GIFT OF -^C rf 3D ' GIFT Secondary Education in Vermont uwr Byr RAYMOND McFARLAND Professor of Secondary Education MIDDLEBURY, VERMONT MAY, 1912 A Study of Secondary Education in Vermont By Raymond McFarland Professor of Secondary Education PREFACE. By an act of the General Assembly of 1908 a Depart- ment of Pedagogy was established at Middlebury College for better professional training of teachers for secondary school work. The college soon came to recognize the nec- essity of a more intimate knowledge of conditions in the high schools and academies of Vermont, their special needs and problems, in order to a clearer understanding of its mission in helping these schools to be more efficient means in serving their constituents. To secure this information, Raymond McFarland, Professor of Secondary Education, was directed to visit the secondary schools of the State, or as many of them as could be reached during the first half of the school year of 1911-12. He was received in a most courteous and kindly manner, both by superintendents, principals, and teachers, and accorded every facility for his examinations, for which both he and the College desire to to express earnest gratitude. Study of his report will show that his investigatjoris were conducted in a thorough and impartial manner^ '.with, thie* stfle jbbject of acquiring facts which may be*jQund.-uefuL jn improving educational con- ditions in the Sta'teV* " Progress .rmis.f be based upon facts, and as a contribution to the knowledge of conditions in Vermont education this report is sent out to the friends of Vermont schools. While the report is in many respects encouraging, it also suggests the need of advance in several directions, and the facts contained in it have already proved of service in the Middlebury College Department of Peda- gogy- JOHN M. THOMAS. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN VERMONT. EXTENT OF INQUIRY. The results set forth in this paper were secured through a visitation to the schools of secondary grade in Vermont, covering a period of four months from the first of October, 1911, to the first of February, 1912. During the time, 54 high schools, 16 academies, 2 normal schools, the Indus- trial School and the State Agricultural School were visited. The total number of schools visited represents 88 per cent of the teaching staff and 77 per cent of the secondary school system of the state. Observations were made of the class- room work of 209 teachers in 296 recitations. METHOD OF INQUIRY. The method of procedure in the field work was to send to the principal of the school an announcement of the intend- ed visit usually three or four days before the visit was made. At the school, interviews were held with the principal and, when possible, with the superintendent and teachers, and an inspection of conditions and observation of methods were made in the following particulars : /. Physical Conditions:* (a) building, (b) grounds, (c) heating, (d) lighting, (e) sanitation, (f) janitor work, (g) ventilation. *This form follows very closely that used by the Inspector of High Schools, State of Maine. (4 > o MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE BULLETIN. //. Equipment: (a) Library, (1) number of books, value, (2) accessibility, (3) encyclopedias and dictionaries, (4) scien- tific reference works, ( 5 ) reference works in history and literature, (6) deficiencies. (b) Laboratory, (1) general arrangement of the room, (2) phy- sics, value of apparatus, condition, storage, (3) chemistry, value of apparatus, condition, storage, (4) other science equipment. ///. Teaching Staff: (a) Name of teacher, (b) amount of education, (c) experience in teaching, (d) professional train- ing, (e) subjects taught, (f) salary. IV. Recitations Observed. (a) teacher, (b) subject, (c) number of pupils, (d) preparation of class, (e) preparation of teach- er, (f) methods of instruction, (g) comments. V. Organization. (a) admission, (b) special students, (c) 'double' classes, (d) faculty organization, (1) depart- ments, (2) professional work, (3) supervision by principal. VI. Attendance. (a) enrollment: boys, girls, total. (b) regularity of attendance, (c) tardiness. VII. Courses of Study: (a) name and number, (b) program of study. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN VERMONT. 5 VIII. Miscellaneous: (a) working spirit of school, (b) management, (c) discipline, (d) spirit of community, (e) de- ficiencies in preparation of the entering class. GROUNDS AND BUILDINGS. The grounds and sites of the schools of Vermont are on the whole satisfactory. Only about 10 per cent may be classed as poor; about two out of every three schools are located on desirable sites with large grounds, which are usually free enough from trees and adjoining buildings to allow plenty of light to reach the school building and yard. Not enough care is taken in decorating the school grounds. In larger cities it is better to use the school yards as open- air play grounds, but in our communities, generally, there is plenty of space to beautify the grounds with shrubs and flowers and still leave room for children to play and ex- ercise. The academies have an advantage over the high schools in having their buildings free from grade pupils. It is rare to find an academy in which the high school and grade pupils occupy the same building, while among the high schools proper more than 80 per cent of them have grades in the same building. This is an unfortunate con- dition both for physical and moral reasons, as well as for class-room efficiency. Grade pupils should not be closely associated with larger and more advanced pupils. The programs of study, recitation and recess are not the same for the two classes of pupils; consequently, there are fre- quent interruptions during the progress of class-room work by the passing of pupils through the hallways and the noise incident to frequent recesses. 