GRAMMAR TO USE LEWIS AND LYNCH - 0^^ also, a compound predicate is regarded as one predicate, although it is composed of two parts. A sentence which expresses but one complete thought, with the aid of either a compound subject or a compound predicate, is still a simple sentence. Exercise Point out the compound subjects and predicates in the following simple sentences: 1. The steamer and the tug dropped slowly down the harbor. 2. The woman wrung her hands and cried out in fear. 3. The boys and girls had a merry party. 4. The children and their mother have gone to the seashore. 5. Harry and I will be there promptly. 6. They begged and implored us to forgive them. 7. He caught and held the falling child securely. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 9 8. Chairs and tables were brought out on the porch. 9. Prosperity and happiness are flowing in upon him. 10. Aunt Mary arranged the v/hole plan and took the responsibility of carrying it out. 9. The compound sentence. (a) The two nurses carried bandages, and the doc- tors followed with the heavier things. (6) His timely hit won the game, and the game won the series. (c) Mary read many books, but she always forgot their names. How many thoughts are expressed by each of the sentences given above? Notice that in (a) and (b) the connection between the two thoughts in each case is made by and, and that in (c) the connection is made by but. Observe, also, that in each of the three sentences the second thought expressed is just as important as the first one. If in any of the three casep you dropped the connecting word, and placed a period after the first thought, the first thought would make sense standing alone; so, also, would the second thought standing alone. Such a sentence, made up of two or more equally important parts, is called a compound sentence. The compound sentence is one which is made up of two or more equally important parts. Exercise Select the equally important thoughts from the following compound sentences: 10 THE SENTENCE 1. I shall pass by many attractive furnishings, but I cannot help mentioning a pair of antlers in the great hall. 2. She has been a pet with all the servants since childhood, and every one of them seems to lay some claim to her education. 3. Mr. Tibbetts was not at home, but we received a hearty welcome from his wife. 4. Fruit trees were trained up against the cottage, and pots of flowers stood in the windows. 5. The furniture was old-fashioned, strong, and highly polished, and the walls were hung with colored prints of the Prodigal Son and of other characters from the Bible. You must make sure that you know the differ- ence between a compound subject or a compound predicate, and a compound sentence. In the sentence, The two nurses carried bandages, and the doctors followed with the heavier things, nurses is the subject of carried^ and doctors is the subject of followed. In the sentence, George and John went to school together, the two words George and John are together the subject of went. Exercise Point out which of the following sentences con- tain compound subjects or predicates, and which are compound sentences: 1. Bertha and I made and distributed the gifts. 2. Jack measured the distance carefully with his eye, and kicked the ball directly between the posts. THE CLAUSE 11 3. Fred and I both ran at the call for help and bumped into each other at the door. 4. We saw no one, but we heard the sound of footsteps near us. 5. We followed the road for a mile and then turned into the field. 6. The door opened and she entered smiling, 7. I see again the expression of Lincoln's face, and I hear again the sound of his voice, and I recall even the details of his dress on that memorable evening. 8. The boy sprang from the old man's side and threaded his way down the dark stairs. 9. He raised himself on tiptoe and shouted the single word, "Ring!" 10. A young man picked up some of the hailstones and examined them. 11. The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his handiwork. 12. The book dealer and his customer walked down the street. 13. Mr. Tupman advanced a step or two and glared at Mr. Pickwick. 14. "The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold. And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea." 15. The king pardoned them and invited them to live with him at his court. 16. Robin Hood and his band were a merry group of men. 10. The term clause. The two thoughts in the compound sentence have been referred to as the first thought and the second thought. The real name 12 THE SENTENCE for the first thought and the second thought is clause. A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate; so we need not think of the word clause in connection with the simple sentence. The compound sentence, on the contrary, is made up of two or more simple sentences so connected that either of the sen- tences could stand alone if the connecting word were removed. It is necessary, therefore, to have a name for the different divisions of the compound sentence so that you can refer to them clearly. The term clause is used for each of these parts. A clause is a division of a sentence which con- tains a subject and predicate. The first clause in (a), page 9, is. The two nurses carried bandages. The second clause is, the doctors followed with the heavier things. Exercise Name the clauses in the following compound sentences : 1. It was a shr.rp flesh of lightning, but fortunately it did not strike. 2. She wrote and posted the invitation; but I never received it. 3. The detective told his story, and then I told mine. 4. The thunder rolled, and the winds howled. 5. She works hard, but she never accomplishes anything. 6. The accident had cnnerved the man, but he kept control of himself, 7. The good squire's heart warmed toward his friend, and he at once cast about for means to help him. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 13 11. Coordinating words. Note that and and hut are the connecting words most frequently used between clauses of equal importance. Because it is the duty of and and but to connect equally important clauses, and and but are called coordinating connecimg words. Coordinating means making to work together or making to have equal rank. Or and nor are also coordinating connecting words, and are used in much the same way as and and but. Examples: 1. You may come at five, or you may come at six. 2. He came not, nor did he give a reason for his absence. 3. She does not like me, nor do I like her. 12. The complex sentence. Compare these sentences with those of the preceding exercises : (a) Towser always comes when he is called. (6) If you do not come early, you will miss all the fun. (c) He read the letter which he had just received. You see that these sentences resemble those of the preceding section in that each has two clauses. Notice, however, this important difference: the clauses in the sentences of section 9 are equally important, and could be used as simple sentences by merely dropping out the connecting and, but, or similar word. When you try to make simple sentences out of the two clauses of (a) in this paragraph, these are che results: First clause: Towser always comes. Second clause: When he is called. U THE SENTENCE You see that when he is called fails to meet the requirement of every sentence — that of expressing a thought completely. The second clause of (a), therefore, can not be used alone to form a complete sentence. The two clauses together, however, make good sense: Towser always comes when he is called. Which is the more important clause of the two? Give a reason for your answer. Try with (b) and (c) the same experiment that you have just tried with the clauses of (a). Decide in each case which of the two clauses is the more impor- tant, and give reasons. It is evident that some sentences are made up of two or more clauses which are not all of equal impor- tance. Plainly, each of these three sentences contains one clause which depends upon the other clause of the sentence for its meaning. You have noticed in each of these three cases that the less important clause fails to make sense by itself, and that, if it were not used in connection with the more important clause, it could not be used at all. For this reason, you call the less important clause a dependent or subordinate clause. Subordinate means placed in a lower position. The more important clause you call the principal or independent clause. A subordinate clause expresses a thought which must be spoken or read in connection with the prin- cipal part of the sentence; that is, it depends upon its principal clause for existence. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 15 A principal clause expresses a thought upon which some other clause depends. Sentences like these, made up of one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses, are called complex sentences. Complex means made of many parts. Exercise Tell which of the following sentences are simple, which are compound, and which are complex: 1. The clerk was unsatisfactory because he was careless. 2. The lights of the moving train shone mistily through the fog. 3. There is only one road by which you can reach Cedar Falls. 4. The machine slid easily over the smooth road. 5. There is a frightful chasm a few miles from the hall, which goes by the name of Merry's Leap. 6. The king must prevail over his counsellors, or he must lose his influence with the people. 7. The machinery was giving trouble, but the manager insisted that the plant must be kept going. 8. The automobile escaped without serious damage, but its occupants were badly injured. 9. I have no plan made, but I feel sure of success. 10. These directions were left here by the supervisor. j 11. I hurried because I feared that I was late. 12. A wise man often sees the wisdom of changing his I mind, but a fool never does. 13. Hundreds of bathers let the breakers pound them and shrieked joyously at each blow of the waves. 16 THE SENTENCE 14. The Eagle is a summer hotel, but the next house furnishes accommodations for the winter months. 15. When at last the great man spoke, the silence was that of midnight in the forest. 16. The baby clams that were washed up on the beach by the tide scurried for shelter in the sand with the most amazing liveliness. Exercise Classify each of the following sentences as simple^ compound, or complex. Proceed in this way: find each clause; pick out its subject and predicate; deter- mine whether each clause is principal or subordinate. You will then be able to decide what kind of sentence each is. Note that some sentences are both compound and complex. 1. My good old aunt, who had never parted with me at the close of a hohday without giving me a box of sweets, gave me at this time only a bottle of peppermint. 2. I am one of those who give freely to their friends. 3. People frequently ask advice which they do not intend to follow. 4. He never knew the details of the plot, but he knew the name of every man concerned in it. 5. Neil bent forward and lashed the horse savagely with his whip. 6. The Bible story of Ruth is a perfect story of simple country life among the Hebrews. 7. Backward and forward, with sturdy strokes, he swings the iron tongue of the bell. 8. An old clock that had gone faultlessly for fifty years suddenly stopped. 9. A rubber ball with a hole in it was his favorite CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 17 plaything. He would take it into his mouth and rush around the house with it like a child. When he got a new ball, he would hide his old one away until the new one was the worse worn of the two, and then he would bring out the old one again. 10. The song ended with two great shouts, and an intense stillness followed. The old priest stood silent for a moment. Then he lifted his face and spoke. 11. The Princeton quarter-back had darted through the line like a bullet. Without slackening speed he scooped up the ball as he fled toward the Yale goal-line. 12. The boy was sitting on a bench when the elder Seeley entered the steaming room of the training house. The surgeon was removing a muddy bandage. The boy scowled and winced but he made no complaint. II. THE PARTS OF SPEECH— The Verb 13. What the parts of speech are. If you were asked of what small divisions our speech, both oral and written, is made up, you would probably say, "Our speech is divided into sentences." But sentences are made up of words. The real basis of our speech, then, is the separate words of which it is made up. All the words of our language have been named accord- ing to the kinds of work which they do in sentences. There are eight definite duties which words perform in the making of sentences. Every word of the language, then, can be put into a class determined by one of these eight duties; and each of these duties has a name that identifies it. The words of the language, classified under the head of the eight duties of words, are called the parts of speech. The only reason that a word belongs to one part of speech rather than another, is that it does the work of that part. 14. What the verb does. Carl throws pennies to the children. The subject of this sentence is Carl; the whole predicate is throws pennies to the children. The whole predicate in the sentence given above expresses the action performed by the subject. There is one particular word in the predicate, which, more (18) VERBS 1^ than any other, tells the exact action performed by Carl. This word is throws. Pennies tells what Carl throws; to the children tells to whom he throws the pennies; but throws tells the exact action performed by Carl. Exercise Divide each of the following sentences into a subject and a predicate. Then point out in each predicate the word which tells the exact action per- formed by the subject. (a) Mabel plays the piano. (6) The boy broke five glasses. (c) The sun shines. (d) The birds ate all the crumbs. (e) We planted ferns in our yard. (/) Marion always wears pink sashes. (g) John swept the porch. (h) KaTTy drives our car. (i) Engineers control engines. The words, playsy broke, shines, etc., in each case express the action the sentence is telling you about, Because these words perform a special duty in the predicate, they have a name of their own; this name is verb. Words which express action are called verbs. Exercise Select the verbs from the predicates of these sentences : 20 THE VERB 1. Tlie cat spilled her milk. 2. Mary, kindly close the door. 3. Farmers make hay in July. 4. Eleanor cried because she had hurt her hand. 5. William transplanted his strawberry plants. 6. The flag waved from the pole. 7. The fire bell sounded clearly through the air. 8. Auntie read the note quickly. 9. The children loved their white rabbits. 10. Robert picked flowers for his birthday party. 11. Lawyer Andrews lost the case. 12. John posted your letter promptly. 13. New York State remodels her constitution every twenty years. 14. Physicians make careful examinations of patients. 15. The use of the typewriter strengthens the fingers. 16. Cows produce milk. 17. The young trees sway in the wind. 18. Leaves fall in autumn. 19. Mirrors sometimes flatter people. 15. The linking verb. Read the following sentences, carefully dividing them into their subjects and predi- cates : (a) The firemen were here. (b) My sister is asleep. (c) You seem nervous. It is plain to you at once that no one of these predicates expresses an action performed by the subject. These predicates merely make a state- ment about the subject, and this statement has noth- ing to do with action. You conclude, then, that LINKING WORDS 21 predicates sometimes merely make statements about the subject without expressing action at all. If a predicate makes a statement about a subject without expressing action, there is always some one word in the predicate which acts as a linking word to join the subject and predicate. In (a), for example, the subject is firemen. The whole predicate is were here. Here tells the place where the firemen were. Were is the word which bridges the gap between the subject, firemen J and the place where the firemen were. Were links the subject firemen with the place where the firemen were, and is at the same time part of the predicate. Whole predicate, were here. Linking word, at same time part of predicate, were. In (6), the subject is sister. The whole predicate is is asleep. Asleep tells the condition of my sister. In this sentence, then, is links or connects sister with asleep, and is at the same time part of the predicate. WTiole predicate, is asleep. Linking word, at same time part of predicate, is. In (c) you is the subject. Seem nervous is the whole predicate. Seem is the word in the predicate which links the subject you to the remaining part of che predicate. When a predicate makes a statement about a subject but does not express action, there is always a word which links the subject to the predicate. Such words are called linking words, and as parts of speech are classified under the same name as the words that express action about a subject. Words that link the subject and predicate are called verbs. 22 THE VERB Exercise Select the linking verbs in the following sentences: 1. Henry is pale. 2. Swimming in deep water is dangerous. 3. Spring-time is moving time. 4. Mary seems herself again. 5. Are all here? 6. There is no time like the present. 7. Flowers are a comfort to sick people. 8. It is hard work to study properly. 9. Forks are table necessities. 10. The picnic was a success. 11. Fred seemed uncomfortable. Exercise From these sentences, tell which verbs are linking, and which express action : 1. The cow jumped over the moon. 2. Cobb is a great ball-player. 3. I brushed the crumbs from the table. 4. Her eyes are gray. 5. This screen hides me from the street. 6. The door banged. 7. Mary cut the apple into four quarters. 8. Mother gave me six cookies. 9. Harry's father punished him for disobedience. 10. He seemed uneasy. 11. Keep off the grass. 12. Football is a wonderful game. 13. My grandmother made candles. 14. Samuel knocked a ball into center field. 15. Colleges are places for the education of the young. 16. No self-respecting boy lies. THE TRANSITIVE VERB 23 17. Cheating is dishonorable. 18. Without doubt, Austin expected the prize. 19. High marks are usually signs of good work. 16. The transitive verb. John broke his slate. This sentence contains an action verb. Separate the sentence into its subject and predicate. John is the subject; broke his slate is the predicaie. The verb in that predicate is broke. Broke expresses action. But does broke tell you all you need to know about that action? In other words, if you ended the sentence after the word broke, would the expression of action be complete? If you say, John broke , your natural question is. Broke what? You see then that broke alone does not tell you all you need to know about the action expressed in this sentence. Slate completes the action partly expressed by broke because it receives the action. Receives here means gets or takes in. You will realize how truly slate receives the action from broke if you will imagine for an instant how a whole slate looks, and then how a broken slate looks. Notice that in the sentence. His slate was broken by John, you can express the same thought in a differ- ent way. The subject now is slate. The predicate is was broken. Was broken clearly expresses action. The slate was broken. Slate, then, just as before, receives the action from the verb. You see the same picture when you think of the action expressed in this way. All sentences containing a verb which denotes action received can be expressed in two ways. 24 THE VERB Exercise From each of these sentences select the action verb and the word which receives the action : 1. I dropped my watch. 2. My watch was dropped by me. 3. The farmer ploughed his field. 4. His field was ploughed by the farmer. 5. The boys built a camp. 6. A camp was built by the boys. 7. The flood destroyed bridges. . 8. Bridges were destroyed by the flood. 9. The baby tore my dress. 10. My dress was torn by the baby. 11. Jim learned his lesson well. 12. Jim's lesson was well learned. 13. Walter won the championship. 14. The championship was won by Walter. 15. Mary felt a shock from the electric iron. 16. A shock from the electric iron was felt by Mary. You see then that some action verbs require in the sentence a word to receive that action in order to express a complete thought. A verb which expresses action that is received by some word in the sentence is called a transitive verb. Transitive means passing over. A transitive verb really does pass over the action that it expresses to some other word in the sentence. I 17. Voice. In section 16 you learned that all sentences containing a verb which denotes action received can be expressed in two ways. The voice of VOICE 25 the verb is determined by the way in which the verb expresses the action. In the sentence, John broke his slate, John J the subject, acts; its verb is said to be in the active voice. Turn the sentence around: His slate was broken by John, Here the subject, slate, is the word which receives the action; instead of acting, this subject allows itself to be acted upon. This is the very opposite of acting, and so the name given to the voice of the verb in this sentence is passive. Passive means inactive. The reason why it is necessary for you to be able to tell the voice of a verb is that the form of the verb changes according to the way in which that verb expresses action. In the sentence, John broke his slate, John, the subject of the verb, is performing the act. Compare the verb, broke, in this sentence with the verb in the passive form : His slate was broken by John. The subject of this sentence is slate, which receives the action. The two forms of the verb, then, are: With subject performing action, broke. With subject receiving action, was broken. A verb is said to be in the active voice when its subject acts. A verb is said to be in the passive voice when its subject is acted upon. To test the voice of a verb, therefore, look at its subject. 26 THE VERB Exercise Tell whether each of these verbs is in the active or the passive voice: 1. The race was won by persistent effort. 2. The fireman flung himself into the building. 3. Lightning shattered that tree. 4. Those stones are placed there for landmarks. 5. The car was overturned instantly. 6. The gun was loaded with cartridges. 7. The goods were charged to me. 8. I like exciting books. 9. I lost my way when I turned into Sixth Street. 10. Many are called but few are chosen. Exercise Select the verbs from the following sentences. State the voice of each with your reason, and state also why each is a transitive verb. Model sentence: The message was brought by a boy. The verb was brought is in the passive voice because its subject, message j is acted upon. Was brought is a transitive verb, because it expresses the action received by message. 1. I could see the bird under the vines. 2. I drew the ropes tight. 3. He warned the tramp in time. 4. Merivale spent a restless month. 6. This year I have felt the great beauty of the world. 6. The poor creature was wronged by everybody. 7. Mrs. Cubb was rudely thrust out of the house. THE INTRANSITIVE VERB 27 8. My boys never mentioned Georgiana. 9. The candidate was defeated by a large majority. 10. We were enabled to recognize the criminal by a photograph. 11. Mrs. Walters pressed her lips closely together and shook her head. 12. The letter had been written in great haste. 13. Signs warning motorists were posted a mile apart. 14. The boy has annoyed me more than once. 15. Sylvia wore big blue rosettes in her hair. 16. That book has been read by many happy children. 17. I picked my first dish of strawberries this morning. 18. He was not even tempted to wrong his employer. 19. I carried the red bird over to Georgiana. 20. The check was received on the same day. Sometimes you will be puzzled by action verbs because the action they express is not the kind that you can see with your eyes. The action that you perceive with your brain is just as truly action as any other. For instance, in the sentence, Jim learned his lesson well, the action of learning goes on in Jim's mind; you cannot see it; but the teacher can per- ceive the results of it. In the sentence, Mother needs me, you cannot see with your eyes that there is action, but you can understand that n£eds expresses a mental action — the action of wanting or of feeling the necessity of me, 18. The intransitive verb. You have just been studying the fact that some action verbs express action that is received by some word in the sentence, and that such verbs are called transitive. Here is a 28 THE VERB sentence in which there is a different kind of action verb : Mary fell. How is this action verb different from those you have just studied? You see instantly that the action of fell is not received by any other word in the sen- tence. Since fell does not pass action over into any other word in the sentence, fell is called an intransitive verb. Intransitive means not-passing-over. An intransitive verb is one whose action is not received by some other word in the sentence. Action verbs as a whole, then, are divided into two classes: (1) Those whose action is received by some other word in the sentence. (Transitive.) (2) Those whose action is not received by another word. (Intransitive.) Transitive verbs possess two ways of expressing action, according to whether the subject acts or is acted upon. You distinguish these ways by the name voice, as you learned, and you determine voice by looking carefully at the subject. If the subject acts, the verb is in the active voice; if the subject is acted upon, the verb is in the passive voice. You need these distinctions because two ways of expression are possible. But the intransitive verb possesses only one way of expressing action, for, since the action of this verb is never received, the subject always acts. Intransi- TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE 29 tlve verbs, therefore, do not have voice. Of course you can see that if you were to give a name to the way in which the intransitive verb expresses action, you would say that all intransitive verbs are in the active voice. Exercise Tell why each of the verbs in the following sentences is intransitive. 1. The fire alarm rang. 2. The horses ran fast. 3. The noise of the guns ceased. 4. I awoke early this morning. 6. He hurried from the house and jumped into the car. 6. The picture hangs on the wall. 7. The lights went out. 8. The crash came without warning. Exercise Select the verbs from the following sentences and tell whether they are transitive or intransitive. Give also the voice of the tiansitive verbs. 1. I threw a penny to the organ-grinder. 2. The attendance is taken each morning at school. 3. Jane slipped and fell and broke her wrist. 4. The bread rose too high. 5. John was graduated from college in June. 6. Wagon- wheels creak on cold winter days. 7. Harry cranked the car. 8. Leaves drop in autumn. 9. The canoe slipped silently through the water. 10. Railroad time-tables are sometimes changed. 30 THE VERB 11. The books crashed to the floor. 12. The speaker was introduced by the chairman. 13. I set my watch at noon. 14. I believe every word of your story. 15. Atlas held the world on his shoulders. 16. The telegram arrived before I returned. 17. The painter fell from the scaffold. From a magazine like "The Literary Digest' ' or ''The Independent' ' select any paragraph of ten lines or so in length. Pick out the verbs. Tell whether each is transitive or intransitive. Give the voice of the transitive verbs. Verb forms, sequence of tenses, and the agreement of a verb with its subject, are treated in chapter XII. III. THE PARTS OF SPEECH— The Noun 19. What the noun is. A boy who looks about him on a baseball field is able to explain to one who is un- familiar with the game all the details necessary to the understanding of the game. In such an explanation he will use the words diamondj base, short-stopj curve, home-plate, and many others. As he uses each of these words he points out or describes the thing or movement each names. Words which name things or people make up the part of speech called the noun. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. 20. Common and proper noims. A boy at a game of baseball sees the opposing teams come running to the field. *'Look/' he cries, "there's Slater, the best pitcher in the league! And there's Curtiss, our short-stop!" The words Slater and Curtiss serve as names for these men. Therefore these words are nouns. They differ from the nouns diamond, hose, and home-plate. Diamond, base, and home-plate name a whole class of things that are more or less ahke. Any of these words could be apphed to other diamonds, other bases, other home-plates. Slater and Curtiss name particular men. These names could not be applied to any man one might meet. In a similar way, New York and New Jersey name particular states. The noun that names a whole class of persons, places, or things, is a common noun. (31) 32 THE NOUN Example: ship, man, city. Each of these words names a whole class of objects. The noun that names a particular one of a class of persons, places, or things, is a proper noun. Example: The Constitution, George Washington, Cincinnati. Each of these words names a particular one of its class. Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter. This fact constitutes the chief reason why you should be able to distinguish between a common and a proper noun. Exercise Select each of the nouns in the following sentences and tell whether it is a common or a proper noun : 1. Miles Morgan smiled and shook his head. 2. Sergeant O'Hara called the men heroes. 3. It was his plan to ride until he reached Massacre Mountain. 4. Grass and ferns grew around the spring. 5. The family always sang hymns after supper. 6. He had a sword that his great-grandfather had worn under Washington. 7. George came to his feet and pointed his revolver steadily. 8. Human companionship gives us all courage. 9. "A small band of Indians is on your trail," he said; "Black Wolf and his scouts are in the band." 10. We heard the clatter of steel and the jingling of harness and an order ringing out far and clear. PERSON 33 11. The group of officers in the tent was silent. 12. The general spoke. "We must get word to Captain Weldon immediately," said he. 21. Person. Every noun names (1) the speaker of the sentence, or (2) the person spoken to in the sentence, or (3) the person or thing spoken of in the sentence. (a) I, Marian Allen, am here to represent the Girl Scouts. The noun Marian Allen in this sentence names the speaker. When a noun names the speaker, the noun is said to be in the first person, (h) Marian Allen, will you please state your errand here? The noun Marian Allen in this sentence names the person spoken to. When a noun names the person spoken to, the noun is said to be in the second person^ (c) The Girl Scouts chose Marian Allen to repre** sent them. Marian Allen in this sentence names the person spoken of. (d) Bring me that book. Book in this sentence names the thing spoken of, When a noun names the person or thing spoken of, the noim is said to be in the third person. z 34 THE NOUN Exercise Tell the person of each noun in the following paragraph: [ Shall I, your president, not tell you the truth? Will you, the citizens of a great republic, not listen to the truth? There is only one path for a righteous nation to follow; that is the path of justice. 