perceptible residuum on firing it loosely on a piece of white paper. The first test to apply is the following, which also shows that the powder is dry and easily exploded : Take five or six drachms of powder and divide it into two heaps, placed on a piece of white paper ; then fire one of them with a red-hot wire, and if the two explosions do not sound as one, the powder is bad or damp ; while if any steam is left, or the paper is burnt in holes, there is an imperfection somewhere. The smoke, also, should be of a whitish grey. In relation to the charge, the powder should be coarser according to the 202 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. amount which is used, but for sporting purposes, other than for punt guns, either No. 2 or No. 3 is always selected. The choice between these will depend upon the mode of firing it, for if the ordinary nipple and percussion cap are used, the combustion of No. 2 is not too rapid, and it will answer the best; besides which, the size of its grain allows it to pass up the nipple, which No. 3 will not do. Where the firing is more central, as in the various breech-loading cartridges of Lefaucheaux, Lancaster and Needham, the coarser grain of No. 3 should be selected, as it is found to burn entirely before it leaves the muzzle in the ordinary charge of 2^ to 3 drachms ; and so also, in the case of rifles, where there is more resistance to be overcome and more time occupied in doing it, the coarser powder is to be preferred. It is usual to judge of powder by its appearance when rubbed in the hand, and it is considered that when rubbed on a moderately dry palm it should leave the faintest possible stain of lead colour only. If it blackens the skin it is to be rejected^as such powder is found to foul the barrel in a similar manner. There is very little difference in the quality of the powder made by the various eminent firms who now divide the trade between them. They are Messrs. Curtis and Harvey, Pigou and Wilks, Lawrence and Son, Hall and Son, in England ; and in Scotland, the Kames Company, who have offices in Glasgow, Liverpool, and London. With a recoil machine, such as that I have described at page 196, I have tested nearly all the above, and find so little difference that it is scarcely worth attempting to make an invidious selec- tion. This is far the best and fairest mode of making a com- parison, for in proportion to the recoil (with the same gun in a similar state, and with a corresponding projectile in front of it, also a similar weight of powder) will be the amount of explosive force of the powder. This test also shows the degree of fouling produced after three or four dozen dis- charges with each kind of latter. Here I have detected a greater difference; but as the experiments were made with powder obtained from sources not equally reliable, I shall forbear to mention the results. There can be no question, however, that the recoil with No. 3, after 30 discharges in a breech-loader, is much less than with a similar number while using No. 2 powder. COMPOSITION OF GUNPOWDER, ETC. 203 Gunpowder is sold in. paper at 2s. 3d. per lb., and in canister at 2s. Qd. If large quantities are taken a reduction is made in the price; but it must be remembered that fire insurances are rendered invalid by keeping a stock of this dangerous substance on the premises. When gunpowder has become damp it is readily and safely dried by placing the canister or flask in a jug of boiling water with the mouth open, and occasionally taking it out and shaking its contents. This is much safer than the ordi- nary plan of drying it before the fire, and with a little care answers equally well. Gtmcottun consists of finely carded cotton wool which has been submitted to the following process : Nitric acid of spe- cific gravity 1 'O is mixed with concentrated sulphuric acid, and in this mixture the cotton is steeped for a few minutes; it is then taken out and squeezed, after which it is carefully washed in pure water and dried by a very gentle heat, when it will have increased in weight seventy per cent., but in appearance it is unchanged. It explodes at a much lower temperature than gunpowder, that is, at a little above 300 Fahr., so that it requires much greater care to avoid acci- dents, and on that account alone is objectionable as a sub- stitute for it. It burns without smoke or -residue, but the explosion is so rapid that the projectile power of this sub- stance is not so great as that of gunpowder, while, at the same time, the recoil caused by it is increased. It has also the disadvantage attending on it that the charges must be weighed, as they cannot be measured by bulk as is the case with the powder in common use. Jt is not, therefore, sur- prising that, in spite of its greater cleanliness, it has not come into general use, being much more dangerous with less power of projection, more recoil, and the above-mentioned difficulty as to the calculation of the charge. In spite of these objections, however, guncotfcon has been recommended by Captain Norton to be used, in particular where it is desired to have a cartridge without the neces- sity of biting it, as is now done in the army and navy. By enveloping the cotton in a fine net, which is tied to the base of the bullet, and may also be rendered explosive in the same way as the cotton, the flame of the cap readily fires it, 204 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. and the whole is blown away. This trifling advantage is, however, entirely done away with by adopting explosive paper for making up the powder into cartridges, as is prac- tised by Mr. Prince with his breech-loader. But even this is now rendered unnecessary by the increased strength of the Government caps, which readily pierce paper of any thick- ness which can be required for the purpose. An explosive cartridge paper may be made by preparing it in the same way as described for guncottoo. The paper should be porous ; and ordinary blotting paper answers very well if made sufficiently stout. But this paper, like gun- cotton, explodes at a temperature very little higher than 300 Fahr., and it is therefore dangerous to keep together any number of cartridges enveloped in it. The plan is exceed- ingly ingenious in theory, and for sporting purposes it is practically well adapted, as it is easy to avoid the above heat in this country, but for military cartridges the danger of spontaneous combustion is too great when large masses of all sorts of substances are brought together in the hold of a ship; and even the magazine may possibly have its tempera- ture raised to that degree. The various detonating powders used in the manufacture of caps, disks, or tubes for firing the gunpowder of the charges in our fowling-pieces and rifles are so rapid in their combustion as to be useless as a substitute for the two mate- rials which have been already described. Their explosive force is so enormous arid sudden that they will burst the barrel, however strong, instead of moving the projectile in front of them, if employed in sufficient quantity to propel it as far as gunpowder will do. So rapid is the combustion of fulminating mercury, that if a train of gunpowder is crossed by a train of it, and the latter is fired in the usual way, with a poker or wire, the mercury, in its explosion, being more rapid than that of the gunpowder, cuts off the connexion between the two portions of the train, and the second half is not fired at all. Fulminate of silver, which is even more rapid in its ex- plosion, is prepared by dissolving 40 or 50 grains of silver (a sixpence will be the most convenient) in J oz. by measure of nitric acid of specific gravity 1*37 or thereabout?, with the COMPOSITION OF GUNPOWDEK, ETC. 205 aid of a gentle heat. To the solution, while still hot, add 2 ounces by measure of alcohol, continuing the heat till re- action commences, when the nitric acid oxidises part of the alcohol to aldehyde and oxalic acid, becoming itself reduced to nitrous acid. The last-named acid in its turn acts upon the alcohol, the result being the production of nitrous ether, fulminic acid, and water. From the hot liquid the fulminate of silver is slowly deposited in the form of small, white, brilliant crystalline plates, which should be washed with a little cold water, and spread upon separate pieces of filter- paper, in portions not more than a grain or two each, after which they are left to dry in a warm place. When dry the papers are gently folded up and preserved separately in a box or bottle, this being the only safe mode of keeping the salt. It is one of the most dangerous of all chemical sub- stances to handle, and explodes when heated, or when rubbed or struck with a hard body, or when brought in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid, with an enormous force, owing to the sudden disengagement of a large volume of gaseous matter, leaving the metal reduced. When fulminate of silver is digested with caustic potass, one half of the oxide is precipitated, and a compound is produced which resembles the neutral salt of silver, and detonates with a blow. Tins is sometimes used for the manufacture of anticorrosive percussion caps, but it has very little advantage over the Fulminate of mercury, which is prepared by a process very similar to that described for fulminate of silver. One part of mercury is dissolved in twelve parts of nitric acid, specific gravity 1/37, the solution being mixed with an equal quantity of alcohol ; gentle heat is then applied, and if the reaction becomes very violent, it may be kept down by the addition of more spirit as required. A large volume of carbonic acid, nitrogen, nitrous and aldehyde, and red vapour is disengaged, and the hot liquid deposits the fulminate of mercury, which may be purified by solution in boiling water and re-crystal- lization. It explodes either by friction or percussion, and when fired burns with a sudden and almost noiseless flash if kindled in the open air. To form the mixture which is used in the ordinary caps. 20 G ELEMENTAEY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. sulphur and chlorate of potass (or more frequently nitrate of potass) are mixed with the fulminate of mercury, and the powder being pressed gently into the cap, is secured there by a drop of varnish. Chlorate of potass and 8ulplmr are sometimes used without fulminate of mercury, or silver. Equal parts of these two substances are carefully prepared, and mixed together with- out any friction between hard substances, which would cause an explosion. The mixture is then pressed into the caps and secured as before described. Caps so prepared are, however, very uncertain in their explosion, and they are also highly corrosive in the action of their residuum on iron. The Government caps are filled with a composition consisting of chlorate of potass, 6 parts ; fulminate of mercury, 4 parts ; and powdered glass, 2 parts. Whatever substance is employed it should be protected externally by a copper cap or disk, and it should also be covered with a layer of some varnish, which will defend it from the effects of the atmospheric air. Messrs. Eley and Joyce are the only two makers of caps in England, independently of the Government, and it would be hard to say which is entitled to the pre-eminence, for the productions of either may be taken as approaching so nearly to perfection as to leave little to be asked for. At present they each make two kinds one small, and adapted to ordi- nary guns, and the other larger and stronger, as ordered by the Government, and suited for rifles, especially when a cartridge paper has to be pierced. Eley's caps are coated with a metallic foil, which is intended to prevent decompo- sition by contact with air or moisture, while those made by Joyce are covered with " a highly waterproof substance, burning with the same facility as the powder itself, and in no degree detracting from that certainty and sharpness of fire, as well as anti-corrosive property, so necessary for the convenience and comfort of those who use them." These words are from Mr. Joyce's circular, but I can speak to their correctness from experience. The price of the sporting caps by either of these makers is Is. 0>d. per box, containing 250, or 5s. Qd. per 1000. In all cases the caps ought to fit the nipples with which they are used, and in ordering a lot ALL SPORTING PROJECTILES MADE OP LEAD. 207 the nipple should be sent to the guninaker. The Birmingham and London sizes do not correspond, the following being the relative sizes of Mr. Eley's with the Birmingham scale : Eley's ..15 Birmingham | 43 6 | 7 I 8 44 46 43 10 51&52 11 I 18 53 & 54 I 55 & 56 Where there are two numbers of the Birmingham sizes corresponding with only one of Eley's, it is in consequence of two of their numbers being of tJie same size, varying only in the length of the caps. CHAPTER III. OX THE VARIETIES OF PROJECTILES AND THE SUBSTANCES USED IN AID OF THEM. ALL SPORTING PROJECTILES MADE OF LEAD EITHER CAST OR PRESSED AS IN HALLS, t>U DROPPED FROM A HEIGHT AS IN SHOT SHAPES OF J1ALLS SIXES OF SHOT WADDING AM) PATCHES CARTRIDGES. ALL SPORTING PROJECTILES MADE OF LEAD. Lead is the substance of which all sporting projectiles are made, whether they are used in the size of a four-ounce ball or in that of dust shot. There is some difference in the quality of -this metal, which is often alloyed with zinc, when its specific gravity is greatly reduced, though it is somewhat harder than the pure metal. The latter should, however, be preferred, as weight will have more effect than hardness in producing penetration. The price of lead is about 3d. to oi//. per Ib. Balls are cast of various shapes and sizes in moulds which are generally made to open like a pair of pincers. In order to avoid the slight variations which are found to exist in all cast bullets, Mr. Greenfield has invented a simple machine, by which each cylindro conical ball is driven through a gauge by means of a lever. It is a very useful contrivance for muzzle-loading rifles, in which an exact fit is required. These forms of bullets vary almost indefinitely, every con- 208 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. ceivable shape having been tried; but this will be better considered in connexion with the rifle itself. A spherical ball used with a smooth bore is now seldom adopted for any kind of shooting, as its flight beyond one hundred yards is so uncertain that no reliance can be placed upon it. Shot are small globular pieces of lead, of various sizes from rather less than a quarter of an ounce each to such a small diameter as to take nearly two thousand to make up that weight. Messrs. Parker and Co., of London, are the chief makers in the south, and they have the following sizes, which are each said by Col. Hawker to contain the annexed number of pellets in the ounce : MOULD SHOT. L.G. contains in the oz. . . . 5J pellets. M.G. ... 81 S.G. ... 11 S.S.G. . . . 15 S.S.S.G. ... 17 PATENT DROP SHOT. A. A. contains in the oz. . . . 40 pellets. A. ... 50 B.B. ... 58 B. ... 75 1 ... 82 3 " ! ! .' 135 ,',' 4 ... 177 5 ... 218 6 ... 280 7 ... 341 8 ... 600 9 ... 984 10 ... 1726 Dust shot variable. These numbers will, however, be found to vary con- siderably from those of which an ounce of the shot as now ALL SPORTING PROJECTILES MADE OF LEAD. 209 sold is composed, depending a good deal on the quality of the lead used, the specific gravity of which is scarcely ever the same. I have counted the pellets in an ounce of shot used at the recent gun trial, and find them to be 290. The makes of other firms are also differently sized, as will appear from the experiments of a writer in the Field, under the signature " G.," who says : " Most people suppose that an ounce of No. 6 shot is the same all over the world, and so did I until I had the curio- sity to compare the contents of several bags of shot and car- tridges by different makers. The following is the result : NUMBER OF SHOT CONTAINED IN ONE OUNCE. No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. From Messrs. Parker and Co., London 326 537 Messrs. Cox and Co., Derby 230 ... 335 Messrs. George and Co., Bristol 219 ... 298 ... 421 Eley's " Universal" Cartridge 180 Joyce's " Universal" Cartridge 220 ... 326 Eley's Patent Muzzle-loading Cartridge 249 Hall's Patent Cartridge 270 " The shot was very carefully weighed in a fine pair of scales and counted, and in most instances an average of three ounces taken. I have no doubt that my friends, the gunmakers in London, make their trials with Parker's shot ; while I, living in the West of England, made mine with the shot manufac- tured at Bristol." There is evidently some mistake in some of these numbers, as there is no make of No. 6 which will contain 326 pellets in the ounce. Cartridge-makers all use the full size of shot, because their object is to increase the distance at which they can kill, and not so much to improve the pattern. I have counted as few as 260 pellets in Eley's, and 270 in Joyce's No. 6. I have also often found mistakes in the numbers thus, cartridges marked No. 5, have contained No. 4 or No. 6; and in this way it is easy to see that the error has arisen in the instances where " G." has found 326 pellets in an ounce of No. 6, which really was No. 7, though probably marked No. 6. The best size for general use, and that almost universally p 210 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GUNNERY. adopted in the early part of tlie season, is No. 6 ; but let it always be remembered that, cceteris paribus, small bores take smaller shot than larger ones. Later in the season, No. 5 may be introduced into use. Some shoot with No. 4, and others, again, consider No. 7 or 8 not too small; but every sportsman has his own fancy, and much depends upon the distance at which he generally shoots. Some men prefer dropping their game as soon as they are on the wing, and for them a scattering gun and small shot will answer the purpose better than a close-shooting gun with larger shot. Others, on the contrary, wait to cock their guns in the most deliberate way, and always allow their birds to get forty yards off before they fire ; by these a larger shot must be used, or their game would almost always escape. Many men use mixed shot; but I believe this plan is essentially bad, producing an irregularity in the delivery which constantly leads to disappointment. Sometimes, also, it is oiled, but this also appears to be perfectly useless though it is most probably harmless, unless the oil is very sticky, when it causes the shot to ball. Small shot, from causing greater friction, requires more powder than large, and therefore, if the usual charge with No. 6 occasion as much recoil as can be borne, the weight of any smaller shot used must be reduced. In ramming down shot care should be taken not to crush it out of its spherical shape, which is easily done if too much force is used, either in loading at the muzzle or in filling cartridges. Wadding and patches are mechanical means of retaining the powder and shot or ball in their places. They vary according to the kind of gun or rifle used, and each, there- fore, will be better described in their respective places. Cartridges are cases of paper or pasteboard, and are of two kinds, one intended to be driven out of the barrel with the shot, which it keeps together for some distance, the other being employed to assist the loading, and being generally re- tained behind. These, also, will be described with the guns for which they are intended. Powder flasks and shot pouches are of service for any kind of shot-gun, and they always form a part of the accessories ALL SPORTING PROJECTILES MADE OF LEAD. 211 included in the gun case. In the annexed engravings the usual form of them is given (see fig. 9 a), which represents the best kind of powder flask covered with leather, and (b) the most convenient form of shot pouch. The old shot belt is now seldom used, and if carried over the shoulder it has no advantage over the pouch ; but for real hard work, as in wild pheasant or cock-shooting, a belt buckled loosely round the waist, just above the hips, is far the most convenient form. Fig. 9 (c) shows the best form of cap holder, which may be suspended from a button-hole, and is then always ready for use. Fig. 9. POWDER FLASK, SHOT POUCH, AND CAP HOLDER. P2 BOOK IV. THE VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS AND THE ACCESSORIES USED WITH THEM. CHAPTER I. THE PARTS COMMON TO ALL SHOT-GUNS. GENERAL REMARKS THE BARREL THE BREECH PROVING THE LOCK THE STOCK THE TRIGGER AND GUARD PERCUSSIONING CASE- HARDENING BROWNING THE CLEANING-ROD AND RAMROD. IT has already been mentioned that all shot-guns consist of a barrel or barrels, in the form of a cylindrical tube more or less converted into a cone at one or both ends, one of which is closed with a breech. In addition to this there is a lock for firing the charge ; a stock for holding it conveniently to take aim, and a trigger for discharging the lock. These parts are put together and finished by special workmen, and the barrels are generally " browned" to prevent the action of damp upon the polished metal, and also to show the kind of iron of which the barrels are made. THE CLEANING-ROD AND RAMROD. For muzzle-loading guns a ramrod is almost always ap- pended, though sometimes where, as in covert shooting, a second gun is carried, the person in charge also has a load- ing rod, and then the guns are made without the usual appendage. Breech-loaders, of course, do not require it, but for them also a cleaning-rod is required, which has adapted to it proper heads for fixing tow to wipe out the barrels, or for removing lead by means of a scratch brush. The ramrod will be described with the ordinary percussion gun. 213 THE BARREL. The Barrels of all shot-guns are made of iron, either in its most malleable form, or in the shape of steel, or of a mixture of the two. For a long time the iron obtained from old horse-shoe nails was considered the best for the purpose, but as a great proportion of these are now produced of very in- ferior iron, they are not so much to be relied on as formerly. Germany, Russia, and Sweden still make their nails of the best iron, and if they can be obtained with certainty, there is nothing better. Mr. Adams, of Wednesbury, now pro- duces a quality of iron which has almost entirely superseded the use of " stub" nail-iron, and in the trade it is that known as " Wednesbury stub-iron." He also manufactures two kinds of steel known as " silver steel" and " common twist steel," which are employed either alone or mixed with stub- iron. These two kinds differ in the mode of their manufac- ture, the former being twisted and the latter rolled, but both being made from the clippings of steel springs, saws, &c. Mr. Greener is celebrated for his laminated steel, which he makes as follows : " I generally have the metal required cut into short pieces of six inches long. A certain number are bundled together and welded, and then drawn down again in the rolling mill. This can be repeated any number of times, elongating the fibres and multiplying their number to an indefinite extent, as may be required." Gunnery in 1858, p. 154. This quality of metal no doubt produces excellent barrels ; but, as Mr. Greener remarks, it requires great care in the working. " Damascus iron" and " wire twist" are both made from a number of alternate bars of iron and steel forged together into one rod which, for Damascus, is exactly three- eighths of an inch square. This is then twisted while at a high temperature, and shortened thereby one-half. The next process is to weld three of them together, in such a way that the twist of the middle one shall run the reverse way to those on the outside, thus : which gives an exact idea of a pickled piece of Damascus iron in the rough. The common twist is not so much twisted as the Damascus ; and, according to the high authority of Mr. Greener, is therefore 214 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. stronger than it; but this opinion is in opposition to the gene- ral verdict of those who have used the two kinds, and which is fig 10. BAR OF DAMASCUS IRON. (FULL SIZE.) certainly in favour of Damascus iron. All figured barrels are produced on this principle, modified according to the kind of pattern required; but there are some made by un- principled persons, which on the surface present it, without extending any deeper, and being therefore in no wise more safe in consequence. This is effected by plating or veneering on a thin layer of this twisted iron, the substance of the barrel being of a very inferior quality. This fraud it is almost impossible for the amateur to discover, and he is therefore entirely in the hands of his gunmaker, unless he is able to brown a small portion of the interior at the muzzle, when the nature of the two kinds is at once visible. The proportion of steel which is adopted in the making of gun barrels varies greatly among the different makers, some going so far as to use three-fourths of steel to one of iron, while others reject the steel altogether. But the old- fashioned soft barrels are now seldom used, and the great majority are made with from one-third to one-half of steel in them. When the soft iron in this is condensed by cold hammering, the result is a material which, while it is suf- ficiently tough to resist the force of the explosion, is also elastic enough to react upon the charge, and drive it out with all the force which can be desired. The following are the CHIEF VARIETIES of iron which are used in this country for first-class guns namely, 1st, "Da- mascus Iron;" 2nd, "Wire Twist," or "Stub Twist;" 3rd, "Laminated Steel;" 4th, "Stub Damascus." Inferior guns are manufactured of, 1st, "Charcoal Iron;" 2nd, "Threepenny Skelp;" 3rd, "Twopenny" or "Wednesbury THE BARREL. 215 Skelp;" and 4th, "Sham damn Skelp." The method of making Damascus iron I have already alluded to, and have also given an engraving of the appearance which it presents in the bar. The following is an accurate representation of a portion of a pair of barrels made of this iron being those which performed the best in the second class at the gun trial of 1859. Fty Jla DAMASCUS r,Ai:ui:i.s. (HALF SIZE.) A much finer twist is sometimes made, especially in Belgium; but there is no advantage obtained, and it is generally supposed to weaken the iron. This very fine kind of Damascus is shown below, having been carefully copied from a pair of barrels of English manufacture, sent by Mr. Hast, of Colchester, to be shot in the trial of 1859. Tig. m FIXE-GRAINED DAMASCUS. (HALF SIZE.) 216 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. An imitation of these twists, as practised by the Belgians, is well represented in the annexed engraving, which shows fig. lie IMITATION DAMASCUS. (HALF SIZE.) the extent to which this fraud is carried. But by comparing the factitious surface with the real, it will be seen that there is an important point in which the former fails, consisting in the broken line which so constantly occurs in it; while in the real article the fibre, though equally tortuous, is almost always continuous. Sometimes, however, the deception is so clever that it requires great skill to discover it, and even in the gun from which the above illustration was taken, a common observer might readily pass it as perfectly genuine. Wire Twist, or Stub Twist, is made nearly in the same way as Damascus, but is less twisted, and displays the following appearance when browned : Fig. J2 STUB TWIST. (HALF SIZE.) The manufacture of laminated steel has also been alluded to at page 213, where an extract from Mr. Greener's treatise THE BARREL. 217 will be found. Its surface, when browned, is as shown below, having been copied from one of Mr. Pape's guns, which was shot in the trial of 1859. lig. /3. LAMINATED IRON. (lIALP SIZE.) This kind of iron is also used in a slightly different form, known as " angularly laminated," but there is so little to distinguish the one from the other in any respect, that I need scarcely enlarge upon it. What is called " fancy steel " is also a sub-variety of laminated steel, and should not be considered a distinct kind. Stub Damascus is often called " steel," but it is really a mixture of the two kinds, and is the weakest of the four in- cluded in this division. It is made from old files reduced to a coarse powder, and then fused together with a larger pro- portion of stub-iron, after which it is rolled into rods, and twisted in the same way as the Damascus. Its appearance when made up is given in the annexed engraving, which is STUB DAMASCUS. (HALF SIZE. 218 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. taken from a gun sent to the trial of 1859, by Mr. Egan, of Bradford. Charcoal iron is the best quality used for inferior guns; it is made from the clippings of sheet-iron, melted in a charcoal furnace, and re-cast, then forged into a bar and rolled into rods in imitation of stub-twist. The iron, when in contact with the charcoal, absorbs a certain amount of carbon, and becomes hardened, but as the metal from which it is made is originally of a weak description, it still remains of very inferior quality. Its cost is very low, being about 4c per lb., and as it may be made to look well by a peculiar method of browning, it is much employed by in- ferior makers, the saving on a pair of barrels in material alone being tenpence to a shilling, as compared with stub twist, besides the reduced cost of forging, which adds two more shillings to the saving effected ; and this proportion is kept up throughout the subsequent processes. The appear- ance of charcoal iron when browned is represented in the annexed cut of a pair of barrels. Fig. J5. CHARCOAL IRON. (HALF SIZE.) Threepenny, but more commonly twopenny skelp, is used for very inferior guns in this country such as are sold by ironmongers and general dealers at very low prices : namely, 31. and 41. for a double gun. As, however, my readers are, I hope, not likely to trust their lives to such articles, I shall only give the annexed engraving, showing the appearance of twopenny iron when browned and made to look as pretty as possible to the eye. THE BARREL. 219 TWOPENNY IRON. (lIALF SIZE.) By comparing this with threepenny skelp, it will be seen that there is no great difference between them; but the figure is bolder in the twopenny iron, and not nearly so variegated in its twist. In quality there is no great supe- riority in the one over the other, but of the two, the higher priced iron is to be preferred. Sham damn is too bad even for our general dealers, and it is solely used for the guns made for exportation. As a matter of curiosity, however, I append a sketch of the aspects which it bears after being made up artificially to please the eye. Tif 17. ***ss^* 5 rc^TT/*, SHAM DAMN. (HALF SIZE.) All of these three last kinds of iron are made from scrap iron of qualities varying in proportion, the scrap used for sham damn being of the worst possible kind. The process 220 VAKIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. of manufacture is nearly similar to that alluded to under Charcoal-iron. In forging the iron into barrels the same principle is not adopted in all cases, some being twisted, while others of the commonest kind are joined longitudinally into a tube. Both these processes are now carried on only at Birmingham, London at present not containing a single forge for the purpose. The process of forging twisted barrels is as follows : The rod after being heated is twisted into a spiral form by means of two iron bars, one fixed and the other loose. In the latter, which is turned by a winch-handle, there is a notch which receives the rod, and this being pre- vented from turning round with it by means of the fixed bar, is compelled to assume a spiral form. According to the breadth of the rod will be the quickness of the spiral, which varies from that shown in the accompanying sketch, to the BREADTH OF ROD IN BEST GUNS. (HALF SIZE.) form given in the lowest quality of sham damn, or two- penny skelp, which are forged in bands of the following width, but which nevertheless are not bettered by this BREADTH OF ROD IN COMMON GUNS. (HALF SIZE.) twisting. When the rod is completely converted into this spiral form, it is removed and suffered to cool, while others are being bent the same way; and the next process is for the welders to join several of these together, and at the same THE BARREL. 221 time weld the edges of the bent rods by the blow of the forge hammer at a white heat. The welder commences with a stout spiral of sufficient thickness for the breech ends, heats it to his mind, and then, removing it from the fire, gives the end a smart blow against the anvil, known by the technical term "jumping." This is repeated till the welding is complete, when a second portion is put into the fire, and the two ends being brought into contact so as to fit, which requires considerable practice, a "jump" on the anvil welds them together. By repeating this operation again and again the proper length for the barrel is obtained, and then the tube is made as perfect as possible at this stage by hammering it at a proper heat on a mandril, the external surface being made circular by placing it in a groove corre- sponding to its intended form. After this hammer-hardening by means of light hammers is adopted for the purpose of consolidating the texture of the iron, and then the twisted barrel is completely forged. For forging the plain barrel the smith takes two bars of iron, bends each of them over a mandril into rather more than a half circle ; then heating them to a welding heat, he places both upon the mandril with their edges overlapping, and welds them together by repeated blows of his hammer. The boring and grinding are effected by the person who is called the "barrel-maker," though certainly the smith might more properly be entitled to that appellation. Of these barrel-makers London contains several, and indeed every gunmaker would probably assert that he employs a workman of this class, though in many cases the same man works for several masters. It must be remembered that when forged the barrel is only a rough tube, the internal bore being smaller than it is intended to be when finished, and allowing of the removal of a considerable quantity of metal. The first thing to be done is to convert the interior into the nearest possible approximation to the form which it is intended to maintain permanently, and this is done by boring it with a machine called a " bit." This instrument may either be used by the hand, when it is fixed in a stock and made to turn in the interior of the barrel, or it is placed in the spindle or "chuck" of a frame, which has also a 222 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. carriage for the barrel to travel in, and is exactly similar in principle to a turner's lathe. The boring bit, being selected of a proper size, is placed in the centre of the spindle, ready to revolve as soon as the latter is set in motion ; the barrel is then fixed in its carriage, so that it may gradually be pushed on upon the bit as the latter clears its way, and then the spindle is made to revolve by attaching its driving-wheel to the motive force, whether hand or steam. The bit is square for about twelve or fourteen inches, with four angles, two of which are ground sharp, while the other two in the finishing operation are kept from the interior of the barrel by a slip of wood, which diminishes the friction considerably. Water is constantly poured upon the barrel as the work goes on to keep it cool, and when the bit has cleared its way through, another, slightly larger in size, is introduced, till the barrel is of a proper bore. When the interior is finished it bears a fine polish, but it is a mere cylinder, and will still require some slight modification to make it shoot correctly ; but this is generally done by a hand bit. Next comes the grinding of the exterior, which is either done by means of large stones made to revolve with great velocity, and against which the workman holds the barrel, allowing it at the same time to turn round comparatively slowly in the hand j or a self-acting lathe is made to take the part of man and stone, and any number of barrels are then turned out exactly similar to each other in every respect but in the metal itself, which of course may and will vary slightly. The method by turning is the more true, but if care is not taken to keep the machinery in perfect order the tool is apt to tear up the surface and overheat the metal, which can be more com- pletely avoided by the grindstone. When the barrels are thus bored and ground, they have still to be put together if for a double-barrelled gun, and in any case to be breeched, cut to a proper length, and finally bored for shooting. In the first of these operations, con- siderable nicety is required in order to direct both barrels at the same object. It must be remembered that the breech-end is much thicker than the muzzle, and consequently in placing together two barrels as they come from the stone or lathe, if the two external surfaces touch at both ends, the THE BARREL. 223 internal ones are not parallel. If, therefore, they were soldered together in this form, and shot from a fixed rest, the line of fire of the two would cross at a few yards from the muzzle, varying in distance according to the thickness of the breech. To avoid this objection, the iron of the opposite sides of each barrel is cut away until they approximate suffi- ciently, for an exact parallelism is to be avoided, because in shooting from the shoulder, the weight of the other barrel causes in each case a slight inclination in the opposite direc- tion from the true axis. A rib of iron is introduced between and above the two barrels, and this is slightly elevated, to allow for the tendency to fall which shot has even at forty yards' distance. Mr. Greener is of opinion that this dropping of the shot is about twelve inches in forty yards, but it varies considerably in different guns, and according to the charge. This may, however, be taken as an approximation to the truth, but for all practical purposes any very exact calculation is useless, inasmuch as the shooting of guns will in great measure depend upon the proportion of powder to shot, and also in no slight degree upon the way in which they are "stocked." Mr. Prince has proposed a plan for elevating one barrel slightly more than the other before brazing them together, so that one shall hit the mark exactly at 40 yards, and the other at 60. This seems likely to be of service for double guns, the objection that one barrel would be thereby more frequently used than the other, being met by the ex- planation that towards the end of the season long shots are the rule, arid 40 yards the exception, and that " right and left" being then unusual, the more elevated barrel may be used for single shots. For pigeon-guns it is particularly applicable, and I think also for general shooting. When the two barrels and the rib are accurately fitted, they are soldered permanently together. The usual practice is to braze four or five inches with hard solder, but Mr. Greener shows the impropriety of this plan, inasmuch as it requires a white heat for its performance, which expands the iron again to the state in which it was prior to the cold-hammering. He asserts, and I believe with perfect truth, that soft-soldering, if pro- perly done, is quite strong enough, and he declares that he never uses any other method, which, as his guns are well 224 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. known to be as strong as any others, is a sufficient guarantee of its efficiency. THE BREECH. The barrel or barrels having been brought to the condition of tubes open at each end, in order to complete them, it be- comes necessary to close one of these by some means, which may be either a plug screwed in permanently, as in the per- cussion gun, or temporarily, as in the needle-gun and some other breech-loaders, or by some mechanical means keeping a block of iron in close apposition with the end of the barrels. These various methods must be described more minutely under the respective guns to which they belong. PROVING. All shot-guns must now be proved twice before they can be sold, according to an Act passed in the year 1855. The first is called a " provisional proof," and is carried out when the barrel is in the rough, but the second requires that it or they shall be pretty nearly finished that is to say, if a double gun, both barrels shall be soldered together, the breeches adapted, and the nipples screwed in. By this change in the method of proving, the trial is really a sufficient one, and I believe we shall hear of fewer guns bursting every year, as the old ones proved under the former regime become displaced from general use. Revolving arms are only proved once that is, after they are made up, for as the barrel is not intended to contain the charge, it is not complete without the addition of the chamber. Breech-loading guns, not being revolvers, are tried provisionally as well as after they are completed. The penalties for forging proof-marks and for selling guns without them, are so heavy, that the offence, I believe, is rarely committed. According to Schedule B. of the "Gun-barrel Proof Act" of 1855, small arms are divided into five classes, as follows : 1st. Single barrelled military arms of smooth bore. 2nd. Double barrelled military arms of smooth bore, and all rifled arms whether double or single barrelled, not being revolvers or breech loaders. PROVING. 