6 MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE BULLETIN. LIGHTING. While two-thirds of the schools have satisfactory grounds, also two-thirds of the buildings are poorly sup- plied with light through inadequate window space. Teach- ers do not realize their responsibility in maintaining the best possible conditions for lighting and ventilating rooms. Too often the shades are left where they happen to be, with no consideration for the bright or dull day. Usually two- thirds of the light comes through the upper half of the window. Many cases of severe eye strain could be avoid- ed by raising the shades to the top of the windows, or, what is better, by having shades that may be adjusted from the middle of the window. There is urgent need of reform in school hygiene. The trend in life today is aseptic instead of antiseptic; that is, effort is expended in preventing bad conditions rather than in remedying them. It is the duty of the school prin- cipal to have his teachers attend carefully to the lighting and ventilation of the school rooms in so far as it lies in their power. SANITATION AND JANITOR WORK. A good janitor is rather to be chosen than great build- ings. There are many sweepers, cleaners and dust distur- bers, but less than a dozen first-class janitors in the state. Consequently unsanitary conditions were found in about two out of every three buildings that were visited. In some cases conditions exist that would justify the closing of school until the sanitation was made satisfactory. In two instances at least schools were conducted in buildings which, I was informed, had been condemned by the State Board of SECONDARY EDUCATION IN VERMONT. 7 Health. An abundance of dust in the air of school rooms is a constant menace to teachers and pupils. In too many instances the sweeping of floors is done in the morning be- fore school opens or during the noon recess. At Morrisville the evil effects of dust have been re- duced to a minimum by the installation of a vacuum cleaner plant in the high school building at a cost of about $600. The plant is connected by under-ground tubes with an ad- joining grade building. The janitor removes dust and dirt from floors and chalk rails after the close of school as quick- ly as by the old method of sweeping and in a much more sanitary manner. VENTILATION. Probably no phase of the physical side of school hy- giene is so important to sound health and clean thinking as adequate ventilation. Yet this subject receives inadequate attention in the administration of our high schools. The fault lies partly in the lack of proper facilities for ventilation and partly in the ignorance of teachers in the subject of school hygiene. In the state there are perhaps seven high schools in which the facilities for ventilation may be con- sidered excellent. One-third of the total number of the schools may be put in the class of "excellent and good" ventilation. There are more schools in which the ventila- tion is very poor than very good. Two-thirds of the schools may be rated as below the standard required for satisfactory ventilation. According to certain authorities in matters of vital economy, "the effect of the vitiated air of un ventilated schoolrooms is to reduce the work of teachers and scholars to at least 75 per cent of that easily and regularly done in MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE BULLETIN. well-ventilated rooms.''* According to this estimate, the poor ventilation of schoolhouses and rooms in the second- ary schools of the state would cause a falling off in the effi- ciency of the school system to 83 1-3 per cent of what the schools could and should do under the best conditions of ventilation. A few instances may serve to show some of the extreme types of poor ventilation. CASE 1. In a good school building the system of ven- tilation is by warm air which starts at the furnace, passes through the several rooms on two floors and returns again to the furnace through vents placed in the first floor. By this process, the vitiated air is returned to the furnace, re- heated and sent forth on its round of the rooms of the building. This circulatory system of vitiated air is kept up all day long. Little use is made of a fresh-air flue from the outside because the janitor, school directors and public in that town believe that buildings cannot be heated when air is taken directly from out-of-doors. CASE 2. In an assembly room, 40 feet square by 11 feet high, considerably more than 100 pupils have their seats. The ventilating facilities for this room are two flues in the chimney at the back of the room, 12x18 inches in size. The ventilation of this room was the very worst that I found in the state. Yet my attention was called to this provision for ventilation, which had been recently installed, as affording great relief from former conditions. CASE 3. Another assembly room which seats 90 pupils has cubic contents so inadequate that there should be a re- newal of air every five minutes in the room. The only * Woodbridge : Air and the School House, p. 29. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN VERMONT. 9 provision for ventilation here is one chimney-flue less than two square feet in area. CASE 4. Forty-one pupils were confined in a room 25 feet square and 9 feet high for a period of forty minutes with absolutely no provision made for ventilating the room and neither doors nor windows thrown open. Here the air should have been changed once in every 4 1-3 minutes, and by the time the recitation was ended it was dead-air 9 times. One's duty ought not to cease with a mere recital of conditions as they are found. Time and again there was impressed upon me the helplessness of my own position as representative of an educational institution with no author- ity to suggest, to act or to restrain. There is need of an authorized state official with knowledge of what constitutes good hygiene in schools, and power to act in every case of unsatisfactory hygienic conditions. The State Board of Health has accomplished much in recent years in bettering living conditions in schoolhouses and schoolrooms, in pro- viding adequate fire protection in buildings, and establish- ing tests for impaired eyesight and hearing. Much more needs to be done. Too often the need for improvement is measured by its cost in dollars and cents. There are few cases where economy in money affairs should outweigh economy in vital power. The state compels attendance at school under certain ages. It ought therefore to provide adequately for the conservation of vital power in the case of every pupil who comes under its jurisdiction. Disregarding wholly the health of the pupils, which is of the utmost importance but which cannot be expressed in figures, it can be shown how uneconomic are present con- 10 MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE BULLETIN. ditions among the secondary schools of the state. As shown above, the loss to the state in efficiency of teacher and pupil through inadequate ventilation is 16 2-3 per cent.* In 1910 the cost of maintaining the secondary schools of the state was $200,154.97. Of this total, the amount that is rendered unproductive through unsatisfactory ventilation is $33, 359. 16 enough to keep a dozen trained experts in the field yearly inspecting and correcting conditions. Over in the Connecticut valley the farmers told me that milk inspectors from Massachusetts visit their stables and insist that there be proper ventilation for the cattle, if the milk is to be shipped to Boston. How strange it is that the children of Vermont in many places are not pro- vided with as good facilities for ventilation as may be found in our best stables, or that there is no state official to report the poor condition and arouse the community to action. LIBRARIES. A well equipped library is equally important for the large school and the small one. It should contain diction- aries, encyclopedias, atlases and general reference works, biographies, masterpieces of the world's best literature, books of story, travel and exploration, books relating to different subjects taught, especially history, literature and the sciences, and professional books for the teacher. Of equal importance is the accessibility of the school library to the students of the school during school hours and for a short time after the school session is over for the day. The *Authorities in school hygiene believe that the evil effects of poor ventila- tion on pupils and teachers have been greatly underestimated. Professor Moore of Yale is of the opinion that efficiency in the school room is reduced 75 per cent by this means. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN VERMONT. 11 secondary schools of the state show marked differences in their library equipment. Many are without books except the texts in use. Several of the academies have librar- ies of several thousand volumes each, but examination shows that many of these are in the nature of reports or books that have long outlived their usefulness. In some schools there are fairly representative collections, but their inaccessibility greatly decreases their practical value. A few schools have rooms specially for reading and reference, as at Barton, Bradford, Burlington, Brigham Academy, Goddard Seminary, and Poultney. The policy at Brattleboro is to purchase books as the needs of the different departments require. At Vermont Academy the library is housed in a building by itself. It is an unusual occurence to find a school