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 K. OGDEX
 
 Photo, liy Bcato. 
 
 (Froutispiece.) 
 
 PAGODA AND GARDENS OF THE EMPEROR'S SUMMER PALACE, 
 YUEX-MIN-YUEN.
 
 THE 
 
 SIBEKIAN OVERLAND EOUTE 
 
 FROM PEiaNG TO PETERSBURG, 
 
 THROUGH THE DESERTS AND STEPPES OF MONGOLLA, 
 TARTARY, &c. 
 
 BY ALEXANDER MICHIE. 
 
 TOMB AT THE DEPOT, PEKING. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
 
 1864.
 
 PEEFACE. 
 
 The following work has but moderate claims, I fear, to 
 public attention ; and it would probably not have seen the 
 light at all but for the urgent request of friends, who think 
 better of it than the author does. It has no pretensions to 
 any higher merit than that of being a plain narrative of the 
 journey, and an impartial record of my own impressions of 
 the people among whom I travelled. 
 
 Although some portions of the route have been eloquently 
 described by Hue and others, I am not aware that any con- 
 tinuous account of the whole journey between the capitals 
 of China and Russia has appeared in the English language 
 for nearly a century and a half. Important changes have 
 occurred in that period ; and, if I may judge of others by 
 myself, I suspect that many erroneous notions are afloat 
 respecting the conditions of life in these far-off regions, and 
 more especially in Siberia. Observation has modified my 
 own pre-conceived opinions on many of the subjects touched 
 on in the following pages, and I am not without a hope that 
 they will be found to contain some information which may 
 be new to many people in this country.
 
 iv PKEFACE. 
 
 If I have indulged in irrelevant digressions, I can only say 
 that I have limited myself to those reflections which naturally 
 suggested themselves in the course of my travels ; and the 
 subjects I have given most prominence to are simply those 
 which happened to be the most interesting to myself 
 
 My thanks are due to various friends for useful hints, con- 
 firming and correcting my own observations ; but I am 
 especially indebted for some valuable notes on Siberia, its 
 social phenomena, gold mines, &c., to Edwin E. Bishop, Esq., 
 whose long residence in the country, and perfect acquaint- 
 ance with the language and customs of the people, constitute 
 him an authority on all matters connected with that part of 
 the world. 
 
 22, Bekkeley Square, 
 Odvbtir 28th, 1864.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Shanghai to Tientsin, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 John Bell — " Overland" routes — Peking a sealed book — Jesuits — Open- 
 ing of China — Chinese jealousy of Mongolia — Errors of British policy 
 — Their results — Preparations for journey — Leave Shanghae — Yang- 
 tse-kiang — Changes in its channel — Elevation of the delta — Chinese 
 records of inundations — The Nanzing — Shantung promontory in a fog 
 — Chinese coasters — Advantages of steam — Our fellow-passengers — 
 Peiho river — Intricate navigation — Sailors in China — Tientsin — 
 New settlement — Municipal council — Improvements — Trade — Beggars 
 — Health — Sand-storms — Gambling 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Tientsin to Peking. 
 
 Modes of travelling— Carts, horses, boats — Filthy banks of the Peiho — 
 Voyage to Tungchow — Our boat's crew — Chinese distances — Traffic 
 on the Peiho — Temple at Tungchow — Mercantile priests — Ride to 
 Peking — Millet — Eight-mile bridge — Resting place — Tombs — Filial 
 piety — Cemeteries — Old statues — Water communication into Peking — 
 Grain supply . 23 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Peking. 
 
 Walls of Peking— Dust and dirt — Street obstructions — The model inn — 
 Restaurant — Our boon companions — Peking customs — Rule of thumb 
 — British legation — Confucian temple — Kienloong's pavilion — Lama 
 temple— Mongol chants — Roman and Bhixddist analogies — Mongols 
 and Chinese — Hospitality of lay brother — Observatory — Street cries — 
 Temple of Heaven — Theatres — European residents — Medical mission 
 under Dr. Lockhart — Chinese jealousy of Mongolia — Russian diplo- 
 macy — Reckoning with our host— Ice — Paper-money . . .32
 
 vi CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Peking to Chan-kia-kow. 
 
 PAGK 
 
 Return to Tungcliow— Disappointment— Priest conciliated by Russian 
 language — Back to Peking — Negotiations— Ma-foo's peculation— 
 Chinese honesty and knavery— Loading the caravan — Mule-litters — 
 Leave Peking— Sha-ho — Cotton plant— Nankow— Crowded inn- 
 Difficult pass— Inner "great wall "—Cha-tow— Chinese Mahomme- 
 dans— Religious toleration — Christians in disfavour — Change of scene 
 
 — Hwai-lai— Ruins of bridge— Bed of old river— Road traffic — "Watch- 
 towers — Chi-ming-i — Legend of monastery — the Yang-ho — Pass — 
 Shan-shui-pu— Coal— Suen-wha-fu— Ride to Chan-kia-kow. . . 56 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Chan-kia-kow. 
 
 Arrival at Chan-kia-kow— Focus of Trade— Mixed population — "Wealth- 
 Mongols — Russians — Name of Kalgan — Chinese friends— Russian 
 hospitality — Disappointment— Proposed excursion to Bain-tolochoi — 
 Camels at last procured — Noetzli returns to Tientsin — The pass — 
 Movmtains — Great Wall — The horse-fair — Dealers— Ox-carts— Tran- 
 sport of wood from Urga — Shoeing smiths — Our Russian host arrives 
 — The "Samovar" — Tea-drinking in Russia — Change of temperature 
 
 — Elevation of Chan-kia-kow — Preparations for the desert — Cabbages 
 
 — Warm boots — Camels arrive — Leave Chan-kia-kow — The pass- 
 Superiority of mules, &c., over camels 72 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Mongolia. 
 
 Leave China — Mishap in the pass^Steep ascent — Chinese perseverance 
 — Agriciiltural invasion— Our first encampment — Cold night — Pastoral 
 scene— Introduction to the Mongols — The land of tents— Our con- 
 ductors — Order of march— Mongol chants — The lama — Slow ti-avelling 
 — Pony "Dolonor" — Night ti'avelling — Our Mongols' tent — Argols — 
 Visitors — Mongol instinct — Camels quick feeders — Sport — Antelopes 
 — Lame camels — Scant pastures — Endurance of Mongols — Disturbed 
 sleep — Optical illusions — "Yourt," Mongol tent — Domestic arrange- 
 ments — Etiquette — Mongol furniture — Sand-grouse — Track — Wind 
 and rain — A wretched night — Comfortless encampment — Camels 
 breaking down — The camel seasons — No population — No grass — 
 Miiigan 83
 
 CONTENTS. vii 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Mongolia — continued. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Visitors at Mingan — Trading — Scene with a dnmken Mongol — Good 
 horsemen — Bad on foot — Knowledge of money — Eunaway pony — A 
 polite shepherd — Gimshandak — "Wild onions — Halt — Expert butcher 
 — Mongol sheep, extraordinary tails — A Mongol feast — Effects of diet 
 — Taste for fat explained — Mongol fasts— Our cooking arrange- 
 ments—Camel ailings — Maggots— Rough treatment — Ponies falling 
 off— Live in hopes — Dogs — The harvest moon — Waiting for Kitat — 
 Lamas and their inhabitants — Resume the march— Meet caravan — 
 Stony roads — Disturbed sleep — Onrush — Negotiations at Kutul-usu — 
 Salt plains — Sporting lama — Ulan-Khada — Trees — Reach Tsagab- 
 tuguruk — Lamas and black men — Small temple — Musical failure — 
 Our new acquaintances— Horse-dealing — Greed of Mongols — Fond of 
 drink— A theft — The incantation — Kitat I'e turns — Camel lost — Vexa- 
 tious delay — Start from Tsagan-tuguruk 102 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Mongolia — continued. 
 
 Marshes— Camels dislike water — Chinese caravan — Travellers' tales — 
 Taryagi — Looking for cattle in the dark — But jm-tala — Au addition to 
 our party — Russian courier — Water-fowl — Bad water — Kicking camel 
 — Pass of Ulin-dhabha — Mongols shifting quarters— Slip 'tween the 
 cup and the lip — Mountains — The north wind — Guntu-gulu — Au acci- 
 dent — Medical treatment — Protuberant ears — Marmots — Ice — Dark 
 night — Bain-ula — Living, not travelling — Charm of desert life — 
 Young pilgrim — Grand scenery — Steep descent — Obon — Hon-or of 
 evil spirits — Mongol and Chinese notions of devils — Dread of rain — 
 A wet encampment — Snow — The TVIiite Moimtains — The Bactrian 
 camel — Capability of enduring cold — Job's comforters — Woods appear 
 — The yak — Change of fuel . . . . . . ' . .122 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Uega to Kiachta. 
 
 Maijiachin in sight — A snow storm — Hasty encampment — Tolla in flood 
 — Delay — Intercourse with Mongols — The night watches — Tellig's 
 family — Rough night — Scene at the Tolla — Crossing the river — the 
 " Kitat " redivivus — His hospitality — How Mongols clean their cups 
 — Maimachin — The Russian consulate — Russian ambition — Its pro- 
 spects—The Urga, or camp — Kuren — Fine situation — Buildings —
 
 viii CONTENTS. 
 
 PACE 
 
 Horse-shoeing— Hawkers— The lamaseries— An ascetic— The Lama- 
 king— Rehitions between Chinese emperors and the Lama power— 
 Urga and Kara Korum— Historical associations— Pr ester John and 
 Genghis Khan— Leave Urga— Slippery paths— More delays— The pass 
 — A snow storm — Fine scenery— Eich country — Another bugbear— 
 The Boro valley— Cultivation— Khara-gol— The pass— Lama courier— 
 Shara-gol- Winter quarters— The transmigration— Iro-gol— Forced 
 march— Kiachta in sight 1-^1 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Mongols — Historical Kotes. 
 
 Early history of Huns— Wars with China— Dispersion— Appear in Europe 
 — Attila— His career— And death— Turks— Mixture of races— Consan- 
 guinity of Huns and Jlongols— Genghis— His conquests — Divisions of 
 his empire— Tim our— A Mahommedan— His wars— And cruelties— 
 Eaber — The Great Mogul in India— Dispersion of tribes— Modern 
 divisions of the Mongols— Warlike habits— Religions— The causes of 
 their success in war considered— Their heroes — Their characters— And 
 military talents — Superstition— Use of omens — Destructivcness and 
 butcheries of the Huns and Mongols— Antagonistic traits of character 
 — Depraved moral instincts — Necessity of culture to develop human 
 feelings— Flesh-eating not brutalising — Dehumanising tendency of 
 war — Military qualities of pastoral peoples— Dormant enthusiasm of 
 the Mongols l^JtJ 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 Mongols — Physical and Mental Chaeacteristics. 
 
 Physical characteristics^ — Meanness — Indolence — Failure in agriciilture 
 — Hospitality — Its origin — Pilfering — Honesty — Drunkenness — 
 Smoking — Ir'chi or Kumiss — Morality — Of lamas— Women fond of 
 ornaments — Decency of dress — Physique — Low muscular energy — A 
 wrestling match — Bad legs — Bow-legged — Its causes — Complexions — 
 E)'es — Absence of beard — Comparison with Chinese and Japanese — 
 Effect of habits on physical development — Animal instincts in nomads 
 — Supply the place of artificial appliances— Permanence of types of 
 character — Uniformity in primitive peoples — Causes that influenee 
 colour of skin— Mongol powers of endurance — Low mental capacity- 
 Its causes — Superstition produced by their habits — Predisposed to 
 spiritual thraldom — The lamas and their practices — Prayers — Knave- 
 ries of lamas — Vagabond lamas — The spread of Bhuddisra — Superior 
 to Shamanism — Shaman rites — Political result of Bhuddism — The 
 Mongol kings — Serfs 1 85
 
 CONTENTS. ix 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 KlACHTA. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Appkoacii Kiaclita — Maimachin — Chinese elegance — The frontier — 
 Kussian eagle — The commissary of the frontier — "Times" news- 
 paper — Kiachta — Troitskosarfsk — Meet a countryman — Part from 
 our Mongols — Their programme — A Russian bath — Siberian refine- 
 ment — Streets and pavement — Eussian conveyances — Aversion to 
 exercise — Semi-civilisation — Etiquette — Mixture of peoples — Wealth 
 of Eussian merchants — Narrow commercial views — The Chinese of 
 Maimachin — Domestic habits — Eussian and Chinese characters com- 
 pared — Chinese more civilised than the Eussians — The Custom-house 
 — Liberal measures — Our droshky — Situation of Kiachta — Supplies 
 — Population — Hay-market — Fish — The garden — Domestic gardening 
 — Climate salubrious — Construction of houses — Stoves — Eussian 
 meals — Commercial importance of Kiachta — Inundation of the 
 Selenga — Travelling impracticable — Money-changing — New travel- 
 ling appointments — Tarantass — Passports — Danger of delay — Prepare 
 to start — First difficulty — Siberian horses — Post-bell . , . 203 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Kiachta to the Baikal. 
 
 Leave Troitskosarfsk — Hilly roads — Bouriats — The first post-station— 
 Agreeable surprise — Another stoppage — A night on the hill-side — 
 Hire another carriage — Eeach the Selenga — The ferry — Seleuginsk — 
 A gallery of art — Cultivation — Verchne Udinsk — Effects of the inun- 
 dation — Slough of despond — Fine scenery — A dangerous road — A 
 press of travellers — Favour shown us — Angry Poles— Hyensk — An 
 obsequious postmaster — Tidy post-house — A night at Ilyensk — 
 Treachery suspected — Roads destroyed — Difficult travelling — An old 
 Pole — Baikal lake — Station at Pasoilske — A night scene — The 
 Selenga river— And valley — Agriculture — Cattle, sheep, pigs, dogs . 223 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Lake Baikal to Iekutsk. 
 
 Morning scene at Pasoilske— Better late than never — Victimised — 
 Russian junks — Primitive navigators — Storms on the Baikal — Scene 
 at the shipping port — Religious ceremony — A polite officer — Incon- 
 venience of the Baikal route — Engineering enterprise — More delay — 
 Fares by the Baikal steamer — Crowing and crouching — The embarka-
 
 X CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 tion — The General Karsakof — A naval curiosity — The lake — Its depth 
 — And area — The "Holy Sea" — The passage — Terra firma — Custom- 
 house delay — Fine country — Good roads — Hotels Amoor and 
 Metzgyr 234 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Iekutsk. 
 
 In sight of Irkutsk — Handsome town — "Wrong hotel — Bad accommodation 
 — Suffocation — Bad attendance — The cuisine — Venerable eggs — Bil- 
 liards — Meet a friend — Beauties of Irkutsk — Milliners — Bakers — 
 Tobacconists — Prison — Convicts — Benevolence of old ladies — Equi- 
 pages — Libraries — Theatre — Population — Governor - Generalship — 
 The lev^e — Governmg responsibilities — Importance of commerce — 
 Manufactures insignificant — Education — Attractions of Siberia — 
 Society— Polish exiles — The Decembrists— The sentence of banish- 
 ment — Its hereditary effect — Low standing of merchants — Discom- 
 forts of travelling — Engage a servant — The prodigal — A mistake — 
 Early winter — The Angara — Floating-bridge — Parting view of 
 Irkutsk 246 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Iekutsk to Keasnoyarsk. 
 
 Leave Irkutsk — Roads and rivers — Capacity for sleep — Bridges — Break- 
 neck travelling — Endurance of Russian ponies — Verst-posts — Appal- 
 ling distances — Irregular feeding— Tea versus grog — River Birusa — 
 Boundary of Irkutsk and Yenisei — Stoppage — The telegraph wires — 
 Improved roads — River Kan — The ferrymen — Kansk — A new com- 
 panion — Prisoner of war — Advantages and disadvantages of travel- 
 ling in company — Improved cultivation — A snow-storm — Cold wind 
 — Absurd arrangement of stations — The river Yenisei — Mishap at the 
 ferry — The approach to Krasnoyarsk— The town— Population— Hotel — 
 Travellers' accounts — Confusion at the station— The black-book — The 
 courier service ........... 262 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Keasnoyarsk to Tomsk. 
 
 Sledges— Sulky yemschiks — Progress to Achinsk— Limit of Eastern 
 Siberia— Game— The Chulim— Difficult ferry— Government of Tomsk 
 —Bad roads again— Job's comforters— Mariinsk— An accident— And 
 another— Resources of a yemschik— A drive thi-ough a forest— Ishim- 
 skaya— A day too late— A sporting Pole— Disappointment— Annoying
 
 CONTENTS. xi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 delay — Freezing river — A cold bath — Sledge ti*avelling — A night scene 
 — Early birds — Arrive in Tomsk— Our lodging — Religion of Russians 
 —Scruples of a murderer — Poiuilation and situation of Tomsk — Fire 
 Insm-ance — Climate of Tomsk— Supj^ly of water— Carefulness and 
 hardiness — Skating— Demure little boys — An extinct species — The 
 gold diggings — The Siberian tribes ....... 273 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Tomsk to Omsk. 
 
 Refitting — The optician — The feather-pillow question — A friend in 
 need — A dilemma — Schwartz's folly — Old Barnaul leaves us — We 
 leave Tomsk — A weary night — A Russian dormitor}' — Construction of 
 houses — Cross the Tom— And the Ob — Enter the Baraba steppe — 
 Kolivan — The telegraph — The ladies of Baraba — Game — Windmills — 
 A frozen marsh — Kainsk — Reach 0ms — utbreaks on the Kirghis 
 steppe — Russian aggression — Its effects on different tribes . . 290 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Omsk to Ochajstsk. 
 
 Leave Omsk — Recruiting — Cross the Irtish — Tukalinsk — Yalootorofsk — 
 Reach Tumen — Improved posting — Snowroads — Ekaterineburg — Mint 
 — Precious stones — Iron works — Englishmen in Siberia — Iron mines — 
 Fish trade — A recruiting scene — Temperature rising — Game — The 
 Urals — Disappointing — A new companion — The boundary between 
 Europe and Asia — Yermak the Cossack — Discovery and conquest of 
 Siberia — Reach Perm — Too late again — Progress of inland navigation — 
 Facilities for application of steam — Water routes of Siberia — Railways 
 — Tatars — Cross the Kama to Ochansk — Dissolving view of snow 
 roads 305 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 RUSSIAJSr AM) SiBEEIAN PEASANTRY. 
 
 Siberian and Russian peasantry — The conti'ast — Freedom and slavery — 
 Origin of Siberian peasants — Their means of advancement — Exiles — 
 Two classes — Their offences and punishments — Privileges after release 
 — Liberality of the government — Its object — Extent of forest — One 
 serf-proprietor in Siberia— Exemptions from conscrijjtion — Rigour of 
 the climate on the Lena and Yenisei — Settlers on Angara exempted 
 from taxes — Improvement of Siberian peasants — A bright future — 
 Amalgamation of classes — Slavery demoralising to masters — The 
 emancipation of the serfs — Its results ...... 320
 
 xii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXI. 
 
 Kazan. — Polish Exiles. 
 
 PAGE 
 EoAD to Kazan— Polish prisoners — Arrive at Kazan— More creaking- 
 Temptations to delay — Sell our sledge — View of Kazan — The feny at 
 the Volga— Ice-boats and icebergs — The military — Tatars — Polish 
 exiles — Kindly treated by their escort — Erroneous ideas on this subject 
 — The distribution of exiles in Siberia — Their life there — The Polish 
 insurrection — Its objects — Imprudence — Consequences — Successwould 
 have been a second failure ... . , ... 331 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 Kazan to Petersbueg. 
 
 A DAY lost — Tlie moujik's opportunity — Keturn to Kazan — Hotel 
 " Eyaziu" — Grease and butter — Evening entertainment — Try again — 
 The ferry — A term of endearment — FeiTymen's devotions — A Jew 
 publican — " Pour boire " — Villages and churches — The road to Nijni 
 — Penance — A savage — A miserable night — Eeach Nijni — " Sweet is 
 pleasure after pain " — The great fair — Nijni imder a cloud — Delights 
 of railway ti'avelling — A contrast — Reach Moscow — Portable gas — 
 Fouudling hospital — The Moscow and Petersburg railway — Grandeur 
 of Petersburg — Late season — Current topics — Iron-clads — The currency 
 — Effects of Crimean war — Russian loyalty— Alexander II. as a re- 
 former — Leave Petersburg 343 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Russia and China. 
 
 Earlier intercourse — Analogies and contrasts — Progress of Russia and 
 decadence of China — Permanence of Chinese institutions — Arrogance 
 justified — Not really bigoted — Changes enforced by recent events — 
 The rebellion — Fallacious views in parliament — British interest in 
 China — A bright futtu'e — Railways — Telegi-aphs — Machinery and other 
 improvements — Resources to be developed — Free cities . . . 357 
 
 Postscript 401
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pagoda and Gardens of the Emperor's Summer Palace, Yuen- 
 
 MiN-YuEN. (From a Photograph by Beato) . . Frontispiece. 
 
 Tomb at the Depot. Peking. (From a Photograph by Beato) Vignette. 
 
 Tung Chow Pagoda. (From a Photograph by Beato) . . .27 
 
 "Walls of Peking. (From a Photogi-aph by Beato) . . . . 82 
 
 Pavilion of the Summer Palace of Yuen-Min-Yuen. (From a 
 
 Photograph by Beato) ......... 37 
 
 Thibetian Monument in Lama Temple. Peking. (From a Photo- 
 
 gi'aph by Beato) . . . . . . . . ... 42 
 
 Great Temple of Heaven. Peking. (From a Photograph by Beato) 48 
 
 Part of the Emperor's Palace, Yuen-Min-Yuen. Destroyed 
 
 1860. (From a Photograph by Beato) 55 
 
 The Nankow Pass 63 
 
 Halt in the Desert of Gobi . 104 
 
 Fording the Tolla near Urga 147 
 
 View of Ekaterinburg. Siberia. (From a Russian Photogi-aph) . 807
 
 A GKM'.ILU, MAP OK .NORTH lillX ASIA
 
 THE 
 
 SIBEEIAN OVERLAND EOUTE FEOM 
 PEKING TO PETEESBUEG. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 SHANGHAE TO TIENTSIN, 
 
 The channing narrative of John Bell, of Antermony, who, 
 in the reign of Peter the Great, travelled from Petersburg to 
 Peking in the suite of a Russian ambassador, inspired me 
 with a longing desire to visit Siberia and other little-known 
 regions through which he passed. Having occasion to return 
 to England, after a somewhat protracted residence on the 
 coast of China, an opportunity presented itself of travelling 
 through the north of China, Mongolia, and Siberia, on my 
 homeward journey. This is, indeed, the real " overland 
 route " from China, and it may as properly be styled " mari- 
 time," as the mail route per P. & O. steamers "overland." 
 The so-called overland route has, however, strong temp- 
 tations for a person eager to get home. There is a pleasing 
 simplicity about the manner of it which is a powerful attrac- 
 tion to one who is worn out with sleepless nights in a hot 
 climate. It is but to embark on a steamer ; attend as regu- 
 larly at meal times as your constitution will permit ; sleep, or
 
 2 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. i. 
 
 what is the same thing, read, during the intervals ; and fill 
 up the blanks by counting the passing hours and surveying 
 your fellow passengers steeped in apoplectic slumbers under 
 the enervating influence of the tropics. The sea route has, 
 moreover, a decided advantage in point of time. In forty- 
 five or fifty days I could have reached England from 
 Shanghae by steamer : the land journey via Siberia I could 
 not hope to accomplish in less than ninety days. 
 
 But the northern route had strong attractions for me in 
 the kind of vague mystery that invests the geography of 
 strange countries, and the character, manners, and customs of 
 their inhabitants. Ever-recurring novelties might be ex- 
 pected to keep the mind alive ; and active travelling would 
 in a great measure relieve the tedium of a long and arduous 
 journey. Of the two, therefore, I preferred the prospect of 
 being frozen in Siberia to being stewed in the Red Sea. 
 The heat of Shano-hae in the summer was intense and almost 
 unprecedented, the supply of ice was fast undergoing disso- 
 lution, and an escape into colder regions at such a time was 
 more than usually desirable. 
 
 A few years ago it would have been about as feasible to 
 travel from China to England by way of the moon as 
 through Peking and Mongolia. Peking was a sealed book, 
 jealously guarded by an arrogant, because an ignorant, 
 government. Little was known of the city of the khans 
 except what the Jesuits had communicated in the last 
 century, and what that prince of travellers, Marco Polo, had 
 handed down from the middle ages. No foreigner dared 
 show his face there, except in the guise of a native, and even 
 then at the risk of being detected and subjected to the 
 gi-eatest indignities. The Jesuits, it is true, in the face of 
 the prohibition, continued to smuggle themselves into China, 
 and even into Peking itself, and their perseverance and 
 tenacity of purpose are entitled to all praise. But they
 
 Chap, i.] CHINA RE-OPENED. 3 
 
 occasionally paid dearly for their temerity, and not unfre- 
 quently got themselves and their " Christians " into hot 
 water with the authorities. This received the high-sounding 
 name of "persecution;" and if any one lost his life for 
 meddling in other people's affairs, or interfering with the 
 prerogative of the government, he was honoured with the 
 name of a " martyr." The Jesuits had their day of power in 
 China, and if they had but used it modestly they might still 
 have stood at the elbow of the Emperor. They were tried 
 and found wanting, expelled from Peking, and China was 
 closed against foreigners, not, it must be confessed, without 
 some reason. 
 
 All that has been changed again. The curtain has risen 
 once more ; foreigners are free to traverse the length and 
 breadth of China, and to spy out the nakedness of the land. 
 The treaty of Tientsin and convention of Peking, ratified in 
 November, 1860, which opened up China to travellers for 
 " business or pleasure," was largely taken advantage of in the 
 following year. In 1861, foreign steamers penetrated by the 
 great river Yang-tsze into the heart of China. Four enter- 
 prising foreigners explored the river to a distance of 1800 
 miles from the sea, and many other excursions were set on 
 foot by foreigners, in regions previously known only through 
 the accounts of Chinese geographers or the partial, imperfect, 
 and in some instances obsolete, descriptions of the older 
 Jesuits. 
 
 Mongolia, being within the dominions of the Emperor of 
 China, was included in the passport system ; and although 
 the Chinese government has made a feeble attempt to 
 impose restrictions on foreign travellers in that region on the 
 ground tha,t, although Chinese, it is not China, up to the 
 present time no serious obstacles have been placed in the 
 way of free intercourse in Mongolia ; nor can the plain 
 language of the treaty be limited in its interpretation, unless 
 
 B 2
 
 4 SIBERIAX EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. i. 
 
 the ministers of the treaty powers should voluntarily aban- 
 don the privilege now enjoyed. It is devoutly to be hoped 
 that no envoy of Great Britain will again commit the error 
 of waiving rights once granted by the Chinese. However 
 unimportant such abandoned rights may appear, experience 
 has shown that the results are not so. Sir Michael Sey- 
 mour's war at Canton in 1856-7 could never have occurred 
 if our undoubted right to reside in that city had been 
 insisted on some years previously. Our disaster at the Taku 
 forts in 1859 would have been prevented if the right of our 
 minister to reside in Peking had not, in a weak moment, 
 been waived. What complications have not arisen in Japan, 
 from our consenting to undo half Lord Elgin's treaty and 
 allowing the port of Osaca to remain closed to our merchant- 
 men ! We cannot afford to make concessions to Asiatic 
 powers. Give them an inch and they will take an ell : then 
 fleets and armies must be brought into play to recover 
 ground we have lost through sheer wantonness. 
 
 Too late to join a party who preceded me, I had some 
 difficulty in finding a companion for the journey, but had 
 the good fortune to make the acquaintance of a young gen- 
 tleman from Lyons, Avho purposed going to France by the 
 Siberian route with or without a companion. We at once 
 arranged matters to our mutual satisfaction, and proceeded 
 with the preparations necessary for the journey. Having 
 the advantage of excellent practical advice on this head from 
 gentlemen who had already gone over the ground, w^e had 
 little difficulty in getting up our outfit. A tent was indis- 
 pensable for Mongolia, and we got a very commodious one 
 from a French officer. A military cork mattress, with 
 waterproof sheets, proved invaluable in the desert. Our 
 clothing department was inconveniently bulky, because we 
 had to provide both for very hot and very cold weather. 
 The commissariat was liberally supplied, rather overdone, as
 
 Chap, i.] THE DELTA OF THE YANG-TZE-KIANG. 5 
 
 it turned out, but that was a fault on the safe side. The 
 accounts we heard of the "hungiy desert," where nothing 
 grows but mutton, induced us to lay in supj)lies not only for 
 an ordinary journey across, but for any unforeseen delay we 
 might encounter on the way. 
 
 We had first to get to Tientsin, six hundred miles from 
 Shanghae, and two steamers were under despatch for that 
 port. I embarked on board the Kanzing, Captain Mor- 
 rison, about midnight on the 28th July, 1863. Taking ad- 
 vantage of the bright moon, we steamed cautiously down the 
 river Wong-poo for fourteen miles, past the village of Woo- 
 sung, " outside the marks," and into the great river Yang- 
 tsze, where we cast anchor for the night. It would be 
 hazardous to attempt the navigation of the estuary of the 
 Yang-tsze, even in bright moonlight. Its banks are so flat 
 as to afford no marks to steer by. The estuary is very wide, 
 but the deep water channel is narrow, with extensive shal- 
 lows on either side. The upper parts of the Yang-tsze-kiang, 
 where the river narrows to a mile or two in breadth, and 
 flows through a bolder country, are more easy of navigation. 
 In the broad part of the river, near its mouth, the deep 
 water channels have a tendency to shift their positions. The 
 surveys of the river from its mouth to Nanking, made in 
 1842, were found inapplicable in 1861. Where shallows 
 were marked in 1842, deep water was found in 1861, and 
 dry patches were found where the navigable channels were 
 before. The delta of this noble river is rapidly growing into 
 dry land ; the " banks " are fast rising into islands, and the 
 channels of the river becoming more circumscribed. The 
 rapidity with which this process is going on is most remark- 
 able. From a point nearly fifty miles from the mouth of the 
 river it is divided into two great branches, called by hydro- 
 gi'aphers the north and the south entrances. Twenty years 
 ago extensive shallows lay between, and many a good ship
 
 6 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. i. 
 
 found a final resting-place on these treacherous banks. The 
 most dangerous of these are now above water, and are visible 
 from a distance sufficient to enable the pilot to keep clear of 
 them. In the small river Wang-poo also, at and below the 
 town of Shanghae, the land is gaining considerably on the 
 water. An island has formed and is still growing near the 
 mouth of the Wang-poo, known to pilots as the " middle- 
 ground." Until a very few years ago it was entirely under 
 Wcxter. In the year 185 5 I was aground on the top of it in a 
 schooner near low water, and the rising tide floated us off 
 easily. The island is now so high as to remain uncovered in 
 the highest spring tides. Thus, in the space of eight years, 
 this island has risen more than twelve, and probably not less 
 than eighteen feet. The formation is extending itself down- 
 wards ; the tail of the island stretching away under water 
 brought up many vessels in 1862 and 1863, where there was 
 plenty of water a year or two before. On the south shore of 
 the Yanof-tsze-kianof the lines of embankment mark the dif- 
 ferent stages of the aggression of the land on the water. 
 When a dry flat was formed liable to inundations in high 
 tides, an embankment of mud was built for the protection of 
 the inhabitants who settled on the reclaimed land. In pro- 
 cess of time more land was made, and another embankment 
 formed. Thus three distinct lines of embankment, several 
 miles inland from the present water line, are to be traced 
 from below Woosung towards Hang-chow Bay, and a very 
 large tract of good arable land has been reclaimed from the 
 river, or, as the Chinese call it, the sea, within comparatively 
 modern times. From the causes we see now in active opera- 
 tion, it is easy to trace the formation of the vast alluvial plain 
 which now supports so many millions of inhabitants. 
 
 There are, indeed, intimations in the Chinese records of 
 some of these changes. Islands in the sea are mentioned 
 but a few centuries back, which are now hills in inhabited
 
 Chap, i.] " CHINA'S SORROW." 7 
 
 districts. In the dawn of Chinese history allusions are made 
 to a great flood which desolated the land, and the Emperor 
 Yaou has been immortalised for his achievements in subduing 
 and regulating the waters. Yaou reigned about 2200 B.C., 
 and the rising of the waters in his time has been referred by 
 some to the Noachian deluge. But the Chinese empire at 
 that time extended as far south as the Great River, and in- 
 cluded three great valleys. It is not an improbable conjecture 
 therefore that there was a large circumference of debateable 
 land barely reclaimed from the sea. With the imperfect 
 means then at command for keeping out the water it is easy 
 to suppose that an unusually high tide would break down 
 the defences and overflow the flat country. It may also be, 
 of course, that then, as now, the Yellow River caused trouble 
 by arbitrarily changing its course, and the patriotic labours 
 of Yaou may have been limited to damming up that way- 
 ward stream, which has been called " China's sorrow." But 
 the chronicles of the great inundation do not appear to have 
 been satisfactorily explained, and it may be said of the annals 
 of the reigns of Yaou and Shun, that the interest which 
 attaches to them is in direct proportion to their obscurity. 
 
 A few hours' steaming on the 29th took us out of the 
 turbid waters of the Yang-tsze-kiang, but during the whole 
 of that day we continued in shallow water of a very light 
 sea-green colour. The weather was fine, and though still ex- 
 tremely hot, the fresh sea air soon produced a magical effect 
 on our enfeebled digestion. The voyage was as pleasant as a 
 good ship, a good table, and a courteous commander could 
 make it. On the 80th a thick fog settled down on the water, 
 and on the following morning all eyes were anxiously strain- 
 ing after the Shantung promontory, which was the turning- 
 point of our voyage. By dead reckoning we were close to it, 
 but there is no accounting for the effect of the currents that 
 sweep round this bold headland. The tide rushes into the
 
 8 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. i. 
 
 Gulf of Pecheli by one side of the entrance, and out at the 
 other. But from the conformation of the gulf the tidal 
 currents are subject to disturbances from various causes, of 
 which the direction of the wind is the most potent. A north- 
 westerly wind keeps the tide wave at bay, and drives the 
 water out of the gulf, until its level has been lowered several 
 feet below that of the ocean. Great irregiilarities in the ebb 
 and flow are occasioned by this ; and when the cause ceases 
 to act, the reaction is proportionate to the amount of dis- 
 turbance ; the pent-up waters from without flow in with 
 impetuosity, and the equilibrium is restored. 
 
 In the dense fog, our commander could only crawl along 
 cautiously, stopping now and again to listen for the sound of 
 men's voices, or the barking of dogs, take soundings, and 
 watch for any indications of the near vicinity of land. At 
 length, to our great joy, the fog lifted over a recognisable 
 point of the promontory, and immediately settled down again. 
 The glimpse was sufficient however, and the good steamer 
 was at once headed westward, for the mouth of the Peiho 
 river, and bowled along fearlessly on her way. As the sun 
 rose higher the mist was dispersed, and the bold rugged out- 
 line of the Shantung coast was unveiled before us. The clear 
 blue water was alive with Chinese coasting craft, small and 
 large, of most picturesque appearance. The heavy, unwieldy 
 junks of northern China lay almost motionless, their wide- 
 spread sails hanging idly to the mast, for there was just wind 
 enough to rij)ple the surface of the water in long patches, 
 leaving large spaces of glassy smoothness untouched by the 
 breeze. 
 
 The crews of the northern junks are hardy stalwart fel- 
 lows, inured to labour, and zealous in their work. Their 
 vessels are built very low-sided, to enable them to be pro- 
 pelled by oars when the wind fails them. The crews work 
 cheerily at their oars, both night and day, when necessary.
 
 Chap, i.] NAVIGATION REFOEMS. 9 
 
 keeping time to the tune of their half-joyous, half-melan- 
 choly boat-songs. With all their exertions, however, they 
 drive the shapeless lump but slowly through the water, and 
 one cannot helj) feeling pity for the poor men, and regret for 
 the waste of so much manual labour. It is to be hoped that 
 this hardy race of seamen will find more fruitful fields 
 wherein to turn their strength to account when foreign 
 vessels and steamers have superseded the time-honoured but 
 extravagant system of navigation in China. This end has, 
 indeed, been already reached to a certain extent. China has 
 been imbued with the progi'essive spirit of the world, to the 
 great advantage both of themselves and foreigners. The 
 southern coasts swann with steamers, and the Gulf of Pe- 
 cheli, in this the third year from the opening of foreign 
 trade in the north, was regularly visited by trading steamers. 
 In all discussions in England on the subject of the develop- 
 ment of trade in China, the vast coasting trade is generally 
 overlooked, as a matter in which we have no interest. This 
 is a mistake, however, for foreigners have a considerable 
 share in that trade directly, and their steamers and sailing 
 vessels are employed to a very large extent by the Chinese 
 merchants. All produce is very materially reduced in price 
 to the consumer by the facilities for competition among 
 merchants which improved communication affords, and by 
 the diminution in expenses of carriage, which is the neces- 
 sary result. The rapidity with which foreign vessels can 
 accomplish their voyages as compared with Chinese junks 
 enables the native trader to make so many more ventures in 
 a given time, that he can afford to take smaller profits than 
 formerly, and yet on the average be no loser. Or even if the 
 average results of the year's trade be less profitable to in- 
 dividuals than before, its benefits are spread over a greater 
 number, and, in the aggregate, suffer no diminution. The 
 general interests of the country have been subserved in an
 
 10 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. i. 
 
 important degree by the extension of the coasting trade, 
 where no disturbing influences have been at work ; and the 
 prosperity of the general population cannot fail to react 
 favourably on the mercantile class, through whom the pros- 
 perity primarily comes. 
 
 Chefoo, the new settlement on the Shantung coast, is 
 frequently a port of call for steamers trading between 
 Shanghae and Tientsin. We did not touch there in the 
 Naming, but passed at a distance of twelve miles from the 
 bluff rocky headland from which the settlement takes its 
 name. Before darkness had closed in the view we had 
 reached the Mia-tau group of islands which connect the 
 mountain ranges of Shantung, by a continuous chain, with 
 the Liau-tung promontory at the north of the entrance of 
 the Gulf of Pecheli. There is not much difficulty or danger 
 in getting through these islands even at night, but it is 
 always an object to a navigator to reach them before 
 dark. The course is then clear for the Peiho, and he has 
 a whole night's straight run before him with nothing to look 
 out for. 
 
 The Peiho river must be an awkward place to " make," 
 except in clear weather. The land is lower even than that 
 of the valley of the Yang-tsze-kiang ; the shoal water runs 
 out a long distance into the gulf ; and a dangerous sand spit, 
 partly above, and partly under water, stretches fifty miles out 
 to sea on the north of the approach to the river. On reach- 
 ing the outer anchorage, where vessels of heavy draught lie, 
 the celebrated Taku forts are dimly visible in the haze of the 
 horizon, and masts may be seen inside the river, but the low 
 land on either side is still invisible. A shoal bar, with a very 
 hard bottom, lies between the outer anchorage and the 
 river, and the Nanzing, drawing less than ten feet, was 
 obliged to anchor outside until the rising tide enabled her to 
 get in.
 
 Chap, i.] LITEEATI— ATHLETES. 11 
 
 Our Chinese fellow passengers, who had kept remarkably 
 quiet during the voyage, as is their invariable custom, became 
 animated as we ran in between the Taku forts. They were 
 a motley crowd of all classes of peoj)le — mercantile, literary, 
 and military. The students who go to Peking to undergo 
 examinations for literary degrees travel now in great numbers 
 by steamer, and doubtless many who, from want of means, 
 want of time, or from any other cause, might hesitate before 
 undertaking such a long journey by the old land route, are 
 now enabled, by means of the coasting steamers, to accom- 
 plish the object so deeply cherished by all Chinese literati. 
 The " plucked " ones, and there are many such in China, can 
 now more easily renew their efforts. Men have been known 
 to repair year after year to the examination-hall from their 
 youth upwards, and get plucked every time, — yet, undaunted 
 by constant failure, they persevere in their vain exertions to 
 the winter of their days. The country that can produce such 
 models of perseverance in a hopeless cause may claim to 
 possess elements of vitality, and the usual proportion of 
 fools. 
 
 Among our Chinese passengers was an athlete from Fokien, 
 who was bound to Peking to try his prowess in archery. He 
 was a man of great muscular power, fat, and even corpulent. 
 It is remarkable that the training system adopted for the 
 development of the muscles should produce so much fat. I 
 had not observed this before in the Chinese ; indeed, the few 
 feats of strength I have seen performed by them have been 
 by men well proj)ortioned and free from fat. But the Japanese 
 wrestlers, who are carefully trained, are generally fat. 
 