225 3rd. Single barrelled shot guns. 4th. Double barrelled shot guns. 5th. Revolving and breech-loading small arms of every description. The powder used is of government strength, and the balls are all spherical and of lead. Barrels for the second and fourth class, and for breech loading arms of the fifth class shall be proved both provisionally and definitively; all other arms shall only be proved definitively. Barrels for arms of the third class shall not be proved until they are in a fit and proper state for setting up with the permanent breeches in; and all barrels "lumped" for percussion ing shall be proved by means of the nipple hole. In proving the second and fourth classes : (a) Provisionally. If of plain metal they shall be bored and ground, having plugs attached, with touch-holes drilled in the plugs of a diameter not exceeding y^th of an inch. If any touch-hole shall be enlarged from any cause whatever to a dimension exceeding in diameter T T th of an inch, the barrel shall be disqualified for proof. Notches in the plugs instead of drilled touch-holes shall disqualify for proof. If of twisted metal they shall be fine-bored, and struck up with proving plugs attached, and touch- holes drilled as in the case of plain metal barrels. (b) Definitively. The barrels, whether of plain or twisted metal, shall be in the finished state, ready for setting up, with the breeches in the percussion state, breaks-off fitted, and locks jointed; the top and bottom ribs shall be rough struck up, pipes, loops, and stoppers on, the proper breeches in, and the thread of the screws shall be sufficiently sound and full for proof. Hun-els for revolving arms of the fifth class shall have the cylinders with the revolving action attached and com- plete. Barrels for breech loading arms of the fifth class shall be subject to provisional proof according to the class to which they belong, and to definitive proof when the breech loading action is attached and complete. The proof marks differ according as they are made at London or Birmingham. 226 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. The London mark of provisional proof consists of the letters (G p) in a cypher, over which is a lion rampant. For the Birmingham provisional proof the mark is a cypher (B p) beneath a crown. See the annexed figure, giving an en- larged view : LONDON. BIRMINGHAM. 12 FIG. 20. PROVISIONAL PROOF MARKS. The definitive marks remain as before, as shown in the following engraving, about twice the actual size : LONDON. BIRMINGHAM. FIG. 21. DEFINITIVE PROOF MARKS. The proof marks are impressed on the following parts of the various classes : On the first and third class the definitive proof mark is impressed at the breech end of the barrel ; and if with a patent breech, on that also. On the second, fourth, and fifth classes the provisional mark is impressed at the breech end of the barrel, the de- finitive mark upon the barrel above the provisional ; and if THE LOCK. THE STOCK. 227 there is a patent breech, or revolving cylinder or chamber, the former mark is also to be impressed on that. On all barrels the gauge size shall be struck both at the provisional and definitive proofs. The provisional proof charge for a No. 12 double barrel shot gun is 350 grains of lead, and 12f drs. of powder; and for the definitive proof, 219 grains of lead and 8 drs. of powder, the charge of each being increased or diminished in proportion to the gauge. Now, the above weight of powder being nearly three times the usual charge, it may be con- sidered that if a gun, when finished, passes this severe ordeal, it is scarcely likely that it will burst with ordinary care when employed for sporting purposes. The proof charges are now the same in London and Birmingham. THE LOCK. The Locks of guns vary a good deal, but the principle in all cases now is to cause ignition by a blow on some deto- nating substance. This is effected by a spring, which is compressed and held back by some means, and when let go by the pressure of the trigger it drives the striker on to the deto- nating powder. The various plans adopted will be alluded to under the respective guns ; but it may be mentioned that the form of the mainspring is the chief part in which they differ. In the ordinary lock the spring consists of a plate of steel bent to a very acute angle, one arm being fixed to the lock plate, while the other is moveable, and at its free end acts upon the striker. The second form consists of a spiral spring which, when compressed and let loose, drives a striker, having a needle attached, straight forward to the detonating powder. THE STOCK, INCLUDING THE FALSE BREECH. The object oftfo stock being to enable the shooter to adapt the gun to his eye, and having little or nothing to do with the mechanism or performance of the piece, it is of im- portance that he should be exactly suited in the former respect. If a gun stock is not of proper length, and bent to fit the Q2 228 VAEIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. arm of the person for whom it is intended, it is in vain to expect that he will be able to shoot well with it. The Tig 22. STOCK WITH SAFETY GUARD. gunmaker, therefore, must either know the length of arm and neck from measurement or his own inspection, or he must give his customer a variety to select from, and then stock his gun to the exact pattern of the one which pleases him. The wood of which gun stocks are made is almost always walnut, that being found to keep its shape the best, and also having toughness sufficient, combined with good grain and colour. In selecting it, the direction of the grain at the " handle" (a) is to be examined, for if here it is across, it will be likely to give way on any slight blow. The fitting of the barrels and locks into it must be very exact, or dirt and damp soon get in and decay the wood. Around the handle it is crossed, or " chequered," to give a firm grasp ; and good workmen pride themselves upon doing this very regularly. It requires much practice, being done by hand; and, therefore, as the Birmingham gunmakers have the best chance in this respect, they ought, as they do, to excel all others in it. The usual length is from fourteen to fifteen inches from the fore-trigger to the heel; but the amount of bending cannot be so easily calculated. In front the stock passes forwards beneath the barrels (the " foreend," b b), and here it is generally hollowed out to receive the ramrod ; and, in the percussion gun it is traversed by one or two slides, to connect it with the barrel. Behind the handle is the " comb" (c), a thin projection, which increases the surface applied to the cheek. Here is sometimes a raised smooth THE TRIGGER AND GUARD. 229 block, called a " check piece." All that part behind the handle is called the " butt" (d), and the lower or back end of this is the " heel" (e), in which is generally let an iron plate the " heel-plate." The form of this is somewhat familiar, being intended to adapt it to the muscles of the shoulder, for which purpose it is nicely hollowed out in its long diameter, and slightly rounded in the opposite direction. In addition to the adaptation in length and bend of the stock, it is also " cast off" that is to say, it is bent sideways; and it is especially here that good stocks differ from bad ones. If the barrels are heavy forwards, the stock must be loaded at the heel, to make the gun balance ; but in the present day this is seldom needed. At the front of the handle the false breech (/) is fixed above, and the trigger and guard (g) below, both of which will presently be de- scribed. The false breech is merely a piece of iron, which is securely let in and screwed there, so as to give a firm point of resistance for the true breech, which recoils against it. Many stocks are highly varnished ; but as they are liable to scratch, and sometimes, when in the sun, the varnish flashes in a way to alarm the game, it is a better practice to have them only oiled. THE TRIGGER AND GUARD. The trigger is simply a lever, intended to raise the scear out of the bent or notch in the tumbler, when the gun is at full cock ; and also to lift it out while the striker is being lowered from full cock to half cock. There is little diffe- rence in its construction among the various guns, even the needle-guns having one nearly similar to that of the old flint and the modern percussion. By a casual observer it might be supposed that what is called a " hair trigger" that is, one which will liberate the cock with the slightest touch of the finger would show some difference from the ordinary kind; but the fact really is, that this variety depends entirely for its delicacy upon the scear and tumbler, which are made of a correspondingly delicate shape and size in the parts which are concerned namely, the bent of the latter and the tooth of the former. In order to guard against the trigger being touched in the handling of the 230 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. gun, a guard is attached to the stock, being made longer for double-barrelled guns, in order to allow of the two triggers. A variety of safety guards have been invented, to prevent the trigger cock from being let down, except at the exact moment of being wanted that is, when applied to the shoulder. One of these acts by pressure on the heel-plate; but as most people load their guns with this part pressing on the foot or ground, it i$ useless at the exact moment when it is most required. The best I know acts by the pressure of the right hand on the " grip" of the stock, the fingers being sure to lay hold of this part in raising the gun to the shoulder, in doing which a lever is pressed, which liberates the trigger, previously held firmly by it. (See Fig. 23). Ji# 23 SAFETY GUARD. (HALF SIZE.) The lower limb of this is shown in fig. 22, beneath the handle ; the other parts being let into the stock, and therefore invi- sible. I am a decided opponent to all complications, and with moderate care and a good lock I believe no gun will explode while being loaded; but certainly I see no objection to this plan on the above score, and for careless shooters it is a most valuable invention. It is generally made in the annexed form, which is a modification of that adopted by Joe Manton ; but there is a slight objection to the plan, inasmuch as in passing through a hedge a twig may easily get under the part intended for the hand, and it then becomes impossible to discharge the gun. To remedy this inconvenience it is BROWNING, CASEHARDENING, ETC. 231 only necessary to make the part which appears outside the stock of solid metal, and let it into a socket cut in the wood. PERCUSSION ING. The adaptation of the locks to the stock and to the nipples or other parts used in the firing of the gun is called " per- cussioning," and this duty is performed by a special workman in all large gun. manufactories. It is highly important, because upon the proper strength of the spring and upon the correct striking of the hammer or needle upon the cap or other detonating substance depends the certainty of avoiding a miss-fire. BROWNING, CASEHARDENING, ETC. The barrels are made up and proved, as well as finally bored, before the last finishing-touch is put to them. This consists in imparting to them an artificial oxidization by means of acid, which forms a coat on the surface that resists the oxygen of the air to a greater extent than the bare metal will do, and the plan is therefore generally adopted, though some sportsmen prefer the plain metal. If the latter case, it must be rubbed occasionally to keep it bright, and in course of time the thickness will be reduced, though, with moderate care, this ought not to be appreciable during the time in which the internal surface will continue good. The following is the usual recipe for staining twisted barrels : Take of Tincture of sesquichloride of iron, ^ oz. Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr. Sulphate of copper, ^ dr. Nitric acid, 1 dr. to 1 dr. Spirit of wine, 6 drs. Water, 8 oz. Dissolve the corrosive sublimate in the spirit of wine, then add the solution to the other ingredients, and let the whole stand for a month or six weeks, when it will be fit for use. The barrels are first cleaned carefully with lime, and this being removed, the browning mixture is laid on with a sponge 232 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. five or six times a day, till the colour is dark enough for the fancy. Once or twice a day a scratch-brush is used to re- move the rough oxide and allow the acid to get a deeper bite. When it is considered that enough has been done, boil- ing water is poured over the barrels for several minutes, and while hot, they are rubbed with flannels and finished with a leather and a little beeswax and turpentine. A brighter red colour is produced by the following mixture : Take of Tincture of sesquichloride of iron, 1 oz. Spirit of wine, 1 oz. Corrosive sublimate, ^ oz. Nitric acid, ^ oz. Blue vitriol, ^ oz. Water, 2 pints. Mix as above, and apply with a piece of flannel twice a day ; scratch it (with a proper scratch brush) clean each time; when dark enough, scratch as clean as possible, and pour boiling water over it. Polish with a fine linen cloth, and, if requisite, a touch of beeswax and turpentine. In- ferior barrels are made to look well to the eye by several tricky methods, chiefly practised at Birmingham, in this country, and at Liege, abroad. Of these the most simple is the use of corrosive sublimate and spirit of wine, which will soon bring out a strong colour if applied in rapidly succeeding layers upon barrels previously prepared with varnish cut away in a pattern, as has been already described at page 216. The smoke stain is the most permanent, but it requires the best metal and a good deal of practice to bring it well out. It is effected by passing the barrels through the flame of a forge at a time when it is of a clear white, without smoke, until the whole is covered with soot ; then remove them to a cool and damp cellar for one or two days, by the end of which time they will have become rusty. Treat them with the scratch- brush as before described, and renew the operation with the flame till the colour is thought to be good. Finish with hot water, as before described. Case-hardening is the process adopted for making the parts of the lock, breech, &c., as hard as possible. It is produced THE BARREL. BREECHING. 233 by covering them with animal charcoal, in a box which is then exposed to a certain heat, and after a time, the object is effected ; but this requires practical skill, and no descrip- tion without it will suffice. CHAPTER II. THE MUZZLE-LOADING PERCUSSION GUN. THE BARREL VARIOUS KINDS OP BREECH THE LOCK THE STOCK RAMROD OR LOADING- ROD THE ENTIRE PERCUSSION GUN AND ITS PERFORMANCES LOADING AND CARTRIDGES CLEANING THE GUN- CASE AND ITS CONTEXTS PRICE OF GUNS. THE BARREL. The barrels of the ordinary percussion-cap gun loading at the muzzle are made, as described in the last book, of any of the materials and in either of the modes therein mentioned. As received from the barrel-forger, they consist of a mere cylinder, which receives provisional proof in that form, and has afterwards to be breeched, stocked, percussioned, proved, and regulated. BREECHING. The breech formerly was a mere solid plug screwed into the end of the barrel, which was tapped to receive it; and the touch -hole was drilled so close to its internal end as to cut a shallow groove in it. The invention of the patent breech has however quite superseded this clumsy form, which is now never adopted, except for the purposes of provisional proof. For all percussion cap guns the barrel is now tapped for about half an inch, and into this female screw a piece of iron is adapted, with a shoulder bringing up the external part to a level with the outer surface of the barrel. Within this breech, partly opposite the screw, and partly within the shoulder, a cavity is hollowed out, in which the powder is to lie; and this chamber is variously formed, 234 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. according to the fancy of the maker. The following is the most desirable form to be adopted, in which a a represent the ends of the barrels; bb, the chambers in the breeches ; and c c, a plug, which fills the outer part of a hole bored across, so as to reach the bottom of the chamber, closing the inner end. This is called the " cross-hole," and MODERN BREECH. (HALF SIZE.) J '^ 6 P Ur P OSe f <&<>S the end of the nipple tube to explode the powder in the chamber without weakening the breech, which it must do if it is directed straight down upon it, as is some- times done, and as will presently be described. There is a great difference of opinion as to the form which is most advan- tageous ; and as it is not yet settled whether the ignition should be quick or slow, it can scarcely occasion surprise that such should exist. If the ignition is too rapid, there is no doubt that the powder is not all exploded ; while if it is too slow, the rapidity of shooting which is necessary for hitting a moving object is not attained. Hence there is doubtless a happy medium to be aimed at, but what that is seems to be at present unknown. As far as my experience goes, I am quite contented with the simple cone terminating in a cup, which is the form represented above. The breech of Joe Manton's choice, who has so long been celebrated for his guns, is a shallow cup ending in a cylinder, which is very little larger than the cross-hole. (See Fig. 25.) In Wil- Tig 25. JOE MANTON'S BREECH. (FULL SIZE.) THE NIPPLE. 235 kinson's, on the other hand, there is an oval chamber, one end connected with the nipple, and the other being con- tracted so as to retard the ignition. Great stress is laid upon tlie form, of tJie breech by all the advocates of the muzzle-loader ; and they assert that if the powder is burnt in a chamber of the same size and form as the barrel itself, with a mere closure at right angles, the effect is greatly deteriorated. I have tried the experiment myself, firing the same barrel with different breeches, but I confess I have not been able to obtain any very reliable con- clusions. As far as my experience goes, the barrel is all in all; and so long as the breech is sound, and the ignition perfect, it matters comparatively little what shape the chamber may bear. It is very commonly supposed that the recoil is materially increased when the powder is fired any- where but at its posterior part; but this is now proved to be a myth, and, according to the experiments made by the Board of Ordnance, the recoil is least when the centre of the charge is fired. The Prussian needle-gun, also, in which the ignition is in front, is remarkable for the absence of recoil ; so that, I think it may fairly be assumed that the point of ignition has no reference to recoil. There is also another point which requires consideration namely, whether it is desirable to allow of a vent for the explosive gases at the end of the cross-hole ? The proposed object is to lessen recoil, and until very recently most of the better classes of guns were made with a " vent hole," lined with platina to prevent corrosion ; but the plan is now almost entirely abandoned, being found to be quite inoperative. The grains of the powder enter the fine hole, and fill it up even prior to the first discharge ; but subsequently it is quite closed by the residuum left after the explosion. THE NIPPLE. I)i the ordinary percussion gun, which is that now being described, the powder in the chamber is ignited by exploding a cap upon n nipple, whose canal communicates with the cross-hole of the breech, or, in some cases, with the chamber itself. The nipple in either case is of a conical form ex- 236 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. ternally for about the third of an inch, so as to allow of the copper cap securely clipping it; next to this cone is a shoulder, which is square, or, what is better, a rectangular oblong, so as to admit of the application of a key for its removal. Beyond this, again, it is tapped, and forms a male screw, which is accurately adapted to a female screw cut in the breech. Thus, then, there are two things to be con- sidered in reference to the nipple 1st, its own shape; and 2ndly, the direction in which it is screwed into the breech. The nipple itself should be of good steel not tempered too highly or it will break. The best kind is bored so as to pre- sent two cones, one short and external, and the other longer and internal, the communication between the two being small and lined with platinum to prevent the corrosion, which would otherwise soon fill it up ; and then comes the pricker, which removes the rust and enlarges the aperture so much that a great part of the gas escapes through it. Ordinary ,_ nipples present only one cone, the base of which may be external (fig. 26 a), or internal (fig. 26 6); the former being greatly to be preferred with good caps, as it allows a full volume of flame to be driven down upon the charge. The platinated nipple is more expensive than the common one, PPLES. (PULL SIZE.) ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Q ^^ but as long as this adheres it will be serviceable; still for common purposes nothing answers better than the form shown in fig. 26 a. In adapting the nipple to the breech, a hole is sometimes drilled in a slightly oblique direction down upon the end of the chamber. This was first proposed, I believe, by Mr. Greener, as his " centric" method of firing, but as adapted by him it was found to weaken the handle of the stock too much, and he has abandoned its use in consequence. Another maker (Mr. Horton of Whitehaven, late of Birmingham) has re- introduced it as his " eccentric breech," the only difference being that the nipple enters more obliquely and the hammers also fall in a corresponding direction, so that the stock is not weakened to the same extent. But though the latter is im- proved the breech itself is still weaken d at this part, whether THE LOCK. 237 ifficiently so to make it dangerous experience alone can de- termine. It is certainly an improvement upon Mr. Greener's original plan, and as such is introduced here : fig. 2 7. THE GREENER-HORTON BREECH. (FULL SIZE.) On comparing this with the ordinary breech (fig. 24, p. 234) it will at once be seen that in Horton's plan the nipple is brought nearer to the charge, and may possibly be more liable to be blown out, but with proper care in tapping I have no doubt such an accident would never occur. That the firing is sharper I fully believe from theoretical calcula- tion, but whether in practice the difference would be dis- covered I do riot pretend to say. One advantage is possessed by Horton's breech viz., that a pin or pricker may be passed straight down into the chamber, and thereby any accumula- tion may with certainty be disposed of; whereas, in the cross-hole it meets with an angle, and cannot get any further. In the gun-trial of 1858, a gun made on this plan was shot by Mr. Horton and performed well, though from his ner- vousness the shot from the first barrel almost entirely missed the target. THE LOCK. The lock of the percussion gun is a very simple and effi- cient piece of mechanism, having for its object to explode the cap on the nipple by means of a sharp blow, which must be so arranged as to finish with its greatest amount of strengths so as to prevent the hammer from being blown up 238 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. PERCUSSION GUN LOCK. (HALF SIZE.) again by the force of the explosion. The following are the parts of which this lock is composed, which are the same in number and principle whether it is what is called a " back actioned" lock or not, beginning with The lock plate and bridle, which when screwed together, form the skeleton (fig. 29) LOCK PLATE AND BRIDLE. (lIALP SIZE.) The cock, or striker (fig. 30 a), which rises and falls out- side the plate in unison with the tumbler (b), a piece of iron TUMBLER. (HALF SIZE.) STRIKER. (HALF SIZE.] THE LOCK. 239 Fiq.SJ. MAINSPRING AND SWIVEL. (HALF SIZE.) a peculiar shape lying be- tween the plate and the bridle, and acted on through the swivel (fig. 31, a), by means of the mainspring (fig. 31, be), which is attached to the plate in its upper half. It will be seen on examination, that by the pecu- liar form of the tumbler and swivel, the lever upon which the spring acts is longer when the striker is down on the nipple than at full or half-cock, and thus it exerts its greatest force in that position. In the back of the tumbler (6) are two notches or " bents," one deeper than the other, which are intended to receive the scear. This and its spring (fig. 32) are both attached to the bridle, lying between it and the plate, and working upon two screws, which pierce them. The scear has a sharp tooth which drops into the notches of the tumbler one j^ 32 after the other, and is kept there by the spring. When the scear is dropped into the half-cock bent, this is so deep that it cannot be depressed out of it by raising the other end by means of the trigger, and consequently the gun cannot be fired in that position. But at full cock the notch is much shallower, and a force usually equal to about 3 or 41bs. will disengage it when applied to the trigger. The side nail is the screw which attaches the lock to the stock, through the hole drilled in the plate in front of the cock. This lock may therefore be considered as consisting of four important divisions : (a) the skeleton or plate and bridle; (6) the cock and tumbler; (c) the mainspring and swivel; and (d) the scear and scrar spring. (a.) Tlie shape ofthejjlateh'as three chief variations one the fore-actioned bar-] date, being that which is engraved above, and which is now generally used for best guns ; the front part being accurately iitted to the barrel. In the old plan there was a thin layer of the stock intervening, which was apt to be splintered ; but this is only now used for cheap guns, in which the wood is made to cover bad workmanship. The back-actioned lock, as shown in the Lefaucheaux gun 240 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. (fig. 33), was introduced some years back, in order to keep the works out of the way of the corrosive gases which were formerly generated by the explosion of the cap, but these being now of a much milder character, the advantage' of this useful invention is not equal to the disadvantage attending upon the weakening of the stock, which is essential to this form. The plate being let into the grip on both sides, a large portion of the wood is cut away; and this part was found to break on the slightest blow. On the bridle it is scarcely necessary to make any remarks, as there is little or no difference in its shape in any case. (6.) The striker should be of such a shape as to be readily raised and commanded by the thumb whilst the forefinger is acting on the trigger and at half-cock releasing the scear, in order to let it down when desired. The mouth should also be wide enough to permit the cap to fall out readily after its explosion, and it should be so fitted as that its striking face shall fall flat upon the end of the nipple. The metal must be good, or that will give way under the blow. One of the most important parts of the lock is the tumbler, upon the proper construction of which in great measure de- pends the smooth action of the mechanism and its safety in use. If it is not of hard metal, and true in all its bearings, it will soon wear, and when new, it will not " speak" as it should do, nor after use will its worn-out notch properly catch the scear. The practised hand and ear readily detect the false ring from the beautiful feel and tone given out by one of Brazier's best locks, but the tyro will be wholly unable to detect any diiference, and he must trust to the character of the maker to sell him what will suit his purpose. Much also depends upon the pitch and shape of the scear, and as the one must be accommodated to the other, a good workman will be required to adjust them exactly. (c.) The mainspring should be of excellent temper, and should have a force equal to about ten pounds or a little over, that being the lowest which will ensure the explosion of the cap under all circumstances. It is desirable to avoid unnecessary power in giving the blow, because it is liable to break the nipple or the striker itself. As the spring is most at liberty when the cock is let down, the gun should always be put by in that position. THE STOCK, THE RAMROD. 241 TJie addition of the swivel is a great improvement to the lock, for the reason before alluded to, and this part also requires careful workmanship and adjustment. The scear spring is usually made with a power of about three pounds, that or a little more being the force exerted upon the trigger in ordinary guns. The importance of giving a proper shape to the scear and of making it of good metal, cannot be overrated. Tliere is a great difference in the price of locks, which can be obtained as low as d. a piece wholesale ; but even for very cheap guns intended for the English market, Is. 6d. to 26'. a pair is generally the lowest price. For ordinary guns 7s. Qd. will be paid, and for the best 15s. to 17s. 6d. THE STOCK. The stock of this kind of gun does not in any way vary from the model described in the last chapter. It may or may not be fitted with the safety guard there described, and it may have one or two loops by which to connect it with the barrels. Ordinarily one loop is considered sufficient for double guns. Single guns of large bore are sometimes made with two loops, as the fore-end of the stock is made larger in them, to enable the hand to be carried well forward. THE RAMROD. This part of the muzzle-loading gun is of some importance, for if it is badly made, it gets out of order or breaks, and renders the gun useless at a moment probably when it is most wanted. The wood should be of a tough kind, and not liable to warp. The head must be large enough to carry the wads down without jamming in the barrel or admitting a shot between. For those who care about dirtying their gloves, this part should be gilt, as it does not then become corroded by the gases resulting from the explosion. Care should be taken that it fits easily in the loops, and that the screw which is capped at the end to enable the wads to be laid hold of and withdrawn is of a proper shape. When the ramrod is not fitted, a loading-rod is required to be carried by an attendant, and it is made somewhat larger and stouter in all its proportions. 242 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. THE ENTIRE PERCUSSION GUN. When the various parts already described are well and carefully made and put together by a first-class workman, the result is a most efficient gun, which will do its work as well as anything yet invented in all respects but two, or per- haps three. These are to be found in the slowness of loading, in the danger attending upon the process, inasmuch as the hand must more or less cover the muzzle, and in the fouling and leading of the barrels, the latter of which defects requires the occasional use of the scratch-brush to remove the coat of lead that not only injures the shooting qualities, but adds greatly to the recoil. With these exceptions, I think it is generally agreed that the percussion gun is faultless, and it remains to be seen whether they can be got rid of without interfering with the good qualities which are by general consent attributed to it. As the percussion gun is allowed to be equal, if not superior, to any other in shooting qualities, it will be well to consider it as the standard in these respects, and then to compare others with it. I have already said, that a fowling-piece should combine in its performances, (a) a good pattern in the target made by it, united with as much strength as possible ; (b) a fair weight, so as to avoid tiring the sports- man ; and (c) such an absence of recoil as will render its use for hours and days together not unpleasant to the shooter. (a) A good surface-pattern may be shown upon an iron plate, or any other smooth surface, and upon these a practised eye can also distinguish the amount of strength with which the gun shoots, nearly enough to form a pretty correct opinion. The spreading of each shot upon the plate is the test which is adopted, because the more impetus is given to the shot the more they are flattened against the iron. So also in a door, the wood of which is known, according to the driving power of the gun will be the penetration of the shot; but as doors are constructed of various woods, and as, after some exposure, each of these will become softer on the surface, this test is a very bad one, and is not to be compared with brown paper. When this last material is employed, a single sheet will THE ENTIRE PERCUSSION GUN. 243 suffice for the surface pattern; but for penetration several thicknesses will be required. According to my experience, a good muzzle-loading gun of twelve-bore, with a charge of 2f drachms of powder and 1 ounces of shot, No. 6, will distribute evenly about 150 to 160 shots on a thirty-inch target at forty yards, and 55 to 65 at sixty yards. The same gun and charge, at forty yards, will drive three or four of its shot through from thirty-five to forty thicknesses of a twelve-inch square of 90 Ib. bag cap brown paper, and through from twenty to twenty-five thicknesses of the same at sixty yards. Occasionally a single shot may exceed these amounts, but they may be considered the average of what may be ex- pected from a first-class gun. This, however, will be more clearly seen by a reference to the table of the performances of the guns at the Field gun trial in 1859, hereafter given. (b) The weight of a muzzle-loader is the point which regulates the bore; for if the sportsman requires a light gun he must be contented with a small bore ; while, on the contrary, should he be regardless of weight, a No. 12, or even a still larger gauge, would generally be chosen, as being capable of carrying a large charge better than any smaller size. The following may be considered as the lowest safe weights of the several bores likely to be used : No. 12 . . . . 7ilbs. No. 13 .... 7ilbs. No. 14. 7 Ibs. No. 15. ... 6flbs. No. 16. . . . 6ilbs. No. 18. . . . 6 libs. (c) The absence of unpleasant recoil with a fair charge of powder and shot depends chiefly upon the boring of the barrel, and to avoid it certain principles are sacrificed, which but for this essential, would be carried out. Thus it will be found that, within certain bounds, the more the shot is confined within the barrel, until the whole of the powder is exploded, the stronger will be the shooting. To effect this, however, in the fullest degree, the recoil will be so great as to forbid its use; and here also there must be a sacrifice of one to the other, just as in the case of weight and calibre. With a well-made gun shooting as described under (a) the recoil is not higher than sixty-five pounds, as tested by the machine R2 244 VARIETIES OP SHOT-GUNS, ETC. which is described at page 196, and this is about what the average of sportsmen would consider a pleasant-shooting gun. LOADING. There are several points to be attended to in loading this kind of gun, if the most is to be made of what can be done. Thus, supposing a good pattern is desired, then the charge of powder must be reduced ; while, on the other hand, if hard hitting is the object, the powder is increased in proportion to the shot. Again, if it is desired to make the gun shoot slowly, the powder is to be rammed down into a solid mass, a light tap being all that is necessary when a rapid explosion is required. So, again, as the friction of small shot is greater than that of large, the former requires more powder than the latter. Short barrels require finer powder than long, which latter allow more time for combustion, and if fine powder is used with them they will expend a greater quantity of it beneficially, though with a greatly increased recoil. Taking all these points into consideration, the following table will be serviceable : Weight of gun. Bore. <%% Chggeof 7ilbs 12 2f 7ilbs 12 2f 7 Ibs 14 2| 1 6|lbs 14 2J 1 6ilbs 16 2^ | Having fixed upon the charge, either from theory or from experiment with the particular gun, let it be brought out thoroughly clean, and then proceed to load as follows. First, put on a pair of caps, then explode them, and holding the gun perpendicularly, with the butt on the left foot, at half arm's length, and the right lock facing you ; pour down each barrel' the proper charge of powder, beginning with the left barrel, which is then placed farthest from you. Next put in two greased felt wads, and ram them gently home, giving one smart (but not violent) tap to each, to drive the powder to the nipples. After this put in the charges of shot, again LOADING. 245 beginning with the left barrel, and holding the pouch at an angle so that the hand is not over either barrel. A card- board wad is then put into each muzzle, and the ramrod is again used to push them carefully home, but not to rap them, as before; the less pressure used on the shot the better, so long as the wad barely keeps it in its place. Lastly, replace the ramrod (or loading rod) ; and, taking the gun up in the left hand, with the muzzle pointing downwards, half cock it, and removing the exploded caps, put on fresh ones, pushing them well down on the nipples with the thumb. By adopting this method the least possible amount of danger is incurred ; the only risk being from a piece of tow having been left in the breech, which may take fire, and communi- cate it to the powder as it is being poured down, when, if the powder flask is not properly constructed, an explosion of its contents may take place. On the other hand, if the above precautions are not taken, even if the flask is ever so sound, it may be blown through the hand with great violence. In loading either barrel while the other is loaded, take care that the one containing the charge is at half-cock, while the other has the hammer down, as left by its discharge. In this case the most prudent plan is to turn the gun so that the loaded barrel is the farthest off from the person ; but if the butt is put across the foot, and the hand is not held between the gun and the body, which it never ought to be, this is not of any great importance. In order to accelerate the loading of these guns, or to increase tJieir powers, several contrivances have been invented. Of these the most ingenious are the Rackheath and Hall's two kinds, which act on somewhat different principles, and Eley's as well as Joyce's cartridges for increasing the range of the gun ; each being described as follows : (a) The Rackheath consists of a case of common cartridge paper, at the bottom of which is placed an ordinary wad, the edges of the paper being gummed over it. Into this the shot is poured, then a felt wad, next the powder, over which the ends of the paper are turned. Lastly, a disk of paper, having a piece of tape attached to it, is gummed to this all round, taking care not to wet the powder in doing this. When this is done the cartridge is complete, and may be carried in the 246 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. pocket till it is wanted, when the tape being pulled the disk comes off, leaving the powder exposed, and then the whole, being inverted, is put into the muzzle and rammed down with a final tap. (b) Hall's first cartridge is made in the same way except- ing that, instead of the tape, a disk of paper is attached to a ring of metal, which, as the ramrod is applied, prevents the case from going down the barrel, but allows of the powder and shot being rammed down at one operation. (c) Hall's second cartridge is much more ingenious than either, but like many most clever inventions is radically bad, for the reason which will presently be given. It consists of a brass tube which fits the interior of the barrel, and is pushed down for its whole length, being prevented from going further by a rim or turn over. This tube is loaded as follows. A thin wad has a fine thread attached to it, and is pushed down to the bottom, leaving the thread fixed over the upper lip by the thumb ; the powder is then poured in ; next follows a felt wad, then the shot, and finally a card wad, with the name of the inventor on it. When thus prepared the thread is cut off close and the cartridge is ready for use. When the metal case is put into the barrel, a ramrod drives down the charge, but in doing this the thin wad is held sus- pended by the thread, allowing the powder to pass it, and finally lying between the powder and the felt wad. But in order to use this cartridge the wads must of necessity be smaller than the barrel by the thickness of the metal cartridge case, and thus there is always danger of the charge becoming loose. Although, therefore, there is great ingenuity displayed in the invention, I cannot recommend its use in the field. The two cartridges just described (a and b) may, however, facilitate the loading of the percussion gun to a considerable extent. (d) Eleys and Joyed s patent wire cartridges are used for a different purpose, having reference to the shooting powers only. The circular of Messrs. Eley is here annexed, its state- ments being verified by my own experience as well as by that of most practical sportsmen. The cartridges of Joyce and Co. are similar in their construction, but Messrs. Eley have the credit of the invention. LOADING. 