library that has in its list of books a proper balance between general reference works, references in history, literature and the sciences, and professional works for the teacher. No stand- ards are set by this state and, so far as my knowledge goes, no suggested lists of books are sent to the secondary schools. A redeeming feature in the situation in many communities is the local library and librarian. Here one finds very often a valuable library annex to the high schools attractive rooms, well selected books and capable librarians. It is difficult to determine how many volumes are in the school libraries of the state. In the report of the state superintendent of education for 1910 the number of volumes in high school libraries is 19,596 and in academy libraries 21,910, making a total of 41,506.* The average *The number given in the report is 44,606 volumes, which is evidently 12 MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE BULLETIN. high school library, then, has 355 volumes and the academ- ies have 1217 volumes each. Not only are the academies better equipped so far as the number of books is concerned, but usually they provide greater accessibility to the books. However, it should be remembered that the difference in number of volumes is not a real measure of a school's library. The 500 volumes at Brattleboro, probably, are more serviceable than the libraries in some schools that list several thousand volumes. It is generally believed that there is a direct relation between school efficiency and school libraries. This rela- tion doubtless is a true one as between schools with good library equipment and those having little or none. The six best academies in the state have an average of 2400 volumes in their libraries, the 13 best high schools average 960 volumes each, and the 13 poorest high schools rated as first-class according to the classification now in force, none of which, however, is a first-class high school as pro- gressive educators understand the term, average 99 vol- umes; 3 of the latter have no books, 3 have 40 each, and 3 others have less than 75 volumes. There is something vitally wrong in a system of education that lists schools having no books in their libraries whatever, in the same class with schools that possess library advantages such as are found at Bradford, Burlington, Saxtons River and many other places. In the state of New Hampshire one condi- tion for approval as a high school of the first or second-class is the possession of a historical library which contains a list of fifteen standard reference works, or their equivalent, in Ancient History, 24 works in Mediaeval and Modern His- tory, 21 works in English History, and 21 works in Ameri- . Y I J SECONDARY EDUCATION IN VERMONT. 13 can History. These works are required, not suggested, for schools which are to offer courses in History. It is not necessary for the works to be in the school library pro- vided they are in the local public library and readily avail- able for the use of pupils. LABORATORIES. While educators recognize the need of suitable library equipment in the modern high school, they also emphasize the superior importance of science teaching and laboratory work. The condition of the laboratories and, consequent- ly, the means for doing adequate science teaching in the secondary schools of Vermont is even more deplorable than that of the libraries. According to the last report of the state superintendent of education there are 24 high schools equipped with both physical and chemical laboratories and 1 1 academies with the same kind of equipment. However, an examination in the field shows that in many cases the word ' 'equipment" rather than "laboratories" should have been used. Several schools have meager laboratory equip- ments in physics and chemistry and are credited with hav- ing laboratories in these sciences. There are 13 secondary schools that are rated of the first-class which have no labora- tories either in physics, in chemistry, or in any other sub- ject. This list of schools corresponds fairly close to the list that has no libraries. On the other hand, one finds science work of a high degree done in several of the schools that have separate rooms for experiment and storage, adequate equipment, and competent science teachers. It is a pleasure to observe the science work at Bellows Falls, Brattleboro, Burlington, Rutland, St. Johnsbury and Saxtons River. Special men- 14 MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE BULLETIN. tion also should be made of the work that may be accom- plished in a small high school. At Bristol a good room has been provided and equipped, and the work between physics and chemistry and biology is well balanced. Hard- wick, also, may be mentioned as illustrating what can be done in furnishing and equipping laboratories and store- rooms at moderate cost as well as in securing effective in- struction in the sciences. The facilities for adequate science teaching at the normal schools at Castleton and Johnson as well as at the State Agricultural School at Randolph are far ahead of those provided by the average school of the first class