22. Inflection. A change in the form of a word is called inflection. A word is said to be inflected when its form is changed to show number, gender, etc. 23. Number. What, to your mind, is the difference between desk and desks? sword and swords? Desk stands for one object; desks for more than one. Sword stands for one object; swords for more than one. To tell whether a word stands for one object, or for more than one, is to tell the number of that word. !• A word which indicates one object is said to be in the singular number. Singular means denoting one only. A word which indicates more than one object is said to be in the plural number. Plural means denot- ing more than one. Most plurals are formed by adding s or es to the singular, as: Singular Plural Singular Plural book books envelope envelopes box boxes grain grains IRREGULAR PLURALS 35 Whether you add es instead of s depends upon whether the s unites readily with the singular ending. What is the plural of box? Boxs is hard to pronounce; boxes, is easy to pronounce. Always keep this idea in mind when forming plurals. Exercise Give the plurals of the following nouns: glass bed wagon knob store magazine switch pole paper house fox track church picture chair gate grammar calendar In forming some plurals you must observe excep- tions to the general rule. To learn these intelligently you must know that certain letters of the alphabet are vowels, and the others consonants. A, e, i, o, and u, are the vowels; all the rest are consonants. For example : 24. The plural of nouns ending in y. Singular Plural Singular Plural lady ladies misery miseries story stories city cities tragedy tragedies outcry outcries variety varieties discovery discoveries activity activities memory memories security securities anxiety anxieties ecstasy ecstasies penalty penalties energy energies fancy fancies fly flies company companies Now study the singulars for a moment and see whether there is any resemblance upon which you can form a rule that will guide you. Each singular 36 THE NOUN ends in y. In each case the y is preceded by a conso- nant. These are the resemblances in the singular forms. Note that in the plurals the y in each case changes to i, and then es is added in the usual way. Can you not now see a guiding rule? Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to /, and add es to form the plural. Singular Plural Singular Plural monkey monkeys survey surveys key keys outlay outlays doorway doorways convoy convoys mainstay mainstays delay delays essay essays chimney chimneys Do you note any resemblance between these singulars and those of the words in the preceding paragraph? These singulars, like those above, end in y. What difference between the two do you note? The final y of the words in the earlier group was preceded by a consonant; the final y of the words in this group is preceded by a vowel. When the y is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed in the usual way. 25. The plural of nouns ending in /. Singular Plural Singular Plural loaf loaves wife wives self selves beef beeves thief thieves half halves knife knives calf calves leaf leaves sheaf sheaves elf elves life lives shelf shelves wolf wolves IRRFGULAR PLURALS 37 In studying these singulars you note that all the nouns end in /. To form the plural, each noun changes the / to v and adds es. These nouns are f'xceptions to the general rule. All the other nouns ending in / or fe fomi the plural in the usual way. For example : Singular Plural belief beliefs relief reliefs 26. Change of vowel in plural. Some nouns change the vowel of the singular in order to form the plural instead of following the usual custom. You simply have to learn such plurals. Some of them are: Singular Plural Singular Plural mouse mice foot feet tooth teeth louse lice woman women goose geese 27. Plural of nouns ending in o. Sometimes it is hard to tell whether nouns ending in o should add s or es. This has to be learned through practice. Some of those w hich add es are : mosquito negro echo tomato potato motto volcano cargo hero Others, which add merely s, are: dynamo memento folio piano cameo halo alto solo 38 THE NOUN 28. Miscellaneous plurals. Some nouns have the same form for the plural as for the singular; as, trout sheep heathen deer swine salmon An old plural survives in the following plurals: Singular Plural Singular Plural child children ox oxen maid maidens brother brethren Brother has also the plural brothers. Some nouns possess a plural form only. Some of these are: scissors politics tidings riches victuals athletics thanks trousers gymnastics Some nouns have no plural: electricity poverty rheumatism gold air (atmosphere) 29. Plural of compounds. Sometimes by uniting two or more words a compound noun is formed. Compound nouns usually form the plural from the principal word without changing the modifying word. For example : Singular Plural blackboard blackboards schoolhouse schoolhouses bookworm bookworms brother-in-law brothers-in-law IRREGULAR PLURALS 39 Singular Plural commander-in-chief commanders-in-chief passer-by passers-by Englishman Englishmen A few compounds are irregular; as, Singular Plural manservant menservants German Germans The plural of compound nouns ending in ful is formed by adding s to the last syllable: Singular Plural Singular Plural spoonful spoonfuls cupful cupfuls To indicate that more than one spoon or cup is filled, say spoons full, cups full. 30. Plural of letters and figures. The plurals of letters and figures are formed by placing an apostrophe before the s: Vs, 5's. 3L Plural of proper nouns. You will need to study especially the plurals of proper nouns. The plural of Mr. Vail is the Messrs. Vail, though it is possible to speak of the two Mr. Vails. The plural of Miss Lee is the Misses Lee, though it is possible to say the two Miss Lees. But for more than one Mrs. Lee, there is but one form, the Mrs. Lees. The plurals of proper nouns are formed in the same way as those of common nouns. 32. Foreign plurals. In addition to these there are many nouns which form their plural after a foreign 40 THE NOUN mod.el. You must give them special study. For ex- an^ple : Singular Plural Singular Plural tableau tableaux memorandum memoranda beau beaux stratiun strata erratum errata phenomenon phenomena alumnus alumni alumna alumnae analysis analyses parenthesis parentheses vertebra vertebrae crisis crises basis bases axis axes appendix appendices 33. Plural of collective nouns. There is a group of nouns, which, although singular in form, denotes a number of individuals. Such nouns are sometimes called collective; they may all be used in the plural.* club group team class audience dozen congregation pair nation society family Grammatical facts like these have to be memorized so that you can use them. In case of doubt about a plural form, however, you should always look up the noun in the dictionary. Directly after the noun, if the plural is irregular, you will find the plural form given. If the plural is formed in the regular way, by adding s or es, no mention of it will be made. * For use with verbs see p. 144. PLURALS 41 Exercise Write the plural of the following words picture chart camera negro crisis variety engraving doily biscuit bat hospital bookcase calf essay piano looking-glass rug trousers scout German Irishman clay Turk football armchair typewriter dress mattress waist college pocket book toast hay-rake pillow couch Miss Rogers delay lounge lawyer beau bureau shelf maid diamond village sofa-pillow dollar umpire fatality postman Write from memory, in sentences, five words which possess only singular forms. Use in sentences : news, sheep, heathen. Tell the number of each noun in the following sentences : 1. Lucy bought five dozens of buttons. 2. These shoes are worth three dollars the pair. 3. The ponies leaped over the gravelly gi'ound. 4. There are three I's in parallel. 5. Please give these letters to the Misses Sackville. 6. Two packages have arrived by post for Mr. Roberts. 7. The farmer had already yoked his oxen to the plough. 8. What one sheep does all the other sheep will do. 9. Is the mail in yet? 10. Make your 8's plain, without any flourishes. 11. The lads took their spades and went to work. 12. The collision resulted in bent fenders and damaged headlights. 42 THE NOUN 13. A griddle heated by electricity means hot cakes without trouble. 14. What kinds of oil have you? 15. The starters on these cars are guaranteed. Turn to the advertising pages of some newspaper. Make a list of twenty singular nouns and twenty plural nouns which you find in these pages. 34. Gender. Nouns are said to have gender accord- ing to whether they name a male, a female, or a thing. A noun which names a male, is said to be masculine in gender; a noun which names a female, is said to be feminine in gender; a notm which names a thing, is said to be neuter in gender. 35. The work of the noim — the nominative. The noun has many duties in the sentence. One of these is to act as subject. In the sentence, The bridge fell, the whole subject is The bridge; the fact that the noun bridge is the word in the subject that carries the force and does the real subject work is evident. In The cheerful, whistling boy made me smile, the whole subject is The cheerful, whistling boy. Yet the fact that the noun boy is the word that does the real sub- ject work is evident. Whether a subject consists of one word or more than one, there is always a noun that can be separated as doing the actual subject work. The word subject, then, sometimes refers to the whole subject, and sometimes to the one noun that is doing the actual work. In this text, from this point on, the word subject is used to refer to the THE NOMINATIVE CASE 43 single noun, or, in a compound subject, to whatever words are doing the actual subject work of naming. As stated in the preceding paragraph, the noun has several duties. According to the duty which the noun is performing, the noun is said to have case. There are three cases: the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. Certain uses of the noun are said to be in certain cases. A noun used as subject is said to be in the nom- inative case. In the sentence, John, please come here, John is used as an expression of address. A noun used to express direct address is said to be in the nominative case. My name is Walter. Here you see that the noun name is used as the subject. To find how the noun Walter is used, divide the sentence up into subject and predicate. Here, my name is the subject; is Walter is the predicate. Walter surely is part of the predicate; it also bears a certain relationship to the subject. Walter and name, the subject, mean exactly the same thing. Walter, there- fore, is said to be a predicate nominative, and is in the nominative case. A noun in the predicate which means exactly the same as the subject is called a predicate nomina- tive or predicate noun. 44 THE NOUN Exercise Select the nouns used as predicate nominatives in this group of sentences: 1. Our hurrying was empty bustle, after ail. 2. This invention is the answer to all our difficulties. 3. Labor is life's sweetest joy. 4. The prize was a five-dollar gold-piece. 5. My favorite book is '^ Huckleberry Finn." 6. New York is America's greatest market. 7. The river at night is a smooth piece of glass, The fog a faint cloud that bends o'er it; But the fresh morning air makes a gay rippling mass. And drives water and cloud-mist before it. 8. Gerhardt was a German shepherd boy. 9. The road is a winding path. Exercise Tell how each noun is used in the following sen- tences. Do not name the case as you perform the exercise; merely tell how the noun is used, or the function of that noun. Function means ' 'special work.'' 1. The train has come, Edith. 2. My basket fell. 3. My hand hurts. 4. Mary is my sister. 5. That horse ran away. 6. Mr. Morris is our choir-leader. 7. A rock shd and struck us. 8. Mary Long is organist here. 9. My father is ill. THE POSSESSIVE CASE 45 10. Our teacher has gone away. 11. Oh, John! Don't run so! 12. Time flies swiftly. 13. My birds are my pets. 14. Clocks tick loudly. 15. Squeaky noises annoy me. 16. Barbed wire fences are a nuisance. 17. Where are you going, my pretty maid? 18. Here, Fido! puppies must eat! 19. His weapon was a large rifle. 36. The possessive case.^ In the sentence, John's hat is here, there are two nouns. Hat is the noun used as subject. John's tells whose hat is here; John's also tells who possesses the hat. This is another important use of the noun — to show possession. Nouns which show possession are said to be in the possessive case. Here are examples : 1. My sister's flowers have come. 2. The horse's mane is long. 3. The bee's sting is painful. 4. The teacher's voice is agreeable. 5. The carpenter's work is done. These examples show that the form of the noun in the possessive case is a little different from that of the nominative. The possessive case is distinguished from the nominative by the addition of an apostrophe and s to the nominative form. * The possessive case is sometimes called the genitive case. 46 THE NOUN Exercise Select the nouns in the possessive case: 1. Mary's mother is ill. 2. That man's day is always spoiled by laziness. 3. The clergyman's advice helped me. 4. Edward's messenger did not reach us. 5. Elsie's desire was not granted by her mother. 6. Miss Mack's progress has been remarkable. 7. Murray's team brought us from the station. 8. Nobody's business is everybody's business. 9. The children's toys lay strewn about the floor. 10. The boy's father insisted that he should obey. Only nouns referring to living beings are usually put in the possessive case. The possessive of things is usually denoted in the way indicated below. Bad: The magazine's cover had been torn. Good: The cover of the magazine had been torn. Bad: The roof's shingles had been gradually dropping off. Good: The shingles on the roof had been gradually dropping off. Bad: The mountain's top is covered with snow. Good: The top of the mountain is covered with snow. A possessive which is awkward, even though it refers to a group of persons, should not be used. For example : Bad: The class's average was eighty-five per cent. THE POSSESSIVE CASE 47 Good: The average of the class was eighty-five per cent. If the noun ends in the letter s, the apostrophe and s may be added in the same way to form the possessive case. Example: Curtis's bat is lying in the yard. Frequently, however, the possessive of a noun ending in s is formed by merely adding the apostrophe. Example : Curtis' bat is lying in the yard. The possessive of plurals ending in s is made by adding an apostrophe to the plural form. Examples: The girls' association made many Christmas gifts for poor children. The Mothers' Pension bill received hearty support. The possessive of plurals not ending in s is formed by adding an apostrophe and s. Example: The children's clothes were torn. Exercise Select the nouns in the possessive case : 1. The neighbors like the Joneses' children. 2. Men's voices are lower than women's voices. 3. Thomas's father gave him a motor cycle. 4. We shall call at the Misses Roberts' home this evening. 5. Mr. Wells's honesty and ability were known to all. 6. The Trumans' new car stood in front of the house. 7. The fame of Theodore Fairbanks' family has spread far and wide. 48 THE NOUN Exercise Select all the possessives in the following sen- tences. Tell whether the nouns are singular or plural. 1. Boys' games are more attractive than girls' games. 2. Odysseus' men were detained at Circe's palace by trickery. 3. Francis' talent for drawing was the source of both pleasure and profit to him. 4. The librarian's kindness extends to every one. 5. The engineer's presence of mind saved many lives. 6. The pupils recognized the teacher's fairness. 7. Mr. Yates's income amounts to over a million dollars yearly. 8. The Ladies' Aid Society will meet at seven o'clock. 9. Mr. Brander Matthews' book on the short story is interesting. 10. Charles' tennis racket has disappeared. 11. Laborers' wages are higher now than they used to be. Exercise Insert the apostrophe and add s wherever needed in the following sentences: 1. Charles report was better than James. 2. We stopped at Candor for a few minutes rest. 3. The matrons objection to visitors made the hospital unpopular. 4. Burns poetry was greatly admired by James Whit- comb Riley. 5. Georges companions always enjoyed his tales of the fun at the boys school which he attended. 6. They use goats milk instead of cows milk in Switzer- land. THE OBJECTIVE CASE 49 37. The objective case — the direct object. John broke his slate. From previous study you know that John is the subject and that broke his slate is the whole predicate. You know that broke is the part of the predicate that expresses action. Broke sends this action to the word slate. If you were to tell, then, what slate does in this sentence, you would say that slate names the receiver of the action expressed by the verb broke. A single word will say all that for you. The word in the sentence which receives the action directly from the verb is called the object of that verb. Often, because the noun receives the action directly, you will call it the direct object. The direct object of a verb names the receiver of the action expressed by the verb. All nouns used as direct objects are said to be in the objective^ case. Exercise Select all the direct objects in the following sentences : 1. Rex passed his examination. 2. The hail broke the glass of the wind shield. 3. The racers broke all former records. 4. The Legislature passed the Child Labor Bill. 5. We use hard pencils. 6. The chauffeur mended the tire. 7. The thief returned the purse. ' The objective case is sometimes called the accusative case. 4 50 THE NOUN 8. Who started this war? 9. I take my lunch every day. 10. John acquired the bad habit of talking in school. 11. I have lost a dollar. 12. He dreaded the sandstorms of the West. 13. The girls wrote themes this morning. 14. Wright perfected the airplane. 15. The real inventors rarely get the credit for their work. 16. I bought two tickets. 17. Business men send many letters. 18. Submarines destroy large ships. Write ten sentences of your own, employing the direct object. Describe, for example, what you would see if you were looking through the door into the gymnasium, or into a kitchen, or into a library. 38. The indirect object.^ Father gave Mary the basket. Father is the subject of this sentence; basket is a noun used as direct object for it receives direct action from the verb gave. What about the noun Mary? Is or is not Mary affected by the action of the verb gave? Certainly basket receives the direct action of being transferred from Father to Mary, Mary, as the result of the direct action, has a basket. If Father had not given the basket y Mary would not have received it. So you distinguish the action sent to Mary from the action sent to basket by calling the action sent to Mary the *The indirect object is sometimes said to be in the dative case. THE INDIRECT OBJECT 51 indirect action of the verb, and the action sent to basket the direct action of the verb. Consequently, since the noun Mary receives the indirect action of the verb, Mary is called the indirect object, by the same reasoning as that by which the basket is called the direct object. Indirect objects usually follow verbs meaning to send, give, show, lend, grant, refuse, forgive, get, buy, hand, and the like. The noim used as indirect object is said to be in the objective case. Examples of the indirect object follow: (1) Please show John the house. (2) The boys gave the team a rousing cheer. (3) You sent Mrs. Hart the wrong bill. (4) Esther gave the baby medicine. (5) Mother sends Katie a check for her board. (6) Father buys Caroline new music. Note that the noun used as indirect object never is preceded by any such word as to or for. Such >ords may be understood by the reader of the sentence, but they are never expressed before the indirect object.^ Exercise Select the indirect objects: 1. Hand the chauffeur that screwdriver, please. 2. Father gave Dan more money. 3. Father gave more money to Dan. For the government of nouna by prepoeitione Bee f>ection 41. 52 THE NOUN 4. Do not refuse John this request. 5. This man owes Mr. Richards money. 6. She offered her sister a good position. 7. Will you lend your employer your car? 8. Please sell Mrs. Lee an embroidered tablecloth. 9. I can get the baby his medicine. 10. Mother did Miss Stevens a great service. 11. I promised father that I would give Lucy this letter. Write sentences of your own, using an indirect object after each of the following verbs: promise, send, give, get, lend, owe, offer, grant, forgive, refuse, sell.^ 39. The appositive. Study this sentence: Henry, my brother, has bought a new launch. You can dispose of all but one of the nouns in this sentence by means of what you have already learned. The exception is the word brother. The word brother is plainly put in here to explain the word Henry. Brother is not the subject of the sen- tence; Henry is clearly the subject. Brother is said to be in apposition with the subject, Henry. An appositive is a noun used to make clear another noun that denotes the same person, place, or thing. ^ Additional uses of the noun in the objective case are the objective complement, the cognate object, the secondary object, and the retained object. Examples of these uses are: Objective complement: They named George captain. Cognate object: They slept the sleep of the dead. Secondary object: He asked me the number of our telephone. Retained object: Henry was given the position. None of these uses presents any functional difficulty; there is no use, therefore, of burdening the student with classifications. THE APPOSITIVE 53 The appositive is said to be in the same case as the noun with which it is in apposition. An appositive is usually set off from the rest of the sentence by commas. An example of an appositive which need not be set off by commas occurs when the sentence is of this kind: Professor Ellis, this is my son Robert. IV. THE PARTS OF SPEECH— The Preposition 40. What the preposition is. In order to under- stand one of the commonest uses of the noun, you must here learn another part of speech. The duty of this part of speech is to show relationship. The car crashed over the embankment. If you separate from this sentence the words which really carry the idea of what happened, you select three: car, crashed, embankment. The relation- ship between car and crashed you know; car is the subject, crashed the predicate of the sentence. But what is the relationship between crashed and embank- ment? There are several possibilities. The car may have gone up, down, around, or over the embank- nient. The word over in the sentence tells just what is needed, and in this way defines the relationship between crashed and embankment. Over and other words performing a like duty are prepositions. A preposition shows the relationship between a noun and some other word in the sentence. The preposition is said to govern the noun with which it is used. To govern is used here as a briefer way of saying to show relationship. A noun governed by a preposition is said to be in the objective case. (54) THE PREPOSITION 55 Here are the prepositions most frequently used: about by over above concerning save across despite since after down through against during throughout along ere tiU amid except to among excepting toward around for under before from until behind in unto below into up beside near with between of within beyond off without but on Exercise Select from the following sentences the preposi- tions and the nouns which they govern: 1. Let us walk around the block. 2. I saw her name on the list just above my name. 3. The girls of our class are without exception popular. 4. There will be none of my friends there except Mary. 5. Pretty cottages were built on the bank of the river. 6. Everyone has gone to church but Robert. 7. He fought bravely imtil the end of the horrible struggle. 8. I have waited against my will since eight o'clock. 9. Bobbie chased Rover down the lane. 10. Sit here beside grandmother. 11. Four boys besides Tom reported for scout duty. 56 THE PREPOSITION 12. Notwithstanding my objections, I was taken to the hospital. 13. The fish escaped despite my efforts. 14. All the men save Brutus did what they did in envy of great Caesar. There are certain combinations of words which show relationship in exactly the same way as prepo- sitions do, and hence these combinations are called prepositions. * Here are some of them: In spite of, in front o// for the sake of, in regard to,^ according to, by way of, instead of. When out of occurs in a sentence like this: Mary helped me out of the car, out of is regarded as a prep- osition of this kind. Exercise Use each of these combinations in a sentence of your own. Exchange your sentences for those of one of your classmates, and select from his sentences the noun governed by the preposition. Name in each case the word to which the noun is related by the preposition. Try to think of at least three other combinations that are used as prepositions. There are many more. 41. Case of noun governed by a preposition. In the beginning of the chapter you read that learning the preposition would introduce you to one of the commonest uses of the noun. The use of the noun ^In back of is not to be used for behind or hack of, although in front #/is in good use, 21/1 regards to instead of iri regard to should be avoided. THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE 57 governed by a preposition must be grouped with the other uses of the noun in the objective case. 42. The prepositional phrase. The preposition and the noun which it governs are usually referred to together as a prepositional phrase. 43. Difference between a phrase and a clause. Some time ago you learned that a certain group of words is called a clause. The difference between the group of words called a phrase and the group of words called a clause is simply this: 44. A group of related words, without a subject and predicate, doing the work of a single part of speech, is called a phrase, 45. A division of a sentence containing a subject and predicate of its own is called a clause. Exercise Select the phrases and the clauses in the following sentences : 1. Daniel Boone was born in Fennsyhania. 2. Lancelot waited for his antagonist, and then hurled his force against him. 3. When thej- reached tjie lists, the young knight was overjoyed by the gorgeous sight that met his eyes in the meadow. 4. When the wind shook the leaves on the trees, he trembled. 5. At sunset Brother Goat placed the blackened doll near the well and run. 58 THE PREPOSITION Exercise Select all the nouns governed by prepositions in these sentences. Name the case of these nouns. 1. The lights in the shop windows threw a broad glare across the ice on the pavements, and the lights from the lamp-posts created strange shadows. 2. The keen wind swept through the cracks. 3. Single rows of new houses stood at different angles across from a field. 4. The carriage dragged its way through pools of water. 5. With your warrant-papers and your badges, you can arrest Loring easily. 6. At the sound of wheels on the gravel, the farmhouse door opened. 7. We gave the man an excuse without any trouble. 8. A murmur of admiration ran through the crowd. 9. The fire crept under the eaves and ignited the roof of the house. 10. Ida has visited her friends in their home. 11. Heffiefinger slipped over the cross-rails, hung for an instant by his hands, and then dropped into the center of the fighting mob on the floor. 12. The arbor is his favorite place for study. 13. Levitt continued in the employ of the company in the capacity of bookkeeper for many years. 14. You can catch a glimpse of the flower-bordered walks of Trinity Hospital. V. THE PARTS OF SPEECH— The Pronoun 46. What a pronoim is. John put John's hat on the chair, and turned to open John's mail. Then John's mother called John, and John responded. ' What is the trouble with this statement? Compare it with the following : John put his hat on the chair, and turned to open his mail. Then his mother called him, and he responded. Note that the form of the word used instead of John or John's is changed according to the use in the sentence. A word used instead of a noim is a pronoun. Pro means instead of; the word, then, actually means ''instead of a noun." 47. The forms of the pronoun. Suppose John is your own name. You will then change the state- ment as follows: / put my hat down on the chair, and turned to open my mail. Then my mother called me, and / responded. Suppose you are speaking of yourself and your brother. You will then change the statement as follows : We put our hats down on the chair and turned to open our mail. Then our mother called us, and we responded. (59) 60 THE PRONOUN Suppose you are speaking of two of your friends. You will then change the statement as follows: . They put their hats down on the chair, and turned to open their mail. Then their mother called them and they responded. Suppose you are speaking of a friend whose name is Lucy instead of John. You will then change the statement thus: Lucy put her hat down on the chair, and turned to open her mail. Then her mother called her, and she responded. From the changes made in this statement, accord- ing to what you wish to express, you draw the con- clusions that: (1) Pronouns change form according to person. (2) Pronouns change form according to number. (3) Pronouns sometimes change form according to gender. (4) Pronouns change form according to the way in which they are used in the sentence. Pronouns are said to be in one of the three cases, according to the way in which they are used. Pronouns, then, are exactly like nouns in that they have person, number, gender, ^nd case. Pronouns are unlike nouns in that they change their forms decidedly in order to show person, num- ber, gender, and case. In order to learn the different forms of the pronoun easily, you should learn them in groups. The groups are divided into the group of first person pronouns, that of second person pronouns, and that of third person pronouns. Each group shows all the forms of THE PERSONAL PRONOUN 61 that person for both numbers and all the cases. Such a grouping of forms is called a declension. In addition to expressing the masculine gender by means of he, and the feminine gender by means of she, the personal pronoun can also stand for a thing without life by means of it. It is said to be of the neuter gender. /, you, he, she, it, and their plurals are called the personal pronouns. 