247 " These cartridges are composed of a cage of wire, inclosed in a thin paper case, with a wadding attached, fitting the bore of the gun. The shot are placed within the wire ; and the principle of their action is extremely simple. On leaving the gun, the paper is torn in pieces, and the shot immediately begin to quit the case, passing through the meshes of the wire net. The wire is carried forward with the shot so long as any remain in it, and, when empty, falls. Thus, the royal cartridge, when fired through a paper screen placed at 10 or 15 yards from the gun, will be found to have spread some of its shot like a loose charge, while the remainder will have been carried through the screen in the form of a ball; and if a target had been placed behind the screen at 25 yards, the wire would be found to have dropped short of it, and the shot entirely separated. The green will carry their shot further. " The royal are intended for the second barrel at the com- mencement of the season, or the first barrel when game is wild; they make a good spread of shot 20 yards from the gun, and will kill 20 or 25 yards further than a loose charge. " Those in green cases are for wild fowl and very long shots ; they will kill twice as far as a loose charge. " The universal shot cartridges are intended to supersede the use of the shot-belt ; they are composed of shot packed in a paper case, between layers of soft bone-dust, with a wad- ding attached, fitting the bore of the gun. They contain no wire, thereby removing the objection (however fallacious) sometimes urged against the wire cartridge. On leaving the gun the paper is torn in pieces, and the shot at once separate, acting precisely as a hard-hitting loose charge, but much more uniform. Balling, or clubbing, at any distance is im- possible, the shot being quite as much separated, and cover- ing as large a space, even at the distance of five yards from the gun, as if loose shot were used. And whatever is the performance of a gun with loose shot, a cartridge of equal weight will put twenty-five per cent, more shot in the same space at 40 yards, and with great additional strength ; so that a gun that will throw loose shot strong and close is im- proved in the same degree, making it shoot in a very superior 248 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. manner affording a greater chance of killing, because, in addition to the closeness, they cover a larger surface in con- sequence of every shot being brought into action. " The manufacturer having only put. forth statements, the accuracy of which any sportsman may test for himself, solicits a few careful experiments, in order that they may be used with confidence. " The following advantages may be enumerated as appli- cable to all of them : " They keep the gun free from lead, and the unpleasant recoil consequent therefrom, during the longest and hottest day's shooting. "Much smaller charges than common may be used. " The loading is performed in half the usual time, the only wadding necessary being attached to the cartridge. " When once rammed down, they are not so liable to rise or get loose by the firing of the other barrel. " To those who prefer light charges they are invaluable; a cartridge containing 1 oz. of No. 7 shot is far more effective than a loose charge of 1| oz. of No. 6. This will be found a great acquisition in the early part of the season. " It has long been well known to sportsmen of discernment, that the pellets constituting the loose or open charge are scattered too much, and thrown with a very disadvantageous irregularity, besides a considerable portion of the charge being very defective in point of strength or projectile force, about one-fourth of it being rendered nearly useless by fric- tion in passing up the barrel. These great defects induced innumerable plans and experiments from time to time with the view of effecting the great desideratum of lessening the spread, and accomplishing the dispersion with some degree of precision none of which had been found to act with cer- tainty until the discovery of the patent wire cartridge. "The only real objection ever raised against them was their liability to ball; but this defect has been long remedied, in proof of which the patentee has received the highest en- comiums from most of the first sportsmen of the country, and all the leading authors of the present day who have written on the subject of shooting. " The patentee submits the following particular statements LOADING. 249 as to the comparative effects of the loose charge and the car- tridge, with the assurance that he states nothing but what is borne out by the evidence of facts, being founded upon the repetition of careful and accurate experiments, which renders any material error utterly impossible. " Comparative Effects of the Loose Charge and tlie Cartridge. LOOSE CHARGE. CARTRIDGE. Charge 1 \ oz. of No. 6 shot and The same weight will vary from 2.", drachms of powder. Target 2 ft. 120 or 200 in target, and from 50 square. Distance 40 yds. Dif- to 100 through 24 sheets of thick ferent guns will vary from 60 to brown paper. 100 pellets in target, and seldom put more than 25 shots through 24 sheets of thick brown paper. Should any gun exceed this state- ment in its power of shooting, the strength of the cartridge will in- crease in the same proportion. STRENGTH. If additional strength be re- An increase of powder causes quired, more powder must of course the cartridge to shoot thicker as be used, which spreads the shot so well as stronger, so that its effici- considerably that there is as much ency maybe increased at pleasure, lost as gained by the increase. FOULNESS AND RECOIL. As the barrel becomes foul the The recoil, even at first, is not recoil increases, in hot weather near so great as that of the loose particularly. This also much de- charge ; besides which it never creases the force of the discharge. " leads" the barrel, and conse- quently never deteriorates the snooting of the gun. SPREAD OP THE SHOT. Generally in irregular patches or Always much more uniform a clusters (particularly in close shoot- fact ascertained by Captain Ross ing guns), leaving frequent spaces once killing 79 out of 80 pigeons, through which a bird might trapped at 30 yards. The chances escape.- were that with a loose charge one at least out of every dozen would have escaped from this cause alone. 250 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. LOOSE CHARGE. CARTRIDGE. SECOND BARREL. As the second barrel acts with no greater force than the first, few sportsmen can kill a double shot if the birds rise above twenty yards. By using the loose charge in the first barrel and a cartridge in the second, or, when game is wild, a Royal cartridge in the first barrel and a Green in the other, a second shot may be taken with as good a chance of success as the first. EFFICIENCY OF THE WHOLE CHARGE. About one-fourth of the charge is so injured in rubbing up the barrel as to be quite useless at any distance, and the whole is so jammed into angles as to entirely neutralize any value supposed to be attached to its "patent" ro- tundity. The unequal force of the shots may be ascertained by firing a loose charge, at 100 yards, at a thin fence ; the notice of its arrival at the mark will be continuous, like & feu-de-joie. FIRMNESS IN Loose charges are very liable to move or rise in the second barrel on the discharge of the first, when the wadding will turn round, and the shot will fall out ; or, with an easy-fitting or soft wadding, the charge will occasionally rise several inches in fifteen or twenty shots, and thereby endanger the safety of the barrel. All the pellets of the shot retain their certain roundness which is the cause of their being found so much more effective in the field at long distances than can be shown at a target; all the shots being propelled with equal force. If fired against a fence at 100 yards, the arrival of the shot will be simul- taneous. THE BARREL. Although the cartridge will rise a little after numerous discharges, yet it is not nearly so liable to it as the loose charge; and indeed, when the barrel becomes foul, it is almost impossible. (It is, however, a necessary precaution in both cases occasionally to try if the charge be risen when loading the other barrel.} MOST USEFUL SORTS. For game early in the season and battue shooting Universal, No. 5 or 6. For snipe and other small birds Royal, No. 8. For game (second barrel early in the season, and first barrel when game is wild) Royal, No. 5 or 6. For second barrel when game is wild ... . Royal, No. 4. For wild fowl (single birds beyond 60* yards) . Green, No. 3. * If within this distance one of the others would do better. CLEANING. 251 For wild fowl in flocks, or grouse in packs cat great distances Green, No. I. For wild swans ( . Green, SSG. For wild peacocks, bustards, turkeys, &c., in India, Canada, &c Green, No. 1, to AAA. Random shooting at deer, or large game of any description, where the sportsman has not the opportunity of using the rifle Green, SG. The following rules should be carefully remembered and followed, in order to prevent accidents during loading : Rule 1. Always uncock the loaded barrel of your gun after discharging the other. The loaded one should be left at half-cock, and the other with the striker down on the nipple. Rule 2. In loading the last-discharged barrel, always keep the loaded one farthest from the hand. Rule 3. Never put the caps on before loading the cock may slip, even with the best lock. Moreover, the powder is prevented from reaching the end of the nipple. Rule 4. After the caps are on and pushed home, never leave the cock down on them, as in this position a blow on the cock, or even on the butt, may occasion an ex- plosion. Rule 5. Never point the gun at any living object during cocking and uncocking, when the cock is very apt to slip from the hand of a cold or awkward person ; and to avoid all danger of this, keep the muzzles pointing to the ground at an angle of 45. CLEANING. To clean the percussion gun in all its parts, it is necessary to be able to take it to pieces, but for common purposes all that is required is to wash out the barrels and oil the locks. A turnscrew, nipple-wrench, and cleaning-rod are the tools for all but taking the lock to pieces, which requires in addi- tion a era t up. To clean the barrels, first take them from the stock by pulling back the stop from the eye or eyes in the fore-end of the stock; then having half-cocked the locks, lift out the barrels, take out the nipples with the wrench, put them on 252 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. one side, and proceed to wash out the barrels. For this purpose take the cleaning-rod, which is armed with a brass roughly-notched end on purpose, wrap round this some tow, and then placing the barrel's muzzle upwards in a bucket half full of cold water, proceed to wash them well out by working the tow up and down in them. Remove the tow in a short time, and apply fresh as long as the barrels stain it, then take them out, pour some boiling water through them, and set them to drain by the fire till quite dry. Lastly, take a piece of rag (not tow), wrap it round the cleaning-rod, touch it slightly with the proper oil (neat's-foot clarified by suspending pieces of lead in it for two or three months), then pass it up and down each barrel once or twice, oil the inside of the screw in which the nipple fits, oil the nipple, and reapply it with the wrench, when the opera- tion is complete. .To clean tJie locks, first remove them by unscrewing the head of the screw, which is just in front of the hammer at half-cock, when the two locks will come out readily, both being secured in their places by this long screw passing through the stock, and called the " side nail." The inside of the lock is then exposed, as shown in Fig. 28, page 238. If any grit has got in, which it ought not to do in a well- fitted lock, it may be removed by an oiled feather, or if the members are rusted by damp, they may be wiped with a piece of leather, then applying just enough oil to lubricate them, the locks are restored to their places and the side-nail screwed home. Sometimes, however, from neglect, the various mem- bers may have become so rusty, that they require to be taken to pieces, which may readily be done by cramping the main- spring at full-cock, screwing the little cramp sold for the purpose on to the spring, and keeping it on while the various screws shown on the bridle are removed, when the swivel is unhooked from the spring, and all the parts are loose, and can be cleaned separately. Should the plate be so rusted that the spring cannot play freely upon its surface, the latter also must be removed by inserting a turnscrew under it, and lifting out, when the plate being cleaned, it may be restored to its place. Unless, however, the owner of the gun has some considerable mechanical skill, he had better not at- PRICE. 253 tempt to clean his locks, but should give the job to his gumnaker. If the barrels are leaded, a wire brush is attached to the cleaning-rod, and with this they are rubbed up and down with the aid of a little silver-sand, if necessary, till the lead is all removed. There is, however, in this process, great risk incurred of spoiling the barrels, and if really necessary, it is better to allow the gunmaker to remove the lead. THE GUNCASE AND CONTENTS. The guncase may be of wood or leather, or of the former within the latter material. Patent leather gun-cases are, however, now the most generally used, and as they are cheaper as well as lighter, they are in my opinion better than wood. They should contain, in addition to the gun, a nipple- wrench containing two spare nipples, powder-flask, shot- pouch, cap-holder, dog-whistle and whip, wad-punch, and a supply of wadding, besides such cartridges as are approved of if they are used. In addition, there should be for cleaning purposes a turnscrew and cleaning-rod, with tow, linen, and oil in a small metal bottle ; the proper sort for all but the locks being neat's foot oil clarified by suspending in it pieces of lead for some months. The locks should never be touched with any but gunmaker's oil, usually known as Wilkinson's. All these articles should be arranged in compartments, so as to avoid friction on the gun. PRICE. The price of percussion double guns varies from 4 or even less, to 50 or 60 guineas, which Purdey, Lancaster, Manton, and one or two other fashionable London makers, obtain for their articles. At the lowest price here mentioned the iron used in the barrels would be twopenny, or perhaps sham damn. Keepers' guns are sold at all prices; but a good useful one, with barrels of charcoal iron, should cost from 10. to 151. No safe gun can be purchased for less than 20, if tolerably well finished, and none, in my opinion, ought to cost more than 35 to 40 guineas complete in case, and I believe that for the latter sum as good a gun as can be 254 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. built may be obtained. At the same time, I confess that if I were offered my choice, regardless of price, I should select a gun of Mr. Purdey's make, believing that he is supremely careful that every part is of the very best quality, and that the workmanship is the best which can be obtained by money or care. I have reason to believe also that all his guns are actually tried at brown-paper targets, those only being passed which perform to his satisfaction. But though I thus place them at the head of the list, I would not give 51. more for a gun of his make than for one built by Pape of Newcastle, or Dougall of Glasgow, or Henry of Edinburgh, or O. Smith of Derby, all of whom turn out guns which handle well, look well, and perform well, and who charge from 351. to 40 for a double gun in case complete. Prince and Green, Fuller, Jackson, Reilly, and some others in London, may be mentioned as selling excellent guns at about the same price, or perhaps a trifle higher, and among these I would specially call attention to the gun patented by Mr. Prince, of the firm of Prince and Green, on the principle of elevating the left barrel higher than the right, which has been already alluded to at page 223. CHAPTER III. BKEECH-LOADING GUNS. GENERAL PRINCIPLES THE LEFAUCHEAUX GUN BASTIN's MODIFICATION OF IT THE NEEDLE-GUN OF NEEDHAM LANCASTER^ COMBINATION OF THE TWO COUNT CHATEAUVILLIER's GUN CHOICE OF BREECH- LOADERLOADING OF CARTRIDGES CLEANING. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION. It Jias already been mentioned that there are some two or three defects in the muzzle-loader, consisting in slowness and danger of loading, and in the amount of leading, to which it is liable. To obviate these, it has been proposed in THE LEFAUCHEAUX GUN. 255 various ways to load at the breech, which may be effected in from a quarter to a sixth of the time occupied in the old plan; and with less danger, because the hand is never over the muzzle at any time, and, till the breech is closed, if an explosion should take place, it is comparatively harmless. Leading also is almost entirely got rid of, and there is little or 110 fouling so that at the end of a day's shooting the gun shoots as pleasantly as at the beginning. Moreover, the cleaning is a very simple process, and the eye at once detects in the Lefaucheaux gun the slightest amount of foulness, which a few pints of water poured through easily get rid of. In some, as in the needle-gun, there is a constant necessity for cleaning the locks; but even this does not apply to the Lefaucheaux pattern. Whether or not breech-loaders shoot as well as muzzle-loaders remains to be considered; but all the qualities of the several patterns will pass under review in the following pages. THE LEFAUCHEAUX OR FRENCH CRUTCH GUN. For about twenty years this gun has been commonly used in France; but until the year 1851 it was almost unknown in England. At that time, however, Mr. Lang, of Cockspur- street, London, took it up, and since then his example has been followed by nearly all the gunmakers in the kingdom, so that at the present moment there are probably five of this make sold to one of the ordinary muzzle-loader of best quality. In this gun, when it is loaded, the general appearance closely resembles the ordinary muzzle-loader the chief diffe- rence perceptible to the eye being the standing up of a small brass pin between the false breech and the barrel, instead of the nipple and its cap. This pin is struck by the hammer in the usual way, and by the blow given at its internal end to a cap inserted in the cartridge the powder is exploded. In addition to this variation, there is also a lever fixed below the breech end of the barrel or barrels, which admits of being turned sideways, and in so doing liberates them, and allows of their being raised at the breech end, and lowered at the muzzle, upon a strong hinge, as shown in the accompanying engraving of one of Messrs. Reilly's guns, shot at the Field 256 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. trial of 1859. Here the lever (fig. 33 a) is turned to the right, by which a hook is withdrawn from the notch in the THE LEFAUCHEAUX GtJN. (ONE THIRD SIZE.) under surface of the barrels at (d). The stock where it is pierced by this lever and hook is entirely of iron ; and in its fore end is a strong hinge (c), composed of a circular bolt attached to the stock, and of a corresponding socket fixed to the barrels, which may be opened by removing the part (6), on withdrawing the slide, when it comes away and appears as separately shown. The lever or crutch and the hook are so contrived, that when the gun is closed again with a snap, the former is replaced, and lies under the barrels requiring sometimes, but not generally, a slight force to be applied to it to jam it quite home, and so render the breech secure. There are various modes of carrying out this object; but one of the most simple is a square stud beneath the breech end of the barrels, which is raised by the lever, and just frees them from the false breech, after which their own weight carries them down. On returning them to their places, the pressure on this stud again acts on the lever, and sends it home or very THE LEFAUCHEAUX GUN. 257 nearly so. The best form of lever is that which is given in fig. 34, sketched from one of Messrs. Prince and Green's guns, in which it is shown at b c, as covering the trigger- guard (a) j but the sketch being taken from the opposite side, Fig. 34. BACK-ACTIONED LEVER. (HALF SIZE.) does not give a clear comparative view of the two. In this shape its own weight has a tendency to restore it nearly to its place, where the right hand is ready to carry it quite home, and considerably increased quickness in loading is acquired. As the gun lies thus opened, it will be seen that the interior of the barrels is exposed, and that the false breech, which completes them, is a flat surface, so as to render them when closed more or less perfect cylinders open at one end, and without any contracted chamber like that in the breech of the muzzle-loader at the other. But, on the contrary, the cylinder is enlarged to a considerable extent for about two inches and a half; whilst at the end of this a shoulder, more or less bevelled off, presents itself. This chamber is intended to hold a cartridge made for the purpose, and accurately but loosely fitted to it. Great experience is required in properly adjusting this slightly conical chamber to its contents ; and it is here that inferior makers generally fail. If of a bad shape, the cartridges stick after explosion, and occupy much time in their removal ; but if it is well made, they come out with great ease, and a sticking cartridge very rarely occurs in good guns of this make. The following engraving shows a section of the chamber, with a loaded cartridge case in it, by which it will at once s 258 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. be seen that the two together complete the cylinder, and that the interior of the paper cartridge corresponds with the line of the interior of the metal barrel farther on. There is generally a small interval fig. 35. a * the point of junction, but there is no necessity for this if the cartridge case is cut of the proper length, yet even if there is, it seems to be of little consequence, as far as can be ascertained from prac- tical experience. When the gun is closed, this case is supported by the false breech, SECTION OP LOADED CARTRIDGE AND and a11 6SCa P e f g ES is P" CHAMBER. (HALF SIZE.) vented by the explosion swel- ling out its sides against the chamber. It is found after shooting that few cases are burst, and therefore if there is any escape, it must be between their external surface and the chamber which, as I said before, is made close by the expansion of the former. Practically it results that there is no escape whatever, as is readily shown on an examination of the gun after several discharges. Indeed even by the side of the pin there is little or no stain ; and, as compared with that which takes place out of the nipple- hole of the muzzle-loader, it is nil. In theory, therefore, it would be concluded that this gun would shoot stronger than the percussion with a chamber of the same make, for it would not be fair to compare it with one whose breech is hollowed out into one of the forms known as those of Manton or Wilkinson. But in practice it is found that the shooting is not so strong, and that, from some cause or other, it requires a larger quantity of powder to produce the same effect as the muzzle-loader. This is variously estimated at from a quarter to three-quarters of a drachm, some makers even going so far as to require the latter additional weight of powder. Whether this loss of force arises from the shape of the chamber, or from the compressible nature of the cartridge case, or from any occult cause, is open to discussion, but that it really exists is an indisputable fact. The advo- cates of the muzzle-loader point to it as a defect, some THE LEFAUCHEAUX GUtf. 259 arguing that there must be an escape of gas, and others that the shape of the cartridge is the cause j but if the additional quantity of powder will only give the desired result, I cannot think the loss of power of any real importance. As far as my experience goes, however, in spite of this additional charge, the breech-loader still shoots somewhat less strongly than its rival, but not to any extent sufficient to counter- balance its manifest advantages. This will be made more clear in examining the results of the Field gun trials of 1858 and 1859, the latter of which will be given elsewhere. Such being the principle of this gun, it remains now to consider how these several parts are constructed to the best advantage, and in doing this, it will be necessary to examine each of the parts in detail. The barrels of the breech-loader are forged exactly in the same way as for the muzzle-loader, the only point necessary to be attended to being that they shall be somewhat stouter at the breech-end. No greater length is required, except for Needham'a and other needle guns; and indeed, there is no reason why any ordinary barrel before it is tapped for the patent breech may not be used. Here, however, the difference in the make begins, and the barrel-maker has to braze on with great care two lumps of iron to the lower sides of the barrels, one of which serves to make the notch into which the lever slides to keep the barrels firmly in their places, and the other forms about three-fifths of the socket in which the circular bolt fixed in the stock revolves. In order to understand the exact form of the bolt, a gun on this principle must be examined, and moreover as scarcely any two makers adopt the same shape, the description of one would not suffice for all. In all cases, however, the principle of the lever in combination with the inclined plane is employed, and by their aid the notch in the lower part of the barrel is firmly brought down and held in apposition to the stock with such force as to resist the expansive power of the exploded gunpowder. On removing the slide in the front of the stock, the fore end comes readily away, and in the part next the hinge, a segment of a circle will be seen formed which completes the socket of the bolt. The barrels may now be lifted out of their bearings and removed from the stock altogether, and s2 260 VARIETIES OP SHOT-GUNS, ETC. they are only firmly held there when this portion of the stock is replaced and re-bolted. But besides the lumps brazed on to the under part of the barrels, and cut to the proper form for the purpose of taking the bolts, the breech end is also chambered out carefully, so as to receive the cartridge case of the size intended to be used with freedom, but at the same time not too easily. The rule is, that so long as the cartridge will not fall out by its own weight, it cannot be too loose, and the pinch should be most at the end farthest from the breech. In other words, the chamber should be slightly conical, and its shoulder should be bevelled off at an angle of about 45 degrees. Barrels for breech-loading guns do not require to be much opened behind, the difference between the diameter of the cartridge and that of the barrel being nearly sufficient to detain the charge until all the powder is burnt. This probably is one reason why the recoil is so slight in proportion to the increased charge of powder, for though it does not appear that the breech-loader actually " kicks" less than the muzzle-loader, as is affirmed by many, yet its recoil is not certainly greater in proportion to the extra powder. A slight " relief" will be necessary to obtain a good pattern, and most of these guns are so bored for about six inches from the muzzle, but this is regulated in each case according to the shooting on trial at the gunmakers' iron plate. The cartridge case is next to the barrel in importance, though not being an actual part of the gun, it might at first sight be considered as an accessory only. Still the breech- loader is wholly useless without it, and therefore it is better to consider it as an essential. It consists of a cylinder of stout brown paper, about two inches and a half long, open at one end and closed at the other by a brass capsule which overlaps the sides for a quarter of an inch, and is lined by a pasteboard wad f ths of an inch thick. In the centre of this wad is punched a hole of an oblong-square shape, lined with brass, and passing through the edge of the capsule and through the substance of one section of this wad is a small brass pin, one extremity of which stands up for half an inch above the level of the outside "of the capsule, and the other enters the little chamber in the wad, where it has a percussion-cap fitted on it. By this arrangement, a blow on the outer end of the THE LEFAUCHEAUX GUN. 261 pin explodes the cap, which is prevented from giving way by the firm surface opposed to it, consisting of the side of the hole in the wad, which is, as before described, lined with brass. The pin also, in passing through the wad, is held so safely that no gas escapes, and the whole of the gaseous con- tents of the cartridge are driven out of its open end, where they at once enter the cylinder of the barrel. These cases are only mode of two sizes 12 and 16 what- ever may be the gauge of the gun they are intended for ; and although the numbers 15 and 14 are stamped upon the cases sold by those gunmakers who are fond of mystifying their customers. They are chiefly manufactured in France, where most of our gunmakers obtain them with their names stamped to order. Eley now sells a considerable number of his own make, really turned oiit of hand by machinery in this country, but as at present sold, they are more apt to stick in conse- quence of bursting than those of French make. The price is 50$. per 1000 for 16-gauge, and 31. for 12, and as they contain a substitute for the cap of the ordinary percussion gun, the cost of these must be deducted, so that the actual additional outlay is, as near as may be, a halfpenny per shot, if a stock of these cartridges is laid in. Now, putting the average value of each head of game at 2s., if only two per cent, additional are killed, this increased expenditure will be paid for, and as I think it cannot be denied by those who have tried these guns that this estimate is too low, instead of occasioning a loss, they are really entitled to be considered as producing a saving. Few sportsmen would probably regard the trifling extra cost, even if it were not reimbursed, but as I believe that even on this ground the system can be shown to l)e advantageous, it is quite as well to state the question as it really stands. The locks of the Lefaucheaux gun are necessarily made " back actioued," because there is no room for the bar, the place of which is occupied by the lever and bolt. I have already stated that the bar-lock is now preferred by most sportsmen, but the disadvantage of the back action is so trifling as to be scarcely worth mentioning. The hammers are slightly lighter and the springs weaker than those of the percussion gun. 262 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. The stock not being placed with the butt on the ground when loading, does not require a heel-plate. In general shape it resembles that of the ordinary gun, that is to say in length and in the amount of bending and casting off. But it is completely divided in the middle from the necessity for an iron support for the false breech and bolt, which will be presently described together. This false breech and bolt are so arranged as to connect the stock with the barrels at the will of the shooter, and they must be of sufficient strength to resist the strain which is put upon this part. There are several modes of making the connexion, but the most common is that represented in the engraving at page 256. Here a lever is placed beneath the stock, and by turning it to the right the wedge-shaped hook is drawn out of the notch which it previously occupied in the lower part of the barrels close to the breech end. Another plan has recently been introduced in Belgium, and if it can be kept dry it promises well. I have no means of knowing how far it performs the promise held out by its inventor, having only seen it in the rough. In this plan the barrels are hinged in the same way as in the mode already described against a corresponding false breech, but there is no bolt to keep them in their places. This is effected by two screws of a slightly larger diameter than the chamber, which are forced into them from behind by turning a lever just in front of the trigger guard, something in the same way as in ISfeed- ham's needle gun. This lever moving a cogged wheel a quarter of a circle, by its means turns both the screws, which are thus projected forward into the chambers, and are said to form a closer joint than in the ordinary plan of Lefau- cheaux. In doing this the cartridge is driven forward to the same extent, and the barrels require a deeper notch for the pins; but as the chambers are made of a proportionate length these are not thereby rendered more difficult of re- moval. This closure completely does away with all possi- bility of an opening occurring during the explosion, which is asserted to take place by the opponents of Lefaucheaux's gun. I do not myself believe in this weak point, but the arguments in favour of it are maintained by some people ; and if a plan can be discovered which will do away with the BASTIN'S BREECH LOADER. 263 objection, it is so much gain to the cause of this breech-loader. I believe that the ordinary bolt is so strong that it makes this breech almost as solid as that of the old-fashioned gun ; and the non-occurrence of any escape of gas, as proved by the absence of any stain on the metal, shows that this view is cor- rect. Whether this is effected by the aid of the cartridge or not is of little consequence, for the fact remains the same that the breech, when put into use, stands the test to which it is exposed. Such are the various parts of this very ingeniously-contrived piece of me- chanism, which when put together forms the most useful sporting shot gun hi- therto invented, as far as I know. It is capable of being packed in a gun- case exactly of the same shape as the ordinary kind. In order to take the barrels out of the stock for this purpose, the slide is removed in the usual way, which releases the piece of wood corre- sponding to the front end of the stock, and thereby takes away a part of the hinge. By now turning the lever to the right the socket in the barrels may readily be lifted off the hinge bolt ; and in replacing them the reverse method is to be adopted. Some little knack is required in doing this ; and if the sports- man is not possessed of an average amount of mechanical skill, it is better to take a practical lesson before making the attempt. BASTIN'S BREECH-LOADER. Anotlier modification of the plan of closing the breech adopted in the Lefau- 264 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. cheaux gun, has been very lately made in Belgium, its chief peculiarity being part of a patent taken out some years since in the name of Count Chateauvilliers. It is now known as Bastiris breech-loader, and was tried under that name recently at the Field gun trial held at Hornsey Wood House, where, however, it performed badly. The arrange- ment has, however, nothing to do with the shooting, but only with the closing of the breech; and I am informed by the gen- tleman who sent it, that it has since shot extremely well. The improvement has been suggested by the objection which has been made to the crutch gun of Lefau- cheaux, that in the ex- plosion it is apt to open between the barrels and the false breech. The Bastin principle is also said to obviate the wearing away of the bolt or hinge connecting the two most important parts, which would of course, if it did take place, occa- sion an open joint between them, and consequent escape of gas. A third advantage is contended to exist, in its being so made as to withdraw the cartridge case after each discharge, by the act of opening the barrels to load either of them afresh. Whether all, or indeed any, of these praiseworthy intentions are successfully carried BASTIN S BREECH-LOADER. 265 out, remains to be proved; and I shall endeavour to enable my readers to judge for themselves. The annexed illustra- tion shows the gun open, in effecting which the barrels slide forwards on depressing the compound lever (fig. 37 a). This, acting on the branch c fixed to the fore end of the stock, while the lever is attached to the barrels, causes the latter to slide forward exactly in pro- portion to the depression of the lever till they as- sume the position indi- cated in fig. 37. Here the cartridges are repre- sented at e, as if the gun had just been dis- charged, for after one is exploded the hammer is left down, and there being a hole in its strik- ing face, when the barrels are drawn forward, the pin of the cartridge en- ters this hole, and so it is expected that the car- tridge will be left behind, as shown in fig. 37 e. In order to show more clearly the nature of the slide, a view of it from below is appended (see fig. 38), in which d re- presents the barrels, c the branch of the lever fixed to the stock, a the lever, and b the catch in 266 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. its extremity, which keeps it in its place when ready for use. On referring to the small cut of this gun (fig. 36), this spring will be seen within the hook by which the lever is laid hold of; and it is so arranged that the finger, before it can depress the hook, must release the spring-catch. Such is the construction of this gun, and doubtless in theory it is very beautiful ; and in practice the mechanism acts particularly neatly, unless the cartridge sticks, when the dead pull of the lever, in conjunction with the hold on the pin being at its extreme point, very frequently tears away the capsule from the case, which is left behind. This occurred seven times out of a dozen shots which I fired from this gun ; and I believe would generally happen, because the action is radically faulty. In order to remove a sticking cartridge without injury two things are necessary; firstly, the pin must be laid hold of close to the barrel, and pulled in the direct line of the axis of the latter ; and secondly, this must be done with a smart blow or quick jerk, and not with a steady powerful pull, as is done with the lever of the Bastin gun. It is possible, however, that the contrivance may be improved, and that this objection will be overcome; but I should also be afraid that the slide would be liable to become rusty from damp, and then the lever would be unable to move forward the barrels. This last, however, is only a theoretical ob- jection, while the other is founded upon what has actually occurred in practice. The cartridge case employed is of the ordinary Lefaucheaux kind; and indeed in all other respects but the mechanism adopted in opening it, this new invention is similar to the French crutch gun. In addition to the objections which I have alluded to, con- sisting in the inefficient delivery of the cartridge cases, and the tendency of the slide to stick from rust, the following may be urged as of some considerable importance : firstly, the opening for the admission of the cartridges is only made of exactly the same length as they are themselves, and hence there is some little difficulty in introducing them ; and secondly, there is no means of readily taking the barrels from the stock, so that a full length gun-case is necessitated. 