 The entrance to the Peiho was, as usual, crowded with 
 native and foreign craft, and so narrow and tortuous is the 
 river that great care is necessary to work a long steamer 
 through without accident. Tientsin is distant from Taku, by 
 the windings of the river, between sixty and seventy miles.
 
 12 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. i. 
 
 By the cart road it is only thirty-six. The Kanzing made 
 good way up the river until darkness compelled her to anchor. 
 In the morning the difficulties of the inland navigation 
 began. The river was actually too small for a steamer over 
 two hundred feet long, the turns were too sharp, the ordinary 
 means of handling a steamer were no longer of any avail, — 
 we hauled round several bad turns by means of anchors 
 passed on shore in the boats, but were at length baffled after 
 running the steamer's nose into cabbage-gardens, breaking 
 down fences, and alarming the villagers, who turned out en 
 onasse to watch the iron monster as she struggled to force a 
 passage out of her natural element. Partly out of compas- 
 sion for the men, who were worn out with the uncono-enial 
 toil of trudging knee-deep through heavy mud, planting 
 anchors and picking them up again, and partly from some 
 vague hope of a change of tide in the afternoon, the steamer 
 was brought to anchor and hands piped to dinner. 
 
 The crews of steamers on the coast of China are usually of 
 a cosmopolite character, chiefly Malays, with a boat's crew of 
 Chinese, the foreign element beingf reduced to a minimum 
 comprising the officers and engineers. Asiatic sailors do very 
 well when there are plenty of them, the estimate of their 
 value being two of them to one European. They sail for 
 lower wages, but not low enough to compensate the ship- 
 owner for the additional numbers that are necessary. But 
 the Asiatics are more easily handled than Europeans ; their 
 regular " watches " may be broken in upon with impunity; 
 they are easier fed, and less addicted to quarrelling with 
 their bread and butter than Europeans, and more especially 
 Englishmen. But any doubt on the part of a shipmaster as 
 to what crew he will employ, will generally be solved by the 
 sailors themselves, who, if English or American, will desert at 
 every port the vessel touches at. 
 
 Having my saddle and bridle handy I landed at a village.
 
 Chap, i.] THE ORCHARD OF CHIITA— INLAND NAVIGATION. 13 
 
 and borrowing a horse from the farmers, rode to Tientsin, 
 which was only some eight miles distant by the road. The 
 heat was scorching, but greatly mitigated by the mass of 
 bright green foliage that covered the whole country. The 
 soil though dry and dusty is rich to exuberance, fruit grows 
 in great abundance, and, for China, in great perfection. 
 Apples, pears, peaches, apricots, loquats, grapes, are common 
 everpvhere in the north, which may be considered the orchard 
 of China. The waving crops of millet, interspersed with 
 patches of beans, and here and there strips of hemp, fill up 
 a vast green ground dotted thickly with villages and pretty 
 clumps of trees. The houses form a dull contrast to the 
 cheerful aspect of the country. In most of the villages they 
 are constructed of mud and straw, which becomes hard 
 enough to be impervious to rain, but the dull parched colour, 
 the small apertures for doors and windows, and general 
 cheerlessness of exterior painfully oppress the sight. The 
 dust of the roads is also an unfavourable medium through 
 which to view the tame though rich beauties of the country. 
 The north of China is cursed with dust, the roads generally 
 are as bad as the road to Epsom on a " Derby day," when 
 that happy event happens to come off in dry weather. 
 
 I got back to the Naming in time for the final effort to 
 double the difficult comer. The first attempt was successful, 
 and we steamed on gaily through fields and gardens, washing 
 the banks with the wave formed in our wake, which some- 
 times broke over the legs of unwary celestials who stood 
 gazing after the steamer in stupid wonder like a cow at a rail- 
 way train. The Chinese take such mishaps good-naturedly 
 — the spectators are always amused, and the victims them- 
 selves when the shock of surprise passes off laugh at the 
 joke. The most serious obstacle to our progress had yet 
 to come, however, the " double," a point where the river 
 bends abruptly like the figure S compressed vertically.
 
 U SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. i. 
 
 Extra caution being used there, the appliances of anchors 
 and warps were efficacious, and we passed the double success- 
 fully. The smoke of the Waratah, a steamer that left 
 Shanghae the day before us, and which we had passed at sea, 
 now appeared over the trees close to us. There were several 
 reaches of the river between us, however, and we traced the 
 black column of smoke passing easily round the bends that 
 had caused us such difficulty. The Waixitah was gaining on 
 us fast, and late in the evening her black hull appeared 
 under our stern, while the Naming was jammed at the last 
 bend of the river, unable either to get round herself or to 
 make room , for the smaller vessel. Hours were spent in 
 ineffectual endeavours to proceed — the tantalised Waratah 
 could stand it no longer — the captain thought he saw room 
 to pass us, and came up at full speed between us and the 
 bank. But as the sailors say "night has no eyes" even 
 when the moon is shining, and our friend paid for his temerity 
 by crashing his paddle box against our bow. Time and 
 patience enabled us to reach Tientsin at midnight on the 
 1st August, after spending half as much time in the Peiho 
 river as the whole sea voyage had occupied. I have said 
 enough, and probably much more than enough, to demon- 
 strate the difficulty of navigating the Peiho river with vessels 
 not adapted to it. No vessel should attempt it that is over 
 one hundred and fifty feet in length, for though the risk of 
 loss from stranding is extremely small, the loss of time to 
 large vessels must be serious. 
 
 A marvellous transformation had taken place in Tientsin 
 since my previous visit to it in 1861. At that time the few 
 European merchants who had settled there were confined to 
 the Chinese town, the filthiest and most offensive of all the 
 filthy places wherein celestials love to congi'egate. Now in 
 1863, the " settlement," that necessary adjunct of every 
 treaty port in China, had been made over to foreigners, laid
 
 Chap, i.] THE NEAV "SETTLEMENT" OF TIENTSIN. ]5 
 
 out in streets, and a spacious quay and promenade on the 
 river bank formed, faced riverwards with solid masonry, the 
 ., finest thing of the kind in China, throwing into the shade 
 altogether the famous " bund " at Shanghae. The affairs of 
 the settlement are administered by a thoroughly organised 
 " municipal council " after the example of Shanghae, the 
 " model settlement." The newly opened ports have an 
 immense advantage over the original five in having the expe- 
 rience of nearly twenty years to guide them in all preliminary 
 arrangements. That experience shows first — although the 
 soundness of the deduction has been questioned by some 
 able men — the desirability of securing foreign settlements 
 where merchants, consuls, and missionaries may live in a 
 community of their own entirely distinct from the native 
 towns, within which they may put in operation their own 
 police regulations, lay out streets to their own liking, drain, 
 light, and otherwise improve the settlement, levy and dis- 
 burse their own municipal taxes, and, in short, conduct their 
 affairs as independent communities. These settlements have 
 the further advantage of being susceptible of defence in 
 times of disturbance with the minimum risk of complication 
 between the treaty powers and the Chinese government. 
 Much of the importance Shanghae has achieved of late years 
 is due to the foreign settlement which, being neutral ground 
 and defensible, has become a city of refuge for swarms of 
 Chinese who had been ousted from their homesteads by the 
 rebels. The cosmopolite character of the Shanghae settlement 
 has entailed various inconveniences, which it is thought 
 might be obviated in the new settlements by keeping the 
 different foreign nationalities distinct. Time has not yet 
 pronounced on the success of this experiment. There will 
 probably be a difficulty in putting it thoroughly in practice ; 
 no arbitrary regulations will be able to prevent nationalities 
 from fusing into each other to such an extent as the higher
 
 16 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKIXG TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. i. 
 
 laws of interest and policy may dictate. And it will be 
 impossible in practice to subject a mixed community to the 
 laws of any one power. In the meantime concessions are. 
 claimed from the Chinese government by each of the treaty 
 powers separately, and so far they have been granted. 
 Whether the isolation of the various concessions be perma- 
 nent or not, it secures for them at the outset more unani- 
 mity in laying out streets and framing preliminary regula- 
 tions for their good government hereafter. This is of great 
 importance, and the experience of Shanghae is most valuable 
 in this respect. The narrowness of the streets in the settle- 
 ment there — twenty-two feet — is a standing reproach on the 
 earlier settlers who, with short-sighted cupidity, clung with 
 tenacity to every inch of land at a time when land was cheap 
 and abundant. This fatal error has been avoided in the 
 recent settlements. 
 
 The municipality of Shanghae established under the aus- 
 pices of Sir Rutherford (then Mr.) Alcock, at that time 
 British consid, has on the whole proved such a success that 
 the same system has been adopted in the new settlements. 
 The legality of the institution has often been questioned, but 
 the creation of some such authority was a necessity at the 
 time, and it has worked so well for ten years that it has not 
 only subsisted, but gathered strength and influence by the 
 unanimous will of the community. 
 
 Several fine European houses were already built and in- 
 habited on the Tientsin settlement. The ground had been 
 well raised, so as to keep the new town dry, and ensure it a 
 commanding position. It is about two miles lower down the 
 river than the native town, has a fine open country round it, 
 and plenty of fresh air. It is several degrees cooler in the 
 British settlement than in the Chinese town, and altogether 
 the very best site for the purpose has been selected. The 
 merchants retain their offices in the Chinese town, riding
 
 Chap, i.] TIENTSIN AS A TRADING-PORT. 17 
 
 or sailing to and fro every day. This system will probably 
 continue to be practised for some time longer, or perhaps 
 altogether, for the convenience of the Chinese dealers. A 
 small minority of the foreign merchants would compel all to 
 retain their business premises in Tientsin, and nothing less 
 than an almost entire unanimity among them would effect 
 the transfer to the new town. 
 
 As a depot of trade, Tientsin labours under certain dis- 
 advantages ; the shallow bar outside, and intricate navigation 
 of the river, prevent any but small craft from trading there. 
 Larger vessels do sometimes, or rather did, — for I fancy the 
 practice is discontinued,— repair to the outer anchorage. 
 But the expense of lighterage, and the detention incurred 
 in loading or discharging at such a distance from the 
 port, are so great as to drive such competitors out of the 
 field. The other drawback to Tientsin is the severe winter, 
 and the early closing of the river by ice. This generally 
 happens before the end of November, and the ice does not 
 break up before February or March. 
 
 However, Tientsin is the feeder of a large tract of country 
 containing a large consuming population, and the trade is no 
 doubt destined to increase. Much disappointment has, 
 indeed, been felt that the extraordinary start made, chiefly 
 in the sale of foreign manufactures, in the first year of its 
 existence as a port of foreign trade, has not been followed 
 up. This may be explained, however, by the circumstance 
 that in 1860-61 manufactured goods were extremely de- 
 pressed by over-su23ply in the south of China. These goods 
 were introduced into Tientsin, and sold direct to the Chinese 
 there, untaxed by the intermediate profits and charges they 
 formerly had to bear when sold in Shanghae, and thence 
 forwarded by Chinese merchants, in Chinese junks, to 
 Tientsin and the north. Prices in Tientsin soon fell so low 
 that the merchants were tempted into large investments
 
 IS SIBERIAN KOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBUEG. [Chap. i. 
 
 daring 1861. The markets of the interior beccame over- 
 stocked, and, before the equilibrium was restored, the cotton 
 famine began to be felt, and i3rices of goods (the Tientsin 
 trade is chiefly opium and cotton goods) rose so high as to 
 deter purchasers, and in a material degree to reduce the 
 consumption of foreign cottons. Another circumstance also 
 operated adversely to a maintenance of the lively trade that 
 grew up in 1861. There were no exports in Tientsin suit- 
 able to any foreign market. The foreign trade was therefore 
 limited to the sale of imports, which were paid for in specie. 
 A heavy drain of bullion was the result, more than the 
 resources of the country could bear for any length of time. 
 This of itself was enough to check the further development of 
 trade ; for though the precious metals were merely transferred 
 from one part of the country to another, no counter-balanc- 
 ing power then existed by which they could be circulated back 
 to the districts whence they came. There is no good reason 
 why produce suitable to foreign markets should not be found 
 in Tientsin. Wool and tallow will no doubt be obtainable in 
 considerable quantities in process of time, for the country is 
 full of sheep and cattle, and Tientsin is only six days' 
 journey from the frontier of Mongolia, where flocks and 
 herds monopolise the soil. 
 
 I must mention a circumstance connected with the Tientsin 
 trade, which is remarkable among an eminently commercial 
 people like the Chinese. At the opening of the trade, in the 
 end of 1860, the relative values of gold and silver varied 
 fifteen per cent, between Tientsin and Shanghae. Gold was 
 purchased for silver in the north, and shipped to Shanghae, 
 at a large profit, and a good many months elapsed before an 
 equilibrium was established. 
 
 In and about Tientsin, as almost everywhere else in China, 
 the population is well affected towards foreigners. The 
 British troops that garrisoned Tientsin from 1860 till 1862
 
 Chap, i.] GOOD-WILL OF THE NATIVES— BEGGARS. 19 
 
 left behind them the very best impressions on the inha- 
 bitants. Not that these troops were any better than any 
 other well-discipHned trooj)S would have been, but the 
 Chinese had been taught to regard foreigners as a kind of 
 aquatic monsters, cruel and ferocious ; so when the horrible 
 picture resolved itself into human beings, civil and courteous 
 in their disposition, honestly paying for all they wanted, of 
 vast consumptive powers in the matter of beef and mutton, 
 fruit and vegetables, and, on the whole, excellent customers, 
 the Chinese took kindly to the estimable invaders, and had 
 cause to regret their departure. Foreign merchants were 
 held in high estimation from the first. The free hospitals for 
 Chinese, set on foot by the army surgeons, not only did a 
 great deal of good in alleviating suffering, but prepared the 
 way for mutual good feeling in the after intercourse between 
 natives and foreigners. It has been questioned whether the 
 Chinese, as a race, are susceptible of gratitude. But, at any 
 rate, the respectable classes are sufficiently charitable them- 
 selves to appreciate philanthropy in others ; and, in the self- 
 imposed and gratuitous labours of the surgeons for the 
 benefit of the sick poor, they saw an example of pure bene- 
 volence, which could not but excite their admiration. 
 
 The jjopulation of Tientsin is supposed to be about 400,000, 
 residing chiefly in the suburbs, for trade is generally carried 
 on without the walls, not only here, but in all Chinese cities. 
 There is ai; unusually large proportion of beggars about 
 Tientsin, and loathsome objects they are, as they whine 
 about the streets, half clad, in tatters, starved, and often 
 covered with sores. They never sleep but on the ground. 
 At night, when the streets are quiet, the beggars may be 
 discovered huddled together at every corner and on every 
 door-step. Begging is an institution in China, and to qualify 
 for the craft, men have been said to burn out their own eyes, 
 in order to excite compassion for their blindness. A Chinese 
 
 c 2
 
 20 SIBERIAN KOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. i. 
 
 householder seldom allows a beggar to go away empty. 
 Charity is cheap ; a handful of rice, one copper cash, value 
 the fourth part of a farthing, suffices to induce the disgusting 
 object to move on to the next sliop. The beggars have sel- 
 dom any cause to starve in China, but they do very often, 
 and it is probable they bring diseases on themselves in 
 their efforts to excite pity, which carry them off very rapidly. 
 In winter, especially in the north, they seem to die off like 
 mosquitoes, and no one takes any notice of them except to 
 bury them — for the Chinese don't like to leave dead bodies 
 about the streets. In spring they reappear— not the iden- 
 tical beggars, certainly — but very similar ones, and the ranks 
 of the profession are kept filled. 
 
 The wealthier natives of Tientsin, traders and shopkeepers, 
 are fond of good living and gambling. They are robust 
 people, and bear up well against the effects of late hours and 
 gross dissipation. The close, filthy atmosphere in which they 
 live and breathe does not seem to injure their health. Epi- 
 demics do make great havoc among them occasionally ; one 
 year it is cholera, another year it is small-pox ; but the 
 general healthiness of the people does not seem to suffer. 
 The climate is exceedingly dry. Little rain or snow falls ; 
 but when it does rain, the whole heavens seem to fall at once, 
 not in torrents, but in sheets of water. The peculiar sand- 
 storms, so common in the north of China, have not as yet 
 been satisfactorily investigated. They often come on after a 
 sultry day. A yellow haze appears in the sky, darkening the 
 sun ; then columns of fine dust are seen spinning round in 
 whirlwinds. At that stage every living thing seeks shelter, 
 and those who are afield are lucky if they are not caught in 
 the blinding storm before they reach their houses. But even 
 a closely shut-up house affords but half protection, for the 
 fine powdery dust insinuates itself through the crevices of 
 doors and windows, and is palpably present in your soup and
 
 Chap, i.] CHINESE GAMBLERS. 21 
 
 3'our bread for some time after. The most obvious source 
 whence these sand-storms come, is the great sandy desert of 
 Mongolia, but such an hypothesis is hardly sufficient to 
 account for all the phenomena which accompany the sand- 
 storms. It has been supposed that they are due to some 
 peculiar electrical condition of the atmosphere. 
 
 The Chinese are passionately addicted to gambling, and 
 the endless variety of games of chance in common use among 
 them does credit to their ingenuity and invention, for it is 
 not likely that they have learned anything from their neigh- 
 bours. The respectable merchant, who devotes the hours of 
 daylight assiduously to his business, sparing no labour in 
 adjusting the most trifling items of account, will win or lose 
 thousands of dollars overnight with imperturbable compla- 
 cency. Every grade of society is imbued with the passion. 
 I have amused myself watching the coolies in the streets of 
 Tientsin gambling for their dinner. The itinerant cooks 
 carry with them, as part of the wonderful epitome of a 
 culinary establishment with which they perambulate the 
 streets, a cylinder of bamboo, containing a number of sticks 
 on which are inscribed certain characters. These mystic 
 symbols are shaken up in the tube, the candidate for hot 
 dumpling draws one, and according to the writing found on 
 it, so does he pay for his repast. So attractive is gambling 
 in any form to the Chinese, that a Tientsin coolie will gene- 
 rally prefer to risk paying double for the remote chance of 
 getting a meal for nothing. On one occasion I volunteered 
 to act as proxy for a hungry coolie who was about to try his 
 luck. The offer was accepted with eagerness, and I was for- 
 tunate enough to draw my constituent a dinner for nothing. 
 I was at once put down as a professor of the black art, 
 and literally besieged by a crowd of others, all begging me 
 to do them a similar favour, which, of course, I prudently 
 declined. Had I indeed been successful a second time, the
 
 22 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. i. 
 
 dispenser of the tempting morsels would certainly have pro- 
 tested against my interference as an invasion of his preroga- 
 tive, which is to win, and. not to lose. 
 
 The Chinese gamblers arc, of course, frequently ruined by 
 the practice. They become desperate after a run of ill luck ; 
 every consideration of duty and interest is sunk, and they 
 play for stakes which might have startled even the Eussian 
 nobles, who used to gamble for serfs. In the last crisis of 
 all, a dose of opium settles all accounts pertaining to this 
 world. 
 
 In games of skiU the Chinese are no less accomplished. 
 Dominoes, draughts, chess, and such like, are to be seen in 
 full swing at every tea-house, where the people repair to 
 gossip and while away the evening. The little groups one 
 sees in these places exhibit intense interest in their occupa- 
 tion ; the victory is celebrated by the child-like exultation of 
 the winner, and any pair of Chinese draught-players may 
 have sat for Wilkie's celebrated picture.
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 TIENTSIN TO PEKING. 
 
 Theee are several modes of going from Tientsin to Peking. 
 The most common is in a mule cart, which is not exactly a 
 box, but a board laid on wheels with a blue cotton covering 
 arched over it. The cart is not long enough to enable one 
 to lie down full length, nor is it high enough to enable him 
 to sit upright in the European fashion. It has no springs ; 
 the roads are generally as rough as negligence can leave 
 them ; it is utterly impossible to keep out the dust ; and the 
 covering gives but slight protection from the sun. A ride in 
 a Chinese cart is exquisite torture to a European. It is 
 true that experience teaches those who are so unfortunate as 
 to need it several " dodges " by which to mitigate their suf- 
 ferings, such as filling the cart entirely with straw, and then 
 squeezing into the middle of it. But then the traveller 
 must have some means of securing the feet to prevent being 
 pitched out bodily, and he must hold on to the frame-work 
 of the side by both hands to break the shock of sudden jerks. 
 With all that he will come off his journey feeling in every 
 bone of his body as if he had been passed through a mangle. 
 That the Chinese do not suffer from such treatment I can 
 only attribute to a deficiency in their nervous system. If 
 they suffered in anything like the same degree that a Euro- 
 pean does, they would have invented a more comfortable con- 
 veyance before the Christian era. But the only improvement 
 in comfort I ever heard of is in the carts made for the great,
 
 24 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. ii. 
 
 mandarins, wliicli have the wheels placed far back, so that 
 between the axle-tree and the saddle the shafts may have 
 an infinitesimal amount of spring in them. 
 
 The next mode of travelling is on horseback, which, if you 
 happen to have your own saddle and bridle, is very pleasant, 
 provided the weather is not too hot or too cold. There are 
 plenty of inns on the road-side where you can rest and re- 
 fresh yourself; but woe betide the luckless traveller who, 
 like myself, nauseates the Chinese cuisine, should he have 
 neglected to provide himself with a few creature comforts to 
 his own liking. 
 
 The weather was excessively hot, and judging that there 
 would be many calls on our stamina before our long journey 
 was done, we prudently husbanded our strength at the out- 
 set. We therefore chose the slower but more luxurious (!) 
 means of conveyance by boat up the Peiho river to Tung- 
 chow, a walled city twelve miles from Peking. Boat travel- 
 ling in the north has not been brought to such a state of 
 perfection as in the creek and canal country in Chekiang and 
 Keangsoo. In the latter provinces it is practically the only 
 means of travelling, and though slow, is most comfortable. 
 In the north the boats are a smaller edition of those used 
 for transporting merchandise, the only convenience they have 
 being a moveable roof. In two such craft our party em- 
 barked on the night of 5th August, 1861, and at 11 p.m., by 
 moonlight, we languidly shoved off from the filthy banks of 
 the Peiho river, the few friends who were kind enough to see 
 us off, with a refinement of politeness worthy of a China- 
 man, refusing a parting glass, knowing that we had none to 
 spare. Our sails were of little assistance, so after threading 
 our way through the fleet of boats that lay anyhow in the 
 first two reaches, our stout crews landed with their towing 
 line, by which means we slowly and painfully ascended the 
 stream. Tientsin, as I have said, is the filthiest of all filthy
 
 Chap, ii.] A SCENE OF FILTH— BOAT'S CREW. 25 
 
 cities ; and the essence of its filth is accumulated on the 
 banks of the i-iver, forming an excellent breakwater, which 
 grows faster than the water can wash it away. The putrid 
 mass is enough, one would think, to breed a plague, and yet 
 the water used by the inhabitants is drawn from this river ! 
 It was pleasant, indeed, to escape from this pestilential at- 
 mosphere, and to inhale the cool fresh air of the country for 
 an hour or two before turning in, as we reflected on the long 
 and tedious journey we had before us, embracing the whole 
 breadth of the continents of Asia and Europe. 
 
 The voyage to Tungchow was monotonous in the extreme. 
 Nothing of the country could be seen ; for though the water 
 was hio'h enous^h at the time to have enabled us to look over 
 the low flat banks, the standing crops effectually shut in our 
 view. Four days were occupied in travelling 400 li. We 
 had engaged double crews, in order that we might proceed 
 night and day without stopping, but it was really hard work 
 for them, and we did not like to press them too much. There 
 is no regular towing path on the banks of the Peiho, and at 
 night the men floundered in the wet mud amongst reeds. 
 A youngster of the crew gave us a great deal of trouble — 
 always shirking his work and complaining of hunger. He 
 was a wag, however, and kept both us and the crew in 
 amusement. I have noticed in nearly all Chinese boat- 
 crews there is a character of this sort, whose business 
 seems to be to work as little as possible himself, and keep 
 up a running fire of wit to beguile the toil of the others. 
 A good story-teller is much valued among them. We had 
 also an old man, whose chief business was to boil rice and 
 vegetables for the others, and to steer the boat. His kitchen 
 duties were no sinecure, for the men did get through an 
 incredible quantity of rice in the course of the day. Rice is 
 a poor thing to work on ; it is a fuel quickly consumed, and 
 requires constant renewal.
 
 26 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. it. 
 
 It is the nature of Chinese boatmen to be constantly 
 asking for money. Tbe custom is to pay about half the fare 
 in advance before starting, and the other half when the 
 journey is completed. But no sooner are you fairly under 
 way, than a polite request is made for money to buy rice. 
 It is in vain you remind them of the dollars you have just 
 paid as a first instalment. That has gone to the owner of 
 the boat, of course, but as for them, the boatmen, they have 
 nothing to eat, and cannot go on. Defeated in your argu- 
 ments you nevertheless remain firm in your purpose ; the 
 morning, noon, and evening meals succeed each other in 
 due course. Every one is to be the last, and is followed by 
 the most touching appeals to your benevolence — they will go 
 down on their knees, they will whine and cry, they will beat 
 frantically on their emj)ty stomachs, and tell you " they are 
 starving " in tones and gestures that ought properly to melt 
 the heart of a stone. It is in vain that you deride their 
 importunity ; it is in vain that you reproach them with 
 their improvidence. You sternly order them to their work, 
 but are met by the unanswerable question, how can they 
 work without food ? You — if you have gone through the 
 ordeal before — know well that you will have no trouble on 
 this score on the second day out. 
 
 Has any one ever tried to arrive at the exact value of a 
 Chinese measure of distance ? Their li has no doubt been 
 reduced to so many yards, feet, and inches, equal to about 
 one-third of an English mile, on paper ; but on the road it 
 is the vaguest term possible. Ask a countryman how far it 
 is to Chung-dsz, and he will answer after a great deal of 
 prevarication ten li. Walk about that distance and inquire 
 again, and you are told it is fifteen li. This will puzzle you 
 if you are a stranger, but go on another half mile, and you 
 find you are at your destination. In the common acceptation 
 of the word, I am convinced it is more a measure of time
 
 TUNG CHOW PAGODA. (Page 27.)
 
 Chap, ii.] THE WATER TERMINUS. 27 
 
 than distance, and 100 li is an average day's journey. Our 
 Tientsin boatmen put this very prominently when ques- 
 tioned, as they were nearly every hour of the day, as to how 
 far we still were from Tungchow, one of them answered, " If 
 you travel quick it is about 100 li, but if slow it is well on 
 to 200 ! " 
 
 In the first part of our journey we met with no traffic on 
 the river, but towards Tungchow we passed large fleets of 
 junks bound upwards and a few bound down. John Bell 
 says of this river, " I saw many vessels sailing down the 
 stream towards the south-east. And I was informed there 
 are nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine vessels 
 constantly employed on this river ; but why confined to such 
 an odd number I could neither leam nor comprehend." I 
 should say that during the 140 years that have elapsed 
 since that was ^vritten the fleet is more likely to have 
 been shorn of a few odd thousands than increased by the 
 odd unit. 
 
 On the fourth day, as we were panting for breath, with the 
 thermometer standing at 97° Fahr,, and with anxious eyes 
 contemplating our almost empty ice-box, the pagoda of 
 Tungchow was descried over the tall reeds on the river bank, 
 and we soon were made fast in front of a temple called 
 Fang-wang-meaou. 
 
 At this point the Peiho dwindles away into a veiy small 
 and shallow stream, and practically Tungchow is the head of 
 the navigation, the shipping port of Peking, and the begin- 
 ning of the land carnage to the north-west provinces of 
 China. 
 
 The Fang-wang-meaou is much used by Russians as a d^pot 
 for their goods in transit from Tientsin and Shanghae to 
 Siberia. We found a considerable quantity of tea stored in 
 the temple waiting for transport. In this temjsle, there- 
 fore, by the favour of the reverend personages who preside
 
 28 SIBERIA:!T route from PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. it. 
 
 over it, we bestowed our imj^edimenta, and took up our 
 quarters for the night in a wing of the building. 
 
 The Bhuddist priests are in the habit of transacting 
 business for strangers, and we therefore entered into nego- 
 tiation with them to provide us carriage either by mules or 
 camels, from Tungchow to Chan-kia-kow, the frontier town 
 between China and Mongolia. We thought by this arrange- 
 ment we could ride to Peking, do what we wanted there in 
 the way of getting passports, &c., and return to Tungchow 
 and take our departure thence. This proved a delusion, and 
 lost us some valuable time. 
 
 There is nothing remarkable about the city of Tungchow. 
 It is situated on a dead level. From a tower on the wall a 
 view of the country is obtained, including the mountains 
 north of Peking. There is a tall pagoda in the city, but as 
 it has no windows in it, it is useless as a look-out. 
 
 I found here two ponies that I had sent from Tientsin, in 
 charge of a Chinese " ma-foo " or gi'oom, who agreed to ac- 
 company me as far as Chan-kia-kow. My object was to be 
 independent of the Chinese carts at Peking and on the road, 
 and I looked forward to taking one, if not both, of my 
 ponies a considerable distance into the desert of Mongolia. I 
 strongly recommend this plan to any one travelling in that 
 quarter. 
 
 On the 10th of August I rode to Peking, the rest of the 
 party following in carts. This would no doubt be a very 
 pretty ride at another season of the year, but in the month 
 of August the millet crops stand as high as twelve and fifteen 
 feet, completely shutting in the road for nearly the whole 
 distance. At eight li from Tung-chow we passed the village 
 and handsome stone bridge of Pa-li-keaou or " eisfht-mile- 
 bridge," which euj)honious name gives a title to a distin- 
 guished French general. There are no " high " roads, but 
 many bye-roads, and it is not difficult to lose one's way
 
 Chap, ii.] PICTURESQUE TOMBS— FILIAL PIETY. 29 
 
 amongst the standing millet. Many parts of the country 
 are very prettily wooded, and there is a half-way house at a 
 well-shaded part of the road, where you naturally dismount 
 to rest yourself under a mat shed, and indulge yourself with 
 hot tea, than which nothing is more refre.shing on a hot day, 
 provided the decoction be not too strong, and is unadulterated 
 by the civilised addition of sugar or milk. You may eat fruit 
 here also if you are not afraid of the consequences (but take 
 care that it is ripe), and some naked urchins "will cut fresh 
 grass for your beasts. This little place, like many others of 
 its kind, is a " howf " for many loafers, who seek the cool 
 shade, and sit sij)ping their boiling tea, and languidly 
 fanning themselves while they listen abstractedly to the con- 
 versation of the wayfarers. 
 
 As we near Peking we come to some slight undulations, 
 and notice some very pretty places with clumps of old trees 
 about them. These are principally graves of great men, and 
 it is remarkable to observe how much attention is j)aid by 
 the Chinese to the abodes of their dead. Wealthy peoj)le 
 will pass their lives in a dismal hovel, something between a 
 pig-stye and a rabbit-"^arren, into which the light of day can 
 scarcely penetrate ; the floors of earth or brick-paved, or if 
 the party is luxurious, he may have a floor of wood, encrusted 
 with the dirt of a generation. But these same people look 
 forward to being buried under a pretty grove of trees, in a 
 nicely kept enclosure, with carefully cultivated shrubs and 
 flowers gTowing round. Some of the loveliest spots I l^ve 
 seen in China are tombs, the finest I remember being at the 
 foot of the hill behind the city of Chung-zu, near Foo-shan, 
 on the Yang-tsze-kiang. These tombs, adorned with so much 
 taste and care, were in strange contrast with the general 
 rottenness around. But armies have since been there, and it 
 is probable that the angel of destruction has swept it all 
 away.
 
 30 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. ir. 
 
 I am unable to say from what feeling springs this tender 
 regard for tombs among the Chinese, It may be that they 
 consider the leng-th of time they have to lie in the last rest- 
 ing-place, reasonably demands that more care be bestowed on 
 it than on the earthly tenement of which they have so short 
 a lease. Or it may arise simply out of that strong principle 
 of filial piety so deeply engraven in the Chinese mind, and 
 which leads them to make great sacrifices when required to 
 do honour to the manes of their ancestors. From whatever 
 motive it comes, however, this filial piety, which even death 
 does not destroy, is an admirable trait in the Chinese cha- 
 racter ; and I have even heard divines point to the Chinese 
 nation — the most long-lived cominunity the world has seen — 
 as an illustration of the promise attached to the keeping of 
 the fifth commandment. The greatest consolation a China- 
 man can have in the "hour of death" is that he will be 
 buried in a cofiin of his own selection, and that he has 
 children or gi-andchildren to take care of his bones. It is to 
 this end that parents betroth their children when young, and 
 hasten the marriages as soon as the parties are marriageable. 
 To this end also I believe polygamy fs allowed by law, or at 
 all events not interdicted. If a Chinaman could have the 
 promise made to him, " Thou shalt never want a man to 
 stand before me," he would live at ease for the rest of his 
 days. 
 
 There are no cemeteries in China, that I know of, except 
 wlifere strangers congi-egate — when they of a family, a dis- 
 trict, or even a province, combine to buy a piece of ground to 
 bury their dead in. In hilly countries pretty sites are always 
 selected for tombs. In the thickly settled parts of the coun- 
 try every family buries its own dead in its own bit of ground. 
 Thus, when they sell land for building purjjoses, negotiations 
 have to be entered into for removing the coflfins of many for- 
 gotten generations. The bones are carefully gathered up and
 
 Chap, ii.] DEPARTED GLORY. 31 
 
 put into earthenware jars, and labelled. This operation is 
 profanely called " potting ancestors." These jars are then 
 buried somewhere else — of course with great economy of 
 space. A house built on the site of an old grave that is 
 suspected of having been only partially emptied, would 
 remain tenantless for ever, and if the ghosts of the departed 
 did not destroy the house, the owner would be compelled to 
 do so. 
 
 But I am getting away from the Peking road. Amongst 
 the tombs of great families, outside the walls of the city, 
 are many old marble colossal sculptures of men and animals- 
 The same figures, in limestone, are common in other parts of 
 the country. These sculptures are all more or less dilapi- 
 dated ; some of the figures are still erect ; many have fallen 
 down and got broken ; and many have been ploughed in. 
 There is nothing remarkable about the workmanship of 
 these, although the colossal size of some of them is striking. 
 They are interesting as memorials of departed greatness, 
 and record their silent protest against the corruption, decay, 
 and degeneracy that has brought the Chinese emiDU'e so low. 
 
 Water communicating with the Peiho river goes up to 
 the walls of Peking, but is not navigable. It forms a quiet 
 lagoon, the delight of great flocks of the most beautiful 
 ducks and geese. The streams that run through the city 
 can also be connected with the water outside through the 
 arches in the wall ; and I am told the intention of those 
 truly gTeat men, who conceived and executed the grand 
 canal, was to bring the water through the city and into the 
 imperial quarters by navigable canals, so that the grain- 
 junks from Keangsoo, which were to supply the capital with 
 food, might be brought in to the gate of the Emperor's 
 palace. It is not to be wondered at that this scheme should 
 have broken down, considering the engineering difficulties 
 attending- it.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PEKING. 
 
 Nothing of the city of Peking is visible until you are close 
 under the walls, aad then the effect is really imposing. The 
 walls are high, massive, and in good repair. The double 
 gates, with their lofty and large three-storied towers over 
 them, and the general solid appearance, inspire one with 
 some of the admiration which poor old Marco Polo used to 
 evince when speaking of the glories of Kambalic, or the 
 city of the Grand Khan. 
 
 Once inside the walls you instinctively exclaim. What a hot, 
 dusty place this is ! and you call to mind that that is exactly 
 what everybody told you long before its threshold was polluted 
 by barbarian footsteps. Peking is celebrated for its carts, its 
 heat, and its dust. If it rained much the streets would be a 
 sea of mud. 
 
 We pursue our way along the sandy tracks between the 
 city wall and the buildings of the town for a mile or two, 
 then 23lunge into the labyrinth of streets, crowded, dirty and 
 odoriferous. We are being conducted to an inn which is 
 to be better than any that foreigners have been admitted 
 to before. 
 
 In our way we crossed the main street which leads from 
 the imperial city straight to the Temples of Heaven and 
 Earth. This street is very wdde, and has been veiy fine, but 
 now more than half its width is occupied by fruit, toy, and 
 fish stalls. The centre of the street has been cut up by cart-
 
 CuAP. III.] MISERABLE QUARTERS. 33 
 
 wheels for many centuries, and is full of holes and quag- 
 mires, so that the practicable portion of this wide thorough- 
 fare is narrowed down to nothing. So it is with all the wide 
 streets of Peking. They are never made. Filth accumulates 
 incredibly fast ; and the wider the street the dirtier it is, 
 because it can hold the more. 
 
 At last we arrived at this paragon of inns, and passing 
 through the courtyard, where the horses and mules of travel- 
 lers were tied uj), we threaded our way as far into the interior 
 of the establishment as we could get, and then called the 
 landlord. He pretended to make a gi-eat to-do about receiving 
 us, and strongly urged that we would find much better ac- 
 commodation at the West-end. This was not to be thought 
 of, and we soon installed ourselves in a room — but such a 
 room ! and such an inn ! and such attendance ! and such 
 filth every^vhere ! I have slept in a good many Chinese inns 
 of all sorts, but the meanest road-side hostelry I have ever 
 seen is a degree better than this swell inn in this fashionable 
 city of Kanbalu. Our room was at the far end of the laby- 
 rinthine passages, and was evidently constructed to exclude 
 light and air. It was almost devoid of furniture. We 
 certainly could make shift for sleeping accommodation, for 
 travellers can manage with wonderfully little in that way ; 
 but we were miserably off for chairs, the only thing we had 
 to sit upon being small wooden stools on four legs, the seat 
 being about five inches wide. 
 
 There was no getting anything to eat in this establish- 
 ment, so we fell in with the Peking custom of dining at a 
 restaurant, and we found a very good one on the opposite 
 side of the street. This was a nice cheerful place, with good 
 airy rooms, and comfortable cushioned seats — much fre- 
 quented by the Pekingese. Here we always got a good 
 dinner, and met good society. We could not stomach the 
 pure native messes, but as they had always abundance of 
 
 D
 
 34 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. iti. 
 
 good mutton and fisli G^ept alive on the premises till wanted), 
 also rice, clean and wliite, with a little preliminary instruc- 
 tion in our manner of living, the cuisiniere hit off our taste 
 to a nicety. We had our own knives and forks to eat with, 
 and our own good liquor to season the repast, so in Peking 
 we may be said to have lived well. 
 
 We used to meet a strange mixture of people in this 
 restaurant — natives of Canton, Yunnan, Szechune, Shansi — 
 in short, of every part of China ; men whose lawful occasions 
 brought them to the capital. Most of them were merchants, 
 and I presume the students who flock to Peking in such 
 number form little cliques of their own. These fellows lead 
 a very jovial life. About seven o'clock, or a little later, they 
 assemble in parties already made up, and dinner is laid, each 
 party having a separate room. They eat heartily, and seem 
 thoroughly to enjoy each other's society. They don't hurry 
 over their dinner, and they have such an infinity of small 
 dishes, that their repast spreads itself over several hours. 
 They are very quiet at the first onset, but as they warm up 
 with their wine, they get very noisy, and make the whole 
 place ring with the sounds of merriment. They drink their 
 wine hot, out of small porcelain cups, and instead of a de- 
 canter, a tea-kettle is put on the table. We used to amuse 
 ourselves by going from one party to another, and joining 
 for a few minutes in their conviviality. They were always 
 pleased to see us, and made us sit down and drink with 
 them. We reciprocated their hospitality, and when we had 
 administered a glass of wine to one of them, he would sip 
 it with an air of grave meditation, then slap his paunch 
 vigorously, and, holding up his right thumb, would exclaim 
 with emphasis " Haou ! " " super-excellent." 
 
 They have a methodical manner of drinking, which is no 
 less entertaining to spectators, than agreeable to themselves. 
 The libations are regulated by a game of forfeits, engaged in
 
 Chap, hi.] PEKING CONVIVIALITY. 35 
 
 by two at a time. The challenger holds out one or more 
 fingers, accompanying the action by certain set phrases. The 
 other has to reply promptly to the word and the pantomime, 
 the penalty for a mistake being to drink a cup of wine. 
 They begin this process quietly and soberly, but when an 
 obstinate antagonist is found, who replies to the challenge 
 five or six times running without a break-do'svn, the contest 
 becomes exciting. They gradually rise from their seats, and 
 approach each other across the table, their faces grow red, as 
 their shouting gets louder, and the repartee more spirited, 
 until they reach a climax of passion which flesh and blood 
 could not long sustain, and then explode like a bomb-shell 
 amid tremendous bursts of unearthly yells from the full com- 
 pany. The loser sips his liquor with resignation ; and the 
 victor generally joins him, by way of showing himself a 
 generous adversary. I have heard of drinking " by rule of 
 thumb," in our own country, but this has probably nowhere 
 been reduced to a science so much as in China. 
 