48. The forms of the personal pronouns. First Person Singular Plural Nominative I we Possessive my, mine our, ours Objective me Second Person us Nominative you you Possessive your, yours your, yours Objective you Third Person [he you Nominative - she it fhis they Possessive I her, hers [its ' him their, theirs Objective < her it them 62 THE PRONOUN Learn the forms thoroughly, for it is a serious mistake to use one of these forms in the wrong place. You learned that the pronoun is said to be in a certain case according to the way in which it is used. The pronouns are exactly like the nouns in this respect. subject predicate noun (it is called predi- cate noun even though it is a pronoun). appositive f used to show possession \ appositive direct object indirect object governed by preposition appositive Nominative case Possessive case Objective case Exercise Select all the personal pronouns in these sen- tences. Tell how they are used. Name the case of each. 1. I know you too well to blame you. 2. He is the president of the class. 3. The teacher sent him 'from the room. 4. The falling beam struck us. 5. She is a strong-minded girl. 6. Mother scolded her. 7. It tires me to swim. 8. We threw it into the river. 9. You are too generous. 10. I gave him a package to carry. 11. Marie lent her a raincoat. PRONOUN IN NOMINATIVE 63 12. I showed them my new clothes. 13. I bought him a brand new hat. 14. I would say nothing in reply. 15. They expect the guests at seven. 16. He divided the labor evenly. 17. The six o'clock rush at the terminal knocked us down. 18. We asked if we might go, but we were refused. 19. She sewed the seam beautifully. 20. Katie was in the burning house, but she was saved by a brave fireman. She later sent him a note of thanks. 49. Pronoun with is. When the pronoun is used as predicate noun, it is put in the nominative case. One of the commonest errors made by young people results from forgetting this fact. Here are examples: 1. Who is there? Right: It is /. It is we. It is she. It is they. 2. Is this your friend? This is she. This is he. 3. Which are your friends? These are they. 4. It is we who want you, Mother. 5. It was they who wrecked the train. Exercise Supply the proper case form in the blanks: 1. Who is there? It is [them, they]. 2. This is [she, her]. 3. Mother, this is [me, I]. 4. Was it [we, us] of whom you were speaking? 5. Which is your cousin? That is [her, she]. 6. It was [him, he] who blamed [us, we]. 64 THE PRONOUN 7. It was [them, they] who reported the trouble. 8. This is [me, I] at the door. 9. Could it have been [her, she]? 10. It was [them, they] for whom I asked. 11. Was it [he, him] who broke this glass? 12. Give it to [us, we] girls. 13. If you were [me, I] what would you do? 14. Were you asking for Miss Blake? I am [she, her], 15. You were asking for the new nurse. This is [she, her]. 50. Pronoun governed by a preposition. Like the noun, the pronoun can be governed by a preposition and be the principal word in a prepositional phrase. Such a pronoun is in the objective case. Exercise Select the pronouns used in prepositional phrases in the following sentences: 1. He has never asked a favor of me. 2. When she spoke of him, I remembered the story I had heard. 3. Before I left, everything had been arranged for her. 4. Miss Black came to us afterward. 5. Every one of them is strong and well. . 6. Nothing could be judged from it except that I ought not to go. 7. Never mention ''prize" to me again! 8. Please bring my camera to me. 9. "Life is a beautiful fairy tale,'^ said the fairy, "and every one takes part in it." 10. Some of the window-panes were made of yellow glass; if one looked through them, he saw a world of sunshine. PRONOUN GOVERNED BY PREPOSITION 65 11. The lady's little daughter stood by her. 12. The candle shone upon her as if it would speak to her. 13. From the branch the man made a plaything, and his children played with it. 14. Stand near us. 15. You will take sides against me? 16. He has never accepted anything from us. 17. The Lord will show mercy unto them that fear Him. 18. "Nothing for you," said the postman. 19. Draw the thread through slowly and make loops of it. Always use the objective case of the personal pronoun after a preposition. Be particularly careful in this respect when one preposition governs two pronouns. Sometimes people remember to put the first of two such pronouns in the objective case, but are not so attentive to the second. For instance: Wrong: This book is for you and I. Right: This book is for you and me. Select from each set of brackets the proper forms of the pronouns to place in the blanks : 1. These were given to [you and I, you and me]. 2. He always works against [Mary and I, Mary and me]. 3. Will you trj^ to work for [Mary and me, Mary and I]? 4. Would you be willing to buy tickets for [her and me, she and I]? 5. Yes, Harold came in with [Father and I, Father and me]. s 66 THE PRONOUN 6. The praise was given to [he and she, him and her]. 7. Whom will you vote for [Esther, Edith, or me; Esther, Edith, or I]? 8. She sat just opposite [Margaret and I, Margaret and me]. 9. Was Walter visiting with [you and he, you and him]? 10. The umpire decided against [Jones and me, Jones and I]. 11. I hope no quarrel may ever arise between [you and I, you and me]. 51. The pronoxin as subject. Always use the nom- inative form of the personal pronoun as the subject. Many people make mistal^es like the following: Wrong: Him and James left at five o'clock. Right: He and James left at five o'clock. Exercise Correct the following sentences: 1. The other boys and us were at the pool. 2. Mary and her were my best friends. 3. John and him knew all the facts. 4. You and her are to blame. 5. You and me could do that in no time. 6. Us boys could not win a point. 7. Her and I made six towels. 8. The Smiths and us have always been good friends. 9. Him and her have had a falling out. 10. Them and I have never got back a cent of the money. 11. Walter and me were invited to the party. AGREEMENT WITH ANTECEDENT 07 52. The possessive case. The possessive case of the pronoun, like that of the noun, shows possession. Here are some examples of its use:* (a) This is my picture. (6) This house is mine. (c) The money is yours. (d) Your tickets are on the table. (e) The advantages of the situation are his. (/) His coat hangs on the rack. ig) This purse is hers. (h) The credit is theirs. (i) Their knowledge of the city helped me. (j) Her gift was gladly accepted. (k) This book will do. Its contents please me. The possessive case of the personal pronoun never requires an apostrophe before the s of the ending. 53. Agreement of pronoun with its antecedent. The man did his best. In this sentence the personal pronoun his refers to man. The lady brought her child home. In this sentence the personal pronoun her refers to lady. You should hang up your hat and coat. In this sentence, your, the personal pronoun, refers to another pronoun, you. ' The distinction sometimes made between the possessive case used as a pronoun mud as an adjective is purposely omitted. 68 THE PRONOUN Further examination will show you that in each of these cases, the pronoun not only refers to a word that goes before it, but that it bears a certain relation- ship to that word. Because this word to which the pronoun refers goes before the pronoun, the word is called the antecedent of the pronoun. Antecedent means ^'that which goes before." The antecedent of a pronoun is the word for which the pronoun stands. The antecedent may be either a noun or a pronoun. The pronoun must have the same person, number, and gender as its antecedent. Observe that in the following sentences the pro- nouns agree with the antecedents in person, number, and gender : 1. John sent his regards to you. 2. No one likes to feel that he is being neglected. 3. Mary felt that she should have been consulted. 4. Everybody does as he pleases here. 5. The cousins left their valuables in the safe. 6. The boy knew that his excuse was flimsy. The rule that a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number, and gender, is often broken when the expressions any one, no one, each one, every one, somebody, everybody are referred to. These words are all singular. A common error consists in using a plural pronoun to refer to one of them. Often the mistake of using a plural pronoun to refer to one of these words leads to a mistake in gender as well. For example: AGREEMENT WITH ANTECEDENT 09 Wrong: If anybody left their coat, they can get it at the office. Both their and they are plural forms used to refer to the singular antecedent anybody. Plainly, this sentence should read either If anybody left his coat, he can get it in the office, or If anybody left her coat, she can get it in the office. You will decide whether to use the masculine or feminine pronoun after this fashion : If the company to which the sentence given above is addressed is made up of both men and women, the pronoun used to refer to anybody is the masculine. Right: If anybody left his coat, he can get it at the office. If the company addressed is made up entirely of women, the pronoun referring to anybody is feminine. Right: If anybody left her coat, she can get it at the office. To sum up, then, the masculine form of the pronoun is used to refer to an antecedent that may be either masculine or feminine. The masculine form is always used to refer to a masculine antecedent; the feminine form is always used to refer to a feminine antecedent. 70 TPIE PRONOUN Exercise Select from each set of brackets the proper forms to insert in the blanks in the following sentences: 1. Every soldier loved [his, their] leader devotedly, and obeyed [him, them] without question. 2. Every girl brought [their, her] bathing suit to camp. 3. Every boy in this school must do [their, his] work each day. 4. Every day brings [its, their] own duty, [its, their] own pleasure. 5. Tell each girl to wTite [her, their] name in the upper corner. 6. No one knows what [their, his, her] end may be. 7. Somebody has neglected [his, their] duty. 8. No one has ever made [his, her, their] mark without effort. 9. Each girl may have a ticket if [she, they] will promise to take care of it. 10. No boy was permitted to enter unless [they, he] showed a pass. 11. If each person looks out for [their, his, her] own belongings, there will be no trouble. Exercise Select all the personal pronouns in the follow- ing selections. Tell how each is used in the sentence. (a) A Dormouse was sitting between the March Hare and the Hatter as they were having their tea. The Dormouse was fast asleep, and they used it as a cushion, leaning their elbows on it, and talking over its head. ** Very uncomfortable for the Dormouse," USE OF PRONOUN 71 thought Alice, "only, as it is asleep, I suppose it doesn't mind.'* (6) So Cinderella's two sisters called her to them and said, "Now, comb our hair, brush our shoes, and tie our sashes for us, for we are going to dance at the King's feast." (c) There was once a young man in the army. He behaved bravely, and was always the first to face the bullets. While the war lasted, all went well with him, but when peace was made he received his discharge, and his captain told him to go about his business. His parents were dead; he had no home; so he asked his brothers to take him in until war should begin again, but they had hard hearts, and said they could do nothing for him. So the poor fellow shouldeied his gun and went forth. He came into a great open region, where he sat down and thought gloomily of his fate. "I have no money," thought he; *'I have never learned any trade but war; I am not fit for anything." Just then he heard a noise, and, looking up, he beheld a stranger before him. *' I know what you want," said the stranger; "it is money. You shall have as much as you want if you are not afraid. I give nought to cowards." (d) No one ever knows what will happen to him. (e) Her duty is with her mother. 72 THE PRONOUN Exercise (a) From a selected column on the front page of this morning's newspaper, pick out all the personal pronouns and tell how they are used in the sentences. (6) Write a paragraph giving your opinion on the subject, "What Athletics Do for Our School," or on some other subject particularly interesting to you. Go over the paragraph to see what work the personal pronoun has done for you. (c) Select the personal pronouns: *' Where are you going, young fellow, my Lad, On this glittering morn of May?'' ''I'm going to join the colors. Dad; They're looking for men, they say." *'But you're only a boy, young fellow, my Lad; You aren't obliged to go." "I'm seventeen and a quarter. Dad, And ever so strong, you know." From "Young Fellow, My Lad" in "Rhymes of a Red Cross Man," by Robert W. Service. Permission Barse and Hopkins. ♦ (d) Select the personal pronouns. (This verse was written under the painting of a magnificent trout.) ''This noble old trout from his hole ventured out Something more of this wide world to see ; The news got about, and the boys snaked him out, And brought him, a subject for me." 54. The Compoimd Personal Pronoun. The com- pound personal pronoun is formed by adding self to the forms of the personal pronoun. The compound COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUN 73 personal pronouns are: my self ^ yourself, himself, her- self, itself, in the singular; and ourselves, yourselves and themselves in the plural. A compound personal pronoun may be used as an appositive for emphasis. Examples : Mary herself told me. I shall attend to this matter myself. He himself telephoned. Do not use the compound personal pronoun as the subject of a sentence: Wrong: Yourself and your wife are the ones who were chosen. Right: You and your wife are the ones who were chosen. A compound personal pronoun may be used as direct object of a verb or may be governed by a prepo- sition. These uses are incorrect unless in each case the pronoun names the same person or thing as the subject of the sentence. Wrong: James and myself went to college. Right: James and I went to college. Wrong: The governor summoned Simmons and myself. Right: The governor summoned Simmons and me. Right: I blamed myself. Right: The prisoner convicted himself. 74 THE PRONOUN ^Exercise The compound personal pronouns in the following sentences are correctly used. Point out in each case whether the pronoun is used as an appositive, or as the object of a verb, or whether it is governed by a prepo- sition. 1. We shall have to help ourselves out of this difficulty. 2. No one but the conductor himself realized the danger. 3. They have placed themselves in an unfortunate position. 4. We divided ourselves into two sections. 5. I myself saw the accident. 6. John addressed the letter to himself. Exercise Correct the misuse of the compound personal pronouns in the following sentences : 1. Ruth and myself organized the Girl Scouts. 2. Harry went to the theater with my father and myself. 3. The messenger handed telegrams to both Merritt and myself. 4. The Bennetts and ourselves went on a picnic. 5. Edward and myself fell into the trap. There are no such words as hisself or theirselves. Wrong: John took the message hisself. Right: John took the message himself. Wrong: They named theirselves the Community Club. Right: They named themselves the Community Club. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 75 55. The relative pronoun. (a) Mr. Jones is the man who built our house. Who in this sentence stands for the noun man. Who, then, is a pronoun. (6) He brought me a plan which I followed. Which in this sentence stands for the noun plan. Which, then, is a pronoun. (c) This house is the house that Jack built. That stands for the noun house in this sentence. That, then, is a pronoun. (d) He that endureth to the end shall be saved. That stands for he, which is taking the place of the subject noun in this sentence. That, then, is a pronoun. Like the personal pronouns, the pronouns in the sentences above stand for nouns. For instance, in (a) who is the subject of huilt; in (d) that is the subject of endureth. Unlike the personal pronouns, they go a step further, and perform in addition to what you have already seen, a duty which no other pronoun can per- form. This duty is that of connecting clauses. Examine these sentences closely. You find that each of them falls readily into a principal and a subordinate clause. For instance: Principal clause: Mr. Jones is the man. Subordinate clause: Who built our house. Who stands for its antecedent man. The sub- ordinate clause is saying something about man. Who 76 THE PRONOUN connects the clauses because it stands for the very word concerning which the subordinate clause is aying something. The relationship between two such clauses is very close. Who is the word that shows the connection between the tw^o clauses. If you separate sentences (b), (c), and (d) into clauses, you will come to the conclusion that which and that are also pronouns that show connection between clauses. Such pronouns as these are called relative. A relative pronoun always occurs in a subordinate clause and connects the subordinate clause with the principal clause. 56. Agreement. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number. This is a simple matter, for that and which never change their form, for any case or number; and who, although it has three forms for the three different cases, has no inflection for number. The forms of who are: Singular and Plural Nominative, who Possessive, whose Objective, whom The relative pronouns who and whom refer only to people; the possessive whose refers to both people and things; which refers only to things; that may refer to either persons or things. Clauses containing relative pronouns are said to be introduced by relative pronouns and are called relative clauses. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 77 Exercise Select the relative pronouns in the following sentences. Tell the clauses connected, and name the duty that the relative performs in the sentence. 1. Charles is a child who never cries. 2. Mary is the girl who took my picture. 3. Laziness is a thief who is never caught. 4. Ichabod Crane, who was tall and lank, looked like ^ scarecrow, 5. The man whose hat I crushed was smgry. 6. You may invite whom you wish. 7. The ticket-seller, whose temper had been tried to its utmost, was rude to his patrons. 8. He is a man whom we all respect, 9. His daughter, whom he loved dearly, was taken from him. 10. The girl whose arm was broken was taken to the hospital. IL Whom the Lord loveth, He chasteneth. 12. The girl whom I recommended to you proved to be unworthy. 13. This man, whom I know well, has been wrongly accused. 14. I shall send you to any one whom I know well. 15. Mr. Smith is the gentleman from whom I received the letter. (Note. — la sentences like 6 and 11, the antecedent of the relative is merely unex- prossod. What the sentence really gives your mind, in 11, is "Those, or those people, whom the Lord loveth, He chasteneth.") Exercise From the forms in each set of brackets select the proper one to place in the sentence. 78 THE PRONOUN 1. I secured a man [who, whom] I could depend upon. 2. There was some attempt at applause by people [which, who] were scattered through the audience. 3. AUce found herself lying with her head in the lap of her sister [which, who] was frantically calling to a man [which, who] was plowing in a field some little distance away. 4. The man addressed the servant [who, which] only bowed and smiled in reply. 5. They wished to find a girl [who, whom] they could send. 6. This is the soldier to [whom, who] the general gave a medal for bravery. 7. At the end of the passage Roddy met a man [whom, who] he knew. 8. Sometimes a man gathers together several char- acters of [which, whom] he makes a single novel. 9. She works for those [whom, who] are in need. 10. She was the beautiful lady [who, that] lived in the big house. 11. The man for [who, whom] I work is just. 12. I employed one [whom, who] I knew well. Other relative pronouns are as and what. Ex- amples : (a) He gave the prize to such as deserved it. (b) What I have said I shall maintain. 57. Compound Relative Pronouns. The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding ever or soever to the forms of the relative. They are whoever, whichever, whatever, whosoever, etc. THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN 79 Whosoever is inflected thus : Nominative, whosoever (whoever) Possessive, whosesoever Objective, whomsoever (whomever) Take care to use the proper case of whoever or whosoever. The case will depend on the work that the word is doing. Wrong: I shall ask whoever I please. Right: 1 shall ask whomever I please. Wrong: She spoke to whomever was passing. Right: She spoke to whoever was passing. 58. Interrogative Pronouns Who wants me? Which of these books is mine? What did you ask for? The words who^ which, and what in the sentences given above are used to ask questions. These pro- nouns are therefore called interrogative pronouns. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in asking questions. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. Who is inflected : Nominative, who Possessive, whose Objective, whom Who refers to persons; which refers to persons and things; what refers to things. 80 THE PRONOUN Examples of the use of these pronouns follow : 1. Who is there? 2. Whom do you want? f 3. Whose fault was this? 4. Which of you will volunteer? 5. What do you want? 6. Whom am I addressing? 7. Which of you hath done this? Care must be taken to use the proper case of the interrogative pronoun who. You have often been asked over the telephone, *^Who am I talking to?'' What should the person have said? Fill the blanks in the following sentences correctly : 1. did you want? (whom, who) 2. am I speaking to, please? (who, whom) 3. did you take the key from? (who, whom) 4. did you ask to help us? (who, whom) 59. Other Pronouns. Each, some, any, both, many, this, that and several other words are used as pro- nouns. In the examples that follow you will observe that each of these words does the work of a noun. 1. Each should be provided with a day's rations. 2. Some like candy; some do not. 3. Both pleaded for a postponement of the trial. 4. Any of these questions may be chosen. 5. Many cried aloud in their anguish. 6. Several turned and ran. 7. Few of us realize the importance of details. 8. I shall buy none of that material, but shall take a yard of this. VI. THE PARTS OF SPEECH— The Adjective 60. What an adjective is. (a) Mary is a cautious girl. In the sentence given above, cautious tells the kind of girl Mary is. Cautious adds something to our idea of girl. Cautious, then, is more closely connected with the word girl than with any other word in the sentence. What part of speech is girlf (6) We rowed across the quiet pond. Quiet adds something to our idea of pond. Then quiet is more closely connected with the word pond than with any other word in the sentence. What part of speech is pond? (c) This man is an orator. This tells which man is an orator. This is more closely connected with man than with any other word in the sentence. What part of speech is man? (d) Six mice ran across the floor. Six is more closely connected with mice than with any other word in the sentence. What part of speech is mice? To sum up your conclusions about cautious, quiet J thiSf and six, note that: These words are all alike in that they are closely connected with nouns. They are all aUke in that • rsi) 82 THE ADJECTIVE each changes the meaning of the noun with which it is connected. Cautious changes your idea of Mary; quiet adds to your idea of pond; this tells what particular man is an orator, or limits the predicate, is an orator J to this man; six shows that not all the mice in the world ran across the floor — only six ran. There is a whole group of words which performs this duty of changing or limiting the meaning of nouns and pronouns, apd this group of words is known as another part of speech. The name given to this part of speech is adjective. An adjective is a word that changes or limits the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 61. A word or group of words which changes or limits the meaning of another word is called a modifier. Exercise Point out the words in the following sentences that modify nouns or pronouns : 1. The bleak day made me shiver. 2. The glittering ring fascinated me. 3. She wore a checked shirtwaist. 4. Please use red ink. 5. "David Copperfield" is my favorite book. 6. Sunshiny days are often happy ones. 7. Polish the brass handle on the front door. 8. Careful enunciation is one of the first steps toward polished speech. 9. A big, fuzzy muff lay on the oak table. 10. There was a hot fire in the stove. ADJECTIVES THAT DO NOT DESCRIBE 83 11. Red-headed people are said to hava fiery tempers and warm hearts. 12. An industrious servant was sweeping the wide walks. 13. Tom bought a self-loading pistol. 62. Adjectives that do not describe.^ The adjectives this and that have the plurals these and those respectively. These plurals are of course used to modify plural nouns. There is a group of adjectives which changes the meaning of nouns by telling how many. These adjec- tives are numbers one^ two^ three, and so on. An example of the use of this sort of adjective was given in the sentence, Six mice ran across the floor. Somewhat like this group is another consisting of adjectives which tell the order or numerical rank of the noun modified. These adjectives are first, second, third, fourth, and so on. Example: Take your arithmetic lesson in the second hoar, not in the first hour. Another group of adjectives consists of each, both, several, this, that, many, few, any, such, what, which, and some others. You learned in section 53 that such words are sometimes used as pronouns. The part of speech of the word is determined by the work that the word does in the sentence. When these words do the work of pronouns, they are pronouns. When they do the work of adjectives, they are adjectives. ^Yarioua spec\&\ names, Buch asi demonstrative, quantitative, indefinite, distributive, etc., are sometimes given to these adjectives. These classifications serve no purpose in oral or written composition. 84 THE ADJECTIVE Exercise Point out the adjectives in the following sentences and tell the word each modifies: 1. Some people have already arrived for our party. 2. Will those girls who sold tickets please turn in the money? 3. Many soldiers passed through the town. 4. He gave alms to all deserving people. 5. No reason you can give will satisfy me. 6. You may give help to any girl who asks for it. 7. Several mischievous boys made this trouble. 8. Will each student pay his dues at once? 9. A note of excuse will be required of every girl. 10. Her fears caused me many anxious hours. 11. What book have you? 12. Which girl do you mean? 13. Yonder hills were the inspiration of his youth. 14. The general expects each soldier to obey him instantly. 15. Some people lead virtuous lives. 63. The articles. Under the heading of adjectives come the words the, a, and an. These words are called articles. The is the definite article, simply because it points out more definitely the thing men- tioned than a or an. A and an are called indefinite articles. A is used before words beginning with a consonant; an before words beginning with a vowel. The articles differ from adjectives in general in the colorlessness of their duty; but if you wish to realize how much the articles help to make our language clear and definite, read a paragraph from any magazine, THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE 85 omitting all the articles. You will then see that though these little words seem to be useless, they are actually doing much work. Articles are not inflected, but a and an are used only before singular nouns; the is used before both singular and plural nouns. Be careful to use the definite article and the indefinite article to show whether nouns or adjectives are to be taken separately or together. Examples: I see a blue and green card. {One card.) I see a blue and a green card. {Two cards.) I saw the president and manager of the company. {One man.) I saw the president and the manager of the company. {Two men.) 64. The predicate adjective. My new coat is blue. The adjectives in this sentence are new and blue, for both these words change the idea of coat. New modifies coat; blue modifies coat also. Is there any difference between the way in which blue modifies coat and the way in which new modifies coat? Certainly as far as the duty of the adjective is concerned, new and blue hold exactly the same relationship toward coat. But there is a difference in the location of the two adjectives. New occupies the usual position of the adjective, but blue is found in the predicate of the sentence. Moreover, new could be omitted from the sentence without much sacrifice, but if blue were omitted, the sentence would lack sense. Blue, then, 86 THE ADJECTIVE is here an adjective doing actual work in the predicate and yet modifying the subject of the sentence. Blue is here said to be a predicate adjective. Remember that position alone never determines a grammatical function. The work the word does determines its grammatical classification. A predicate adjective is found in the predicate and modifies the subject. In the sentence, He stood there, tall and strong, two adjectives are placed at the end for emphasis only. Note that the predicate adjective has to serve as a completing term, a duty which neither tall nor strong performs. Exercise Select the predicate adjectives from these sentences. 1. In debate Johnson was persuasive and winning. 2. The number of rooms at our disposal is limited. 3. The dessert was particularly good. 4. We were both hopeful. 5. The knock was feeble, but we all heard it. 6. Lorna was unconscious. 7. Old Meehan was quiet, bat he was the best-informed of us all. 8. The warriors were grave and reverent. 9. The way was steep and dangerous. 10. The full moon was bright behind me. 65. Comparison of adjectives. Adjectives undergo a certain change of form to express comparison. For instance, if you spoke of COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 87 two pieces of string of unequal lengths, you might say, 'This piece is shorter than that;" or, 'That piece is longer than this." But if you had three pieces of string, of unequal lengths, you might say, 'This piece is the shortest;^' or, 'That piece is the longest^ There are then three steps you can take in comparing adjectives. You can say, 'This string is short," meaning that, compared to strings in general, this string is short; you can say, of two unequally long strings, "This string is shorter than that;" you can say of three or more unequally long strings, "This string is shortest." These three steps are called the degrees of comparison. Each of these degrees is given a name. Short is the positive degree of the adjective; shorter is the comparative degree; shortest is the super- lative degree. Compare by this method these adjectives: high^ deep, wide, tall, thin, dry. To compare adjectives, add er to the positive to form the comparative degree ; add est to the positive to form the superlative degree. Most adjectives of one syllable are compared in this way. Adjectives of more than one syllable are compared in this way only when the extra syllables er and est harmonize well with the entire word. For instance, here is a case that goes well: common, com- moner, commonest. On the other hand, dangerous, dangerouser, dangerousest is plainly impossible. In such cases adjectives are compared by placing more or less before the positive form to make the compara- 88 THE ADJECTIVE tive degree, and most or least before the positive form to make the superlative degree. For example: Positive dangerous Comparative more or dangerous less Superlative most or dangerous least Compare in this manner each of the following adjectives: famous, inexperienced, fruitful, wholesome, barren, fertile. 