2G7 NEEDLE GUNS. Several plans have been invented, in which a cartridge is exploded by means of a blow from, a needle given to a cap in the line of the axis of the barrel, and not at right angles to it. The celebrated Prussian needle rifle is an example; but the arrangement is defective, from allowing a conside- rable escape of gas through the aperture for the needle into the works of the lock. In this country two plans on this principle have obtained considerable support one patented by Mr. Needham, and the other by Mr. Lancaster. There is, however, a considerable difference in the two modes of carrying out the details, and each must be separately described. MR. NEEDHAM'S NEEDLE GUN. The advantages of this gun are stated to consist in the greater simplicity of the gun itself, in the more perfect closure of the breech, in the cheaper cartridge which is used with it, and in the absence of the necessity for loss of time in extracting the case, the residuum left after the discharge being pushed forward by the next cartridge as it is introduced. But in order to make a comparison in these respects between this and the Lefaucheaux gun, it will be necessaiy to examine that of our English maker as carefully as we have investi- gated the construction of the French invention. FIG. 39. NEEDHAM'S NEEDLE GUX, CLOSED. In external appearance Mr. Needham's gun differs greatly from any of those which have already been described. Owing to the nature of the lock, there is no hammer rising up on each side, so that there is a nakedness to the eye long 268 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. accustomed to this prominent feature in the flint and per- cussion guns. There is also a necessity for an increase of total length to give room for the lock, which lies between what may be called the false breech arid the barrels, and not outside both, as in the ordinary forms. This increase is, however, not to be reckoned at the total length of the lock, but only at about half of that measure namely, two inches the difference being accounted for by the fact, that the false breech is placed farther back than usual. There is also a projection on each side in front of the trigger-guard, which is the lever employed to open the breech. Above and behind this, on each side, is a recess in what appears to be the barrel, but which is only a continuance of that tube; and BREECH PLUG AND LOCK, SCREWED UP. (HALF SIZE.) in this lies a strong cylinder of iron, which is at once the lock and the breech plug. (See fig. 40.) By turning up- wards the lever this part is shortened, the object* being accomplished by making it in two parts, and the front being screwed on to the back, it is so arranged that while the latter is fixed, the former is screwed backwards or forwards as the lever is turned up or down. (See fig. 41). When, there- Fig. 41. BEEECH PLUG AND LOCK-CYLINDER. (HALF SIZE.) MR. NEEDHAM S NEEDLE GUN. 269 fore, it is desired to open the breech end of the barrel, it is only necessary to shorten this plug, by turning up the lever and then drawing it away from the barrel. It stands out at a right angle, as represented in fig. 42, in which the under side of the barrels is shown, with one lock and plug turned out ready for loading, and the other in its place. On care- fully examining these parts in the real gun, a needle is seen projecting thro ugh the plug, and this is the means by which the charge is ex- ploded. The whole principle may there- fore be now described as consisting of the formation of a chamber behind each barrel, of the same metal and con- tinuous with it. In this is fixed, by means of a bolt at the back, and a strong cylinder, a plug so constructed as to be capable of being lengthened FlG. 42. UNDER SURFACE OP BARRKI.S. THE LEFT Ol'ENED FOR INSERTION OP CARTRIDGE | THE RIGHT CLOSED. (lIALF SIZE.) and shortened, and containing a needle which is projected forward from the front of the plug into the breech end of the barrel, where the cartridge is placed, with an explosive cap iu its base. The details of these various parts it will now be necessary to describe. The barrels are forged in the same way as usual, but they must be selected of greater than the ordinary length by about four inches, and as this extent of the breech end is occupied by the chamber for the lock, the strength must be as great 270 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. at four inches from the breech end as in other guns at that part itself. This will be better understood by referring to fig. 42, which shows the chamber opened ready for the reception of the cartridge, and which will then give an idea of the part where the real barrel begins, which is marked a in the cut. There must be enough strength behind this to resist the backward action of the explosion, but the metal need not be left of full thickness for this purpose, as the area upon which the force is exerted is only that of the diameter of the bore. The strain is not entirely upon the bolt-hole b, which keeps the breech-plug up against the barrel, for the base of the lock-cylinder is wedged up, and transmits the recoil to the stock. There is nothing very peculiar in other respects in Mr. Needham's barrels, which are relieved before in the usual manner, and also opened behind to an extent which will allow of the ready insertion of the car- tridge. By this arrangement it will at once be seen that when the breech-plug c is in its place, the chamber for the reception of the powder is similar to that of the French gun already described, and that there is no conical chamber like that in the breech of the percussion gun. In this respect, therefore, the two guns are alike ; and if there is any virtue in the Manton, Wilkinson, or other form of breech chamber, neither can claim it, and both in this matter stand on the same footing. But when the mode of closing the breech comes to be examined, it will be seen that this is more com- plete in Mr. Needham's than in the French gun in one particular, while it is less so in another, the balance of advan- tage and disadvantage being somewhat difficult to strike. The breech-plug (tig. 41 a) should be considered as quite independent of the lock, though it also contains that impor- tant part within it, and has a small hole in its face to allow of the needle being driven through it into the cartridge. In this hole is the element of weakness, for through it, however well the needle fits, will be a small escape of gas, consequent upon the explosion. Independently of this the plug con- sists of two parts, each of which serves a double office firstly, of closing the breech, and secondly, of acting on or contain- ing the lock. In reference to the breech, this plug may be described as consisting of two portions an anterior (a, fig. MR. NEEDHAM'S NEEDLE GUN. 271 41), which is projected into the barrel, and a posterior part, which forces it forward as the screw is turned by the lever. The part a terminates in a short cone which fits accurately into the barrel, and with the aid of the wad at the base of the cartridge closely fills the aperture and prevents the escape of gas between the two circumferences. But the centre of this, where it is pierced by the needle, as shown in fig. 40, is not so completely free from escape, and to prevent the gas from passing backwards into the lock, a hole is drilled as there indicated. These two divisions are each tapped, the anterior one being constructed with a female screw, and the posterior showing a male screw of a strong formation (fig. 41 b). The effect of this is so obvious as scarcely to require the explanation that, when one is fixed as it is by the bolt (fig. 42 b), and the other is turned by the lever, the total length is increased or diminished as the case may be. The pitch of the screw is so slight that no force which can be applied by the explosion will drive the plug back ; and its lever, when closed, being also held in its place by a spring catch (see fig. 42), a sufficient resistance is doubly secured. TJue lock has been already described as being contained within the breech-plug, and therefore its actions must be of small size and of simple construction. Independently of the plug which contains them, it may be said to consist of four actions: 1st, the needle (fig. 43); 2nd, the mainspring (fig. 44) ; Srdly, the screw cam (fig. 45), which drives the needle back; and 4thly, the scear (fig. 46 a c), which holds it ready for the trigger. There is also a bolt (fig. 47), which is intended to act as a substitute for the " half-cock" of the ordinary lock, and which j _j 5 really is quite as efficient in preventing danger. The needle (tig. 43) consists of a three parts a centre and two extremities. The THE NEEDLE. (HALF SIZE.) front is a mere needle a about a line in diameter, and terminating in a sharp cutting point, which readily pierces the paper base of the cartridge. The middle receives this needle, and consists of two flat shoulders or wings standing out from a strong pillar (see b), 272 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. and sliding in corresponding traverses, within the poste- rior half of the breech-plug. These wings answer a treble purpose firstly, they receive the pressure of the spring from behind; secondly, they maintain a steady sliding action; and thirdly, they are capable of receiving the pressure of the cam (fig. 45), which is a double inclined plane fixed within the plug, and which, when turned round, thrusts the whole needle backwards. When this is done its posterior ex- tremity being notched, drops upon the scear and is held back after the cam is restored to its orignal position. In addition to the notch for the scear (see fig. 43 c), there are sometimes two others at the side (at d) for the reception of the bolt, but in those lately made by Mr. Needham the stop is effected by the bolt dropping into the scear instead of the needle, as will be presently explained. The mainspring THE MAINSPRING. THE SCREW CAM. (HALF SIZE.) (HALF SIZE.) (fig. 44) is of very simple form, being merely a spiral spring dropped into the posterior half of the plug and pressing against the wings of the needle. Next comes the screw cam (fig. 45), which is fixed within the plug, and is perforated by a hole for the needle ; two inclined planes are so arranged that as the plug is turned round they press upon the wings in the needle already described, and push it back till it catches the scear. As a matter of course these cams are reversed on the two sides Fig. 46. of the gun, since the lever in one case is turned to the right and in the other to the left. The scear and spring, with the trigger (fig. 46), complete SCEAR-SPRING, SCEAR, AND \j\ the actions in this lock, TRIGGER. (HALF SIZE.) t/ w ith the exception of the MR. NEEDHAM'S NEEDLE GUN. 273 bolt. The scear a is much smaller than in the common lock, and is a catch of the most simple description pressed down into its place by the spring b, and working upon the centre c. As in the old lock it has a projecting arm which catches the trigger, but since it must be pushed down instead of up, the trigger requires to be of a somewhat different construction in order to accomplish the liberation of the needle. This is effected by carrying forward a lever in the trigger (see fig. 46, in which this is represented at d), ready to depress the arm of the scear below it when the trigger is pulled. From the want of room to play, and the consequent small size of scear, there is not the freedom of action to be found in the old locks, which will be missed by those who are fond of handling them and making them " speak." This, however, is a mere fancy; and so long as the lock does its duty with safety and efficiency, it is little consequence whether it is musical or not. Lastly, the bolt (fig. 47) is to be described as follows : It is made in the form of a short screw, ter- minating within in a sharp wedge, and without j> l( . ^j in a lever about an inch in length. The bolt is inserted in its place by screwing it in till it ( HALF S1ZE ' \ reaches its bearings; when home, a little pro- jecting knob traverses a smooth surface, slightly rounded, on the outside of the lock, so that when the lever is either raised or depressed, it is held firmly in that position. On comparing the shape of the wedge at the end of the screw with the notches in the needle, when the old plan of stop is adopted, it will at once be seen that when the former is raised, this wedge lies in the axis of the needle, and allows the longi- tudinal notch to traverse freely upon it, while on depressing it after the needle is caught by the scear, this same wedge acts as a secure catch upon the third notch of the needle, and prevents its being liberated on the pulling of the trigger. When the scear is bolted instead of the needle, the catch merely drops into a notch in it, but in either case, when these parts are in good order, and the bolt is lowered so as to show the word BOLTED, as in fig. 39, the lock is as safe as need be, and I believe that there is far less danger than in the ordinary lock at half-cock, because there is no chance of Mr. T 274: VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. Needham's bolt being raised in passing through a hedge, which may happen to the striker of any of the locks con- structed on the ordinary pattern. After the above descrip- tion, it will at once be apparent that in the act of opening the breech, the lock is cocked, and that before closing it, the bolt ought to be lowered so as to show the word BOLTED, or else the gun is in the same dangerous state as it would be if on full cock in the ordinary kinds of gun. This precaution is of great importance to the safety of the sportsman who uses Mr. Needham's invention, and as the bolt can be raised by the left hand at the moment of taking aim, there is never any necessity for carrying this gun cocked, or I should rather say unbolted. The cartridge-case employed is a much cheaper and more simple affair than that used for the Lefaucheaux gun, being Fig 4 8. SECTION OF LOADED CARTRIDGE. (FULL SIZE.) composed, however, of the same elementary parts, with the exception of the brass pin, whose office is here performed by the needle. Every part, however, is modified, and there is not nearly so much difficulty in constructing it. Besides this, the case is not withdrawn after being used, so that there is not the same necessity for its fitting the chamber easily, as in the French gun. The most important part is the arrangement of the wad and cap, which must be examined attentively, in order to comprehend their offices (see figs. 48 and 49), in which these parts are represented in LOADED CARTRIDGE. (FULL SIZE.) MR. NEEDHAM'S NEEDLE GUN. 275 section as well as in perspective. Fig. 48 shows the strong wad with its metal-plate, which remain behind after the ex- plosion, and are pushed forward in front of the next cartridge as it is introduced. These are perforated by a central hole for the ready passage of the needle, as also is the next for the insertion of the cap, which has four flanges to keep it from, being thrust forward through the powder, by which it might be prevented from exploding. The metal-plate is for the purpose of preventing the cartridge from entering the barrel beyond its proper chamber. This plate is slightly wider than the chamber, and is stretched across its mouth till the cartridge is exploded, when it is flattened out and offers no resistance to the wad being pushed forward before the next cartridge. It also tends to prevent the escape of gas, and to a certain extent fulfils that office. The cap itself has its fulminating surface turned towards the needle, but the explosion, aided by the sharp point, breaks it up, and the powder is easily ignited. Upon this base the case is con- structed of common cartridge-paper, and when the powder and shot are inserted at the open mouth, with only a wad intervening between them, the paper is tied as represented in fig. 49, which however is incorrect in giving a wad in front of the shot. These cartridges are sold at 30s. per 1 000. The advocates of Mr. Needhairis invention (the sale of which in Ireland is committed to Mr. Rigby, who is occu- pied in certain improvements upon it) maintain that it is superior in the following particulars to the French breech- loading gun. They assert that it has all the advantages the latter claims over the muzzle-loader that is to say, it is more rapidly loaded and more safe both in loading and in use; and in addition, it claims over and above these that the cartridges are half the price, that the} r are charged with less trouble that there is no necessity for withdrawing the case after the discharge, the wad left behind being pushed forward by the next cartridge; and lastly, thac while reloading one barrel, the other is ready for use. It is also stated that the gun stands wear and tear better than the French gun, but this I cannot see is likely to be the case, because there is the same wearing of the bolt, whether the lock and plug come away sideways, or the barrel is depressed at the muzzle T 2 276 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. so as to raise the breech. By the addition of the perforated metal-plate and wad behind the cap the escape of gas so much complained of in all the old needle guns is very much obviated, but there is still some slight defect in this respect. The opponents of this invention assert that in practice the needle is apt to break, that the lock soon corrodes from the escape of gas by the side of the needle into it, that the management requires too much care for ordinary sportsmen, who from being long accustomed to one form, are not easily induced to use another. Of its shooting as compared with other guns, I shall speak hereafter. ME. LANCASTER'S NEEDLE GUN. To obviate certain objections in the ordinary needle gun, as well as in the French gun of Lefaucheaux, Mr. Lancaster has patented certain improvements, which have now been before the public for some years. They consist in the adoption of the French crutch, exactly in the form already described, but with a different mode of exploding the cartridge, and with the addition of a very ingenious piece of mechanism for bringing out the cartridge case after its explosion. The brass pin of the cartridge is done away with, and a fulminating powder, between two discs of copper, is exploded by a blow from a central needle, which however does not perforate them ; and there is consequently no escape of gas. Moreover, the needle is not contained within the lock, but is driven forward by the blow of the hammer ; so that, even if any corrosive gas escaped, it would not derange the mechanism the needle alone suffering from it. As the barrels travel forward in the act of turning the lever, the false breech is enabled to be undercut, and thus, when closed, there can be no tilting whatever, as is alleged to take place in the French gun of the ordinary make. The cartridge in other respects does not differ from the French one, nor does the chamber in which it is placed; and there can be no difference in the shooting of this gun from that which has been described at p. 255. It remains to be seen whether the details connected with the cartridge are of sufficient im- MR. LANCASTER'S NEEDLE GUN. 277 portance to justify the outlay of twenty guineas additional, which is about the difference between the price of Mr. Lancaster's guns and those of Lefaucheaux's make, as con- structed and sold by our best makers, with one or two exceptions, who are able to get high prices for anything they sell. The external appearance of this gun is shown in the following sketch : Fijf LANCASTER S GUN, CLOSED. The barrels in no wise differ from the French form, except in the exterior of the breech-end, where they are necessarily slightly stouter, to allow of the cutting away of a small groove for the little catch which delivers the cartridge. This lies between the two barrels, and works backwards and forwards with an easy and smooth action, as will be presently explained. The hinge on which the barrels are lowered varies from that of the Lefaucheaux gun in admitting of a sliding motion by means of a slot, instead of a mere eye, fitting closely upon the bolt. By this arrangement the barrels, as the lever is moved, are drawn away from the false breech, and the latter is enabled to be undercut, so as to secure the breech from being tilted up and opened during the explosion. In other respects there is no difference, as far as I know. The delivery of the cartridge is effected by means of a sliding piece of metal, which is constructed of the following shape (fig. 51), in which act represent two views of the CARTRIDGE EXTRACTOR. (FULL SIZE.) 278 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. little wedge which lies between the barrels, and is so bevelled off on each side that it is accurately fitted to the copper base of the cartridge case, completing the circumference of the chamber in the breech intended to receive it, and fitted accurately to it. This wedge a a has two slides b c pro- jecting for- wards, and ly- ing in the angles formed between the two barrels above and be- low. The upper one b is a mere rod ; but the lower c has a notch in it, which is acted on by the lever as it is turned, whether to open or shut the breech. The consequence is, that when the cartridge is in- serted, it is car- ried into its place before the breech is low- ered, and when this is reopened the wedge is thrust out, and acting on the copper lip of the cartridge, it brings it out of the chamber, when it lies quite uncon- THE NEEDLE GUN. 279 fined, and is easily removed by the fingers. This will be more readily understood after investigating the nature and shape of the lever and chamber. The lever is similar in principle to that of the French gun, and exactly resembles in outward form one of its patterns (sec tig. 34), but differs from the common one in passing backwards over the trigger-guard, instead of forwards. The working part is, however, much more complicated, inasmuch as it has three separate duties to perform. A reference to tig. 52 will show its appearance; but its internal construction is too intricate to be understood without an actual exami- nation. The part marked g indicates the external extremity of the lever, and h the centre upon which it works; but above this, though the section is correct, it is hardly likely to teach the uninitiated the shape of the inclined planes which, firstly, move the barrel backwards and forwards; secondly, act ou the cartridge extractor; and thirdly, close the breech by driving the bolt i i under the false breech. The construction of these parts is admirable, and great ingenuity is displayed in their design and execution; but to open and close Mr. Lancaster's gun is not quite so easy as the corresponding action in that of Lefaucheaux. Still, a very little practice makes the sportsman perfect in its use ; and with moderate care it is not at all likely to get out of order. The sepa- ration of the barrels from the stock is managed in the same . but it also demands a little practice; and I have seen more than one person, accustomed to handle guns, quite unable to accomplish the task of putting together one of these guns after having taken them apart. The dotted linos show the position of the barrels when tilted prior to reloading. As the breech rises the extractor is protruded from the rear of the barrels by its frame coining in contact with a fixed projecting stud, when seizing the lip of the cartridges, it carries them partially out of the barrels, the fingers being employed to remove them entirely. Tlie cluimber is shown in the above figure at j t and in no wise differs from the ordinary construction. The false or stationary breech, together with the needles, come next under consideration, and must be taken together 280 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. in order to be understood. They are given in fig. 53, which is a front view of the face of the breech ; 1 1 are the sunken Fig- >e SIDE VIEW OF NEEDLE. (FULL SIZE.) FACE OF FALSE BREECH. (HALF SIZE.) parts for the reception of the rear of the cartridges ; m m represent the points of the needles (shown separately in side view, at fig. 54), which work in holes formed in the centre of the sunken surfaces. These points are formed in a piece with the slides (fig. 54: f), which are free to move to and fro in recesses or slots formed for their reception. They are moved forward by the action of the hammers and explode the cartridges by means of the points which, upon the hammers being raised, are pushed back by the capsules of the freshly- inserted cartridges, ready to be again driven forward, as before explained. From this arrangement it will be ap- parent that there is no chance of breaking the needle, which projects so slightly from the face of the breech as to render such an accident impossible; while the escape of gas into the lock is out of the question ; firstly, from the copper capsule being left intact after explosion and secondly, from the fact that the needle is acted on by the hammer outside the lock (see fig. 50). The chief defect, in my opinion, is to be found in the chance of a missfire, which, from the capsule not being perforated by the blow of the needle, is greater than in the plan of Mr. Needham; but this accident, I am in- formed by those who have constantly used the cartridge, rarely happens. To show how cautious we ought to be in coming to conclusions in such matters, I may mention that in the gun trial of 1858, one of these cartridges loaded by the exhibitor missed fire, and I put it by for examination as to the cause. From inadvertency, however, I forgot all THE LANCASTER NEEDLE GUN. 281 about it for some months, but at length putting my hand upon it among other similar articles, I cut it open, and lo ! it was loaded with two charges of shot and not an atom of powder. The needle and disc had done their duty well enough, as shown by the condition of the adjacent shot. Whether the carelessness was due to Colonel Ashley's or to Mr. Lancaster's man, I cannot pretend to say, but the missfire wns certainly not owing to any defect in the cartridge itself. TJie stock has no peculiarity whatever. The lock resembles that of the back-actioned detonator, or of the Lefaucheaux gun, except in the shape of the hammer, which strikes the needle with its shoulder, and not (as in their case) with the head, which is therefore absent. The cartridge case is the last part to be described, and as its plan is peculiar to Mr. Lancaster, it must receive full attention. Jt consists of a cylinder of strong paper of the same length as in the French gun, and with an extra thick- ness at the lower end, as is also seen in it. This extra part is turned in at the base (see fig. 56), and upon this lip is placed a stout disc of brass perforated with four holes (see fig. 55), Fia 65. Fig. JG. PERFORATED COPPER i>i>(. (FULL SIZE.) SECTION OF LOADED CARTRIDGE. (FULL SIZE.) through which the flame passes to ignite the powder. On the other side, and in the space between these holes, is the fulminating powder; and then the whole is capped by a copper capsule, which is thin in the middle, where it receives the blow of the needle but stout at the edge, where it is somewhat wider than the diameter of the cartridge elsewhere. The whole is put together in a workmanlike manner, and it is so strong as rarely to burst during the explosion. It is loaded in the usual way, and the lip turned over by a simple 282 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. machine sold by Mr. Lancaster; but care must be taken that the base of the cartridge is not placed \ipon a shot or other similar substance, for if this happened to be in the centre of the capsule while the wads were being pushed down on the powder or shot, or the lip turned over, an explosion might occur which would be by no means pleasant, if not dangerous. Fig. 56 is a section of the cartridge complete, as loaded ready for use; while a perspective view of the same is shown of full size in fig. 57. Tig. 57. CARTRIDGE-CASE. (FULL SIZE.) Mr. Lancaster claims for his gun the following points of superiority over the ordinary breech loaders: Firstly, he asserts that the breech is made more secure by the under- cutting; secondly, the cartridge is not so likely to explode in the pocket, because there is no projecting pin; thirdly, there is no escape of gas, the capsule not beiDg pierced; fourthly, the cartridge never sticks in the chamber, being brought out by the little contrivance already described. Over the ordinary needle guns the advantage is said to be, that there is no corrosion of the lock by the usual escape of gas; and that the explosion is more effectively made. In opposition to these assumed advantages of Mr. Lancaster's invention over those of Lefaucheaux, Bastin, and Needham, which may be considered its chief rivals, the only counter- balancing defects that, as far as I know, can be alleged, are : firstly, the greater prime cost of the gun itself; secondly, the constant large outlay for its cartridges, which moreover can only be obtained from the patentee; and thirdly, the complicated nature of the extractor. These pros and cons are, however, again carefully considered at some length in the following pages. THE CHATEAUVILLIER NEEDLE GUN. 283 THE CHATEAUVILLIER NEEDLE GUN. A needle gun somewhat on the same plan as that of Mr. Lancaster has been invented for some years, and patented in the name of the Comte de Chateauvillier. I have been kindly favoured by its owner with the loan of one of these, made by Martigny of Brussels, and from it the following illustrations are drawn. It is necessarily a heavy gun, the speci- men forwarded to me weighing above eight pounds ; and from the quantity of strong iron-work which is introduced, in order to insure a safe closure of the breech, I do not see how this can be prevented to any great extent. But though the invention has this, in com- mon with several other manifest disad- vantages, yet I have thought it desirable to insert a description of it here, because, in my judgment, its principle un- doubtedly contains the germ of several plans lately introduced to the notice of the public namely, those of Bastin's shot-gun, already described, and of the rifles of Restell and Westley Richards, to be found in the next book, among the breech-loaders of the day. Thus, the lever is almost identical with that of Bastin's gun, which is, indeed, com- prehended under the same patent, while the plugs closing the breech are very similar to those adopted in the two rifles alluded to above. The general is turned round until a dent is made in it above the wad, as shown at ee. By this plan, the shot has no interval to pass over between the end of the case and the shoulder of the chamber, this space being filled up by the cartridge-case. No plan I have yet seen is so good as this, in my opinion, and I find that in practice it acts remarkably well. Mr. Blanch, of Gracechurch-street, has also registered an ingenious little- machine for turning over these cases, but I confess that I see no advantage in it over the hand-tool, and the choice, in my opinion, lies between the latter and that of Messrs. Trulock and Harris, above described. In a large proportion of cases cartridges are spoilt by the first discharge, but if they are made very well, they some- times serve again, requiring only re-capping. Several in- genious contrivances are sold with this object in view, and Messrs. Trulock and Harris have also invented a very in- genious little machine for effecting this operation, which though extremely simple, is difficult to describe; and it will be far better for those who require its assistance to obtain one from the inventors or from their agents, Messrs. Eley, of London. A small instrument called an extractor is sold for the purpose of removing those cartridges which do not readily come out of the chamber. It has a hole at one end for the pin, and a sharp hook at the other for the inside of the cartridge, if the pin should leave the case behind. No one should use a Lefaucheaux or Bastin gun without this assistant about him. Mr. Needhams carlrit/ge is loaded in the usual way with powder over which a felt wad is placed, then the shot, and finally, instead of a shot- wad, the mouth of the case is tied with twine. Each cartridge as it explodes leaves a wad behind it, which is pushed forward and lies in front of the next cartridge used, serving to keep the shot in their place. See p. 274. 7A/.S-////X cartridge is loaded as for the Lefaucheaux gun in all particulars. Mr. Lancnxttr's is also to be managed in the same way, but he uses a block of wood in which a cylindrical chamber is cut to receive the cartridge while the turn-over tool is being used. This is done also in Blanch's and one or two other 200 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. plans, and is intended to prevent the case from being spread too wide to fit the chamber of the gun. In loading Lan- caster's cartridge, care should be taken that there is not a shot or a piece of any hard substance beneath the centre of the capsule, as if there happened to be such a thing, in ramming down or turning over it might cause an explosion, and seriously injure the hand. This caution has been pre- viously given, but for fear of accidents, it is repeated here. CLEANING. The cleaning of all Creech-loading shot guns is a very simple process, as they do not lead, nor do they become foul in a day's shooting to any extent. This exemption arises from the charge of powder being inserted at the breech, so that none adheres to the sides of the barrel as it does when poured down in the ordinary muzzle loader. In cleaning these guns, therefore, after the hardest day's shooting, all that is neces- sary is to open the breech, and then taking a rod, armed with tow, wipe them out till no black comes off on the tow, after which a very little oil protects the interior from rust. The locks and exterior should be treated the same as the ordinary gun. When the barrels will not admit a cleaning rod at the breech end, as in Needham's, Bastin's, and the Cha- teauvillier guns, they may readily be cleaned from the muzzle. In all these guns water is seldom or never required to be used. In cleaning Mr. Needhams lock extra care is required in taking it to pieces for the purpose of oiling, for without some caution the needle may easily be projected into the eye of the cleaner, or that of some bystander. To avoid all risk of accident, the arm of the scear should be lifted by a turn- screw, so as to drive the needle out as in firing, and then the plug (fig. 41 a) being unscrewed, the needle, striker, and main- spring are left loose in their proper places, and may be taken out and oiled. To replace them, put them back as before, taking care that the notch in the striker (fig. 43 c) is turned so as to catch the scear ; then pushing the needle against a piece of soft wood till the scear catches the notch, the lock is cocked and may be bolted, and the plug screwed on. This is the easiest way to a novice, but it incurs the risk of bending CARTRIDGE HOLDERS. 291 or breaking the needle, all fear of which may be avoided by putting the parts loosely in their places, and then screwing on the plug (fig. 44) till it is home. CARTRIDGE HOLDERS. A very useful auxiliary to breech loading guns has recently been registered by Mr. Bussey, of Dunn's-passage, 485, New Oxford-street. It is in the form of an oblong case, made of patent leather, and holds from 20 to 30 cartridges, according to its size. A light leather belt is attached for the purpose of suspending it over the shoulder (fig. G2 a), and the car- I 'iq.GZ. BUSSEY 3 CARTRIDGE-HOLDER. 292 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. tridges are easily withdrawn from an opening at one corner; the act of the removal of one bringing down another and leaving it in its turn in the same place. The holder itself (fig. 62 b c) consists of a series of springs, each holding one cartridge, fixed on an endless band. This band revolves within a compact leather case, which is all closed up except a small aperture in the bottom end, at which each cartridge, when pulled out, is succeeded by another, the remainder being kept perfectly safe and dry without the trouble of any cover or fastening whatever. A belt, some- what upon the same principle, is likewise made by the in- ventor, and is then buckled round the waist ; but in it there is no endless strap, and the whole belt must be drawn round as the cartridges are extracted. It is usual, however, among sportsmen, to carry their car- tridges loose in their pockets, as they are not at all likely to receive such a blow as to ignite the cap, nor have I ever heard of such an accident occurring. Nevertheless, the above holder acts so well, and is so little likely to get out of order, that I cannot but think it will prove of great advantage to those who use the Lefaucheaux, Bastin, or Lancaster breech- loader ; but I am not sure whether the paper of Needham's cartridge cases is strong enough to resist the pressure of the spring without injury.. 293 CHAPTER IV. PUNT-GUNS. COL. HAWKER 3 PUNT-GUNS BREECH-LOADIXG PUNT-GUNS. The shoulder duck gun is only a long single- barrelled gun of large bore, and, as far as I am aware, is always ina.de in the form of a muzzle-loader, and usually with a pistol grip, as shown in fig. 63. According to Colonel Hawker, when intended to be used in the punt with a breech-rope or spring swivel, the length of barrel should be from 7 to 9 feet, bore from 1^ to 1^ inch, weight from 70 to 801bs. The smaller the bore the longer the range, but the charge of shot is necessarily diminished. With the above weight the old flint lock must be used on account of the great recoil when the powder is fired so rapidly as is done by the deto- nator lock, and for which the weight of metal is not sufficient. If, therefore, any kind of percussion cap is employed, the weight must be increased from 301bs. to 401bs. For an ordinary shoulder duck gun, which is fully described at p. 87, in an ex- tract from Colonel Hawker's book, the bore is usually about No. 6; length of barrels, 3, 6, to 4 feet; and weight, 12 to 201bs. Double-barrelled guns of a peculiar principle are recommended by Colonel Hawker in his book, to which I must refer my readers for all particulars. The loading of the ordinary shoulder duck gun is performed exactly as in all the muzzle- 294 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. loading guns of smaller size; but punt-guns require a spoon to carry the powder and shot horizontally along the barrel. For punt-guns the following are the sizes of shot recom- mended by Colonel Hawker : ^ , , , ( No. 1 for fair shots. For shoulder punt-guns . j A for i ong shots . ^ , ( No. 3 for starlight. For stancheon punt-guns . j No j for fair sl f ots> Packed in cartridges . . . S.S.G., or L.G. For geese A., or A.A. Ditto, if very tame. . . . S.S.G. BREECH-LOADING PUNT-GUN. Mr. Needham has sold several punt-guns on the same principle as his ordinary shot-gun, all the parts being made stronger and of larger size. These, I an; told, answer re- markably well ; and as the loading is very quick, and can be effected without raising the hand above the deck of the punt, the advantages are so manifest as to require no further allusion. Mr. Needham uses breech-ropes, which allow of the gun being kept lower on the punt than a spring swivel. Fig. G4 shows a sketch of the central part of one of these NEEDHAM'S BREECH-LOADING PUNT GUN. guns, in which d represents the breech plug and lock, a the eye for the breech-ropes, and c the trigger, which is of course pulled by means of a small cord. The principle is so similar in all respects to that of his game-bird guns, that I must refer my readers to p. 267, where they are fully described. WEIGHT. 