 About nine or ten, a long string of carts (the cabs of 
 Peking), would be collected at the door, the parties would 
 begin to break up, and go their several ways to the theatres, 
 or other evening amusements. They generally make a night 
 of it, and that class of the Chinese are ever3rwhere late in 
 their habits. I never met a more robust-looking, or more 
 jovial, hearty set of men, than these, our boon companions of 
 Peking. 
 
 On arrivinof in Pekinof, I lost no time in calling- on Sir F. 
 Bruce, our minister there, to get passports put in train. I 
 was fortunate enough to meet Sir Frederick, as he had just 
 come in for a day from his retreat in the hills. He has 
 occupied a temple situated on the hills, some twenty miles 
 from Peking, which forms an admirable summer residence, 
 free from the putrid smells of the city, and with a tempera- 
 ture many degrees cooler, — no mean advantage when the 
 
 D 2
 
 36 SIBEKIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. hi. 
 
 thermometer stands about 90°. The building set apart for 
 tlic English legation in Peking is, from an eastern point of 
 view, magnificent. It was a " foo," or ducal palace, has large 
 space for garden ground round the principal buildiug, while 
 the smaller buildings would easily accommodate a full regiment 
 of soldiers. 
 
 We found that it would take several days to get our 
 papers in order ; for not only was my passport to be got, but 
 my companion had to get his through the French legation. 
 There was nothing for it but to make ourselves easy, having 
 done all that we could do to accelerate our business. Now, 
 at another season of the year, I could have spent a week in 
 Peking with pleasure, but in the month of August one can- 
 not go out with any degree of comfort or safety, except in 
 the morning or evening, and then the streets are full either 
 of blinding dust, or black mire, in which your horse is always 
 splashing up to his hocks. However, we tried to make the 
 best of it, and I was fortunate enough to meet my old friend. 
 Dr. Lockhart, who had lived long enough in Peking to know 
 the ropes, and who was good-natured enough to show me 
 roimd the principal objects of interest in the city. Another 
 difficulty besets the sight-seer in Peking, and that is the 
 " magnificent distances " between the various places one 
 wants to see. However, by sallying forth betimes, we did 
 manage to visit a few of the many interesting objects in this 
 old city ; for there is nothing really worthy of note in China, 
 except what bears the stamp of antiquity. 
 
 The Confucian temple was the first object of our curiosity. 
 Here the great sage is worshipped by the Emperor once a 
 year, without the medium of paintings or images. In the 
 central shrine there is merely a small piece of wood, a few 
 inches long, standing upright, with a few characters inscribed 
 on it, tlie name of the sage, I believe. On the sides are a 
 number of still smaller wooden labels, representing the dis-
 
 r.WTLTON OF THE SUiMMER PALACE OF 
 YUEN-MIN-YUEN. 
 
 (Page 37.)
 
 Chap, in.] CONFTJCIAN TEMPLE-ANCIENT EELICS. 87 
 
 ciples and commentators wlio have elucidated the wi'itings 
 of Confucius. The temple contains a number of stone tab- 
 lets, on which are engraved the record of honours conferred 
 on literary men, and to obtain a place here is the acme of the 
 ambition of Chinese scholars. In the courtyard there are a 
 number of pine trees, said to have been planted during the 
 reign of the Mongol dynasty, more than 500 years ago. These 
 trees have been stunted in their growth, however, from want 
 of room, and considering their age, their size is disappointing. 
 The courtyard is adorned by a variety of stone sculptures, 
 the gifts of successive emperors and dynasties. The present 
 d3aiasty has been rather jealous of its predecessors in this 
 respect, especially of the Ming, and has replaced many fine 
 relics of their time by new ones of its own. There are, how- 
 ever, several Mongol tablets to the fore in the Confucian 
 temple. A connoisseur can at once, from the style, fix the 
 date of any of these works of art, and when in doubt, the 
 inscriptions are for the most part sufficiently legible to tell 
 their own tale. In another part of the building there are 
 some very curious old stones, drum-shaped, dating from 800 
 years B.C. These have been carefully preserved, but the 
 iron tooth of time has obliterated most of the writing on 
 them. The curious old characters are still to some extent 
 legible, however. The building itself is, from a Chinese point 
 of view, a noble one, and singularly enough, it is kept in 
 perfect order, in strange contrast to Chinese temples and 
 public buildings generally. It has a magnificent ceiling, very 
 high, and the top of the interior walls are ornamented by 
 wooden boards, richly painted, bearing the names of the 
 successive emperors in raised gilt characters. On the acces- 
 sion of an emperor he at once adds his name to the long 
 list. 
 
 The hall erected by the learned Emperor Kienloong, 
 although modern (he reigned from 1736 to 1796), is a mag-
 
 38 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. hi. 
 
 nificent pavilion, not very large, but beautifully finished, and 
 in perfect good taste. The pavilion is roofed with the 
 imperial yellow tiles. Round it is a promenade paved with 
 white marble, with balustrades of the same. At a little dis- 
 tance from the pavilion stands a triumphal arch, massive and 
 elegant. The pavilion is intended to be viewed through the 
 arcli, from a stand-point a few yards behind it, so that the 
 arch forms a frame for the main building. The effect pro- 
 duced is peculiar and striking, and does infinite credit to the 
 taste of old Kienloong, who, by the bye, seems to have done 
 everything that has been done in modern times to beautify 
 the capital. The pavilion stands in the middle of a large 
 open square, on two sides of which, under a shed, stand 
 double rows of stone tablets, six or seven feet high. On 
 these tablets are engraved, in clear and distinct characters, 
 the whole of the Chinese classics, in such a manner that they 
 can be printed from. Many copies have actually been struck 
 off from these tablets, and are held in very high esteem. 
 
 The great lamasery is outside the city, but the lama 
 temj)le or monastery inside is also well worthy of notice, 
 whether from the vast quantity of bricks and mortar that go 
 to make the range of buildings, the extent of the grovmds 
 attached to it, including a fine wooded park, or from the 
 internal economy of the establishment itself Two thousand 
 Mongol lamas are maintained here by the bounty of the 
 Emperor.* The other lamaseries are in the same manner 
 liberally endowed by the government. The Chinese em- 
 •perors feel that they have but a slight hold on their Mongol 
 subjects, scattered as they are over a vast desert, where no 
 Chinese troops could penetrate, even were the Chinese a 
 match for the Mongols in a military point of view, which 
 they never were. The independence of the Mongols would 
 
 * Tlie first Emperor of the Manchu line originated the scheme, but it has 
 been gi-eatly extended by his successors.
 
 CuAP. III.] MONGOLS CONCILIATED BY EMPEROR. 39 
 
 be rather a gain than a loss to China in its immediate 
 results, but it would establish a warlike race on their bor- 
 ders, which has been the terror of China from the earliest 
 times. No doubt, ages of peace have done much to subdue 
 the warlike spirit of the Mongols, but they retain their 
 ancient habits and lead a life of privation and hardship from 
 the cradle to the grave. They are susceptible of the greatest 
 enthusiasm, and at a word from their chiefs they would be 
 ready to follow them to death or gloiy. A few years of 
 fighting would render the Mongol hordes as formidable to a 
 non-military nation like the Chinese, as they were in the 
 days of the terrible Genghis Khan. In the present enfeebled 
 condition of China an irruption of Mongols would be irresis- 
 tible, and would sweep everything before it like a flood. 
 The Chinese government are quite alive to such a possible 
 contingency, and hence the care they take to conciliate the 
 Mongols. Their forty-eight kings (of v.^hom San-go-lin-sin 
 is one), nominally tributary to China, are really pensioned 
 by the Emperor, and every inducement is held out to the 
 Mongol lamas to settle in the monasteries in Peking. Here 
 they live in comfort and luxury unknown in their deserts. 
 Their friends have every facility for visiting them, and car- 
 rying back to the " land of grass " their reports of the good- 
 ness of the Chinese Emperor. The lamas are taken from all 
 parts of Mongolia — we conversed with several from Dolonor 
 and Kuren (Urga), and many others from the north and 
 south, the names of whose districts were not included in my 
 geographical vocabulary. These large Mongol communities, 
 under the eye and hand of the Emperor, answer the double 
 purpose of conciliators on the one hand, and of hostages for 
 the loyalty of distant tribes on the other. The Mongols are 
 as little a match for the Chinese in craft, as they are superior 
 to them in martial energy. It is supposed that the Chinese 
 government liave a deep design in supporting and encourag-
 
 40 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [CiiAP. iii. 
 
 ing lamaism, an institution which makes nearly one-third of 
 the Mon<Tol race ceHbats — for there are female as well as 
 male lamas — the object being to keep down the population 
 of the tribes. 
 
 However, the simple-minded Mongols lead a comfortable, 
 easy life in Peking, free from care, and with no occupation 
 exceiDt chanting their prayers. I was fortunate enough to 
 witness one of their religious services in the great temple. 
 The building is raised some ten feet from the ground, a fine 
 flight of steps running round the four sides of it. The roof 
 is very high, and tlie sides are open all round. The lamas 
 muster leisurely out of their cells, dressed in dirty red cotton 
 garments, and armed with an enormous yellow cap, with 
 something of a helmet shape, and crested with a long fringe 
 made, I think, of camel's hair. They carry the cap for the 
 most part under their arm, seldom wearing it on the head. 
 About 200 of them assembled in the temple, and sung a 
 chant which lasted about half an hour. The effect was very 
 striking and solemn, for the music was good, and one or two 
 of the lamas had the finest bass voices I ever heard. The 
 apparent earnestness with which the whole congi'egation 
 joined in the service, and the deep, devotional character of 
 the music, riveted our attention with an irresistible power. 
 So different was it from the ludicrous mockery of sacred 
 things perpetrated by the Chinese Bhuddists, during whose 
 most solemn services I have seen a dirty fellow push his way 
 through the devotees and coolly light his pipe at the candles 
 burning on the altar. 
 
 The analogies between the Bhuddist and Boman Catholic 
 forms of worship have been so hackneyed by writers that it 
 may seem impertinent in me to allude to them. But I 
 cannot help drawing attention to the manner in which 
 M. Hue endeavours to explain them. The analogies are 
 most complete in the Yellow Cap Lama sect, the origin of
 
 Chap, hi.] KOMAN AND BHUDDIST RITUAL. 41 
 
 which is described at length by Hue. In the thirteenth 
 century, in the country of Amdo, bordering on Thibet, a 
 chikl miraculously conceived was born with a white beard, 
 and from his birth gave utterance to profound sayings con- 
 cerning the destiny of man. His name was Tseng- Kamba. 
 This prodigy of a child became an ascetic, devoting himself 
 to meditation and prayer. A holy stranger from the west 
 visited him, and amazed him by his sanctity and learning. 
 The stranger was remarkable for his long nose. After 
 instructing Tsong-Kamba for a few years in the mysteries 
 of religion the holy man died ; but Tsong-Kamba became a 
 great reformer, and originated the new sect of the Yellow 
 Cap Lamas, Hue clutches at this tradition, and thinks he 
 sees in the mysterious visitor of Tsong-Kamba a Christian 
 missionary, many of whom had penetrated about that period 
 into Tartary. The premature death of the master left in- 
 complete the instruction of the disciple, who, failing to attain 
 Christianity, stopped short as a reformer of Bhuddism. 
 
 After the service we had some talk with the lamas, who 
 were pleased to see us, and treated us with every civility. 
 They all speak, and many of them write, Chinese ; and in 
 that lanofuage we communicated with them. The ethnical 
 difference between two races supposed to be of the same 
 origin could not be more apparent than in the case of these 
 Mongols and the Chinese by whom they were surrounded. 
 The Mongols have all an unintellectual cast of coun- 
 tenance, low narrow foreheads, and a simple and open 
 expression. Their features are not very different from 
 the Chinese. They have the high cheek-bones, small eyes, 
 and some other characteristics of their neighbours ; but 
 their noses are on the whole not so short and flat, nor 
 their faces so rounded. It is not so easy to tell in what the 
 difference between them and the Chinese consists, but the 
 distinction is so marked that I hardly believe it possible for
 
 42 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. hi. 
 
 auy one to mistake a Mongol for a Chinese. The Mongols 
 have unsuspecting honesty written on their faces. The 
 Chinese, from north to south, bear the stamp of craft and 
 cunning, and are much superior in intellect to the Mongols. 
 It is only necessary to remark the physiognomies of the two 
 races to understand how the Chinese outwit the Mongols in 
 their dealings with them, and how the Chinese name has in 
 consequence become a bye-word among the Mongols for 
 everything that is detestable. It should not be forgotten of 
 course that it is probably the worst class of Chinese with 
 whom the Mongols come in contact. They are mostly adven- 
 turers who seek their fortunes among the Tartars, for the 
 hard life they are compelled to live in these outlying coun- 
 tries is not at all suitable to the Chinese taste. The better 
 sort of merchants are therefore not likely to wander so far ; 
 and those that do go are in the first instance below the 
 average moral standard of the Chinese, and, when liberated 
 from the restraint of public opinion in their own country, 
 they are likely to deteriorate still more. It would also 
 appear to be true that demoralisation naturally grows out of 
 the intercourse between two races, one of whom is in a 
 marked degree inferior to the other in intellectual capacity. 
 In commercial dealings the Chinese find it so easy to over- 
 reach the simple Mongols, and the temptation to do so is so 
 strong, that the habit is engendered, which soon becomes 
 part of the chai-acter of the Chinese in Tartary. The 
 Mongols, on their part, learn to form a low estimate of the 
 honour of human nature. They know they are victimised 
 by the Chinese, but they are powerless to escape from it ; 
 hence they, by a very natural process, acquire a settled 
 hatred to the whole race. 
 
 But we have not yet seen the great gilt image of Bhudda, 
 which stands in a separate building erected for the purpose. 
 We failed in getting in on the first visit, but afterwards
 
 THIBETIAN MONUMENT IN LAMA TEMPLE. PEKING. (Page 42.)
 
 Chap, hi.] AN INCARNATION OF DEITY. 43 
 
 succeeded. The image is seventy-two feet high, well formed, 
 and symmetrically proportioned. By a series of narrow and 
 steep staircases we ascend several stories, at each getting a 
 view of a part of the image. At the top of all we get out 
 on a balcony, from which a good view of the city and 
 environs is obtained. 
 
 The Grand Lama of this monastery is a Chaberon or living 
 Bhudda, of whom there are several in Mongolia ; and as 
 such he is a sacred person, and a man of great authority 
 among Mongols, whether lamas or laymen. We had 
 business to transact with this incarnation of Bhudda, but, 
 on inquiring for him, we learned that he had left on some 
 holy mission to the great lamasery at Dolonor, a Mongol 
 town a few days' journey north-west of Peking. We had a 
 letter from the head priest of the Fang-wang temple at 
 Tungchow, who, though not belonging to the Lama sect, 
 which so far as I am aware consists exclusively of Tartars, 
 was nevertheless on easy terms with the Grand Lama. The 
 purport of the letter w^as to recommend us to the attentions 
 of the Grand Lama, and to request him to give us another 
 letter to the lamas of a monastery in Mongolia, a short 
 distance beyond the Great Wall at Chan-kia-kow, to enlist 
 their services in j^rocuring camels for our journey across the 
 desert of Gobi. We anticipated some difficulty about this, 
 and wished to have as many strings to our bow as possible. 
 The letter was written in Mongol, and put in an envelope 
 addressed in Manchu, for the priest at Tung-chow was a 
 learned man. No one in the monastic brotherhood could be 
 found who could read the Manchu address, and they had 
 great difficulty in finding one who could master the Mongol 
 characters in which the letter itself was written. We were 
 surprised that they should not be able to read their own 
 language, and on inquiry found that lamas are not taught 
 to read Mongol as a necessary branch of study. They all
 
 U SIBERIAIT ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. in. 
 
 learn the Lama writing, wliicli tliey call " Tangiit," but 
 which must be Thibetian, as all their books and prayers are 
 written in that character, and those lamas who live in 
 Peking generally learn to read a little Chinese for their own 
 convenience. While the letter was being deciphered we 
 were introduced to the lay brother of the monastery, the 
 confidant of the Grand Lama, and factotum in all secular 
 affairs. A fine, hard-headed, swarthy complexioned, rough- 
 and-ready burly fellow he was, and he received us with his 
 rude native hospitality, showing us into the room, and 
 making lis sit on the very kang used by the absent Bhudda. 
 Being naturally slow of comprehension, and his secretary 
 being equally slow and uncertain in deciphering the missive, 
 the old fellow had many questions and cross-questions to 
 ask, with many repetitions, which all being carried on in 
 a very loud tone of voice, as if he had been bawling to a 
 man on the main-top, began to get rather tiresome. Having 
 satisfied himself about the contents of the letter, he entered 
 into conversation with Noetzli, who, having been in Mongolia 
 before, and in the very monastery of Bain-tolochoi to which 
 we sought to be accredited, very adroitly led the conversation 
 to that subject, and soon showed our Mongol friend that he 
 knew all about the locality and the personal appearance of 
 the head Lama there, whose chief characteristic seemed to 
 be that he was inordinately fat. No sooner had our friend 
 convinced himself that Noetzli had actually been the guest 
 of the fat Lama, than he took us yet closer into his confi- 
 dence, ordered the letter to be written, and at the same 
 time despatched a boy into the street with some money in 
 his hand. When the letter was finished, and we rose to 
 leave, the old fellow, on hospitable thoughts intent, pro- 
 tested, seized our hats, and by main force pushed us back 
 to the seat of the Grand Lama. To keep us in play he put 
 fruit before us, but we did not know what it was all about
 
 Chap. hi. J MONGOL FEAST— CHINESE ASTRONOMERS. 45 
 
 until our breakfast was brought in in a large basin. It con- 
 sisted of about twenty pounds of plain boiled mutton, with- 
 out bread, rice, potatoes, or vegetables of any kind. All we 
 had to eat with it was a solution of salt, soy, vinegar, and 
 sugar. Eat we must, there was no help for it, and we 
 honestly set ourselves to do as full justice to the unsavoury 
 meal as we were capable of, although we had a good 
 breakfast waiting us at home, that is, at our restaurant, our 
 host all the while standing over us like a taskmaster to keep 
 us up to our work. When no entreaties would make us eat 
 more, with looks and expressions of pitying regret, our un- 
 couth friend showed us how Mongols eat mutton by taking 
 out a good-sized piece with his fingers, and droj)ping it down 
 his throat. Then turning to the youngsters who crowded 
 the room he pitched lumps of mutton to each of them, who, 
 in like manner, gobbled it like hungry eagles. Our reception 
 at the Lama temple gave us a fair idea of Mongol hospitality 
 and habits, and impressed us favourably with the former. 
 A long ride through the dirty streets of Peking, in a hot 
 sun, was the least agreeable part of our morning's work. 
 
 The old Observatory on the Wall is interesting as a monu- 
 ment of the early astronomical tastes of the Chinese em- 
 perors, and of the ingenuity of the Jesuits. It was first 
 erected by the Ming before the Jesuits came to China, or, at 
 all events, before they began to be influential, and afterwards 
 greatly enlarged and improved under the auspices of the 
 Jesuits. There is even an old instrument cast out and lying 
 dishonoured in the grass — an orrery, if I rightly remember, 
 dating.from the Mongol dynasty, 600 years old. It is pro- 
 bable that the Chinese or Mongols were then in advance of 
 European nations in their knowledge of celestial phenomena. 
 The great celestial globe made under the direction of Yer- 
 biest, is a superb casting in bronze, and although the instru- 
 ment sent from Paris is the finest in the Observatory, Father
 
 46 SIBERIAN" KOUTE FKOM TEKIXG TO PETEESBUEG. [Chap. hi. 
 
 Verbiest's celestial globe was tlie most interesting to me 
 as a specimen of what a clever man can do under almost 
 insuperable difficulties. Since the fall of the Jesuits little at- 
 tention seems to have been paid to, or use made of, the 
 Observatory, and the teaching of those talented men is well 
 nigh lost. 
 
 The Temple of Heaven, or, as some people call it, the 
 Altar of Heaven, is situated near the south wall of the city. 
 We had several miles to go to it from our residence, in a 
 direct line south, along the main street from the centre gate 
 between the Tartar and Chinese cities. The street is wide 
 and straight, but very dirty, and blocked up mth trumpery 
 stalls of all sorts, and kept alive by the incessant shouts of 
 boys and old women. " Apples ! fine apples, to be sold cheap, 
 — those who have no money can't have any," I'eminded us of 
 the pathetic story of " Simple Simon." Jugglers also dis- 
 ported themselves in the street and attracted good audiences 
 to witness the swallowing and disgorging of huge stones, feats 
 of strength, and other miracles. The poor juggler does not 
 seem to take much by his motions, however, for, after swal- • 
 lowing an intolerable quantity of stone, and throwing up 
 large bricks, and allowing them to break themselves on his 
 head, thereby creating baldness on the crown, and otherwise 
 amusing a distinguished circle of spectators for twenty 
 minutes, he mildly solicits "cash," and has a wretched 
 pittance thrown into the ring, much as one would throw 
 a bone to a dog. I coui^ not help wishing him some more 
 useful outlet for his talents. Another man would stand with 
 a white painted board in his hand, slightly covered with ink 
 in a half-liquid state, and, while conversing with the crowd, 
 he would, by means of his thumb and fingers, throw off such 
 excellent representations of fishes, birds, &c., with every fin, 
 scale, and feather done to the life, as one never sees in the 
 most highly finished Chinese paintings. The talent displayed
 
 Chap, hi.] THE TEMPLE OF HEAVEN. 47 
 
 by these peripatetic artists proves conclusively that the 
 Chinese do possess the skill to draw after nature. Then 
 why don't they do it ? A question more easily asked 
 than answered. But we are supposed to be on the road to 
 the Temple of Heaven. After walking two miles or so 
 down this great street, we suddenly come to a break in the 
 houses. There is no more street, but a large open space 
 before us, lying very low, the road being continued on a 
 raised causeway, on the same level as the street we have left. 
 This space was originally a parade-ground. It is now a mud- 
 puddle, cut up in all directions by innumerable cart-ruts, 
 and most unsightly to behold. But the Temple of Heaven 
 itself is now in sight, the outer wall stretching from a^ point 
 abreast of us on the left to the south gate of the city, which 
 is dimly visible in the distance over the miscalled parade- 
 ground. The great centre pavilion, with its blue roof and 
 large gilt top, resplendent in the afternoon sun, shoots up 
 into the air, the most conspicuous object to be seen in all 
 Peking. The outer wall alluded to encloses a square mile of 
 ground. Opposite to the Temple of Heaven, and on our 
 right, is the Temple or Altar of the Earth, where the 
 emperors of China repair according to traditional custom on 
 the first day of spring to inaugurate the happy season by 
 ploughing the first furrow. The little boy who now wields 
 the sceptres of the khans must be too young to hold a 
 plough, and I suppose he does it by commission, if indeed he 
 is not too degenerate to do it at all. 
 
 Entering the outer gate of the Temple of Heaven, we are 
 ushered into a large park, beautifully laid out with avenues 
 of trees, and with regular well-jDaved walks. The whole 
 place is terribly overgrown with long gi'ass, and the neatly 
 paved walks are all but obhterated by the same. As we 
 proceed we come to a number of rather fine buildings for the 
 accommodation of the priests. We saw none of these gentry.
 
 48 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cuap. hi. 
 
 however, and the outer gate is kept by a dirty coohe, who 
 takes a fee for opening it. The great jDavilion stands on the 
 top of a high causeway, the best part of a mile long, with 
 flights of steps leading up to it at various parts. The cause- 
 way is beautifully paved with square stones, so regular and 
 well fitted that the joinings can be traced in straight parallel 
 lines along the whole length, except where the line of sight 
 is intercepted by rank grass shooting up through them. The 
 altar is in the great pavilion, which is a circular building of 
 three storys, each story having wide eaves projecting over 
 it, all covered with bright blue enamelled tiles. The roof of 
 the building is of the same material, and is rather a sharply- 
 pitched cone surmounted by a lai'ge round gilt ball. The 
 whole effect is bright and beautiful. The pavilion is ascended 
 from the causeway by flights of white marble steps, and a 
 promenade of the same material runs all round it. On the 
 causeway, and at some distance from the altar, are large 
 massive arches with gates in them, and beyond the arches, at 
 a great distance, there is another pavilion of similar construc- 
 tion to the principal one, but much smaller, being only one 
 story high, where the Emperor comes once a-year to worship 
 the true God, or, as some call it, the Dragon. Be that as it 
 may, however, this is doubtless the purest form of worship 
 known to the Chinese. When the Emperor takes his place 
 in the small pavilion the gates of the arches are thrown 
 open, and through them he can see afar off the altar of 
 Heaven, or the Dragon throne, as you may please to call it. 
 Sacrifices are made on those occasions ; a large house or 
 temple is set apart for the slaughter of the animals, and 
 another circular tower of green bricks stands near it, where 
 the remains of the sacrifices are buried. The whole plan of 
 this splendid monument is nobly conceived, and would do 
 credit to the most advanced nation in the world. Unhappily, 
 it seems now to be utterly uncared for. The pavements on
 
 Chap, in.] THE DKAMA IN" PEKING. 49 
 
 which so much care, labour, and money have been expended, 
 are being rapidly covered up with grass. The avenues are 
 like a wilderness, and weeds are even taking root in the 
 beautiful blue-tiled roofs, which, if not soon ruined by it, 
 will at all events be twisted out of their symmetrical propor- 
 tions. It is melancholy to see that what men of large and 
 enlightened ideas have been at such pains to build, the pre- 
 sent degenerate race do not consider it worth while to hire 
 half-a-dozen coolies to keep in order. No further proof is 
 necessary of the state of imbecility into which the Chinese 
 rulers have fallen than this, that in their own city they 
 should allow such a monument of the active energy of their 
 ancestors to go to wreck and ruin for want of a little 
 looking after. I do not see hoAv good government can be 
 looked for in the distant provinces when the body politic is 
 so rotten at the core. 
 
 My opportunities did not allow of my seeing more of the 
 great sights of Peking, but we have not yet done the 
 theatres. It was, of course, necessary to patronise some of 
 these establishments, and they afford great facilities for 
 admitting people whose time is not all their own. Ours 
 certainly was our own, but we had let it out for other pur- 
 poses, and could only steal an hour now and then to give up 
 to this enjoyment. The theatres are open all day long, and 
 all night, too, for anything I know. The acting goes on in- 
 cessantly — one piece following another without interrup- 
 tion. The favourite pieces with the actors, and by a natural 
 inference with the audience, axe old historical heroic pieces, 
 which are performed in a wretched falsetto sing-song voice, 
 and accompanied by the most die-away pantomimic gestures, 
 even in the chief male characters, painfully monotonous to 
 European ears and eyes. They are heavy and slow, but 
 afford great scope for the display of outre costumes, overlaid 
 with fiery dragons and hideous forms, which delight the eye 
 
 E
 
 50 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. hi. 
 
 of the Chinese. The theatres at Peking are certainly supe- 
 rior, both in the get-up and acting, to anything else of 
 the kind I have seeii in China, and some comic pieces we 
 saw were so admirably acted that we, knowing scarcely a 
 word, could follow the story throughout. The houses were 
 always crowded, and the audience seemed to take more 
 interest in the performance than is usual in the south of 
 China, no doubt owing to the language used being the 
 Peking dialect, which is but indifferently understood by pro- 
 vincial audiences. On our entrance to a theatre we were 
 always civilly greeted by the officers, and shown up to the 
 most eligible places in the galleries, where we met people 
 from all parts of the country, not excepting swell Cantonese, 
 all dressed in spotless white muslin, as light and airy as if 
 made from the gossamer's web. We were at once beset by 
 half-naked peripatetic vendors of fruits, cakes, and comfits, 
 and even cups of hot tea. The tea was very refreshing in 
 such a hot place, but our neighbours insisted on giving us 
 little dumplings and other Chinese delicacies, whose compo- 
 nent parts we could not even guess. It was useless re- 
 fusing — that Avas regarded as mock-modesty. We could 
 only take a quiet opportunity of depositing the suspicious 
 viands in our pockets, and give them to the first dirty 
 urchin we met in the street. The Chinese themselves go 
 on crunching ground nuts, melon-seeds, and rubbish of that 
 sort, the whole time. 
 
 Women do not act in China except under very exceptional 
 circumstances. The female part is acted by men, who, thanks 
 to their naturally effeminate appearance, make up very well 
 as women, and the squeaky voice which they practise helps 
 them out. Actors are by no means held in high repute 
 in China, and they are in general very ill paid. One of 
 the best actors, who was also highly esteemed as a singer, 
 that is a squeaker, lodged at our hotel, and he informed
 
 Chap, hi.] RELIGIOUS APATHY OF THE CHINESE. 51 
 
 US that he earned on an average about half a dollar 
 a day. 
 
 Our lodging being in the Chinese city, was far removed 
 from the European residents, who all live in the Tartar 
 quarter, and the gate between the two is closed at sunset. 
 We therefore saw less of our respective countrymen than we 
 might otherwise have done. The foreign community in 
 Peking is but small, and foreign trade being interdicted in 
 the capital, is not likely to be very much increased. There 
 are the Russian, English, French, American, and I sujjposenow 
 the Prussian legations, all well quartered in commodious 
 oflficial buildings. The Russian is the smallest, because the 
 oldest. At the time of its establishment it was a gi'eat thing 
 to have a place at all, without quarrelling about the size of 
 it. The head of the foreign custom-house lives in Peking, 
 and there are a few student interpreters attached to him, 
 who are in training for the custom-house service. Two 
 Church missionaries also reside in Peking, and last, not least. 
 Dr. Lockhart, who has established a medical mission under 
 the auspices of the London Missionary Society, on the plan 
 of the one he for many years successfully conducted in 
 Shanghae. Whatever may have been the past success 
 of medical missions as an indirect means of introduciuo- 
 Christianity into China, there can hardly be a doubt that 
 they are of all methods the best calculated to attain the 
 objects for which they have been organised. The Chinese 
 are jDre-eminently iiTeligious, I mean with reference to their 
 own nominal creed — Bhuddism. They are too keenly intent 
 on minding their worldly affairs to have any thought to spare 
 for higher considerations. They are entirely free from the 
 fanaticism which animates other pagan races. Their temples 
 and priesthood are universally despised and neglected. The 
 only semblance of religious observances practised by the bulk 
 of the people, is a very low kind of superstition, and that sits 
 
 e2
 
 52 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. hi. 
 
 lightly on tliem as a rule wherever dollars stand in the way. 
 It is not unfair to say that they are devoid of the religious 
 faculty, and are "sunk in material interests." Hence, the 
 didactic inculcation of strange doctrines is foolishness to them 
 who are indifferent to any doctrine whatever. Of course I 
 only si^eak from a secular point of view, without forgetting 
 that the most impossible things are easy to the Omnij^otent ; 
 and he would be a bold man w^ho would venture to circum- 
 scribe the possible results that the future may develop from 
 the dissemination of the Bible among a reading, and on the 
 whole not an unthinking people. But the medical missionary 
 presents Christianity in its most attractive phase, that is, 
 associated with a noble philanthropy, after the example of 
 the Founder of our religion, who always accompanied his 
 teaching with healing the sick. And there is perhaps no 
 form of mere philanthropy so powerful to exact gratitude 
 from the most unlikely objects, as that of alleviating pain. 
 The Chinese are probably more oj^en to this mode of reaching 
 their hearts than to any other. In my rambles in out-of-the- 
 way places in China, I have frequently been appealed to for 
 medical aid by poor people who had heard of the repute of 
 foreign doctors, both for skill and benevolence. And although 
 the Chinese character is the most hopeless one to expect 
 gratitude from, still I affirm that if anything can touch them 
 with the sense of an obligation, it is the ministering to their 
 fleshly infirmities ; and in the case of medical missions, t'hey 
 cannot escape the connection between them and the religion 
 that prompts them. But I fear I am getting into too deep 
 waters. 
 
 No difficulty was experienced in getting our passports, 
 although it was intimated to Sir F. Bruce that the passport 
 for Mongolia was not exactly a thing which could be demanded 
 under the treaty, and therefore that the issue of such a docu- 
 ment might at any time be refused by the Chinese authorities
 
 CiiAr. m.] CHINESE AND RUSSIAN DIPLOMACY. 5S 
 
 without infringing any of the treaty stipulations, the argu- 
 ment being-, that Mongolia, though tributary to China, is not 
 a part of the Ciiinese empire, in the treaty interpretation of 
 the word. This is fudge, of course, but as long as they grant 
 the passports, all right. When they refuse, it will be time to 
 argue about it. They are no doubt a little jealous about 
 foreigners poking about in Mongolia : their own hold on it 
 is so uncertain, and the encroachments of the Russians so 
 gigantic of late years in other quarters, that is, in Manchuria, 
 that the Chinese government, who now, if never before, feels its 
 OAvn decrepitude, does not know which way to turn for security 
 against aggression. As usual with them, they, in their blind- 
 ness to their own best interests, do just the wrong thing. Two 
 schemes for telegraphic communication from Europe through 
 Mongolia have been proposed to them, both from English 
 sources : both have been rejected, from the general and igno- 
 rant dread they have of foreigners establishing stations in 
 Mongolia. Now were their eyes opened they must see that 
 it is not from England or France they have anything to fear of 
 aggression in that part of their dominions ; but from Russia 
 alone. But were English or French subjects to settle, for 
 any purpose whatever, in the Mongolian steppes, under 
 authority from the Chinese government, no better guarantee 
 could be secured against Russian aggression. As it now 
 stands, the Russians are left alone in the field. When they 
 really want to have telegraphic stations in Mongolia they 
 will not be refused, and before many years are over a large 
 slice of Mongolia will be Russian. The Russians have certain 
 winning ways of their o'wn, altogether foreign to our system 
 of diplomatic procedure, of getting what they want from the 
 Chinese. While we are spending millions in sending armies 
 to fight the Chinese, for questions which are as much or more 
 for their own interests as for ours, and then as conquerors 
 astonishing the Chinese by the moderation of our demands.
 
 54 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. iit. 
 
 the Kussians are in the most amicable manner possible push- 
 ing forward their frontiers, and slicing off a thousand miles 
 of Chinese coast, all the while maintaining their position as 
 friendly allies of the Chinese, in contradistinction to the 
 English barbarians, who are always blustering and fighting, 
 in utter defiance of the rules of courtesy. After all it may 
 be as well so. Our interest as a commercial people is to 
 develop the resources of the world. The Russians will 
 certainly do this better than the Chinese in those wild- 
 northern regions ; at all events, a desert on the one hand, 
 and a wilderness on the other, cannot be made much less 
 productive than they are. But the Chinese cannot be ex- 
 pected to view the matter in this light, and yet they are so 
 infatuated as to nurse the snake in their bosom to the ex- 
 clusion of others who w^ould be likely to checkmate his 
 designs. The Russian government has shoAvn a strange 
 2^enchant for annexing vast deserts to its dominions. Much 
 may it make out of them ; but if half the enterprise and 
 money had been expended in improving the condition of the 
 enormous territory it already possesses, the Russian empire 
 would have been too jDowerfu] for all Europe. But that is 
 their own affair. 
 
 The last thing to be done in Peking was to settle our bills 
 at tlie hotel (1) and restaurant, and exorbitant enough they 
 were. On asking the proj)rietor of the hotel for his account, 
 he replied, " Oh ! j)ay what you like." " In that case," said 
 we, " we like to pay nothing." " All right, as you please," 
 with the most lofty indifference, answered our host. Driven 
 almost wild by his coolness, we tendered about six times 
 what we should have paid for better entertainment anywhere 
 else. The wretch turned up his nose at it with a supercilious 
 air that nearly roused the British lion. The restaurant was 
 as unconscionable in its demands, but we had something sub- 
 stantial for our money there, and did not so much object ;
 
 TART OF THE EMPEROR'S TALACE, YUEN-MIN-YUEN. 
 DESTROYED ISfiO. 
 
 (Page or).)
 
 Chap, hi.] BANK-NOTES IN PEKING. 55 
 
 but to pay through the nose for a corner to sleep in, which 
 no gentleman would think fit for his hounds, did go sorely 
 against the grain. I cannot imagine what makes things so 
 dear in Peking, nor do I believe they are so dear to the 
 initiated. One thing is cheap, and that is ice, and the most 
 refreshing sight we saw during our stay in the capital, was 
 the cartloads of the precious commodity being carried about 
 in large square blocks ; and how did we pity our friends 
 whom we had left in Shanghae, sweltering through the worst 
 part of the summer without this luxury — I ought to say 
 necessary — in such a climate. No care is taken of ice in 
 Peking. It is collected and thrown into large pits, and may 
 melt as much as it likes. If there was any chance of its 
 falling short, it would simply be a question of a few thousand 
 tons more to be thrown into the heap in the winter. 
 
 The local bank-notes in Peking are a great convenience. 
 They are issued in amounts from 1000 cash (about a dollar) 
 and upwards, and are in universal use in the city. The use 
 of them saves the natives from lugging about huge strings of 
 copper cash, the only coinage of China, 50 lbs. weight of 
 which are worth about sixty shillings. These notes are not 
 current outside the city walls, however, and here is an in- 
 convenience ; for whatever cash balance you may have in 
 that medium must be paid away for something or other 
 before you leave. It would be possible to change them for 
 copper cash or Sycee silver, but that would involve delay and 
 perhaps trouble.
 
 >:^ 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PEKING TO CHAN-KIA-KOW. 
 
 On the 14th of Ausmst, having arranged all our affairs in 
 Peking, we set out for Tung-chow, where we had left the 
 priests to provide us transport to Chan-kia-kow. Disappoint- 
 ment awaited us — nothing was done. We were very angry, 
 and a hot discussion ensued between us and the head priest, 
 but we could make neither rhyme nor reason out of him. 
 Here was a dilemma. Ought we to wait till the mon*ow, and 
 try ourselves to hire beasts of burden at Tung-chow, with 
 this shaven head probably plotting against us ? Or ought we 
 to start by break of day with our whole baggage to Peking, 
 and trust to arranging matters there ? To do that even, we 
 were helpless, unless the priests were on our side. We 
 resolved, therefore, to conciliate the monk. At this juncture 
 M. Noetzli, who had kindly volunteered to accompany us so 
 far, being acquainted with the ways of the road, addressed 
 the priest in Russian. The effect was marked and instanta- 
 neous — the priest's countenance changed — he opened himself 
 out — explained the true causes why he had not been able to 
 get the mules, and suggested that we should get carts to take 
 our baggage to Peking the next day. He would accompany 
 us himself, and help us to negotiate for transport in Peking, 
 That settled, we felt relieved, and ate our frugal dinner in 
 peace and comfort. 
 
 I must explain the wonderful effect produced by the use of 
 the Russian language. I have already intimated that this
 
 Chap, iv.] MULES AND MULE-OWNEES. 57 
 
 Fang-wang temple has been constantly used by the Russians 
 as a d^pot. Intimate relations have grown up between the 
 Russians and the priests, and mutual confidence and kindli- 
 ness has been the result. Several of the priests have learnt 
 the Russian language in their frequent intercourse with the 
 Russians. The priests know no other foreigners. On our 
 own merits we could do nothing with them ; but the moment 
 a connecting link seemed to be shown between us and the 
 Russians, we were regarded as belonging to a privileged 
 class. 
 
 Next morning, we were again on the road to Peking, bag 
 and baggage. We rode, Noetzli on a mule, which was quiet 
 and tractable enough till a straw touched his tail, when he 
 bounded off, kicking and jumping, floundered in a rut, 
 pitched Noetzli over his head, then tenderly kicked him, 
 Mem. — Never ride a mule if you can help it, they are uncouth, 
 unmanageable brutes. 
 
 Our late landlord in Peking greeted us obsequiously on 
 our return, and our old friends at the restaurant were no less 
 delighted that their newly acquired art of cooking mutton 
 chops was again in requisition. 
 
 Our clerical friend soon appeared with a large, old-fashioned, 
 blue cotton umbrella. We at once went with him to a 
 shop where mules and litters were to be hired, and after the 
 preliminary salutations and cups of tea, we asked for mules? 
 and were told off-hand that they had none. This we knew 
 to be untrue, because we had seen them. We tried several 
 others, but met with the same reply. This looked hopeful, 
 indeed, and it seemed there was nothing left for us that day, 
 but to go to the Iheatre, where we saw some good acting and 
 an audience thoroughly enjoying it ; and so we drowned our 
 own troubles for a time. The next expedient was to order 
 as good a dinner as our ingenuity could devise, out of 
 the materials at hand. A good dinner is a wonderful
 
 58 SIBEKIAK EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETEESBURG. [Chap. iv. 
 
 soother, and has been, perhaps, too much overlooked by 
 philosophers. 
 