66. Irregular comparison. Some adjectives are com- pared irregularly; that is, not in accordance with either of the methods just defined. The comparison of these adjectives has to be memorized. They are: Positive near Comparative better worse elder older more Superlative best least worst eldest oldest most near next or or learer nearest COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 89 67. Adjectives that are not compared. Some adjec- tives have such meanings that they cannot be com- pared. For instance, this, that, which, fourteen, universal, unanimous, are not compared because no comparative or superlative degrees are possible. Exercise In the following sentences compare the adjectives which can be compared : 1. There is business of high importance here. 2. Nine of the men were badly hurt. 3. Is this news true? 4. On the wharf were a scythe and three spades. 5. The whole style of the launch was different. 6. There was something in the tone of this note which gave me great uneasiness. 7. I feared that some serious disaster had befallen my friend. 8. The prudent thing to do is always the thing Harry chooses. 9. A sulky boy sat in the outer office waiting for the principal. 10. The servants gave their returned master a most cordial welcome. 11. Poe was the first American short-story writer. 12. Near the western extremity are some miserable frame buildings. 13. Such explanations were interesting. 14. Legrand had once been wealthy. 15. In the first place, this way out of the difficulty is uncertain; and in the second place, it is not dignified. 16. The island was a singular one. 17. This puzzle is the queerest one that I ever saw. 90 THE ADJECTIVE 18. Willie^s good-conduct badge was restored to his arm at once. 19. Any pattern will do. 20. His chief interest lies in the draughting of plans for airplanes. 21. The riderless pony brought the news. 22. The tired company could go no further. 23. Another man joined the conference. 24. The dismissed servant told tales of his former employer. 68. Which degree to use. Use the comparative degree when you are speaking of two objects or per- sons. Use the superlative degree when you speak of more than two objects or persons; as: (a) He is the taller of the two. (6) He is the more scholarly of the two. (c) He is the less tiresome of the two. (d) Helen of Troy was the loveliest of all women. (e) This is the most tuneful harp I ever heard. Correct the following sentences: 1. The largest is the prettiest of the two hats. 2. Of the two paths, this one is the steepest. 3. The eldest of the two boys has been hurt. 4. It was difficult for the commander to decide which was the bravest of the two soldiers. 5. When you come to the two doors, open the nearest one, and call the oldest of the two children. 6. *'Tom Sawyer" and "Huckleberry Finn" were our birthday gifts. I think ''Huckleberry Finn" the funniest of the two books. THE WORK OF THE ADJECTIVE 91 7. Mary is the prettiest of the two girls. 8. Each of the two boys has a good disposition, but John's is really the best. Exercise Select all the adjectives in these sentences. Tell what work they do. 1. Clear and deep his voice went on. 2. The familiar lines of the old hymn rang in his head. 3. My hands were numb with cold. 4. Few people recognized the bent figure. 5. Mark finished the few remaining stalks and put them in a neat row. 6. I could not come to j'ou with empty hands. 7. Lyons, plain-spoken and honest, was the first one on his feet; Smith, a violent, uncontrolled fellow, followed. 8. With a jolly laugh, Sally picked up the corn-cutter. 9. Matthew was still excited over his recent adventure. 10. The returning company crossed the open, high- fenced fields. 11. Deb had made a mysterious discovery which he related with much secrecy. 12. Jane listened with keen interest. 13. You made a favorable impression on him on that day. 14. Yale is a sure winner in to-day's game. 15. We took the third row to do together. 16. He has unquestioned courage. 17. This is a curious coincidence. 18. Max drew a deep breath of relief. 19. Fleming's calm, sensible words took an immense weight off my mind. 20. Arthur could give his suspicions no definite form. Note. — Another use of the adjective is that called the attributive complement. This use presents no functional difficulty and can be omitted. Example: They painted the house red. VII. THE PARTS OF SPEECH— The Adverb 69. What an adverb is. John ran swiftly. How did John run? Swiftly. Swiftly modifies the verb ran, [See Section 61.] John has gone somewhere. Where has John gone? Somewhere. Somewhere modifies the verb has gone. John came early. When did John come? Early. Early modifies the verb came. Mother is too easy with Letty. To what degree is mother easy? Too tells the degree to which mother is easy. Too modifies easy. Here is a group of words which does the work of telling hoWj when, where, or to what degree about the word modified. From the sentences above you judge that words which do this kind of work may modify both verbs and adjectives. The greater number of these words, however, modify verbs, and consequently they have a name which suggests their close relationship to verbs. The name is adverb, which means close-to-the-verh. This closeness is of (92) THE ADVERB 9-3 course the closeness of relationship, not always of actual position. Thank you, John, very kindly. To what degree of kindly was John thanked? Very modifies kindly. Kindly itself, however, is an adverb. You conclude then that an adverb may modify another adverb, as well as a verb or an adjective. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. It may tell how, when, where, to what degree, etc. Adverbs are formed in many cases by adding ly to adjectives. Examples: Clearly, merrily, gayly, loudly. But there are adverbs which do not have this common ending. Examples: ill, often, beyond, enough, upward, afterward, down, hard, hence, along, why, how, when, and so on. Do not forget that certain adjectives end in ly, like lovely, mannerly, and others. Always look care- fully to see what work the word is doing. Exercise Select the adverb. Tell the part of speech of each word modified. 1. The fire burned steadily. 2. He turned his head sharply. 3. Aston answered abruptly. 4. Aymer felt supremely content. 5. She considered the matter gravely. 6. The trouble finally blew over. 94 THE ADVERB 7. Rennie shook her head disapprovingly. 8. The students were uproariously gay. 9. I counted the money most carefully. 10. Ned was furiously angry. 11. He tried honestly to do his work. 12. Is he here already? 13. The prisoner reluctantly admitted his guilt. 14. The child listened attentively. 15. The money was hopelessly lost. 16. Jack was not fair because he was too angry. 17. The boy related his triumph gleefully. 18. Ed was strictly truthful. 19. Luckily it was a light whip, but it cut sharply. 20. He walked slowly down the grass path. 70. Idiomatic adverbs. There is a group of adverbs which do not belong to any of the time-place-manner- degree divisions. Some of them are: perhaps, which suggests possibility; surely and certainly , which may imply certainty or may merely be polite assenting words; therefore, which is often thrown in to gather the reader's thoughts up into definite form before he goes any further; indeed, which is another word of assent or emphasis; not, which is a negative; yes and no, which are merely response-words. Sentences containing these adverbs follow : 1. Perhaps I shall come, but don't wait for me. 2. His performance is surely a wonderful feat. 3. I will surely be there. 4. Certainly, I shall help you with pleasure. 5. This audience is certainly the smallest one I ever saw\ 6. You can see, therefore, that I was in a dangerous position. USING THE ADVERB 95 7. Yes, indeed, I shall invite you all. 8. It is not my affair. 71. Adverbial use of the notm. We walked three miles. ^ Miles in this sentence tells how far we walked. Mile is a word you have met before as a noun. Here it is doing the work of an adverb; hence it is here an adverb. It is called the adverbial noun. It modifies the verb just as any adverb does, but as a noun, it may itself be modified by an adjective. 72. Adjectives incorrectly used for adverbs. Adjectives and adverbs do different work. Do not use an adjective where you should use an adverb. Wrong: This sure is a difficult problem. Right: This surely is a difficult problem. Wrong: The minister spoke slow and emphatic. Right: The minister spoke slowly and emphatic- aUy. Exercise Point out the mistakes in the following sentences: 1. I come to see you real often, don't I? 2. Why, I'm getting along pretty good, thank you. 3. Cut the fudge quick and it will be smooth. 4. Don't go so slow about your work. 5. Did you do your problems accurate? *The noun used in this manner should always be plural if the adjective preceding it is plural. Say I caught a fish that weighed two pounds, not I caught a fish that weighed two pound, A dififerent way of expressing the idea is this: I caught a two'pound JUh, 96 THE ADVERB 6. When John gets at it, he works good. 7. Leonard always does his tasks thorough. 8. He went as quick as he could. 9. The whippoorwill cried dismal in the twilight. 10. The boy drew himself lazy out of the pool. 11. I pray as earnest as I can. 12. Sally looked about her wild. 13. ''Will you come to the meeting, Tom?'' ''Sure, I'll come!" answered Tom. 14. They acted unladylike in the lunch room. Exercise Explain how to tell the difference between an adjective and an adverb. In the following sentences, whicji words are adjectives, and which are adverbs? Tell the part of speech of the word modified. 1. The young man sat on the high stool, silent and embarrassed. 2. The scene was lovely. 3. The street was very narrow^, very long, and very gloomy. 4. The child was extremely sensitive. 5. The man was not merely lonely; he was afraid. 6. The vision had not yet faded away. 7. Temple did not appear often. 8. Strangeways never came aboard. 9. He sent the letter too soon. 10. He was not one of those people that talk too much. 11. It was necessary that the lawyer accompany his client. 12. The quiet persistence of a London rain amazes every American. ADVERB AND ADJECTIVE 97 13. I never saw you before. 14. The men were keenly aware of the mental com- ments of the servants. 15. Burgess still had business with me. 16. Then sounded a quiet knock. 17. Long and careful training came to Pearson's aid. IS. The boy's expression was a slightly puzzled one. 19. Tembarom was now entirely alone. 20. Mr. Leonard left by a very early train. 21. I have driven miles to overtake you. 22. They were all going somewhere in a big hurry. 23. Albert stood still and waited for the long minute to end. 24. He shook hands with them furiously and welcomed them as if he had not seen an American in years. 25. The footman stared with calm features, but curi- ously interested eyes. 26. The room had deep windows which looked out on lovely gardens. 27. John walked up and down excitedly. 28. He laughed the short, confident laugh again. 29. The man was enormously rich. i ^ 30. Everett walked confidently into the room. 31. Mr. Tarly rarely spoke, but when he did, he said something. 32. The paper was brought punctually every morning at seven o'clock. 33. The thing happened so unexpectedly that we were almost stunned by the shock. 34. How are you to-day, Mr. Doolittle? 35. I am fairly well, thank you. 73. Comparison of adverbs. Adverbs and adjectives are compared in the same way. 98 THE ADVERB There are adverbs whose meaning does not permit them to be compared; for instance, actually, really, presently, immediately, yet, once. Exercise Compare : gracefully angrily keenly wearily painfully poorly slowly wildly Exercise Select the adverbs and tell their degrees. 1. My dear boy, things never run smoothly and easily at first. 2. The boy is mine now, and I shall do my duty by him most willingly. 3. He had never spoken more truthfully. 4. You have done less badly with your task than I. 5. Lily met me more shyly than her brother. 6. If you do your work satisfactorily, I shall not complain. 7. You speak more charitably than I. Exercise I. From a page of the book you are reading in your English class, select ten sentences containing adverbs. Make a list of the adverbs. Write sentences of your own, containing all of these adverbs. II. Select the adverbs from the following para- graphs. Tell the part of speech of the words they modify. (a) The sun was coming up when Thundermouth suddenly turned his horse and came riding USING THE ADVERB 99 slowly back. We soon met him and learned that he had lost the trail. He had not watched it carefully, for he believed it led directly to Bear River, and now he had passed the turn. We all retraced our steps. Finally we found that the trail crossed the creek and continued down the south side of it. Thundermouth took the lead again, and we went forward. (6) "When Sunday morning came," said Mr. Lincoln, "I did not know what to do. I told Mr. Washbourne I had nowhere to go, and he proposed to take me down to the Five Points Sunday School. I was very much interested in w^hat I saw. Presently Mr. Pease came up and spoke to Mr. Wash- bourne, who introduced him to me. Then Mr. Washbourne, at Mr. Pease's request, spoke; then I was asked to speak. I told them I had always tried to do the very best I could even when I was so poor that my toes stuck out from my shoes in winter. I said that if they would do the best they could they would always get along somehow. I spoke very simply, and thought I had said nothing, but after I had finished some of the teachers came up and shook hands with me and said that that was just what those poor children needed so badly. Next morning I saw that my simple remarks had been noticed by the papers. The thing I remember best, though, is the songs those children sang. They sang earnestly and sweetly. I shall never forget it." Vin. THE PHRASE 74. What a phrase is. In chapter four you learned that the preposition and the noun or pronoun which it governs, together make up the prepositional phrase. You thought, in studying chapter four, only of the two parts of the prepositional phrase, and not of the phrase as a whole. You need, however, to consider not only the relationship of the preposition to the noun or pronoun which it governs, but also the relation- ship of the phrase as a whole to the sentence. A group of related words, without a subject and predicate, doing the work 'of a single part of speech, is called a phrase. 75. The adverbial phrase. When you are trying to decide the relationship which parts of the sentence bear to each other, you ask, ''What work does this part of the sentence do?^' To discover what work a phrase can do in a sentence, study this one: The car crashed over the embankment. The prepositional phrase over the embankment is attached, as a whole, to the word crashed, for the phrase makes fuller the idea expressed by the word crashed. Since the phrase changes the idea of the word crashed, it is said to modify the word crashed. Crashed is a verb. Words that modify verbs are adverbs. (100) ADVERBIAL AND ADJECTIVE PK1JLASE6 10 J: The phrase over the embankment is here doing the work of an adverb. Therefore the phrase over the embankment is in this sentence an adverb, or, if you prefer, an adverbial phrase. Exercise Select the adverbial phrases from the following sentences. Remember that an adverbial phrase, like the adverb, may modify an adjective. 1. Did the poet impress you with his humor? 2. I rushed at once to the spot. 3. Never in my life did I hear such nonsense. 4. Please leave the book on my desk. 5. The play is given in the Adelphi theater. 6. The flowers were put into a slender vase. 7. Can you be here at eight o'clock? 8. To what extent was the book damaged? 9. For what crime was he arrested? 10. From my window I can see the laborers as they come from work. 11. Fill the bottles with ink. 12. Will you do this for me? 13. Such things never happen in the South. 14. Throughout the trial, the prisoner showed wonder- ful self-control. 15. The whistle could be heard for miles. 16. She is entirely dependent upon her brother. 17. What would be done in case of fire? 18. Will you throw my coat around my shoulders? 19. Meet me at the Union Station at seven o'clock. 20. I heard about your misfortune with sincere regret. 76. The adjective phrase. The phrase can do other 102 THE PHRASE work than that of the adverb, as you will see by examining this sentence: Ours is the house with the slate roof. The phrase with the slate roof adds to, or changes the idea of the word house. The phrase with the slate roof, then, modifies the word house. House is a noun. A word which modifies a noun is an adjective. The phrase with a slate roof is here doing the work of an adjective. Therefore the phrase with a slate roof is an adjective phrase. Exercise Select the adjective phrases. Tell which noun is modified. 1. The justice of the charge appealed to him. 2. This was the work of her relatives, not of her friends. 3. The recollection of her long absence made her turn home. 4. We had now reached the summit of the loftiest crag. 5. The events of the day were very exciting. 6. Her past behavior was a source of vexation. 7. Elizabeth's father never restrained the gayety of his household. 8. The imprudence of Mrs. Brown's children was the subject of our conversation. 9. Anxiety on Mary's behalf was natural. 10. The development of Richard's character was the care of the minister. 11. The first week of their return was soon gone. ADJECTIVE AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES 103 12. Where is the list of articles that you want? 13. A visit to Brighton meant every possibility of earthly happiness. 14. She was the object of admiring glances wherever she went. 15. She saw all the glories of the camp. 16. The day of departure arrived. 17. The owner of the house will be here to-day. 18. The end of the term is not far off. 19. To give a description of Derbyshire is not the object of this work. 20. This is the scene of the play. 21. The heat of the sun oppressed hun. Make up ten sentences employing adjectives or adjective phrases, or both. Use as material what you see as you look from a window of your home or of your school. Exercise 1. Explain how to tell the difference between an adjective phrase and an adverbial phrase. 2. Which phrases are adjective phrases, and which are adverbial phrases in the following sentences? Tell the work that each phrase does; that is, what word it modifies. 1. The waves beat heavily against the pier. 2. With keen eyes he watched the horses as they trotted down the hill. 3. There was a wide strip of turf on each side of the road. 4. It was a lonely stretch of marsh land. 104 THE PHRASE 5. The faint, sharp click of hoofs swept up the road to the boy. 6. The lonely figure was visible to the travelers. 7. The owner of the mill stood with one hand on the boy's shoulder. 8. The elderly gentleman cast a glance of inquiry from the boy to his companion. 9. The fields were green with grass. 10. He was one of the best motorists in England. 11. They came to a standstill before the door of the grand mansion. 12. They pointed out the advantages of a country life. 13. Mr. Mass was a stout man of hasty temper. 14. Mr. Neville spent most of his time in London. 15. As they clattered through the narrow streets of the country town in the Ught of the July evening, Chris sat up and rubbed his eyes. 16. Every one was kind to the boy. 3. Write five sentences containing prepositional phrases. Tell what part of speech each phrase mod- ifies and whether it is an adjective or an adverbial phrase. IX. THE CLAUSE You learned in section 10 that a division of a sen- tence containing a subject and predicate is a clause. You will recall that clauses are ranked as principal or subordinate according to the work they perform. Subordinate clauses can be classified still further in accordance with the definite duty that they are doing in the sentence. 77. The adverbial clause. In the sentence, Put your wraps where they belong, the clause where they belong modifies the verb jmt This subordinate clause, then, is doing the work of an adverb. An adverbial clause is always introduced by a word which shows the subordinate position of the clause in the sentence. A clause that does the work of an adverb is an adverbial clause. Exercise From the following sentences select the adverbial clauses. Tell what they modify. 1. I shall wait until George comes. 2. I will try not to move when the flash-light is taken. 3. When Caesar cried I wept. 4. He longed to go where there is opportunity for all men. (105) 106 THE CLAUSE 5. We watched the patients while the nurses rested. 6. He went whence he had come. 7. Did the detective come before you left home? 8. Shall we play chess after we have had dinner? 9. I have never spoken about it since she asked me not to. 10. I shall join you as soon as I can. 11. I shall never do that again as long as I live. 12. Make hay while the sun shines. 13. When I arrived at the Terminal, it was just noon. 14. While I ate my luncheon I thought of the afternoon plans. 15. Do not come unless I send for you. 16. I shall not care if I never come back. 17. He does as he pleases. 18. Since the proof is here, I must believe. 78. The adjective clause. Boys who pass the examinations are promoted. You have learned to call the group of words who pass the examinations sl clause. This clause changes your idea of hoys by adding to that idea the fact that only the boys who pass the examinations are promoted. The clause who pass the examinations modifies boys. Boys is a noun. The word which modifies a noun is called an adjective. The clause is here doing the work of an adjective. A clause that does the work of an adjective is an adjective clause. THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE 107 Note that adjective clauses are subordinate and are usually introduced by the relative pronoun. This pro- noun refers to its antecedent in the principal clause, and accompUshes the work of connecting the adjective clause with the word that it modifies in the principal clause. Adjective clauses are sometimes called relative clauses. Note. — The words where and when frequently introduce adjective clauses; as, the place where I was born, the hour when he promised to come. In such cases where is equivalent to in which and, when to at which. Exercises Select from the following sentences the adjective clauses. In each case tell what noun is modified. . 1. The housekeeper, who was a respectable, elderly- looking woman, showed them about. 2. This scholarship was the reward which she expected, 3. I, who am your general, command you. 4. I have .lost the book which you left for me. 5. The list which you want will be here to-morrow. 6. He who laughs last laughs best. 7. The student who was suspended yesterday was an old offender. 8. Lightning struck the tree under which we were standing. 9. I was unable to reach the place where you promised to meet me. 10. She had never seen a place for which natural Ijeauty had done ftiore. 11. There are very few people of whom so much can be said. 12. The time has come when every man must help. 13. Caesar, who was a great Roman emperor, wrote an account of his conquests. 108 THE CLAUSE Tell whether the word, phrase, and clause modifiers in the following sentences are doing the work of adverbs or of adjectives : 1. A look of impatient despair spread over Rita's face. 2. He had found a shelter for his child. 3. I found the book where I had left it. 4. They lingered in Europe for weeks after the war broke out. 5. His method of questioning was very direct. 6. Ramona was always ready with a smile when he spoke to her. 7. Martin was far too much in sympathy with the criminal. 8. There was no apparent change in the sick man's condition. 9. No one suspected the depth of little Ned's affection for the puppy until, one day, the street car ran over the unlucky dog. 10. Philip had too many cares on his mind. 11. The time when you could change your mind has passed. 79. The noun clause. That he overheard me is unfortunate. The clause that he overheard me is here acting as the subject of is. The clause is doing the work of a noun. A clause that does the work of a noun is a noun clause. Noun clauses, are, of course, subordinate. THE NOUN CLAUSE 109 Other examples of the noun clause: The fact is that he can not afford a car (predicate nominative) . I knew that the man was unjustly accused (object of verb). I had no reason for refusing the position except that it required me to leave home (governed by a prepo- sition). I learned the lesson that I could not trifle with a loaded gun (used in apposition). Exercise Select the noun clause from each of the following sentences. Tell how each is used. 1. The report that Ned had been injured was untrue. 2. I did not know that I had fallen until I regained consciousness. 3. I believe that the man is sincere. 4. I saw that the runner's endurance could not last. 5. I had no idea of where the passage would lead me. 6. Tell me what you think about this. 7. I have no remembrance of where we went or what we did. 8. I can not forget that in my need you stood beside me. 9. You must learn to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong. 10. That the book is entertaining no one could deny. 11. When he will arrive remains to be seen. 12. The agent said nothing about the book except that it was entertaining. no THE CLAUSE Exercise Tell whether the clauses in the following sentences are doing the work of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs: 1. I found that I had made a bad mistake. 2. After I had inquired the way, I remembered that father had given me written directions. 3. Often poor Ceres encountered fauns, who looked like sunburnt country people, except that they had hairy ears. 4. There was to be no talking while the classes passed. 5. Although every precaution for our safety was taken, the robbers overtook us and plundered our baggage. 6. The young man said that his heart would not fail him, and that he would bring back the Golden Fleece. 7. When the count withdrew from the king's presence, an officer followed him from the room. 8. The little girl listened attentively to every word that was said. 9. We had a glimpse of Mother Ceres, half hidden amid the waving grain, while the four black steeds were whirling along the chariot in which her loved daughter was borne away. 10. I shall be very lonely while you are away. 11. The children sat down on the sand, where the surf broke over them, and busied themselves making a necklace, which they hung about Marion's neck. 12. What they say does not matter. 13. It is true that I sent for the ambulance. 14. Unless I am mistaken, this plan was yours. 15. He had to cross a field where daffodils were thick. 16. You must have known that I would come to the house when you sent for me. 17. No one believes that a soldier's life is easy. X. THE PARTS OF SPEECH— The Con- junction and the Interjection 80. What the conjiinction is. (a) He called and I came. (6) He called but I did not come. (c) You must obey the law or take the conse- quences. (d) Mary and I sang. (e) We went over the bridge and through the gate. Notice the connecting nature of such words as andy butj and or in the sentences given above. These words which have for their duty the connecting of words, phrases, and clauses are called conjunctions. Con means together, and junct means join. A conjunction is a word which connects words, phrases, or clauses. 81. The coordinating conjimction. In the sentences above, notice that in every case the words, phrases, or clauses connected by andj but, or or are doing the same kind of work. For instance, in (a), (6), and (c) the clauses are both independent; in (d) Mary and I are both acting as subjects of sang; in (e), over the bridge and through the gate are adverbial phrases of the same rank. Conjunctions that connect words, phrases, or (111) 112 THE CONJUNCTION AND INTERJECTION clauses of equal rank are called coordinating con- junctions. Coordinating means putting in the same rank. Coordinating conjunctions are of two kinds: pure conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs.* 82. Pure Conjimctions. Pure conjunctions serve to connect words, phrases, or clauses; conjunctive adverbs serve to connect only clauses. The chief pure conjunctions^ are: and or but nor And is sometimes linked with both; either with or; and neither with nor. Examples of pure conjunctions used to connect clauses: 1. Come here and I will help you. 2. He said he would come, but I do not believe him. 3. They must trust their leader or they will lose. 4. Either he is wrong, or I am. 5. He is not wrong, nor am I. Examples of pure conjunctions used to connect phrases : 1. Mary owed money to the baker and to the ice-man. 2. You owe an apology, not to father, but to me. * This classification of conjunctions is based on the actual work done by the con- junction. We have purposely avoided the old grouping which recognized kinship between the conjunctive adverb and certain of the subordinating conjunctions. The classification here given is logical; it throws light upon the question of punctuation; it is simple. See Wooley's Mechanics of Writing, pp. 364, 132, 133. 3 For is usually classed as a coordinating conjunction. Its meaning is generally equivalent to because; in such cases it is logically subordinate. The connection is •ometimes so loose as to justify the classification of for as a coordinate conjunction. THE CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB US Examples of pure conjunctions used to connect words : 1. They gave the class numerals in honor of high athletic standing to Harris and Loomis. 2. The paying teller or the cashier will attend to your wants. 3. He wants neither you nor me. Exercise Point out the pure conjunctions in the following^ sentences. Tell whether they connect words, phrases, or clauses. 1. Harding sacrificed, and Ciunmings was caught at third base. 2. I never buy magazines, but I shall make an exception to my rule this time. 3. You may take the parcel, or leave it to be delivered^ 4. There are two expresses to New York this morn- ing — one at ten, and one at eleven o'clock. 5. Neither the salesman in the book store nor the proprietor had heard of the volume he wanted. 6. Either you or your father must pay the bill. 7. She resembles both her father and her mother. 8. ^'Neither you nor James may go,'' said mother. 9. Both play and study are necessary. 10. He knew that he must hurry or miss the train. 83. The Conjimctive Adverb. The chief conjunctive adverbs are: so moreover yet hence accordingly then nevertheless besides still however thus furthermore 114 THE CONJUNCTION AND INTERJECTION Examples of the conjunctive adverb connecting the clauses of compound sentences are here given. 