295 The bore of the largest of his punt-guns is l^in., weight 1201bs., to carry 2 to 2^1bs. of shot. The smallest which he makes weighs GOlbs., and carries from fib. to lib. of shot. If these guns stand proof and shoot as well as they are said to do, they certainly constitute a great improvement in punt gunnery. Mr. Clayton, of Southampton, also makes a breech- loading punt-gun. CHAPTER Y. ON THE CHOICE OF GUNS AND THE MODES OF TRYING THEM. DESIDERATA IN THE SHOT-GUN WEIGHT LENGTH PATTERN PENETRA- TION ABSENCE OF RECOIL SAFETY QUICKNESS OF LOADING RESULT OF " FIELD" GUN TRIAL OF 1859 BREECH-LOADERS versus MUZZLE-LOADERS. Tlie desiderata in the shot-gun have been described at p. 175; and it now remains to compare the old muzzle-loader with more modern inventions, and to discuss the principles upon which the various patterns of guns can be severally selected for the special purposes to which they are applied. WEIGHT. As the weight of a double-barrelled shot-gun should never exceed 7 ^Ibs., no invention, however clever, can be recom- mended which, with barrels of moderate gauge, is incapable of being made of that weight. Indeed, this limit may be assigned in all cases, and if, on putting a gun in the scales, it is found to weigh down 7^1bs., it should be rejected. The sportsman may be able to shoot with a heavier gun when not tired by carrying it; but let him walk for two or three hours with 8 or 91bs. on his arm, and he will find that his shooting is greatly injured thereby, and that a gun of inferior performance at the target will do more execution in the field, and should therefore be preferred without doubt. So also there is a limit in point of diminution of weight on the score of safety, which I have specified at p. 243, as far as 296 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. muzzle-loaders are concerned; but breech-loaders cannot be reduced so low by at least 8oz. LENGTH OF BARRELS. In length of barrel there is no difference between the various kinds of guns, excepting where there is a chamber that is opened to receive a cartridge, which is then pushed forward into the breech, as in Needham's and the Chateau- villier gun. These two are, therefore, of necessity somewhat longer than the old percussion or the crutch guns; but, as in Mr. Needharn's gun the lock is also contained in this chamber, the whole length of it is not to be added, but only about one half, or two inches on the average that is to say, one of his guns, with barrels 28in. long, will be in its whole length, (if adapted to the same person's shooting,) two inches longer than it would be of either of the other kinds. PATTERN. All guns should be so bored that they will deliver their shot in such a pattern that at forty yards a partridge or grouse has little chance of escape, if properly covered. It has been shown at p. 243, that to do this there ought to be in a thirty-inch circle from 150 to 160 pellets of No. 6 shot, and in this respect all the varieties are capable of being made nearly equally good. PENETRATION. By referring to the table at pp. 298-9, it appears that the ordinary percussion guns have a trifling advantage in strength of shooting. ABSENCE OF RECOIL. In this respect I believe that there is very little advantage to be found in any particular kind of gun, though among individual specimens of the various kinds, the recoil differs considerably. 297 SAFETY. The safety from accidents depends partly upon the absence of danger from bursting, and partly from freedom from risk in loading. In the former department it is clear that no gun is so safe as the ordinary percussion gun, which has a breech screwed solidly into it. Next to this, I should say, comes the Lefaucheaux (and Mr. Lancaster's, which is similar in principle). Mr. Needham's is perhaps almost equally safe from this species of risk, but it has not been tried to the same extent. In reference to danger from explosion during loading, there can be no question that the muzzle-loader is beaten by the breech-loader; and that among the varieties of the latter, the Lefaucheaux gun is pre-eminent. In fact, with ordinary care, it is almost impossible to do mischief in loading. A serious accident occurred to Lord Nelson during the loading of one of Mr. Needham's guns. It happened that the cartridge had missed fire from having been pushed too forward, and his lordship, while the needle was pro- truding into the barrel, drove the cartridge with a ramrod back upon it, causing the cap to explode ; and the result was a serious injury to his hand. If, however, the plug had been previously turned out, as it ought to have been, no such accident could have occurred. RESULT OF "FIELD" GUN TRIAL OF 1859. In order to show the difference of performance in the several departments to which I have alluded, the results of the trial of various guns at Hornsey Wood House are ap- pended in a tabular form on the next two pages. In the preface to this volume I have alluded to the circumstances which led to these trials of 1858 and 1859, so that it will be unnecessary to repeat them here. 298 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. TABLE OF THE PERFORMANCES OF THE Targets made of double bag-cap paper, 90 Ib. to the ream all circular against a smooth surface of deal boards. This centre composed of which were cut evenly at the edges, weighing 18 oz. and 9 oz. re- occur in brown paper. Powder, Lawrence's No. 2, which was selected ounce) ; charges weighed in every instance. Name of Maker. Kind of Gun. 8 p Length of barrel. "S c "SoS, 3 "" o Charge of powder. % 8,^ 1" o Pape, Newcastle Muzzle-loader l?, in. 30 b.oz. 6 11 drs. 9 f oz. u Prince and Green, London Muzzle-loader 12 30 7 6 3 lit Pape Muzzle-loader U 29^ 6 8 9 4 1* Egan, Bradford Breech-loader* I?, 30 7 8 3 li Prince and Green .. . Breech-loader I 9 , 30 7 2 3 1* Pape Breech-loader 1?, 30 7 3 1- Pape Muzzle-loader 13 30 7 9 T li Needham, London .... Egan Breech-loaderf Muzzle-loader 13 IS 29 28 6 10 6 14 3 9 I 1- U Culling, Do wnham Market Muzzle-loader 12 29 6 10 ?,A A Reilly, London 16 30 7 4 S if Elliott, Birmingham Breech-loader 16 28 7 4 9 f i Needham IS 28| 7 4 s 1 H Hast, Colchester Breech-loader . . . I 9 , 31 7 8 3 if Reilly I? 30 7 4 3 1| Elliott Breech-loader ... 13 28 5 4 3 1 Francotte, Liege 14 29 7 8 3 H Averages ... 0. Smith, Derby Muzzle-loader 1*5 30 6 14 9 T H Culling 14 28i 6 11 i| ll Dougall, Glasgow Muzzle-loader 14 27 5 14 4 i Joe Manton, LondonS ... Muzzle-loader 16 31 6 12 4 i Culling ... 14 29 6 9i H Reilly 15 30 6 14 3 u Lang, London Breech-loader* 15 29 6 8 ^ ll Reilly Muzzle-loader* 14 29 6 4 81 H Prince and Green Breech-loader* 15 30 7 3 l Prince and Green Muzzle-loader 14 30 7 7!t l Hast 15 3Qi 6 8 2f H Reilly 15 28 6 4 lj Averages Lefaucheaux's. t Needham's. Bastin's. RESULT OF "FIELD" GUN TRIAL, 1859. 299 SHOT-GUNS IN "THE FIELD" GUN TKIAL, 1859. 30 inches in diameter, with a centre 12 inches square, and nailed, forty thicknesses for the 40 yards, and twenty at GO yards, the squares spectively on the average, with a slight variation, which will always because it gave satisfaction last year; shot, No. 6 (290 pellets per ~ . Recoil ft No. of marks on face of Targets. Xo. of Sheets pierced. J=T C | 111 i c* Total 01 face of 4 Target 1JI Gross Total. of each Barrel in pounds. r Q VH O If at 40 yds. 158 118 at (50 vds. C3 GO at 40 yds. 2s ":!:! 60yds. .-,' 2 399 63 467 68-62 3 under 470 148 93 52 65 28 22 1 2 363 53 416 66-65 2 under 418 116 129 -16 40 25 28 1 1 331 66 386 63-61 1 under 337 111 90 32 58 28 30 2 324 60 384 untested 384 103 93 60 62 24 31 2 4 318 61 379 untested 379 132 93 66 33 26 33 2 3 318 64 382 70-68 5 over 377 117 71 47 61 29 37 4 8 296 78 374 untested 374 65 135 21 54 29 39 1 278 68 317 64-62 7 under 354 113 113 24 46 23 34 1 296 58 354 68-68 3 over 351 106 103 35 31 22 32 275 54 32!) 59-61 13 under 312 95 105 50 31 20 2 281 49 330 untested 330 73 99 22 12 30 40 1 236 71 307 64-66 3 under 310 97 95 31 20 22 26 243 43 291 65-61 7 under 293 100 77 32 2s 33 25 237 58 295 72-69 8 over 237 88 91 37 31 22 27 2 1 247 52 299 76-73 1G over 283 90 87 20 28 20 31 1 225 52 277 64-68 1 under 273 60 43 31 40 25 23 179 48 227 74-63 9 over 218 106 97 33 43 26 30 1 11 235 59 314 67-68 314 101 121 43 66 38 22 3 6 325 63 393 63-58 8 under 401 147 86 42 48 19 322 43 365 53-54 22 under 387 130 30 60 25 27 2 312 54 366 65-63 1 under 3U7 122 86 36 57 27 28 2 301 57 358 61-62 3 unili-r 361 101 103 30 55 21 25 1 239 47 336 60-44 25 under 361 106 106 63 26 33 6 1 300 69 868 69-76 16 over 353 129 57 45 52 20 28 3 283 51 331 61-60 5 under 339 99 99 34 42 32 27 8 271 67 341 63-74 13 over 328 77 100 41 31 33 26 6 21!) 64 313 71-73 15 over 293 71 92 52 27 20 29 212 49 291 69-64 4 over 287 63 55 44 21 28 6 206 63 268 69-67 6 over 262 83 101 34 7 18 2S 225 46 271 63-72 11 over 260 104 92 42 40 26 27 2,1* 277 56 334 65-64 334 Breeches by Trulock and Harris, of Dublin. 300 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. The following report of their performances is also extracted from the Field of July 9th, 1859, having been drawn up by myself. I have omitted such parts as have no permanent interest. RECOIL. It may be remembered that last year we at- tempted to measure the recoil of the guns by a machine designed by ourselves, but the spring (Salter's improved balance) only registering 601b., it was not strong enough for the purpose, and we were obliged to abandon this test. On the present occasion, however, we were enabled to apply it to all but four of the shot-guns, and with complete success, its simplicity and accuracy being much approved of by (we be- lieve) all those who witnessed its operation. By examining the table given below, it will be seen that the average recoil of the guns of a 12 and 13-bore was 66|lb., and of 14, 15, and 16-bore, 64j|lb., the highest recoil in Class 1 being 761b., and the lowest 591b. In Class 2 the highest was also 761b., and the lowest 441b. These results are of great interest, and establish the fact which we always contended for, that the recoil is not in exact proportion to the shooting force of each gun, for taking the gun which heads the first class, the two barrels penetrated through 28 and 33 sheets respectively at 40 yards, yet the recoil was less than that of the next, by Mr. Prince, which pierced 28 and 22 sheets, and still less than the third in that class, which penetrated 25 and 28. The same holds good throughout the series, and we think it may be alleged that, granting the truth of the test, the pro- portion of recoil to shooting power varies considerably, and that the greatest kicker is not necessarily the strongest shooting gun. Another interesting point here established is, that the Joe Manton gun sent by Colonel Whyte is by no means re- markable for its amount of recoil, the average of its two barrels being 31b. under that of the average of all the guns tested in its class ; and lastly, the breech-loaders are shown to be quite equal in recoil to the average of the muzzle- loaders. THE PATTERNS made by the several guns exhibited were, on the whole, extremely good, and in some cases extraordi- narily so. By comparing the two classes, it appears that the average number of shots put into the 30-inch circle at 40 REPORT OF "FIELD" GUN TRIAL, 1859. 301 yards varies very little in the two classes, tlie first being re- spectively 106 and 97 for the two barrels, and the second class showing 104 and 92. Mr. Pape's and Mr. Prince's left barrels (in the first of each of their guns) put in the extra- ordinary number of 158 and 148 shots, or about 50 and 40 per cent, above the average. In the second class, Mr. Ollard's gun (made by Culling, of Downham Market) put in with the left barrel 147 shot, which is a tremendous pattern for a 14-gauge. His right barrel, however, showed only 85, so that the average of the two was only nine above that of Mr. Smith's gun, which gained more than this difference at 60 yards in pattern and penetration combined. Mr. Culling, the maker, who shot this gun himself, used only 2| drachms of powder, which will account for the good pattern at 40 yards and the comparative failure in other respects, but more especially for the very slight recoil which this in common with all his guns exhibited. At 60 yards the shooting has been extremely good this year, the pattern being excellent, and the average as compared with last year being decidedly better. PENETRATION we hold to be the quality in the shot-guns only second to pattern, and we have been at great pains and expense to ascertain the precise power of each. To effect this, each barrel was shot twice at brown-paper targets twelve inches square, those at 40 yards being composed of 40 thick- nesses, and those iised at 60 yards of half that number. We employed nearly the same test last year, but the surface was more than twice as great, measuring in fact 28 inches by 11. It may be remembered that ten guns then pierced the 40 sheets; but though the paper was somewhat stouter, the shot being No. 5 instead of No. 6, as used this year, the task was not so difficult. On that occasion, as so many shots pierced the whole of the layers, we departed from the usual custom, and registered the number of shots, as we have done on this occasion, at 60 yards, but as this year at 40 yards only one gun performed the task, we counted the number of sheets, exactly as is done by Mr. Purdey and most of the best makers. The successful gun in this respect ivas a breech-loader of a 16-bore (though from its weight shot in Class 1) made by Elliott, of Birmingham j so that it appears that there is no in- 302 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. superable difficulty in obtaining driving power in this class of guns. Mr. Needham's breech-loader also nearly approached to it, having driven through 39 sheets with one barrel. Taking, however, the four shots (two at 40 yards and two at 60), Mr. Pape's muzzle-loader (No. 15) made the highest score, being in all 78 through the four targets, while Mr. Elliott scored 71, and Mr. Needham 69 in the same way. The increase in the driving power of the breech-loaders is, however, very considerable as compared with last year; and there now appears to be little or no difference between the two classes of guns in this important quality. Having thus gone through the several results, it is now necessary to allude to the comparative merits of the various guns tried on this occasion. The great contest has been as between muzzle-loaders and breech-loaders, and it will be seen that in each class the old-fashioned gun has carried the day, though very closely pressed by its rival. Indeed, so near is the performance of the two, that we cannot think for a moment that for general purposes there can be a doubt of the superiority of the breech-loader, when quickness of loading, safety, and cleanliness are taken into consideration. The present trial has, however, disposed of the claims of the breech-loader to freedom from recoil, credit for which it is shown not to deserve in the slightest degree. That, with equal charges of powder, it does not kick so much as the muzzle-loader, is tolerably clear; but with the additional quarter of a drachm which it requires, it recoils quite as much. The highly creditable performance of Colonel Whyte's Joe Mariton is also another feature worthy of being recorded, for though the gun is placed fourth in its class, it is con- siderably above the average in all points but penetration at 60 yards. We have submitted the barrels to several gun- makers familiar with " Joe Man tons," and they all are of opinion that those sent by Colonel Whyte are his make, while as to their state of preservation there can be no mis- take that it is most extraordinary. At present they indicate a recoil below the average, but the new breeches put in by Messrs. Trulock and Harris, of Dublin, may possibly ac- count for this. (See Colonel Whyte's letter in the Field of June llth.) BREECH-LOADERS V. MUZZLE-LOADERS. 303 The position in the table of each gun indicates the nature of its performances in the three qualities of pattern, penetra- tion, and recoil. It is easy, therefore, without any further explanation, to see at a glance how each gun stands. It is necessary, however, to explain that where the amount of recoil is above the average, the number of pounds which is shown in the proper column is deducted from the total of shots, while on the contrary, where its recoil is below the average, a corresponding addition is made. BREECH-LOADERS V. MUZZLE-LOADERS. Having examined into tfe relative merits of the two kinds of guns, it may be well to sum up their advantages and dis- advantages in a tabular form. MUZZLE-LOADERS. BREECH-LOADERS. PATTERN. Little difference between the two kinds. PENETRATION. Slightly superior. Xearly equal, but not quite ; requiring at least a quarter of a drachm extra charge of powder. ABSENCE FROM RECOIL. Little difference between them With equal charges recoil less with the proper charge to make the than the muzzle-loader, but with performance equal. the allowance of extra powder which is required by the breech- loader the recoil is about equal. IIANDINESS IN THE FIELD. The muzzle-loader can be made Breech-loaders are all somewhat lighter than any other gun of equal heavier than muz/de-loaders of the bore and length of barrel. same bore and length of barrel. Mr. Needham's is the lightest of the breech-loaders, but requires an extra length to allow for loading. SAFETY FROM BURSTING. The muzzle-loader is the safest Inferior to the muzzle-loader, in this respect. 304 VARIETIES OF SHOT-GUNS, ETC. SAFETY FROM RISK IK LOADING. By far the most dangerous ; Perfect safety during loading,, accidents occurring from a variety especially in the Lefaucheaux gun. of causes, such as a piece of tow remaining behind to smoulder after the first discharge ; or one barrel going off while loading the other, from the jar in ramming down. ABSENCE FROM FOULING OK LEADING. This gun is peculiarly liable to All the breech-loaders are free become foul after twenty to thirty from fouling and leading, and can discharges, or, indeed, before that be readily cleaned, time, and also to lead. 305 BOOK V. THE SPORTING RIFLE. CHAPTER I. THE THEORY OF RIFLE SHOOTING, AND THE MODE OF RIFLING THE BARREL. DEFINITION OF THE RIFLE VELOCITY DIMINISHED BY RIFLING A SMOOTH BORE GREATEST AT THE MOMENT WHEN THE BALL LEAVES THE MUZZLE VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF THE GROOVES ALMOST INFI- NITE THE BARREL METHOD OF RIFLING TECHNICAL TERMS. A rifle may be defined to be a species of gun which causes its projectile to rotate around the line of its flight. This is effected by means of spiral grooves or channels, which are cut on its internal surface, sometimes so slightly as to be invisible to the eye, but generally with a sharp margin. The consequence of this form is, as described by Robins, " that when the piece is fired, the indented zone of the bullet follows the sweep of the rifles ; and thereby, besides its progressive motion, acquires a circular motion round the axis of the piece, which circular motion will be continued to the bullet after its separation from the piece; by which means a bullet discharged from a rifled barrel is constantly made to whirl round an axis which is coincident with the line of its flight. And hence it follows, that the resistance of the foremost end of the bullet is equally distributed round the pole of its circular motion, and acts with an equal effect on every side of the line of direction, so that this resistance can produce no deviation from that line. And (which is still of more importance) if, by the casual irregularity of the foremost 306 THE SPORTING EIFLE. surface of the bullet, or by any other accident, the resistance should be stronger on one side of the pole of circular motion than on the other; yet, as the place where this greater resistance acts must perpetually shift its position round the line in which the bullet flies, the deflection which this inequality would occasion, if it acted constantly with the same given tendency, is now continually rectified by the various and contrary tendencies of that disturbing force during the course of one revolution." Tracts, p. 330. VELOCITY DIMINISHED BY RIFLING A SMOOTH BORE. Such is now the admitted object, of the grooves in the rifle ; and it is unnecessary to support the view taken by Robins and others since his time, by the analogy of the top or the arrow. Whether the latter rotates or not in its flight is perfectly immaterial, for if it does, the motion is communi- cated by the air through which it passes, and not by the bow or the hand before it quits them. A ball from a smooth bore (that is, from a barrel not rifled in any way) will have a greater velocity and range than a similar ball projected from a rifled barrel, on account of the friction caused by the rifling absorbing some portion of the original force of the explosion. Hence, neither increased range, nor its synonym, velocity, is gained by rifling, but only truth or correctness of flight; so that, though the ball does not really go further, it will be of service at a greater range, because it will hit the object at which it is aimed. At the same time, the intro- duction of rifling may be said to increase our range not, it is true, in the use of spherical balls, the flight of which it retards but because from the spinning motion given to it, a more elongated ball may be used than from a smooth bore ; and hence the weight being increased in a greater proportion than the area to which the atmosphere offers resistance in its passage, the flight is greatly extended. In a smooth bore a slightly oval ball can be relied on, if one end is somewhat thicker than the other (or egg-shaped), for that end being heavier will always fly forward ; but a pointed cylinder soon " upsets," as it is termed, and is then at once rendered useless as a projectile. By upsetting is to be understood the turning VELOCITY. 307 sideways of an elongated ball, and it is this accident which forms the chief impediment to rifle shooting. The impetus being given to the hind end of the ball, while the resistance of the air is offered on the front, there is a constant tendency to the one overtaking the other, in doing which the ball must necessarily offer its side to the point at which it is aimed. The greater the spin the more this tendency is checked, for no sooner does the base begin to turn over to the right, than it is forced round to the left, and so on in succession to every point in the circle of which its line of flight is the centre. VELOCITY GREATEST AT THE MOMENT OP LEAVING THE MUZZLE. It has been found by experiment that a ball will pierce certain substances at 100 or 200 yards, which it would fail to do at half or a quarter the distance; and upon this fact a theory has been propounded which is adverse to a funda- mental law of nature. This theory is, that when the resistance offered by the friction against the sides of the barrel is taken away, the impetus given by the explosion is allowed its full scope, and the ball increases in velocity up to a given point. In fact, it is said that the ball vires acquirit eundo; but Mr. Boucher, in a letter to The Field, completely disposes of this fallacious theory by the following experiment, which I insert as detailed by him. " Again : with regard to the penetration of shot being, at all ranges, a test of its velocity, the correct interpretation of the law of action and reaction seems, in this case also, to be sadly overlooked and disregarded. I send you six bullets, taken from hundreds of a similar description. See fig. 65. Those marked a and d were fired at 40 yards' distance, and penetrated about one foot ; b and e were fired at 100 yards, and penetrated about two feet ; while c and f were fired at 200 yards, and penetrated nearly three feet and a half. Now, sir, I have been coolly told in the columns of your paper (March 20) that * I am neither a profound thinker nor a careful ex- perimentalist, or I must know the incontrovertible fact that a bullet does gain in speed after leaving the muzzle of the 308 THE SPORTING RIFLE. piece,' and that this fact accounts for the greater force at the longer ranges, ' up even to a range of 250 yards, as some have RESULTS OP SHOOTING AT VARIOUS DISTANCES. surmised.' Yes, I have been coolly told that an absurdity, which is contrary to all the laws of motion, is an incontro- vertible fact, because, forsooth, some have surmised it. But, sir, I appeal to you if such a monstrous theory can possibly be true. Look at a and c?, which penetrated the shortest distance; they are flattened out, and turned over almost like a mushroom. Is there any indication of want of velocity in them 1 No : on the contrary, the velocity or action must have been immense, and the reaction of the sand sudden and equal, or the bullet could not have possibly been so wonder- fully altered during the short time which it took to penetrate only one foot. Look at b and e, they show that they were actuated by less velocity, and, consequently, were less altered in shape by the reaction, and therefore penetrated somewhat further. But look, again, at c and /; they penetrated to the greatest depth, but where are the signs of great velocity in them 1 Their appearance is nearly as per- fect as when they left the muzzle of the piece, and, having VELOCITY. 309 less velocity, they met with less resistance or reaction, and consequently, their original elongated shape being less altered, they penetrated furthest of all " We have here a beautiful and very instructive illustra- tion of the law of action and reaction, as also of the doctrine of inertia, which deserves a passing comment. Bodies in motion continue in motion from the inertia of motion; bodies at rest continue at rest from the inertia of rest; that is, bodies which move do move, bodies at rest are at rest. This is all. The idea receives colouring from two very important facts. First, the progressive motion of a mass is in propor- tion to the force impressed, and takes place after a lapse of time from the application of the force to the atoms of the body. There is needed time for the force to be diffused among the atoms by atomic motion, before consentaneous or progressive motion is induced. The other fact is, that in most cases force in moving bodies is gradually applied. Thus a ball fired horizontally over water, with a very small charge, will enter the water when it first touches it ; for it can, as it were, await the tardy resolution of the atoms of the water into progressive motion to give it place. But when the ball is fired with a full charge, it is deflected, or ricochets. Its velocity is so great that it cannot transfer its force; for it would take many instants for the particles of water, moving with the same velocity with the bullet, to travel through their atomic space, arid to induce progressive motion of the column necessary to be moved for the passage of the ball through the water. "So it is with sand, wood, iron, &c., for the destruction of velocity is in all cases gradual, and the time employed will depend most materially on the nature of the substance on which the bullet impinges. The force which the ignited gun- powder generates after having put a bullet in motion and produced its full effect remains, as it were, inclosed in the bullet; and the joint product of the velocity and of the quantity of matter in the bullet represents the result. This joint product is termed the momentum of the bullet. In order, therefore, that the shot should produce the greatest effect, we must move the muzzle of the piece near to the object aimed at; and the nearer we move it the greater the 310 THE SPORTING RIFLE. effect will be, as the retarding influences of the air will reduce the momentum of the shot every instant afterwards. But then comes the question, which appears to have been very much overlooked; will the effects produced be beneficial or not 1 If we wish to obtain the deepest penetration, the bullets fired at the shortest distance answer, Ma. " In forming our opinions of the effects produced, we must, however, guard ourselves against taking a one-sided view of the case, which the examination of the sand alone, or the firing of small shot against pasteboard, would certainly cause. It is important to remember that time is necessary for the destruction of momentum, or rather of velocity; and the less the time which is employed, the greater must be the effort exerted; or, in other words, 'the force requisite for the de- struction of any velocity is greater as the time occupied in its destruction is less.' It is evident, then, that the bullets which penetrate the shortest distance require less time to do so than the others, and that, therefore, more force is exerted. This, however, must be considered with reference only to very short ranges; for at ranges greater than 200 yards the pene- tration will be less, in consequence of the reduced velocity of the shot, which is caused by the longer resistance of the air. It will, therefore, be found that every kind of gun, rifle, &c., has one particular distance at which it can do most execution, and this distance can only be ascertained by making experi- ments on various substances, at different ranges, with various weights of shot and different quantities and qualities of powder. And though it may appear somewhat paradoxical, it is nevertheless true, that one gun will not cause its shot to penetrate so deep as another at a particular range, simply because it shoots too strong, or with more velocity than the other, the action of the shot and the reaction of the sub- stance fired at being equal." VARIETIES IN THE FORM OF THE GROOVES ALMOST INFINITE. The use of a spiral groove in some form is extremely old, and since its first introduction the varieties of shape which have been tried are beyond calculation. The number of RIFLE BARRELS. 311 grooves, their form, and the quickness of the twist, have all varied as far as it was possible ; and by the Americans a twist increasing in quickness has been very generally adopted, their chief writer on the subject (Chapman) strongly insisting upon it. But whatever may be the plan adopted, unless the work- manship is good and true, it will not succeed ; while, on the other hand, if the grooves are well cut, the rifle will shoot well with almost any of the methods of rifling which are now adopted by the chief authorities on this subject. The argu- ments for and against each of the rival plans at present in vogue would occupy many pages, and after all they would, perhaps, lead to no satisfactory solution of the problem. Much practice is required in adapting together all the ele- ments upon which success depends, for barrels and grooves which will suit one ball will be useless with another, and vice versd. Now, as every rifle-maker has his fancy, and as he will have brought all his experience to bear upon it, the best plan is to accept him and his work with all faults, instead of interfering with him. If you go to Purdey for a rifle, you will get one with two grooves, the shooting of which will be equal, if not superior, to any which can be brought against it ; while if he took your order for a three-grooved rifle, it would probably be inferior to those made by many gun- makers of a celebrity far inferior to his. RIFLE BARRELS. The barrels of rifles are either made of twisted iron, as described for shot-guns, or they are forged of solid steel, and afterwards bored ; or they are made with a longitudinal line of welding, if they are intended for common purposes. The first is the plan always adopted for double barrels, which would be too heavy if made out of the solid. Solid steel barrels are used where weight is necessary to resist recoil or vibration, and if very accurate shooting is required, they are superior to all others. In either mode, a perfect cylinder is first obtained, which is afterwards rifled on the plan to be presently described. The weight of the Enfield barrel (41b. 2oz.) is the lowest for the length (3 feet 3 inches) compatible with safety and efficiency. 312 THE SPORTING EIFLE. THE METHOD OF RIFLING. There are several 'machines by which the spiral grooves may be cut in the interior of a barrel, but all proceed upon the principle that a cutter of the shape of the groove is passed backwards and forwards in a spiral manner through it, the barrel itself being fixed. The annexed engravings show one of the best and most simple plans adopted by Messrs. Prince and Green in London, and by Mr. Rigby in Dublin. Fig. 66 RIFLING MACHINE. represents a strong iron table upon which are fixed two slotted frames. One of these a has two sliding vices tra- velling on it, and capable of firmly securing the barrel b ready for the cutter c. This is attached to a rod which passes through a square hole in the plate d, and is driven backwards and forwards in a perfectly straight line by the rollers working in the two slots e e. The strong rod /, figs. 66 and 67, is made to work backwards and forwards by the wheel shown in fig. 67, the horizontal line being pre- served by the slots e e, fig. 66, and the hole in the centre of the plate d. Here, then, we have a very simple plan for producing a steady yet powerful horizontal motion for the rod which carries the cutter, and which in the ordinary way METHOD OF RIFLING. 313 would cut a straight groove through the barrel on one of its sides, if passed backwards and forwards through it. Next come the two problems, first, how to cut a spiral instead of a straight groove ? and, secondly, how is this spiral to be made quick or slow ? That is, how shall we form a turn in one foot, two feet, three feet, &c., at discretion ? It must be noticed that the section of the rod is square, and that it passes through a square hole in the plate d. Now, by DRIVING-WHEEL OF RIFLING MACHINE. twisting this square rod on itself, the cutter attached to its extremity, as it glides through the hole, takes a corre- sponding twist, and if this is made one in three feet, the groove will be cut exactly of the same twist. Thus we have both problems solved. The twisting of the rod causes the groove to be spiral, while the amount of its twist settles that of the barrel. We have thus shown how one groove is made, and all that is necessary in order to cut two, three, or any other number of grooves, is either to keep the barrel fixed and alter the position of the plate d for each groove, or to let the plate remain, and move the barrel in a corre- 314 THE SPORTING RIFLE. spending manner. Both modes are adopted by different makers, but in the machine shown in figs. 66 and 67, the plate is made to revolve, and each of the circles shown upon it is divided accurately into either two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, or nine equal sections, so that if a barrel is to be cut with three grooves, the circle with three equal divisions is used, and the plate being moved in exact correspondence with them, the work is beautifully correct. So also the shape of the cutter determines the form of the groove, being nearly semicircular for the oval bore of Mr. Lancaster, as shown in the engraving illustrating Captain Beaufoy's cele- brated work, " Scloppetaria." Again, for a groove with sharp angles, the cutter is made correspondingly sharp, for as it traverses backwards and forwards, it leaves its mark exactly of its own shape, allowing for the slight vibration inseparable from the working of a rod confined at one end only. The principle, therefore, upon which all rifle grooves are made is the same, though in the next chapter the variation will be shown to be immense in the modes by which that principle is applied. TECHNICAL TERMS. One of the most important defects in a rifle is, the existence of such a space between the ball and the sides of the barrel, or of its grooves, as to allow of an escape of gas generated by the explosion of the powder. This, of course, is attended with a corresponding loss of power, and is known among rifle makers and shooters by the term " Windage" I have already, at p. 306, given a definition of "upsetting;" but there are three terms constantly used in rifle shooting which require some notice here. These are 1st, " The line of fire;" 2nd, " The aim ;" and 3rd, " The trajectory." The line of fire is the indefinite projection of the axis of the barrel. The aim is a straight line drawn from the centre of the back sight to the top of the front one, and prolonged to the object at which the rifle is directed. Lastly, the trajectory is the curve actually described by the ball in its passage through the air, and greater or less in proportion to its velocity. 315 CHAPTER II. THE MUZZLE-LOADING SPORTING RIFLE. GENERAL REMARKS PURDEY's TWO-GROOVED RIFLE THE SINGLE AND DOUBLE BELTED BALL THE ENFIELD RIFLE AND PR1TCHETT BALL LANCASTER'S OVAL SPIRAL GENERAL JACOB'S FOUR-GROOVED RIFLE THE FOUR AND FIVE-SIDED BORE, WITH ROUNDED ANGLES OF MAJOR NUTHALL AND MR. BOUCHER WHITWORTH's HEXAGONAL RIFLE POLY-GROOVED BORES VARIETIES OF BALLS SINGLE AND DOUBLE RIFLES. BEFORE proceeding to discuss the merits of the various kinds of rifle, it will be well to examine each in detail, selecting those which can be at all useful to the sportsman ; but in doing this it will be necessary to consider with them the balls which they respectively carry. I have already, in the previous chapter, described the principle upon which all rifle barrels are constructed \ but it now remains to consider the questions depending upon the best number of grooves, the proper amount of twist, and the shape of the ball which shall be used with each; all of which subjects have been partially explained in the first chapter, but the bearing of one on the other has not been sufficiently taken into consi- deration. Thus, it is well known that a very long ball requires a greater twist in the barrel to prevent its upsetting, which again necessitates a larger charge of powder. On the other hand, a short ball will fly correctly without so much twist, and with less powder, the friction in its case being proportionately lessened. I shall therefore pass in review the various balls and grooves in common use with the muzzle- loader, leaving the description of those applicable to each breech-loader to the division appointed to them. MR. PURDEY'S TWO-GROOVED RIFLE. Foremost in simplicity and in established fame stand Mr. Purdey's rifles, to possess one of which has been the object of most deerstalkers and rifle shots for many years. The 316 THE SPORTING RIFLE. annexed engrav- ing represents an exact imitation of a rifle belong- ing to a very celebrated deer- stalker, made by Mr. G. Smith, of 40, Davies - st., Berkeley-square, who was many years with Pur- dey, in the rifle department, and who, I fully be- lieve, will build as good a rifle at fifty-five gui- neas as can be procured at his late master's for ninety guineas. The original of the sketch was shot at the gun and rifle trial in 1859, and per- formed the best at 100 yards; but from a mistake in the charge of the first four shots, all of which missed the target, " she" was beaten at 200 yards. These rifles are all made with two grooves, the balls being of a sugar-loafed form, and cast with two wings to fit the grooves. Fig. 68 gives a full-length view of the left barrel and lock, and shows also the usual cheek piece. Fig. 69 is a somewhat larger sketch of the right lock ; lower end of the barrel, and sight-flaps, all laid down. THE ENFIELD. 