 The next day, 16th of August, our priest, worn out in our 
 service, came and reported himself sick. He had feverish 
 symptoms, for which we administered quinine. 
 
 This break-down of our mainstay was unfortunate, for as 
 we could not get on with his assistance, how could we 
 manage without it? The mule-proprietors still maintained 
 in the morning that there were no mules to be had ; but at 
 mid-day they sent to say we could have as many as we liked, 
 at slightly exorbitant prices. We thereupon engaged eight 
 pack -mules at four taels * each, and three mule-litters at 
 eight taels each, to convey us and our belongings to Chan- 
 kia-kow, distant about 400 K, or a four days' journey. It is 
 difficult to divine why it was that these crafty dealers so 
 obstinately maintained the non-existence of the mules. They 
 refused even to listen to an offer on the first day. They were 
 prepared to demand an extortionate price, and we were 
 equally prepared to pay it, but they determined to play with 
 us a little, in order to work our feelings up to the requisite 
 pitch. And when they had reduced us to despair, they 
 thought we would be in a proper frame of mind to accede to 
 their demands, however extravagant they might be. But 
 now everything was satisfactorily arranged, and the mules 
 were to be sent to us early in the morning. The fare 
 amounted to sixty taels in all, of which we paid one-third on 
 the signing of the contract, one-third when the mules were 
 loaded, and the balance on arrival at Chan-kia-kow. 
 
 My ma-foo now made himself very busy. Up to this time 
 he had done little but entertain me with cock-and-bull 
 stories about his late master, and his reasons for leaving his 
 service, at every favourable opportunity appealing to me for 
 
 * 1 tael equal to 6s. 6d.
 
 Chap, iv.] MA-FOO'S GENIUS AT FAULT. 59 
 
 my o23inion, as to whether he was a " good man." I always 
 answered in the negative, but he solaced himself with the 
 reflection that I would find him out and do him justice when 
 we got to Chan-kia-kow. Now that we were about starting, 
 we thought of many little things we wanted for our comfort 
 on the journey, and who so eligible to make the purchases as 
 " ma-foo." His eagle eye discerned in this a fine scope for 
 his energies, for nothing tickles a Chinaman so much as to 
 have money passing through his hands. " Ma-foo " set to 
 work manfully, and was proceeding very satisfactorily to all 
 parties, bringing the articles we wanted, and rendering an 
 account of the prices paid, until he brought me a coarse 
 cotton bag, which he put in at two dollars. "No," I said, 
 " I won't have it at that price. Take it back to the shop." 
 By and by, he re-appeared with the bag, and offered it for 
 a dollar and a-half. I refused it ; and sent him back to 
 the shop. After a while, he returned to the charge with 
 the wretched bag : told me he could not take it back, but 
 reduced his demand to one dollar. I asked him how he 
 could afford to sell it for one dollar, seeing he had paid 
 two for it. " Maskee — you take it." I saw he was " stuck " 
 with it, and that if he failed to realise, he would be under 
 the necessity of stealing something from me to make up for 
 his loss. I therefore accepted it — not without making him 
 confess that he had paid only one dollar for the bag. It was 
 now my turn to ask him where his vaunted goodness was, 
 seeing he tried to cheat me of a dollar. He only grinned, 
 and said, in this instance he was a " little " bad. He was but 
 an inexperienced knave. A clever Chinaman, that is, an 
 ordinary average Chinaman, would have managed an affair of 
 that kind so adroitly as to defy suspicion, except the general 
 feeling one always experiences that all Chinamen are rogues. 
 But small peculations are considered by the Chinese as their 
 legitimate game. When they are intrusted with commis-
 
 60 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBUEG. [Chap. iv. 
 
 sions, tliey look on it as a sacred duty to scrape as much as 
 they can out of the affair for themselves. This runs through 
 the whole race, and every grade of society, from the highest 
 official in the empire to the meanest beggar. 
 
 In case these remarks should be taken to contain a general 
 sweeping charge of dishonesty against the whole Chinese 
 race, I must explain myself a little more fully. The system 
 of i3eculation is recognised in China, as a legitimate source of 
 emolument ; and within certain limits, arbitrarily fixed by 
 custom, it is not held to be inconsistent with honesty. The 
 government connive at it to an alarming extent, by paying 
 responsible officers mere nominal salaries, leaving it to their 
 own ingenuity to improve their fortunes. But with all that, 
 it is a rare thing for a Chinaman to betray a trust ; the best 
 proof of which is that they are trusted, under the slenderest 
 of guarantees, with large sums of money. Among the 
 respectable class of merchants, their woi'd is as good as their 
 bond. A bargain once concluded is unflinchingly adhered to. 
 Their slipperiness is exhausted in the preliminary negotia- 
 tions. Their " cheating " is conducted on certain broad and 
 well understood principles. But for practical honesty, the 
 Chinese may well excite the admiration of many who think 
 themselves vastly superior. When we were at war with the 
 Viceroy of Canton, the European factories were burnt, and 
 foreigners compelled to abandon the place, leaving a great 
 deal of property in the hands of Chinese merchants. Repu- 
 diation never occurred to these Chinamen's minds. On the 
 contrary, they found their way to Hong-kong, during the 
 blockade of the Canton river, for the purpose of settling 
 accounts with the foreigners. China contains good and 
 bad in about the same proportion as other countries. Old 
 John Bell says of them : — " They are honest, and observe 
 the strictest honour and justice in their dealings. It must, 
 however, be acknowledged, that not a few of them are much
 
 Chap, iv.] MULE-LOADS -PALANQUIN TRAVELLING. 61 
 
 addicted to knavery, and well skilled in the art of cheating. 
 They have, indeed, found many Europeans as great profi- 
 cients in that art as themselves." A very fair summary of 
 Chinese character. 
 
 Bright and early in the morning the mules and litters 
 came, and we were three hours at work, loading and arrang- 
 ing everything. It required a good deal of management, as 
 the loads are not lashed on the mules' backs, but balanced, 
 so that they must be pretty equally divided on each side of 
 the pack-saddle. 
 
 We had somehow nine mules instead of eight. We had 
 under 8000 lbs. weight of baggage to carry. That did not 
 give a full load to each mule, for they are reputed to carry 
 300 catties, or 400 lbs. each. The loads of our team 
 averaged 325 lbs. 
 
 The mule Utter, used in the north of China, is a large 
 palanquin suspended on the backs of two mules, length-wise. 
 Strong leather bands connect the points of the shafts, resting 
 on the saddles of the respective mules. An iron pin, fixed 
 in the top of the saddle, passes through a hole in the leather, 
 and so keeps it in its place. The shafts are, of course, a 
 good length, to reach from one mule to the other, and to 
 leave the animals plenty of room to walk. There is, conse- 
 quently, a good deal of spring in the machine. The motion 
 is not at all disagreeable ; compared with a cart, it is luxu- 
 rious. There is hardly room in the palanquin to stretch out 
 full length, but in other respects it is very commodious, 
 having room in the bottom for a good quantity of baggage. 
 
 About 10 o'oclock on the 17th August our caravan moved 
 slowly out of the courtyard of the inn, which we left with no 
 regret, and we slowly felt our way through the dusty, crowded 
 streets of Peking towards the North Gate, which was our 
 exit from the city. I was on horseback, intending to get into 
 my litter should the sun prove too powerful, which it did
 
 62 SIBERIAN EOUTE FEOM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. iv. 
 
 when we got to the sandy plain a little way outside the city. 
 The slow pace of the mules was most disheartening, but I 
 had yet to learn much patience in travelling. 
 
 Our first resting-place was at Sha-ho, a village sixty li or 
 twenty miles from Peking. Here we made ourselves a din- 
 ner, and fed the cattle. There are two very fine old stone 
 bridges at Sha-ho, but the river that runs under them is only 
 a ditch now. It was drawing late in the afternoon before we 
 were on the road again, and we had not gone many miles be- 
 fore darkness came. The country is well cultivated with 
 cereals, the chief crop being Barbadoes millet, standing from 
 ten to fifteen feet high. Strips of cotton plants appear here 
 and there. It is a delicate-looking j)lant in this jiart of the 
 country. The last five miles of the road to Nankow is very 
 rough and stony, and as the night was dark when we passed 
 it, our animals had great difiiculty in keeping their legs. 
 About n j).m. we arrived at the inn at Nankow, and created 
 a scene of no small confusion by our entry into the court- 
 yard. It was already filled with travellers' gear of all sorts, 
 and it was long before we could pick out a clear space to un- 
 load our mules. The fitful glimmer of the dimmest of all 
 lanterns helped to make the darkness visible, but did not 
 assist us in clearing the heels of horses, mules, and donkeys 
 that were straggling all over the place. In the midst of the 
 Babel of tongues, and the senseless yells of our fellow-travel- 
 lers, as they one after another awoke in a nightmare, we were 
 fain to retreat to our dormitory, and with a scant supper, lay 
 down to rest hoping to find everything in its place in the 
 morning. 
 
 The village of Nankow is at the entrance of the moun- 
 tain pass of that name. It is for this pass alone that 
 the mule-litters are necessary, for it would be impossible to 
 take any wheeled carriage through. In a Russian sketch 
 of the route from Peking to Kiachta, it is stated that the
 
 Mi 
 
 I- 
 
 
 0- 
 

 
 CiiAP. IV.] THE THERMOPYL/E OF PEKING. 63 
 
 road is passable for carriages throughout. There are several 
 very difficult rocky passes on the road, but this one at Nan- 
 kow is, I am certain, impracticable for carriages. 
 
 On the 18th August, early in the morning, we entered the 
 defile. It is indeed a terrible road, over huge boulders of 
 rock. The pass is about thirteen miles in length, and for the 
 greater part of that distance nothing breaks the monotony 
 of the precipitous mountain wall on either side. Tlie re- 
 mains of several old forts are seen in the pass, showing the 
 importance that has been attached to it in former times. It 
 certainly is the key of the position, and the last step of an 
 invader towards Peking. But it is so well defended by na- 
 ture, that a handful of men could keep an army at bay, if 
 any were so bold as to attempt to force this thirteen miles of 
 defile. The care bestowed on the defences hereabouts shows 
 the terror inspired by the Mongols and other outer tribes in 
 the hearts of the rulers of China. 
 
 Our mules struggled gallantly with their loads, slipping 
 and tripping at every step, and landed us at the outside of 
 the pass, without accident of any kind, but not without a 
 good deal of wear and tear of hoof. They even kept up 
 almost their full travelling pace of three miles an hour. At 
 the northern exit from the pass a branch of one of the inner 
 " Great Walls " crosses. It is out of repair, but still the 
 archway over the port is good, and it would puzzle anyone 
 to get in or out of the pass without going through the 
 gate. 
 
 At a small walled town, called Cha-tow, just clear of the 
 pass, we halted for our mid-day meal, at a very good inn. 
 The inns hereabouts are nearly all kept by Mahommedans, 
 called in Chinese " Hwuy-Hwuy." The modicum of extra- 
 neous civilisation they have acquired, through the religion of 
 the Prophet, is sufficient to mark them as more intelligent 
 and enterprising than their fellows. It is not likely that
 
 64 SIBEKIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap, iv 
 
 their tenets are very strictly kept, but they are sufficiently so 
 to enable the Mohammedans to keep together, and form 
 communities and associations of their own. Mine host at 
 Cha-tow asked me for some wine, on which I read him a lec- 
 ture on the duty of abstinence inculcated by the Prophet. 
 He admitted this was so, but said they were not over strait- 
 laced in those parts. The Mohammedans have their mosques 
 at Tientsin, Peking, and in most large cities in the north 
 and west of China. They are evidently left unmolested in 
 the exercise of their religion, and enjoy every social privilege. 
 The Chinese government is really very tolerant of all religious 
 opinions, and the Chinese as a race are so supremely indif- 
 ferent to religious matters, that they are the last people in 
 the world who would be likely to work themselves up to 
 fanatical persecution. They are all too busy to attend to 
 such matters. The Chinese government has, no doubt, shown 
 itself jealous of the propagation of the Christian religion, 
 but it is its political tendencies only that frighten them. 
 They have a wholesome recollection of the ambitious projects 
 of the Jesuits in their day of influence,* and they have been 
 constantly kept in hot water by the Propaganda. They have 
 to meet ever-recurrent demands by the self-constituted cham- 
 pion of religion in the East, for the murder of some French 
 or Italian jDriest in some unheard-of part of the country, 
 where he had no right to be, except at his own proper peril. 
 They see in every native convert a contingent casus belli 
 with some powerful state, and very naturally seek to check 
 the spread of such dangerous doctrines by all indirect means. 
 This unfortunate mixing-up of politics with religion has 
 been a deadly blow to the real advancement of Christianity 
 in China. And the abuse of the Christian vocabulary by 
 the Taeping rebels is not calculated to prepossess the Chinese 
 
 * Father Gerbillon, a Jesuit, was the Chinese plenipotentiary who conchided 
 the treaty of Nerchinsk with the Russians, in 1689.
 
 Chap, iv.] RELIGIOUS TOLERATION. 65 
 
 authorities in favour of the Western faith. Japan is another 
 country where the government, and I may say also the 
 people, are utterly indifferent to religion, but where the 
 Christian religion has been, and is, tabooed with a vigour 
 unsurpassed in the history of the world. And who that has 
 read the story of the introduction of Christianity into that 
 country by the Jesuits, can blame the government of Japan 
 for its arbitrary exercise of power ? 
 
 Hue laments the low status of the Chinese Christians, as 
 compared with the Mussulmen, and attributes it to the want 
 of self-assertion. When a Christian gets into trouble his 
 brethren hide themselves. Hue would have driven them 
 to the other extreme. He advocated strong associations by 
 which the Christians might " awe " the Mandarins, as if there 
 must necessarily be antagonism between the two. The infer- 
 ence from which must be either that the Christians are 
 systematically persecuted, as such, or that they are in the 
 habit of committing offences against society. The Chinese 
 government and people have a horror of secret societies and 
 of any political associations whatever. But if Hue's converts 
 had been content to live like ordinary good citizens, neither 
 shrinking from nor courting publicity, they would probably 
 have disarmed suspicion and escaped molestation. Above 
 all, if Hue and his clerical brethren could have divested 
 themselves of the character of spies who had crept into 
 China in defiance of the law of the land, for purposes 
 which the government could not understand, and therefore 
 assumed to be pernicious, they might have saved their 
 disciples from some annoyance, or, as they love to call it, 
 persecution. 
 
 In the inn at Chatow, and in all the other inns north of 
 Peking, we found a large cauldron of boiling mutton in a 
 central position in the kitchen. This is kept boiling from 
 morning till night ; and the broth, which, by itself, is
 
 60 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. iv. 
 
 by no means unpalatable, is always handy as a stock for 
 any messes the wayfarers may fancy. A youth spends 
 his time in kneading chow-patties, which he does very 
 skilfully and rapidly. These are torn and thrown in 
 pieces into the boiling mass, and, when sufficiently done, 
 are served out with a due proportion of broth, as a 
 savoury dish for a hungry man. The "steward of the 
 cauldron," as Hue would probably have called him, has 
 acquired great expertness in serving out his stuff. With a 
 variety of ladles, all sieves, more or less fine, he will serve up 
 either the plain broth, or nimbly seize any of the morsels 
 that are tumbling about in confusion in the pot. 
 
 Mutton is cheap and abundant here, and is the staple 
 article of food. The sheep are pastured on many hill-sides 
 that are not fit for anything else, and the constant droves 
 of sheep that come in from Mongolia, for the supply of 
 Peking, pass along this road, and are no doubt to be had 
 cheap. 
 
 We now enter a plain about ten miles broad, bounded 
 on either side by bold mountain ranges running east and 
 west. We cross the plain obliquely towards the northern 
 mountain chain. This plain must be elevated more than 
 1000 feet. The air was fresher than about Peking, and a 
 very marked difference was apparent in the fertility of the 
 soil. The millet and other crops were stunted, the soil was 
 arid and rather stony. The hills are quite bare, but a few 
 trees are dotted over the plain. 
 
 At Hwai-lai-hien, a good-sized walled town, we halted for 
 the night. Outside the city is a very large stone bridge, 
 evidently of the same period as those at Sha-ho. Five 
 gothic-shaped arches are still standing, and another is de- 
 tached at a distance of some 200 feet, the intermediate part 
 of the bridge having no doubt been destroyed. There is no 
 water now in the river, but the bed is still well marked, and
 
 Chap, iv.] DISAPPEARANCE OF A RIVER. 67 
 
 the old embankments remain, about 500 or 600 yards apart. 
 The old bed of the river is in a high state of cultivation 
 now. 
 
 I find the following notice of this bridge and this river in 
 Bell's Travels. He does not, indeed, give the name of the 
 town, but, tracing up his march from stage to stage, between 
 the Great Wall and Peking, it is evident that Hwai-lai is the 
 station referred to. He says : " About noon, next day, we 
 came to a large, populous, and well-built city, with broad 
 streets, as straight as a line. Near this place runs a fine 
 river, which appears navigable, having across it a noble stone 
 bridge, of several arches, and paved with large square stones." 
 
 Bell also makes frequent allusion to an earthquake, which 
 did gi-eat damage to this part of the country in July, 1719. 
 Many towns and villages were half destroyed, and some were 
 wholly laid in ruins, and " vast numbers of people " were 
 engulfed. " I must confess," says Bell, " it was a dismal 
 scene to see everywhere such heaps of rubbish." The district 
 being subject to earthquakes, makes it probable that the fine 
 bridge has been destroyed by that agency. But what has 
 become of the fine navigable river that existed in 1720, and 
 has now disappeared ? Has it also been upset by an earth- 
 quake ? The river was probably the Kwei-ho, which now 
 runs in another direction, but some of the gentlemen of 
 Peking or Tientsin, who have explored the country, will no 
 doubt elucidate this interesting question. 
 
 On the 19th we made an early start, and went at a very steady 
 pace towards the northern chain of mountains. On approach- 
 ing them we turned slightly to the left, and skirted the base 
 of the hills. We met a good deal of traffic on the road here, 
 all goods being carried on the backs of mules and donkeys. 
 Coal formed a conspicuous object, on its way to Peking, 
 where it is used to a considerable extent. 
 
 Immense flocks of sheep are continually passing in the 
 
 F 2
 
 68 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. iv. 
 
 direction of Peking, and we also met a good many herds of 
 horses bound the same way. Our mid-day halt was at Sha- 
 cheng, a walled town. 
 
 All over this country are the ruins of old forts ; and a line 
 of square towers, with a good many blanks, runs nearly in the 
 direction of the road. If these forts could speak they could 
 tell a tale of many a hard-fought battle before and after the 
 Mongol conquest of China. 
 
 This part of the country was hotly contested by Genghis 
 Khan ; and, in the years 1212 and 1213, the town of Suen- 
 wha-foo, and other places in the neighbourhood, were several 
 times taken and re-taken. " A bloody battle " was fought 
 near Hway-lai, wherein Genghis defeated the Kin, a Manchu 
 dynasty who then ruled Kitay or Northern China. The pass 
 at Nankow, and its fortresses, were taken by Chepe, one of 
 Genghis's generals. 
 
 A story is somewhere told that, in olden times, when intel- 
 ligence was transmitted through the country by beacon fires 
 lighted on these towers, an emperor was cajoled by one of 
 his ladies to give the signal of alarm and summon his gene- 
 rals and officers from all quarters. The word was given, and 
 the signal flashed through the Chinese dominions. The 
 Mandarins assembled in the capital to repel the invader, but, 
 finding they had merely been used as playthings to amuse 
 a woman, they returned in wrath to the provinces. By and 
 by the Tartars did come ; the alarm was again given ; 
 but this time no one responded to the emperor's call 
 for aid. 
 
 At Chi-ming-i, another walled town, we had done our 
 day's work, but it was too early to halt, so we pushed on to a 
 small village called Shan-shui-pu. At Chi-ming-i we met 
 the Yang-ho, a small river that seems to lose itself in the 
 sand. Turning northwards we followed the course of the 
 Yang-ho, and entered another defile. The scenery at the
 
 Ch. IV.] THE COURSE OF TRUE LOVE NEVER DID RUN SMOOTH. 69 
 
 entrance of the pass, where the opening is wide, with a 
 number of valleys running into the hills, and snug-looking 
 villages nestling in cosy nooks, is a relief from the dull mono- 
 tony of the plain on the one side, and from the wild rocky 
 barriers on the other. It is a romantic little spot, full of ver- 
 dure, and completely sheltered from the north winds. It has 
 therefore been a favourite resort for ecclesiastics ; for, with 
 all their dullness, the Chinese priests have everywhere dis- 
 played excellent taste in the selection of sites for their temples 
 and monasteries. 
 
 The following pretty legend of the place is given by Bell, 
 and, as he says, it is a fair specimen of the numerous fabulous 
 stories which the Chinese imagination delights to feed upon: 
 — " Near this place is a steep rock, standing on a plain, inac- 
 cessible on all sides, except to the west, where a narrow wind- 
 ing path is cut in the rock, which leads to a Pagan temple 
 and nunnery built upon the top of it. These edifices make a 
 pretty appearance from the plain, and, as the story goes, were 
 built from the foundation, in one night, by a lady, on the 
 following occasion. This lady was very beautiful, virtuous, 
 and rich, and had many powerful princes for her suitors. She 
 told them she intended to build a temple and a monastery of 
 certain dimensions, with her own hands, in one night, on the 
 top of this rock ; and whoever would undertake to build a 
 stone bridge over a river in the neighbourhood, in the same 
 space of time, him she promised to accept for a husband. All 
 the lovers having heard the difficult task imposed on them, 
 returned to their respective dominions, except one stranger, 
 who undertook to perform the hard condition. The lover 
 and the lady began their labour at the same time, and the 
 lady completed her part before the light appeared ; but as 
 soon as the sun was risen, she saw, from the top of the 
 rock, that her lover had not half finished his bridge, having 
 raised only the pillars for the arches. Failing, therefore,
 
 70 SIBEEM^r EOrTE FEOM PEKI5^G TO PETEBSBrEG. [Chap. it. 
 
 in his part of the performance, he also "sras obliged to de- 
 part to his own conntry, and the lady (poor lady.*) passed 
 the remainder of her days in her own monastery." 
 
 The Tang-ho had be^n flooded a few weeks before. It 
 had now subsided, but still it came down from the hiUs 
 roaring like a cataract It runs through the pass, and falls 
 not less than 200 feet in a distance of five nules. We 
 followed its course through the mountsuns, sometimes close 
 to the riTer. The noise of it at times was deafening, and 
 one of my ponies could with difficulty be kept on the path 
 from fright at the noise. The road became reiy difficult as 
 we ascended the pass, and it grew dark long before we 
 reached our halting-place, Shan-shui-pu. "When we got there 
 we found but poor accommodation We managed to eat 
 some rice and eggs, and surveyed the premises to find a 
 decent place to sleep, but without success. Six Mongol 
 travellers were lying on the ground in the outer yard, side 
 by side, their sleep tmdisturbed by the noise our party made 
 in coming into the hostelry. We slept in our litters. 
 
 Coal is worked in this neighbourbood, but in a very 
 imperfect way. As far as I conld detect, it is merely 
 sc<x»ped out of the hill-sides where the seam happens to 
 crop out 
 
 At half-past five next morning we left Shan-shui-pu. The 
 road continued very rocky for a mile or two, and led through 
 an undulating country. We then got on to another terrace 
 very much like the one we CTOSsed yesterday, and botmded 
 by two parallel r an ges of hills. 
 
 At Suen-wha-fu, a large walled city, we halted to break- 
 fast in a very comfortable irm, much frequented by Russian 
 travellers, who had inscribed their names on the walls as far 
 back as 1858. 
 
 Mr. Xoetzh and I rode ahead of the caravan in order to 
 reach Chan-kia-kow early, and see how the land lay. Chan-
 
 Chap, iv.] CHAN-K1A-K0\V. 71 
 
 kia-kow was the critical point in our journey, and we were 
 naturally anxious to manage matters tliere with proper 
 address. If we could but get camels to carry us across the 
 desert to Kiachta, we were safe from all annoyance and 
 delay for the rest of our journey. So we innocently thought ; 
 but the sequel will show how short-sighted we were.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CHAN-KIA-KOW. 
 
 We reached Chan-kia-kow at 1 o'clock, after a hard ride. 
 It is a large, straggling town, lying in a vaUey surrounded 
 on three sides by mountains, and is bounded on the north 
 by the Great Wall, which descends precipitously from the 
 brow of the hill, crosses the valley, and up the other side. 
 The town of Chan-kia-kow has a character peculiarly its 
 own. It derives its importance from its being the focus of 
 the trade between Russia and China. All goods to and from 
 Kiachta must pass this way, whether on the direct route for 
 the Hu-quang provinces or via Tientsin. The result is a 
 large " foreign " population — that is, of Chinese from other 
 provinces. Many of these men have passed most of their 
 lives in Kiachta, and speak Russian. Most of them are 
 wealthy ; indeed, the Kiachta trade has been the means of 
 enriching both Chinese and Russians, and many of both 
 nations who have been engaged in it have amassed large 
 fortunes. There is an outward ajDpearance of wealth in 
 Chan-kia-kow, and more show of newness than one meets 
 with in other of their fusty old towns. Some new temples 
 have lately been built by the merchants, and new archways, 
 of which the paint is fresh and good, a thing rarely seen in 
 China. This being the frontier town between China and 
 Mongolia, attracts considerable numbers of Mongols, who 
 bring in their camels to hire for the transport of goods across 
 the desert, and drive in their sheep, cattle, and horses for
 
 Chap, v.] CHINESE AND RUSSIAN HOSPITALITY. 73 
 
 sale, taking back with them in exchange store of brick-tea 
 and small articles of various sorts, such as pipes, tobacco, &c. 
 The Russians, also, have had a factory here for a few years, 
 and altogether a rare motley crowd is the population of 
 Chan-kia-kow. The Russians call it Kalgan, a name of 
 Mongol origin, meaning, according to Bell, " the everlasting 
 wall." But it is more probably a conxipt form of Halgan, 
 or Khalgan, signifying a gate. The name is quite out of 
 use among the modern Mongols, who invariably employ the 
 Chinese name. 
 
 Mr. Noetzli first endeavoured to hunt up some of his 
 Chinese acquaintance, and a tedious business it M^as, in the 
 interminably long streets, and in a rather hot sun, fatigued 
 as we were with a long ride. After several false scents, we 
 hit on the establishment of a Shanse man who had been 
 thirty years in Kiachta. He and his household spoke good 
 Russian, and he was proud to serve up tea, European fashion, 
 with cups and saucers, sugar and teaspoons. This was very 
 acceptable to us ; and we rested as long as we could under 
 his roof, while he entertained us with much interesting con- 
 versation, and many cups of the cheering beverage. Having 
 got directions by which to find out the Russians, who had 
 lately gone into new quarters, we soon traced them out 
 in a neat little house built on the hill-side, out of town, 
 that is, beyond the Great Wall, in the narrow pass leading 
 into Mongolia. Mr. Noetzli, being already acquainted with 
 some of them, and speaking a little Russian, we soon made 
 friends with them, and induced them to invite us to take 
 up our quarters with them. So, tying up our beasts, we 
 abandoned ourselves to tea-drinking for an hour or two. 
 The Russians were exceedingly kind and hospitable to us. 
 We were much more comfortable with them than we could 
 hope to be in a Chinese inn ; but we derived other advan- 
 tages from living with the Russians which were of more
 
 74 SIBEEIAN EOUTE FROM TEKING TO PETERSBUEG. [Chap. v. 
 
 importance to us. We were not friendless ; the cunning 
 Chinese could not look on us merely in the light of victims 
 who had come there to be choused and swindled. Our 
 neo-otiations for transport would pass through the hands of 
 our Russian friends, who were accustomed to deal in such 
 matters. So far all was well. But Mr. Noetzli had sent an 
 express on some time before to ask the Russians to prepare 
 us camels. Had they done it ? No. This looked black 
 rather, but we resigned ourselves to circumstances, confi- 
 dently believing that things would mend when they came 
 to the worst. We now prepared to play our last card, which 
 was that Mr. Noetzli should go, accompanied by Chebekin, 
 the Russian factotum, a most indefatigable fellow, who 
 speaks Mongol like a native, to a Lama convent, called 
 Bain-tolochoi, two days' journey into Mongolia. There they 
 were to discover a certain priest, to whom Noetzli was 
 accredited by the lamas at Peking, and endeavour to get 
 him to advise some of his Mongol brethren to give us 
 camels. The simple Mongols reverence their lamas, and 
 will readily execute their behests, even at great personal 
 inconvenience. This lama was a man of great influence in 
 his own cii'cle, and we were a little sanguine about the 
 result, if only a favourable reception could be had. It was 
 arranged, therefore, that our two friends should set out on 
 horseback on the morrow, while we kicked our heels about 
 in idleness and suspense at Chan-kia-kow. 
 
 The next morning, 21st of August, while we were at 
 breakfast, two Mongols came lounging into the place. One 
 of them was the courier who carries the post-bag to Kiachta, 
 who was hanging about waiting for post-day ; the other was 
 a friend of his, but apparently a stranger to our hosts. We 
 took the opportunity of asking about camels, and Chebekin 
 set to work palavering. In a quarter of an hour the whole 
 thing was settled, we were to have camels in four days, and
 
 Chap, y.] HORSE-FAIR AT THE GREAT WALL. 75 
 
 we should be ready to start on the fifth day. The price we 
 paid for eight camels (we really had twelve) for 800 miles, 
 was 150 taels (£50), and two bricks of tea to the ferryman 
 of a certain river. Thus we were once more at ease in our 
 minds ; the two scouts were well pleased to see their horses 
 unsaddled again, and we were all happy together. 
 
 The next day Mr. Noetzli left us to return to Tientsin, and 
 we were rather in a bad plight, not being able to commu- 
 nicate with our Russian friends, except in Chinese, a 
 language of which we were almost wholly ignorant. One 
 of them vigorously rubbed up some English he had once 
 learned, and in a few days made great progress. 
 
 While we are waiting for our camels we have plenty of 
 time to see Chan-kia-kow, but after all there is not much to 
 see. The view from the house where we lived was across the 
 pass, and looked straight on the mountain wall on the other 
 side. So close were we to the mountain that the sun was 
 several hours up before he was seen topping the hill. The 
 Great Wall runs over the ridges of these hills, nearly east and 
 west. This structure is entirely in ruins here. The rubbish 
 that once composed it remains and marks the line. Many of 
 the towers are still standing. I doubt if the wall ever has 
 been so massive in this quarter as near its eastern terminus, 
 where I crossed it a few years ago. Where the Great Wall 
 crosses the town of Chan-kia-kow it is kept in good repair, 
 and has a good solid arch with a gate which is closed nomi- 
 nally at sunset. There is no traffic from the town except 
 through this port, and all Mongols and Chinese dismount in 
 passing. 
 
 One of our amusements in Chan-kia-kow was to attend the 
 horse-fair which is held every morning on an esplanade just 
 outside the city on the Mongol side of the Great Wall. It is 
 a most exciting scene, and attracts a great concourse of 
 people. Several hundred ponies, chiefly Mongol, are here
 
 76 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. v. 
 
 exposed for sale every morning. They are tied up in line on 
 either side, leaving the middle space clear, and are taken out 
 in turns and ridden up and down the open space by wild- 
 looking jockeys, who show off their paces to the highest 
 advantage. The fast ones are galloped as hard as their legs 
 can carry them from end to end of the course, pulling up 
 dead short, about ship and back again, the riders all the 
 while holding out their whip hand at full length, and yelling 
 like infuriated demons. There are generally half a dozen on 
 the course at a time, all going full tilt, and brushing past 
 each other most dexterously. They go tearing through the 
 crowd of spectators without checking their pace, and yet it is 
 rare for any one to get ridden over. Amongst these ponies 
 are many extraordinary trotters, and many trained to arti- 
 ficial paces. These are generally more sought after by 
 purchasers than the gallopers. 
 
 A number of men hang about the horse-fair who act as 
 brokers between buyers and sellers. These men are invari- 
 ably Chinese. They soon attached themselves to us, offering 
 their services, and descanting on the merits of the various 
 steeds that were constantly scouring past us. Their mode of 
 making and receiving offers is to pull their long sleeves down 
 and communicate with each other by the touch of the 
 fingers. This seems to be more of a traditional ceremony 
 than anything else, for when they have made a bid with so 
 much show of secrecy, they frequently continue the bargain- 
 ing vivd voce in the hearing of the w^hole multitude. The 
 prices of the jDonies sold varied from five taels to twenty, or 
 say from thirty shillings to six guineas. We had occasion to 
 make some purchases, and paid about ten taels each for very 
 good useful ponies. One of mine that I had brought from 
 Tientsin had got a very bad sore back from the last day's 
 ride with a badly fitting saddle. He w^as useless to me in 
 that condition, and I sold him to a horsedealer for five taels,
 
 Chap. v. J CHINESE FARRIERS— THE SAMOVAR. 77 
 
 Large droves of cattle and sheep came in from Mongolia, 
 but the sale of these is not carried on with so much ostenta- 
 tion as that of the horses. 
 
 We daily, almost hourly, observed long strings of ox-carts 
 coming down through the pass loaded with short square logs 
 of soft wood. The carts are of the roughest description, and 
 have not, I think, a bit of iron in their construction. This 
 wood is brought from the mountains near Urga, across the 
 desert of Gobi, a distance of 600 miles, and is chiefly used 
 in the manufacture of coffins by the Chinese. These ox cara- 
 vans travel very slowly, a journey of 600 miles occupying 
 forty days or more ; but it is a cheap and convenient mode 
 of conveyance. The animals feed themselves on the way, 
 and cost very little to start with. Camels could do the work, 
 but a camel is a wretched object in harness, and is quite 
 unable to drag even a light cart through a steep pass. 
 Horses or oxen have to do this work for them. The pass 
 at Chan-kia-kow is very stony for some fifteen miles, and the 
 oxen have to be shod with thin iron plates. The Chinese 
 farriers at Chan-kia-kow are very expert at shoeing cattle 
 and horses. They don't attempt to make a shoe to fit any 
 particular hoof, but keep a stock on hand, and selecting the 
 nearest size, they hammer the shoe approximately to the 
 shape of the hoof They don't trouble themselves to cut the 
 hoof down much, and you can have your beast shod on all 
 four feet in a remarkably short time. 
 
 The head of the Russian establishment had been absent 
 on a journey to Peking. He returned while we were in his 
 house, travelling, as we had done, in a mule-litter. Amongst 
 his travelling gear that we saw turned out of the palanquin 
 was a small sized " samovar," or tea-urn, which is the 
 greatest institution in Russia, and as we were first introduced 
 to it in Chan-kia-kow I must give some account of it here. 
 Samovar is composed of two Russian words, meaning, I
 
 78 SIBEEIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. v. 
 
 believe, " self-boiling." It is a very simple and admirable 
 contrivance for boiling water quickly, and keeping it boiling, 
 without which it is impossible to make tea fit to drink. The 
 samovar is an elegantly shaped vase, made of brass, with a 
 tube about two and a half inches in diameter going do^vn 
 the centre from top to bottom. A charcoal fire burns in this 
 tube, and, as the water is all round it, a large " heating-sur- 
 face " is obtained, and the water is acted on very rapidly. 
 Samovars are made of all sizes, the capacity being estimated 
 in tea cups. An average sized one contains twenty to 
 twenty-five cups, or rather glasses, for it is customary among 
 the Kussians to drink tea out of tumblers. Those who can 
 afford it drink very good tea, and they are probably the most 
 accomplished tea-drinkers in the world ; our countrywomen 
 misfht even learn a lesson from them in the art of tea-mak- 
 ing. They use small earthenware tea-pots, and their first 
 principle seems to be to supply the pot bountifully with the 
 raw material. The infusion comes off very strong, and they 
 judge of its strength by the colour in the glass. They put 
 but a little tea in the glass, and then dilute it with boiling 
 water from the samovar, in about the proportions of the 
 whiskey and water in toddy. As a rule, they use sugar and 
 milk, or cream, when procurable. At Chan-kia-kow it was 
 not to be had, for the Chinese do not use milk, or any prepa- 
 ration from it ; and it probably never occurred to the 
 Russians that they might keep their own cow for a mere 
 song. The Russian gets through an amazing quantity of tea 
 in the course of a day, and I verily believe they consume 
 more per head than the Chinese themselves. The samovar 
 is almost constantly blowing off steam — morning, noon, and 
 night it is to be seen on the table, and they never stop sip- 
 ping tea while there is any water left. It is as much a neces- 
 sary of life with them as their daily bread, or tobacco to an 
 inveterate smoker, and their attachment to their own way of
 
 Chap, v.] CLIMATE -OUR COMMISSAEIAT. 79 
 
 making it, is strikingly exhibited by tbe fact, that a Russian, 
 travelling among the Chinese, where every possible facihty 
 for tea-making is at hand, should consider it essential to his 
 comfort to carry his own samovar about with him. 
 
 During our stay at Chan-kia-kow, we experienced a consi- 
 derable change in the weather. The first two days it was 
 hot, but with a fresher and more elastic atmosphere than 
 about Peking. This is probably due to the elevation, and 
 the vicinity of mountains. We had ascended by successive 
 passes and terraces from Peking about 2500 feet, which is 
 approximately the elevation of Chan-kia-kow, A thunder- 
 squall on the 21st of August cooled the air so much that we 
 had to sleep under a blanket that night. Next morning was 
 quite chniy with the thermometer at 71°. At mid-day on 
 the 23rd it stood at 72°, and on the morning of the 24;th it 
 was 65°. It got warmer again afterwards, but we began to 
 think there was something in the Russian warnings of great 
 cold in Mongolia, and we did not regret being well provided 
 with blankets and furs. 
 
 As the time drew near for our departure we seriously set 
 to work to supply ourselves with necessaries for the journey 
 across the desert. Our Mongol friends had contracted to 
 carry us to Kiachta in thirty days, but to provide against 
 accidents we allowed a good deal more. Although we 
 were well supplied for the desert journey with preserved 
 provisions, wine, and bottled porter, the opportunity of pro- 
 curing fresh vegetables was too tempting to be overlooked. 
 At Chan-kia-kow we found some of the finest cabbages * in 
 the world, carrots, &c. Potatoes are also to be had in the 
 season, but we were too early. These and some fresh beef 
 equipped us fully in that department. 
 
 Then we had to purchase two carts to travel in. The 
 
 * These cabbages arc said to have been originally introduced from Russia.
 
 80 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. v. 
 
 Eussians and Chinese always travel so, for it would be 
 too fatiguing to ride on a camel all the way, they go so 
 long at a stretch — sixteen to eighteen hours without stop- 
 ping. The carts are built on the same principle as those in 
 use about Peking and Tientsin, but larger. They are drawn 
 by camels. We essayed to make these purchases, and soon 
 found one cart in good order, barring the wheels. We then 
 asked a wheelwright to make a pair of wheels for it, but he 
 would have charged more for the wheels than the cost of a 
 new cart, completely furnished. 
 
 It was evident that we could not manage these mat- 
 ters without being shamelessly imposed upon, and we 
 therefore begged our good friends, the Russians, to take 
 our business in hand. Everything now went smoothly. 
 Two carts were quickly found, second-hand, and at mode- 
 rate prices. When we had got them we found they wanted 
 harness, that is, sundry strips of leather thongs, attached 
 to the points of the shafts, and which are secured in a very 
 primitive, but effective, way to the saddle gear of the 
 camels. Then the covers of our carts looked rather weather- 
 beaten, and it would be cold in Mongolia. New felt covers 
 had therefore to be obtained, and for extra warmth, nailed on 
 over the old ones. Our wheels would want oiling. We must 
 therefore have five catties of oil, cost 500 cash. But how to 
 carry it ? A pot was requisite — cost 150 cash more. There 
 was really no end to the small things that suggested them- 
 selves. We had ponies — extra felt saddle cloths were wanted 
 to protect their backs. And how were we to catch them 
 when turned out to graze during our halts ? Hobbles must 
 be got for this. We also took some dry food for our ponies 
 to eat when the grass was very thin, but they would not look 
 at it, and we had eventually to throw it away to lighten our 
 camels. What with extra rope, a bag of charcoal, covers for 
 our baggage in case of rain, lanterns, and a variety of other
 
 Chap, v.] CAMELS INTRODUCED. 81 
 
 things, we made up a formidable list of odds and ends. The 
 account rendered filled a sheet of foolscap, but the whole 
 amount of our purchases at Chan-kia-kow, exclusive of the 
 first cost of two carts, came to less than six pounds, and this 
 included several pairs of felt boots and a couple of goat-skin 
 jackets. No one travelling that way (unless it be in the 
 early summer), should omit to procure a couple of pairs of 
 these felt boots. There is nothing like them for warmth, 
 and they can be got large enough to pull over your other 
 boots. I used mine nearly all the way to Moscow, and rarely 
 experienced the sensation of cold feet, though exposed in all 
 sorts of carriages, and in severe weather. 
 