of the state. In this particular, these schools might easily rank with the first twelve schools of the state. Taking the schools as a whole, however, the facilities for science teaching are very inadequate. Twenty-eight per cent of the schools have no laboratory facilities for teach- ing chemistry and 25 per cent have no facilities for teaching physics. In the cases of 51 per cent of the schools, the value of the physics apparatus is less than $100 and in 67 per cent of the schools the value of the chemistry apparatus falls below $100. The value of laboratory equipment in different schools may be seen by consulting the following table : VALUE OF LABORATORY EQUIPMENT. Subject No Value $1.00- $99.00 $100.00- $299.00 $300.00- $499.00 Above $500.00 Physics 17 18 15 10 9 Chemistry 19 27 10 8 4 As for biology, more than half of the schools of the state give no instruction in the subject, either in botany or SECONDARY EDUCATION IN VERMONT. 15 zoology. It is impossible to give an estimate of the value of biological apparatus in schools. Some idea of its impor- tance may be had from the following table which shows the condition and storage of the apparatus used in biology, chemistry and physics in different schools. Schools usually are very lax in providing adequate storage for their scien- tific equipment. For this purpose there should be store- rooms, or if these are impossible, large closets. Careful inventories of all apparatus and equipment should be made at the end of the school year. Such lists as these are val- uable in determining the status of the department, in helping a new teacher to become acquainted with the stock in trade, and may be referred to easily when data is sought by the department of education or other interested persons. LABORATORY EQUIPMENT. Rating Biology Condition Storage Chemistry Condition Storage Physics Condition Storage Good 13 13 22 22 22 26 Fair 8 8 25 17 18 17 Poor 3 3 5 13 14 12 None 28 28 17 17 15 14 The programs of study of 8 of the smaller high schools listed in the first class, show that 5 1 per cent of the teach- ing is in the languages and less than 12 per cent in the sciences. In four of these schools the little science teach- ing that was attempted was done with no apparatus what- ever. In a certain school the teacher gave a course in chemistry, although the school possesses no equipment whatever. In answer to my inquiry why, under these con- 16 MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE BULLETIN. ditions, she taught the subject, the teacher replied that she had been fond of chemistry in college and thought it would be nice to have a class in chemistry in her school. This may be an extreme case but it is illustrative of how little the schools serve the needs and interests of the pupils, and of incompetent instruction that follows the old-fashioned book method instead of the laboratory method in the sciences. There is great need for wholesome advance in the teaching of sciences in our secondary schools. It would be well if the state department of education should take the initiative in this matter. No school should be listed of the first class which does not possess an approved laboratory equipment in at least one of the major sciences. In the matter of state control, supervision, inspection, accrediting, Vermont is far behind her neighbors. The states of New Hampshire and Maine have made a great increase in effic- iency of their secondary school system in general, and in the teaching of sciences in particular, within the past few years. In New Hampshire each approved high school must possess an approved list of apparatus for physics that numbers 94 pieces in order to meet the statutory require- ments that schools shall be properly equipped in physics. In chemistry the list comprises 46 pieces of apparatus and in biology nine pieces. In Maine the maximum laboratory requirement presupposes: 1. A room specially equipped for the teaching of science. 2. A stock room, or large closet, for the storage of apparatus. 3. A liberal supply of scientific reference books in the school library. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN VERMONT. 17 4. Individual and laboratory apparatus in chemistry and physics similar in kind and amount to the New Hampshire required lists. Science teaching in Vermont needs to be developed, made mandatory and carefully inspected before we can hope to have a system of secondary education on a par with that in force in neighboring states. TEACHING STAFF. The teaching staff of Vermont secondary schools con- sists of 135 men and 23 S women a total staff of 370 teachers; these divided among the 73 institutions give an average of 5 teachers to a school or one teacher for about 20 to 25 pupils.* The ratio between the male and female RATIO OF MALE AND FEMALE SECONDARY TEACHERS. Place. Per cent Men Per cent Women United States, 44.3 55.7 N. Atlantic Div., 42.2 57.8 Maine, 39.5 60.5 New Hampshire, Vermont, 38.6 36.5 61.4 63.5 secondary teachers of Vermont is 36.5 percent male and 63. 