317 Fig. 70 a a represents a section of the two barrels, of the exact size adopted, the bore being forty, and the grooves being wide and very shal- low; they are accurately fitted by the wings on the Fig. 70. ball b. On the wing it- self there is a very slight shoulder c, three-eighths of an inch from the base, and this giving way be- neath the ramrod ensures an exact fitting of the ball to the groove, so as to avoid windage altogether. The turn is one in six feet, and for sporting purposes at sporting ranges that is, at anything not exceed- ing 300 yards this variety is, in my opinion, one of the best, as it gives a sufficient spin without any unnecessary friction, and very little elevation of the sights is required. The weight of the whole rifle is SJlbs. ; length of barrels, 32in. ; bore 40. Weight of ball, f of an ounce; charge of powder, 2|drs. SECTION OF PURDEY RIFLE, AND VIEW OF BALL. THE ORDINARY TWO-GROOVED RIFLE. Next in simplicity, but far infe- rior in efficiency, is the two-grooved rifle, intended for the old spherical ball, with a single belt fig. 71 a, or with a cross belt, as in fig. 7 1 b; but these are now almost en- tirely given up in favour of Pur- dey's ball, or of some one or other of those which presently describe. THE ENFIELD. BELTED SPHERICAL BALLS. I shall Thirdly comes the Enfield rifle, which has three grooves, cut slightly deeper at the breech than at the muzzle, and 318 THE SPORTING RIFLE. making one turn in 6ft. Gin. The barrel being 3ft. 3in., it follows that only half a turn is made in that length. The bore has a diameter of 577; charge of powder, 2|drs.; and weight of bullet, 520 grains; the shape being cylindro- conical, with a boxwood cup inserted at the base, but many are now used with a mere hollow cup in that part, and known as the Pritchett ball. The Enfield rifle is well adapted for sporting purposes, but requires considerable care in adapting the bullet, as it often happens that considerable force is required in ramming it home when the interior is allowed to become choked with powder. THE OVAL SPIRAL, CLAIMED BY LANCASTER. Fourthly may be mentioned, the smooth oval spiral bore, adopted by Lancaster, but which appears clearly to be a reproduction of a plan published by Capt. Beaufoy in 1808, his book " Scloppetaria" containing not only an allusion to the plan, but also describing the mechanical details necessary for carrying it out. The following extract from p. 87 will satisfy any candid mind of the truth of this assertion : " But while we are thus enlarging on rifles with grooves, let us not pass over a very old invention, though quite obsolete in our time, which is the method of making a plain barrelled gun possess the advantages of a rifle, and yet not be liable to detection unless more minutely examined than common inspection usually leads us to expect. Having selected a barrel, of rather thicker metal than those usually made, let it be placed in the rifling bed, only in lieu of having a saw, substitute an elliptical file at the end of the rod. The file instead of being solid should be divided down the middle longitudinally, and attach the pieces one on each side of the rod, &c., &c., &c. These barrels are loaded in the usual way, excepting that the ball used should be sufliciently large to fill up the whole of the indentation ; and it is said that such as are accustomed to these pieces will far outstrip anything that can be done with the common smooth-surfaced cylindrical barrel. It would be an improvement, though, instead of using a spherical ball with these pieces, if it were rather of an oblong shape." It is therefore clear, that whatever credit is due to this plan belongs to Captain Beaufoy, not as the inventor NUTHALL AND BOUCHER'S RIFLES. 319 for he does not claim it as his own but as the first to lay it before the public. Great promises have been held out by the advocates of this mode of rifling; but in practice I have seen so many balls go whistling away in some unforeseen direction, that though at other times I have known good practice made, I could never place any confidence in the principle. It is also applied to the breech-loader, and will again be alluded to under that head. GENERAL JACOB'S FOUR-GROOVED RIFLE. Fifthly, we have General Jacob's ball, which resembles Purdey's in its wings, but has four instead of two of them. The twist is four-fifths of a turn in twenty-four inches, or more than double that of Purdey; so that, though an increased range is obtained with it, the charge of powder must be greater in proportion, and the recoil is by no means pleasant. The gauge is 32. This rifle does not seem to have any advantage at sporting ranges ; but for military purposes it has been strongly recommended, especially in reference to the explosive shells which are used with it. In 1856, a report upon General Jacob's rifle .was made to the Indian Government, which states, "that at ranges from 300 to 1 200 yards the flight of the shell (used with this rifle) was always point foremost, and the elevation at the extreme range inconsiderable. The shells which struck the butt invariably burst with full effect ; and practice was made by the many officers who attended, at distances which could not have been attained with any other missile." The shells alluded to in the report require a short stout barrel, and cannot be used with a long thin one, like the Enfield. For killing large animals, like the elephant or rhinoceros, they are peculiarly qualified; and I should strongly recommend elephant hunters to examine into the merits of this rifle, as made by Mr. Daw, of Threadneedle-street, London, who received his instructions from the late General Jacob. MAJOR NUTHALL'S AND MR. BOUCHER'S. Under the sixth division may be mentioned two rifles very similar in their principle, but one having four sides, with 320 THE SPORTING EIFLE. MAJOR NUTHALL S RIFLE. rounded angles, slightly varying in form (see fig. 72 a b), and the other five (fig. 74). These are respectively the MR. BOUCHER S BALL. SECTION OF MR. BOUCHER S RIFLE. plans of Major Nuthall and Mr. Boucher; but the latter having published full particulars in the Fidd of May 14th, 1859, (while Major Nuthall's was not patented for sometime afterwards,) he is entitled to the priority in the merit of the invention if the two prove to be similar in all other respects, as I believe they are. Mr. Boucher also specially alludes to the four-sided plan with an unfavourable mention ; but, to avoid any risk of mis-statement on my side, I will give his letter entire, as far as it relates to this subject : " Surrey Villas, Camberwell. " I am an advocate for a somewhat heavy rifle, as the shooting with such a weapon is always more steady, with less recoil ; particularly if the weight of the metal is judiciously accumulated behind and immediately surround- ing the breech. The barrel of the one I am now about to describe is 2 ft. 6 in. in length ; weight, 5 J Ibs. The bore is exactly half an inch in diameter a size which the great majority of our practical marksmen agree now in recom- mending. I am not favourable to four grooves, for this reason : when the bullet leaves the muzzle of the piece, it is made by the force of the explosion nearly square, or four- NUTHALL AND BOUCHER'S RIFLES. 321 sided, especially if the grooves are deep, causing a consider- able amount of extra friction, and consequently retardation by its grinding motion, while passing through the air. I have therefore fixed on five, though, from my style of grooving, many have supposed the barrel to be a smooth- bore. " In order to understand the mode of grooving thoroughly, I must ask the reader to draw for himself, on as large a scale as he pleases for the sake of distinctness, the geometrical figure called a pentagon. Then, in the centre, let him draw a circle, so that its edges may just touch the sides of the figure. This circle is to represent the end of the bullet. The next process is to round off the angles of the figure to rather less than a third of their original depth, when they will appear to be broad, shallow grooves, somewhat like the second diagram above; the first diagram representing the figure before the angles were rounded off. " The twist of the spiral is at the rate of one turn in five feet, which generates a rotary motion quite sufficient for a range of one mile, for, as there is little friction, comparatively speaking, to retard the progress of the bullet in the barrel, it proceeds with greater velocity after leaving the muzzle, thus rendering a less amount of twist necessary than in a barrel having more friction. " Taking into consideration all the experiments I have made myself, all I have witnessed in other quarters, and all the experimental reports I have read on the subject, this is the mode of grooving which I still prefer, and which I recommended to our authorities in the autumn of 1853, and again in 1855. I have loaded and fired hundreds of rounds from such a barrel without the slightest trouble, the last bullet going down as easily as the first; in fact, a glance at the diagram will show any man conversant with the subject that there can be no friction that cannot be overcome by merely pressing the ramrod gently and steadily down, so that the shape of the bullet cannot be destroyed, nor the powder caked, by the bullet being jammed down upon it. " This mode of grooving requires only attention on the part of the workman, without which any sort of grooving becomes worse than useless, disappointing and deceiving the man who Y 322 THE SPORTING KIFLE. for a showy and, said to be, superior weapon. The cutter should be just a fifth of the circumference of the bore, and very shallow, and care taken not to go so deep as to .affect the five points of the original surface where the bullet is seen to touch the sides, leaving the bore without any sharp edges. I have enclosed you a bit of lead, which I have driven into the barrel ; you will feel, by rubbing your fingers over it, that it is nearly smooth, though on looking at the end you will at once perceive the mark of the five hollows or grooves that grasp and guide the bullet while turning and passing through the barrel. "My ' disc bullet' the one I recommend for such a barrel is what is commonly called Cylindro-conoidal in its outward form. That which I generally use is about 1 1-16 inches in length, as represented by the diagram ; though it may be made longer if the rifleman desires a heavier one for particular purposes. " In the end of the bullet, which is a fair cylinder for half its length, I have a cavity formed as shown at a, which extends a little more than half the length of the bullet. Upon the edge of the cavity b b I place the round disc c, which is cut out of thin iron to fit exactly, so that it will not drop out after it has been pressed in by the thumb or gently on a table. When the explosion takes place, the disc becomes so firmly fixed by the contraction of the lead around it that it never falls out, nor is it driven, or intended to be driven, further in than the rest of the lead at the base of the bullet. "Experience shows that the 'disc' bullet rifles itself as distinctly as if it had been cast in the grooves of the barrel : a complete answer to the supposed effects of all such nonsense as the 'expanding' cups and plugs which many, who ought to know better, still believe in. It may also be called a safe bullet, for any number may be fired at a distant object over the heads of bodies of men employed or moving in the inter- mediate space, without any fear of the discs leaving the bullets, like the cups of the 'Minie*,' and injuring the men. I have fired thousands of these bullets, and, though not a first-rate marksman, I have repeatedly placed 70 per cent, of them in a space two feet broad by four feet high, at 600 NUTHALL AND BOUCHER'S RIFLES. 323 yards distance. Tliis can be corroborated by unquestionable authority. " Mr. Greenfield, of Broad-street, Golden-square, lias been in the habit of making my bullet-moulds, and, as my object is to encourage rifle-shooting, he has full permission from me to make moulds of this pattern for any gentleman applying for the same. In giving the order, however, I would recom- mend the barrel to be given to him, with instructions to make the bullet large enough just to touch its sides, but to fall to the bottom by its own weight. My reason for ad- vising this is, that I never use paper or patch, but simply dip the bullet half way in a very hot mixture of two parts bees'-wax, one part soft-soap, and one part tallow or hogs' lard, the refuse being previously carefully skimmed off. I generally mix a few pounds of these ingredients together at once, as it has then only to be made thoroughly hot and liquid for use at any time afterwards. " Some years ago, when carrying on an extensive course of experiments, with bullets of various sizes and forms some with paper wrapped round them like the Service ammu- nition, some with patches, and others in a naked state I became so satisfied of the superiority of the ' naked' bullet, and its simplicity in loading, over other methods, that I have continued ever since to use such for my own private shooting. Our most scientific military authorities have also lately declared themselves in favour of this system. One says : * The employment of a naked bullet, thus doing away with that interfering medium, the paper, will be a matter of great importance if we can succeed.' Another says : 1 I entirely concur in what has been said as to the advantages to be derived from the naked bullet in preference to one with paper; it is evident that the naked bullet properly supplied with grease will fill the grooves of the rifle better than one which has the intervening substance of paper around it.' A third adds : ' In my opinion it is to the paper alone the defects in fouling and accuracy are attributable ; bullets have lately been constructed and used without paper, and the result has been that these bullets have not only shown themselves superior to the plug, but barrels which would have been rejected with the latter as bad barrels y 2 324 THE SPORTING RIFLE. have produced greater accuracy than has ever been obtained with the plug ammunition.' These are the opinions of officers of high standing, who have devoted much time to the study of rifled arms, and are therefore worthy of every consideration. " In my next I purpose giving a description of some other contrivances, which I consider improvements, together with a few remarks in connexion with their use. I shall also be happy to answer any questions on the subject of rifle- shooting, if space is granted me for that purpose ; but, as I shall endeavour to give scientific reasons for everything I say or advise, I trust that those who may be disposed to differ from me will do the same; thus placing it within the power of many of your inquiring readers to judge and decide for themselves. " J. BOUCHER." On the other hand, Major Nuthall's grooving is repre- sented in the annexed section, the original of which was kindly furnished me by himself. The rifles on this plan have been used with his own bullet, which has a very wide cannelure, and also with the regulation ball, but as far as I know, with out any very great advantage in point of accuracy. Mr. Boucher's I have not seen shot, but I am assured by those who have that the performance, at all practicable distances, is quite equal to his own description. THE WHITWORTH RIFLE. Seventhly, we have the hexagonal bore of Whitworth, which has attracted a great deal of attention, and which, when carefully made, is capable of effecting excellent shooting. But if the ball used is also pentagonal, as recommended by Mr. Whitworth, it fits into the angles so accurately, that the slightest amount of foul- ing interferes with the loading. Fig. 75 shows the shape of the ball and a section of the barrel, WmTWOBTH's BALL AND EIF L E . ^ ^ "P"*"*? * transverse section of the VARIETIES OF BALLS. 325 )ase of the ball at b. This kind of rifle is also used by Mr. Whit worth with the ordinary Pritchett ball. POLYGROOVED RIFLES. Lastly, we must include all the polygrooved plans which have been tried from time to time, and which have varied from seven to such a number as to be almost beyond enumer- ation, and looking as fine as horsehair to the eye. These are, however, rarely used in the present day, Mr. Westley Kichards' new rifle being an exception to the general rule. See figs. 86 and 87. VARIETIES OF BALLS. But besides these varieties in the rifling, there are also several different kinds of ball applicable to most of them. Originally all bullets were spherical, next to which came the sphere with a band, and afterwards two bands upon it. It then became egg-shaped, after Robins' s suggestions, in order to obtain the centre of gravity well forward. Then came the variously-shaped cannelures or indentations round the base of the ball, which were first introduced with the object of re- tarding the flight of the hindmost part; but this being better attained by accelerating the speed of the foremost end, they were abandoned for that purpose, and are only now used as receptacles for grease. In 1836, Mr. Greener invented a ball and plug, which he then described as follows: "An oval ball, with a flat end and a perforation extending nearly through it, is cast, a taper plug with a head like a round-topped button is also cast, of a composition of lead, tin, and zinc, as shown in fig. 76 a and b. The end of the plug being slightly inserted into the perfora- tion, the ball is put into the rifle or musket with either end foremost. When the explosion takes place, the plug is driven home into the GREENER'S BULLLT. 326 THE SPORTING RIFLE. lead, expanding the outer surface, and thus either filling the grooves of the rifle, or destroying the windage of the musket, as the case may be. The result of this experiment was beyond my calculation : and for musketry, where the stupid regula- tions of the service require three sizes of ball difference for windage, it is most excellent, as remedying this considerable drawback upon the usefulness of the arm as the facility of loading is as great, if not greater, than by the present. As regards its application to rifles, there can be no question of its advantage if there exists any requirement for the ball to- be acted upon by the grooves at all, which I do not think is advantageous in fact, there exists no question." This ball was rejected by the then existing Government as " a com- pound," and lay dormant until Captain Minie invented a plan, of expanding a ball on somewhat the same principle by means of a metal cup, which is sunk into a chamber twice as deep, but so arranged that the cup does not project from the base of the bullet. (See fig. 77 a and b.) The former is the French bullet, having three cannelures, the latter being the English pattern with- out them. For a time this in- vention was thought to be of great CHBHULATED AND PLAIN Valu6 > alld > ^*g adopted ill the CYLINDKO-CONOIDAL BALLS. English service, Mr. Greener laid claim to a compensation, and obtained it to the extent of 1000?., although it is quite clear that his bullet in its original form, as tried by the Government officer, differed in many essentials from the pattern afterwards adopted, and particularly in not having the centre of gravity always in front, because he expressly says' that it might be fired either end forward ; and, more- over, the plug being only slightly inserted in the socket, it was liable to be driven home by the ramrod in forcing the bullet down the barrel as soon as this had become foul. Hence, although it certainly contained the germ of the in- vention to a still greater degree than Captain Norton's hollow shell previously invented, it was in a perfectly useless state when discarded by the Government; and, moreover, it was- SINGLE AND DOUBLE BARRELS. 32 7 expressly declared by Mr. Greener in 1841 that lie did not think the expansion into the grooves was advantageous to- the rifle, in the paragraph inserted above, in which the italics are my own. Lancaster and Wilkinson then tried the cannelured bullets, in slightly varying forms, and made good shooting, increasing at the same time the sharpness of the spiral and the charge of powder to counteract the re- tardation caused by them in the flight o/ the ball. Then came Pritchett with his conical balls (fig. 78 a and b), having a depression in the base, which, allow- ing the powder to expand it, rifles the surface in contact with the spirals. Lastly, we have the Whit worth ball, PRITCHETT BULLETS. which has been already described as hexagonal, and slightly twisted on itself to fit the rapid spiral used with it. (See fig. 75.) SINGLE AND DOUBLE BARRELS. Such are the variations in principle of the muzzle-loading; rifle and the bullets used with it, but there are also some prac- tical modifications of the former which require to be con- sidered. In the first place, there is the choice to be made between the double and single barrel, and if the latter is adopted, it may be a solid bar of steel bored, or of twisted iron, like the shot-gun described in the last Book. The double- barrelled rifle is never made out of solid steel, on account of the weight and bulk which would attach to so large a mass of metal. In any case, however, the metal must be hard, and steel in some form is almost always adopted. It is obvious that where two barrels are put together, both cannot be directed with the same sight at the same spot and at all distances, for though it may be possible so to arrange two barrels that at any given distance they shall both throw a ball into the centre of the bull's-eye, yet at any other the two balls will be wide of it. Still, General Jacob was of opinion that for all distances his double rifle was superior to his single barrel; but I have never met with any one who took the same view. Whether with one barrel or two, any of the bullets described 328 THE SPOUTING RIFLE. above may be used, and any bore and method of rifling may be adopted. Mr. Nock some years ago invented a new mode of adapting the hammers of single rifles so as to keep them out of the line of sight. This is effected by making them in the form and in the situation of the trigger-guard, the nipple being beneath the barrel. The plan, however, never became general CHAPTER III. BREECH-LOADING RIFLES AND REVOLVERS APPLICABLE TO SPORTING PURPOSES. GENERAL REMARKS PRINCE'S RIFLE TERRY AND CALISHER's RESTELL's LEITCH'S WESTLEY RICHARDS' THE LANCASTER NEEDHAM'S THE LEFAUCHEAUX BASTIN's GILBERT SMITH'S (AMERICAN) SHARPE'S REVOLVING RIFLES AND PISTOLS. THE same advantages which attend upon the breech-loading shot-gun may also be claimed by the corresponding method, when adopted for the rifle that is to say, the breech-loader is more quickly loaded, more safe, and more easily cleaned. There is, however, in some plans a considerable escape at the breech, which will condemn them for sporting purposes, while others have such an amount of recoil as to make them most unpleasant to the shooter. I shall therefore omit those which are guilty of these faults altogether. In correctness of shooting at sporting ranges I am quite satisfied that the breech-loader will compete with the muzzle- loader, or if there is any advantage in favour of the latter, it is so trifling as to be practically of no value. If it is de- sired to hit a turkey's head at 100 or 200 yards, it is quite possible that the old tool is the best, but if at either of those distances the sportsman is satisfied with putting his balls into a three or four-inch bull's-eye, the new one is capable of doing it, and has done it in my presence on several occa- sions. The following are all the varieties which are at all likely to be useful to the sportsman. 329 PRINCE S RIFLE. Of all the various breechloaders, where one barrel only is required, this is, in my judgment, the best, for after admit- ting the charge at the breech, the barrel is screwed on again almost as firmly as in the patent breech, the only difference being that there is one thread instead of five or six. In practice this one thread is all-sufficient, and it is found that when well made and case-hardened no ordinary amount of wear and tear will produce the slightest effect upon the metal. But as the principle is incapable of application to a double- barrelled rifle, there is some objection to it for the purposes to which I am now alluding, and the weapon must be taken subject to this fault. PRINCE S RIFLE CLOSED. The principle may readily be understood by the explana- tion, that in the case of this rifle the breech and barrel are screwed together by means of a single coarse thread in the latter, and two studs fixed upon the cone, as shown in fig. 80 at a. But instead of screwing the breech into the barrel, as is done in the usual way, the latter is moveable, and slides forward after it is unscrewed by the lever b working in the slot c d. In doing this the barrel, though allowed to make a quarter revolution, and afterwards to slide forward, is still securely fixed to the stock by the clip fig. 79 e in front, and by the shoulder of the lever behind, while after re-screwing it to the breech it is just as secure, and as incapable of being in- jured by any force which can be applied as the strongest muz- zle-loader. The lock, hammer, and nipple are all like those 330 THE SPORTING RIFLE. ordinarily used ; and it is so arranged that as the nipple slides forward with the barrel, the hammer cannot strike it and ex- plode the cap until the barrel and breech are securely screwed together. Hence there is no possibility of an explosion with an open breech, which is so much dreaded by some of the opponents of the breech-loader, and which may happen to some other kinds. When the barrel is driven forward, as shown in fig. 80, the cartridge is pushed into the chamber at PRINCE'S RIFLE, OPEN. /, when the lever being laid hold of, and the barrel being drawn back, the former is turned downwards till it is in a line with the front of the trigger-guard (as in fig. 79), and it is only necessary to cap the nipple before the rifle may be fired. The process is so expeditious that eight rounds can be fired per minute. Here, then, we have a rifle which can be loaded in eight or nine seconds, and which is quite as secure and free from escape as the muzzle-loader, while its accuracy of shooting is so great that on a favourable day the palm of a man's hand may be hit nine times out of twelve at 200 yards. PRINCES RIFLE. 331 In loading this rifle the stock is held firmly under the right arm, which fixes it against the ribs and leaves the hand at liberty to lay hold of the lever and turn it to the right, Fl. 8J. UNDER SIDE OF PRINCES RIFLE. after which it is free to force the barrel forward to the posi- tion shown in fig. 80. The cartridge is then pushed into the chamber/ and the hand again drawing back the lever and turning it to the left with some little force, the loading is completed. Fig. 81 exhibits a view of the lever and slide from below. Tlie, cartridge preferred by Mr. Prince is made of an explo- sive paper prepared by him. A piece of this is first pasted round the base of the ball, leaving an open cylinder, which is then filled with the charge of powder and tied. Any one can make these cartridges readily enough with a little paste, the only thing necessary after the above-described preparation being to dip the ball and the paper covering it into some melted grease. Ordinary paper will do, but as the fire from the cap has to pierce it, the explosion is not so certain or so rapid as with the prepared paper. Nevertheless, a miss-fire with the common paper does not occur once in a thousand times if the caps are good. Of course they should be those specially made for rifles. The skin cartridges, invented and patented by Captain M. Hayes, R.N., are particularly serviceable with all rifles which, like this, require the percussion fire to perforate the envelop of the powder. They consist merely of the charge of powder confined to the base of the ball by a fine animal membrane, and kept in the cartouche box in a cover of car- 332 THE SPORTING RIFLE. tridge paper, which is readily torn off by means of a piece of red tape attached to it. Gunpowder thus confined will keep for a long time, and the additional expense is so trifling as to be scarcely worth a moment's consideration to the sports- man. They are manufactured and sold by Messrs. Brough and Moll, London. MR. PRINCE'S RIFLE OF 1859. During the present year Mr. Prince has been engaged in bringing to perfection a new rifle, adapted chiefly to military purposes, by which sixteen discharges may be effected in the minute with the aid of a capping machine, and as long as the reservoir of caps is unexhausted. There will always, how- ever, be more or less escape at the breech, and on that account I think it objectionable for sporting purposes. TERRY AND CALISHER'S RIFLE. In Mr. Princes specification of his patent for his sliding rifle, an exact description of Terry's plan is embodied, and any merit, therefore, which may be connected with it of right belongs to the former, as his patent was completed long before Terry promulgated the one which bears his name. Mr. Prince, however, has abandoned his claim, because I believe he considers the sliding barrel far superior to the piston-breech, and in that opinion I cannot but concur, for reasons which will be better understood after examining the annexed illustrations. VIEW OF TERRY AND CAL1SHER S RIFLE. In order to prevent any imputation of carelessness or pre- judice in reference to a rifle to whose principle I am opposed, I prefer inserting the description given by Mr. Terry him- self in the Illustrated Inventor, to any of my own : TERKY AND CALISHER S RIFLE. 333 The upper portion of the engraving (fig. 82) shows the elevation of the rifle when charged ready to be cocked and to have the percussion-cap placed on the nipple. Fig. 83 FIG. S3. SECxft>N OF TEERY A^D CALISHER's RIFLE. shows a longitudinal section of the rifle with the chamber open ready to receive the charge; and for the purpose of fully illustrating it, a cartridge and ball are placed in the position they take previously to being fired. The advantages which the patentee states this rifle to possess arc its simplicity and the small number of parts which enter into its construc- tion, its safety, and the impossibility of accident arising from its use with ordinary care; the ease with which it can be loaded, and the rapidity with which it can be fired as com- pared with any other weapon of the kind at present con- structed. There are several peculiarities in the construction of this rifle, and also in the formation of the cartridge, which it will be necessary generally to notice before mi- 334 , THE SPORTING RIFLE. nutely describing the details and various parts of which it is formed. "The cartridge is made of strong brown paper, and is secured to the end of the ball by some adhesive substance; it has glued to the back of it a wad well saturated with tallow for preventing the gun from fouling after repeated use, the action of which will be hereafter explained. By referring to the lower illustration it will be seen that the cartridge is placed directly under the channel or bore which leads from the nipple, in such a position that when the cap is discharged by the fall of the hammer, the explosion of the powder takes place from the centre of the cartridge, and not from the end, as is usually the case. The object of this arrangement is for the purpose of detaining the tallowed wad in the barrel at the time the ball is ejected from it by the force of the ex- ploded powder; it there remains ready to be forced forward by the next ball and cartridge inserted, and leaves the barrel when the discharge again takes place. It will therefore be understood that there is always a wad left behind every dis- charge, ready to be pushed forward by the following charge. "VVe shall now explain the various parts of the rifle, the way in which they are fitted together, and their action when in use: a is the cartridge, b the ball, c the wad; d is a sliding conical piston or plug, operated on by a rod (e), and fitting into a seating in which it has been truly ground. Directly at the back of the charge-chamber f is a cam, or more pro- perly speaking, an oval collar, formed on the rod e, which fits into a corresponding oval recess formed in the breech ; and when thus positioned, by turning it one quarter round, the eccentric or oval parts jam themselves into two chambers made to receive them, and form the point of resistance for the back of the charge-chamber; g is a hinged joint which, turning round, forms not only a door for the opening A, through which the cartridge is placed, but also a lever for more readily turning the cam f, and removing the conical piston d, when it is required to insert a fresh charge. " In loading, the operation is extremely easy, and can be performed in a very short space of time the hinged door g, which is kept tight in its place by a spring on the back, is first thrown round at right angles to the position it occu- TERRY AND CALISHER's RIFLE. 335 pies in fig. 82, it is then turned up again at right angles to its previous position, when the oval collar fitting into the chambers, forming the point of resistance, is at once re- leased, and the whole can be drawn back to the position indi- cated in fig. 83. " The cartridge can now be introduced through the opening shown ; the piston has then to be pushed forward until the conical part comes in contact with its seating, when the point g is forced round one quarter, and then closed over the opening. The gun is now ready for capping and firing. It will be observed that the oval collar is formed something like the twist of a screw; the chamber into which it fits is also formed in the same way; so that when the one is inserted in the other and the quarter turn given by the part g, which acts as a lever, it has a screwing action which drives the cone into its seating with considerable force, and thus effectually prevents any escape of the disengaged gases. The bore of the rifle we have illustrated is the same as that of the Enfield rifle, '577 of an inch diameter, being rifled in the same way with three grooves, but having a twist in every 4 feet, whilst the Enfield rifle has one complete turn in every 6 feet 6 inches. The chamber in which the cartridge lies is of the diameter of the circle described by the bottom of the rifling grooves, and the ball used exceeds the Enfield ball in diameter by the depth of these grooves. The barrel has a gradual bore from the larger to the lesser diameter, so that when the discharge takes place the ball is gradually driven into the rifling grooves, and presents precisely the same appearance as an Enfield ball does after it is discharged. In this way the patentee states he obtains greater range, force, and accuracy, with the same weight of ball and powder, than can be obtained by any other rifle. He has submitted it to the authorities at Enfield, Hythe, and Woolwich, and it appears to have undergone the severest test with complete success, and to be generally approved of by those qualified to judge. There is one peculiarity in the construction of the nipple which we had almost forgotten to mention it consists in boring it in such a way, that the opening next to the per- cussion-powder in the cap is as large as can be made con- sistent with safety, gradually becoming smaller until it 336 THE SPORTING RIFLE. arrives at the ordinary size of the bore. By being so formed, a greater explosive power is obtained to burst the cartridge and ignite the charge, while the nipple itself is in no way injured." By comparing this with Prince's rifle just described, it will be seen that there are two points in which it is inferior to the latter. Firstly, it may be discharged with the breech unclosed, which would cause a serious damage to the eyes; and secondly, it requires that there shall always be a greased wad in front of the ball, by which the accuracy of the shooting is materially interfered with. Now, as in comparing the two there can only be alleged against these serious drawbacks in Terry's rifle the fact that Prince's barrel is not a fixture, but must necessarily slide, I think a moment's consideration will show that Mr. Prince was quite right in rejecting the portion of his specification which is now taken up by Messrs. Calisher and Terry, and that the rifle which now bears his name is far superior to theirs. RESTELL'S RIFLE. EesteUs rifle is a Belgian invention, but is patented in this country. The principle is as follows. The barrel is attached to the stock and lock in the usual way, and with an ordinary nipple. Behind the open breech is a short chamber, fig. 84 e, in which slides the plug b d, with a projection in front at d, which closes the open end of the breech. This plug is prevented from sliding in any other than one direction by a stud which travels in a small slot, the end of the stud being shown roughed, just above the lower end of the lever. When this plug is pushed forward, it occupies the position of the chamber e, and closes the breech; while, when it is drawn back, it leaves both open and ready to receive a cartridge, which however must be jointed, on account of the shortness of the chamber. The next thing is to provide for the movement and closing of the plug; and these objects are very ingeniously effected, but unfortunately with scarcely sufficient strength. An outside lever a is connected with an internal wedge c, which lies in a slot in the middle of the plug b d } and the shape of the wedge is such that when LEETCHS RIFLE. 337 the lever moves it round on its axis, the represented by the dotted line at c, drives the front of the my M RESTELL'S RIFLE, OPEN. (HALF SIZE.) plug forward, so as to close the open breech. As in Prince's and Terry's, the fire from the nipple has to perforate the paper of the cartridge. The closure of the breech is well managed as long as the bolt of the lever is not worn ; but when this becomes loose by friction, there is some little escape; and as either the bolt or the stock must t>e greatly reduced in strength beyond what is sufficient to withstand any severe pressure, there is an element of weakness which will always militate against the plan. The cartridge used with this rifle is of the ordinary con- struction, but tied in behind the ball, so as to form a narrow neck or joint. The above drawing is from a rifle made by Mr. Dean, of King William-street, City. LEETCH'S RIFLE. Mr. Leetch, of Great Portland-street, London, has ex- hibited for the last three or four years a breech-loading rifle, z 338 THE SPOUTING RIFLE. which is constructed on the principle of the revolver, but without more than one chamber. A single chamber (fig. 85 &), capable of holding a cartridge complete, is forged in a block LEETCH'S RIFLE, OPENED FOR LOADING. (TWO-THIRDS SIZE.) of metal a, and furnished with a nipple. This chamber is hinged so that it readily falls sideways to the right (see fig. 85), on being pulled in that direction by the hinged lever, c, ex- posing the open end of the barrel, and the space d between this and the false breech, in which it lies j while its own open mouth, 5, admits of the insertion of the Government cartridge in the usual way, after which it is turned back, the nipple is capped, and the whole is ready for use. A bolt in connexion with the hammer drops into this chamber, and securely fixes it, preventing the explosion of the cap unless the chamber is secured. This plan is very simple, and I have WESTLEY RICHARDS' NEW RIFLE. 339 seen extremely good practice made at short ranges; but there must of necessity be an escape of gas quite as great as in the revolver, which has the advantage of permitting five or six shots in rapid succession. If, therefore, the escape is not objectionable to the sportsman, I should advise a revolving rifle with five or six chambers in preference to this, with only one. Still, Mr. Leetch's rifle has the advantage of using the Government ammunition, and on that account it will be valuable to sportsmen on distant stations, WESTLEY RICHARDS' NEW RIFLE. A patent was taken out in 1858, by a celebrated gun- maker of Birmingh im, for a breech-loading carbine, which, i lA UK HAUD3 1 NEW RIFLE, OPEN (lIALP SIZE), AND SECTION OF THK BARKEL (FULL SIZE). as recently modified, has given great satisfaction to the Small Arms Committee, and for some purposes is likely to be useful z 2 340 THE SPORTING RIFLE. to the sportsman. It is extremely simple in its action, and can be loaded with the utmost ease ; but it is open to the objection of escape at the breech, and on that account is rather to be avoided by the sportsman, excepting for special purposes such as buffalo hunting, where easy loading on horseback is a great object. With regard to any credit which may accrue to the inventor, his rifle appears to me to be clearly a modification of Restell's (see fig. 84), and of the Comte de Chateauvillier's gun (see figs. 58 and 59). This rifle is constructed as follows : Fig. 86 represents the rifle with the breech open, ready for loading; all that is necessary for this purpose being to raise the lever a b, when the chamber f is exposed, and after pushing the cartridge forward through this into the barrel, the lever is depressed, the sliding plug d is driven forward by the shoulder c striking against f, and the breech is closed. When this is done, the parts occupy the position shown in fig. 87. It WESTLEY RICHARDS' RIFLE CLOSED. (HALF SIZE.) will be seen, that by the form of the back of the chamber at f the plug cannot easily rise by the force of the explosion, being confined down partly by a spring at b, and partly by the undercutting of the plug at/! The bore of the carbine is small, being about fifty-two, and therefore LANCASTER'S BREECH-LOADING RIFLES. 