 On the 25th of August, the Mongol gave notice that the 
 camels were at hand, and on the 26th they came into the 
 courtyard, uttering that disagreeably plaintive cry that is 
 peculiar to the camel, and more particularly to the juveniles. 
 The camels looked very large and ungainly in the small en- 
 closure, but the Mongols soon made room by making them 
 kneel down close together, when they immediately commenced 
 chewing the cud. The Mongols manage their camels by 
 means of a tweak passed through the nose, with a thin string 
 attached. They pull the string with a slight jerk, saying 
 " Soh, Soh," and the animal, screaming the while, falls on his 
 knees, and with three oscillating movements he is flat down 
 with his belly on the ground. 
 
 The Mongols had already tackled our baggage and arranged 
 it to their own satisfaction, so as to suit not only the weight 
 each camel was to carry, but to balance one side equally with 
 the other. Each package is well lashed up with stout rope, 
 leaving a short loop. In loading, a package is lifted up on 
 each side simultaneously, the loops crossed over the camel's 
 back between the humps, one loop passed through the other, 
 and secured by a wooden pin. The load is then allowed to 
 fall, the weight comes on the wooden pin, and so keeps it in
 
 82 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO RETERSBURG. [Chap. v. 
 
 its place. The back of the camel is protected by a series of 
 pieces of thick felt, ingeniously laid round the humps, on the 
 sides, and very thickly over the hollow between the humps. 
 This mass of felt is kept in its place by means of a frame- 
 Avork of wood on each side, lashed together across the camel's 
 back. 
 
 Some hours were occupied in adjusting the camel loads 
 and getting all ready for the start. We did not hurry, as we 
 could not afford to forget anything now, as we were about to 
 plunge into the desert, where we would be as entirely thrown 
 on our own resources as if we were in a ship at sea. 
 
 Horses had to be hired to take our carts through the pass, 
 a distance of fifteen miles, the camels being unequal to the 
 task. The camel has little strength in proportion to his size. 
 His formation peculiarly adapts him to carry weight, his 
 whole strength being concentrated in the arch of his back ; 
 and yet in proportion he carries much less than a mule, 
 that is, considerably less than double. For draught purposes, 
 as I have already mentioned, the camel is ill adapted. His 
 pace is remarkably slow, and in short he is only fit to work 
 in deserts where, comparatively speaking, no other animal 
 can live. His faculty of going for many days without food or 
 water, and of nourishing himself on any sort of vegetable 
 growth that comes in his way, is invaluable to his nomad 
 masters.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MONGOLIA. 
 
 We left Chan-kia-kow on horseback, escorted by three of 
 our kind Russian friends, Messieurs Weretenikoff, Iguminoff, 
 and Beloselutsoff, who accompanied us a few miles up the 
 pass, and bid us God speed. It took a long time for our 
 camel-drivers to form the order of march, and we had got far 
 ahead of them. So, coming to a spot where there was a 
 little grass, we dismounted to give our beasts a feed, thus 
 putting in practice a maxim which travellers in strange 
 countries learn by daily experience to adopt for themselves 
 and their beasts, — to eat when they can. 
 
 My pony, being rather sharp in the back, I had over-done 
 him with thick saddle-cloths in my anxiety to preserve him 
 in ridable condition ; for though very old he was a rare good 
 one, but viciously inclined, having once before had his paws on 
 my shoulders. As the camels hove in sight, I essayed to mount, 
 but had not got into my seat when, what with the pony's 
 capers and bad saddling, I came to grief, and was left sprawl- 
 ing on my face on the stones, which spoiled my physiognomy 
 and my temper at the same time, and nearly obliterated one 
 optic. It was painful to contemplate my brave steed career- 
 ing about with my good saddle under his belly, and reins 
 going all to pieces amongst his legs. The vision of a month's 
 riding vanished away in a moment. A ray of hope dawned 
 on me as I saw my favourite settle down in a small enclo- 
 
 G 2
 
 84 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. vi. 
 
 sure, bearing a poor crop of under-grown millet, but there 
 Avas no one near to catch him. After a little, the husband- 
 man appeared, and stoutly remonstrated with me for turn- 
 ing my cattle into his field. I was in no mood to tolerate 
 abuse, for my abraded skin was smarting considerably. I 
 offered the aggrieved agriculturist the alternative of catch- 
 ino- my pony, or leaving him where he was. The Mon- 
 gols, and also the Chinese borderers, are very expert in 
 catching horses — their favourite dodge is to crawl up to his 
 head on all-fours. My friend tried this, but he was unfortu- 
 nately too fat, and when he got his hand within an inch and 
 a-half of the remnant of my poor bridle, the pony started off 
 and went straight back at full gallop in the direction of Chan- 
 kia-kow. My heart died within me at the sight. The 
 camels having now come up, one of the men went in pursuit, 
 and with the assistance of the country people brought back 
 the renegade, with the loss of my bridle and one stirruj) — not 
 so bad as I expected. 
 
 The pass is a narrow gorge between steep hills, with little 
 cultivated corners here and there. A small stream trickles 
 down the side, and the road is strewn with round pebbles, 
 which gives it the appearance of the bed of a river. The 
 ascent is very steady and regular, gaining considerably more 
 than 2000 feet in fifteen miles. The road is tolerable all 
 the way, until about the top of the ascent, which is very 
 rough and rocky. Rather late in the evening we got to our 
 halting-place well on to the table land, which is at an ele- 
 vation of 5300 feet above the sea. 
 
 The Chinese are the most patient and persevering agricul- 
 turists in the world. They have pushed their aggressions 
 through the pass at Chan-kia-kow — on the hill-sides, where- 
 ever they can find soil enough to hold together — and into the 
 skirts of the desert itself. They get but a poor return for 
 their labour, however ; their crops seem to struggle for bare
 
 Chap, vi.] CULTIYATION VERSUS DEVASTATION. 85 
 
 existence, and tlie farmers must depend more on their live 
 stock than their crops. 
 
 In other parts of Mongolia the Chinese have been more 
 successful in extending their civilising influence into the 
 prairie. In the kingdom of the Ouniots, further to the 
 north, Hue tells us that since the Chinese, following their in- 
 variable custom, began to penetrate into the country of the 
 Mongols, about the middle of the seventeenth century, the 
 forests have disappeared from the hills, the prairies have 
 been cleared by fire, and the new cultivators have exhausted 
 the fecundity of the soil. " It is probably to their system, of 
 devastation that we must attribute the extreme irregularity 
 of the seasons which now desolate this unhappy land." A 
 curse seems to have rested on the industrious invaders. The 
 seasons are out of joint. Droughts are frequent, then sand- 
 storms and hurricanes, then torrents of rain which wash 
 away fields and crops together in a general deluge, and the 
 land is thenceforth incapable of being ploughed. Famines 
 follow, and the people torment themselves with presenti- 
 ments of calamity. 
 
 That all this is due to the Chinese agriculturists is hard 
 to comprehend. It is not their practice elsewhere to " ex- 
 haust the fecundity of the soil." Hue propounds the new 
 and strange doctrine that cultivation of deserts is a system 
 of devastation. The truth seems to be that Hue, with the 
 strong partiality he always evinces to the Mongols, was over- 
 credulous of their stories. The Mongols, very naturally, con- 
 sider themselves aggrieved by the Chinese. The latter first 
 bought the right of cultivating the prairie, and, as their 
 numbers increased, the weaker race necessarily gave way, 
 moving their tents and their sheep further and further into 
 the desert. The poor Mongols now see, with feelings of sor- 
 row, the plough desecrating the ground where their fathers 
 fed their flocks ; they look with hopeless regret on the past
 
 86 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. vi. 
 
 as a kind of golden age, which their fancy dresses in a halo 
 of peace, happiness, and prosperity. The hated Kitat at 
 once suo-o-ests himself as the cause of these changes, and the 
 Mongols delight to feed their hatred out of the copious store 
 of their imagination. 
 
 A process exactly analogous has been going on in the 
 country of the Manchus, where the arable soil has been occu- 
 pied by Chinese colonists, almost to the entire exclusion of 
 the natives. Hatred is strongly developed there also ; but I 
 can answer for it that there, at least, cultivation has not ex- 
 hausted the fecundity of the soil, nor devastated the country. 
 
 The Chinese also with whom Hue conversed would readily 
 admit the superiority of the past. They have a reverence 
 for antiquity, and whenever they could spare a thought from 
 the stern realities of the present, they would mourn their 
 hard fate, and exalt the glories of the past. 
 
 The sun had been very hot all day, but when we came to 
 pitch our tent at night we were shivering with cold, and 
 could with difficulty hold the hammer to drive the pins into 
 the ground. It is always chilly at night in Mongolia, even 
 in the hot weather, but we were not prepared for such a 
 degree of cold on the 26th August, in latitude 41°. All our 
 blankets were brought into requisition, and we passed a com- 
 fortable night. Next morning the thermometer, which was 
 under a blanket, showed 85° Fahrenheit. 
 
 The morning of the 27th of August was as bright and 
 cheery as the most lively fancy could paint. The air 
 resounded with the notes of hosts of skylarks, which one does 
 not often hear in these far-off regions. The sun warmed up 
 fast, and in a few hours dried up the heavy dew that lay on 
 the grass in the early morning. The pasture was exceedingly 
 rich, and sprinkled with " gowans " and other wild flowers, 
 which imparted a delicious fragrance to the fresh morn- 
 ing air. Many herds of cattle and horses were scattered
 
 Chap, vi ] FREEDOM IN THE DESERT. 87 
 
 over the plain, the Mongol herdsmen incessantly galloping 
 round their flocks to keep them together, their shouts 
 audible from great distances in the still air, and the per- 
 petual movement of vast numbers of parti-coloured beasts 
 gave an animation to the scene which was quite exhilarating 
 to the spirits. A small brook trickled tortuously through 
 the plain, where we managed to kill a few snipe, greatly to 
 the delight of the straggling Mongols, who rode up to us 
 from various quarters. The only building in sight was a 
 temple which we had passed in the night, and which was 
 the last brick-and-mortar structure we were to see for many 
 days. We were now fairly among the dwellers in tents, and 
 began to realise what it was to be cut off from civilised life ■ 
 for, whatever may be the various opinions of Chinese civili- 
 sation in its higher developments, you can at all events 
 obtain in China every necessary and many luxuries for 
 money. In the " Land of Grass " we had to depend on our 
 own resources, but with the comfortable assurance that 
 these were amply sufiBcient for us. Our introduction to 
 nomad life was under happy auspices, and we were at the 
 outset favourably impressed with the Mongols and their 
 country, an impression which never entirely wore out, even 
 under very adverse circumstances. I never till that morning 
 experienced the consciousness of absolute freedom. Many 
 Mongol visitors rode up to our encampment, bringing plen- 
 tiful supplies of new milk, cheese, and other preparations 
 from milk very like Devonshire cream. 
 
 About 8 o'clock the camels were got in, and we made 
 a start, halting again at noon near the " yourts " of some 
 Lama friends of our camel-drivers. This was a short stage, 
 and we endeavoured to remonstrate with our conductor, but 
 as at that time we could not understand a word of each 
 other's language, the broad Saxon merely provoking a volley 
 of guttural Mongol, we made no progress towards a mutual
 
 88 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. vi. 
 
 understanding. Wc were again ftxvoured with numerous 
 visitors, and our conductor had evidently serious business 
 to negotiate, which occupied the Avhole afternoon. It ended 
 in his exchanging his pony for another, and getting a fresh 
 camel. It was close on sunset before the camels were loaded, 
 and a fresh start effected. During our halt we had time 
 to make the acquaintance of our camel-drivers. The chief 
 was a Lama named Tup-tchun, a good, easy man, with all 
 the native simplicity of his race. He was the responsible 
 man to us, and I believe owned the camels. He had two 
 assistants ; the first a clansman of his own, Tellig by name, 
 a fine, good-natured, bullet-headed, swarthy-complexioned, 
 indefatigable fellow, the equanimity of whose temper nothing 
 could ever disturb. The Lama placed his whole confidence 
 in Tellig, and we naturally did the same as we became 
 better acquainted with the excellence of his character. The 
 other had a name I never could pronounce, so I will not 
 attempt to spell it. He had some taint of wickedness in 
 his eye, and showed more craft and cunning than the 
 average Mongol. He could likewise speak a few words of 
 Chinese, hence we gave him the nickname of Kitat, the 
 Mongol name for Chinese, a word abominated by all true 
 Mongols. He stoutly rebelled for a long time against his 
 new name, but it greatly amused his companions, and, as 
 he was never called by any other appellative, he was com- 
 pelled at last to answer to Kitat. 
 
 The order of our march was this. One of the Mongols 
 on a camel rode ahead, leading the next camel by a string 
 from his nose. Half the caravan followed him in single 
 file, each camel being slightly attached to the preceding 
 by his nose-string. The other driver, also on a camel, 
 brought up the rear-guard in the same way. The Lama was 
 more privileged, for he never took any active part in leading 
 the caravan, but rode about on a pony, talking now to
 
 Chap, vi.] INCIDENTS OF THE WAY— CAMELS' NOSES. 89 
 
 Tellig, now to the Kitat, and now to us, then suddenly 
 breaking out into some of his wild native chants. He had 
 a fine sonorous voice, and his singing was a pleasant relief 
 from the monotony of the way, and when Tellig joined in 
 chorus they made the welkin ring. The Mongols sing with 
 their natural voice, and have far more music in their souls 
 than the squeaking Chinese. The Lama indulged himself 
 in a gossip with every traveller he met, and would often be 
 left out of sight, but with his active pony he could easily 
 overtake the slow-moving camels. When he descried a 
 Mongol yourt in the distance he seldom missed a chance 
 of riding up to it, to bestow his benediction on the inmates, 
 and drink tea with them. Nor was the Lama entirely 
 useless on the march, for the rearward camels were fre- 
 quently getting loose, and dropping into the rear, as Tellig 
 and the Kitat seldom thought of looking behind them. 
 The moment a camel feels himself at liberty he stops to 
 graze. I have never seen one voluntarily follow his leader. 
 Great delay occurred sometimes from this cause, and the 
 Lama saved us much time by riding after a stray camel, 
 dexterously catching up the nose-string with his whip- 
 handle, and leading the straggler up to the caravan. The 
 leading-string of the camel is fastened to the gear of his 
 leader in such a loose manner that a very slight resistance 
 is enough to undo it. The reason for this is that if the 
 string were secured firmly, any check in the rear camel, or 
 the leading one advancing from a halt before the rear one' 
 was ready, would tear the camel's nose. A nose once broken 
 in this way, it is difficult to find good holding ground for 
 the tweak, and the Mongols are therefore very economical 
 of camels' noses. 
 
 As for ourselves, we each had two ponies to ride, and we 
 varied our manner of travelling by alternately sitting in our 
 carts and riding our ponies. We also walked a good deal
 
 90 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. vi. 
 
 with our gims, for the pace of the camels was so slow that 
 we could range at will over the country, and still keep 
 up with the caravan. The camel's pace is slow and sure, 
 the average of a day's march being two miles an hour. 
 The actual pace is of course quicker, but the frequent 
 stoppages to adjust loads, and from camels breaking loose, 
 reduce it to two miles per hour. Sitting in the cart is 
 never very agreeable. The track is not cut up with ruts 
 like a road in China, and the jolting is considerably less ; 
 but it is difficult to get a comfortable posture without ^jing 
 down, and sitting in the front of the vehicle you are unplea- 
 santly near the odour that exudes from the pores of the 
 camel's hide, to which it requires a long apprenticeship to 
 get accustomed. It is most uninteresting, besides, to sit 
 for an hour or two contemplating the ungainly form of the 
 ugliest of all created things, and to watch his soft spongy 
 foot spreading itself out on the sand, while you reckon that 
 each of these four feet must move 700,000 times before 
 your journey is accomplished. 
 
 Our ponies were tied behind the carts, and all went quietly 
 except my old one " Dolonor," who was sagacious enough to 
 break his halter regularly, and follow the caravan in his own 
 way, which was to trot a few hundred yards ahead and apply 
 himself vigorously to the grass until the caravan had passed 
 some distance, when he would trot up and repeat the opera- 
 tion. With all that he fell off in condition more than any of 
 the others. 
 
 Starting at sunset, as I have said, we proceeded all night 
 without stopping. It was a fine moonlight night, but an un- 
 comfortable one for us. Not knowing we were to travel all 
 night, we were unprepared for sleeping in our carts, and 
 suffered a good deal from cold and disturbed rest. With 
 every precaution to close them in, the carts are thoroughly 
 well ventilated ; but subsequent experience taught us to roll
 
 Chap, vi.] TENT LIFE-MONGOL FUEL. 91 
 
 up warmly, for most of our nights in the desert were spent in 
 our carts on the road. 
 
 At sunrise on the 28th my thermometer beside my bed 
 stood at 43°. At 8 o'clock we halted and pitched our tents. 
 Our Mongols had a tent for themselves, made of thin blue 
 cotton stuff, and black inside with the smoke of years. Their 
 contract with us included tent accommodation, as also fuel 
 and water ; but we congratulated ourselves daily on being 
 provided with our own commodious and substantial bit of 
 canvas. The Mongols make their fire in the tent and 
 lounge round it while the pot is boiling. Some of the smoke 
 manages to escape through the opening that answers the 
 purpose of a door, running from the apex of the tent to the 
 ground in the shape of a triangle. For the rest they don't 
 seem to mind it, although it is almost suffocating to those 
 who are unaccustomed to it. I noticed the eyes of the 
 Mongols have mostly a bloodshot hard appearance, often 
 showing no white at all, attributable no doubt to the argol 
 smoke in which they pass so much of their time. The tents 
 being pitched, the next operation is to procure a supply of 
 argols, or more correctly ar'ch'l, which is dried cow or horse 
 dung, and is to be found all over the desert. So long as we 
 were in a populous part of the country, that is, if there were 
 three Mongol yourts within as many miles of us, we were 
 saved the trouble of going out to gather them, for our tents 
 were seldom up for many minutes before a woman would 
 appear bearing a large basket of the precious material. This 
 seems to be the ordinary custom of the Mongols, and is a part 
 of the genuine hospitality they show to strangers. Our halt- 
 ing-places were selected with a view to water. There is no 
 scarcity of water in the desert, but a stranger w^ould be sorely 
 puzzled to find it, for there is nothing to mark the position 
 of the wells. The Mongols have an instinctive knowledge of 
 the country, and in order to encamp near good water they
 
 92 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. vi. 
 
 make their march an liour or two longer or shorter as the 
 case may be. When the caravan halts, one of the Mongols is 
 despatched on a camel with two water-buckets to fetch water 
 from the well, generally some distance from the line of march. 
 The buckets have a head to them with two holes in it stopped 
 with wooden plugs. The water is poured out of the larger 
 hole at the side, while the smaller one in the centre is opened 
 to admit the air, to enable the water to pass out freely. In 
 selecting a halting-place, the Mongols generally contrive to 
 combine a good bit of pasture with the vicinity of water, for 
 this is naturally of much importance to them, as the only 
 feeding the animals get is a few hours' grazing during the 
 halt, and that only once in twenty-four hours. Before the 
 tent is set up the camels are unloaded and set free to gi'aze, 
 the horses are taken to water, and then hobbled and let loose. 
 The camels are not supposed to want water, and they very 
 rarely get it. Their lips and mouth are peculiarly adapted 
 to quick feeding, the lips being long and very pliable, and 
 the incisor teeth projecting outwards. They gather up a 
 good mouthful of grass in a very short time, even where it is 
 exceedingly scant, and as their food requires little or no 
 mastication, they are enabled to take in a full daily supply of 
 food in a few hours. 
 
 So far, Mongolia is a succession of plains and gentle undu- 
 lations, much resembling the long swell of the ocean, and 
 here and there the country is a little rough and hilly. The 
 undulations stretch across our track from east to west. The 
 whole face of the country looks like the sea. There is not a 
 tree or any object to break the monotony of the vast expanse, 
 but occasionally the yourt or tent of a Mongol family. The 
 sunrise and sunset encourage the illusion, and the camel has 
 been aptly called the ship of the desert. 
 
 The sun was hot during the day, but the thermometer in 
 the shade only showed 73° at noon. Yesterday it was 71°.
 
 Chap, vi.] DEER STALKING. 93 
 
 After dinner we Avent out with our guns and bagged a few 
 small birds of the curlew kind. We also came across a flock 
 of wild geese, but, as usual, they were very wild. We had 
 a chase after a herd of animals which have been called 
 wild goats. The Chinese call them ivhang-yang, or yellow 
 sheep : other tribes call them dzere^i. The Mongols give 
 them a name of their own, gurush, and do not associate 
 them with either sheep or goats. They are really a 
 kind of antelope {Procaijra gutturosa), the size of a 
 fallow deer, and of a yellowish brown colour, approaching to 
 white about the legs. They are exceedingly swift and very 
 shy, and as the country is so flat it is almost impossible to 
 get within shot of them. They are usually found in large 
 herds of several hundreds. We subsequently tried to stalk 
 them on horseback, and did get some long random shots at 
 them with a rifle, but to manage this properly there ought to 
 be three or four people well mounted and with plenty of 
 time. Our poor tired ponies were not fit for such work, and 
 we never stopped the caravan for the sake of sport. Some 
 of the Mongols do hunt the gurush, both on horseback and 
 on foot. I never witnessed any successes, but they must 
 shoot them sometimes, to pay for their powder and shot. 
 They use a small-bored rifle, which has a rest placed about 
 six inches from the muzzle, by which means they can lie on 
 their face and take their aim, the muzzle being raised well 
 clear of the gi'ound by means of the rest. 
 
 We had a long halt to-day, partly in consequence of a 
 crack being discovered in one of the camels' feet. This is an 
 infirmity they are subject to, and if sand and grit were 
 allowed to get in, the animal would become lame and useless. 
 The remedy, which is always at hand, is to sew a square 
 patch of stout leather over the part aflected, which they do 
 in the roughest cobbler fashion. With a flat needle slightly 
 curved they pierce the horny part of the sole, and fasten the
 
 94 SIBEEIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. vt. 
 
 patch by means of leather thongs at each corner. This is 
 only a temporary measure, and when a camel is taken that 
 way, he must soon be turned out to grass. The Mongols 
 have no trouble in getting at a camel's feet. They first make 
 him squat down, and then two of them go at him with a 
 sudden push and roll him over on his broadside, one of them 
 keejaing his head down while the other operates on the foot. 
 The animal screams a good deal while he is being turned 
 over, but once down he resigns himself helplessly to his fate. 
 
 We did not get off till five o'clock in the afternoon. The 
 night was cloudy and no dew fell, and consequently it was not 
 nearly so cold as the night before. The difference in tempe- 
 rature between a cloudy and a clear night is very marked in 
 Mongolia. 
 
 We were now leaving the good pastures and the numerous 
 herds of cattle behind, and on the morning of the 29th 
 August we found ourselves getting into a veiy desert coun- 
 try with only a little scrub grass, of which our poor ponies 
 found it hard work to make a meal. No horses or cattle were 
 seen in this part, and the countiy seemed only capable of 
 supporting sheep and camels. About eleven o'clock we 
 halted, and encamped on almost bare sand. Not a single 
 " yourt " was in sight, and, for the first time, we had no 
 visitors. This must have been a relief to our Mongols, for 
 they were compelled by custom and their natural hospitality 
 to receive and be civil to all comers, and it was not easy for 
 them to snatch even an hour's sleep. This must have been a 
 great privation, for their mode of travelling all night pre- 
 cluded their getting any sleep at all, except on the backs of 
 their camels while on the march, and in their tent during the 
 six hours' halt in the day ; and as that was broken up by 
 cooking and eating, pitching and striking tents, loading and 
 unloading camels, and other necessary matters, and the 
 frequent and protracted visits from neighbouring yourts.
 
 Chap, vi.] BIVOUACKING IN THE DESERT. 95 
 
 or travellers on the road, our poor Tartars had often to go for 
 days together with hardly any sleep at all. But they never 
 complained, and certainly were never betrayed into any rude- 
 ness to their inconsiderate countrymen. 
 
 We started again at 4 'SO in the afternoon, and continued 
 through gentle undulations, proceeding, as before, all through 
 the night. Before morning we passed some rocky places 
 over low hills, which sadly disturbed our sleep in the carts — 
 in fact, our usual night's rest, while on the move, was far 
 from being uninterrupted or comfortable, and it was only our 
 fatigue and exposure to the air all day that enabled us to 
 sleep at all under such circumstances. The rough hilly part 
 was again succeeded by low undulations continually unfolding 
 before us, and which became painfully monotonous to the 
 eye. Distances are altogether deceptive, partly owing to 
 the smooth, unbroken surface of the country, and partly to 
 the mirage which is always dancing on the horizon, making 
 small objects look large, and sometimes lifting them up 
 into the air and giving them a variety of fantastic shapes. 
 
 About 11 o'clock on the 30th of August we halted, and 
 went through our usual process of cooking and eating. We 
 "began to find that one meal a day did not suit our habits, 
 and we soon learned to keep out a certain quantity of 
 biscuit and cold meat when we had it, so that we could make 
 a breakfast or a supper without stopping to unload the 
 camels. To these materials we added a handful of tea or 
 some chocolate-paste, and in the morning rode up on our 
 ponies to any yourt we happened to see that was smoking, 
 and there made our breakfast. In the evening we often 
 managed to do the same, but it frequently happened that we 
 had no opportunity of doing this. 
 
 But I have not explained what a " yourt " is. It is simply 
 the habitation of a Mongol family — a tent, but of a more 
 permanent construction than the ordinary travelling tent. It
 
 96 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. vi. 
 
 consists of a frame of light trellis work covered with thick 
 felt, is circular in form, with a conical shaped roof, but nearly 
 flat. A hole in the apex of the roof lets out the smoke from 
 the argol fire which burns all day in the middle of the tent. 
 At night, when the fire is out, and before the inmates retire 
 to rest, the hole in the roof is covered up. I did not measure 
 the upright part of the wall of the tent, but it is under five 
 feet, and you cannot enter without stooping. The tent is 
 about fifteen feet in diameter. A piece of felt hanging from 
 the top forms a door. The Mongols sleep on mats laid on 
 the ground, and pack very close. They have no bedding, but 
 sleep generally in their clothes, merely loosing their girdles. 
 In addition to the family, I have frequently observed a 
 number of young kids brought into the tent for shelter on 
 cold nights. When the owner decides on moving to better 
 pastures, his yourt is packed up in a few hours and laid on 
 the back of a camel, or, failing that, two oxen answer the 
 purpose. Although yourt is the name always used by 
 foreigners, I never heard it from a Mongol. They call it 
 " gi-rai," as distinguished from a travelling tent, which they 
 call " mai-chung." 
 
 Such are the dwellings of the Mongols, and so much are 
 they attached to them, that even where they live in settled 
 communities, as in Urga, where they have every facility for 
 building wooden houses, they still stick to their yourts, 
 merely enclosing them with a rough wooden paling. In the 
 whole journey I did not meet with a single instance of a 
 Mongol living in a house, or in anything else than a yourt or 
 girai. The Mongols are very superstitious, and certain rules 
 of etiquette have to be observed in riding up to and entering 
 a yourt. One of these is that all whips must be left outside 
 the door, for to enter a yourt with a whip in the hand would be 
 very disrespectful to the residents. Hue explains this almost 
 in the words — "Am I a dog that you should cross my
 
 CiiAi'. VI.] MONGOL ETIQUETTE— FURNITURE. 97 
 
 threshold with whips to chastise me ? " There is a right 
 and a wrong way of approaching a yourt also. Outside the 
 door there are generally ropes lying on the ground, held 
 down by stakes for the purpose of tying up their animals 
 when they want to keep them together. There is a way of 
 getting over or round these ropes that I never learned, but, 
 on one occasion, the ignorant breach of the rule on our part 
 excluded us from the hospitality of the family. The head 
 of the house was outside his yourt when we rode up ; we 
 saluted him with the customary Mendo I Mendo ! &c. ; .but 
 the only response we got was a volley of quiet abuse, in 
 which our salutation was frequently, repeated in ironical 
 tones, as much as to say, " Mendo ! Mendo ! you come to 
 my tent with sugared words on your lips, and disregard the 
 rules of civility, which a child would be ashamed of doing. 
 Mendo ! Mendo ! If you do not know how to conduct your- 
 selves like gentlemen, you had better go about your busi- 
 ness." So we turned and went away, not in a rage, for 
 we knew we had committed some grave offence against 
 propriety. 
 
 The furniture of a Mongol yourt is very simple. A built- 
 up fireplace in the middle of the floor is the only fixture. A 
 large flat iron pan for cooking, or, if the parties are luxurious, 
 they may possess two such utensils, and sport two fireplaces, 
 by which means they can boil their mutton and water for 
 their tea at the same time. A basin to hold milk, and a good 
 large jug with a sj)out for the same purpose, and for the con- 
 venience of boiling it at the fire while the big pan is on, 
 comprise all their kitchen and table service. Each person 
 carries his own wooden ei-iga, or cup, in his bosom, and, so 
 armed, is ready to partake of whatever is going anywhere ; 
 and his small pocket-knife, by which he can cut up his quota 
 of mutton. A wooden box serves as a wardrobe for the whole 
 family. No tables or chairs are necessary, and I found no
 
 98 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO RETERSBURG. [Chap. vi. 
 
 trace of a toilet service. These, with a few mats on the 
 ground for squatting on by day, and sleeping on by night, 
 comprise all the actual furniture of a yourt. 
 
 To-day, 80th August, we killed some sand-grouse. They 
 were of the same species as those found about Peking and 
 Tientsin (the Pallas sand-grouse), but were in much finer 
 condition. They were fat, and of such excellent flavour that 
 they would be considered a delicacy anywhere. All their 
 crops which we dissected were full of small black beetles, 
 and. the same was the case with the curlew we killed. We 
 fell in with a herd of gurush, and had some long shots ; 
 but we were never fortunate enough to bag any of these 
 animals. 
 
 In leaving the caravan there is always more or less danger 
 of getting lost. It has happened more than once to travel- 
 lers. But still there is a beaten track all the way through 
 the desert, which is distinctly marked in the grassy parts, 
 and even in the sand it is traceable. In winter it may be 
 obliterated, but still I think, with ordinary care, one ought 
 not to lose himself in the desert. 
 
 At 6 p.m. we had returned to our caravan and again took 
 the road. It came on very windy at night, with some rain, 
 and as the winds were always from the north, and conse- 
 quently in our teeth, we were miserably cold and uncomfort- 
 able' in the carts, so much so that we ardently hoped that the 
 Mongols, who were more exposed than we, would propose a 
 halt. We could not do so ourselves, for that would have 
 given the Mongols an excuse for all manner of delays in our 
 journey, but we would have been glad to consent had we 
 been asked. There was nothing for it, however, but to bear 
 our burden patiently. The few bottles of water and milk we 
 invariably carried with us in the carts were exhausted, and 
 being much in want of something, we knew not what, we 
 ordered the Mongols to stop at the first yourt they saw.
 
 Chap, vi.] A STORM- SAND-GROUSE. 99 
 
 This they did at 11 o'clock, and having turned out an 
 old woman we asked for water. They had none of that 
 precious beverage (and if they had it might have been bad), 
 but we got some boiled milk. I did not really want any- 
 thing, but during the time the Mongols were negotiating 
 with the lady, our carts were turned with the backs to the 
 wind, and it seemed that I had never known what enjoy- 
 ment was till then. It lasted but a quarter of an hour. The 
 inexorable camels turned their noses to the wind again, and 
 I spent the night in manipulating blankets and contorting 
 limbs, but all to no purpose, for the merciless gale swept 
 under and over and through me. In the morning as soon as 
 daylight came we got out of our cold quarters and on to our 
 ponies, stopped at a yourt where we indulged in a cup of hot 
 chocolate, and warmed ourselves at the hospitable fire. In 
 this yourt we found a record of the party who had preceded 
 us on the journey, dated 11th June. Our poor Mongols and 
 their camels were fatigued, and we did not object to an early 
 halt on the 81st August. We camped in a very desert place, 
 scarcely any grass at all ; shot grouse for breakfast, and tried 
 to believe that we were comfortable. But we were not, for if 
 we had no other annoyance, the impossibility of keeping the 
 blowing sand out of our food was an evil hard to bear 
 patiently. Everything, even the inside of our boxes, was 
 filled with sand. Every means was tried in vain to prevent 
 it from blowing under our tent. We walked about most of 
 the day and tried to shoot, but the guns were nearly blown 
 out of our hands, and that resource for the destitute had to 
 be abandoned in despair. 
 
 About 4 in the afternoon we started again, wind still 
 blowing a gale. The road became very rough, which was an 
 additional reason for a restless night. We had many stop- 
 pages besides, and much shouting all through the night, 
 which seriously disturbed our fitful naps, and in the morning 
 
 H 2
 
 100 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. vi. 
 
 it was painfully evideut that our poor camels were breaking 
 down. One of them had several times refused to go on, and 
 had eventually lain down with his load, and resisted all 
 persuasion to rise. He had to be unloaded and the extra 
 weight distributed among the stronger ones, at the ri.sk of 
 breaking them down also. The truth is the camels were not 
 in condition when we started. We were too early for them. 
 The practice of the Mongols is to work their camels hard 
 from the autumn to the spring. Before the summer comes 
 everything is taken out of them ; their humps get empty and 
 lie flat on their backs ; their feet get out of order, and they 
 have mostly bad sore backs. They are then taken off the 
 road and turned out to grass. About this time they shed 
 their long hair and become naked, and all through the hot 
 weather the Mongol camel is the most miserable object that 
 can be imagined. In the early autumn they have recruited 
 their strength, their humps are firm and stand erect, their 
 backs are healed, and they begin the campaign fresh and 
 strong. 
 
 Our progress during the night was very slow, and towards 
 morning the road became sandy — in some places very heavy. 
 The cart-camels now suffered most, sweating and struggling 
 with their work in a way that was far from reassuring to us 
 who had the greater part of the journey still before us. 
 
 The whitened bones of camels are scattered all over the 
 desert, but in this place they were more numerous than ever. 
 I believe the camels always die on the road. They are 
 worked till they drop, and when one of a caravan fairly 
 breaks down, there is no alternative but to leave it to die on 
 the sand. 
 
 Yourts are few and far between, and few cattle are to be 
 seen ; there is barely grass enough to support sheep and 
 camels. We pushed on till 11 o'clock, and encamped at 
 Mingan, where there were no yourts actually in sight, but
 
 Chap, vi.] HOKSES GETTING EXHAUSTED. 101 
 
 several within a few miles. There was really little or nothing 
 to eat, and our trusty steeds were palpably suffering from 
 their long stages and short commons. Serious misgivings 
 crossed our minds as to the probability of our ponies carr3dng 
 us much further, and we were concerned for them as well as 
 for ourselves, for they had done our work well so far, and we 
 felt kindly to them as the patient companions of our journey. 
 
 ^'
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MONGOLIA — continued. 
 
 Our lama received sundry visitors at Mingan, and had 
 evidently some business to transact with them, for we soon 
 saw him in earnest converse with some of the strangers in 
 his tent, passing their hands into each others' sleeves as if 
 bargaining with the fingers. This resulted in the sale of one 
 of our camels — the one that had broken down. Our con- 
 ductor had more matters to settle than that, however, but he 
 was prevented by circumstances beyond his control. The 
 fact is that on such occasions the Mongols consider it indis- 
 pensable to imbibe freely of spirits, and our lama had to 
 stand a bottle of samshu, a very ardent spirit made from rice. 
 The Mongols drink hberally when they have a chance, and 
 the Mingan lama was no exception to the rule, for in a short 
 time he got so drunk as to become immanageable. He 
 began l^frbreaking the tent-poles, no slight calamity in a 
 country without wood ; he soon became helpless, and lay 
 down on his back, refusing absolutely to move. All idea of 
 further business was abandoned, and the drunken Mongol's 
 friends were ashamed, not so much at the exhibition he was 
 making, but at the mischief he had perpetrated. He could 
 hardly lie on his back, but they deemed that no valid objec- 
 tion to his riding on horseback. They therefore caught his 
 pony, by main force lifted him on, and put the reins in his 
 hands. The pony started off across the plain in the direction
 
 Chap, vii.] MISFORTUNES OF A TIPSY MONGOL. 103 
 
 of his home, quietly enough at first ; but the drunken rider 
 began to swing about and stretch out his right hand, as the 
 Mongols do when they want to excite their ponies to unusual 
 exertion. The pony went off at full gallop, throwing up 
 clouds of sand behind him as he went ; the rider's motions 
 became more and more centrifugal until at last he rolled 
 over and sprawled full length on the sand, apparently with 
 no intention of moving. His friends rode after his pony, 
 caught it, and hobbled it beside its master, and as evening 
 was drawing on they left them both to their fate. Another 
 of the party, not so far gone, was merrily drunk. He tried 
 to work up a dispute with our Mongols, and promised us 
 some amusement, but he also was got on his pony by the 
 persuasion of his son, who was with him. The boy was 
 ashamed of his papa, and did his best to take him off the 
 field. They made several false starts together, but the old 
 fellow gi'ew warmer and more excited, again and again turn- 
 ing his horse's head and returning to our tent to "have it 
 out." At last the young one prevailed, and they rode off 
 together and disappeared in the distance. We were now left 
 alone, at sunset, and our poor lama was left lamenting on his 
 bad day's work, his waste of much good liquor to no purpose, 
 and his broken tent-poles. 
 
 The Mongols are a pitiable set on foot, with their loose 
 clumsy leather boots, but they are at home on horseback. 
 From their earliest years they may be said to live on horse- 
 back, and the women are almost as expert as the men, 
 mounting any animal that comes handiest, whether horse, 
 cow, or camel, with or without saddle. Hue says he never 
 saw a Mongol unhorsed ; but probably he never saw a dead- 
 drunk lama forcibly put on a fiery steed. 
 
 Our lama received Sycee silver for the camel he sold. 
 Silver is not much in use among the Mongols, their only real 
 currency being very coarse brick tea. But it is a mistake to
 
 104 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM REKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. vir. 
 
 suppose, as has been stated, that they are ignorant of the 
 value of money. 
 
 We got away about 7 in the evening. The wind had for- 
 tunately lulled, and we passed a pretty comfortable night on 
 the road, which was alternately hard and sandy. My "Dolo- 
 nor" pony, that had been voluntarily following the caravan, 
 began to find the pastures getting too poor even for him, who 
 had the privilege of grazing day and night. The last two 
 days he remained faithful, but on the morning of the 2nd 
 September, finding matters getting from bad to worse, he 
 pricked up his ears, about ship, and galloped straight back 
 by the way we had come. This was not much to be sur- 
 prised at, all tilings considered, and I could not help com- 
 mending him for his sagacity. The " Kitat " was despatched 
 on his camel in quest of the fugitive before I was awake. 
 Had I been consulted I certainly should not have consented to 
 such a wild-goose chase, but the Mongols thought themselves 
 bound in honour not to lose anything, although it was not in 
 the contract that they were to look after ponies on the journey. 
 
 It was a very dry morning, but we got water for ourselves 
 and our horses passing Borolji. The well there was very 
 deep, and we were indebted to the friendly aid of some Mon- 
 gols, who happened to have driven their cattle in to water, 
 for obtaining a supply for our beasts. The head shepherd 
 had brought with him a small bucket made of sheepskin, 
 attached to the end of a long pole to enable him to reach 
 the water. His o^vn beasts were very thirsty and impatient 
 to drink; the horses especially crowded eagerly round the 
 well, neighing, biting, and kicking each other in their efforts 
 to gain the best places. Nevertheless, the polite Mongol drew 
 water for us first, and allowed us to continue our march. We 
 kept on till 1.80, when we pitched our tents on the steppe, 
 called " Gunshandak." No grass at all grows here, but the 
 sand is slightly shaded with green by a small wild leek, that
 
 
 1 
 
 i!!!;li!iL,
 
 CuAV. VII.] HOAY TO KILL MUTTON". 105 
 
 grows in form much like the Mongolian grass. We had fre- 
 quently observed this plant already sprinkled amongst the 
 gi'ass, but in Gunshandak it flourishes to the exclusion of 
 everything else. The sheep and camels thrive on it. Our 
 ponies also ate it freely, perhaps because they could get 
 nothing else, and when our cattle were brought in from feed- 
 ing they had a strong smell of onions about them. 
 