1. It was growing cold; so I put down the window. 2. She was incompetent; hence she lost her place. 3. The Boardwalk was crowded; nevertheless, I felt lonely. 4. I considered that he was taking too great a chance; however, since he insisted, I allowed him to go ahead. 5. Don has not the head for quarter-back; moreover, he is too light for this team. 6. The soldiers were told to be quiet; accordingly, they crept forward on their hands and knees and scarcely whispered. 7. That location is not fashionable; besides, it is inconvenient. 8. Tom started an expense account; thus he hoped to cut down unnecessary^ expenditures. 9. He is a good driver; yet I always feel nervous in his car. 10. I prefer not to take the risk; still, I shall have to. 11. He stared at me a full minute"; then he turned and left me. Note that the second clause of a compound sen- tence connected by and may be separated from the first clause by a comma. But the second clause of a compound sentence introduced by a conjunctive adverb may not be separated from the first clause by a comma; a clause in a compound sentence intro- duced by a conjunctive adverb must be separated from the preceding clause by a semicolon (;). Pure conjunctions may be used only as conjunc- tions. Conjunctive adverbs may be used as plain THE CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB 115 adverbs. Distinguish a word used as a conjunctive adverb from the same word used as a plain adverb as follows: If the word directly modifies some verb, adjective, or other adverb in the clause, or sentence, it is a plain adverb. Example: (a) He did it otherwise. If the word does the connecting for the whole clause, it is a conjunctive adverb. Example : (6) I had to promise; otherwise he would not have come. Even if the second clause of (h) were written, as it might be, as a sentence by itself, otherwise would still be a conjunctive adverb, for it modifies the whole clause and not any single word in it. You can substitute another adverb, differently, for instance, in (a). Try to substitute differently for otherwise in (6). Exercise Point out the coordinating conjunctions in the following sentences: 1. A shot shattered Wolfe's wrist, but he wrapped his handkerchief about it and pressed on. Another shot struck him, and he still pressed on, but when the third lodged, he fell mortally wounded. 2. Every sentence that he writes is homely, rugged, and strong. 3. It was a hard experience; still, I am glad I had it. 116 THE CONJUNCTION AND INTERJECTION 4. He had been traveling some days both by sea and by rail. 5. Did you spend your Easter vacation in the city or in the country? 6. The sky to the north and west was darkening. 7. It is his business; therefore, let him see to it. 8. I did the best I could; hence I feel no regrets. 9. Merton always does the right thing, but I do not want him to undertake this enterprise. 10. She knows better than that; therefore, she has no excuse for her failure. Exercise Indicate which words are used as conjunctive adverbs and which are used as plain adverbs in the following sentences: 1. He was tired; furthermore he had no gun. 2. She was quiet and obedient; still, I knew she was rebelling against every direction that was given to her. 3. They asked for a big man; accordingly Benson was sent. 4. I read the rules and acted accordingly. 5. I shall not get a winter hat yet. 6. They do not merit sympathy; yet I feel sorry for them. 84. Subordinating con junctions. (a) I shall come when I am ready. (6) Mary will go if she is invited, (c) Put the baseball bats where no one will find them. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 117 In such sentences as those above you have noticed the connecting nature of the words, when, if, and where. They differ, however, from the conjunctions you have just studied, in that they introduce sub- ordinate clauses. As you learned in section 12, a subordinate clause is one which is dependent upon some independent clause. Conjunctions which connect subordinate clauses with independent clauses are called subordinating conjtmctions. Subordinating means putting in a lower rank. You have already seen the subordinating conjunction at work introducing adverbial and adjective clauses. See note on adjective clause, page 107. The chief subordinating conjunctions are: when though that since where whether because while if lest than provided although unless as after Exercise Point out the subordinating conjunctions in the following sentences : 1. I would go if I thought that I could do any good. 2. After I had finished with. him, he was a humbled youngster. 3. There has never been any trouble since we hired Jordan. 4. You watch the office while I eat my luncheon, please. 5. I shall tie this string on your finger, lest you forget. 6. I shall not go ahead unless you will share the responsibility. 118 THE CONJUNCTION AND INTERJECTION 7. I told him that I could not go. 8. You endured the strain longer than I did. 9. Will you find out whether or not Mr. King has come in, please? 10. Put this where it will be safe. 11. I will go, although I think the whole thing useless. 12. He waited because he was afraid. 13. There is no peace where there is noise. 14. Write early if you wish immediate attention. Distinguish between- the subordinating conjunction and the same word used as a plain adverb. The con- junction connects; the plain adverb directly modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Subordinating conjunction : I will go where you go. Plain adverb : Where are you going? Subordinating conjunction: I discharged him, since you wished it. Plain adverb: He went away, and I have never heard of him since. There are, to sum up, two classes of conjunctions : 1. Coordinating: (a) Pure conjunctions. (6) Conjunctive adverbs. 2. Subordinating. Exercise Tell which conjunctions in the following sentences are coordinating, and which are subordinating. Ask yourself: Does the conjunction connect clauses of equal rank or of unequal rank? CONJUNCTIONS 119 1. His arrival was soon known, as he was seen walk- ing with the rector. "2. Although he was desperately anxious to win, he played the game with scrupulous fairness. 3. Some days passed before they received any satis- faction. 4. After the party had admired the view, we took them into the house. 5. When they ascended the steps to the hall, even Sir WilHam did not look calm. 6. Your resignation is imfortunate, because the firm can ill afford to lose you. 7. I would have come if my train had been on time. 8. After you have returned from the hospital, I will meet you at the library. 9. I was unacquainted with the neighborhood, but I found every one willing to direct me. 10. We knew that we were a little late, for when the chauffeur drew up at the office, the bell rang twelve strokes. 11. Nevins did not know the game; nevertheless he made a good substitute. 12. Such people live by force alone, and the only thing they understand is greater force. 13. Murray spoke before he thought. 14. If you are not for me, you are against me. 15. Irwin has failed because he himself is weak. 16. We can do this while you wait. 17. You have broken the rule; therefore, 3'ou will be punished. 18. They did not know which train to take until they had asked Harry. 19. If you buy more stock, you will have control of the company. 20. As soon as it was possible, Garvey crept to the ledge. 120 THE CONJUNCTION AND INTERJECTION 85. What the interjection is. In the sentence, Oh, this will never do! the word Oh, which adds to the feehng expressed by the sentence, has no definite connection grammatically with any particular part of the sentence, but it bears a relationship to the sentence as a whole. It is a word thrown in and is called the interjection. An interjection is a word that is used to express sudden or strong feeling. Examples of the interjection are: 1. Pshaw! I am very much disappointed. 2. Alas! Poor Cock Robin will never return! 3. "Ah!'' breathed the crowd. 4. Hurrahf We've won! 5. Good work! That's excellent pitching. 6. Have mercy on Thy people, Lord! The interjection Oh is capitalized only when it begins a sentence. The inter j ection is used ordinarily with the names of persons, and is always capitalized. XI. FUNCTION 86. Function. Very many of your difficulties with grammar will disappear if you will remember that the classification of a word, phrase, or clause, depends on the work which it does in the sentence. This idea has been emphasized again and again in this book. The part of speech of a word, phrase, or clause is determined by the work done or function served by that word, phrase, or clause in the sentence. The following illustrations show how the work of a word, phrase, or clause determines its part of speech. (a) The moving finger writes. Here moving is an adjective, because it is doing the work of an adjective. (6) Moving usually takes place in the spring. Here moving is a noun, because it is doing the work of a noun. (c) The cloud was moving slowly toward the horizon. Here moving is a part of the verb, because it is doing the work of a verb. (a) He threw the ball over the fence. Over the fence is here an adverb, because it is doing the work of an adverb. (121) was. 122 FUNCTION (b) Over the fence is out. Over the fence is here a noun, because it is doing the work of a noun. (a) He knew that I was afraid. That I was afraid is here a noun, for it is the object of knew. (6) That I was afraid was no disgrace. That I was afraid is here a noun used as subject of (c) I did not go because I was afraid. Here the clause is an adverb. (d) They changed the plans for no reason except that I was afraid. Here the clause is a noun governed by the preposi- tion except. Exercise Name the part of speech of the italicized words in the following sentences : 1. He called her his whistling mother because she always summoned him by means of a clear, bird-Hke whistle. 2. Whistling was too difficult a task for little George. 3. Sam cheered himself during the lonesome hours by whistling to himself. 4. The wind was whistling through the trees. * 5. Mr. Wilson knows many people. 6. Many of us felt that here lay our duty. FUNCTION 123 7. I thought grandfather a verj^ handsome man. 8. Handsome is as handsome does. 9. Beauty is its own excuse for being. 10. Being is better than seeming. 11. He received favors without asking for them. 12. Old Thomas was asking for aid. 13. I want no discussion of the subject. 14. Want of decency is want of sense. 15. I call him a great man. 16. The call to arms came opportunely. 17. The dancing leaves drifted to the ground. 18. Dancing is pleasant exercise. 19. The children were dancing around the Maypole. 20. The fishermen came home with a good catch today. 21. A song like "Tipperary" or ''Dixie" is sure to catch popular fancy. 22. A burst of military music told that the parade was coming. 23. The bag burst, and the apples rolled in all directions. 24. My cup runneth over. 25. The kettle stands over the fire. XII. VERB FORMS 87. Tense. Besides expressing action, verbs express the time of that action. They express present time: I call. They express past time: I called. They express future time: I shall call. The word for time in grammar is tense. There are three different tenses: the present tense, which denotes present time; the past tense, which denotes past time ; and the future tense, which denotes time that is to come. Every tense has six possible forms. The three tenses follow : Singular Present Tense Plural 1. I call 2. you call 3. he calls Past Tense we call you call they call 1. I called 2. you called 3. he called Future Tense we called you called they called 1. I shall call 2. you will call 3. he will call (124) we shall call you will call they will call AUXILIARY VERBS 125 The third person singular may have she or ity or a noun as subject instead of he. In the second person singular an ancient form, thou, may be used. When it is used, -est is added to the verb; as, thou callest. The second person plural to correspond with this is, ye call. These forms are rarely employed now except in the Bible or in poetry; so in the arrangement of the forms of the verb they will be omitted. 88. Auxiliary verbs. The verbs shall and mil, be- cause they help form tenses of other verbs, are called auxiliary or helping verbs. Later you will learn that shall and mil have other uses, but just now you need know only that plain future time is expressed by shall in some forms and will in other forms of the future tense. The word have can be used not only as a verb to help form certain tenses of other verbs, but also as an independent verb. Here are the three tenses: Singular Plural Present 1. I have we have 2. you have you have 3. he has Past they have L I had we had 2. you had you had 3. he had Future they had 1. I shall have we shall have 2. you will have you will have 3. he will have they will have 126 VERB FORMS 89. The perfect tenses. In addition to the three tenses which you have learned, there are three others, which not only express time, but express the relation of that time to some other time. The first of these additional tenses tells the time with reference to the present ; it states an action which at the present moment is completed. Examples: I have called. I have laughed. This tense is called the present perfect tense; present because it refers to and even includes the present time, perfect because the action is spoken of as completed. Note exactly how this present perfect tense is formed. I have called. Have is the present tense of the verb have. The verb have is the auxiliary which helps to form all the perfect tenses. Note that the present tense of have is used to help form the present perfect tense. The other form which helps make the present perfect tense' of call is called. This looks exactly like the past tense, but it is not. It is a dependent form of the verb named the participle. The participle is a dependent form of the verb which never can stand alone to do its work as the past tense can; it is always found depending upon some word or words to help it do its work. In the perfect tenses the past participle is always joined to the verb have. To form the present perfect tense, then, you join the present tense of have to the past participle of whatever verb you are using. THE PERFECT TENSES 127 The present perfect tense of call, for instance, is: Singular Plural 1. I have called we have called 2. you have called you have called 3. he has called they have called The second of the perfect tenses tells time with reference to the past. That is, it states an action which was completed before some given past time. For instance : I had telephoned before your note came. You see the act of telephoning had actually been completed before the moment of past time when your note came. The name of the perfect tense which states that an action was completed before some given past time is the past perfect tense. It nlay help you to remember the meaning of this tense if you think the action was perfectly complete before some definite past time. This tense is formed in the same way as the present perfect tense, except, of course, that you employ the past tense of have instead of the present. To form the past perfect tense, you join had, the past tense of have, to the past participle of whatever verb you are using. The past perfect tense of call, for instance, is : Singular Plural 1. I had called we had called 2. you had called you had called 3. he had called they had called 128 VERB FORMS The third of the additional tenses tells time with reference to the future. For example, your friend says to you: ''Shall you leave at two o'clock?'^ You look ahead and see that your plans will necessitate your leaving at one-thirty. So you reply: "No, I shall have left by that time." You see you are speak- ing of an act which will have been completed by two o'clock; you are speaking of an act which will be completed with reference to the future. The name of the tense that tells time with reference to the future is the future perfect tense. It is formed on the same principle as the other perfect tenses. The future tense of have is joined to the past participle of the given verb. The future perfect tense of the verb call is : Singular Plural 1. I shall have called we shall have called 2. you will have called you will have called 3. he will have called they will have called Like other verbs, the verb have has three perfect tenses. They are formed in the usual way : the proper tense of have is joined to the past participle of the verb. The past participle of have is had. You see have helps to form its own perfect tenses. They are: Singular Plural Present Perfect 1. I have had we have had 2. you have had you have had 3. he has had they have had REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 129 Singular Plural Past Perfect 1. 2. 3. I, you, he had had we, you, they had had Future Perfect 1. I shall have had we shall have had 2. you will have had you will have had 3. he will have had they will have had You now know definitely that the way to form the perfect tenses of any verb is to join the proper tense of have to the past participle of the verb you are using. The next question is, how do you know what the past participle of the verb is? 90. Regular and irregular verbs. Verbs are generally divided into two classes. These classes are regular and irregular. Regular verbs are those whose past tense and past participle are formed by adding ed to the present. For instance: Present Past Past Participle scold scolded scolded call called called bake baked baked love loved loved Note that when the present tense ends with e, only the d is added to make the past tense. 91. The principal parts of verbs. You have to learn which verbs are regular by observing them in daily use. You will have little difficulty in making 130 VERB FORMS this distinction if you will learn for every verb you meet the three forms given above. It is important to know these three forms, for they represent what are called the principal parts of the verb. They are so called, because, if you know them, you can form any tense of the verb. You may say that since the past tense and past participle of the verb are alike, there is no need of learning both of these forms. But remember that these forms only look alike; their work is different. Besides, you can not be sure that they look alike except in the case of a regular verb, and some that you might think regular are not so; as, hurst, hurst, hurst. The irregular verbs are those which do not form their past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present. The principal parts of these verbs you must learn by heart. Here are some of the most important ones: Present Past Past Participle abide abode abode am (be) was been arise arose arisen awake awoke awaked bear (bring forth) bore born bear (carry) bore borne beat beat beat, beaten begin began begun behold beheld beheld bend bent bent bereave bereft bereft beseech besought besought bet bet bet THE PRINCIPAL PARTS 131 Present Past Past Participle bid (command) bade, bid bidden, bid bid (offer money) bid bid bind bound bound bleed bled bled blow blew blown break broke broken breed bred bred bring brought brought build built built burst burst burst buy bought bought cast cast cast catch caught caught chide chid chid, chidden choose chose chosen cleave cleft cleft, cloven cling clung clung come came come cost cost cost creep crept crept cut cut cut deal dealt dealt dig dug dug do did done draw drew drawn drink drank drunk drive drove driven dwell dwelt dwelt eat ate eaten fall fell fallen feed fed fed feel felt felt fight fought fought 132 Present find flee fling fly forbear forget forsake get gird give go grind grow hang have hear hide hit hold hurt keep kneel knit know . lay lead leave lend let lie lose make mean VERB FORMS Past Past Participle found found fled fled flung flung flew flown forbore forborne forgot forgotten, forgot forsook forsaken got got girt girt gave given went gone ground ground grew grown hung hung, hanged had had heard heard hid hidden hit hit held held hurt hurt kept kept knelt knelt knit knit knew known laid laid led led left left lent lent let let lay lain lost lost made made meant meant THE PRINCIPAL PARTS ]33 Present meet pay put quit read rend rid ride ring rise run say see seek sell send set shake shed shine shoe shoot show shrink shrive shut sing sink sit slay sleep slide sling Past Past Participle met niet paid paid put put quit quit read read rent rent rid rid rode ridden rang rung rose risen ran run said said saw seen sought sought sold sold sent sent set set shook shaken shed shed shone shone shod shod shot shot showed shown shrank shrunk shrived, shrove shriven shut shut sang sung sank sunk sat sat slew slain slept slept sUd slid slung slung 134 VI RB FORMS Present Past Past Participle slit slit slit smite smote smitten sow sowed sown speak spoke spoken speed sped sped spend spent spent spin spun spun spit spat spit split split split spread spread spread spring sprang sprung stand stood stood steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung strike struck struck string strung strung strive strove striven swear swore sworn s\^eep swept swept swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn tell told told think thought thought thrive throve thrived, thriven throw threw thrown thrust thrust thrust tread trod trodden wear wore worn weave wove WO^TU TENSE FORMS Present Past Past Participle weep wept wept wet wet wet win won won wind wound wound AVTing wrung wrung write wrote written 135 The perfect tenses of these irregular verbs are formed in exactly the same way as those of the regular ones. Here, however, you see the absolute necessity of knowing the three principal parts of the verb, because the past tense and the past participle of the verb differ in form. The six tenses of go follow: Singular 1. I go 2. you go 3. he goes Present Plural we go you go they go 1. I went 2. you went 3. he went 1. I shall go 2. you will go 3. he will go Future we went you went they went we shall go you will go they will go If you will look back at the principal parts of go, you will see that gone is the past participle. To 136 VERB FORMS form the present perfect tense, you combine the present tense of have with the past participle of the verb you are forming. The present perfect tense of go, then, is: Singular Plural 1. I have gone we have gone 2. you have gone you have gone 3. he has gone they have gone To form the past perfect tense of go, you join the past tense of have to the past participle. The past perfect tense is : Singular Plural 1. I had gone we had gone 2. you had gone you had gone 3. he had gone they had gone To form the future perfect tense of go, you join the future tense of have to the past participle. The future perfect tense is: Singular Plural 1. I shall have gone we shall have gone 2. you will have gone you will have gone 3. he will have gone they will have gone Exercises 1. Write the perfect tenses of ten of the verbs given on pages 130-135. 2. You must take great care to use the auxiliary have with the proper part of the irregular verb. The auxiliary have is never joined to the past tense of an PROPER \^RB FORMS 137 irregular verb. To say I have went, I have came, I have saw, I have ran, is to violate one of the most important rules of the language. Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the proper form of the verb given in brackets. 1. I all the big parades that have been given in this city for a number of years, [see] 2. I all I could afford to patriotic associa- tions, [give] 3. Charles in many of the big races for his college, [run] 4. He at that restaurant for years, [eat] 5. All those boys part in their school athletics, [take] 6. He his best, but the firm has had to dis- charge him. [do] 7. She to the Old Ladies' Home every Saturday for years, [go] 8. I never such industry as that boy dis- played, [see] 9. I never such sweet cantaloupes, [eat] 10. I several times, but I have never found you at home, [come] 3. Just as it is necessary for you to know that the auxiliary verb have is never joined to the past tense, so it is necessary for you to avoid using the participle when you should use the past tense. To say I done, I seen, I come, is to make a very bad mistake. Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the proper form of the verb given in brackets. 1. I to school yesterday, [go] 2. I my breakfast at eight yesterday morning, [eat] 138 VERB FORMS 3. I you last evening as you boarded the car. [see] 4. I to the building earlier than usual this morn- ing, [come] 5. I my work yesterday as quickly as possible. [do] 6. I for the doctor at midnight last night, for my sister was ill. [run] 7. I a basket of fruit to the hospital last Saturday. [take] 8. I to the theater twice last week, [go] 9. Ruth the parade as it passed Broad street. [see] 10. James his whistle at the crossing just as the team drew near, [blow] 11. The workman and the organ-grinder their lunch together yesterday at the side of the road, [eat] 12. The policeman his best to save the pursued cat. [do] 4. Sometimes other mistakes than these are made in the use of verb forms. Knowed for knew, give for gave, was for were, drawed for drew, blowed for blew, should all be avoided as bad errors. Correct the wrong verb forms in the following sentences : 1. He done everything he could to hinder me. 2. He has went over there since he was a little boy. 3. I never seen such a sight in my life. 4. I have not took that medicine after all. 5. 1 give you that picture yesterday, didn't I? 6. I have ate too much candy. 7. I blowed the horn, but he did not hear me. TENSE FORMS 139 8. I have spoke to you about that before. 9. I drawed the line straight. 10. I have never knew a kinder man. 11. I knowed you'd make trouble for us. 12. I haven't saw that magazine in weeks. 13. You have came just in time. 14. You might have went earlier if we had knew that >'ou were needed. 15. The woman done her level best, but I couldn't hire her. 16. I come yesterday, and I ast him, and he said he would give me the book. 17. I'd have came right over if I had knew you was in trouble. 18. I run as fast as I could, but what good did it do me? 19. I have drank cool water from the spring. 92. The verb be. Be may be used independently, but it is also one of the chief auxiliary or helping verbs. Its forms are very irregular, and must be learned with care. Here they are : Principal parts : be or am was been Singular Plural Present 1. I am we are 2. you are you are 3. he is they are Past 1. I was ' we were 2. you were you were 3. he was they were 140 VERB FORMS Singular Plural Future 1. I shall be we shall be 2. you will be you will be 3. he will be they will be Present Perfect 1. I have been we have been 2. you have been you have been 3. he has been they have been Past Perfect 1. I had been we had been 2. you had been you had been 3. he had been they had been Future Perfect 1. I shall have been we shall have been 2. you will have been you will have been 3. he will have been they will have been 93. Forming the passive voice. All the forms you have so far conjugated have been the active forms. With the aid of the auxiliary verb be, you will now learn to form the passive conjugation. The rule is simple. Join the proper tense of be to the past participle of the given verb. According to this rule, the passive forms of the verb call are as follows: Singular Plural Present 1. I am called we are called 2. you are called you are called 3. he is called they are called THE PASSIVE VOICE 141 Past 1 . I was called 2. you were called 3. he was called 1. I shall be called 2. you will be called 3. he will be called Future we were called you were called they were called we shall be called you will be called they will be called Present Perfect 1. I have been called we have been called 2. you have been called you have been called 3. he has been called they have been called Past Perfect 1. I had been called we had been called 2. you had been called you had been called 3. he had been called they had been called Future Perfect 1. I shall have been called we shall have been called 2. you will have been called you will have been called 3. he will have been called they will have been called Not all verbs are used in the passive. Laugh j for instance, is not. I am laughed is impossible. Exercise Write in the passive voice the six tenses of scold^ warn, and teach. Use in sentences the forms indicated in the list following : 142 VERB FORMS 1. The present perfect active, third person singular, of smm. 2. The present passive, first person plural, of deceive. 3. The future perfect, first person singular of go. 4. The past active, second person plural of come, 5. The past passive, third person plural, of deny. 6. The past perfect passive, first person plural, of refiise. 7. The future passive, first person singular, of grieve. 8. The present perfect active, third person plural, of known. 9. Write the six tenses in the active voice and the six tenses in the passive voice of appoint. Use one form of each tense in a sentence. 94. Agreement of subject and verb in person and number. You have learned that nouns and pro- nouns change their form to indicate person and number. In studying the verb forms given in this chapter, you have seen that the verb sometimes changes its form according to the person and number of its subject. You will notice, for instance, that several forms of he change as the subject changes. Singular Plura.l First person I am we are Second person you are you are Third person he is they are Most verbs, however, make very few changes to indicate person and number. The most frequent change occurs in the third person singular, as is evident in the inflected forms given above. Most of the AGREEMENT OF VERB 143 cases requiring attention in this connection are noted below. General rule: A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. Note these special instances: 1. Two or more singular subjects connected by and take a plural verb. Example : Money and influence are what I need. 2. Be careful to make a verb agree with its sub- ject, not with any word intervening between it and the subject. Wrong: A frank discussion of the principles involved were given. Right: A frank discussion of the principles involved was given. 3. Words joined to the subject by vrithy including y as well as, do not affect the number of the subject. Right: The instructor, as well as the boys, was alarmed. 4. Nouns modified by each^ every, either, neither, no, etc., take singular verbs. Example: Every man is liable for military service. 5. The pronouns each, everybody, anybody, etc., take singular verbs. Example: Everybody likes candy. 144 VERB FORMS 6. Nouns in the singular connected by or or nor take a singular verb. Example: Neither Nathan nor Matthew has come. 7. Two nouns, one singular and one plural, connected by or or nor, require a verb to take the person and number of the noun nearer it. Example: Either John or the girls are to blame. Neither the men nor their employer is at fault. 8. Nouns that indicate a group (collective nouns) take a plural verb when the members of the group are considered individually and a singular verb when the group is considered as a unit. Examples : The congregation are all indignant. The regiment is ready to advance. 