341 the force of the explosion is not very great; so that I have no doubt that the method adopted is sufficient to close the breech ; but though I have never seen it shot, I should have little doubt that there is a considerable escape. As to the rifling, the bore is octagonal (see fig. 86 g), but each side of the octagon is slightly convex, and hence there is no sharp angle or groove cut in the ball, but eight concave grooves are impressed on its surface. Beneath the socket for the lever is a lock bolt, which is depressed by the latter when closed, the object being to prevent the possibility of a discharge while the breech is open. This is a recent addition, made, I believe, to meet the objection offered by the " Small Arms Committee," that the rifle might easily be exploded by a careless man with the lever only partially depressed. The cartridge used is of the ordinary kind. LANCASTER'S BREECH-LOADING RIFLES. Mr. Lancaster, with his usual ingenuity, has produced two breech-loading rifles. One of these is a purely military carbine, having the cock below the barrel and in front of the trigger, so that it will be unnecessary to allude to it here. The other is a double sporting rifle, exactly similar in its breech and locks to the shot-gun described at page 276, but rifled on the oval spiral method partially alluded to among the muzzle-loaders at page 318. As, however, this kind of sporting rifle has obtained a considerable reputation, it will be necessary to describe it here more minutely. I have before remarked, that the locks and the method of opening and closing the breech are exactly as given at page 276, the cartridges also being made in the same way. The barrels are of course rifled, and this is done on the oval spiral method adopted by Mr. Lancaster in all cases. The twist is one in 32 inches, which is the length of the barrels, and the bore 498. The variation of the bore from a perfect circle is only '01 in half an inch, being scarcely to be detected by the eye without the aid of some mechanical appliance such as a gauge. This method of rifling has been compared to a rifle with two grooves cut very shallow, and with the angles ground down. It is alleged by the advocates of the prin- 342 THE SPORTING EIFLE. ciple that friction is greatly diminished to such an extent, they say, as to be scarcely greater than in an ordinary smooth bore, while the opponents declare that, instead of this, it is increased, the ball being jammed in the barrel as it is converted from the circular form which it has before firing to the oval section of the barrel. My own belief is that the friction is very slight, and that when sufficient rotation is given this rifling answers remarkably well, but that in a certain proportion of shots the ball "strips" and goes nearly straight through the barrel, and not having sufficient spin is immediately upset. The bullet now adopted by Lancaster is the solid Pritchett, with the cylindrical portion covered with thin greased paper. The length of the ball is 2J diameters, and the windage one five-thousandth. In loading the cartridge, as the ball is circular in its diameter, it may be inserted without regard to the bore that is to say, in any position. If the fit is carefully ad- justed, I believe that the ball will rarely "strip;" but with- out extreme circumspection the accident is almost sure to arise. Each ball must be passed through a gauge called a " swedge," and with this precaution the rifle will be found to be extremely useful ; but from the high price charged by Mr. Lancaster (60 to 80 guineas) it is not within the reach of every sportsman. NEEDHAM'S RIFLE. This rifle is capable of being made either with two barrels or one, the original principle, with a slight alteration, being adopted throughout the Prussian army. In either case the lock, stock, and breech are exactly similar to the shot gun described at page 267. The barrel, of course, varies in being rifled, and the cartridge has a ring instead of a perfect wad to support the cap, so as not to interfere with the progress of the bullet as it lies before it. The barrels are usually 2 ft. 9 in. in length, with three-quarters of a turn in three feet ; bore, 30. The rifling consists of five shallow grooves without sharp angles, and very similar to Mr. Boucher's plan, de- scribed at page 320. In smaller bores the grooves are only three or four, according to the diameter. Mr. Needham's opinion is that the nature of the grooving is not of much GILBERT SMITH'S AMERICAN RIFLE. 343 importance in breech-loaders so long as the ball is made of the same size as the barrel at the bottom of the grooves. I have never seen these rifles tried, so I cannot give any opinion as to their merits; but, excepting in the perforated wad or ring before the ball, there is little to alter their shooting from that of any ordinary breech-loader. THE LEFAUCHEAUX RIFLE. Almost any form of rifling may be adapted to a pair of barrels constructed with Lefaucheaux's breech, but those which I have seen tried have been of the Enfield bore and grooves, made by Reilly, and they have performed well at 100 and 200 yards. The cartridge is similar in principle, but usually of smaller diameter, as there are few who would now use a rifle with a 12 or 16 bore the former, on the usual allowance of 2 \ diameters, carrying a 3 oz. ball, and the latter one weighing 2^ ounces. The weight of these rifles with Enfield barrels is about 9 Ibs. Cartridges to suit the Enfield bore, numbered 24, are made by the French cartridge-makers, and may be obtained of any gunmaker by special order. BASTIN'S RIFLE. As this rifle differs from Lefaucheaux's only in the mode of closing the breech, as described at page 264, it is unneces- sary to allude to it further here. Although there is no hinge, and the barrels slide, I believe the joint is not so strong when the breech is closed as that of the Lefaucheaux pattern. GILBERT SMITH'S AMERICAN RIFLE. This new rifle has recently been brought over to this country for trial before the Small Arms Committee, and is patented both here and in France, as well as in America. It is so constructed that the joint is broken in the middle of the chamber for the cartridge, and it is hoped by the inventor that this will prevent all escape ; while by simply perforating the centre of the wad, which closes the base of the cartridge, 344 THE SPORTING RIFLE. and carrying the tube leading from the nipple down to the corresponding part in the back of the chamber, an ordi nary cap is sufficient. Fig. 88 shows a section of the chamber FIG. 88. GILBERT SMITH'S AMERICAN \ \ RIFLE. (HALF SIZE.) \ \ with the cartridge inserted and the breech closed by the catch b, which is raised by the lever e added when a moor is taken, but not required for any other kind of preserve. METHODS OF OBTAINING EGGS. 309 chief danger being of their contracting the diseases which attack the poultry-yard, and especially that known as " the gapes." It is found by experience that whether the wild pheasant is allowed to sit on all her eggs or not, in most seasons she will only rear about seven or eight young birds ; and so if the keeper can take half her average num- ber of eggs from her, and put them under a hen, all that he brings up may be considered as clear gain. When woods are to be heavily stocked this hand rearing is all important, for without it a large head of game is found tp be beyond the powers of the most careful and experienced keeper. The hen cannot cover more than half her brood when they grow into anything like size, and at that time they contract colds, &c., and die off with the result which I have alluded to above. Nor can the wild hen pheasant find food for more than a cer- tain number, while the keeper has it in his power to obtain unlimited supplies for his tame birds. Hence it has come to pass that for high preserving the artificial rearing of pheasants is universally adopted. METHODS OF OBTAINING EGGS. The great drawback to the artificial rearing of game is the temptation which is offered to keepers to procure the eggs necessary for the purpose by improper means. They are constantly offered to him by loose characters, who obtain them by robbing the nests ; and too often it happens that the keeper buys them regardless of the mode in which they are obtained. The competition in getting a good head of game is so strong that neither keeper nor, very frequently, his master, cares much how the tiling is done, so that it is done; and as eggs must be procured somehow, the robber of the nest t^ets rewarded instead of being punished. The penalty of five shillings per egg is very easily enforced, but we rarely hear of the law being carried out, for the simple reason that very few keepers can come into court with clean hands. Yet nothing can be more suicidal than this, for every one is robbed in his turn ; and many a preserver pays for his own eggs, which would remain in their nests if there were no premium for the robbery offered by himself and his B B 370 THE GAME PRESERVER'S GUIDE. neighbours. No doubt a law which should make the sale of the eggs of game birds altogether illegal would add to the difficulty of procuring them, but then it would still more diminish the necessity for them, because there would be more nests naturally brought to maturity. There are three modes in which eggs may legitimately be obtained : 1st, From nests which- are found in mowing grass, and which are chiefly those of partridges; 2ndly, by taking away a certain number from each nest without dis- turbing the old birds; and 3rdly, by keeping tame pheasants in confinement for the express purpose. Of these the first is the least useful, because the eggs are almost always partially set on, and unless a " broody" bantam hen is at hand they will be rapidly spoiled. Machines known as Incubators have been suggested in lieu of these birds, but there are few gamekeepers who can manage them; and, I believe, they would seldom pay for their cost. Some keepers take care to have three or four hens always sitting during the mowing season, and by substituting the eggs of the partridge or phea- sant for their own, the value of which is not very great, the former are brought to maturity. This resource, however, is not one on which great reliance can be placed. The second plan is one which is largely practised by some most successful game-preservers, but it is chiefly applicable to pheasants. As I have already remarked, very few hen- pheasants rear more than eight birds, though they lay from ten to fourteen eggs, or even sometimes a greater number. The difference between the number of the eggs and of the resulting birds arises from the death, produced by exposure to the weather, of those young birds which the mother cannot cover with her wings ; and it is found that if she has only seven or eight to begin with she will rear them all, and they will also be far stronger and better fed birds, from the hen being enabled to procure more food for them. The keeper, therefore, takes care to find each nest, and while the birds are on the evening feed he takes from it all above seven or eight, which are left to be hatched in the usual way. In an ordinary preserve this ought to give sufficient eggs for artificial rearing, with the addition of the third plan, to be next described. HATCHING. 371 Three, four, or five tame-bred hen pheasants are put into a pen with one cock, a difference of opinion existing as to the best proportion for the purpose, but this \vill vary much according to circumstances. Some strong healthy cocks will do better with four or even five hens than with three, while others again will scarcely fructify the eggs of the smallest number of hens mentioned. Wild birds will lay in confine- ment if they are put in a quiet place and not disturbed, but they will not produce nearly so many eggs, and of what they do lay a large proportion will be addled. If wild birds only can be procured, the best plan is to cut one of their wings, and make a large walled enclosure in the middle of a quiet covert, open over head, into which the wild cocks come. The hens make their nests in the usual way, and these are robbed of their eggs as fast as they are laid, taking care to leave a nest egg. Sometimes in this mode twenty eggs a piece may be procured from wild hens, but rarely above that number, while tame hens will generally lay from twenty- four to thirty eggs each. The above plan is a good one, even with tame-bred hens, which should have one of their wings cut in any case, for, however careful the breeder may be to avoid frightening them, such an event will occasionally occur, and then if full-winged they fly up against the cover, and crush their skulls or break their necks, if it is solid, or hang themselves in a mesh if it is of network. Pinioning is an unnecessary cruelty, and as it is permanent the hens can never be turned out. Moreover, the cutting of the quill feathers close to the wing bone is equally efficient if it is done as fast as the feathers grow during the moulting time. HATCHING. A large lxt,dcv THE MOCK I'Mi: \-.\NT. For partridges bushing is the best remedy that can be adopted against the nets, which are yearly swept over the ground wherever the poacher thinks he can do so with im- punity. The bushes are often stuck in the ground at regular intervals and in straight rows, but this should never be done as the poachers sweep the nets up between the lines and thus set the bushing at defiance. They should be stuck into the 422 THE GAME PRESERVER'S GUIDE. ground at about twenty yards distance from each other, but as irregularly as possible. Wheat stubbles and upland grass are the most probable roosting places of these birds, but barley stubbles without seeds are nearly as likely, and even the seeds themselves are sometimes chosen. Few labourers sleep through the night without being aware of the use of the net, which cannot be drawn without some noise, and if they like they can always give the keeper warning and stop the netting at once. Hares are taken by gate nets, after stopping all the meuses in the field, when a mute dog soon drives all within it into the net. Or they are snared in the fatal wire, or caught in small bag nets placed over some of the meuses, the others being stopped. The nets are the most fatal methods because they are soon put down and soon taken up again, whereas the wires require some little time to set. Long nets are some- times set in the open, and the hares driven into them, and wires are also set on their runs, where they are caught even more easily than in the meuse. Hares and rabbits always stop and examine the meuse unless closely pressed, but they run carelessly along in the open, and put their necks within the snare without the slightest hesitation. An artist in his line will scarcely miss a hare if he is left undisturbed, and allowed to inspect the ground freely beforehand. So also in coverts, they are completely cleared by the clever poacher in a very short time, if he is permitted to get into them and set his wires. Long netting both for hares and partridges is the most difficult to circumvent, excepting by watching the poachers themselves and so taking care that they cannot meet together in any number without its being known. Scarcely any known method will stop it, for the nets may be fixed anywhere, and as the game is driven into them no bushing or similar set of obstacles is of any use. The Scotch poachers in the Highland districts are very difficult to counteract, because they have such a wide scope, and can seldombe caught unawares. Even in the daytime they manage to get to leeward of the keepers and watchers, and thus are able to proceed in their task, shooting away till they have killed as much as they can carry. Grouse are netted in large numbers before the season and kept till they can be THE GAME LAWS. 423 sold, which. I trust in future will not be till after the llth of August. Here a first-rate keeper is required, aided by a clever set of watchers, and they will have their hands full just before the season, and towards the latter part of it, when the shooters are not so thick on the ground. From the many difficulties which 1 have shown to exist in counteracting the poacher when he has once set to work, I must impress upon my readers the importance of taking eveiy precaution to keep him blockaded at home. This re- quires a considerable number of watchers who are to be depended on, but after all it is the only effectual way, and as such is the cheapest in the end. The grand secret in game preserving is to depend upon the prevention of mischief in its commencement, and not upon stopping it when it hap gained its full swing. Many a man would stay at home if ho knew that he was going to risk a murder, but if his blood is up, his pride and his obstinacy, or courage if you like to call it so, alike prevent him from allowing himself to be foiled. CHAPTER Y. THE G A M E LAWS. GENERAL REMARKS ENGLISH GAME LAW OF 1831 LAW FOR PERMIT- TIM; THE KILUNG OK HARES IN ENGLAND SCOTCH LAWS, INCLUDING THAT PERMITTING THE KILLING OF HAKES, AND ALSO THE LAW OF TRESPASS IRISH GAME LAWS. THE limited space which can be given to this subject in the present work prevents me from entering into the history of these laws, and I must confine my attention to the working of those parts of them which more especially concern the shooter. It is most unfortunate that the laws relating to game differ most essentially in England, Ireland, and Scotland so that a sportsman who is only acquainted with the law of one of these countries, is constantly liable to break that which prevails in either of the others. This still 424 THE GAME PRESERVER'S GUIDE. further restricts my remarks, as it will be necessary to show the sportsmen of the three countries the position in which they stand. THE ENGLISH GAME LAWS. To the general reader, for whom alone these remarks are intended, it may be necessary to premise, that offences of all kinds are punishable by the common law, which is dependent iipon the practice of the courts, and is unwritten ; and also by statute laws, which from time to time have been made by the Acts of our Parliament. In the case of game there are several of the latter kind now in existence, as the Game Law of 1831; the law permitting the killing of hares; the law regulating certificates, &c., &c. Now, if it happens that the punishment for an offence is clearly provided for by the statute law, there is no difficulty, and comparatively little expense ; but if, on the contrary, the common law must be had recourse to, an action must be brought in the ordinary courts, and a heavy outlay is required. Sometimes the proof of an act having been committed required by the two laws is quite different as in the case of trespass, which, by the common law, is committed by a person who remains upon a road, but sends his dog into the fields to beat to him. This offence, however, does not come under the definition of the 3rd and 4th William IV., c. 32, which demands an actual " being upon the soil" of the person of the trespasser. The mere damage done in the trespass is also generally so trifling, and the proceedings at common law are so expensive, that few people like to have recourse to it; and in my opinion, if an offence is not clearly made out by one of the statutes made to apply to such cases, it is better under ordinary circumstances to put up with the consequences. The experience of the last twenty-five years tells us that the present law is by no means as satisfactory as it might be made; but while there is so strong a feeling against any game law, as there is now in a large section of the people, it is dangerous to make the attempt to alter it. If, however, the task should be forced upon the Legislature ; or if, at any future time, the Government should feel strong enough to carry a new bill, the following suggestions, made by Colonel THE ENGLISH GAME LAWS. 425 Layard (the chief of the constabulary in the East Riding of Yorkshire), to the Hon. Grantley Berkeley, are deserving of great attention not only as coining from an official who has long been concerned in putting down crimes of all kinds in a county where game preserving is strictly carried out, but as being of a most feasible character in themselves. The following are Colonel LayarcCs suggestions: "With reference to the best mode of putting down the present system of poaching, which has of late been carried to such a fearful extent that life and property are unhesitatingly sacrificed to effect their purpose by those who live by it and acknowledge no other trade or mode of gaining a livelihood, I would suggest that a clause be introduced into the Vagrant Act empowering a magistrate ' to commit to the house of correction for any period .not exceeding one month, or less than fourteen days, all persons apprehended with game in their possession between the proscribed hours of night viz., one hour after sunset and one hour after sunrise, if such persons cannot satisfactorily account for having game in their possession, showing whence it came, and to whom it belongs.' Further, I would recommend that all game found on such parties as are committed, ' be sold by order of the magistrate to some licensed dealer in game, the proceeds to be applied, in the first instance, to defray all expenses incurred in the apprehension of the offender; and should there be any surplus, the same to be paid over to the county rate.' Thus, the constabulary of any county or borough, acting (as they have power to do) upon the right to search all suspicious characters entering towns or met on the roads during the night, would have the power to detain all such parties, and bring them before a justice; and by the frequent and constant recurrence of apprehension, and their loss of the game, poaching would cease to be a lucrative trade or occu- pation, as it now is. " As the law now stands, the police are daily searching parties on whom game is found in great quantities; and the notorious poacher will boast to them of having had a good night of it, or not, as the case may be ; but if one head of poultry was found on them, they could at once be detained. " As regards the sale of game by unlicensed persons, it 426 THE GAME PRESERVER'S GUIDE. has been suggested that all game found on suspicious parties, whether in carts, or boats, or other vehicles, should be liable to be seized by the police, and taken before a magistrate, ' who shall have power to direct it to be forfeited and sold as before stated if the person claiming it cannot prove an undoubted right to it by a legitimate purchase as a licensed dealer, or as having killed it on his own grounds.' It would also be worth consideration how far it would be advisable to increase the price of a licence for dealing in game, from the present lower figure of 21. to one of 10., thus insuring a more respectable class of tradesmen." THE NEW GAME LAW OP 1831 FOR ENGLAND AND WALES (1 & 2 WILL. 4, CAP. XXXIL). I. Repeals the following Acts viz., 13 Ric. 2, st. 1, c. 13 ; 22 Edw. 4, c. 6; 11 Hen. 7, c. 17; 19 Hen. 7, c. 10 ; 14 & 15 Hen. 8, c. 16; 25 Hen. 8, c. 11 ; 33 Hen. 8, c. 6; 23 Eliz. c. 10 ; 2 Jac. 1, c. 27 ; 7 Jac. 1, c. 11 ; 22 & 23 Car. 2, c. 25 ; 4 W. & M. c. 23 ; 5 Ann. c. 14 ; 9 Ann. c. 25 ; 8 G. 1, c. 19 ; 10 G. 2, c. 32 ; 26 G. 2, c. 2 ; 28 G. 2, c. 12 ; 2 G. 3, c. 19; 13 G. 3,c. 55; 13 G. 3, c. 80; 39 G. 3, c. 34; 43 G. 3, c. 112; 50 G. 3, c. 67 ; 58 G. 3, c. 75; 59 G.3, c. 102. II. What shall be deemed game. And be it enacted, that the word " Game" shall for all the purposes of this Act be deemed to include hares, pheasants, partridges, grouse, heath or moor game, black game, and bus- tards ; and that the words " Lord of a Manor, Lordship, or Royalty, or reputed Manor, Lordship, or Royalty," shall throughout this act be deemed to include a lady of the same respectively. III. Days and seasons during which game shall not be kitted. Penalty for laying poison to kill game. And be it enacted, that if any person whatsoever shall kill or take any game, or use any dog, gun, net, or other engine or instrument for the purpose of killing or taking any game, on a Sunday or Christmas Day, such person shall on conviction thereof before two justices of the peace, forfeit and pay for every such offence such sum of money, not exceeding five pounds, as to the said justices shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction ; and if any person what- soever shall kill or take any partridge between the first day of February and the first day of September in any year, or any pheasant between the first day of February and the first day of October in any year, or any black game (except in the county of Somerset or Devon, or in the New Forest in the county of Southampton) between the tenth day of December in any year and the twentieth day of August in the succeeding year, or in the county of Somerset or Devon, or in the New Forest aforesaid, be- tween the tenth day of December in any year and the first day of Sep- tember in the succeeding year, or any grouse commonly called red game between the tenth day of December in any year and the twelfth day of THE ENGLISH GAME LAW. 427 August in the succeeding year, or any bustard between the first day of March and the first day of September in any year, every such person shall, on conviction of any such oflence before two justices of the peace, forfeit and pay, for every head of game so killed or taken, such sum of money, IK it exceeding one pound, as to the said justices shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction ; and if any person, with intent to destroy or injure any game, shall at any time put or cause to be put any poison or poisonous ingredient on any ground, whether open or inclosed, where game usually resort, or in any highway, every such person shall, on con- viction thereof before two justices of the peace, forfeit and pay such sum of money, not exceeding ten pounds, as to the said justices shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction. IV. Possession of game illegal after ten days in dealers, and forty days in other persons, from the expiration of the season. And be it enacted, That if any person licensed to deal in game by virtue of this act as hereinafter mentioned shall buy or sell, or knowingly have in his house, .shop, stall, possession, or control, any bird or game after the expiration of ten days (one inclusive and the other exclusive) from the respective days in each year on which it shall become unlawful to kill or take such birds of game respectively as aforesaid ; or if any person, not being licensed to deal in game by virtue of this act, as hereinafter mentioned, shall buy or sell any bird of game after the expiration of ten days (one inclusive and the other exclusive) from the respective days in each year on which it shall become unlawful to kill or take such birds of game respectively as aforesaid, or shall knowingly have in his house, possession, or control, any bird of game (except birds of game kept in a mew or breeding place, after the expiration of forty days, one inclusive and the other exclusive) from the respective days in each year on which it shall become unlawful to kill or take such birds of game respectively as aforesaid ; every such person shall, on conviction of any such offence before two justices of the peace, forfeit and pay for every head of game so bought or sold, or found in his house, shop, possession, or control, such sum of money, not ex- ceeding one pound, as to the convicting justices shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction.* * One of the most important results of the formation of the new Asso- ciation for the Prevention of the Sale of Game out of Season is the acknowledgment of the stringent nature of the law, which forbids the sale of live as well as dead birds of game out of the proper season. Hitherto it has been generally held, though we find it to be otherwise laid down in the law books, that a dealer in live game might lawfully sell birds of game if tame bred at any season of the year; and upon this interpretation of the act advertisements for the sale of live pheasants have been admitted into the columns of the sporting papers, for, though their conductors have alwavs believed that nine tenths of the pheasants thus sold were poached, they considered that they had no right to act upon this hypothesis, and therefore, though reluctantly, the advertise- ments were allowed to appear. Hut on the formation of the new Associa- tion a case was tried before the Lord Mayor, the law was examined care- 428 THE GAME PRESERVER'S GUIDE. V. This act not to affect the existing laivs respecting game certifi- cates. And be it enacted, that nothing in this act contained shall in any wise affect or alter (except as hereinafter mentioned) any act or acts now in force by which any person using any dog-, gun, net, or other engine for the purpose of taking or killing any game whatever, or any woodcock, fully, and it was discovered that at no period between the 10th of February and the 1st of October can live pheasants, nor between the former date and the 1st of September can live partridges be sold, unless the contract for their delivery had previously been made, this exception having been ruled to be good in the case of Porritt v. Baker and another (10 Ex. R 759). From this it clearly appears that the buying or selling is forbidden under any circumstances during the close time ; but in the case cited above it was held that if the agreement to sell is made during the season, the delivery may be effected afterwards ; and fortunately in this case there can be no probable evasion of the law, because one party to the transaction is almost always a proprietor of game, whose evidence may fairly be accepted as trustworthy. But the succeeding clause of the sec- tion appears to throw some difficulty in the way of the unseasonable deli- very of these birds so bargained for, since we find that the penalty is enforced upon any person " who shall knowingly have in his house, pos- they leave one " mew or breeding-pl another, or are turned out. It cannot be argued, and no attempt was made to that effect before the Lord Mayor, that a hamper in a market- place is a "mew or breeding-place," and hence we believe that the sale of live birds of game is practically forbidden by the Act out of the season during which the corresponding birds can be legally sold when dead. Such is the law of the case ; but it may be said that it is an unsatis- factory law, and so it is alleged to be by the dealers who live upon its profits, but by no good sportsman as far as I know. The facts really are, that thousands, and probably tens of thousands of poached pheasants are annually sold by such men. A profit of from 5s. to 10s. a brace is made on them ; and this in " large contracts" is a pretty heavy fine for game preservers to pay. Lazy keepers persuade their masters that the trade is necessary, and sometimes connive at the sale to them of their own birds previously stolen for the purpose. Such practices must be put down, and the Association will deserve the thanks of the shooting community if they will earnestly carry through their purpose so auspiciously com- menced in the present year. There is plenty of time before the 10th of February for the sale of old birds intended for turning out or laying, and after the 30th of September for that of young ones which are to stock the preserves for the current year. The breeder may lawfully keep these in their proper breeding-places till then, and as few preservers shoot any but their small outlying coverts (where tame-bred birds are never put down) till the end of October, and most not until November, there is plenty of time in the interval for the purpose. Even if some slight inconvenience is thereb " : THE ENGLISH GAME LAW. 429 snipe, quail, or landrail, or any conies, are required to obtain and have annual game certificates, but that all persons who before the commence- ment of this act were required to obtain and have such certificates, shall after the commencement of this act be required from time to time to obtain and have the like certificates ; and all the powers, provisions, and penalties contained in such act or acts shall continue in as full force and effect as if this act had not been made ; and that all regulations and pro- visions contained in any act or acts relative to game certificates, so far as they relate to gamekeepers of manors, and to the amount of duty for game certificates to be charged upon or in respect of gamekeepers of manors in the cases specified in such act or acts, shall extend and apply to all gamekeepers of lands appointed under this act as fully and effec- tually as if they were gamekeepers of manors, and were expressly men- tioned and charged by such act or acts.* VI. Every certificated person may kill game, subject to the law of trespass. Proviso as to gamekeepers. And be it declared and enacted, that every person who shall have obtained an annual game certificate shall be authorized to kill and take game, subject always to an action, or to such other proceedings as are hereinafter mentioned, for any trespass by him committed in search or pursuit of game : provided always, that no game certificate on which a less duty than three pounds thirteen shil- lings and sixpence is chargeable under the acts relating to game certifi- cates shall authorize any gamekeeper to kill or take any game, or to use caused, it is far better to put up with this than to sanction the wholesale poaching which has long been carried on. The sellers of live game are loud in their denunciation of the sale of dead game out of season, and this practice, we believe, is not defended by any but the Manchester school. In that city game is sold nearly all the year round, and probably there are many dealers there in the dead article who would retort upon our specious correspondent. There is, however, far more difficulty in detecting these gentry, for a dead grouse or a phea- sant may be stowed away in small compass out of sight, whereas a living one requires air and room. " Scotch pigeons" are only sold to those who arc known to be trustworthy law-breakers, and though the Association have succeeded in obtaining evidence of the sale of black game in several instances, we believe it was chiefly because of the leniency shown to Cas- tang, the defendant in the first case, in not pressing for the full penalty. Tin- Society, however, did not wish to do more in his instance than assert the law; but hereafter, I believe, it is their intention to press in every case for the highest penalty which the magistrates will inflict. Black game are no more fit to be shot before the 20th of August than pheasants are prior to the 1st of October, or partridges in the month of August ; and though occasional mistakes may bo made, they cannot possibly account for the enormous numbers that have been annually sold in Leadenhall, Newgate, and Hungerford markets, before the commencement of the proper season. * The certificate for England and Scotland is 4?. 10^. ; for Ireland, 3/. 3s. The latter may be exchanged for the former by paying the difference. 430 THE GAME PRESERVER'S GUIDE. any dog, gun, net, or other engine or instrument for the purpose of killing or taking game, except within the limits included in his appointment as gamekeeper ; hut that in any case where such gamekeeper shall kill or take any game, or use any dog, gun, net, or' other engine or instrument for the purpose of killing or taking game, heyond such limits as afore- said, he may he proceeded against under this act, or otherwise, in the same manner to all intents and purposes as if he had no game certificate whatsoever. VII. Under existing leases the landlord shall have the game, except in certain cases. And be it enacted, that in all cases where any person shall occupy any land under any lease or agreement made previously to the passing of this act, except in the cases hereinafter next excepted, the lessor or landlord shall have the right of entering upon such land, or of authorizing any other person or persons who shall have obtained an annual game certificate to enter upon such land, for the purpose of killing or taking the game thereon ; and no person occupying any land under any lease or agreement, either for life or for years, made previously to the passing of this act, shall have the right to kill or take the game on such land, except where the right of killing the game upon such land has been expressly granted or allowed to such person by such lease or agree- ment, or except where upon the original granting or renewal of such lease or agreement a fine or fines shall have been taken, or except where in the case of a term for years such lease or agreement shall have been made for a term exceeding twenty-one years. VIII. This act not to affect any existing or future agreements re- specting game, nor any rights of manor, forest, chase, or warren. Provided always, and be it enacted, that nothing in this act contained shall authorize any person seised or possessed of or holding any land to kill or take the game, or to permit any other person to kill or take the game upon such land, in any case where, by any deed, grant, or lease, or any written or parol demise or contract, a right of entry upon such land for the purpose of killing or taking the game hath been or hereafter shall be reserved or retained by or given or allowed to any grantor, lessor, land- lord, or other person whatsoever; nor shall anything in this act con- tained defeat or diminish any reservation, exception, covenant, or agreement already contained in any private act of Parliament, deed, or other writing relating to the game upon any land, nor in any manner prejudice the rights of any lord or owner of any forest, chase, or warren, or of any lord of any manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, or of any steward of the Crown of any manor, lordship or royalty apper- taining to his Majesty. IX. This act not to affect any of his Majesty's forest rights, &c. Provided also, and be it enacted, that nothing in this act contained shall in any way alter or affect the prerogative, rights, or privileges of his Majesty, his heirs or successors, nor the powers or authorities now vested in the Commissioners of his Majesty's Woods, Forests, and Land Kevenues, in or relating to any of his Majesty's forests or the boundaries thereof, nor in or relating to the appointment of any stewards, gamekeepers, or other officers of any of his Majesty's forests, parks, or chases, or of any hundred, honor, manor, or lordship, being part of the possessions and land revenues THE ENGLISH GAME LAW. 431 of the Crown, nor the rights, privileges, or immunities of any chief justice in eyre, or any warden, deputy-warden, or lieutenant of any of his Majesty's forests, or any rangers, verdrivrs, foresters, master-keepers, under-keepers, or other officers of or in any such forests, parks, or chases, or of any person entitled to any right or privilege under them or any of them, nor the rights or privileges of any persons holding under any grants or purchases from the Crown, nor give to any lord of any manor or manors within any forest or the boundaries thereof, nor to any other person whatsoever, any privileges, rights, or powers within any such forest, park, or chase, or the boundaries thereof, which he did not possess or to which he was not entitled before the passing of this act, but that all the aforesaid preroga- tives, immunities, privileges, rights and powers shall remain as if this act had not been made. X. Not to affect any cattle gates or right of common Lord of manor to have the yame on the wastes. Provided also, and be it enacted, that nothing herein contained shall be deemed to give to any owner of cattlegates or rights of common upon or over any wastes or commons any interest or privilege which such owner was not pos- sessed of before the passing of this act, nor to authorize such owner of cattlegates or rights of common to pursue or kill the game found on' such wastes or commons ; and that nothing herein contained shall defeat or diminish the rights or privileges which any lord of any manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, or any steward of the Crown of any manor, lordship, or royalty, appertaining to his Majesty, may, before the passing of thig act, have exercised in or over such wastes or commons; and that the lord or steward of the Crown of every manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, shall have the right to pursue and kill the game upon the wastes or commons within such manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, and to authorize any other person or persons who shall have obtained an annual game certificate to enter upon such wastes or commons for the purpose of pursuing and killing the game thereon. XI. Lanrllnrif, hariiKj tli<> yame, may authorize others to kill it. And be it enacted, that where the lessor or landlord shall have reserved to himself the right of killing the game upon any land, it shall be lawful for him to authorize any other person or persons who shall have obtained an annual game certificate to enter upon such land for the purpose of pursuing and killing game thereon. XII. Where the landlord, &c., has the right to the game, in exclusion of the occupier, the occupier thatt be liable to a penalty far hilliyy it. And be it enacted, that where the right of killing the game upon any land is by this act given to any lessor or landlord, in exclusion of the right of the occupier of such land, or where such exclusive right hath been or shall be specially reserved by or granted to, or doth or shall belong to, the lessor or landlord, or any person whatsoever other than the occupier of such land, then and in every such case, if the occupier of such land shall pursue, kill, or take any game upon such land, or shall give permission to any other person so to do, without the authority of the lessor, landlord, or other person having the right of killing the game upon such land, such occupier shall, on conviction thereof before two justices of 432 THE GAME PRESERVERS GUIDE. the peace, forfeit and pa} 7 for such pursuit such sum of money not ex- ceeding two pounds, and for every head of game so killed or taken such sum of money not exceeding one pound, as to the convicting justices shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction. XIII. Lords of manors may appoint gamekeepers Powers of game- keepers in manors. And be it enacted, that it shall be lawful for any lord of a manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, or any steward of the Crown of any manor, lordship, or royalty, appertaining to his Majesty, by writing under hand and seal, or in case of a body corporate, then under the seal of such body corporate, to ap- point one or more person or persons as a gamekeeper or gamekeepers to preserve or kill the game within the limits of such manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, for the use of such lord or steward thereof, and to authorize such gamekeeper or gamekeepers within the said limits to seize arid take for the use of such lord or steward, all such dogs, nets, and other engines and instruments for the killing or taking of game as shall be used within the said limits by any person not authorized to kill game for want of a game certificate. XIV. Lords of manors may grant deputations. And be it enacted, that it shall be lawful for any lord of a manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, or any steward of the Crown of any manor, lordship, or royalty, appertaining to his Majesty, to appoint and depute any person whatever, whether acting as a gamekeeper to any other person or not, or whether retained and paid for as the male servant of any other person or not, to be a gamekeeper for any such manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, or for such division or district of such manor, lordship, or royalty, as such lord or steward of the Crown shall think fit, and to authorize such person, as gamekeeper, to kill game within the same for his own use or for the use of any other person or persons who may be specified in such appointment or deputation, and also to give to such person all such powers and authorities as may by virtue of this act be given to any gamekeeper of a manor ; and no person so appointed gamekeeper, and empowered to kill game for his own use or for the use of any other person so specified as aforesaid, and not killing any game for the use of the lord or steward of the Crown of the manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, for which such deputation or appointment shall be given, shall be deemed to be or shall be entered or paid for as the gamekeeper or male servant of the lord or steward making such appointment or deputation, anything in any act or acts contained to the contrary notwithstanding.