 The Kitat not having come up with my pony, we did not 
 hurry away, and our Mongols availed themselves of the delay 
 to buy and kill a goat from a neighbouring flock. We also 
 bought a sheep for two rubles, or about six shillings. The 
 seller, on being asked to kill it, told us we might do it our- 
 selves. This was not to be thought of, and our o^vn Mongols 
 were too much occupied with their goat. We had, therefore, 
 to resort to a little craft, for the sheep must certainly be put 
 to death before we could eat it. Addressing the man, we 
 said, how can we lamas kill an animal ? This was sufficient. 
 " Oh, you are lamas ! " and he proceeded at once to business. 
 The dexterity with which these Mongols kill and cut up a 
 sheep is truly marvellous. They kill with a small knife 
 which they insert into the belly, just below the breast-bone. 
 Death is almost instantaneous. The object of this mode of 
 slauo^hter is to save the blood inside the animal. Skinnincf is 
 ^n easy process and soon done. The sheep is laid on his 
 back on the sand, the skin is spread out on either side, a 
 strip down the back being left attached while the cutting up 
 is going on. The skin thus serves as a table, and. so well 
 does it answer the purpose that they will cut up a sheep into 
 small pieces, and put everything, including lights and liver, 
 on the skin, without ever touching the sand. The Mongols 
 have a perfect practical knowledge of the anatomy of the 
 sheep, and sever every joint with perfect ease, with only a 
 small pocket-knife, no other instrument being used in any 
 part of the process. The rapidity with which the whole
 
 106 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. yii. 
 
 thing is done, is astonishing. Our butcher was unluckily 
 called away during the operation to retrieve a young camel 
 that had been crying for its dam all the morning, and had 
 now broken its tether, so that I could not time him accu- 
 rately. I shall not state the number of minutes usually 
 occupied from the time a sheep is purchased till the mutton 
 is ready for the pot, for I could hardly expect to be believed. 
 On removing the intestines, &c., the blood is found all toge- 
 ther in a pooL It is then carefully baled out and put into 
 the cooking pan, or taga, for nothing is thrown away here. 
 We gave ours to the butcher, as also the skin and the whole 
 of the inside, except liver and kidneys. The wandering 
 Mongols scent a sheep-killing like vultures, and there are 
 never wanting some old women to lend a hand in making 
 black-puddings, and such like, ' who are rewarded for their 
 trouble by a share of the feast ; for among the Mongols the 
 j&rst instalment of their sheep is eaten in less than half an 
 hour from the time it is killed. The Mongol sheep are gene- 
 rally in good condition, but there is no fat about them at all, 
 except in the tail, which is a heavy lump of pure suet, said to 
 weigh sometimes ten pounds. The condition of the animal is 
 judged by the weight of the tail. The Mongols use but little 
 water in cleaning their mutton. The ubiquitous old woman, 
 who instals herself as pudding-maker, handles the intestines 
 in a delicate and artistic manner. She first of all turns them 
 all inside out, and then coils them up into hard, sausage- 
 shaped knots, without stuffing, which take up very little space 
 in the pot. These and all the other loose things are first 
 put into the pot, with the addition of as much of the meat 
 as it will hold. The pot is filled so full that the water does 
 not cover the meat, but that is of no consequence to the 
 Mongols. It is soon cooked, and quickly eaten. When 
 sufficiently boiled, one of the company adroitly snatches the 
 meat, piece by piece, from the boiling cauldron, with his
 
 Chap, vii.] MONGOLIAN" CUISINE. 107 
 
 fingers, and distributes it in fair proportions to the anxious 
 expectants seated round. They never burn their fingers by 
 this snap-dragon process. Their manner of eating mutton is 
 most primitive, and I will also say disgusting. Each person 
 gets a large lump or two, either in his lap, or on the mat on 
 which he sits. He then takes a piece in his left hand as big 
 as he can grasp ; and, with the inevitable small knife in his 
 right, he cuts off nuggets of mutton, using his thumb as a 
 block, in the manner of cutting Cavendish tobacco. They 
 literally bolt their mutton, and use no salt, bread, or sauce 
 of any kind in eating it. When they have got all the meat 
 off, they pare and scrape the bones very carefully, and when 
 that is done, they break the bones up, and eat the marrow. 
 Nothing is thrown away, except part of the eye, and the 
 trotters. The tail is considered a delicacy, and is reserved 
 for the head lama, or the honoured guest, who generously 
 shares it with the others. I need only say that this mass of 
 rich suet is eaten as I have described above. 
 
 When the solid part of the entertainment has been des- 
 patched, they put up their knives after wiping them on their 
 clothes, and then proceed to drink the broth in their wooden 
 cups. If they have any millet, they like to throw a little into 
 the broth as they drink it. The millet gets softened a little 
 as the cup is rapidly replenished, but no further cooking is 
 necessary. When the broth is finished, they put clean water 
 into the taga with a handful or two of brick tea, and go to 
 sleep while it is boiling. The tea so made has of course a 
 greasy appearance, and this practice of cooking everything in 
 the same pot has probably given rise to the belief that they 
 boil mutton and tea together, eating the leaves of the tea 
 with the mutton. There may be Tartar tribes who do this, 
 but the Khalkas Mongols certainly do not. The tea leaves, 
 or rather stalks, — for their bricks are made up of tea dust 
 and timber, — are always thrown away. It is necessary to
 
 lOS SIBERIAX EOUTE FROM PEKIXG TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. vii. 
 
 boil the tea to get anything out of it at all, and it is of course 
 bitter and ill flavoured. I have drunk it when hard up ; and 
 when it is well diluted with milk it is not unpalatable, when 
 you can get nothing else. 
 
 The Mongol tastes no doubt seem to us very unrefined, but 
 they are natural. The ga-eat esteem in which they hold the 
 fat as compared with the lean of mutton, is a plain expression 
 of the direction in which their ordinary regimen is defective. 
 It is well known that fat and farinaceous foods ultimately 
 fulfil the same purposes in the human economy ; they mu- 
 tually compensate, and one or other is absolutely necessary. 
 We thus find fat and oils eagerly sought after, wherever, as 
 among the Mongols and Esquimaux, the cultivation of cereals 
 is forbidden by soil and climate. 
 
 The value of a scale of diet does not, as might at first sight 
 be supposed, consist in the prominence of any one article, but 
 depends on the different ingredients which are necessary to 
 sustain health, being duly proportioned ; and wherever the 
 food of a people is necessarily composed of one substance 
 almost exclusively, the natural appetite will always mark out 
 as delicacies those which are deficient. It is to this want of 
 due proportion in the elements of diet that we must attribute 
 the comparative muscular weakness of the Mongols, in spite 
 of the abundant supply of mutton and the bracing air of the 
 desert. The coolies of China and Japan greatly excel them 
 in feats of strength, and in power of endurance, because the 
 rice on which they feed contains a more varied proportion of 
 the elements that nourish life, the poor quality of the fare 
 being compensated by the incredible quantities which they 
 consume. 
 
 Our Mongols having slept off their first meal and drunk 
 their tea, put the pot on the fire again, and cooked the 
 remainder of the goat, on which they had another heavy 
 blow-out late in the afternoon. The rajoacity and capacity of
 
 CiiAP. VII.] FEASTING AND FASTING. 109 
 
 a Mongol stomach is like that of a wild beast. They are 
 brought up to eat when they can, and fast when they must, and 
 their digestion is never deranged by either of these conditions. 
 They very much resemble their own camels in those useful 
 qualities so necessary to the inhabitants of a desert. Our 
 Mongols had really eaten nothing since leaving Chan-kia-kow. 
 They had fasted for seven days at least, and gone almost 
 entirely without sleep all that time, and yet suffered nothing 
 from the fatigue they must have endured. They had cer- 
 tainly some millet seed and some Chinese dough, a little of 
 which they put into their tea as they drank it, but of actual 
 food they had none. They had now laid in a supply which 
 would last them another week. They seldom carry meat 
 with them, finding it more convenient to take it in their 
 stomachs. 
 
 Lest it be thought that we also adopted the Mongol way of 
 living, I must explain that we had a very complete set of 
 cooking utensils, jalates, knives and forks, and every other 
 accessory to civilised feeding. We certainly had to a great 
 extent to educate ourselves to live on one meal a day, but 
 that was but a distant apjDroach to the Mongol habit of 
 eating but once a week. 
 
 We made a long day of it on the steppe Gunshandak, 
 hoping every hour that the Kitat would return. The 
 country was so desert that there was no population, and 
 only two yourts were near us. Our encampment was some 
 distance off the track, and we had consequently no visits 
 from travellers, so we spent a very quiet day. In the after- 
 noon the camels were brought in, and Tellig and the lama 
 examined them all narrowly. Their condition was really 
 becoming serious, for not only were they tired and worn 
 out, but their backs were getting very bad. They are very 
 subject to this. Nearly all of them had large deep holes in 
 their backs, which penetrated almost through the flesh between
 
 110 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap, vii, 
 
 the ribs. Maggots breed very fast in these wounds, and every 
 few days the Mongols probe deep into the wound with a bit 
 of stick, and scoop the vermin out. The animals complain a 
 little during this operation, but on the whole they bear their 
 ills with marvellous patience. While the camels are grazing, 
 the crows sit on their backs and feed on the worms. It did 
 seem cruel to put heavy loads on such suffering creatures, but 
 what else could be done ? 
 
 Our ponies were falling off fast from want of food and rest. 
 It was severe on them to go eighteen hours without eating. 
 But they were, comparatively speaking, a luxury, and could 
 be dispensed with. The camels were essential, and could not 
 be replaced in the desert. The lama betrayed considerable 
 anxiety for his camels, and began to talk of getting fresh 
 ones at a place called Tsagan-tuguruh, where there is a 
 sum4 or temple. We gathered from him that his family 
 lived there, and that he could easily exchange his camels for 
 fresh ones, if only he could reach that rendezvous. But 
 Tsagan-tuguruk was four days' journey from us, and our 
 used-up cattle did not look as if they could hold out so 
 long. But we live in hope, for it is foolish to anticipate 
 misfortunes. 
 
 We have hitnerto met no caravans since leaving China, 
 excepting long trains of ox-carts carrying timber from Urga. 
 
 The day wore on and no Kitat appeared. The Mongols 
 strained their eyes to descry some sign on the horizon, then 
 looked anxiously at the sun fast sinking in the west, and 
 made up their minds to remain in the steppe all night. The 
 Mongols have no means of judging of time except by guess- 
 ing from the height of the sun or moon. I speak only of my 
 own experience, for Hue says they can tell the time of day by 
 looking at a cat's eyes. For my part I did not see a cat in 
 the whole of Mongolia. Dogs they have in plenty. They 
 are of the same breed as the common dog of China, but
 
 Chap. VII.] OUR CAMP LIFE. Ill 
 
 rather larger and with thicker coats. They are useful to 
 the shepherds and are good watch dogs, not so thoroughly 
 domestic as their Chinese congeners, but will run after one a 
 great distance from their yourt barking ferociously. They 
 are great curs, however, and their bark is worse than their 
 bite. It is a singular thing that the Mongols do not feed 
 their dogs ; nor do the Chinese, as a rule. They are supposed 
 to forage for themselves, and in Mongolia they mvist be put 
 to great straits occasionally. 
 
 The day had been very warm, and, the air being still, in 
 the evening we slept in the carts. It was always warmer 
 and more comfortable to sleep in the tent, but our bedding 
 had to be moved, and the oftener that was done the more 
 sand got into our blankets. 
 
 The nights in Mongolia were beautiful, sky very clear, and 
 
 .stars bright. The "harvest moon," that had been such a 
 
 boon to us in our night travelling, now rose late. In a few 
 
 days it would be over, and we should have dark nights to 
 
 travel in. 
 
 After a luxurious night's rest, the first we had had for a 
 week, we awoke to see the sun rise on the steppe, and almost 
 fancied ourselves at sea. So indeed we were in a figurative 
 sense, for there was still no appearance of the missing Mon- 
 gol. We were now in the humour to take things patiently ; 
 and the sheep we had killed yesterday enabled us to prepare 
 a breakfast that for a desert might fairly be called sumptuous. 
 The day was passed in idleness, for not a feather of a bird 
 was to be seen to afford an excuse for taking our guns out. 
 Visits were paid and received between us and the Mongols 
 who lived in the two yourts near us, and our lama fraternised 
 with them, and got the women to bring us argols and water. 
 The women, as a rule, keep the house and do the cooking and 
 darning, only going out after the flocks when the men are 
 out of the way.
 
 112 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. vii. 
 
 The lamas carry tlieir principle of not killing animals to 
 an extremity that is sorely inconvenient to themselves. They 
 are not exempt from parasitical connections ; in fact, the per- 
 son of a lama, considered as a microcosm, is remarkably well 
 inhabited. He cannot, with his own hand, " procure the 
 transmigration " of any animal, in case it should contain the 
 soul of his grandfather, or some past or future Bhudda ; but 
 when the population presses on the means of subsistence, some- 
 thing must be done. In this juncture the services of some 
 benevolent female are called in, the lama strips to the waist, 
 and commits his person and his garment to her delicate 
 and practised manipulation. 
 
 We determined to start at sunset, Kitat or no Kitat, and 
 with one long-lingering look over the vast plain we had 
 crossed, at sunset we did start. We soon met a caravan of 
 sixty camels, which was refreshing to our eyes as evidence of 
 the travelling season having fairly commenced, affording us a 
 better hope of finding fresh camels. 
 
 We had again to encounter rough stony roads during the 
 night ; in fact, we seemed j ust to come to the bad roads as 
 we were going to sleep. How was it that we did not sometimes 
 by accident stumble on a bit of soft ground at night-time ? 
 The roads were perhaps not so bad as our nocturnal imagina- 
 tion, stimulated by want of proj)er rest, painted them. But 
 whether or no, we had nothing to complain of on this occa- 
 sion, having enjoyed a sound unbroken sleep the jDrevious 
 night ; and surely one good night out of two is enough for any 
 reasonable being. 
 
 In the morning, passing over some rather steeper undula- 
 tions than usual, and in a very desert country, we came 
 across a herd of gurush. Some ineffectual shots were fired 
 as usual. It was tantalising in the extreme not to be able to 
 bag one of these fine animals when met with in such num- 
 bers as would have delighted the heart of Gordon Cummin gf.
 
 Chap, vii.] NEW PLANS— SALT PLAINS. 113 
 
 About two o'clock we halted at Kutul-usu, where we were 
 agreeably surprised to find no less than six yourts near our 
 encampment, which was remarkable considering the scarcity 
 of grass. There is no gi'ass at all, in fact, and our beasts 
 return from their grazing redolent of onions. A large ox- 
 cart caravan was also encamped at this place. 
 
 Our lama had long and earnest conversations with the 
 Mongols of Kutul-usu, and there was much going to and fro 
 between our tents and the yourts. There was something in 
 the wind — we could not divine what — until the lama asain 
 broached the subject of Tsagan-tuguruk, the place where he 
 expected new camels. His proposal was that he should ride 
 ahead on a pony, and get the camels ready by the time the 
 caravan came up. There were grave objections to this course, 
 for we were already short-handed from the absence of the 
 Kitat, and were we to be left with only one camel-driver, we 
 should never be able to keep the caravan together. The 
 lama was importunate, and at last we consented to his plan 
 on condition : 1st, that he should find a substitute to assist 
 Tellig with the caravan ; and 2nd, that he should provide us 
 with fresh ponies at Tsagan-tuguruk. The substitute was 
 soon found in an active-looking, wiry old man with very bad 
 eyes. The sun had set some time before the discussions and 
 preparations were concluded, and we were consequently 
 compelled to remain till the moon rose, which was not 
 before eleven o'clock — half the night gone and no progress 
 made. 
 
 We had a rough night as usual, but we are getting into a 
 more broken country. In the morning we j^assed one of the 
 numerous salt plains that are spread over the great desert. 
 Sometimes there is water in them and sometimes not. This 
 one was dry, but had a white scurf of salt on the ground. A 
 dark-green plant grows in tufts over these plains, and is eaten 
 by the animals in the absence of grass ; indeed, I am not sure
 
 Hi SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. vii. 
 
 whether the camels don't prefer it. It was a hot thu'sty day, 
 and we were at great trouble to find a yonrt in which to rest 
 and make chocolate in the morning. We did discover one 
 eventually after riding many miles, and there we fell in with a 
 sporting lama with two good-looking ponies, riding one and 
 leading the other. This seemed a good opportunity for busi- 
 ness, and my companion soon concluded an exchange opera- 
 tion, giving a pony with an incipient sore back and two 
 dollars to boot, for a good old sound one of the lama's. We 
 were in some doubt about finding our caravan, having let it 
 get a long way out of sight ; but the wandering lama, having 
 a direct interest in discovering our party to get his two dol- 
 lars, soon scented them out by the same kind of instinct that 
 directs a bee to his distant hive. We took him some miles 
 back out of his way, but these people seem to care little in 
 which direction they go, or how much time they may lose in 
 going from one place to another. 
 
 The facility with which our Mongol friends found their way 
 in the ojjen desert had often excited our admiration. At the 
 end of a night's march, although interrujjted by numerous 
 accidental stoppages, they were never at a loss to know where 
 they were. They needed no land-mark to guide them, and 
 in pitching their tent near a well they never made a mistake 
 as to its i^ositioD. The exj^lanation seems to be that certain 
 instincts are developed in proportion to the want of artificial 
 aids. Thus Chinese sailors cruise about their dangerous coast 
 by a kind of rule of thumb, and are able to judge of their 
 position in darkness and fog where scientific navigators would 
 be at fault. In Australia also it is found that the best bush- 
 ranger is generally the most ignorant man of the party. The 
 effect of education being to cause men to trust more and 
 more to acquired knowledge, the faculty of perception, which 
 is possessed in a high degree by the lower animals, becomes 
 weakened for want of exercise. Instinct and education mu-w
 
 Cii. Yii.] FIRST SIGHT OF TREES-THE LAND OF PROMISE. 115 
 
 tually compensate each other ; and the lower we descend in 
 the scale of humanity, — the nearer man approaches to the con- 
 dition of the inferior animals, — the more does his mere instinct 
 predominate over his higher mental faculties. The senses 
 are very acute in primitive peoples, because of the constant 
 exercise they get, or rather because of the necessity which 
 compels them to be guided by the senses in their daily lives. 
 For to hear or see abstractedly, or for pleasure or instruction, 
 is a different thing from using these senses with the conviction 
 that the supply of food perhaps depends on the accuracy of 
 their indications. 
 
 As we approached our halting-place, Ulan-Khada, we wit- 
 nessed a remarkable phenomenon, which was a few dwarf 
 trees, scorched and scraggy, but still alive, growing in a 
 sheltered nook in a pass over some rocky hills. A little rill 
 filters through the stone and sand, and fresh soft exass is 
 found in modest quantity beside the water. Ulan-Khada is 
 in a hollow surrounded by high ground, and three yourts were 
 seen from our camp. The wild leek still prevails. 
 
 The following day we stopped at Tide, and early on the 
 morning of the 7th of September, to our gi'eat joy, we reached 
 the land of promise, — the well-watered, grassy plain of Tsa- 
 gan-tuguruk. There was something cheering in the very 
 name, associated as it had been in our minds with the hoped- 
 for end of our troubles and uncertainties. Vast flocks and 
 herds were seen in all directioiis, and yourts in good number, 
 though at great distances from each other. Our lama, Tup- 
 chun, was not here, but at his family yourt, said to be six 
 miles off. It was clear we must make a day of it, at least, at 
 Tsagan-tuguruk, and we at once proceeded to make acquaint- 
 ance with the natives of the nearest yourts, who came to \asit 
 us. The next move was to buy a sheep, for we had been out 
 of mutton for some days, the hot sun jireventing our keeping 
 it long. A Mongol jumped on his pony, and galloped off to
 
 116 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. vii. 
 
 his flock, caught a bio-, fat sheep, swung it across the pommel 
 of his saddle, and rode Lack with it to our tent. That was 
 soon done, but now came the lama question again. Were we 
 lamas, or Chara-chun? Now, Chara-chun means, literally, 
 " ])lack man," and is the name applied to all Mongols who are 
 not lamas. To one or other of the two classes we must 
 belong. But we certainly were not black men, that was 
 clear ; and if not black men, we were necessarily lamas. 
 The Mongols worked out the conclusion satisfactorily in their 
 own minds, and lent cheerful aid in killing and dressing 
 our mutton, for that was the great practical issue of the 
 question. 
 
 We had heard much from Tellig and others of the sume, 
 or temple of Tuguruk, and we took a few Mongols with us 
 and started off to visit it. It is a neat little house built of 
 stone, but the smallest place of worship perhaps in the world, 
 smaller even than some missionary chapels I have seen. A 
 priest came out of a neighbovuing yourt, and opened the 
 door for us. The interior was covered all over with dust, but 
 we were already so dusty that we did not scruple to sit down. 
 Half the sj^ace was occujDied by the materials for making 
 yourts, apparently new; and no doubt left by some wander- 
 ing Mongol for safe custody. A second priest soon joined us, 
 and the two together took down two old brass trumpets, like 
 the Chinese bagpipes, to give us some music. These instru- 
 ments were so dusty inside and out, and their joints so 
 loose, that no sound of any kind could be produced from 
 them. The priests puffed and blew as if they would have 
 burst their boilers, but the rusty old brass would yield no 
 sound. 
 
 Among our new acquaintances was a youth of fifteen, called 
 Haltsundoriki, the most active and intelligent of the Mon- 
 gols we had met with. He was much interested in us and 
 our belongings, and during our few days' stay at this place.
 
 Chap, vii.] A VIVACIOUS MONGOL-HORSE HUNTING. 117 
 
 he came regularly every morning, and stayed with us till 
 nightfall. He was a most willing servant to us, collecting 
 argols, lighting our fire, washing our dishes, taking our 
 ponies to water, and making himself universally useful. As 
 our visitors increased in numbers, they crowded our tent 
 inconveniently, especially at meal-times, for they had a nasty 
 habit of fingering everything they saw. Haltsundoriki was 
 therefore installed as master of the ceremonies, and vigor- 
 ously did he exercise his authority over young and old. It 
 was quite understood that he might bore us as much as he 
 liked himself, but he was not to permit any one else to do it. 
 He used the utmost freedom with all his countrymen who 
 came in his way, riding their horses or camels without asking 
 leave, and levying contributions on all and sundry in the 
 shape of tobacco, cheese, or anything they might happen to 
 possess. He furnished us with amusement by chaffing and 
 playing practical jokes on his friends, without regard to age 
 or sex. His wit was in a great measure lost on us, but we 
 made great progress in the Mongol language under his tui- 
 tion. Although not a lama, he was educated, and could read 
 and write both Mongol and Tangut. He was probably the 
 son of some small chieftain who lived in the neighbourhood, 
 and had had an opportunity of seeing better society than 
 the cowherds. 
 
 On intimating that we were prepared to do a little horse- 
 dealing, we at once set in motion several Mongols on their 
 ponies. Armed with a long light pole, with a large loop at 
 the end of it, they ride at the drove, and singling out the 
 one they want, they generally manage to throw the loop over 
 his head without much difficulty. An old hand, that has 
 been hunted for a good many years, will sometimes lead 
 them a chase of an hour or two ; for though tlie pony that is 
 ridden is always the fleetest, the hunted one doubles and 
 dodges his pursuer in every possible way. My Chan -kia-kow
 
 lis SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBUEG. [Cii. vii. 
 
 pony was so done up as to be useless, and I exchanged liim 
 for a big, strong beast, with doubtful feet, but the most likely 
 I could find. 
 
 We were much pestered for biscuit, liquor, and empty 
 bottles. It was useless to tell our persecutors that we were 
 on a long journey, and required all our supplies. They have 
 no consideration for travellers, and would eat you up to the 
 last morsel of food you possessed. We found it a good plan 
 to give them porter when they asked for drink. The wry 
 faces it produced were most comical, and they never asked 
 for more. As for the empty bottles, we reserved them to 
 requite any little services that were performed for us, and to 
 pay for milk. One old hag, a she-lama, came begging for 
 drink, and would not be denied. Her arguments were after 
 this sort ; — " You are a lama, and I am a lama, and we are 
 brethren, and our hearts are in unison ; therefore it is right 
 that you should give me this bottle of wine." The only 
 reply to such an ap23eal would be : — " True, I am a lama, and 
 you are a lama, &c., but as the bottle is in my possession, it 
 is right it should remain so." The old woman would still go 
 rummaoino:' about the tent, and it would have been rude to 
 turn her out vi et armis. At length she came across a bottle 
 uncorked, and pouring a little of its contents into the 
 palm of her hand, she licked it up with her tongue. The 
 effect was remarkable, her features were screwed up in 
 hideous contortions, she went out of the tent spitting, 
 and did not ask for any more drink. The bottle proved 
 to contain spirits of wine which we used for boiling- 
 coffee. 
 
 The first theft we were conscious of was perpetrated during 
 our stay at Tsagan-tuguruk. Hitherto we had relied implicitly 
 on the honesty of the Mongols, leaving all our small things 
 lying about at the mercy of our numerous visitors. But now 
 a few nick-nacks that our lama had asked me to take charge
 
 Chap, vu.] AX INCANTATIOK 119 
 
 of for him, were stolen out of my cart during the night. We 
 were very angry at this, and proclaimed aloud that we would 
 allow no Mongol to come near our tent till the thief was dis- 
 covered, and the property restored. It was impossible, how- 
 ever, to stem the tide ; and it seemed hard, moreover, to 
 punish the whole tribe for the misdeed of one who might 
 have no connection with the neighbourhood. We deemed it 
 quite fair, however, to stop their biscuit and brandy. On the 
 return of the lama, we reported the theft, but he received 
 the news with perfect equanimity. In the evening he got 
 two other lamas to perform the prescribed incantation for 
 the purpose of discovering the thief They performed their 
 task in a Mongol yourt with bell, book, and candle (literally, 
 as regards the bell and the book), reciting many yards of 
 lama prayers, while they told their beads. Our lama had 
 asked us for some wine for the ceremony. This was poured 
 into three small brass cups which stood on the table (the 
 family box, or chest of drawers) during the ceremony. It was 
 too tedious to see it out, but our lama informed us next 
 morning that the incantation had been successful (of course) 
 — that they had discovered who the thief was, but as to 
 catching him and recovering the property, that seemed as far 
 off as ever. 
 
 On the second day of our halt the Kitat arrived, in com- 
 pany with a friend, both on camels, and with my pony, " Do- 
 lonor." He had managed to lose his own camel in the chase, 
 and had come up to us on one borrowed from his companion. 
 The lama gave him a cold reception, lamenting bitterly over 
 the loss of his camel. As to the pony, he came full of spirits, 
 but being rather poor when he ran away, the six days' hard 
 hunting in the desert had not improved his condition, and I 
 wished they had left him where he was. 
 
 We were two days kicking our heels about in the utmost 
 impatience before our lama deigned to make his appearance
 
 120 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. vii. 
 
 with the new camels. As soon as he came, Tellig started on 
 an expedition to see his friends, who also lived some six or 
 eight miles off, and did not return till the next day. The 
 lama, instead of preparing for the journey, went dilly-dallying 
 about, drinking tea and gossiping with all the old women in 
 the country, which we considered a wanton waste of our 
 time, and we exhibited the feelings natural to us under such 
 circumstances. The lama tried every device to keep us till 
 the 10th, but we were desperate, and forced them to com- 
 mence packing late at night, which was no easy matter in the 
 dark, with unwilling workmen. Tellig was civil and good- 
 natured. The Kitat showed the cloven foot so disagreeably 
 as to j)rovoke some rough treatment, which led to his leaving 
 our service. I suspect this had already been arranged, for a 
 substitute was found at a moment's notice. The new camels 
 not having been tried in harness, were first put into the 
 empty carts, and carefully led about for some time, before 
 they could be depended on for steadiness. All this occupied 
 a good many hours in a very cold night, and it was midnight 
 before we got away from Tsagan-tuguruk. Two friends of 
 the lama accompanied us on our first stage, which was only a 
 few miles, for we were halted before daylight. The lama's 
 business matters had not been quite settled, and he had a 
 few more last words with his two friends. The packing, so 
 hurriedly done in the dark, had all to be done over again. 
 
 While these little matters were being arranged, we had time 
 to take stock of our new establishment. The camels were 
 certainly fat and fresh, humps full and erect, backs whole, 
 with only the marks of old scars. The camel department 
 could not be in a better state than it was. Kitat's substitute 
 turned out to be a lama, a good-natured looking fellow, whom 
 we afterwards discovered to be well-meaning but stujDid. 
 He could speak a few words of Chinese, and we therefore 
 christened him, in contradistinction to our chief of the staff,
 
 Ch. VII.] OUR NEW ESTABLISHMENT. 121 
 
 who was the lama par excellence, the " Kitat lama." We 
 further observed that the lama had somehow got rid of his 
 pony, and now rode a camel, which looked ominous for the 
 success or even the preservation of our equestrian stock ; for 
 the lama hated camels, and never rode one himself when he 
 could help it.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MONGOLIA — continued 
 
 The gi-ass was still copiously sprinkled witii onions. As 
 we advanced we crossed some marshy ground with a good 
 deal of water, enough to make it necessary to pick the way 
 judiciously, for the camel hates water or slippery mud. 
 Their broad soft feet don't sink into the mud sufficiently to 
 enable them to get a good foot-hold like a horse, and their 
 long weedy legs are so loosely knit together, that they run a 
 great risk of splitting up when their feet slip. A caravan of 
 seventeen camels, that had accompanied us since morning, 
 took a wrong road across the marshes and stuck, the camels 
 being unable to proceed. Our lama took a round-about road, 
 for which we abused him at the time ; but when he saw the 
 other caravan brought up all standing on the short cut, he 
 merely pointed it out to us with a triumphant chuckle, and 
 quietly asked, " Who knows the road ? " 
 
 A 60-camel caravan was passed encamped near the marsh. 
 It was from Urga, and probably from Kiachta, loaded with 
 merchandise for China, and for account of Chinese. Two 
 celestials were in charge of the goods, jolly roystering fellows, 
 with whom we stopped awhile and held such conversation as 
 to the road, the state of the pastures, time occupied, &c., as 
 will usually occur to travellers in such regions. It was curious 
 to notice how untruthful these travellers' stories generally 
 were. They seemed to say whatever came uppermost in their 
 minds, as a man of a happy disposition will often say, " It is
 
 Chap, viii.] BAD WATEE-SEEING IN THE DARK. 123 
 
 a fine day," when it is raining cats and dogs. But yet if you 
 are to believe nothing of what you hear on the road, you will 
 deprive yourself of a great deal of information which might 
 be valuable ; and if you believe all, you will keep yourself 
 and your people constantly in hot water. It is difficult to 
 steer a safe course between too much credulity on the one 
 hand, and too little faith on the other. 
 
 We halted again at 2 o'clock at Taryagi, a region un- 
 peopled ; but we were near a shallow lagoon, with thick 
 chalk-coloured water. It was most unpalatable, but the 
 Mongols seemed to like it. It is easier for them to draw 
 their water from a pool than to fetch it from a distant well ; 
 and to cover their indolence, they invariably assure you that 
 the wells are salt. You are of course obliged to accept their 
 explanations, for if they were to assert that there were no 
 wells at all, you would not be a bit the wiser. Although the 
 pastures were pretty fair at Taryagi, our camels were not 
 allowed to gi-aze, the reason being, that in their condition, 
 they would blow themselves out in a couple of hours to such 
 an extent, that they would not be fit to work. 
 
 It was pitch dark before we got ready to start. We had 
 difficulty in collecting the beasts, particularly the ponies, and 
 a young unruly camel. Our two Chan-kia-kow lanterns were 
 sufficient to make the darkness visible, but no more. The 
 Mongols, when looking for cattle in the dark, stoop down to 
 the ground and scan the horizon round. In a steppe, this 
 plan is very useful, for if the animal is not very far off, his 
 outline can be descried against the horizon. 
 
 At daylight we were in the steppe Butyn-tala, where 
 another large caravan was encamped. This steppe has also 
 a great deal of surface water in it, and in the small valleys 
 round it. The gi-ass is pretty good, and cattle abundant. 
 Game was again met with in Butyn-tala. 
 
 Our next halt was near Scdn-kutul, where there were
 
 12i SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. viii. 
 
 good pastures, but shocking water. We really could not 
 drink it, and, as the day was still hot, we had to suffer from 
 thirst. Milk was of no use, and only aggravated our suffer- 
 ings. At Sain-kutul, a strange Mongol (a lama) rode up on 
 a camel, and after the usual greetings, he undid his camel's 
 load, and took up his quarters in the tent of our people. On 
 inquiry, we found he was going to Kuren (Urga of the 
 Russians), and gave us to understand we might have his 
 company if we liked. He had started from his home with 
 his one camel to perform a long journey, without any of the 
 necessaries usually carried on such a journey, trusting that 
 Bhuddha would furnish a table for him in the wilderness, and 
 a covering as well, by directing him to the tent of some 
 travellers who were better provided tlian himself He was a 
 man of a mean character. Our first impressions of him were 
 decidedly unfavourable, and subsequent experience confirmed 
 them. Not that the man ever did anything wrong ; on the 
 contrary, his conduct was regulated by the strictest rules of 
 propriety. But that merely served to aggravate his offence, 
 for it gave us no excuse for disliking him. On the first day 
 of our acquaintance I lent a hand to lash up his gear, not 
 from any desire to help him, but from the same motive that 
 induces people to twirl their thumbs for want of some more 
 intellectual amusement ; or children to pull and haul at any- 
 thing they can lay hands on, more especially where they have 
 a chance of doing mischief As I was pulling at his ropes, 
 the fellow looked up in my face, and, with the most abject 
 expression, but with great gravity, said, "Sain chung ! Sain 
 chung ! " Good man ! Good man ! The Mongols use this ex- 
 pression in two senses, one with a meaning, and one without. 
 Now, in which sense soever this individual used it, it was 
 equally bad, and I much fear I never forgave him for it. 
 Indeed if he had asked forgiveness (which he did not) I could 
 not have believed him sincere. And this man was to stick
 
 Chap, viii.] THE RUSSIAN COURIERS. 125 
 
 to US like the old man of the sea all the way to TJrga ! He 
 affected great learning too — knew all the lama books, accord- 
 ing to his own account, and had been to Tangut. Whether 
 by Tangut the Mongols mean the old country of Tangut, 
 or whether it means Thibet, I am unable to say. It is most 
 probably the latter, and the confusion of names is very likely 
 to have occurred from the fact that Tangut was peopled with 
 a Thibetian race. 
 
 After leaving Sain-kutul, we were joined by a Russian 
 courier, a lama, mounted on a camel, a very unusual thing, 
 for they generally ride horses, changing them every twenty 
 or thirty miles. The courier, knowing E,uss, tried to get up 
 a conversation with us in that language, which we evaded, 
 for we had already discovered the advantage of passing for 
 Russians. It would, indeed, have been useless to explain to 
 the lama that we were not Russians. It would probably have 
 staggered his belief to begin with, for I am persuaded that 
 more than half the Mongol population believe Mongolia to 
 be in the centre of the world, with Russia at one end, and 
 China at the other. The Russian courier or postal service 
 through Mongolia is all done by lamas, whom an idle roam- 
 ing life seems to suit better than it does the black men. 
 They perform the distance from Chan-kia-kow to Kiachta, 
 780 miles, in eleven or twelve days easily, by means of their 
 relays of horses. This seems very fast travelling, compared 
 with our weary thirty days' journey ; but it is really very 
 slow, and if the courier were pushed, he could do the distance 
 in six days even, with the same facilities as they have at 
 present, excepting, perhaps, that the rider should be relieved 
 once. We met several of them on the road, and they travel 
 as if time were no object to them ; for example, the courier 
 now alluded to kept company with us at our two mile an 
 hour pace from 6 o'clock in tlio evening till 10 next day. 
 Others of them on ponies have done the same thing, and I
 
 126 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. viii. 
 
 know they spend their time in yoiirts, gossiping and drink- 
 ing tea for hours together. In short, the couriers to and 
 from Kiachta take matters exceedingly easy. There are 
 three couriers monthly ; one for the Russian government, 
 startino- from Peking, and two for the Kiachta merchants ; 
 the latter go to and from Tientsin. The Russian government 
 courier is entirely under the control of the Chinese govern- 
 ment, and is also, I believe, at its expense. The merchants' 
 posts are managed by themselves. 
 
 Near Ichi KJia^ystilwe encamped in rather good pastures, 
 and near a large pond of very dirty water, with wild fowl on 
 it. A large kind of duck, nearly all white, and dab-chicks, 
 were the tenants of this pond, but we elsewhere saw many 
 species of wild fowl. 
 
 Six of our camels were now allowed to eat and drink, after 
 fasting for four days, to our knowledge, and perhaps a couple 
 of days before they were brought to us. 
 
 The water from the pond was nauseous. I could not touch 
 it, and suffered severely from thirst in consequence. In the 
 afternoon, when we had started the caravan, I rode all over 
 the country on every side looking for water, but could not 
 find any, except a mere puddle where horses and cattle 
 had pitted the wet mud with foot-i^rints. Into these holes a 
 little water had collected, and we were fain to stoop down 
 and drink with eagerness the filthy liquid that, at another 
 time, would have turned my stomach. But we were happily 
 getting out of the watery region, and before night we got 
 into a yourt to make tea, and found delicious spring-water. 
 
 The camel that was drawing my cart did a very unusual 
 thing during this evening. He set to kicking so violently 
 that at first I was afraid he would smash everything to 
 pieces, but, as every blow was delivered on the solid part of 
 the machine, no damage was done, except to the camel's own 
 legs. He would not desist until he had so mauled himself
 
 Chap, viii.] CHANGE OF SCENE. 127 
 
 that he could hardly stand on his legs. And when the pain 
 had a little subsided he would resume the kicking, but with 
 less and less energy, until he was fairly defeated. During the 
 fits he was dangerous to approach, for, by the formation of a 
 camel's hind legs, the lower extremities spread out Avidely 
 from- the hocks, and the feet, in kicking, project considerably 
 beyond the perpendicular of the shaft. Tellig did, in fact, 
 get knocked over in this way. This was the only instance 
 in my experience of one of these patient animals getting out 
 of temper. 
 
 The face of the country was now fast changing its cha- 
 racter, being broken up into irregular elevations, and was 
 more grassy. We hoped the worst part of the desert had 
 been left behind, as we gradually got into an inhabited 
 region. Passing Shari'a-sharatu, where there were many 
 yourts,- we proceeded to Shibetu, in the middle of a hilly 
 country. Our next stage took us to the Ulin-dhablia moun- 
 tains, the only ones worthy the name we had seen in Mon- 
 golia. The road rises gi-adually towards the mountains from 
 3700 feet to 4900 feet, which is the elevation of the pass. 
 The pass is an easy one, and forms a deep cutting into the 
 mountains. The pass opens out a fine valley on the north, 
 which was alive with men and beasts moving about ; yourts 
 packed up and laid on the backs of cows, camels, &c., and on 
 rude wooden carts; flocks of sheep, and droves of cattle being 
 driven here and there. The Mongols were moving to winter 
 quarters. In the summer season they spread all over the 
 desert and find enough food to support their beasts, but in the 
 winter they try to get into some sheltered place where there 
 is enough grass to keep their beasts alive during those dreaiy 
 months. The few touches of north wind we had lately felt 
 warned the inhabitants of the steppes of the ai^proach of 
 winter, and of the necessity of seeking a more hospitable 
 resfion.
 
 128 SIBERIA^q' ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. viii. 
 
 Near Bomhatu, where we halted, the grass was luxuriant, 
 and our half-starved ponies enjoyed it thoroughly. But, un- 
 fortunately, when our beasts are in clover our men are fagged 
 out. Tellig especially, who has had most of the work, is 
 nearly done for want of sleep and from constant exj)osure on 
 the back of his camel. 
 
 There was no end to the ox-cart caravans that passed us on 
 the way to China. There are between 100 and 200 carts in 
 each, and they followed so close on one another that it seemed 
 as if there was a continuous line of them for the whole 
 length of a night's march. Their tinkling bells have a 
 strange, but not unpleasant, effect as they move slowly 
 along. 
 
 On the loth September the lama made an excuse of buy- 
 ing sheep for himself and us, to halt at 9 a.m. some miles 
 south of the steppe Guntu-gulu. We had been but two days 
 without meat, but the Mongols had eaten nothing for six 
 days. We had made several ineffectual attemj)ts to buy 
 sheep, and that very morning we had concluded a bargain for 
 one, but the owner in catching the sheep missed his mark as 
 he sprang forward to clutch it, and fell sprawling on his face. 
 Of course we laughed, in common with the Mongol spectators, 
 and whether the fellow was angry at being the occasion of 
 merriment to us, or wdiether he considered his accident 
 as a providential intimation that he was to sell no sheep 
 that day, I cannot tell ; but he obstinately declined to 
 have anything more to say to us on the subject of sheep- 
 selling. 
 