9. Verbs agree in person and number with the nearer of two pronominal subjects connected by or or nor. Example : You or I am wanted at any minute. Do not say: There is a peach and a pear in the basket. Change the construction of your sentence in order to avoid this offending confusion of number. Say: A peach and a pear are in the basket. Exercise Copy the following sentences, filling in the blanks with the proper form selected from the brackets : 1. The baggage, including two suitcases and two trunks [was, were] lost. SEQUENCE OF TENSES 145 2. Neither one of these plays [are, is] verj- entertaining. 3. Ever^'body [were, was] excited. 4. No one except the spectators [was, were] aware of the damage that was done. 5. The company of soldiers [were, was] located in a camp in New Jersey. 6. Which one of these ties [is, are] yours? 7. Either you or John [are, is] bound to go. 8. The family [is, are] all well. 9. A jury of twelve men [were, was] selected for the trial. 10. One man out of a hundred [was, were] chosen as a delegate. 11. A part of the candies that remained [were, was] uneatable. 12. Ted or Richard [is, are] scheduled to help this afternoon. 13. My mother, as well as my sisters [are, is] going. 14. One of the robbers [has, have] been caught. 15. City Hall Plaza, with its hghts and decorations [were, was] a beautiful sight. 16. In spite of all obstacles the construction of the wireless stations [was, were] completed. 17. Each of the men chosen [were, was] notified by mail and [were, was] asked to report at once. 18. The distinction between real and apparent causes [are, is] often difficult to make. 19. The cost of these typewriters [have, has] risen. 20. One of the arguments he offered [seem, seems] especially convincing. 95. Sequence of tenses. Study this sentence: I came to the gymnasium as soon as I had finished my theme. 10 146 VERB FORMS Here are two verbs: came, the verb of the inde- pendent clause, and had finished, the verb of the dependent clause. Which action occurred earlier, came or had finished? Does the sentence express correctly the relative time of the two acts? Do the verbs express correctly the relative time of the two acts in the following sentences? 1. The game had begun before I arrived. 2. I shall write you as soon as I receive the necessary information. 3. He will have gone to France before your letter reaches him. 4. When our soldiers advanced, the enemy retreated. The tense of the verb in the dependent clause depends upon the time-relationship which that clause bears to the independent clause. The tense of the verb in the dependent clause must always be in harmony with the tense of the verb in the independent clause. Examples : I shall go if you wish it. I should go if you wished it. I should have gone if you had wished it. If I have the key, I will send it. If I had the key, I would send it. If I had had the key, I would have sent it. The relation of the tenses in the different clauses of a sentence is called the sequence of tenses. You will have little trouble with sequence of tenses if you will carefully study your sentences to see whether SEQUENCE OF TENSES 147 or not you have said exactly what you mean. For example, study this sentence : Yesterday, I talked to a sailor who escaped from a shipwreck. The relative time of these two acts is not exactly expressed. Which occurred first, the talking or the escaping? You can express the relative time of the two acts by changing the tense of the verb escape. Yesterday, I talked to a sailor who had escaped from shipwreck. Present facts and unchangeable truths are stated in the present tense, even if the time of the verb of the independent clause is past or future. For example: (a) Some day he will learn that honesty pays. (6) His father had frequently told him that debt is a millstone around the debtor's neck, (c) Did he tell you what the population of New York is? 96. Direct and indirect quotations. Notice that a direct quotation gives the exact words of the speaker. In changing from a direct to an indirect quotation, a change of tense is frequently necessary. For instance : Direct quotation: His father had said to him, "You may sell the horse for a hundred dollars if Mr. Wright will pay no more." Indirect quotation: His father had told him that he might sell the horse for a hundred dollars if Mr. Wright would pay no more. 148 VERB FORMS 97. Harmony of verb and adverb. Do not join a verb which expresses the idea that the action has been completed with an adverb which shows that the action has not yet been completed. Wrong: I didn^t finish it yet. Right: I haven't finished it yet. Exercise Copy the following sentences, filling the blank with the correct form of the verb in brackets: [run] 1. When the gong sounded, we all for the goal. 2. The first thing he knew of it was that his employer him. [discharge] [sell] [be] 3. It is just a month to-day since I here, [come] 4. I • her ever since she was born, [know] 5. I her shoes since she was a little girl. 6. Six months ago I concluded that I all wrong. 7. I did this before you in. [come] 8. I have never seen a boy who such a struggle, [make] 9. I saw her before you the street, [crossj 10. He said he acquainted with the city, [be] 11. She will be frightened if she the animal, [see] 12. I hoped to see you before I to town, [come] 13. It is a year ago to-day since I you. [meet] 14. I had reached the house before Kenyon ■ . [telegraph] 15. Six ingots were heated to white heat, and then one out of the oven, [take] MOOD 149 16. He knew that the mail delivered at eight every day. [be] 17. He was asked if he knew where Waterloo . [be] 18. He was unfamiliar with London, but he showed us where Westminster . [be] Write the following sentences correctly : 1. I didn't do it yet. 2. I didn't see her yet. 3. I didn't read the letter yet. 4. He didn't send the telegram yet. 5. Grandmother did not make the cake yet. 98. Participles. You have learned the form of the past participles called and gone for the verbs call and go. In all there are five participles for every verb, and these, like the rest of the verb, have active and passive forms. Be prepared to form the participles of every verb after the model you see here. Active Passive Present calling being called Past called Perfect having called having been called Exercise Form the participles of ten irregular verbs chosen from the hst on pages 130-135. Use the five participles of detain in as many sentences. 99. Mood. (a) John went home. (b) If the sun were shining, I would go. (c) Please bring me my tape-measure. 150 VERB FORMS There are, as you see from studying these sentences, three possible ways of making a statement. You can state it as a matter of plain fact, as in (a). You can indicate that if something were true which is not true, you would do differently, as in (h). You can give a command, as in (c). Differences in dress or fashions are said to be differences in the mode of the day. Differences in the manner of making a state- ment by changing the verb form are also said to be differences in mode, or mood. From the three possi- bilities expressed in the sentences above, then, you see that there are three moods. 100. The indicative mood. A verb which merely makes a statement of fact, as in (a), is said to be in the indicative mood. A verb that asks a question is said to be in the indicative mood. This is the mood most used. The forms of the six tenses which you have already studied make up the indicative mood. Examples of tenses in the indicative mood are : 1. They have taken my word for it. 2. Will you go with me? 101. The subjunctive mood. A verb which expresses uncertainty, or wish, or something contrary to fact upon which something else depends, is said to be in the subjunctive mood. Examples are : Uncertainty: If he come, I shall rejoice. Wish: Oh, that we two were Maying! Something contrary to fact, on which something else depends: If the sun were shining, I would go. If James were here, mother would not be so nervous. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 151 The forms of the verb in the subjunctive mood are usually preceded by i/. Although if is not a part of the verb, it so often accompanies it to help create the idea of uncertainty or wish that we place it before the subjunctive forms. These forms are very much like the indicative; in fact, often you can not tell from the written or spoken form which mood is being used, but the sense of the sentence always helps you out of this difficulty. The subjunctive mood nowadays is very rarely used; the sentence expressing a condi- tion contrary to fact is the use which requires most attention. Do not say, ^^If he was here," but say, '^If he were here." The forms of the subjunctive mood follow: ACTIVE Singular Plural Present if I, you, he call if we, you, they call Past if I, you, he called if we, you, they called Future (lacking) Present Perfect if I, you, he have called if we, you, they have called 152 VERB FORMS Singular Plural Past Perfect if I, you, he had if we, you, they had called called (lacking) Future Perfect PASSIVE Present if I, you, he be if we, you, they be called called Past if I, you, he were if we, you, they were called called Future and Future Perfect (lacking) Present Perfect if I, you, he have if we, you, they have been called been called Past Perfect if I, you, he had if we, you, they had * been called been called Sometimes the subjunctive is expressed without if in this v^ay: Had he called, I would have come. 102. The imperative mood. A command must always be addressed to some one; therefore, only the second person singular and the second person plural are used in the imperative mood. Although the form THE INFINITIVE 153 may be preceded by please, the mood is the same, even if the command in this way seems much softened. The forms follow : Active, singular and plural: You call. Passive, singular and plural : You be called. The subject of the verb in the imperative mood is always you, singular or plural, and since this fact is so well understood, the subject is almost always omitted. Exercise Tell the mood of every verb in the following sentences : 1. She told him in her own fashion of the story she had heard. 2. The man followed me down the aisle and out of the car. 3. ''If I were you — " she said, and then stopped. 4. **Wait!" commanded the general. 5. ''Do not go there again," said father, sternly. 6. The little shop was completely filled with machinery. 7. If this statement be true, I am safe. 8. March offered no apolog>' for his questions. 9. Jim laid his pipe on the table and stared at me in amazement. 10. The essentials of the contract are all agreed upon. 103. Infinitives. There is another form of the verb which is used chiefly in dependent constructions. This form is called the infinitive. The form of the present infinitive is always the same as the present 154 VERB FORMS tense of the verb, except in the case of the verb be. The infinitive is usually preceded by the word to, which is regarded as part of the verb, and which in this connection you must distinguish from the preposi- tion to. (See chapter IV.) There are some cases in which the to is omitted before the infinitive. Infinitives of the verb call: Active Passive Present to call to be called Perfect to have called to have been called Infinitives of be: Present to be Perfect to have been Exercise Form the infinitives of ten verbs chosen from the list on pages 130-135. Tell the tense of the infinitives in the following sentences : 1. I am glad to hear of your success. 2. I am glad to have seen you. 3. I am sorry to tell you such bad news. 4. I shall be willing to take part in the exercises. 5. I refused to grant her request, for she had no right to make it. 6. She is known to have gone there in the past. 7. He felt glad to have seen the president. 8. I am happy to serve you. 9. It is hard to be punished undeservedly. 10. To have known her would have been a great pleasure. TENSE OF THE INFINITIVE 155 104. Tense of the infinitive. It is important that the tense of the infinitive should express the thought accurately in relation to the time of the verb on which it depends. If the action indicated by the infinitive is taking place at the same time as that of the verb on which it depends, or if the action indicated by the infinitive is future with respect to the verb on which it depends, the present infinitive should be used. Examples: Action taking place at same time: (a) I intended to go. (6) He wanted to come. (c) I have hoped to go abroad. Action future with respect to verb: 1 expected to write a letter. The perfect infinitive is used to denote action which is completed at the time indicated by the verb on which the infinitive depends. Examples : (a) He is reported to have been wounded. (6) I am glad to have seen the Alps. Supply the proper forms of the infinitive in the blanks in the following sentences: 1. I hoped [to finish, to have finished] before you arrived. 2. He thought it his duty [to support, to have sup- ported] his mother. 3. Milton is said [to live, to have lived] a lonesome life. 4. His captain expected him [to make, to have made] a touchdown. 156 VERB FORMS 5. All the property was [to be sold, to have been sold] at auction, but the sale was prevented. 6. I intended [to tell, to have told] him yesterday. 7. I was glad [to do, to have done] the errand for you. 105. The infinitive without the sign to. After certain verbs, the sign of the infinitive to is omitted. In such cases, the infinitive is used in a complementary or completing sense. Such an infinitive is called the complementary infinitive. Some of these verbs are: hidj dare, feel, let, make, may, need, please, see. The following sentences contain illustrations of this use of the infinitive : 1. Let me stay with you during the storm. 2. He dares do all that a man can do. 3. You heard me say I was coming. 4. You can lead a horse to water, but you can not make him drink, 5. I saw you signal the train. 6. I saw the film unfold slowly. 106. The split infinitive. Avoid separating the infini- tive and its sign. Wrong: He hopes to always be ready when he is called. Right: He hopes always to be ready when he is called. 107. The progressive form. The progressive form of the verb is so called because it represents an action in progress at the time indicated by the tense. This form of the verb is made according to the scheme CONJUGATION 157 with which you are familiar; it is formed by means of an auxiliary plus a participle. To form any tense of the progressive active con- jugation, join the proper tense of the verb be to the present participle of the given verb. For example, to form the present active progres- sive form of call, join the present tense of he to the present participle of call, calling. Singular Plural Progressive 1. I am calling we are calling 2. you are calling you are calling 3. he is calling they are calling To form the past tense, progressive form of call, join the past tense of he to the present participle. Result, / was calling, etc. To form the present passive progressive form of call, join the proper tense of he to the present passive participle of call. Result, I am heing called. The past passive progressive is: I was heing called. Proceed in the same way to form the other tenses. 108. Conjugation. You are now ready for the detailed definition of conjugation, which you have so far kept in mind as merely a ''convenient arrangement" of the forms of the verb. Conjugation is the orderly arrangement of the verb forms according to mood, voice, tense, person, and number. 158 VERB FORMS Here is the entire conjugation, active and passive forms, of the verbs call, see, and he, which can be used as representative of all verbs. Indicative Mood ACTIVE VOICE Singular r I call Present Tense < you call [ he calls fl called you called he called fl shall call you will call he will call Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense Future Perfect Tense I have called you have called he has called I had called you had called he had called shall have called you will have called [ he will have called n Plural we call you call they call we called you called they called we shall call you will call they will call we have called you have called they have called we had called you had called they had called we shall have called you will have called they will have called The conjugation of call is given as an illustration of a regular verb. Subjunctive Mood Present Tense active voice if I call if we call if you call if you call if he call if they call CONJUGATION 159 Past Tense Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense Singular if I called if you called if he called if I have called if you have called if he have called if I had called if you had called if he had called Plural if we called if you called if they called if we have called if you have called if they have called if we had called if you had called if they had called Imperative Mood: Present Tense, Singular and Plural: Call. Infinitives: Present: To call; Present Perfect: To have called. Participles: Present: Calling; Present Perfect: Having called. Indicative Mood PASSIVE VOICE Singular fl am called you are called he is called I was called you were called he was called Past Tense Future Tense Perfect Tense I shall be called you will be called he will be called I have been called you have been called he has been called Plural we are called you are called they are called we were called you were called they were called we shall be called you will be called they will be called we have been called you have been called they have been called 160 VERB FORMS Past Perfect Tense Future Perfect Tense Singular I had been called you had been called he had been called I shall have been called you will have been called he will have been called Plural we had been called you had been called they had been called we shall have been called you will have been called they will have been called Subjunctive Mood PASSIVE VOICE Present Tense Past Tense Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense if I be called if you be called if he be called if I were called if you were called if he were called if I have been called if you have been called if he have been called if I had been called if you had been called if he had been called if we be called if you be called if they be called if we were called if you were called if they were called if we have been called if you have been called if they have been called if we had been called if you had been called if they had been called Imperative Mood, Present Tense, Singular and Plural: Be called. Infinitives, Present: To be called ; Present Perfect: To have been called. Participles, Present; Being called; Past: Called; Prese/d Perfect: Having been called. CONJUGATION 161 Indicative Mood Present Tense Post Tense Future Tense Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense Future Perfect Tense ACTIVE VOICE Singular 1. I see 2. you see 3. he sees 1. I saw 2. you saw 3. he saw 1. I shall see 2. you will see 3. he will see 1. I have seen 2. you have seen 3. he has seen 1. I had seen 2. you had seen 3. he had seen 1. I shall have seen 2. you will have seen 3. he will have seen Plural we see you see they see we saw you saw they saw we shall see you will see they will see we have seen you have seen they have seen we had seen ' you had seen they had seen we shall have seen you will have seen they will have seen The conjugation of see is given as an illustration of the irregular verb. Presetd Tense Subjunctive Mood active voice 1. if I see if we see 2. if you see if you see 3. if he see if they see 162 VERB FORMS Past Tense Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense Singular 1. if I saw 2. if you saw 3. if he saw Plural if we saw if you saw if they saw 1. if I have seen if we have seen 2. if you have seen if you have seen 3. if he have seen if they have seen 1. if I had seen 2. if you had seen 3. if he had seen if we had seen if you had seen if they had seen Imperative Mood, Present Tense, Singular and Plural: See. Infinitives, Present; To see; Present Perfect: To have seen. Participles, Present: Seeing; Present Perfect: Having seen. Indicative Mood PASSIVE voice Present Tense Past Tense Singular 1. I am seen 2. you are seen 3. he is seen 1. I was seen 2. you were seen 3. he was seen Plural we are seen you are seen they are seen we were seen you were seen they were seen 1 . I shall be seen we shall be seen Future Tense i 2. you will be seen you will be seen 3. he will be seen they will be seen 1 . I have been seen we have been seen 2. you have been you have been seen seen 3. he has been seen they have been seen Present Perfect Tense CONJUGATION 163 Past Perfect Tense Future Perfect Tense Plural we had been seen you had been seen Singular 1. I had been seen 2. you had been seen 3. he had been seen they had been seen 1. I shall have been we shall have been seen seen 2. you will have you will have been seen been seen 3. he will have they will have been seen been seen Present Tense Past Tense Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense Subjunctive Mood * passive voice if I be seen if we be seen if you be seen if you be seen if he be seen if they be seen if I were seen if we were seen if you were seen if you were seen if he were seen if they were seen if I have been if we have been seen seen if you have been if you have been seen seen if they have been seen if he have been seen if I had been seen if you had been seen if he had been seen if we had been seen if you had been seen if they had been seen 164 VERB FORMS Imperative Mood, Present Tense, Singular and Plural: Be seen. Infinitives, Present: To be seen; Present Perfect: To have been seen. Participles, Present: Being seen; Past: Seen; Present Per^ feet: Having been seen. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE Indicative Mood Plural Present Tense Past Tense Singular 1. I am 2. you are 3. he is 1. I was 2. you were 3. he was ri.i ^2. vi shall be Future Tense ^ 2. you will be [3.~he willbe Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense Future Perfect Tense 1. I have been 2. you have been 3. he has been 1. I had been 2. you had been 3. he had been 1. I shall have been 2. you will have been 3. he will have been we are you are they are we were you were they were we shall be you will be they will be we have been you have been they have been we had been you had been they had been we shall have been you will have been they will have been AUXILIARY VERBS 165 Subjunctive Mood Present Tense Past Tense Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense Singular 1. if I be 2. if you be 3. if he be 1. if I were 2. if you were 3. if he were 1 . if I have been 2. if you have been 3. if he have been 1. if I had been 2. if you had been 3. if he had been Plural if we be if you be if they be if we were if you were if they were if we have been if you have been if they have been if we had been if you had been if they had been Imperative Mood, Present, Singular and Plural: Be. Infinitive, Present: To be; Perfect: To have been. Participles, Present: Being; Past: Been; Perfect: Having been. 109. Auxiliary verbs. There are certain English verbs which are used to help form other verbs and to give shades of meaning which could not bo expressed with- out them. These verbs are called auxiliary verbs; they are he, do, have, shall, will, may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. ^ 110. Shall and will. Shall and will are the most troublesome of these verbs. In addition to expressing simple future time, shall and will may express promise, determination, and command. 1 B*. do, and have are also used as independent verbs. 166 VERB FORMS Shall in the first person expresses simple future time. Promise is usually expressed only by the first person. Will is used to express promise. Keep in mind the difference between simple future time and promise. Study the following sentences : (a) I shall be there at three o'clock. This merely means that in the proper course of future time you will be there at three. (6) I will be there at three o'clock. This is a promise that you will be there at three. Determination is also expressed in the first person by the auxiliary will. Study the following sentences : (a) I shall come at three o'clock. (Simple future.) (6) I will come at three o'cloclc. (A promise.) (c) I will come at three o'clock, if all the world forbid me. (Determination to come.) It is easy to see the difference between a simple future use of the auxiliary and a determination use. Simple future just comes along; determination on the part of the speaker changes the future. In the sentence, I will accomplish my end in spite of all obstacles, you see that the speaker is determined to surmount those obstacles. In the sentence, I shall die like the rest of men, the speaker is merely referring to what, in the usual course of events, will happen: an occurrence which, probably, he will not determine to hasten. SHALL AND WILL 167 Willingness is another shade of meaning expressed in the first person by mill. Example: Will you help me out, please? Indeed I will, gladly! To sum up the possibilities of expression in the first person, by the use of shall and will, you have: 1. The expression of the simple future — shalL 2. The expression of promise — vrill. 3. The expression of determination — will. 4. The expression of willingness — will. Will in the second and third persons expresses sim- ple future time. Command or determination is expressed in the second and third persons by shall. Examples: (a) You shall obey me. (6) He shall do as I say. Willingness is expressed by the use of the form will in the second and third persons. Examples : (a) Bring me that ink, if you will, please. (6) He will help me, then, in spite of his objections? Promise is expressed by the use of the form shall in the second and third persons. In tabular form, these facts are: First person: Shall — simple future. Will — promise and willingness. Will — determination. Second person: Will — simple future. Will — willingness and command. Shall — command and promise. 168 VERB FORMS Third person: Will — simple future. Will — ^willingness. Shall — command.- Shall — promise. You must be careful to learn these distinctions in the use of shall and urill. A story illustrating what might be the sad consequences of neglecting this duty concerns a Frenchman who was having great difficulty in mastering the troublesome details of our language. It is said that this Frenchman was boat- riding on a lake with a party of friends. The boat was unfortunately upset. In panic, the Frenchman cried, ^'I mil drown; nobody shall help me!'' Since he had expressed his determination to drown, and had forbidden his friends to aid him, they left him to his fate. Questic^ns involving the use of shall and will are expressed in the forms for the simple future: Shall I go? Will you go? Will he go? Never say. Will I go? A question which expects the answer shall is asked by shall, and one that expects the answer will is asked by will. Shall you go? Yes, I shall. Notice that if you say, ''Will you go to the con- cert?" you are extending an invitation; if you say, WOULD AND SHOULD 169 ''Shall you go to the concert?" you are sunply asking a question. Exercise Supply the proper form of shall, or vrill in the blanks in the following sentences: 1. I go if the weather permits. 2. He can help me if he . 3. You do as I tell you. 4. "Mar>' not go to that place," said her father. 5. I check every sign of opposition to my plan. 6. We go to church to-morrow as usual. 7. You be at the convention, I suppose? 8. He meet me at Broad Street, as we planned, and we then decide what to do next. 9. I come, I assure you. 10. Nobody gain by your telling a falsehood. 11. I read *' Treasure Island" next. 12. He never go there again. It is no place for small boys. 13. I never get over the shock of that news. 14. We telegraph you as soon as we arrive. 15. you take the train or the boat? 16. he be here in time for the game? 17. I never cease to regret what I did. 18. Good-bye! We see you to-morrow as usual. 19. We not allow any further trespassing. 20. I be delighted to see you. 111. Would and should. Would expresses the past of will in the sense of determination : *'0h, well, he would do it, against everyone's advice, and now he is getting his punishment." 170 VERB FORMS Would expresses the past of will in the sense of willingness : He would do anything she wished. Would sometimes expresses an accustomed action : He would go" there, night after night, and stare at his old home. Then, sadly, he would walk away. Would sometimes expresses a willingness that depends on something that was not possible: He would have gone if he could. Would sometimes expresses a wish: I would that I might have my way! The uses of should^ the past tense of shall^ do not correspond so regularly with the uses of shall as do the uses of would to the uses of vrill. Should is used to express a condition on which something else is made to depend: If he should come, what will you do? What if more people should come than have written acceptances! We should not have enough cakes! Should has also acquired a definite use as a word expressing obligation or warning: (a) It matters not what he wishes to do; there is his duty, and he should do it. (6) You should never pour hot water on cut glass. There is no absolute rule by which you can govern yourself in the use of would and should, except to listen to those who speak carefully. MAY AND CAN 171 There are some definite things to avoid. For instance : Wrong: If he would come, I would speak to him. This sentence is wrong. What the person means is: Right: If he comes, I shall speak to him. Another use to avoid : Wrong: If he would have been there, I should have been happy. Right: If he had been there, I should have been happy. Exercise Correct the wrong use of would in the following sentences : 1. If we would have been fifteen minutes later, we should have been killed. 2. If he would have known the country, he would have acted as our guide. 3. If I would have brought this book before, I should have saved myself much trouble. 4. If he would have driven the machine carefully, the accident would not have happened. 112. May and can. May and can are frequently confused. . May carries the idea of permission or possibility. Permission: May I go to the theater? Possibility: Do not wait for Charles; he may come, but I doubt it. 172 VERB FORMS Can carries the idea of power or ability. Wrong: Can I go to the theater? Right: The Government of the United States can pay all its debts. 