* XV. Regulations respecting appointment of gamekeepers in Wales. And be it enacted, that it shall be lawful for every person who shall be entitled to kill the game upon any lands in Wales of the clear annual value of five hundred pounds, whereof he shall be seised in fee or as of freehold, or to which he shall otherwise be beneficially entitled in his own right, if such lands shall not be within the bounds of any manor, lordship, or royalty, or if, being within the same, they shall have been enfranchised * Gamekeeper's certificates vary according to circumstances. See 52 George 111. cap. 93. THE ENGLISH GAME LAW. 433 or alienated therefrom, to appoint, by writing under his hand and seal, a gamekeeper or gamekeepers to preserve or kill the game over and upon such his lands, and also over and upon the lands in Wales of any other person, who, being entitled to kill the game upon such last-mentioned lands, shall by licence in writing authorize him to appoint a gamekeeper or gamekeepers to preserve or kill the game thereupon, such last- mentioned lands not being within the bounds of any manor, lordship, or royalty, or having been enfranchised or alienated therefrom ; and it shall be lawful for the person so appointing a gamekeeper or gamekeepers to authorize him or them to seize and take, for the use of the person so ap- pointing, upon the lands of which he or they shall be appointed game- keeper or gamekeepers, all such dogs, nets, and other engines and instru- ments for the killing or taking of game as shall be used upon the said lands by any person not authorized to kill game for want of a game certificate. XVI. All appointments of gamekeepers to be registered with the clerk of the peace. Provided always, and be it enacted, that no appointment or deputation of any person as a gamekeeper by virtue of this act shall be valid unless and until it shall be registered with the clerk of the peace for the county, riding, division, liberty, franchise, city, or town wherein the manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, or the lands, shall be situate, for or in respect of which such person shall Lave been appointed gamekeeper ; and in case the appointment of any person as gamekeeper shall expire or be revoked, by dismissal or other- wise, all powers and authorities given to him by virtue of this act shall immediately cease and determine. XVII. Certificated persons may sell game to licensed dealers. Proviso as to gamekeepers. And be it enacted, that every person who shall have obtained an annual game certificate shall have power to sell game to any person licensed to deal in game, according to the provisions hereinafter mentioned : provided always, that no game certificate on which a less duty than three pounds thirteen shillings and sixpence is chargeable under the acts relating to game certificates shall authorize any game- keeper to sell any game, except on the account and with the written authority of the master whose gamekeeper he is ; but that any such game- keeper selling any game not on the account and with the written autho- rity of such master may be proceeded against under this act in the same manner, to all intents and purposes, as if he had no game certificate whatsoever. XVIII. Justices to hold a special session yearly for granting licences to persons to deal in game. Dealers in game to put up a board. And be it enacted, that the justices of the peace of every county, riding, divi- sion, liberty, franchise, city, or town shall hold a special session in the division or district for which they usually act, in the present year, be- tween the fifteenth and the thirtieth days of October, and in every suc- ceeding year in the month of July, for the purpose of granting licences to deal in game, of the holding of which session seven days' notice shall be given to each of the justices acting for such division or district, and the majority of the justices assembled at such session, or at some adjourn- ment thereof, not being less than two, are hereby authorized (if they F F 434 THE GAME PRESERVER'S GUIDE. shall think fit) to grant, under their hands, to any person being a house- bolder or keeper of a shop or stall within such division or district, and not being an innkeeper^ or victualler, or licensed to sell beer by re- tail, nor being the owner, guard, or driver of any mail coach, or other vehicle employed in the conveyance of the mails of letters, or of any stage coach, stage waggon, van, or other public conveyance, nor being a carrier or higgler, nor being in the employment of any of the above-men- tioned persons, a licence according to the form in the schedule (A) an- nexed to this act, empowering the person to whom such licence shall be so granted to buy game at any place from any person who may lawfully sell game by virtue of this act, and also to sell the same at one house, shop, or stall only, kept by him ; provided that every person, while so licensed to deal in game as aforesaid, shall affix to some part of .the out- side of the front of his house, shop, or stall, and shall there keep, a board having thereon in clear and legible characters his Christian name and surname, together with the following words, (that is to say,) " Licensed to deal in game ;" and every such licence granted in the present year shall begin to be in force on the first day of November in the present year, and shall continue in force until the fifteenth day of July, one thousand eight hundred and thirty-two, and every such licence granted in any succeeding year shall continue in force for the period of one year next after the granting thereof. XIX. Persons licensed to deal in game must take, out a certificate, with a duty of 21. And be it enacted, that every person who shall have ob- tained any licence to deal in game under the provisions of this act shall annually and during the continuance of his licence, and before he shall be -empowered to deal in game under such licence, obtain a certificate ac- cording to the form in the schedule (B) annexed to this act, on payment of the duty of two pounds, which is hereby granted and made payable to his Majesty for every such certificate, which certificate shall be in force for the same period as such licence ; and the said duty shall be paid to the collector or collectors of the assessed taxes for the parish, township, or place in which the person so licensed shall reside, in like manner as the duties on game certificates are by law payable ; and every receipt to foe given by any collector receiving such duty shall be free of stamp duty, and shall be delivered to the person requiring the same, on payment to the collector of one shilling, and no more, over and above the said duty for the certificate ; and such receipt shall be exchanged for a certificate tinder this act, in like manner as receipts for the duty in respect of killing game are by law required to be exchanged for game certificates ; and if any person obtaining a licence under this act shall purchase or sell or otherwise deal in game, as a licensed dealer under this act, before he shall obtain a certificate in exchange for a receipt as herein directed, such person shall for every such offence forfeit and pay the penalty of twenty pounds. XX. Collectors to make out list of persons who have obtained licences to deal in game. And be it enacted, that the collector or collectors of the assessed taxes in every parish, township, or place wherein any person shall reside who shall have obtained such annual licence and certificate, shall in each year make out a list, to be kept in his or their possession, THE ENGLISH GAME LATV. 435 Containing the name and place of abode of every such person, and shall at all seasonable hours produce such list to any person making verbal ap- plication to inspect the same, and shall be entitled to demand and receive for such inspection the sum of one shilling; and the duties hereby granted as aforesaid in respect of certificates to be obtained by persons licensed to deal in game shall be assessed, charged, raised, levied, and collected by the respective commissioners and justices of the peace, and the several other officers acting in the execution of the several acts re- lating to the ^ assessed taxes, in the same manner, and under the same rules, regulations, and provisions, (except as herein varied,) as the duties on game certificates are by the said acts directed to be assessed, charged, raised, levied, and collected ; and that the penalty of twenty pounds hereby imposed shall be sued for, recovered, and levied either in the dis- trict in which the offence shall be committed, or in the district in which the offender shall reside, and be applied in the same manner, and under the same rules, regulations, and provisions, as penalties on persons doing acts without payment of the game duty, or neglecting to obtain game certificates, are by the said acts directed to be sued for, recovered, levied, and applied, to all intents and purposes whatsoever as if such rules, re- gulations, and provisions were specially repeated and re-enacted in this act. XXI. Proviso as to partners. Provided always, and be it enacted, that persons being in partnership, and carrying on their business at one house, shop, or stall only, shall not be obliged by virtue of this act to take out more than one licence in any one year to authorize them to deal in game at such house, shop, or stall. XXII. Licences when to become void. And be it enacted, that if any person licensed by virtue of this act to deal in game shall during the period of such licence be convicted of any offence whatever against this act, such licence shall thereupon become null and void.* XXIII. Penalty for Idlling game without a certificate. This penalty to be cumulative. And be it enacted, that if any person shall kill or take any game, or use any dog, gun, net, or other engine or instrument for the purpose of searching for or killing or taking game, such person not being authorized so to do for want of a game certificate, he shall, on conviction thereof before two justices of the peace, forfeit and pay for every such offence such sum of money not exceeding five pounds, as to the said justices shall seem meet, together with the costs of the convic- tion : provided always, that no person so convicted shall by reason thereof be exempted from any penalty or liability under any statute or statutes relating to game certificates, but that the penalty imposed by this act shall be deemed to be a cumulative penalty. XXIV. Penalty for destroying or tal.-inf/ 1ltc cm/ft of game, &c. And be it enacted, that if any person not having the right of killing the game ^ * This section is of the utmost importance, as it makes the loss of the licence to sell game imperative, after a conviction, for any deed committed against the provisions of this act, as, for instance, selling game out of season. F F 2 436 THE GAME PRESERVER'S GUIDE. upon any land, nor having permission from the person having such right, shall wilfully take out of the nest or destroy in the nest upon such land the eggs of any bird of game, or of any swan, wild duck, teal, or widgeon, or shall knowingly have in his house, shop, possession, or con- trol any such eggs so taken, every such person shall, on conviction thereof hefore two justices of the peace, forfeit and pay for every egg so- taken or destroyed, or so found in his house, shop, possession, or control,, such sum of money, not exceeding five shillings, as to the said justices shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction. XXV. Penalty for selling game without licence, and on certificated persons selling to unlicensed persons. And be it enacted, that if any person, not having obtained a game certificate (except such person be licensed to deal in game according to this act), shall sell or offer for sale any game to any person whatsoever, or if any person authorized to sell game under this act by virtue of a game certificate shall sell or offer for sale any game to any person whatsoever, except a person licensed to deal in game according to this act, every such offender shall, on conviction of any such offence before two justices of the peace, forfeit and pay for every head of game so sold or offered for sale any sum of money, not exceeding two pounds, as to the said justices shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction. XXVI. Exceptions as to innkeepers. Provided always, and be it further enacted, that it shall be lawful for any innkeeper or tavern- keeper, without any such licence for dealing in game as aforesaid, to sell game for consumption in his own house, such game having been procured from some person licensed to deal in game by virtue of this act, and not otherwise. XXVII. Penalty on per sons buy ing game except from licensed dealers. And be it enacted, that if any person, not being licensed to deal in game according to this act, shall buy any game from any person what- soever, except from a person licensed to deal in game according to this act, or bond fide from a person affixing to the outside of the front of his house, shop, or stall a board purporting to be the board of a person licensed to deal in game, every such offender shall, on conviction thereof before two justices of the peace, forfeit and pay for every head of game so bought such sum of money, not exceeding five pounds, as to the said justices shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction. XXVIII. Penalty on licensed dealers buying game from uncertificated persons, or otherwise offending. And be it enacted, that if any person, being licensed to deal in game according to this act, shall buy or obtain any game from any person not authorized to sell game for want of a game certificate, or for want of a licence to deal in game ; or if any person, being licensed to deal in game according to this act, shall sell or offer for sale, any game at his house, shop, or stall, without such board as afore- said being affixed to some part of the outside of the front of such house, shop, or stall at the time of such selling or offering for sale, or shall affix or canse to be affixed such board to more than one house, shop, or stall, or shall sell any game at any place other than his house, shop, or stall where such board shall have been affixed ; or if any person not being licensed to deal in game according to this act, shall assume or pretend, THE ENGLISH GAME LAW. 437 by affixing such board as aforesaid, or by exhibiting any certificate, or by any other device or pretence, to be a person licensed to deal in game ; every such offender, being convicted thereof before two justices of the peace, shall forfeit and pay such sum of money, not exceeding ten pounds, as to the said justices shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction. XXIX. As to buying and selling game by the servants of a licensed dealer. Provided always, and be it enacted, that the buying and selling of game by any person or persons employed on the behalf of any licensed dealer in game, and acting in the usual course of his employment, and upon the premises where such dealing is carried on, shall be deemed to be a lawful buying and selling in every case, where the same would have been lawful if transacted by such licensed dealer himself: provided also, that nothing herein contained shall prevent any licensed dealer in game from selling any game which shall have been sent to him to be sold on account of any other licensed dealer in game. XXX. Penalty on persons trespassing in the daytime upon lands in search of game. Where the occupier of the land, not being entitled to the game, allows any person to kill it, the party entitled to the game may enforce the penalty. And whereas after the commencement of this act, game will become an article which may be legally bought and sold, and it is therefore just and reasonable to provide some more summary means than now by law exists for protecting the same from trespassers : be it therefore enacted, that if any person whatsoever shall commit any tres- pass by entering or being in the daytime upon any land in search or pur- suit of game, or woodcocks, snipes, quails, landrails, or conies, such person shall, on conviction thereof before a justice of the peace, forfeit and pay such sum of money, not exceeding two pounds, as to the justice shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction,* and that if any persons to the number of five or more together shall commit any trespass, by entering or being in the daytime upon any land in search or pursuit of game, or woodcocks, snipes, quails, landrails, or conies, each of such per- sons shall, on conviction thereof before a justice of the peace, forfeit and pay such sum of money, not exceeding five pounds, as to the said justice shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction : provided always, that any person charged with such trespass shall be at liberty to prove, by way of defence, any matter which would have been a defence to an action at law for such trespass ; save and except that the leave and licence of the occupier of the land so trespassed upon shall not be a suffi- cient defence in any case where the landlord, lessor, or other person shall have the right of killing the game upon such land by virtue of any reser- vation or otherwise, as hereinbefore mentioned ; but such landlord, lessor, or other person shall, for the purpose of prosecuting for each of the two offences herein last before-mentioned, be deemed to be the legal occupier * At common law there is no necessity for the proof of "the entering and being" upon the land, and if a man shoots into the soil, or wilfully sends his dog upon it, he equally commits a trespass as if he went bodily himself. 433 THE GAME PRESEKVER*S GUIDE. of such land, whenever the actual occupier thereof shall have given such leave or licence ; and that the lord or steward of the Crown of any manor,, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, shall be deemed to be the legal occupier of the land .of the wastes or commons within such manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty. XXXI. Trespassers in search of game may be required to quit the land, and to tell their names and abodes, and in case of refusal may be arrested. Penalty. Party arrested must be discharged unless brought before a justice within 12 hours. And be it enacted, that where any person shall be found on any land, or upon any of his Majesty's forests, parks, chases, or warrens, in the daytime, in search or pursuit of game, or woodcocks, snipes, quails, landrails, or conies, it shall be lawful for any person having the right of killing the game upon such land, by virtue of any reservation or otherwise as hereinbefore mentioned, or for the occu- pier of the land (whether there shall or shall not be any such right by reservation or otherwise), or for any gamekeeper or servant of either of them, or for any person authorized by either of them, or for the warden r ranger, verderer, forester, master-keeper, under-keeper, or other officer of such forest, park, chase, or warren, to require the person so found forth- with to quit the land whereon he shall be so found, and also tell his Chris- tian name, surname, and place of abode ; and in case such person shall, after being so required, offend by refusing to tell his real name or plstce of abode, or by giving such a general description of his place of abode as shall be illusory for the purpose of discovery, or by wilfully continuing or returning upon the land, it shall be lawful for the party so requiring as aforesaid, and also for any person acting by his order and in his aid, to apprehend such offender, and to convey him or cause him to be conveyed as soon as conveniently may be beftn*e a justice of the peace ; and such offender (whether so apprehended or not), upon being convicted of any such offence before a justice of the peace, shall forfeit and pay such sum of money not exceeding five pounds, as to the convicting justice shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction : provided always, that no person so apprehended shall, on any pretence whatsoever, be detained for a longer period than twelve hours from the time of his apprehension until he shall be brought before some justice of the peace ; and that if he cannot, on account of the absence or distance of the residence of any such justice of the peace, or owing to any other reasonable cause, be brought before a justice of the peace within such twelve hours as aforesaid, then the person so apprehended shall be discharged, but may nevertheless be proceeded against for his offence by summons or warrant, according to the provisions hereinafter mentioned, as if no such apprehension had taken place. XXXII. Penalty on persons found armed using violence, &c. And be it enacted, that where any persons, to the number of five or more together, shall be found on any land, or in any of his Majesty's forests, parks, chases, or warrens, in the daytime, in search or pursuit of game, or woodcocks, snipes, quails, landrails, or conies, any of such persons being then and there armed with a gun, and such persons or any of them shall then and there, by violence, intimidation, or menace, prevent or THE ENGLISH GAME LAW. 439 endeavour to prevent any person authorized as hereinbefore mentioned from approaching such persons so found, or any of them, for the purpose of requiring them or any of them to quit the land whereon they shall be BO found, or to tell their or his Christian name, surname, or place of abode respectively as hereinbefore mentioned, every person so offending by such violence, intimidation, or menace as aforesaid, and every person then and there aiding or abetting such offender, shall, upon being convicted thereof before two justices of the peace, forfeit and pay for every such offence such penalty, not exceeding five pounds, as to the convicting justices shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction ; which said penalty shall be in addition to and independent of any other penalty to which any such person may be liable for any other offence against this act. XXXIII. Penalty for trespass in daytime in his Majesty's forests. And be it enacted, that if any person whatsoever shall commit any tres- pass, by entering or being in the daytime, upon any of his Majesty's forests, parks, chases, or warrens, in search or pursuit of game, without being first duly authorized so to do, such person shall, on conviction thereof before a justice of the peace, forfeit and pay such sum of money not exceeding two pounds, as to the justice shall seem meet, together with the costs of the conviction. XXXIV. What to be deemed daytime. And be it enacted, that for the purposes of this act the daytime shall be deemed to commence at the beginning of the last hour before sunrise, and to conclude at the ex- piration of the first hour after sunset. XXXV. The provisions as to trespassers not to apply to persons hunting, &c. Provided always, and be it enacted, that the aforesaid provisions against trespassers and persons found on any land shall not extend to any person hunting or coursing upon any lands with hounds or greyhounds, and being in fresh pursuit of any deer, hare, or fox already started upon any other land, nor to any person bond fide claiming and exercising any right or reputed right of free warren or free chase, nor to any gamekeeper lawfully appointed within the limits of any free warren or free chase, nor to any lord or any steward of the Crown of any manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty, nor to any gamekeeper lawfully appointed by such lord or steward within the limits of such manor, lordship, or royalty, or reputed manor, lordship, or royalty. XXXVI. Game may be taken from trespassers not delivering up the same ivhen demanded. And be it enacted, that when any person shall be found by day or by night upon any land, or in any of his Majesty's forests, parks, chases, or warrens, in search or pursuit of game, and shall then and there have in his possession any game which shall appear to have been recently killed, it shall be lawful for any person having the right of killing the game upon such land, by virtue of any reservation or otherwise, as hereinbefore mentioned, or for the occupier of such land (whether there shall or shall not be any such right by reservation or otherwise), or for any gamekeeper or servant or either of them, or for any officer as aforesaid of such forest, park, chase, or warren, or for any person acting by the order and in aid of any of the said several persons, to demand from the person so found such game in his possession, and ia 440 THE GAME PRESERVER'S GUIDE. case such person shall not immediately deliver up such game, to seize and take the same from him, for the use of the person entitled to the game upon such land, forest, park, chase, or warren. XXXVII. Application of penalties for offences against this act. And be it enacted, that every penalty and forfeiture for any offence against this act (the application of which has not been already provided for) shall be paid to some one of the overseers of the poor, or to some other officer (as the convicting justice or justices may direct) of the parish, township, or place in which the offence shall have been com- mitted, to be by such overseer or officer paid over to the use of the general rate of the county, riding, or division in which such parish, township, or place shall be situate, whether the same shall or shall not contribute to such general rate ; and no inhabitant of such county, riding, or division shall be deemed an incompetent witness in any proceeding under this act by reason of the application of such penalty or forfeiture to the use of the said general rate as aforesaid. XXXVIII. Time for payment of penalties, and scale of 'imprisonment for non-payment. And be it enacted, that the justice or justices of the peace by whom any person shall be summarily convicted and adjudged to pay any sum of money for any offence against this act, together with costs, may adjudge that such person shall pay the same either imme- diately or within such period as the said justice or justices shall think fit, and that in default of payment at the time appointed such person shall be imprisoned in the common gaol or house of correction (with or without hard labour), as to the justice or justices shall seem meet, for any term not exceeding two calendar months where the amount to be paid, exclusive of costs, shall not amount to five pounds, and for any term not exceeding three calendar months in any other case, the impri- sonment to cease in each of the cases aforesaid upon payment of the amount and costs. XXXIX. Gives the form of conviction. XL. Power to summon witnesses. Penalty for disobedience of sum- mons, &c. And be it enacted, that it shall be lawful for any justice of the peace to issue his summons requiring any person to appear before himself, or any one or two justices of the peace, as the case may require, for the purpose of giving evidence touching any offence against this act ; and if any person so summoned shall neglect or refuse to appear at the time and place appointed by such summons, and no reasonable excuse for his absence shall be proved before the justice or justices then and there present, or if any person appearing in obedience to such summons shall refuse to be examined on oath touching any such offence by the justice or justices then and there present, every person so offending shall, on conviction thereof before the said justice or justices, or any other justice^or justices of the peace, forfeit and pay such smn of money, not exceeding five pounds, as to the convicting justice or justices shall seem meet. XLL Time for proceedings, and mode of enforcing the appearance of offenders. And be it enacted, that the prosecution for every offence punishable upon summary conviction by virtue of this act shall be com- menced within three calendar months after the commission of the offence ; THE ENGLISH GAME LAW. 441 and that where any person shall be charged on the oath of a credible witness with any s\ich offence before a justice of the peace, the justice may summon the party charged to appear before himself, or any one or two justices of the peace, as the case may require, at a time and place to be named in such summons ; and if such party shall not appear accord- ingly, then (upon proof of the due service of the summons by delivering a copy thereof to the party, or by delivering such copy at the party's usual place of abode to some inmate thereat, and explaining the purport thereof to such inmate), the justice or justices may either proceed to hear and determine the case in the absence of the party, or may issue his or their warrant for apprehending and bringing such party before him or them, as the case may be ; or the justice before whom the charge shall be made may, if he shall have reason to suspect from information upon oath that the party is likely to abscond, issue such warrant in the first instance, without any previous summons. XLII. Prosecutor not required to prove a negative. XLIII. Convictions to be returned to sessions. XLIV. Appeal. And be it enacted, that any person who shall think himself aggrieved by any summary conviction in pursuance of this act may appeal to the justices at the next general or quarter sessions of the peace to be holden, not less than twelve days after such conviction, for the county, riding, division, liberty, franchise, city, or town, wherein the cause of complaint shall have arisen : provided, that such person shall give to the complainant a notice in writing of such appeal, and of the cause and matter thereof, within three days after such conviction, and seven clear days at the least before such sessions, and shall also either remain in custody until the sessions, or within such three days enter into a re- cognizance, with a sufficient surety, before a justice of the peace, con- ditioned personally to appear at the said sessions, and to try such appeal, and to abide the judgment of the court thereupon, and to pay such costs as shall be by the court awarded ; and upon such notice being given, and such recognizance being entered into, the justice before whom the same shall be entered into shall liberate such person, if in custody ; and the court at such sessions shall hear and determine the matter of the appeal, and shall make such order therein, with or without costs to either party, as to the court shall seem meet, and in case of the dismissal of the appeal, or the affirmance of the conviction, shall order and adjudge the oflcnder to be dealt with and punished according to the conviction, and to pay such costs as shall be awarded, and shall, if necessary, issue process for enforc- ing such judgment. XLV. No certiorari, &c. XL VI. This act not to preclude actions for trespass, but no double proceedings for the same trespass. XL VII. Venue, &c. in proceedings against persons acting under this act. Tender of amends. XL VIII. Act not to extend to Scotland or Ireland. 442 THE GAME PRESERVER'S GUIDE. THE ACT 11 & 12 VICT. CAP. xxix., TO ENABLE PERSONS TO KILL HARES IN ENGLAND AND WALES WITHOUT A GAME CERTIFICATE. I. Persons in the occupation of inclosed ground, and in certain cases Dinners, may 'kill hares without a game certificate. Whereas by an act passed, &c., &c. [preamble omitted], be it therefore enacted by the Queen's most excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords spiritual and temporal, and Commons, in this present Parlia- ment assembled, and by the authority of the same, that from and after the passing of this act it shall be lawful for any person, being in the actual occupation of any inclosed lands, or for any owner thereof who has the right of killing game thereon, by himself or by any person di- rected or authorized by him in writing, according to the form in the schedule to this act annexed, or to the like effect, so to do, to take, kill, or destroy any hare then being in or upon any such inclosed lands, without the payment of any such duties of assessed taxes as aforesaid, and with- out the obtaining of an annual game certificate. II. Authority to kill hares to be limited to one person at the same time in any one parish; ivhich authority shall be sent to the clerk of the petty sessions, who shall register the same. If authority revoked, notice to be given of the same. Provided always, and be it enacted, that no- owner or occupier of land as aforesaid shall be authorized to grant or continue, under the provisions of this act, authority to more than one person, at one and the same time, to kill hares upon his land within any one parish ; and that he shall deliver the said authority, or a copy thereof, or cause the same to be delivered, to the clerk of the magistrates acting for the petty sessions division within which the said lands are situate, who shall forthwith register the same, and the date of such re- gistration in a book to be kept by him for such purpose, which book shall be at all reasonable times open to the inspection of the clerk of the com- missioners acting in the execution of the acts for assessed taxes or of any of the collectors of assessed taxes within such district ; and the said authority, so soon as it shall have been registered as aforesaid, shall be held good until after the first day of February in the year following that within which the same is granted, unless the same be previously re- voked, and notice of such revocation be given to the clerk of the magis- trates as aforesaid ; and the said registered authority, or the unrevoked register thereof, shall be good and sufficient evidence of the right of the person to whom authority is given by the same to kill hares upon the- lands mentioned within the same without having obtained an annual game certificate. III. Persons not to be liable to tax on gamekeepers. And be it enacted, that no person so directed or authorized to kill any hare as aforesaid shall, unless otherwise chargeable, be liable to any duties of assessed taxes as gamekeeper. IV. To extend to coursing or hunting. And be it enacted, that from and after the passing of this act it shall be lawful for any person to pur- sue and kill or to join in the pursuit and killing of any hare by coursing THE ENGLISH GAME LAW. 443 with greyhounds, or by hunting with beagles or other hounds, without having obtained an annual game certificate. V. Not to authorize the laying of poison. Provided also, and be it enacted, that nothing herein contained shall extend or be taken or con- strued to extend to the making it lawful for any person, with intent to destroy or injure any hares or other game, to put or cause to be put any poison or poisonous ingredient on any ground, whether open or inclosed, where game usually resort, or in any highway, or for any person to use- any firearms or gun of any description, by night, for the purpose of killing any game or hares. VI. Agreements reserving game to be still in force. VII. Interpretation of act. VIII. To extend to England and Wales only. IX. Act may be amended, &c. SCHEDULE. I, A. B., do authorize C.D. to kill hares on [" my lands," or "the lands occupied by me," as the case maybe], within the of [here' insert the name of the paiish or other place, as the case may be] Dated this day of [here insert the day, month, and year.] Witness. OLD LAWS NOT KEPEALED. The old action for trespass is still in force, but notice must be given prior to the trespass, unless the judge certify that it was wilful and malicious. Owners or huntsmen may follow fox-hounds, harriers, or greyhounds, while in hot pur- suit of their game, without penalty under the game-law, 1 and 2 Will. 4, c. 32, and also clear of the old action for tres- pass, unless notice has been served upon them. Notices must be served either verbally or in writing, and should come from the tenant of the particular parcel of laud on which the trespass is committed. Gamekeepers, or other persons, may serve notice, if deputed by occupiers or by lords of manors ; but they must expressly name the occupier,