 The pony I had got at Tsagan-tuguruk had gone all to the 
 bad with his feet. The roads had been very stony all the way, 
 and his hoofs were too far gone to bear rough travelling. I 
 bartered him, therefore, for two good sheep, and now I had 
 only the skeleton of Dolonor left. 
 
 High mountains appeared fifteen miles east of us (if one
 
 Chap, viii.] THE NORTH WIND— AN ACCIDENT. 129 
 
 may venture to estimate distance in such a country), and we 
 began to hope for something like scenery. It blew fresh and 
 cold from S.-W., and in the afternoon it came round to N.-W., 
 a regular clioinar salchin, or north wind, a word of horrible 
 signification to Mongols. And if dreaded in September what 
 must it be in January ? I often wondered how the wretches 
 get through their dreary winter. They are taken very sud- 
 denly with these cold northers. The day may be fine, and 
 almost oppressively warm. A cloud comes over, and drops as 
 much water as you would get out of a watering-pan. Then 
 the north wind pipes up, and in a few hours you have made 
 the transition from a tropical summer to worse than an Ai-ctic 
 winter, for the biting wind cuts into the bone. 
 
 In the face of a sharp norther we entered on the steppe 
 Guntu-gulu, which seemed to be about five miles broad, but 
 it proved the best part of a day's march, so deceptive are dis- 
 tances without 25rominent marks. A scene occurred in the 
 steppe which delayed us a night, and might have proved 
 serious enough to arrest our progress altogether. One of our 
 guns went off in the cart (we always kept them loaded and 
 handy), the charge went through some bedding, then the 
 wooden back of the cart, and ricochetted from a wooden bar 
 outside, miraculously clearing the camel that was following 
 within two yards of the cart, and describing a curve over the 
 whole line ; one of the pellets hit the lama who was bringing 
 up the rear, at a distance of full sixty yards, and made a 
 gi'oove on the outside of the flap of his ear. It bled pro- 
 fusely ; in fact, the first notice he had of the injury was the 
 streams of blood that suffused his neck and shoulders. He 
 roared in ten-or, thinking he was at least killed ; stopped the 
 caravan ; dismounted from his camel, and committed himself 
 to the care of Tellig and the Kitat lama. The tent was 
 hastily put up, and all made ready for a halt, Tellig 
 and the others were greatly alarmed, and disturbed in their
 
 130 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. vin. 
 
 minds, and we were somewhat uncertain of the view their 
 superstitious fanaticism might lead them to take of the 
 afifjiir. Luckily we had just got clear of another very large 
 caravan, and were spared the officious assistance of a crowd 
 of people. There was a pool of water close by, and we 
 sent for repeated supplies of it, washing the ear, and letting 
 ib bleed freely. The wound was nothing at all, but the 
 profuse bleeding frightened the Mongols. Our policy was 
 to look wise ; and my companion being provided with a 
 neatly got-up little case containing various articles of the 
 onateria medica, it was produced, and inspired a proper 
 amount of blind faith in the minds of our Mongol 
 friends. The wound was washed with arnica, and a piece 
 of sticking-plaster put on it so successfully, that it com- 
 pletely stopped the bleeding, and made a very neat finish. 
 The Mongols looked on with much wonder and reverence at 
 our proceedings, and if any idea at retaliation for the injury 
 had crossed their minds, it was now giving place to a feeling 
 of gratitude for our surgical assistance. The lama was help- 
 less from fright, and we had him lifted to his tent, where we 
 made him recline on a bed that had been extemporised for 
 him with boxes and things packed behind him on the windy 
 side. A towel was tied round his head to keep the cold out, 
 and he was made as comfortable as our-means would allow. 
 He looked sad and woe-begone, and we could with difficulty 
 suppress a smile at the utter prostration of mind that the 
 sight of his own blood had induced. He now imagined he 
 had pains in his head, throat, and chest, and seeing him so 
 entirely a victim to his fears, we were obliged to humour them 
 a little, prescribing for his various symptoms with great care. 
 The first thing we ordered him was a measured glass of 
 brandy, knowing him to be partial to that liquor. This 
 roused him a little, and his pluck began to return. We then 
 prescribed tea, which was soon made, and, as he improved
 
 Chap, viii.] A HINT TO THE FACULTY— MARMOTS. 131 
 
 in spirits, we ordered mutton, knowing they had some 
 scraps left from their morning's feast. All that done, we 
 allowed him to smoke, and finally prescribed a good night's 
 rest. In the morning we inquired for our patient and found 
 him well, but much inclined to remain in his shell till the 
 north wind was over. This was a little too much of a good 
 thing ; so when Ave had carefully examined him all over, and 
 scrutinised all his symptoms, we were compelled to pronounce 
 him fit to travel. He could not get out of it, but reluctantly 
 mounted his camel, his head still tied up in a white towel, to 
 the wonderment of the wandering Tartars we encountered on 
 our march. It certainly never was my fortune to be so well 
 treated by a doctor, but as the faculty in this country depend 
 so much on popularity, a similar mode of treatment with 
 the majority of their patients would be well worth their con- 
 sideration. I may here observe that the Mongols have theii- 
 ears very protuberant, like an elephant's. 
 
 The accident to the lama was a godsend to us in procur- 
 ing us a night's rest. The wind blew mercilessly across the 
 steppe, so that sleeping in our carts with their backs turned 
 to the wind, we could not keep warm. What it would have 
 been, marching in the teeth of it with our front exposed, may 
 be imagined by those who have experienced these cutting 
 winds, for the fronts of our carts were, with all our care, but 
 indifferently closed by sheets of felt, fastened as securely as 
 we could manage, but utterly ineffective to keep out a gale 
 of wind. 
 
 Most of the steppes in the desert are inhabited by a small 
 marmot, like a rat, which buiTOws in the ground. Its custom 
 is to sit on its haunches (it has only a rudimentary tail) be- 
 side its hole, uttering a chirping noise when alarmed, and 
 then dropping into its hole, turning round immediately with 
 only its head out to see if the apprehended danger is immi- 
 nent, and then disappearing altogether. Each hole has 
 
 K 2
 
 132 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. viii. 
 
 several roads to it, extending to about twenty or thirty yards 
 from the hole. The little animal seems never to stray from 
 the beaten track, and is so secure of reaching its retreat, that 
 it will allow you almost to tread on it before it begins to 
 scamper home. Where these animals abound, the ground is 
 fun-owed in all directions by their roads. On the margins of 
 their holes a heap of grass and herbs is piled up, which Hue 
 thought was for the purpose of sheltering the animals from 
 the winter winds. I have too much faith in their instinct to 
 believe that, however, for, once in their burrows underground, 
 no wind can touch them. It is more probable that the 
 stores of vegetable matter so collected are intended for win- 
 ter forage, which they collect with great industry during the 
 autumn. Our ponies were very fond of nibbling at these 
 heaps of drying grass, and turning them over with their 
 noses, a practice which we did our best to discourage. It 
 was in fact a kind of sacrilege to destroy wantonly the stores 
 of food that these interesting creatures had with so much 
 forethought and months of patient labour accumulated against 
 the evil day. 
 
 In Guntu-gulu we met with another marmot of nearly 
 similar habits, but much larger. It is in size and colour like 
 a hare, but heavier and clumsier in its movements. Its bur- 
 rows are as lai-ge as a rabbit's. It is found at a considerable 
 distance from its hole, and is inore easily alarmed than its 
 neighbour, because less easily concealed. When slightly 
 alarmed, it makes rapidly for its hole, and there sits till the 
 danger ajDproaches too near. Then, cocking up its short tail 
 and uttering a chirp, it disappears into its hole. We could 
 never get within shot of these animals. As to the little 
 fellows, we got so close to them that it would have been 
 cruelty to shoot them, as we had no means of preserving the 
 skin. The larger ones burrow in stony places, and with 
 their short legs, strong claws, and wiry hair, somewhat re-
 
 Chap, viii.] DESERT REFLECTIONS. 133 
 
 seinble the badger or racoon. They might be the Lepus 
 pusillus, or " calHng hare," if it were not that that species is 
 positively said never to be found farther east than the Oby. 
 
 The wind lulled at sunset, and we had a fine frosty night. 
 The morning of the 17th September showed us the first bond 
 fide ice, and from that time we had frost during all the re- 
 -mainder of the journey. It was a moonless night, the roads 
 were indifferent, the Mongols hungry and tired, and they 
 therefore took it on themselves to halt for some hours before 
 daylight to make tea near Khulustu-tologoi. From there we 
 crossed the steppe Borelju, meeting the usy^l array of ox-cart 
 caravans, and encamped at 10 o'clock near the entrance to a 
 pass leading through a ridge of hills. The sharp clear outline 
 of Bain-ula (rich mountain), ten to sixteen miles distant on 
 our right, and the modest elevations at the foot of which we 
 were encamped, made a pretty bit of scenery after such a 
 monotonous succession of steppes. We had now been twenty- 
 two days in Mongolia, and had become strongly imbued with 
 the habits of the people we were living amongst. To have 
 imagined that we were travelling at such a slow pace would 
 have been misery. But there was nothing to make us be- 
 lieve we were travelling. Now and then a vague idea would 
 cross our minds that some day we ought to see Kiachta, but 
 that was of short duration, and our daily routine all went to 
 keep up the illusion that we were dwellers in the desert. 
 There was nothing to mark our daily stages, no church spires 
 or road-side inns, not even a mile post. Those fine evipho- 
 nious names of places I have given indicate nothing. They 
 might with as much propriety be given to various parts of the 
 ocean. We had entirely identified ourselves with the wan- 
 dering Tartars, and were content to live in the desert with 
 much the same feeling that the Israelites must have expe- 
 rienced during their desert joumeyings, that there was a 
 promised land dimly figured out to them — that is to say, their
 
 134 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. viii. 
 
 apprehension of the reality of it was dim ; but the thought 
 of ever an-iving there had but slight influence on their daily 
 life. The reo-ular supply of manna was to their minds much 
 more important than the bright future to which their leaders 
 looked forward. And so it is with the greater part of man- 
 kind. 
 
 "With all its drawbacks, there is a charm about desert life 
 which is worth something to a man who has undergone the 
 worry of incessant occuj)ation. You are safe there from 
 the intrusions of mail steamers and electric telegraphs, and 
 " every day's re^rt of the wrong and outrage with which 
 earth is filled." The longer you live in such quiet solitudes 
 the more independent you feel of the great struggling world 
 without. It is a relief to turn your back on it for a while, 
 and betake yourself to the children of nature, who, if they 
 lack the pleasures, lack also many of the miseries, and some 
 of the crimes, which accompany civilisation. 
 
 The day turned out very warm, so much so, that we were 
 glad to get shelter from the sun under our canvas until 3 
 o'clock, when we were again in the saddle. The pass proved 
 a fine valley, rich in grass. Another long string of caravans 
 was met with, most of the carts empty, and bound from Urga 
 to Dolonor. Why they were empty we could not ascertain, 
 but conjectured that they could not get loaded before winter, 
 of which the late severe weather had given them warning, 
 and that they were bound at all hazards to get home to win- 
 ter quarters. 
 
 Some days before this we had picked up a young pilgrim, 
 a lama, on a journey to the great lamasery at Urga, there to 
 pass a certain time in study. The boy was performing a 
 journey of between 200 and 300 miles alone and on foot. 
 He carried nothing in the world with him except the clothes 
 on his back and a few musty papers containing lama prayers, 
 carefully tied up between two boards which he carried in his
 
 Chap, viii.] A YOUNG PILGRIM. 135 
 
 bosom. He had no provisions with him, still less any money, 
 but depended solely on the well-known hospitality of his 
 countrymen for his daily bread and his night's lodging. I 
 thought there was something heroic in a boy of fifteen un- 
 dertaking such a journey under such circumstances, but the 
 Mongols thought nothino' of it. Our caravan offered him a 
 good opportunity of performing his journey comfortably, 
 which he at once and without ceremony availed himself of. 
 His first appearance was in one of our halts, where he was 
 discovered in the tent of our Mongols, as if he had dropped 
 from the clouds, and our three Mongols had thenceforth to 
 fill two extra mouths, which must have been a considerable 
 tax on them. The boy was at once placed on our effective 
 staff, and we christened him Paga-lama, or " Little Lama," a 
 name not much relished at first, but he soon became recon- 
 ciled to it. The little lama had left his mother's tent in sum- 
 mer, a few days before ; winter had now overtaken him — for 
 there is no autumn or spring in Mongolia — and he was all 
 too thinly clad for such inclement weather. Our lama, seeing 
 the boy pinched with cold in these biting north winds, with 
 the genuine hospitality of a Mongol gave up one of his 
 coats to him, thus unconsciously practising a Christian pre- 
 cept to which few Christians in my experience pay so much 
 practical respect. The little lama's loose leather boots, and 
 particularly the felt stockings inside of them, were consider- 
 ably travel-worn ; and, with all his management, he could 
 not keep his red toes covered from the cold. But he was 
 patient and enduring, and very thankful for what he had got. 
 He had no more long marches to make on foot, for our lama 
 generally contrived to put him on a camel. 
 
 On the morning of the 18th of September, we found our- 
 selves starting from a halt at 6 o'clock, which caused a row 
 between us and the Mongols ; for though the night had been 
 cold and dark enough to give them an excuse, we ad-
 
 136 SIBERIAi!T ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. viit. 
 
 mitted no excuses for extra stoppages, and we had been 
 stopped most of the night. It was a cold, raw morning, with 
 a heavy leaden sky, and a fresh southerly wind, very unusual 
 weather in Mongolia. We soon came to a point where the 
 road seemed to terminate abruptly on the brow of a precipice, 
 and it was now plain that we could not have proceeded 
 further without good daylight. From our elevated position 
 we came suddenly on a view of scenery of surpassing magni- 
 ficence. An amphitheatre of mountains lay before us, rising 
 up in sharp ridges, and tumbled about in the wildest confu- 
 sion, like the waves of the sea in a storm. The crests of 
 many of them were crowned with patches of wood, and to us, 
 who had lived so long in the flat, treeless desert, the effect of 
 this sudden apparition was as if we had been transported to 
 fairy land. 
 
 We had to cross a wide valley that lies half encircled at 
 the foot of the mountains, and our descent was almost preci- 
 pitous for 500 feet. We had to get out and walk, and the 
 camels had enough to do to get the empty carts down 
 safely. 
 
 On the top of the high ground, and at the beginning of the 
 descent, is a large ohon, or altar, consisting of a cairn of 
 stones. There are many of them in different parts of Mon- 
 golia. They are much respected by the Mongols, and have a 
 religio-superstitious character. It is considered the duty of 
 every traveller to contribute something to the heap, the 
 orthodox contribution being undoubtedly a stone. Our lama 
 seldom troubled himself to dismount, and find a stone, but 
 contented himself with plucking a handful of hair from the 
 hump of his camel, and allowing it to be wafted to the obon, 
 if the wind should happen to take it there. At the same 
 time he saved his conscience by mumbling a few words from 
 the form of prayer prescribed for such occasions. At the 
 more important ohons, however, such as the one which has
 
 Chap, viii.] DEVILS AND DEVIL-WORSHIP. 137 
 
 led to these remarks, whieli are always placed at difficult or 
 dangerous passes, lie rode a-head of the caravan, dismounted, 
 and with solemn words and gestures propitiated the good 
 genius of the mountain. The Mongols have a great horror 
 of evil spirits, and have strong faith in the personality, not 
 of one, but many devils. In this respect, they are like the 
 Chinese Buddhists, but I never could detect that they wor- 
 shipped the devil, as their neighbours do, the whole drift of 
 whose religious ceremonies always seemed to me to be to 
 charm away or make terms with evil spirits. This is, of 
 course, only negative evidence as regards the Mongols, and 
 that from a very slight experience, but the tone of religious 
 sentiment among them is more healthy and elevating, encou- 
 raging the belief that devils are not among their objects of 
 worship. They don't speak of the tchutgour, or devil, in the 
 same flippant way as the Chinese do of their kwei, and 
 although they attribute diseases and misfortunes to tchutgour 
 influences, only to be counteracted by lama incantations, they 
 hold that good men, and especially good lamas, never can see 
 a. tchutgour. I have tried to joke with them on the subject, 
 and turn their tchutgour notions into ridicule, but the Mon- 
 gols, though easily amused on any other subject, were sensi- 
 tively anxious on this, and never spoke of it without serious 
 concern. The rapid and complete recovery of our lama from 
 what seemed to him and his friends a deadly wound, was the 
 cause of no small congratulation to them as establishing the 
 moral excellence of his character, by means of a severe 
 ordeal — as it were a hand-to-hand contest with the powers 
 of evil. 
 
 As we advanced across the valley a few drops of rain fell. 
 A halt was summarily ordered, and the Mongols began to 
 run about, hastily unloading camels and unrolling tents, with 
 horror depicted on their faces, muttering to themselves, 
 " borro beina," " the rain is coming." There is so little rain
 
 138 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. viii. 
 
 in Mongolia, that no great preparations are made for it, and 
 a smart shower disconcerts travelling Mongols as if they were 
 poultry. Before our tents were got up, the rain was falUng 
 heavily, and we were all well drenched, but when we had 
 got safely under the canvas, the real misery of our situa- 
 tion flashed ujDon us — the argols were wet, and we could get 
 no fire ! The poor Mongols resigned themselves to their fate 
 with enviable philosophy, looking on their misfortune as one 
 of the chances of war. We were not so well trained in the 
 school of adversity, however, and could not tolerate the idea 
 of sitting in our wet clothes during that cold, rainy day. 
 Besides, past experience had taught us to look for the dreaded 
 north wind after rain, and how could we abide its onset in 
 such a condition ? There was but one source from which 
 we could obtain fuel, and that was to break up one of 
 our cases of stores, and burn the wood. This was also 
 wet, but not saturated like the argols, and after some diffi- 
 culty we lighted a fire in our tent, and gave the Mongols 
 enough to make them a fire also, by which to boil their 
 tea.- We were richly rewarded by their looks and expres- 
 sions of gTatitude for such an unexpected blessing. The 
 rain continued all day till sunset, when it cleared up, and 
 the wind came round to N.-W., piping up in the usual manner. 
 We got our tent shifted round, back to wind, and made our- 
 selves exceedingly comfortable. With waterproof sheets and 
 a lisfht cork mattress, the wet ground was of no account, and 
 we could always manage to keep our blankets dry. In the 
 morning the ground was white with snow, and the north 
 wind blowing more pitilessly than ever. A few driving 
 showers of snow fell for some hours after sunrise, and we 
 waited till 10 o'clock before resuming our journey towards 
 the mountains Tsagan-dypsy w^hich bounded the plain in 
 our front. Tsagan meaning " white," we thought the name 
 highly appropriate, as we gazed the live-long day on their
 
 Chap, viii.] CAMELS AXD THE CLIMATE— WOODS. 139 
 
 snow-clad slopes. It was a trying day to all of us, and I 
 never suffered so much from cold. The sun seldom showed 
 his face, and the air was charged with black, heavy snow- 
 clouds, which only the violence of the wind prevented from 
 falling. It was impossible to endure the wind, either in cart 
 or on horseback. There was nothing for it but to walk, but 
 that was no easy performance in the teeth of such a gale, and 
 we were fain to take shelter behind the carts, supporting 
 ourselves by holding on to them. I estimated that I walked 
 twenty miles in that way. The camels breasted the storm 
 bravely, and even seemed to enjoy it. The Bactrian camel, 
 at least the Mongol variety, is peculiarly adapted for cold 
 cKmates. In a hot day he is easily fatigued, and seems 
 almost to melt away in perspiration under his load (hence 
 our constantly travelling at night, in the early part of our 
 journey, and resting in the heat of the day), but in cold 
 weather he braces himself up to his work, and the colder it 
 gets, the better he is. 
 
 We were entertained by the few travellers we met with 
 alarming accounts of the state of the river Tolla, which was 
 said to be in flood, and impassable. We paid little heed to 
 such Job's comforters, knowing the Asiatic proneness to figu- 
 rative language ; but our lama was disconsolate, and began to 
 look like a man who feels that some great calamity is hanging 
 over him. 
 
 On gaining the Tsagan-dypsy mountains we enter a long, 
 narrow, but very pretty valley, watered by the small river 
 Kul, which runs into the Tolla. The mountains on both 
 sides of us were well wooded, chiefly with fir with yellow 
 feathery leaves, and small birch. The fir grows to no great 
 size, probably because it is in too great demand for sale in 
 China. Several wood-cutting stations were observed in this 
 valley of the Kul, where the timber is collected and the ox- 
 carts loaded, of which we met so many in the desert.
 
 140 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. tiii. 
 
 With the woods, several new birds appear, conspicuous 
 among which are magpies, jackdaws, and pigeons. 
 
 The Yak, or " long-haired ox," or " grunting ox " (Poe- 
 phagus grunniens), also now appear in considerable num- 
 bers. They are smaller than the average Mongol ox, but 
 seem to be very strong and hardy. They are used solely 
 for draught purposes. It has been supposed that these 
 animals are peculiar to Thibet, but they appear to be also in- 
 digenous in Mongolia. 
 
 Passing through the Kul valley, our lama purchased two 
 small trees for firewood, giving in exchange half a brick of 
 tea. It was joyfully intimated to us that we should want no 
 more argols, but should find wood all the rest of the journey. 
 The intelligence pleased us not so much on account of the 
 prospect of a more civilised fuel to burn than argols, for, 
 cooking as we did, in the open air, there was not much to 
 choose between the two ; but we received it as a tangible 
 evidence that we had really passed the great desert, and were 
 henceforth to travel in a country of mountains and " shaggy 
 wood."
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 URGA TO KIACHTA. 
 
 Just as we came in sight of the river Tolla, and with our 
 glasses could make out the houses in the Chinese settlement of 
 Mai-machin beyond, a heavy, blinding shower of snow came 
 on, which neither man nor beast could face, in the teeth of 
 such a wind as was blowing. The camels were halted and 
 tents hastily pitched, but not before the ground was covered 
 with snow. The storm did not, however, prevent visitors 
 from coming to us from the numerous caravans that were 
 encamped round us in the valley. Eager inquiries were made 
 as to the state of the river, and the information received was 
 to us more gloomy, because more definite, than before. The 
 stream was very rapid, and the water very high. The only 
 boat they had fit to cross it had been swept away by the 
 force of the current, and in an attempt to ford it, two men 
 and a horse had been drowned that very day. Our inform- 
 ants were in a similar predicament to ourselves, and some 
 of them had been waiting several days for an opportunity 
 to cross. 
 
 We could no longer discredit these statements, and we 
 acquiesced in our adverse fate to the best of our ability ; but 
 it was sorely trying to our patience to be stuck there in sight 
 of Urga, the first great break in our journey through Mon- 
 golia, with only a little bit of a river between. We were 
 consoled as usual under such circumstances by a good dinner, 
 to the preparation of which we always devoted special care.
 
 142 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. ix. 
 
 when we were stopped by compulsion. A few hours' kindly 
 converse with the Mongols in their tent served to while away 
 the long evening. They are, in many things, very much like 
 children, and easily amused. Our simplest j)lan was to 
 select one of the company, generally the Kitat lama, and 
 make him the subject of a series of imaginary stories that we 
 had heard of him in distant parts. The Mongols are always 
 ready to enjoy a joke at the expense of their friends, though 
 the individual directly interested does not seem to appreciate 
 it. It is a very tender j)oint Avith a lama to be asked how 
 his wife and family are, as their vows exclude them from 
 matrimonial happiness (or otherwise). They have a long list 
 of stereotyped salutations, which are hurriedly exchanged by 
 travellers as they pass on the road, and more deliberately and 
 sententiously delivered on entering a tent. Tender inquiries 
 after the flocks and herds, wives and children, are among the 
 number, but the latter of course is never addressed to lamas. 
 "We, in our ignorance, were not supposed to know the lama 
 regime, and we could always shock the feelings of a strange 
 lama by asking after the chuchung (wife), and thereby raise 
 a laugh among the listeners. 
 
 During our night encampments it was considered neces- 
 sary for one of the party to keep watch and ward over the 
 goods and chattels, for the Mongols are not so honest as they 
 usually get credit for. Foreigners are disposed to put more 
 confidence in them than they do in each other, and they 
 must surely know their own countrjnnen best. If a China- 
 man were asked what he took such precautions for, he would 
 probably say against wolves and tigers ; but the plain- 
 spoken Mongols bluntly tell you that thieves are their bug- 
 bear. The expression they generally use for thieves is ono- 
 chung, " bad men," and it is questionable whether they 
 recognise any other kind of badness. They don't break up 
 the night into different watches, but one keeps guard the
 
 Chap, ix.] TELLIG ON GUARD. li.3 
 
 whole night through, the others taking it in turns on subse- 
 quent nights. The lama, by virtue of his position as head of 
 the party, gave himself a dispensation, and the onus of watch- 
 ing fell on Tellig and the Kitat lama. When we had strapped 
 down the door of our tent, made all snug for the night, and 
 retired under the blankets with a book, a candle burning 
 on the ground, we used to receive visits from Tellig in his 
 rounds. Lying down on the ground, he would insinuate his 
 large bullet head under the curtain of the tent, and scan us 
 carefully to see if we were asleep. If awake, he would ask 
 us for a light to his pipe, and for permission to smoke it in 
 the tent, as, in the high wind, it would be difficult to keep it 
 alight outside. He would then lie and smoke with half his 
 body inside the tent and half out, and on such occasions he 
 would become very confidential, giving us most interesting 
 accounts of his family affairs. He had a yourt near Tsagan- 
 tuguruk, and in that yourt he had a wife that he was greatly 
 attached to, and two boys that he was very proud of, — one 
 four years old and the other two. He had moderate posses- 
 sions in cattle, which, in his absence, were cared for by his 
 brother. He had been a long time separated from his family, 
 and while we were at Tsagan-tuguruk he had stolen a few 
 hours to ride over and see his " chickens and their dam " ; 
 but our impetuous haste to get away had cut his visit 
 very short. Tellig's story brought qualms of compunction 
 to our mind for what now seemed inconsiderate treat- 
 ment ; for he had, from the first, had all the hard work, 
 and none of the indulgences ; moreover he had always 
 done for us cheerfully what he was in no wise bound 
 to do. 
 
 The wind continued to howl eerily the whole night, and 
 our canvas flapped about like the sails of a ship in stays. 
 The morning was still bitterly cold, and the sky darkened by 
 heavy snow clouds driving furiously. It required no small
 
 144 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. ix. 
 
 resolution to turn out of our warm beds that morning ; and 
 I am sure if either of us had been travelling alone, he would 
 have been inclined to lie quiet till called for. But we were 
 each afraid of showing the white feather, and of being twitted 
 with impeding the progress of the journey ; we therefore 
 mutually forced ourselves to get up. The Mongols were 
 making no move. As for Tellig, he had just gone to sleep 
 after his night's watching, and it seemed nothing could ever 
 be done without him. With considerable trouble we over- 
 came the vis inertice of Mr. Lama, and persuaded him to ride 
 down with us to the bank of the river to reconnoitre. The 
 horses were brought in from the hill-side where they had 
 spent the night trying to pick out a few blades of grass from 
 among the stones. My " Dolonor " looked down in the 
 mouth, and did not snort at his master, which heretofore 
 he had never failed of doing on every occasion. The poor 
 brute was completely doubled up with the cold, and could 
 hardly move one leg past another. I immediately presented 
 him to a Mongol, but I am afraid, with his old age and 
 miserable condition, he could not last many more such 
 nights. 
 
 A great concourse of people were assembled on the bank of 
 the Tolla, many who wanted to cross, and many hangers-on, 
 who make a living by assisting travellers to cross the river. 
 Mongols kept riding backwards and forwards between the 
 river and the various caravans encamped in Kul valley, all 
 bent on the same errand as ourselves. But there was no 
 crossing the Tolla that day. The stream was foaming and 
 roaring like a cataract, with a current of nearly seven miles 
 an hour. It was deep enough to take a man up to the neck, 
 and the bottom was strewn with large round pebbles, making 
 fording difficult, even had the current been moderate and the 
 water shallower. What the boat was like that had been 
 swept away I cannot say; but there was only left a raft
 
 Chap, ix.] SCENE AT THE TOLLA. 145 
 
 made of hollow trees lashed together, and, in the present 
 state of the river, inadequate to any purpose whatever. In 
 the motley crowd there assembled, every one had some sage 
 advice to offer ; communications were carried on at the 
 highest pitch of many stentorian lungs, and the place was 
 like another Babel. All concurred in the impossibility of 
 crossing ; some thought it would be practicable to-morrow, 
 others were less hopeful. There was nothing for us to do 
 but to admire the truly magnificent scenery with which we 
 were surrounded. The valley of the Kul runs north, and 
 enters the larger valley of the Tolla at right angles. The 
 general aspect of the mountains that overhang Urga is 
 bare, the woods being scattered in small patches. The Tolla 
 rushes out of a gorge in the mountains to the east, and is 
 completely hidden by brushwood and willows, until it 
 debouches on the opening formed by the Kul, its tribu- 
 tary. The Tolla hugs the left side of the valley, leaving a 
 wide flat on the right, over which lies the road to Maimachin 
 and Ui'ga. 
 
 The day continued black and stormy till sunset. In the 
 evening the wind moderated, and at night the stars shone 
 out in all their splendour. The morning of the 21st of 
 September was charming, a bright sun and a blue sky, with 
 hard frost on the gi'ound. The air was still, and the concert 
 of mingled sounds, of cattle lowing, dogs barking, and the 
 general hubbub among the wild Mongols who were in motion 
 in all quarters, was soothing to the feelings. It felt like a 
 summer day, in spite of the hard crust under our feet. I am 
 persuaded that unbroken fine weather would become very 
 tiresome and monotonous; it can only be thoroughly enjoyed 
 by contrast with stormy antecedents. 
 
 We again left the caravan to ride to the river, and, like 
 Noah's dove, we returned with the olive-branch in our 
 mouth. The waters had subsided a little, and some camels
 
 146 SIBERIAN EOUTE FEOM PEKING TO PETERSBUEG. [Ch. ix. 
 
 had actually crossed. There was no doubt of it, for we saw 
 them with our own eyes standing dripping on the bank. 
 The lama of course made difficulties, but we forced him to 
 the attempt, and got the caravan moved down to the water 
 by 2 o'clock. There were two reasons why he felt reluctance 
 to force a passage to-day; first, we had our carts to get 
 through, which was, of course, much more difficult, and even 
 risky, than merely walking a camel through the water with a 
 load on his back. This objection we met by offering to leave 
 our carts behind. The next objection, which the lama did 
 not think it judicious to name to us, but which was never- 
 theless to him the more cogent of the two, was that he would 
 require many assistants, and in the present condition of the 
 ford, with so many people waiting to cross, they exacted 
 onerous terms for their assistance ; for even the simple un- 
 sophisticated Mongols understand the mercantile laws of 
 supply and demand. 
 
 The regular ford was still too deep, and a more eligible 
 spot was selected, half a mile higher up the stream, where it 
 is divided into three branches, with low flat islands between. 
 The three branches make up a breadth of several hundred 
 yards, and the opposite shore is concealed from view by the 
 small trees and underwood that gTow on the islands. The 
 scene at this ford was most animated and exciting. Before 
 proceeding to do anything, a great deal of jabbering had to 
 be gone through, but once the plan of action was settled, our 
 assistants set to work energetically. The two ponies of my 
 companion were taken possession of, each bestridden by a 
 Mongol, with his nether garments either stripped off alto- 
 gether, or tucked up to his hips. Each took the nose-string 
 of a camel and plunged into the ice-cold water. The camels 
 were wretched, turning their long necks every way to avert 
 their timid eyes from the water, of which they have an in- 
 stinctive dread. Moral suasion is vigorously applied to a
 
 1^1 
 
 W'i'i'
 
 Chap, ix.] A DIFFICULT FORD. Ii7 
 
 camel's hind - quarters by half a dozen men armed with 
 cudgels, but he still hesitates. The pony in his turn gets 
 tired, standing in the cold water, and tries to back out just 
 as the camel is feeling his way with his fore feet. The rider 
 is equally impatient, with his bare legs dangling in the water, 
 and plies his steed vigorously with his heels. It is all a 
 question of time, and both animals are eventually launched 
 into the stream. The camel's footing on the loose slippery 
 stones is very insecure, and when the deep part is reached, it 
 requires all his strength to prevent the current from floating 
 him clean off his legs. He knows his danger, and trembles 
 in every muscle. The same struggle occurs at each of the 
 three branches, and we all watch the progress of the first 
 detachment with breathless anxiety, as we see the pony 
 gradually sinking till only his head and shoulders are above 
 water. When they are safely landed on terra Jirma, the two 
 camels are unloaded, and brought back in the same way to 
 fetch the two carts. The carts have in the meantime been 
 emptied of our bedding, and various small necessaries we 
 usually kept there, which are lashed up in bundles, and 
 covered with waterproof sheets, ready to put on the back of 
 a camel. The passage of the carts was the most ticklish 
 business of all. They were all wood, except the iron-work 
 about the wheels. Would they sink or swim ? If the latter, 
 it would be impossible to cross them in such a current. One 
 was actually floated away, camel and all, but luckily fetched 
 up on a shoal place lower down, whence it was recovered 
 with slight damage. We crossed with the last batch, two on 
 a camel. A Mongol sat behind me, and made me lean over 
 against the current, to give the camel a bias in that direc- 
 tion ; but I confess to having felt momentarily nervous, as 
 the poor beast staggered and hesitated in a strong eddying 
 current that almost carried him off his legs. Four hours had 
 been occupied in crossing the Tolla, during all which time 
 
 l2
 
 118 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [On. ix. 
 
 the two ponies and their riders were in the water. The 
 men's legs had become a bright red colour, and their teeth 
 chattered audibly ; but they were cheery and light-hearted, 
 and only laughed at their hardships. A dram when it was 
 all ov^er made them as happy as kings. They are un- 
 doubtedly a fine hardy race, these Mongols; no wonder that 
 they make such admirable soldiers. All sorts of people were 
 crossing the Tolla with us, among whom were some very old 
 men travelling on horseback. One old woman I observed 
 also, infirm and almost blind, crossing on a pony, her son 
 riding alongside of her and holding her on. These people 
 all take off their boots and trowsers, and carry them on the 
 saddle to put on dry at the other side. 
 
 We were now a good mile from the road, and it was 
 getting dark. We could not travel further that night, and 
 did not wish to put up our tent. We therefore accepted an 
 escort, and the proffered hospitality of a Mongol, and gal- 
 loped to his 3'ourt, which was near the XJrga road. The 
 plain is grassy, but rather stony, and intersected by many 
 small watercourses running out of the Tolla. Our host was 
 none other than the Kitat, whom we had so summarily dis- 
 missed, or at least compelled to send in his resignation, at 
 Tsagan-tuguruk. He received us with open arms in his 
 yourt, and commended us to the good offices of the lady who 
 presided over the cauldron. Wliether she was his own wife, 
 or somebody else's wife, we could not clearly determine, but 
 she performed the household duties with exemplary assiduity. 
 A piece of a sheep was immediately put on the fire, while the 
 Kitat and the wife plied us with milk and cheese, and did 
 their best to entertain us with their lively conversation, which 
 turned chiefly on the passage of the Tolla, with an occasional 
 allusion to Tsaofan-tuffuruk. We, all the while, tried to 
 analyse the motives that actuated the Kitat in going out of 
 his way to show us such civility, seeing we had last parted
 
 CifAP. IX.] GOOD FOR EVIL—ANOTHER THEFT. 149 
 
 with him on very indifferent terms. Did he intend to heap 
 coals of fire on our heads ? or to show us that Mongols bear 
 no malice ? Or was he proud to show his friends that he had 
 such distinguished guests in his tent ? I believe he was 
 moved by none of these considerations, but simply by the 
 feeling of true hospitality that is natural to all Mongols. It 
 turned out that the feast our host had prepared was solely for 
 us, for he himself was already engaged to dine with our lama 
 and his ToUa- river friends when they should come up. We 
 were visited by many Mongols, some of whom appeared to 
 belong to the family, and spent a very pleasant evening. 
 When bed-time came, and the fire was out, the hole in the 
 roof was covered over, and the yourt was cleared of all but 
 ourselves, the Kitat and the lady. 
 
 Many valuable hours were lost next morning in settling 
 with the Mongols for their services of the preceding day. It 
 cost three taels in all — about a guinea — a sum which seemed 
 to our lama exorbitant, and caused many rueful shakes of 
 his shaven head. During the bustle of preparation, a heart- 
 less robbery was committed on me. A small pic-nic case, 
 containing a drinking-glass, knife, fork and spoon, was stolen 
 out of the cart. If they had stolen a horse, or our tent, or box 
 of Sycee silver, I could have born it with equanimity, but the 
 loss of articles so constantly in use was hard to bear. I 
 missed them every hour of the day, and it was of course im- 
 possible to replace them. 1 was compelled, on emergencies, 
 thereafter to use the ei-iga of some stray Mongol, which went 
 much against the grain. They are so uncleanly in their 
 habits that their wooden cups get frequently encrusted with 
 dirt. Their usual mode of cleaning them is to give the inside 
 of the cup a scrape with the back of the thumb-nail, or, when 
 they mean to be very particular, they clean their cup in the 
 same manner as a dog cleans a plate. 
 
 Having bought another pony for myself from the Kitat,
 
 loO SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. ix. 
 
 first, because I wanted it ; and second, because I wanted to 
 acknowledge his hospitality, we formed the order of march, 
 Avhich was this : Tellig, mounted on a pony, to accompany us 
 and pilot us to Maimachin and Urga, and then follow after 
 the caravan, which was to take a short cut from Maimachin 
 and cut off a corner at Urga, not passing through the town at 
 all. Maimachin is a Chinese commercial settlement about 
 two miles from the ford of the Tolla, established, as the 
 Mongols believe, for ilie purpose of swindling them. It is a 
 unique-looking place, built of wood for the most part, the 
 outer wall enclosing the whole, as also the fences round each 
 compound, being made of rough poles placed uprightly and 
 close together. It is entered by a gate, which has the appear- 
 ance of being in constant use. The mutual jealousies of the 
 two races lead them both to seclude themselves for their own 
 protection. The Chinese shopkeepers in the settlement are 
 well-to-do people, mostly, I believe, Shansi men. We rode 
 about the streets for some time trying to find a few neces- 
 saries we required, but were not very successful. At last we 
 stopped at a blacksmith's shop to try and get our ponies 
 shod. The artisan to whom we addressed ourselves did not 
 understand us, but ran into the next shop and brought out a 
 well-dressed young fellow, who at once addressed us in Rus- 
 sian. He could not comprehend our ignorance of that 
 language ; but he soon condescended to speak Chinese, which 
 a Chinaman never will do if he can get on in any other 
 language. We could not deal with the man, however, and 
 being short of time we yielded to Tellig's importunity, and 
 turned our heads towards Urga. The streets of Maimachin 
 are canals of black mire, and so uneven that our beasts could 
 with difficulty keep their legs. We were heartily glad to get 
 out into the open air again. 
 
 On the way to Urga we passed a large house nearly 
 finished, on a rising ground, and in a fine commanding posi-
 
 CiiAP. IX.] , THE RUSSIANS IN URGA. 151 
 
 tion. It is the house of the Russian consul ; but Tellig would 
 not have it so, — said he knew the Russian house, and would 
 take us there all right. He certainly did take us to a Rus- 
 sian piggery, where a few so-called merchants lived in the 
 most barbarous and filthy condition. We could not even com- 
 municate with them, except in the little we had picked up of 
 the Mongol language. To see the consul we had to go all the 
 way back again to the big house we had passed. Mr. Shish- 
 maroff, the vice-consul in charge, received us very hospitably, 
 and treated us to a civilised breakfast on a clean white 
 tablecloth. It was a greater luxury to us than probably even 
 our host imagined, for we had not seen an egg for twenty- 
 seven days, there being no foAvls in Mongolia. Mr. Shish- 
 maroff must lead a very solitary life in Urga, having no one 
 with whom to associate but the high Chinese mandarin and the 
 Mongol deputy-khan. His house-supplies are, for the most 
 part, brought from Kiachta, the Russian frontier town, 175 
 miles distant. The Russian government keeps up a consider- 
 able establishment at Urga, the consul having a body-guard of 
 twenty Cossacks, besides the twenty Russian carpenters who 
 are at work on the new house, and other hangers-on. The 
 object of such an expensive establishment, at a place like 
 Urga, where Russia has no interests whatever to protect, can 
 only be divined by the light of its traditional policy of pro- 
 gress in Asia. It has long been considered* that the Khingan 
 chain of mountains running east and west past Urga to the 
 head waters of the river Amoor forms the "natural boundary" 
 of Siberia, and consequently advantage has been taken of 
 disputes between the Mongol khans of former times and 
 some Russian merchants who had penetrated as far as Urga, 
 to gain a foot-hold there, which will certainly never be relin- 
 quished until the whole tract of country enclosed by these 
 
 * See Bell of Anterinony.
 