113. Using the participle. You have learned the forms of the participle, and you have learned one of its uses; namely, to help form the tenses of the pro- gressive and passive forms of the verb. To determine one of the other uses of the participle, study this sentence : Mary, carrying the pitcher to the well, spilled the water. What does the present participle carrying do in the sentence? You see at once the verbal force in carrying, for it expresses action received by the. noun pitcher, which is, therefore, the direct object of carrying. But in section 89, you saw that the participle is never used as an independent asserter of action, as the tenses of the verb are. The participle, even though it expresses action, is always dependent on some other word in the sentence. Carrying here describes Mary. She is a carrying Mary. The rela- tion which carrying bears to Mary is the relation of the adjective to its noun. The participle, while retaining the power of the verb to express action and to govern a noun as object, shares also the nature of the adjective. Its duty, then, is two-fold. Select the participles used as adjectives in the following sentences. Tell what word each participle modifies and what noun, if any, it governs. THE PARTICIPLE 173 1. The beach, having been swept by the storm, was bleak and desolate. 2. Edith, crying as hard as she could, was returned to her anxious parents. 3. He repaired the boat, battered by the flood, so that it was as good as new. 4. The speaker stood before the audience, vainly struggling for control. 5. Knowing that he must win the battle, the general stuck valiantly to his position. 6. Having expressed his confidence in me, the chief sent me on the dangerous mission. 7. He sent the telegram, hoping against hope that it would reach me. 8. Waving the red shirt wildly across the tracks, James succeeded in his effort to stop the train. 9. Making a last desperate attempt, the soldier crawled once more to the edge of the embankment. 10. Wishing to accomplish my aim, I sat patiently and waited until all the others had interviewed the great man. 11. The boy stood at the window, looking wistfully across the fields. Some participles have been used as adjectives so much that the idea of action has been wholly lost. In these cases the word is counted a mere adjective, and is so treated. Examples are: 1. No place under the shining sun is so pretty. 2. The bending boughs made an arch across the roadway. 3. Tom bits of paper were strewn on the floor. 4. The fluttering leaves danced in the wind. 114. The dangling participle. The participle used as an adjective must adhere to the rules governing the 174 , • VERB FORMS use of the adjective. It must modify some noun or pronoun in the sentence, and bear the adjective relation to the noun or pronoun modified. The use of a participle without this relationship is a serious error. Here is an example of this error: Wrong: After hurriedly eating my supper, my automobile was found to be out of commission. Did my automobile eat my supper? Right: After hurriedly eating my supper, I found that my automobile was out of commission. In the sentence marked ^ 'Wrong' ^ you see that eating does not bear the relationship of an adjective to any word in the sentence. In fact, eating is dangling at loose ends in this sentence. A participle so care- lessly used is called a dangling participle. You should carefully avoid such mistakes by doing one of two things : 1. Make the participle bear the relationship of the adjective to a noun in the sentence. 2. Expand the participial phrase into a clause. Here is a sentence which, corrected by method 1, would read: Wrong: Rowing down the river, a wonderful scene unfolded before us. Right: Rowing down the river, we saw a wonderful scene unfold before us. THE PARTICIPLE 175 If you correct this sentence according to method 2, you have: Right: As we rowed down the river, we saw a wonderful scene unfold before us. Exercise Correct the sentences in the following exercise: 1. Standing by the elevator, a girl came up to me and said, " You are needed at once/' 2. Supposing that all was well, the flag was waved by the brakeman as a signal to go ahead. 3. Having procured a luncheon, the train carried us toward the picnic grounds. d. Not understanding the conditions, mistakes were made by us which we regretted very much. 5. Feeling dreadfully puzzled, the directions were not clear to Alice. 6. There we landed, and, having eaten our lunch, the steamer departed. 7. I saw a few hats that I liked on the counter, and after trying some of them on, the saleswoman brought still more from the drawers. 8. Walking down in the sun, the day seemed lovely. 9. On asking George, he said he did not know. 10. Not being a clear day, we could not see the harbor. 11. Digging a few feet down, bones were discovered by the laborers. 12. Giving the girl our tickets, she showed us our seats. 13. After long wondering what my fate was to be, my cell was opened. 14. Being overcome by the gas, we carried him out. 15. Looking at it from our height, it made a pretty picture. 176 VERB FORMS 16. Strolling through the woods, my attention was attracted by a strange noise. 17. After crying and begging, we allowed the child to go. 18. Having lost my book, my card was retained by the librarian. 19. Waiting for the elevator, my feet grew very tired. 20. Leaving everything, the train was held for me, and I just caught it. 115. The gerund. There is another dependent part of the verb, called the gerund. The forms of the gerund are exactly like those of the present and perfect participles. The duties of the gerund and the parti- ciple, however, are different. The participle is used like an adjective; the gerund is used like a noun. The gerund retains its verbal character in that it may govern the case of nouns. For the verb call, the forms of the gerund are as follows: Active Passive Present calling being called Perfect haviag called having been called The following sentences illustrate the use of the gerund : (a) Swimming is good exercise. (h) Seeing is believing. (c) He believes in making hay while the sun shines. Xm. PUNCTUATION 116, What punctuation is. In sections 2, 3, and 4 are explained three marks which are used at the ends of sentences in order to show at once just how the writer wishes the sentence to be understood. What are these marks called? There are other marks which help you to under- stand sentences. If it were not for these marks, you would have to spend much time in puzzling out what the sentences mean. Read, for instance, this sentence: They are beautiful little things said Ivan lifting his cap and as the footman turned away he uttered his few Russian words once more and moved off without even glancing at the lady. You are compelled to read this sentence three or four times to see what it means. Repeated readings are a waste of time. Besides learning marks for the ends of sentences, then, you must also learn marks with which to separate the various parts of long sentences — ^parts that could hardly be understood without these marks. All such marks make the reader stop for a second in order to understand what he has just read. The marks are used to replace the sound of the voice — to tell the eye what the ear gets from inflections, pauses, etc. when people talk to us. To separate sentences from each other by marks, and to separate parts of sentences from other parts 12 (177) 178 PUNCTUATION by marks, is to punctuate those sentences. Such marks, therefore, are called punctuation marks. 117. Quotation marks. To repeat what some other person has said is to quote that person. The expres- sion quoted is referred to as a quotation. If it repeats the exact words of the person, it is a direct quotation; if it repeats the thought not in the exact words, it is not a direct quotation. Examples : Direct: He said, '^I will do my best.^' Not direct :^ He said that he would do his best. 118. The exact words of a speaker are enclosed in quotation marks (" "). By reading the following passage, printed first without the marks and then with them, you will at once see the advantage of using them. Mary, why, Mary! he cried, I was just talking about you. I was just telling Prescott that you must come. Why wasn't I allowed to come and get you? His face had fallen into graver, older lines. There was stern reproach in his eyes. Mary, answer me, he commanded. Mary! *' Mary, why, Mary ! " he cried, '' I was just talking about you. I was just telling Prescott that you must come. Why wasn't I allowed to come and get you?" His face had fallen into graver, older lines. There was stern reproach in his eyes. ''Mary, answer me," he commanded. "Mary!" Exercise Place quotation marks correctly in the following sentences: 1. But why have you such a big mouth. Grandmother, asked Red Riding Hood. QUOTATION MARKS 179 2. Nelson said, England expects every man to do his duty. 3. The men were told that they would be treated justly. 4. The commander said, Men, while you are in this service, you will be treated justly. 5. The professor said that no student would be excused from examination. A quotation interrupted by said he or asked he requires a set of quotation marks for each part of the quotation. For instance: Right: ''I shall not go/' said he, ^'unless you go along.'' Exercise Place quotation marks correctly in the following sentences : 1. I do not know, said the librarian, whether I can remit this fine or not. 2. I thought, remarked Adelaide, that unused railway tickets were redeemable. 3. May I go, too, asked Eddie, eagerly; may I, Mother? 4. There is no reason, said the physician, gravely, why you should take such an attitude. I can not approve of it. 119. K the quotation is made up of several sentences, without interruption, only the quotation marks before the first sentence and after the last are needed. 120. Sometimes quoted conversation, besides being a quotation itself, includes a quotation. Such an included quotation is called a quotation within a quotation^ 180 PUNCTUATION . and is marked with single instead of double quota- tion marks. For instance : '' Remember, men," said the general, ''that we look to you for courage and bravery. Nelson said, 'England expects every man to do his duty.' That was long ago, but England expects the same response now that she obtained then." Exercise Place quotation marks correctly in the following sentences : 1. My grandmother used to tell me, said Jameson, a great many useful things. One of her favorite sayings was, Many words darken speech. 2. Well, continued John, the fact that the house was dark was not the only terrifying factor in the situation. The wind sighed and howled, and sometimes a voice seemed to cry I'm coming! I'm coming! 3. The only thing I object to, said Charles, is that these people who are always crying out Do your duty! are always the last ones to do theirs. 4. No matter what you try to tell the man, objected Timothy, he interrupts you with that eternal, I say! Oh, I say! 121. Titles of books, magazines, and papers are enclosed in quotation marks when italics are not used, or when the titles are not underlined. Example: Right: Kipling's Kim is an interesting bopk. Right: Kipling's "Kim" is an interesting book. In writing a quoted conversation, be careful to THE HYPHEN 181 begin each person's conversation on a new line indented as for the beginning of a new paragraph. Wrong: ''1 can't do it," cried Mary. ''Oh, yes, you can. Try harder!" replied John. Right: "I can't do it," cried Mary, as she tugged vainly to get the engine started. "Oh, yes, you can. Try harder!" repUed John. 122. The hyphen. The word man cannot be broken apart. It has to be pronounced at one effort of the vocal organs. The word republic^ however, falls into three distinct parts when you pronounce it slowly. Re can be said with one effort; pub with another, and lie with a third. Those letters of a word which can easily be pronounced together are called a syllable. There are two reasons why it is important for you to learn the syllables of a word. First, to know the syllables is a help in learning to spell and pronounce; second, it is important to know how to divide a word into its proper syllables in order to be able to write correctly words which have to be broken at the ends of lines on account of lack of room. Such a division should always be made at the end of a syllable. When a word is divided at the end of a line the hyphen (-) is used at the end of a syllable, thus: react- ing The hyphen indicates that part of the word is coming on the next line. Never break a word of one syllable, like brought or which. 182 PUNCTUATION Exercise Break the following words at the end of some syllable as if they were written at the end of a line, and place the hyphen after the syllable : knowing carpet nonsense overslept basket capital Words made up of two parts are compound words. Until such words have been used together so long that they have come to be considered a single word, the two parts are separated by a hyphen. Freckle- faced and curly-headed are examples. On the other hand, workman and horseshoe have become single words. If you are in doubt as to whether or not a word has dropped the hyphen, look the word up in the most recent dictionary at your command. 123. The comma. Perhaps the most important mark which indicates a pause inside the sentence is the comma (,). The problem of the proper use of the comma is a simple one if you keep in mind one rule: use your common sense. Some sentences are short; some groups of words are so closely related, that it is not necessary or wise to separate them by commas. In the sentence, John went home, for example, you would not be using good sense to separate John from went by a comma. Mary came when her mother called her. Here, again, no pause is necessary between came and when. THE COMMA 183 The following specific uses of the comma will guide you in using it: 124. To mark the omission of words. Example: To his enemies he was merciless; to his friends, gentle. If we wrote out the second clause it would read, To his friends he was gentle. 125. To separate words in apposition from the rest of the sentence when these words are out of the natural order. Example : Mary, my sister, received the first prize in drawing. In the sentence, My sister Mary received the prize, you would not need the comma. That is why the rule directs us to use it only when the words are out of their natural order. 126. To separate expressions of direct address from the rest of the sentence. Examples : (a) William, please answer the telephone. (6) I do not know, Anna, who took yom* paint-box. 127. To separate contrasted words or groups of words from the rest of the sentence. Example : Acts, not words, count. 128. To separate parenthetical expressions from the rest of the sentence. Examples : (a) This man, as we all know, is a great leader of the movement for honest elections. (6) Yes, indeed, I know him well. 184 PUNCTUATION 129. To separate from the rest of the sentence quotations not formally introduced. (See Section 141.) Examples : (a) Someone shouted, "There's the president!" (6) ''This/' said the salesman, *'is the best machine on the market. " 130. Three or more words used in a series should be set off by commas. The best usage requires a comma before the and connecting the last two words used in a series. Examples : (a) Our flag is red, white, and blue. (6) He was a strong man, steady, conscientious, and resourceful. 131. When a dependent clause goes before the main clause, it is separated from the main clause by a comma. Examples : (a) If he goes, I shall not go. (h) If you do that again, I shall punish you. (c) When the train comes in, you hurry on board as fast as you can. 132. Introductory phrases and words should be separated from the main statement by a comma. Examples : (a) After chopping the wood, Ralph laid it in piles. (6) Besides, it is poor policy. These rules do not cover all of the possible uses of the comma. Your own judgment must be con- THE COMMA 185 suited oftener about the use of this mark than about any other. Even if none of the rules given above applies, a comma should be used when it will make the meaning of a sentence clearer. 133. The comma blunder. The comma should not be used between the clauses of a compound sentence when they are not connected by a pure conjimction. The use of a comma between such clauses is known as the comma blunder or the comma fault. Wrong: The engineer put on full steam, the train started with a jerk. Right: The engineer put on full steam; the train started with a jerk. Right: The engineer put on full steam. The train started with a jerk. (See section 137.) Exercise Place commas where you consider them necessary in the following sentences. Give your reasons for inserting the commas. 1. He produced an ivory tube through which one could look and by simply wishing see anything in the world or out of it. 2. Immediately without arguing the waiter made the change in our order. 3. When the Pjince returned to the palace his two Irothers were there awaiting him. 4. "Well may be they did" I said ''but I think the Brownies in this case were the men who helped chop down the trees." 186 PUNCTUATION 5. These are methods adopted by men whose business it is to grow trees. 6. If you will take this to Henry White my uncle I shall be very much obliged. 7. To those who tried he was gentle; to those who were lazy pitiless. 8. Who has not heard of Daniel Boone the great pioneer? 9. Fred please come here. 10. Once in a rough wild country On the other side of the sea There lived a dear little fairy And her home was in a tree; A d^ar httle queer little fairy And as rich as she could be. 11. It was queer enough to be sure to hear this rosy- cheeked little fellow talk about the government of his country and what he would do when he was a man. 12. Men women and children flocked to hear him. 13. We need a net two rackets two balls and some lime. 14. When Abraham Lincoln was twenty-one the whole family started for Illinois. 15. I had made the acquaintance of Mr. Raymond some time before and was walking up the drive to call on him when I first met Diamond. 16. Tom was at the works very early the next morning; early enough indeed to be alone with Wilkins the foreman ct the laboratories. 17. Here a watering-pot lay on the grass; there a deserted spade; yonder a white apron hurriedly cast aside by an embarrassed rnaiden. 18. Mary stopped looked Hstened and held up a warning hand. THE PERIOD 187 19. Not wishing to interrupt William stood aside and waited. 20. The sun even as we looked sank below the western horizon. 21. He would carr>' a fowling piece on his shoulder for hours together trudging through woods and swamps and up hill and down dale to shoot a few squirrels. 22. Maud cried ''Help!" 23. As she was passing through the doorway she felt a drop of rain upon her face. "Oh mother" she cried "Put down the windows!" 24. Father promised us a tennis court this summer but it has rained so constantly that he has not been able to keep his promise. 134. The period. The period ( . ) is used to show finality or completeness. 135. The period ( . ) should be used after declara- tive and imperative sentences. Proper use of the period requires a clear under- standing of what makes a sentence. Here are examples of complete and incomplete thoughts. Read them aloud over and over. Try to develop the ability to tell instantly whether or not a group of words expresses a thought completely. Incomplete: On Sunday On Sunday does not express a thought completely. These words should not stand alone as if they were a sentence. Complete: I went walking on Sunday. Incomplete: If you had not // you had not does not express a thought com- 188 PUNCTUATION pletely. These words should not stand alone as if they were a sentence. Complete: I would not have come if you had not called. Exercise Read each of the following groups of words; tell whether each is a sentence or not, and place periods where they are needed. 1. The only objection I have to football is that the game is too rough 2. Moreover there was not a single boy there who although over sixteen years of age 3. One needs steady nerves to kick a goal when the score is a tie 4. The Liberty Bell which is a relic of Revolutionary days and which now rests in Independence Hall, Philadelphia 5. Mrs. Payton was so astounded when her mother suddenly came into the room 6. As soon as I could, I took the book up to my room 7. Abraham Lincoln was called a rail-splitter. Because he split rails for a living. Once in his boyhood 8. I found this paper. On the cellar shelf 9. I have received reliable information that 10. After half an hour Gallegher slipped down to the bottom of the cab and dragged out a lap-robe 11. ''I am Mr. Dwyer, of the Press,'' said the sporting editor briskly 12. But his fear was overcome when out from his hiding place with a yell and a bound 13. Gallegher leaped up on the box, pulhng out the whip as he did so, and with a quick sweep lashed the horse across the back 14. They found evidence of a crime. In the safe THE PERIOD 189 Go over this exercise again, making complete all the incomplete groups of words. Keeping in mind what you have learned about the period, study the following sentence: I did not hear a word the minister said, I was dreaming. You learned in section 133 that you cannot use a comma between the parts of a compound sentence unless they are connected by a pure conjunction. The meaning you wish to give in such cases will determine your punctuation. As you will learn when you study the semicolon, you can indicate relationship of thought in certain cases by placing a semicolon between the independent clauses. You will always be safe, how- ever, if you make separate sentences using the period, thus: mg. I did not hear a word the minister said. I was dream- Another error may trouble you. For example: Where is he, I cannot find him. Here, instead of finding the comma used instead of the period, you find it used to replace the question mark. This also has the effect of putting unrelated thoughts into one sentence. Right: Where is he? I cannot find him. 136. The period is always used after an abbrevia-' tion. Examples : Jr., Dr., R. S. V. P., etc., f. o. b. 190 PUNCTUATION The period is always used after an initial. Exam- ple: Mr. J. M. Smith. 137. The semicolon. The semicolon (;) is used to separate the clauses of a compoimd sentence when these clauses are not closely connected in thought, or when the second clause is introduced by a con- junctive adverb. Examples: He waited in breathless silence; the stealthy footsteps came nearer and nearer. The boy flushed and stammered; then he came around to Winifred's seat, bringing the book. A writer who desires to secure the effect of con- trast may use the semicolon between the clauses of a compound sentence when these clauses are connected by a pure conjunction . Example : There is often a threatening note in the voice of bells; but these, as they sounded abroad, were quiet and tunable, and seemed to fall in with the spirit of rustic places. Exercise Place semicolons properly in the following sen- tences : 1. I was not invited so I did not go. 2. It was too cold to sleep out of doors therefore we went into the tent. 3. The children have been dismissed from school hence the noise in the street has increased. 4. He complained for an hour about going^however, he went. THE SEMICOLON lyl 5. Motorists constantly violated the speed laws still the residents made no complaint. 6. There was not room for a single additional passenger in the car nevertheless three men squeezed in. 7. Doctor Conwell made a few introductory remarks then Mr. Taft began his speech. 8. The checked suit is too big besides I do not like it. 9. Poor Rip was reduced almost to despair his only alternative to escape was to take gun in hand and stroll into the woods. 10. The day was at an end shadow and silence possessed the valley. 11. I will not lie to gain my ends neither will I be dis- honest. You will heed to distinguish between a clause introduced by a conjunctive adverb and a clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction. The clause introduced by the conjunctive adverb is inde- pendent and could be written in a separate sentence. The clause introduced by the subordinating conjunc- tion is dependent and could not be written as a separate sentence. This distinction is important because clauses introduced by a conjunctive adverb may be separated from the preceding clauses by a semicolon. Clauses introduced by a subordinating conjunction may not be separated from the main clause by a semi- colon; they must be separated, as you know, by a comma. Wrong: He knew me at once; when I crossed the street. Right: He knew me at once, when I crossed the street. 192 PUNCTUATION ' Exercise Correct the following sentences: 1. No one ever saw her skate; although she talked constantly of her skating. 2. I shall go now; if I have your permission. 3. He put away his camping outfit in the tent; while Bert unpacked his kitchen kit. 4. It is useless for you to come here; unless you are willing to work. 5. I have known him from the days of my extreme youth; because he made my father's boots. 6. I did not attend that school in the fall; although I had been promoted. 7. I was thinking this, and looking at my wife's troubled face; when our new uncle tapped me on the arm. 8. She arrived one morning shortly after breakfast; as we were preparing to go for a drive. 9. Uncle David looked at her without a sign of recog- nition, and went on out into the hall; where he got his hat and gloves. 10. Until the sound of the footsteps died away, Larry stood absolutely rigid; while my wife and I gazed at him spellbound. You have seen that the semicolon should not be used between a main clause and a subordinate clause that follows the main clause. You should avoid the opposite error of using a comma between two inde- pendent clauses when one of them is introduced by a conjunctive adverb. This is another form of the comma blunder. Examples: Wrong: I was sitting in a draught, hence I caught cold. THE SEMICOLON 193! Right: I was sitting in a draught ; hence I caught cold. Wrong: The man showed no signs of rebeUing, nevertheless the officer handcuffed him. Right: The man showed no signs of rebelling; nevertheless, the officer handcuffed him. Exercise Correct the following sentences: 1. She looked up and returned his salutation with dignity, then she went on with her work. 2. Mary was going abroad, so each of us sent her a steamer letter. 3. He must have passed a civil service examination, otherwise how could he have secured the position? 4. No one took any care of it, therefore the whole place went to rack and ruin. 5. Both rear tires were punctured, hence we were delayed on the road. 6. Booth had a splendid reputation, nevertheless the editor refused to hire him. 7. The mob made for the jail doors, then pande- monium reigned. 8. We promised him our protection, indeed we prom- ised him safety. 9. We made the best speed we could, still we were miles from home. 10. Burson went, yet he went so unwillingly that we had to smile. 138. The semicolon is used before namely^ e. g.y viz.y and i. e., when these expressions introduce 194 PUNCTUATION examples of statements made in the foregoing part of the sentence. These words or abbreviations are all equivalent to that is. Example: In order to pursue this investigation, we must know two things; namely, the object of the crime, and the person most benefited by its commission. Never use this kind of enumeration except in reference to a business matter, or in a matter-of-fact discussion. It would be ridiculous to write this: Wrong: I watched all the signs of her emotion; namely her tears, her fast-coming breath, her unre- strained sobs. Right: I watched all the signs of her emotion — her tears, her fast-coming breath, her unrestrained sobs. 139. The semicolon is used to separate phrases or clauses which are used alike in the sentence, when these phrases or clauses have commas within them. It is evident that a comma used to separate clauses within which there were already conmias, would con- fuse the reader rather than help him. Examples : (a) It was September; the weather had fallen sharp ; a flighty piping wind, laden with showers, beat about the township ; and the dead leaves ran riot in the streets. (b) If you find your disinclination to my plan too great, I shall take means to force you; to compel you; to make you less obstinate; to be extreme with you; in short, my dear fellow, to command you. THE COLON 195 140. The colon. The colon (:) indicates that some- thing is to follow. 141. The colon is used before a quotation formally introduced. Example : The lawyer spoke as follows: *'l can not plead that my client needed the money, but I can state, and I can prove, that yours did." A quotation preceded by thus or as follows and the colon, is said to be formally introduced. 142. The colon is used after a single word to be followed by an illustration, as after the word Example, used in this text. 143. The colon is used after the salutation in a busi- ness letter. Example: Mr. John H. Thompson, 53 Wall Street, New York City. Dear Sir: 144. The colon is used before an entunerating list. Example : Send for the following articles: brushes, floor wax, filler, oil, and polishers. Exercise Supply colons where they are needed in the following sentences: 1. Please send the following pupils to me immediately after school Fred Smith, Elsie Deering, Jane Nutley, Mary Rowe, and William Yates. 196 PUNCTUATION 2. The merchant ordered this list leather purses, hand-bags, change pocket-books, chatelaine bags, and bill- folders. 3. Congress has lately passed the following good laws the Good Roads' Measure, the Loan Bill, the Naval Appro- priation Bill, and others. 4. The following magazines have been added to the list in the school Hbrary The Independent, Harper's, Collier's, and The Outlook. 5. Short stories by the following authors were recom- mended to the class O. Henry, Richard Harding Davis, Robert Louis Stevenson, Mary Shipman Andrews, and H. C. Bunner. 145. Marks of parenthesis. Marks of parenthesis ( ) are used to enclose a part of the sentence which, although adding a thought to the sentence, is not connected in structure with the rest of the sentence. Example : As I found my way through the rooms (I had been there before) I had time to reflect on what I should say. I The practice of enclosing in marks of parenthesis words which you wish to strike out of the sentence is wrong. If you cannot erase such words, draw a straight line through them. 146. Brackets. Brackets [ ] are used to enclose explanatory material introduced into the quotation by the writer quoting. Example : The speaker said, ''They [the slaves] are powerless to help themselves. We must help them.'' CAPITAL LETTERS 197 147. The apostrophe. The apostrophe (0 is used to mark the possessive case of nouns. Examples : Father's business collapsed at the outbreak of war. Men's hats and caps are sold here. 148. The apostrophe is used to indicate the pliiral of letters, figures, and other symbols. Examples: He had three B's on his report. Make your r's more plainly. Cross out the 2's and 3's instead. 149. The apostrophe is used to mark the omission of letters in contractions. Examples : He's, won't, o'clock. 150. Capital letters. Use a capital letter to begin the first word of every sentence. 151. Use a capital letter to begin every proper noun or adjective. Examples : Lincoln, the American army, the British navy. 152. Use a capital letter to begin the first word of e^ery direct quotation. Example: The girl raised her head quickly and said, "Never; I shall never do it." 153. Use a capital letter to begin every word in the title of a book or theme except articles, prepositions, and conjimctions. Example: This quotation is taken from A Window in Vladivostok, 198 PUNCTUATION 154. Use a capital letter to begin each noun in the salutation of a letter. Example : My dear Elizabeth. 