5 per cent female. This ratio shows relatively a smaller proportion of male teachers in Vermont schools in compar- ison with secondary schools of other states. In the accom- *According to the last report of the state superintendent of education the number of secondary school students as furnished by the town clerks is 10,118; the number given by high school principals is 7,108. 18 MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE BULLETIN. panying table a comparative view is given of the ratio of male and female secondary teachers in different parts of the country and different states, from data published within three years. THE TEACHERS' EDUCATION. Conclusions arrived at in regard to the amount of edu- cation that the secondary teachers of Vermont have had are based on data obtained from the 290 teachers who make up the staff in the schools that were inspected, or 78 per cent of the teachers of the state. The results show that 73.8 per cent of the secondary teachers are college graduates, 4.5 per cent have had part training in college, and 21.7 per cent are below the college grade. The last named class is made up of teachers whose education does not extend be- yond the high, normal, commercial or vocational schools of secondary grade. No estimate can be given of the influence of the pro- fessional training of teachers on the quality of their work in AMOUNT OF EDUCATION OF SECONDARY TEACHERS. Com'l Normal High Special Part College College Men 6 2 1 10 4 93 Women 7 14 7 16 9 121 Total 13 16 8 26 13 214 Per cent 4.5 5.5 2.8 8.9 4.5 73.8 the classroom. Data relating to this subject is indefinite and may not be tabulated easily. Forty-one teachers have re- ceived professional training but it varies greatly in amount and kind from single summer session courses taken by SECONDARY EDUCATION IN VERMONT. 19 teachers of high school grade to university work by college graduates for the Master's degree, or study abroad. In the amount of education required of its secondary teachers, the Vermont system does not compare favorably with requirements in other states. In the state of Washing- ton, for example, 82 per cent of the secondary teachers are of college grade; in New Hampshire above 92 per cent of the teachers are graduates of colleges. In New York not only must the teachers be college graduates but after two years of teaching in that state they must pass rigid examina- tions of a professional nature. A new plan of certification of teachers in state-aided high schools in Massachusetts goes into force this year, which requires for the future that teachers shall possess a bachelor's degree, shall have had special preparation in at least two subjects, called "majors", to which the candidate expects to devote particular atten- tion in his work as teacher, and careful preparation in at least two other subjects of study, called ''minor" sub- jects, taken from a selected list. In addition to this ac- ademic preparation, candidates must conform to certain re- quirements in professional study and training for their work as teacher. In Vermont there are no statutory require- ments setting forth the academic or professional training of the candidates for teaching positions in secondary schools or otherwise designating the amount or character of the academic preparation and professional training of teachers for secondary schools; no distinction is made between the qualifications of high school teachers and those of the ele- mentary grades.* *Sec. 963, General Laws of the State of Vermont, reads: "To COLLEGE GRADUATES. A certificate of the first grade may be is- sued, without examination, to a graduate of a college approved by said 20 MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE BULLETIN. SALARIES. The salaries of male teachers range from below $400 to $2500. Fifty-five per cent of them receive salaries be- tween $800 and $1300, 28 per cent between $1300 and $2500, and 17 per cent below $800. The salaries of female teachers range from $360 to $1000. Fifty-two per cent of them receive between $500 and $700, 26 per cent between $700 and $1000, and 28 per cent below $500. The average salary the first year for teachers with no pre- vious experience is $758 for men and $457 for women. During the first six years of teaching experience the aver- age salaries of men is between $300 and $400 greater than that of women. The relation between salaries and exper- ience is shown in the following table : RELATION BETWEEN SALARIES AND EXPERIENCE. Years of 1 9 q 4, 5" Experience Men $786 $829 $937 $917 $1075 $1100 Women 457 497 585 617 625 700 Comment on the low salaries that our teachers receive seems unnecessary. It is a state of affairs that is recognized but not assented to by Vermont educators. A silent pro- test by Vermont teachers against absurdly low salaries is seen in the fact that none of the teachers who receive superintendent, upon presentation of a diploma or certificate of gradua- tion ; and, at the expiration of the certificate so issued, if said graduate has taught forty weeks, said superintendent may issue a second first grade cer- tificate." A certificate of the first grade is a license to teach in the public schools for five years from its date. I\J L K) to i- Oo x bO O ^D ^ O u ^^ O V ^D C O> V O O> '^J