155. Use a capital letter to begin the first word of every line of poetry. Example : Cromwell, I did not think to shed a tear In all my miseries ; but thou hast forced me, Out of thy honest truth, to play the woman. 156. Use a capital letter to write the pronoun I and the interjection O. 157. Use a capital letter for father, mother, uncle, etc. when these words stand instead of personal names. Do not use a capital when the possessive pronoun precedes ; as, My father is a bookkeeper. XIV. SPEAKING AND WRITING ENGLISH 158. The Dictionary. The dictionary is a book which contains facts about words as they are used by the best writers and speakers. As the language grew, words acquired new meanings, dropped old ones, or went out of fashion. In time so many facts about words accumulated, that no one person could remember them. Among a large and scattered people, too, uncertainties concerning spelling and proper usage arose. A book which contained the facts about all our words became a necessity. Dictionaries differ in the method of presenting material, but the following definition, from an un- abridged dictionary, shows how to find out the essen- tial facts about a word : in-tact' (In-takt'), o» [L. intadus; inn not + tadus, p. p. of tangere to touch. See in- not; tact, tangent.] Untouched, esp. by anything that harms, defiles, or the like; uninjured; undefiled; left complete or entire. Syn. — See whole. Parentheses in which are enclosed the pronuncia- tion of the word usually follow the word itself. At the bottom of each page in the dictionary is a key to the symbols found in the parentheses. The italicized letter, a., stands for adjective, the part of speech of the word. (199) 200 SPEAKING AND WRITING ENGLISH Placed somewhere in the definition is a set of brackets which contain information concerning the sources of the word. In this case you see that the Latin meaning of the word is not touched, and that the Enghsh meaning is identical — untouched, uninjured. Below the various meanings of the word is the abbreviation Syn,, standing for synonyms, and indi- cating that words of similar kindred meaning are to be found under this heading. In this case you are directed to see whole, where you will find a list of the synonyms, and a discussion of the meaning of each. penman (-m^n), n.; pi. -men (men). L One who uses the pen; a writer. Specif.: a One who writes or copies papers, documents, or the like for another; a clerk; scrive- ner, b One who is expert in penmanship; one who writes well. 2. An author; a composer. Note that, after the abbreviation for noun, the plural form of this word is given, pi. men. When the plural of a word is made in the usual way, by adding s or es to the singular, the dictionary does not give the plural form; but if there is any irregularity about a plural form, the dictionary gives the plural. After the plural form and its pronunciation is the number 1 in black-faced type. Below, the number 2 occurs in black-faced type. These numbers indicate that the word penman has two different meanings or senses. The different meanings are given in numerical order for convenience only. The fact that one meaning precedes another in this numerical list does not show that one meaning is preferred to another. You can IDIOM 201 generally tell which meaning applies to the word that you are looking up, by the way the word is used in the sentence. Do not take the first meaning you see and make a ludicrous mistake. Note that in meaning 1 the abbreviation Specif, occurs. A list of the meanings of abbreviations is found on a page in the front of the dictionary. Mean- ing 1 is subdivided into two parts: a and b. These divisions indicate a difference in meaning. The dictionary tells the rank or standing of words. AVords in use by the best writers and speakers of our time are said to be in good use. The dictionary distinguishes between words that are in good use and those which are not by plainly marking those that are not. Examples of this marking are: Ohs.j standing for obsolete, meaning out-of-date, R.y standing for rare, meaning seldom used, U, S,y standing for United States, meaning u^ed only in the United States. Colloq., standing for colloquial, meaning used in informal conversation only. Slang, meaning an expression not in accepted usage. All symbols and abbreviations are explained in the dictionary. 159. Idiom. You can say He was a friend of the clerk's, and you can say He was a friend of the clerk. You can say He wa^ a friend of mine, but you cannot say He was a friend of me. Why can you not say He was a friend of msf The reason is very simple. The language, in its 202 SPEAKING AND WRITING ENGLISH growth, has sanctioned He was a friend of mine, and has not sanctioned He was a friend of me, although, of the two constructions. He was a friend of me is closer to grammatical . usage. There are hosts of expressions in the language like He was a friend of mine. They are in good standing, but they can not be cut into grammatical bits and classified. These expressions are called idioms. An idiom is a mode of expression peculiar to the language in which it is found. Idioms are expressions which carry force as wholes. It is unwise to tear them to pieces in the attempt to give each piece a grammatical name. Moreover, if you try to bring all idioms under the ordinary rules of grammar, you will spend much time and effort in making distinctions that will be of no assistance to you in writing or speaking. The following examples illustrate the kind of expressions better treated as wholes: At all: He will give me nothing at all in return for my work. Boot: We traded horses. I gave Harry five dollars to boot. Cheek: There he was, cheek by jowl with the worst boys in town. Cut: She cuts a poor figure. Good: If you make good, I shall be proud of you. In: He was up in arms against the whole situation. Long: He studies all day long. Look: Lookout! There's the train! IDIOM 203 Set: That story set them all by the ears. Worse: What you say makes the matter so much the worse. Worth: Give me a quarterns worth of candy. Besides the idiomatic expressions just illustrated, there are many idiomatic uses of prepositions. Examples of wrong and right uses are here given. We do not say: The man worked on or by & machine all day. I placed it into the bag. I sat in back of you. I can not help biU smile at her. His point of view is different than mine. John borrowed my pencil off me. I bought this fruit off the Italian peddler. May I have the loan of your pencil? The prisoner was freed of his obligations. Her hair was kept in place with a net. There were fresh curtains to the windows. Conferences end around half- past three. Were you to school yesterday? Take that cap off of your head. We do say: The man worked at a ma- chine all day. I put it into the bag. I sat behind you. I can not help smiling at her. His point of view is dififerent from mine. John borrowed my pencil. I bought this fruit from the Italian peddler. May I borrow your pencil? The prisoner was freed from his obligations. Her hair was kept in place by a net. There were fresh curtains at the windows. Conferences end about half- past three. Were you at school yester- day? Take that cap off; or, take that cap off your head. 204 SPEAKING AND WRITING ENGLISH We do not say: She crawled in under the table. What is inside of this drawer? I have come in regards to a matter of business. I shall not go without you do. He talks like he was angry. I was to the office to inquire. What is the matter of it? We do say: She crawled under the table. What is inside this drawer? I have come in regard to a matter of business. I shall not go unless you do. He talks as if he were angry. I was at the office to inquire. What is the matter with it? XV. POPULAR ERRORS Many errors frequently occurring in the oral and written work of pupils are here listed, and exercises for correcting such errors are given. This chapter offers for correction some errors which are rhetorical rather than grammatical in their nature. The fact that crudities of expression, as well as actual gram- matical errors, contribute their share toward making the speech of modern young people unattractive, seems to justify their inclusion. 160. Subject not in the nominative case. Wrong: Him and her went. Right: He and she went. Exercise Correct the following sentences : 1. Them are my books. 2. Me and her were both early. 3. John was shorter than him. 4. Kate and her applied for the position. 5. He was a man whom, it is said, never did wrong. 161. Predicate nominative not in the nominative case. Wrong: Yes, that was him. Right: Yes, that was he. This list of errors is given in the report on "A Course of Study in Grammar." by Dean W. W. Charters, issued by the University of Missouri, Columbia, Mis- souri. The examples, exercises, and discussion of the errors are our own. (205) 206 POPULAR ERRORS Exercise Correct the following sentences : 1. I knew it was her when I heard her step. 2. If it were me, I would resign. 3. Whom was it they wanted? 4. That poor student was me. 5. I felt so sorry when I learned that it was him who had been killed. 162. Nominative of pronoun wrongly used for objec- tive. Wrong: The decision lay with she and I. Right: The decision lay with her and me. Wrong: The man who you used to know has gone away. Right: The man whom you used to know has gone away. Exercise Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. Between you and I there must be a secret. 2. Grandfather told she and I a wonderful story. 3. The girl who you called is absent to-day. 4. I never knew a citizen who such honor was shown to. 5. The watermelon was divided up among we girls. 163. Wrong form of pronoun. Wrong: He injured hisself. Right: He injured himself. USING THE PERSONAL PRONOUN 207 Exercise Correct the errors in the following sentences : 1. If they could put theirselves in our position, they would know. 2. James was angry with hisself when he found his mistake. 3. We had put ourselfs at a disadvantage. 4. He is not afraid of the chief hisself. 164. First personal pronoun standing first in a series. Wrong: I and you are the ones to go. Right: You and I are the ones to go. Correct the errors in the following sentences : 1. I and George were the first ones there. 2. I and several friends spent a week together. 3. Mary and I and her sister made up the party. 4. I and you could be spared. 165. Use of the personal pronoun instead of the required adjective. Wrong: Them trunks have gone. Right: Those trunks have gone. Exercise Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. Are them our checks? 2. Them elevators are hydraulic. 3. Them soldiers are jolly, aren't they? 4. I never was busy yet that them boys didn't come. 208 POPULAR ERRORS 166. Failure of the adjective to agree with its noun in number. Wrong: She had one of these kind of pictures. Right: She had one of this kind of picture. Exercise Correct the errors in the following sentences : 1. It was one of those type of mail chutes. 2. Those sort of stories aren't worth reading. 3. I like those kind of people. 167. Failure of the verb to agree with its subject in number and person. Wrong: It don't matter. Right: It doesn't matter. Exercise Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. Is your feet wet? 2. Isn't there any eggs? 3. How's all your people? 4. There isn't bananas enough to go around. 5. Don't he know you? 6. Reasons ain't always convincing. 7. I am your own cousin, ain't I? 8. These is the best I have. 9. Rules is a nuisance. 168. Confusion of past and present tenses. Wrong: You knew what I ask you. Right: You knew what I asked you. PAST TENSE AND PARTICIPLE 20^ Exercise Correct the errors in the following sentences : 1 . He give me that yesterday. 2. It use to be that food was cheap. 3. I questioned him and he answers me. 4. The dog come around the corner just as I reached the steps. 5. The funny part of it was, he leaves the baby in the station. 6. I goes over and I says to him, I says, "What do you want?" 7. I asked a guard how to get there, and he says,. "Walk." 8. I eat a good dinner to-day. 169. Confusion of past tense and past participle. This is one of the most frequent errors. One of the surest ways to avoid it is to know perfectly the principal parts of irregular verbs, and to remember that the past tense of such verbs is used independently, never with have, and that the past participle of such verbs is never used independently, but always with have. For example, many people say, / seen it and / have saw it. The principal parts of the verb see are: Present Past Past Participle see saw seen With the principal parts in mind, you realize that saw is the form that can stand alone, and that seen is the part that must have the help of have. The correct statements are : / saw and / have seen. A table of the 14 210 POPULAR ERRORS principal parts of irregular verbs can be found on pages 130-135. Exercise Correct the errors in the following sentences : 1. I haven't did a thing all day. 2. I would have went if you would. 3. This is the prettiest scarf I've ever saw. 4. You might have knew that it would rain. 5. If I had took you at your word I would have regretted it. 6. I seen a fountain pen that has been wrote with for ten years. 7. He hadn't ate such a meal in years. 8. She has sang for royalty. 9. The wind has blew our chimney over. 10. The bell has rang; you'd better hurry. 11. I was took off my feet with surprise. 12. That man has drank all the water. 13. Has that child fell again? 14. I done all I could for him. 170. Wrong tense forms. This error also can be avoided if you know the principal parts and the way to form the tenses. Wrong: I knowed him well. Right: I knew him well. Exercise Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. Johnson thro wed a good ball. 2. The wind blowed twenty miles an hour. THE WRONG VERB 211 3. The pipes froze and busted. 4. He dumb up the lattice and drug the vine off. 5. He hasn't aten meat in a year. 6. I disremember what he said. 171. Wrong verb. You sometimes make errors because you do not know the principal parts of verbs. Another source of error lies in not knowing the meanings of verbs. Always be sure not only of the principal parts but of the meanings of verbs. The verbs most frequently confused as to the meaning are here explained. Lie and lay. The principal parts of the verb, including the present participle, are here given : Present Past Present Past Tense Tense Participle Participle lie lay lying lain lay laid laying laid Lie means to recline; that is, to be in a position of rest. Lay means to put or place something. First of all, consider the meanings of the two verbs. Realize what being in a position of rest means. An animal body can get into a position of rest. You can lie down; a dog can lie down. A thing can not lie dowTi, but you may speak of it as if it could. A book can not actually lie down, but of a book in a position of rest on a table you may say. The hook lies on the table. The difference between being in a posi- tion of rest and putting something somewhere ought 212 POPULAR ERRORS to be very plain. I put (lay) the book on the table. After I have put (laid) the book on the table, the book lies or is lying there. Now learn the principal parts of the verbs with the meaning of each verb in mind. There is only one difficulty. The past tense of the verb meaning to be in a position of rest is just like the present tense of the verb meaning to put something. If you know your principal parts and what you want to say, this resemblance will not con- fuse you. Here are examples of the use of the verbs : Mother lies down every after- noon. Mother lay down yesterday afternoon. Mother will lie down to-mor- row afternoon. Mother has always lain down in the afternoon. Mother had just lain down to rest. Mother lays the book on the table. Mother laid the book on the table. Mother will lay the book on the table. Mother has laid the book on the table. Mother had laid the book on the table. Sit and set. Present Past Present Past Tense Tense Participle Participle sit sat sitting sat set set setting set Sit means to rest in what is familiar to you as "a sitting position.'' You sit down; a dog sits down. A thing can not actually sit, but you may speak of it as if it could. The house sits far back from the road. The sewing table sits in the corner of the room. THE WRONG VERB 213 To set is to put something somewhere. You set the table; you set the buttons an inch from the edge; you set the hen, but the hen sits on the eggs. She is a sitting hen. If you know the principal parts of the two verbs and what you want to say, you will not confuse them. Here are examples of their use: The teacher sits at her desk. I always set the flower-pot on the sill. The teacher sat at her desk. I set the flower-pot on the sill. The teacher will sit at her I shall set the flower-pot on desk. the sill. The teacher has not sat at her I have set the flower-pot on desk. the sill. The teacher had sat at her I had set the flower-pot on desk. the sill. Rise and raise. Present Past Present Past Tense Tense Participle ' Participle rise rose rising risen raise raised raising raised Rise means to ascend, or to move from a lower position to a higher. Raise means to make move from a lower position to a higher. There is a differ- ence between moving and making move. A sick person may rise from a chair with the assistance of a nurse. The sick person rises; the nurse raises the sick person. Wages rise, but an employer has to raise them. The sun rises; a person getting up in the morning 214 POPULAR ERRORS is rising; he raises the shades to let in the sunlight. He lowers the windows which he had raised the night before. Bread dough rises; it itself moves to a higher position; after it has reached the higher position, it has risen. The only way you could raise dough is to pick it up. A man describing what he did when he was frightened by a noise in the night said, ^^I raised up in bed to listen.'' He meant, ^^I rose up in bed to listen,'' or ''I raised myself up in bed to listen." Examples of the use of these verbs follow: I rise early. I raise the windows at night. I rose early. I raised the windows at night. I shall rise early. I shall raise the windows at night. I have risen early. I have raised the windows at night. I had risen early. I had raised the windows at night. May and can. May implies permission; can implies power. A child once asked his teacher, ^^Can I shut the door?" '^I don't know," repHed the teacher. ''Have you the strength to do it? " The child had merely desired permission to close the door; he asked the teacher whether or not he had the power to close it. Examples of the use of these verbs follow: You may read if you wish. Can you read? You may draw the design. Can you draw a design? COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 215 May I typewrite your letter Can you operate a type- for you? writer? You may drive the car, John. Can John drive a car? Leave and let. Present Past Present Past Tense Tense Participle Participle leave left leaving left let let letting let Leave, except in an idiomatic use or two, means to go away and to cause to remain ; let means to allow. When you say ''I left him go/' you are saying, '^I went away him go." Examples of the use of these verbs follow : I leave the room. I often let my daughter go to the theater. I left the room. I let my daughter go to the theater yesterday. 172. Confusion of comparatives and superlatives. Wrong: The larger of the three boys ran away. Right: The largest of the three boys ran away. Wrong: My brother and I measured. He proved to be the tallest. Right: My brother and I measured. He proved to be the taller. Write the following sentences correctly: 1. This chart is the best of the two. 2. This example is the hardest of the two. 3. The larger city in the world is London. 216 POPULAR ERRORS 4. She is the oldest of the two sisters. 5. He is the younger of a family of five. 173. Confusion of adjective and adverb, or adjective and pronoun. Wrong: Do you like candy? I sure do. Right: Do you like candy? I surely do. Wrong: That play went pretty good. Right: That play went pretty well. Wrong: Are them trunks ours? Right: Are those trunks ours? Write the following sentences correctly: 1. Bring them calendars here. 2. He was hurt bad, but he will recover. 3. I knew them people years ago. 4. I sure was glad when the whistle blew. 5. The game went good, but I sure was worried at first. 174. Double negative. Wrong: There ain^t no use talking to some people. Right: There isn't any use talking to some people. Wrong: I never did that, neither. Right: I never did that. Wrong: One man didn't say nothing hardly. Right: One man said hardly anything. Write the following sentences correctly: 1. He isn't never going to write to her again. 2. There ain't no more paper. 3. I haven't had no chance. UNNECESSARY WORDS 217 4. You don't care nothing about marks. 5. He doesn't know no more about that than I do. 175. Confusion of preposition and conjunction. Wrong: He never did like he was told. Right: He never did as he was told. Wrong: He shivers like he was cold. Right: He shivers as if he were cold. Write the following sentences correctly: 1. He shouted like he was scared. 2. He ran like he was going for a doctor. 3. Don't do like I do; do like I say. 176. Unnecessary words. Wrong: The girls they have a club. Right: The girls have a club. Wrong: Where do you live at? Right: Where do you live? Wrong: This here ink, it's watery. Right: This ink is watery. Write the following sentences correctly: 1. My uncle he stepped upon the scales. 2. That there notebook is mine. 3. Where did I leave my pen at? 4. This here pohceman he says to me, "You must go home." 5. My brother he joined the army. 218 POPULAR ERRORS 177. Wrong part of speech because of similarity of sound. Wrong: There were to men. Right: There were two men. Wrong: The guests road, but we walked. Right: The guests rode, but we walked. Write the following sentences correctly: 1. I had two much trouble with my English. 2. I know too men who conduct orchestras. 3. There are to or three exits. 4. You can by anything you want their, 5. We had know money with us. INDEX Activ^e voice, 25 Adjective, definition, 82; further defined, 83; articles, 84; predi- cate, 85; comparison of, 86; incorrectly used for adverbs, 95; attributive complement, footnote, 91; demonstrative, footnote, 83; indefinite, footnote, 83; quantita- tive, footnote, 83; distributive, footnote, 83 ; failure to agree with noun in number, exercise on, 208; confusion of comparatives and superlatives, exercise on, 215; con- fusion of adjective and adverb, exercise on, 216 Adjectives incorrectly used for ad- verbs, 95 Adjective phrase, 101; clause, 106; clause same as relative, 107; clause introduced by when and where, note, 107 Adverb, definition, 93; idiomatic adverbs, 94; adverbial use of noun, 95; comparison of, 97; conjunctive, 113; confusion of adjective and adverb, exercise on, 216 Adverbial phrase, 100; clause, 105 Agreement of pronoun with ante- cedent, 67; of subject and verb in person and number, 142 Any, each, some, etc., as pronouns, 80; as adjectives, 83 Apostrophe, 197 Appositive, 52 Article, 84 Auxiliary verbs, 125, 165 Be, forms of, 139, 164 Both, some, each, etc., as pronouns, 80; as adjectives, 83 Brackets, 196 CaU. forms of, 158-160 Capital letters, rules for, 197 Case, discussed, 43; nominative, 43 ; possessive, 45; objective, 49; genitive, footnote, 45; accusative, footnote, 49; dative, footnote, 50 Case, of noun governed by preposi- tion, 56 Change of tense in indirect quota- tions, 147 Clause, 11; subordinate, 14; prin- cipal, 15; difference between clause and phrase, 57; relative, 76; adverbial, 105; adjective, 106: adjective, introduced by when and where, note, 107; adjective same as relative, 107; noun, 108 Cognate object, footnote, 52 Colon, 195 Collective nouns, pliu-al of, 40; verbal agreement with, 144 Comma, rules for, 182; comma blunder, 185, 192 Common noun, 31 Comparison of adjectives, 86 Comparison of adverb, 97 Complex sentence, 13-15 Compound personal pronoun, 72 Compound relative pronoun, 78; inflection of, 79 Compound sentence, 9; predicate, 8 Confusion of adjective and adverb, exercise on, 216 Confusion of adjective and pronoun, exercise on, 216 Confusion of comparatives and su- perlatives, exercise on, 215 Confusion of preposition and con- junction, exercise on, 217 Conjugation of verb, defined, 157", examples of, 158-165 Conjunction, definition, 111; coordi- nating, 111; pure, 112; conjunc- tive adverb, 113; subordinating, 116; confusion with preposition, exercise on, 217 Conjunctive adverb, 113 Coordinating conjunction, 111 Dangling participle, 173 Declarative sentence, 3 Degree of adjectives, 86; confusion of comparatives and superlatives, exercises on, 90, 215; degree of adverbs, 97 (219) 220 INDEX Demonstrative adjective, footnote, 83 Dictionary, how to use, 199 Difference between clause and phrase, 57 Direct object, 49; quotations, 147 Distributive adjective, footnote, 83 Double negative, exercise on, 216 Each, some, any, etc., as pronouns, 80; as adjectives, 83 Exclamatory sentence, 4 Failure of adjective to agree with noun in number, exercise on, 208 Failure of verb to agree with subject, exercise on, 208 Few, any, several, etc., as pronouns, 80; as adjectives, 83 First personal pronoun standing first in a series, exercise on, 207 Function, 121 Gerund, 176 Harmony of verb and adverb, 148 Hyphen, 181 Idiom, 201 Idiomatic adverbs, 94 Imperative mood, 152; forms of, 153 Indefinite adjective, footnote, 83 Indicative mood, 150 Indirect object, 50; quotations, 147 Infinitives, 153; forms of, 154; tense of, 155; without sign, 156; split, 156 Inflection, 34 Interjection, 120 Interrogative pronoun, 79 Interrogative sentence, 3 Intransitive verb, 27 Irregular verbs, 129 Let and leave, 215 Lie and lay, 211 Linking verb, 20 Many, this, that, etc., as pronouns, 80; as adjectives, 83 May and can, 171, 214 Modifier, 82 Mood, 149; indicative, 150; sub- junctive, 150; imperative, 152 Nominative case, 43; use of with verb he, 63; exercises on proper use of, 205; nominative of pro- noun wrongly used for objective, exercise on, 206 Nominative of pronoun wrongly used for objective, exercise on, 20C Noun, 31-53; definition, 31; com- mon, 31; proper, 32; person of, 33 ; number of, 34 ; collective, 40 ; working as subject, 42; as direct address, 43 ; as predicate nomina- tive, 43; used as possessive, 45; used in objective case, 49; used as appositive, 52; governed by prep- osition, 56; adverbial use of, 95; noun clause, 108 Number of nouns, 34-42 O, when capitalized, 120 Object, direct, 49; indirect, 50; cognate, footnote, 52; secondary, footnote, 52 ; retained, footnote, 52 Oh, when capitalized, 120 Parenthesis, marks of, 196 Participles, 149; use of, 172; dan- gling, 173 Parts of speech, discussed, 18 Passive voice, 25 Period, 187 Person, 33 Personal pronoun, declined, 61; governed by a preposition, 64, 65; as subject, 66; possessive case, 67 ; agreement with antecedent, 67 Phrase, definition, 57; prepositional, 57; adverbial, 100; adjective, 101 Popular errors, 205 Possessive case, 45 Predicate, 4; compound, 8 Predicate adjective, 85 Predicate nominative, 43; exercise on proper use of, 205 Preposition, 54-58; definition, 54; case of noun governed by, 56; prepositional phrase, 57; con- fusion with conjunction, exercise on, 217 Principal parts of verbs, 129-135 Progressive form of verb, 156 Pronoun, definition, 59; forms of personal, 61; summary of uses of, 62; case of with verb be, 63; governed by a preposition, 64, 65; as subject, 66; possessive case, 67; agreement with antece- dent, .67; compound personal, 72; relative, 76; agreement of, 76; declension of, 76; compound rela- tive, 78; inflection of, 79; inter- rogative, 79 ; other pronouns, 80 : wrong form of pronouns, exercise INDEX 221 on, 206; nominative of pronoun wrongly used for objective- exercise on, 206; first personal pronoun standing first in a series, exercise on, 207; wrong use of personal pronoun, exercise on, 207; confusion of adjective and pronoun, exercise on, 216 Proper form for past tense, 137 Proper noun, 32 Proper verb form with have, 136, Ex. 2 Punctuation, defined, 177; rules for, 178-198; quotation marks, 178; quotation within a quota- tion, 179; hyphen, 181; the comma, 182; comma blunder, 185, 192; the period, 187; the semicolon, 190; the colon, 195 Pure conjunction, 112 Quantitative adjective, footnote, 83 Quotation, direct and indirect, 147; marks, 178; quotation within a quotation, 179 Regular verbs, 129 Relative pronouns, 76; agreement of, 76; declension of, 76; com- pound relative, 78 ; inflection of, 79 Relative clause, 76 Retained object, footnote, 52 Rise and raise, 213 Secondary object, footnote, 52 See, forms of, 161-163 Semicolon, 190 Sentence, 1,2; declarative, interrog- ative, imperative, 3; exclamatory, 4; simple, 7; compoxmd, 9; com- plex, 13 Sequence of tenses, 145 Shall and will, 165 Simple sentence, 7; subject, 4 Sit and set, 212 Some, any, each, etc., as pronouns, 80; as adjectives, 83 Spht infinitive, 156 Subject, 4; simple and compound, 7; in nominative case, 43; exer- cise on using nominative case for subject, 205 Subjunctive mood, 150; forms of, 151-152 Subordinating conjunction, 116 Tense, 124-129; of irregular verbs, 135; sequence of tenses, 145 Tense, change of, in indirect quota- tions, 147; confusion of past and present, exercise on, 208; wrong tense forms, exercise on, 210 That, this, each, etc., as pronouns, 80; as adjectives, 83 Transitive verb, 23 Unnecessary words, exercise on, 217 Using the participle, 172 Verb, 18-30. Definitions, 19, 21; linking verb, 20; transitive, 23; voice, 24; intransitive, 27 ; tense, 124; regular and irregular, 129; principal parts, 129; tenses of irregular verbs, 135; proper form with have, 136; proper form of past tense, 137 ; wrong verb forms, 138; be, 139; agreement with subject, 142; sequence of tenses, 145; change of tense in indirect quotations, 147; participles, 149; mood, 149; infinitives, 153; split infinitive, 156; progressive form, 156; conjugation defined, 157; examples of conjugations, 158- 165; auxiliary verbs, 125, 165; using the participle, 172; the gerund, 176; failure of verb to agree with subject, exercise on, 208; confusion of past and present, exercise on, 208; con- fusion of past tense and past parti- ciple, exercise on, 209; wrong tense forms, exercise on, 210; use of wrong verb, lay for lie, etc., explanation and illustrations, 211- 215 Verb forms, 124 Voice, active and passive, 24; how to form passive, 140 What, which, etc., as adjectives, 83 When, introducing adjective clause, note, 107 Where, introducing adjective clause, note, 107; used as plain adverb, 118 Which, what, etc., as adjectives, 83 Would and should, 169 Wrong form of pronoun, exercise on, 206 Wrong part of speech becau.se of similarity of sound, exercise on, 218 Wrong use of personal pronoun, exercise on, 207 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. m ^ \m JiO i< W t955 I^EB 8 1355 FEB 8 RECD ^^fXo 1255 FE6 I'O RECD LD 21-100m-9,'48(B399sl6)476 VB 36467