 152 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. ix. 
 
 mountains and by the river Kerukm, the head stream of the 
 Amnr, to Lake Hurun or Dalainor, has been annexed to 
 Siberia. After that, the " natural boundary " will be dis- 
 covered to lie still farther to the south. Russia is in no 
 hurry to enter on the possession of this new territory, but, 
 in the mean time, the country has been surveyed, and is 
 included in Russian maps of Eastern Siberia. The transfer 
 will be made quietly, and without bloodshed, when the 
 favourable moment comes, for none understand better than 
 Russian diplomatists the suaviter in Tnodo when it suits 
 their purpose. No one will be much a loser by the change. 
 The Emperor of China will lose his nominal suzerainty over 
 a country that even now probably costs him more than it is 
 worth. The Mongol tribes, with their chiefs, would merely 
 become subjects of one autocrat instead of another ; but 
 everjrthing else would probably go on as at present until 
 time brought gradual changes. The Chinese merchants 
 don't care a straw about who is king as long as they are left 
 to their peaceful occupations ; and the Russian government 
 is too enlightened to throw any obstacles in the way of a 
 trade which has done more than anything else to develop 
 the resources of the Siberian deserts. 
 
 The name, Urga, or the camp, is not in common use. The 
 Monofols call it Kuren or Ta Kuren, which Hue translates 
 the "great enclosure." The situation of the town, or camp, 
 or whatever it may be called, is romantic in the extreme. It 
 stands on a wide plateau about a mile from the Tolla. 
 Behind the Kuren is a bold and rugged mountain range 
 which shelters it from the northerly gales, while in front 
 there is never wanting a pleasing prospect for the eye to rest 
 upon in the roughly wooded mountains beyond the Tolla, that 
 hem in the valley of that river. The river itself is hardly seen 
 from the town, being concealed by the growth of brushwood 
 on its banks and on the low islands that lie in the stream.
 
 Chap, ix.] LIFE IN URGA. 153 
 
 The population is scattered over the plateau, without much 
 reference to regularity of arrangement, and instead of streets 
 the dwellings of the Mongols are separated by crooked pas- 
 sages. The only buildings in the place are temples, official 
 residences, and the houses occupied by Chinese or Russians. 
 The Mongols live in tents, as they do in the desert, with this 
 difference, that each family surrounds itself with a wooden 
 palisade as a protection from thieves, who are numerous 
 among the pilgrims, who resort on pious missions to the 
 Kuren. 
 
 A man was found to shoe our ponies, which he did well 
 and expeditiously, and at a very moderate charge, about half 
 the sum demanded at Maimachin. The shoeing-smith was a 
 Chinaman — of course — for it seems the Mongols never do, 
 under any circumstances, shoe their horses. They have no 
 hard roads, it is true, to contend with, but even the gravelly 
 sand of many parts of the desert does sometimes wear down 
 the soles of their horses' feet, and particularly the toes, until 
 the animal becomes useless. They seldom allow them to 
 get so bad as that, however, as the large herds they pos- 
 sess afford them the means of frequently changing their 
 saddle-horses. 
 
 There are no shops in the Kuren, that being contrary to 
 the Mongol nature. All things necessary for desert life are to 
 be purchased for bricks of tea in a large open space where a 
 great bazaar is held under booths, principall}^ by Mongol 
 women. There you may purchase horses, cattle, tents, 
 leather harness, saddles, beef, mutton, caps for lamas or 
 black men, female ornaments, felt, — in short everything 
 within the scope of Mongol imagination. Our small pur- 
 chases were effected very satisfactorily — no attempt was 
 made to impose on us because we were strangers, and we had 
 reason to congratulate ourselves that we were not at the 
 mercy of Chinese. In nothing is the contrast between
 
 ].i4 SIBEPJAM ROUTE FKOM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. ix. 
 
 Mongols and Chinese more marked than in the common 
 honesty of shopkeepers or hawkers. It may indeed be said 
 with truth that mercantile honesty allows a man to get 
 as much as he can for his goods, but it is very doubtful 
 whether such a maxim can properly be stretched so as to 
 justify a shopkeeper in taking a customer at a disad- 
 vantage. 
 
 The nucleus of the Mongol settlement at Urga is the 
 Great Lamasery of the Guison-tamba or Lama-king of the 
 Mongols. In this monastery, and in the minor ones round 
 it, it has been said that 30,000 lamas reside, which estimate, 
 however, must be received with caution. The two great 
 lamaseries of Dobodorsha and Daichenalon are built in an 
 indentation of the mountains that form the northern valley 
 which opens into the valley of the Tolla at Urga. As our 
 route from Urga lay on the slope of the opjjosite side of the 
 valley, and our time was exhausted, we had not the chance of 
 visiting these temples. The buildings are of vast extent, as 
 plain almost as if they were barracks ; but what ornamenta- 
 tion there is about them is quiet and in good taste. They 
 differ considerably from the Chinese style of architecture, 
 and are no doubt Thibetan, An inscrijotion in the Thibetan 
 language has been placed on the slope of the hill above the 
 monasteries. The characters are formed by means of white 
 stones, and the size of them is such as to render the writing 
 perfectly legible at the distance of a mile. 
 
 All good lamas esteem it an honour to be able to say they 
 have made a pilgrimage to the Kuren, and these devotees 
 come from enormous distances — some from the Manchurian 
 wildernesses in the far east, and others from the frontiers of 
 Thibet.* There are many small shrines on the plateau on 
 which the town stands, erected for the convenience of those 
 ascetics who are desirous of commending themselves to the 
 
 * Hue.
 
 Chap, ix.] MONGOL THEOCRACY. 155 
 
 favour of Bhiidda and to the respect of tlieir fellows. I 
 observed one of these deluded people performing a journey to 
 a shrine, which was then about a quarter of a mile from him. 
 He advanced by three measured steps one stage, made sun- 
 dry prostrations, falling flat on his face on the stony ground, 
 repeated prayers, and then advanced again. I know not 
 from what distance he had come, or how long it was since he 
 had commenced this slow and painful march ; but, on a 
 rough calculation, we made out that it would take him 
 two days more, at the same rate of progress, to reach the 
 goal. 
 
 The Lama-king of the Kuren is regarded by the Mongols 
 as a god. He can never die — he only transmigrates. The 
 whole of the Kalkas tribes are under his sway, and this per- 
 sonage is consequently an object of constant jealousy to the 
 emperors of China, who keep an anxious watch over his pro- 
 ceedings. The lama system has been greatly humoured by 
 the Chinese emperors from early times, and the theocracy of 
 Mongolia and Thibet is mainly of their creation. The secular 
 sovereignty of these nations became spiritual by an accident ' 
 or an after-thought, and does not, like the Japanese, trace 
 back into the dawn of history its descent from the gods. The 
 last independent king of Thibet finding himself in great 
 trouble from within and from without, escaped from the cares 
 of government by becoming a lama. This happened about the 
 year 1100 A.D., and, in a few years afterwards, Thibet became 
 subject to China. When Kublai became Emperor of China 
 he made a lama of Thibet king, and the kings who succeeded 
 the Mongols in China followed up the idea of conciliating the 
 lama power by making eight of them kings. These after- 
 wards (a.D. 1426) took the title of grand lama, and the chief 
 of them became the Dalai-lama of Thibet,* who from that 
 
 * ITistoirc dcs Huns, Do Guigncs, Paris, 1756.
 
 156 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. ix. 
 
 time to tlii.s has been the head of the Bhuddist religion and 
 the vassal king of Thibet. It would have been impossible, 
 under any circumstances, for the Dalai-lama to have main- 
 tained a real surveillance over the widely-scattered tribes 
 who acknowledged his spiritual sway ; and in fact his au- 
 thority over his distant dependents began to be greatly 
 relaxed from the time that the emperors of China completed 
 the subjection of all the tribes who now inhabit what is 
 called Chinese Tartary, The Emperor Kang-hi, under whose 
 reign this was accomplished, promoted the independence of 
 the lama-king of the Kalkas with a view to severing the tie 
 that bound them to their neighbours the Eleuths or Kalmuks, 
 and in order to accustom the vassal chiefs of the various tribes 
 to look more and more to the Chinese emperors for govern- 
 ment and protection. By this wise policy the Chinese govei^n- 
 ment sought to divert the Mongols from forming any combi- 
 nation which might threaten the stability of the foreign rule 
 to which the tribes had just been subjected. The Chinese 
 ambassadors at the court of the Dalai-lama, men of great 
 talent, and trained in diplomatic subtlety, furthered these 
 purposes of their government by holding in check the pre- 
 tensions of the Dalai-lama, while appearing to support him, 
 and, by indirect means, neutralising his authority whenever 
 the exercise of it seemed to clash with the Chinese policy. 
 The lama-king of the Kalkas has therefore become virtually 
 independent of his spiritual superior at Lassa, for whom he 
 lias about the same regard as Napoleon has for the Pope. 
 
 The " Urga " of the Kalkas has not always been where it 
 stands now. In 1720,* it was on the river Orkhon, near its 
 confluence with the Selenga, some distance north of the 
 present Urga. But some time before that date the Kalkas 
 had their head-quarters where the Urga now stands, for we 
 
 Bell.
 
 Chap, ix,] HISTOEICAL ASSOCIATIONS. 157 
 
 read * of the Eleuths having " destroyed the magnificent 
 temple, which the Kutuchtu had built near the river Tula, 
 of yellow varnished bricks," about the year 1688. 
 
 The mountain fastnesses of the Khangai range, stretching 
 south-west from Urga, and bordering the gi"eat desert, are 
 eminently favourable to the assembling of armies, and afford 
 a safe retreat for fugitive tribes. The richness of the 
 pastures, and the abundance of water supplied by the 
 larger rivers, and by the mountain streams that are found 
 in every ravine, afford sustenance for unlimited herds and 
 flocks. The first Huns had their head-quarters not far from 
 Urga long before the Christian era. The site of the old 
 Mongol capital of Kara Korum is about 160 miles from 
 Urga in a south-west direction. Thence the Mongols issued 
 forth to conquer Asia and Europe, and thither they returned, 
 when driven out of China in 1368, to found the new empire 
 of the Yuen of the north, under a Grand Khan of the Kalkas. 
 There also flourished Ung-Khan, celebrated in the 12th 
 century, from his name having been used by the Nestorians 
 as a stalking-horse for perpetrating what has generally been 
 considered as a gigantic hoax on the Pope and various 
 European sovereigns. The Nestorians caused it to be re- 
 ported that they had converted this potentate and his 
 subjects to Christianity ; and that the Khan had been by 
 them baptised under the name of John. Letters were 
 written in the name of this "Prester John" as he was 
 called, to his royal brethren in the west. These seem to 
 have been- credited as genuine, for more than one mission 
 was despatched from European courts to make the acquaint- 
 ance of this most Christian king. There is, perhaps, as much 
 reason to believe as to doubt the conversion of this prince. 
 These expeditions, if they failed in their main purpose, were 
 
 * Un. Hist., vol. iv. p. 77.
 
 15S SIBERIAN KOUTE FROM REKINCx TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. ix. 
 
 at least tlie means of giving to the world mnch curious in- 
 formation concerning the inhabitants of the Great Tartary. 
 
 " Proster John," or, to call him by his right name, Ung- 
 Khan, was the most powerful Tartar prince of his clay. 
 Genghis, then called Temoujin, when a very young man, 
 repaired to the court of Ung-Khan to seek aid to repress 
 disturbances among his own tribes, and soon became com- 
 mander-in-chief of Ung-Khan's armies, in which capacity he 
 displayed the high military qualities which afterwards made 
 him master of nearly the whole civilised world. He was a 
 great favourite with the Khan, and all went on smoothly 
 until the unlucky day when Ung-Khan's daughter fell in love 
 with young Temoujin. The course of true love did not run 
 smooth with him, for his rivals being fired with enmity, began 
 to plot against him with the Khan, who in time yielded to 
 their instigation, and betrayed his best friend. Temoujin re- 
 mained true to his colours long after he lost the confidence of 
 the Khan ; but the discovery of a deeply-laid plot against his 
 life at length brought him to an open rupture with his 
 sovereign. They fought a pitched battle between the rivers 
 Tolla and Kerlon, probably at a short distance eastward from 
 the present Urga. Ung-Khan's forces had greatly the ad- 
 vantage in numbers, but the Khan was no match for his 
 accomplished general. Temoujin gained a decisive victory. 
 The Khan escaped from the field of battle, but was soon 
 afterwards killed, and his dynasty destroyed. Temoujin now 
 found himself master of the situation, and was installed at 
 Kara-Korum in 1206, under the title of Genghis-Khan. 
 
 Havinof done our business at the Kuren, we started rather 
 late in the afternoon in pursuit of the camels. The route lay 
 about north through a valley. It was bad travelling, owing 
 to the rough nature of the ground. It is naturally soft and 
 boggy, and the melted snow in the low ground had greatly 
 aggravated the evil. When past the great monasteries, we
 
 Chap, ix.] DIFFICULTIES OF THE WAY. 1.59 
 
 got on higher ground on the slope of the hills, but this was, 
 if possible, more slippery than the low road, for the melting 
 snow above kept up a continuous supply of moisture which 
 made the road very difficult even for horses. We soon came 
 upon the traces of camels, which we had no difficulty in 
 identifying by the side-slips down the hill made by their 
 broad splay feet. This is always dangerous work for camels, 
 and we had some apprehension of accidents from " splitting," 
 or dislocating the hip joints. We were in consequence not 
 ill-jaleased to come upon the caravan a little after sunset, 
 encamped in a narrow ravine looking west, and at the foot of 
 a steep pass. Several of the camels had fallen, but fortu- 
 nately none were injured. It was a fine moonlight night, 
 and we tried to get our people to proceed on the journey ; 
 but the camels could not draw the carts over the pass, steep 
 as it was, and with such slippery roads. Bullocks had been 
 sent for, and they were expected every hour, of course, but it 
 might have been evident to us that they had no intention of 
 coming before morning. Anyhow we would not be the occa- 
 sion of delay, and therefore slept in our carts ready for a 
 move at any moment. At daylight on the 23rd of September 
 the bullocks came, two for each cart, accompanied by a young 
 woman and a boy, who proceeded to harness them in a very 
 slow and deliberate manner. The beasts did their work, but 
 with difficulty, owing to the broken character of the road. 
 On the top of the pass our lama paid his respects to an 
 ebon, by throwing a large piece of wood on it, and the 
 bullocks took the carts safely down the other side of the 
 pass, which was quite as steep as the ascent. We then pro- 
 ceeded with the camels through valleys and undulations, 
 among fine mountain scenery, avoiding the main road, and 
 striking off through various bye-paths, all apparently well 
 known to our conductors. At 3 p.m. we halted off Karim 
 valley to dine, intending to take advantage of the moonlight
 
 160 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. ix. 
 
 to resume our night travelling. But as bad luck would have 
 it a snowstorm came on, and we had to remain where we 
 were till morning. All hopes of mending our pace from 
 Uro-a to Kiachta now vanished. We had already lost two 
 good nights out of the four, or at most five days which is 
 considered ample time for the journey ; and if the stormy 
 weather were to continue, which it looked very like doing, we 
 mi^ht be the whole winter on the road. The beasts had 
 little to eat but snow all night. In the morning the ground 
 was white, but the storm was over. Our old enemy the wind 
 began early in the day to stir the twigs of the trees, and 
 though he came in like a lamb, we had but too sure a pre- 
 sentiment of what was coming. It blew fiercely all day, and 
 we walked during the greater part of it. The slight covering 
 of snow on the ground soon melted under the combined 
 action of the sun and wind. The latter agency is certainly 
 the more powerful of the two, when the atmosphere is above 
 freezing temperature. Our nights were always very frosty, 
 but the sun had still sufficient influence during the middle of 
 the day to moisten the surface of the ground. 
 
 Over a steep pass and down into another valley we joined 
 the main road, which is now very broad and good. Our 
 march continued to be diversified by valleys and undulations, 
 the scene constantly changing, and now and again opening 
 out enchanting views of scenery, with every variety of rock 
 and river, wooded hills and high mountain ranges tumbling 
 on each other. The wind, that had blown bitterly cold all 
 day, lulled at sunset ; the sky continued clear, and we had a 
 calm frosty night. Halted at 10 p.m. in Ourim-dsata, a 
 broad rich valley, with abundant grass, and supporting vast 
 herds of cattle, which the clear moonlight revealed to us. 
 The beauties of this spot were only fully discovered at sun- 
 rise the next morning, which being calm and fine, we were in 
 the best humour to enjoy the rocky, woody, and pastoral
 
 Chap, ix.] AN OASIS IN THE DESEKT. 161 
 
 scenes around us. It was plain we had got into a country 
 altogether different from the Mongol steppes. The valleys 
 are all watered by streams, and the soil susceptible of high 
 cultivation. 
 
 We are now frightened with another bugbear, in the shape 
 of an unfordable river, the Khava-gol, or "black-river." It 
 seemed we were destined to be delayed by every possible 
 contrivance of nature, for these rivers are very rarely flooded. 
 Were it otherwise, some device would certainly have been 
 found to meet the emergency. It was all the more hard, 
 therefore, that these paltry little Mongol rivers should get 
 themselves up into such a state of fury just when we were 
 passing through the country. 
 
 During our march towards Khara river, w^e struck the 
 river Boro, a tributary of the Khara, which waters a fine 
 broad valley containing the largest Mongol population we 
 had seen anywhere collected in one place. As we followed 
 the course of the Boro down the valley, we passed several 
 apparently separate communities, all rich in cattle. A novel 
 sight here met our eye, the cultivation of a coarse kind of 
 rye, called by the Mongols, hoota. They were harvesting 
 this as we passed, carting it to the yourts in a rough sort of 
 wooden cart, and stacking it up. This seems to show that 
 the Mongols are not naturally averse to cultivation, when 
 they are favourably circumstanced for carrying it out. Some 
 of their tribes, such as those in Western Toumet, mentioned 
 by Hue, do indeed systematically cultivate the ground. The 
 sun had set before we got to the end of the valley, and we 
 encamped in the evening not far from the left bank of the 
 Khara-gol, sending out the lama with a native of the district 
 to survey a crossing for the morning. 
 
 Early on the 26th we advanced to the river at a place 
 higher up than the usual ford. Carts were unloaded, and 
 the passage effected in the same way as the Tolla, but, the 
 
 M
 
 162 SIBEEIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. ix. 
 
 river being much smaller, less time was lost in the operation. 
 There is always a busy scene at these fords, particularly 
 when a drove of cattle have to be got over. One poor man 
 spent the whole morning in fruitless endeavours to drive 
 half-a-dozen cattle through the river, but the neighbours at last 
 came to his assistance, and led them through one by one. 
 
 There was a steep pass before us, a few miles distant, and 
 at a yourt near the Khara four sturdy little yaks were 
 engaged to get our carts over. A young lama courier, well 
 versed in the Russian language, whom we found in the 
 yourt, where he had spent the night, afforded us no end of 
 fun all the morning. He was a great wag, and affected to 
 be a man of the world, travelling constantly as he did 
 between the court of Peking and Kiachta. He chaffed our 
 lama more than he liked, criticising his cattle, and offering 
 to buy him out. As a specimen of how these couriers do 
 their work, this young scamp had not only spent the whole 
 night in a yourt, but waited in the morning for our party, 
 and kept company with us till near mid-day. 
 
 The pass is up a steep and rugged ravine, thickly wooded 
 with white-skinned birch-trees. The trees do not grow to 
 any size before they rot in the heart, and become hollow, 
 when the wind blows them over. Few of them have a 
 proper trunk, but two or three strong suckers shooting up 
 from the root. It makes excellent firewood, but is unfit for 
 any other purpose. 
 
 In the ascent the view is entirely shut in by the woods, 
 but on the top, near the Ohoii, is a clear space, from which 
 an imposing view is obtained of the hills and dales behind 
 and before us, with the Boro valley spread out at our feet. 
 In the descent we plunge again into the thick woods, 
 emerging at the foot into a long valley leading to Bain-gol. 
 This is a very small river, with soft, boggy ground on either 
 side, very bad walking for camels. The river, like the others
 
 Chap, ix.] ABSURDITIES OF THE TRANSMIGEATION. 163 
 
 we had crossed, runs westwards and northwards. On the 
 north side of Bain-gol we halted from sunset till midnight, 
 and at daylight entered another fine, long valley, through 
 which runs the Shara-gol, the "yellow," or "sandy river," 
 for it may be translated either way. In this valley the 
 grass grew more luxuriantly than we had yet seen. Crowds 
 of Mongols were settled here, and the valley was covered 
 with enormous herds of cattle. The people were busy cut- 
 ting the long grass with scythes, which they handle very 
 skilfully, and stacking it up round their yourts. This grassy 
 spot was selected for wintering in, and is no doubt less 
 populous in the summer season, when the grass is green 
 and abundant in the country. A steep pass takes us out of 
 this valley, but we still follow to the left the course of the 
 river for some distance. We halted about 4 o'clock, the 
 lama having ridden to a distant yourt to buy a sheep. He 
 could not bring it with him, but must needs return to our 
 tent, and send Tellig, who was a " black man," to fetch the 
 sheep, thereby losing much valuable time. The lama notions 
 on this subject are absurd in the extreme. They will not kill 
 an animal, nor will they carry it to be killed. But they 
 will bargain for and purchase the animal for the purpose of 
 getting it killed, and they will eat it after it is killed, thus 
 becoming " accessory after the fact," as well as before it. I 
 never could understand the logic of this practical application 
 of the doctrine of transmigi'ation, for it always appeared to 
 me that on the hypothesis of the soul of Bhudda or any 
 relative being in captivity in the body of a sheep, it would 
 be a simple act of charity to release it by procuring the 
 transmigration. 
 
 It rained a little at sunset, but no gale of wind followed, 
 as on former occasions. 
 
 At midnight we proceeded over a stiff sandy pass, and 
 got the carts through by putting an extra camel to each of 
 
 M 2
 
 164 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. ix. 
 
 them. This was followed by another stiff pass, a little 
 sandy, but road pretty good, and so on through the night, 
 till we descended about 9 o'clock next day to the banks of 
 the Iro-gol, a smooth flowing river, 100 yards wide, and 
 ten feet deep. Seeing hosts of caravans on both sides of 
 the river we expected to have to " wait a wee " before we 
 could get aci'oss, but were agreeably surprised to find a 
 passage ready for us in a few hours. Rafts made of hollowed 
 trees lashed together transport the baggage, the camels and 
 horses, unloaded, are led from the boats, and swim across. 
 The current of the Iro was about three miles an hour. 
 The right bank of the river at the place we crossed is a 
 great flat, but the left bank is hilly and well wooded, and 
 apparently closed in by bluffs on the right bank above and 
 below us, for the river is very tortuous. It forms altogether 
 a very pretty valley. We had to spend a good many hours 
 basking in the warm sunshine, waiting for all the force to 
 get over. When the caravan was ready to start we induced 
 the lama to ride ahead with us through Talahidyk, taking 
 a sackful of mutton to be boiled at some yourt ready for 
 Tellig and his friend when they came up. By this means 
 we saved much time, and gave the Mongols no excuse for 
 another halt. One long march would bring us to Kiachta, 
 and we were the more anxious to lose no time, because a 
 storm, or some other unforeseen event, might delay us again. 
 We travelled hard all night over rough roads, through dense 
 pine forests, and shortly after daylight we came out on a 
 rather sandy open space, across which, at a distance of eight 
 miles, Tellig pointed out two white sjiecks, informing us, 
 with an air of triumph, that that was Kiachta. They were 
 two of the church spires that form landmarks for all Russian 
 towns. 
 
 Here we were, then, at last, on the 29th of September, 
 at the end of a journey which had sometimes seemed in-
 
 Chap, ix.] THE END OF OUR DESERT JOURNEY. 165 
 
 terminable. Thirty-four days in travelling 780 miles ! 
 Think of that, ye who fly about the country in express trains. 
 Of course the high Russian officials who pass occasionally 
 between Peking and St. Petersburg have a quicker mode of 
 getting across Mongolia. The post horses kept for the 
 couriers are at their disposal, and by some pre-arrangement 
 they have relays all the way, and so they travel in their 
 own comfortable carriages from Kiachta to Peking in twelve • 
 days or so.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MONGOLS — HISTOKICAL NOTES. 
 
 A PECULIAR interest surrounds these wandering tribes of 
 the desert. In them we see the living representatives of the 
 ancient Huns, and of the yet more ancient Scythians. 
 Of them came Attila, " the Scourge of God," who with his 
 barbarian hordes shook the foundations of Europe in the 
 fifth century, and accelerated the downfall of the old 
 Koman empire ; of them came also the redoubtable war- 
 riors who desolated Asia and Europe six hundred years ago. 
 
 The Mongol tribes are exceedingly conservative in their 
 habits ; their fashions never change. A description of their 
 manners in the time of Genghis, or even of Attila, is equally 
 applicable now. Everything goes to show that in the form 
 of their tents, in their dress, their social customs, and their 
 mode of life, the Mongols of to-day have changed but little 
 since they first became known to history. 
 
 The early history of the Huns is involved in obscurity. 
 They appear to have existed as a pastoral people, inhabiting 
 the east of the desert of Gobi from about 1200 B.C., during 
 which time they were frequently at war with the Chinese. 
 The first authentic accounts of them date from about the 
 year 200 B.C., when they greatly extended their empire, 
 and became very formidable neighbours to China. It was 
 in the third century before the Christian era that the 
 Chinese built the famous wall as a protection from the in-
 
 Chap, x.] DISPERSION OF THE ANCIENT HUNS. 167 
 
 roads of the warlike Huns, who, notwithstanding, laid China 
 under tribute. 
 
 Vouti, of the Han dynasty (died 87 B.C.), gained a bloody 
 victory over the Huns, and was the first to break their 
 power in China. He followed up his military success by 
 the application of the craft for which his race was, even at 
 that early date, distinguished. By diligently promoting 
 dissension among the tribes he succeeded in severing many 
 of them from their allegiance to the Tanjou, the title then 
 adopted by the kings of the Huns. The Tanjou himself 
 became afterwards a vassal to the Chinese emperors, and 
 was fain to lick the dust for a dependent kingship. 
 
 About 100 years after the birth of Christ, the Huns were 
 broken up and scattered. The Huns of the South, who h^ 
 previously seceded from the main body, and had established 
 their dynasty in alliance with China, held together till the 
 year 216 A.D. The Northern Huns, being distressed by a 
 great famine, were attacked by the tribes whom they had 
 so long oppressed, and were compelled to seek safety in 
 flight. From that era we must date the migrations of the 
 Hunnish tribes. They were again subdivided. One branch 
 wandered to the coast of the Caspian Sea, where they 
 settled, and became modified in their character under the 
 influence of a more genial climate ; their nomad habits 
 were gi^adually abandoned ; and they became civilised. 
 These were called the White Huns. 
 
 Another branch migrated in a north-westerly direction, 
 and in their march had to contend with a more rigorous cli- 
 mate. Exasperated by their struggles with the elements and 
 with many enemies, they retained all their savageness in 
 their new settlement on the Volga. These restless warriors 
 had barely secured their own existence in the west, when they 
 began to attack their neighbours. After conquering the 
 Alani, a nation only a little less barbarous than themselves,
 
 168 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. x. 
 
 and adding to their own forces tliose of the vanquished 
 tribes, the Hnns became the terror of the Goths, and these 
 also fell a prey to the invaders before the end of the fourth 
 century of the Christian era. 
 
 But the power of these wandering tribes was always liable 
 to be paralysed by the jealousies of rival chiefs. Their no- 
 tions of government were crude ; hereditary succession was 
 held of little account among them. The Huns were oidy 
 formidable to their neighbours when they were under the 
 leadership of chiefs who possessed sufficient vigour to rise 
 pre-eminent over all others, and the talent or the craft to 
 secure to themselves absolute power. 
 
 Attila was one of these. The Huns were already in the 
 ascendant when he came to the throne ; but his genius, 
 energy, and insatiable ambition soon rendered them the ter- 
 ror of all Europe, and himself the greatest barbarian that 
 ever wielded the sceptre. Attila had a body-guard of subject 
 kings. His effective force has been variously estimated at 
 half-a-million and at seven hundred thousand men. He en- 
 riched himself with the spoils of all nations ; yet in the 
 height of his barbaric pride he retained in camp the simple 
 habits of his ancestors. Having subdued every hostile tribe 
 within his reach, and incoi-porated their armies with his own, 
 he threw the whole weight of his forces on the corrupt and 
 degenerate Roman Empire, which was brought to the feet of 
 the conqueror and compelled to accept conditions of peace 
 the most degrading that the insolence of the invader could 
 dictate. 
 
 Desolation everywhere followed the march of Attila, for 
 destruction was ever the glory of the barbarians. As the 
 old Huns lived by predatory warfare, so the hosts of Attila 
 were actuated, only in a higher degree, by the savage in- 
 stincts of wild beasts. But their power only held together 
 while there was food for pillage, and a master mind to direct
 
 Chap, x.] INTERVAL BETWEEN HUNS AND MONGOLS. 1G9 
 
 their enterprise. And thus their reign of terror in Europe 
 was of brief duration. A heavy debauch cut short the 
 career of Attila, and he died an inglorious death in his own 
 bed from the bursting of an artery. The empire of his 
 creation collapsed after his death amid contending factions ; 
 and in A.D. 468, just fifteen years after the death of Attila, 
 the empire of the Huns was utterly destroyed, and their 
 name disappeared from history. 
 
 The shepherds tended their flocks in the steppes of Tar- 
 tary, and 700 years passed away before another chief arose to 
 summon the scattered tribes to his standard. During that 
 period sundry insignificant dynasties succeeded each other on 
 the outskirts of the Chinese dominions. The Turks also 
 appeared in the interval, and established a formidable power, 
 which lasted from the sixth to the eighth century. They 
 issued from the Altai mountains, where they had served the 
 Geougen Tartars who had overwhelmed the Huns after the 
 death of Attila. The Turks, or Turki, reduced the Geougen, 
 and, it is said, almost extirpated them. These Turks have 
 been supposed to have been identical in race with the Huns 
 who preceded, and the Mongols who followed, them.* But 
 there is much reason to doubt their consanguinity.-f- The 
 great skill in iron working for which the original Turks were 
 distinguished, seems sufficient to mark a difference between 
 them and the ancestors of the pure Mongols. They shaved 
 the beard also in token of grief, and were considered by the 
 Persians handsome men. J The Huns and Mongols had 
 almost no beard, and in the eyes of all writers who have 
 thought it worth while to describe their persons, they were 
 remarkable for their deformity. 
 
 It would, however, be a hopeless task to unravel the de- 
 scent of the various races miscalled Tartars. The old Chinese 
 
 * De Guignes. Hist, des Huns. + Memoirs of Baber. Erskine's Iiitrod. 
 + Un Hist. vol. iii. p. 365.
 
 AS BOUT ::5rG to PETK^BUBG. [Chap. I. 
 
 T. raore than the catalogae of 
 
 -i fell of dynasties. The 
 
 ly risen up in Asia have 
 
 vrons race. Their nam^ 
 
 ^ taken irom some small tribe or 
 
 i ^ominent ; and the names 
 
 _ ^ been perpetuated and mis- 
 
 a and confederations of mixed rac^. The 
 
 -ixed tril ition of empires 
 
 ■ - ion of these em- 
 
 :lj tended to the 
 
 _ age of races distinct in 
 
 ... habits. Their mode 
 
 and the conditions 
 
 . -. conduced still more 
 
 ?. It was unasaal with 
 
 li^feir prisoners, unless they 
 
 ves or soldiers, or make profit 
 
 f e massacred- and the eKgible 
 
 r?. A supply of 
 Tt statea This 
 
 ^. . -- -_, .„ .:-e Chinese; and 
 
 **a s . airest maidens of China was annually 
 
 devoted vo the r: aces of the Huns."* Thf^e prac- 
 
 ' ' * * rce the perplexity of 
 
 -^ - masses of men who, 
 
 r ridmtudes of war, were from time to time assembled 
 
 I, and received the name of the dominant 
 
 reared in Europe, however, they were 
 portrayed by the Groths and Bomans in graphic but distorted 
 terms, T aze of these hideous caricatures,"!' and 
 
 * GMtan, roL iiL i>, 363, f Ibid, p. 371,
 
 Chap, x.] HUXS PORTRAYED— CAKEER OF GENGHIS. 171 
 
 the fabulous origin which fear and hatred attributed to the 
 Huns, we cauuot fail to ideutify in them the form and fea- 
 tures of the modern Mongols. Whatever be the descent of 
 the numerous Turki tribes, and whatever changes may have 
 been brought about bv intermixture, change of climate, &c., 
 in the pastoral peoples, the great race of the Mongols has in 
 the main preserved its manners and its characteristics through 
 all its revolutions and migrations, and has proved its unity in 
 blood with the Huns of Attila. The Mongols are certainl}'- 
 far from being a handsome people, but the Romans, them- 
 selves models of s^inmetr}', greatly exaggerated their de- 
 formity. The barbarians w^ere esteemed so fiendish in their 
 aspect, that the Goths, to account for the phenomenon, were 
 obliged to invent the fable of the descent of the Huns from 
 the unholy union of Scythian witches with infernal spirits. 
 They were inhumanly ugly. Attila himself was hideous. 
 Yet that did not deter the young Pi'incess Houoria from be- 
 traying, or feigning, a passion for him. That spirited lady, 
 with a courage worthy of a better cause, found means of 
 secretly communicatinq- with the king of the Huns, and 
 urged him to claim her as his bride. 
 
 In the thirteenth centurj^ Genghis became Khan * of all 
 the Mongols, who under him were once more the terror of 
 the world. Genghis had already conquered the Naimans, a 
 powerful people in their day ; and invaded Tangout. When 
 he had assembled under his standard the tribes of his own 
 people and of the nations whom he had conquered, he was 
 impelled by his restless ambition to keep them in motion. 
 The lust of conquest became his ruling passion, and every 
 new trophy added fuel to its flame. He first invaded Kitai, 
 or northern China, overran the territories of the then power- 
 ful Kin, desolated their cities and vilhiges. antl massacred 
 
 * The title of Khau was lirsl iissumed b}- the Geougen, in the fifth oentuiy.
 
 172 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. x. 
 
 their people, and then retired to the river Tolla to recniit, 
 having added to his army many Chinese of all ranks. The 
 seven years' campaign in the west followed shortly after, 
 during which Genghis conquered Persia and Bukhara, de- 
 stroyed many populous cities, and put to the sword prodigious 
 numbers of human beings. His lieutenants extended their 
 ravages still further westward, while Genghis himself returned 
 to his head-quarters at Kara-Korum. Kitai was again in- 
 vaded, and Tangout subjugated. On the death of Genghis, 
 in 1227, the succession to the Khanate fell to his son Oktai, 
 who followed up the conquest of China according to instruc- 
 tions delivered by Genghis on his death-bed. But the 
 empire had become so unwieldy, and the distances that 
 separated the divisions of it so vast, that it could no longer 
 subsist in its integrity. It was soon split up into sections, 
 which were parcelled out to the descendants of Genghis. 
 Some reigned in Persia, and some in Kapchak, a territory 
 stretching from the Caspian Sea to Kazan, and covering a 
 large portion of the steppe of the Kirghis. The little dynasty 
 of the Nogai Tartars was also founded in Europe by a descen- 
 dant of Genghis. The Tartar kingdoms of Kazan and the 
 Crimea were both offshoots from the khans of Kapchak. 
 Baton, Khan of Kapchak, or the Golden Horde, took Mos- 
 cow and wasted the Kussian provinces. Kublai, who suc- 
 ceeded to China, was the greatest of them all. In addition 
 to that country, he possessed Pegu, Thibet, and the whole of 
 Tartary ; while Cochin China, Tonquin, and Corea paid him 
 tribute. He was, moreover, acknowledged by all the other 
 khans as their chief. But the whole continent of Asia lay 
 between him and his vassals, and his suzerainty soon became 
 a name only, and in course of time the form also was dis- 
 continued. 
 
 The Mongols were, however, incapable of maintaining a 
 settled government. The expeditions to subjugate Japan
 
 Chap, x.] TIMOUR'S CONQUESTS. 173 
 
 having proved fruitless, there was no other country left for 
 them to conquer ; this quiescent state was unnatural to them, 
 and Chinese culture demoralised them in less than a hundred 
 years. 
 
 E.ussia was held by a tenure more suitable to the nomad 
 habits of the Monofols. Armies had to be maintained, and 
 the khans of the Golden Horde found occupation in keeping 
 down the Russian princes. They therefore held their supre- 
 macy in Europe, until they did the work of their enemies by 
 quarrelling amongst themselves, but their yoke was not 
 finally shaken off till the fifteenth century. 
 
 Before the empires founded by the family of Genghis had 
 been wholly broken up, another great Mongol conqueror 
 appeared in the person of Timour, or Tamerlane. Born 
 under happier auspices, and brought up in contact with 
 more civilised people, Timour added to the native ferocity 
 and the ambition of universal empire of his ancestors, the 
 arts and some of the refinements of education. He was, 
 moreover, a zealous Mahommedan, and drew from the 
 Koran encouragements in his career of conquest, and ex- 
 cellent moral maxims which seemed in strange contrast with 
 his life. In a military point of view, Timour's life was a 
 brilliant success. Before his death he placed twenty-seven 
 crowns on his head ; he conquered India, and boasted that 
 he had penetrated northwards to the region of perpetual 
 day. His conquests outstripped those of Alexander. "On 
 the eastern bank of the Hyphasis, on the edge of the Desert, 
 the Macedonian hero halted and wept ; the Mogul entered 
 the desert, reduced the fortress of Batnir, and stood in arms 
 before Delhi." * He captured Delhi, and " purified his soldiers 
 in the blood of the idolaters." Timour, when he was seventy 
 years old, resolved to re-conquer China, from which countiy 
 
 * Gibbon, vol. ix. p. 10.
 
 174 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. x. 
 
 the family of Genghis had been recently expelled. He des- 
 patched his armies from Samarcand for the expedition, bnt 
 he himself died on the way, in 1405, and his empire fell to 
 pieces through the incapacity of his sons. 
 
 Timour had perhaps the honour of shedding more blood 
 than any of his predecessors ; but, like them, he was in- 
 capable of governing what he had conquered. His boast 
 that a child might carry a purse of gold from the east to the 
 west, could be justified only on the supposition that he had 
 pacified Asia by making it a solitude. 
 
 He was considered a usurper by the Mongols of his day. 
 He made war on his own people because they were idolaters ; 
 yet the modern Mongols worship him, beguiling their long 
 evenings in their tents by chanting invocations to his 
 memory. 
 
 The next great Mongol who left his mark on the world 
 was Timour's great-grandson Baber, who conquered Delhi in 
 1528, and founded there the dynasty of the Great Mogul. 
 But Baber was ashamed of his descent, and despised the 
 Mongol character. It was probably to his throwing off the 
 barbarism of his ancestors, that his family owed the perma- 
 nence of their Indian empire. The last scion of this royal 
 house died in misery at Rangoon, in 1862. 
 
 On the disruption of the Mongol empire, founded by 
 Genghis, and built on by his successors, the tribes who 
 composed it were dispersed far and wide over Europe and 
 Asia, from the Great Wall of China to the Volga and the 
 Black Sea. Their d3Tiastic divisions were numerous, but the 
 Mongol blood was soon lost in many of these. The Khans 
 were often followed into conquered territories by a small 
 proportion only of their own race, sometimes by a few 
 families, and sometimes by a few individuals only, their 
 armies being mainly composed of alien elements. These 
 handfuls of men soon lost their national characteristics under
 
 Chap, x.] MODERN DIVISIONS OF THE MONGOLS. 17.5 
 
 the influence of a settled life, and contact with races better 
 trained in the arts of peace. The numerical superiority of 
 the people among whom they lived, must necessarily have 
 absorbed them ; and it would be hard now to trace the 
 Mongol blood in the descendants of the Tartars of the Crimea, 
 of Kazan^ of Nogai, or of Kapchak. 
 
 The homogeneous race of the Mongols may now be 
 divided into the Kalkas, the Kalmuks, and the Bouriats. 
 The Kalkas, who take their name from a small river rising 
 in the Siolki mountains in Manchuria, are a numerous 
 people, occupying the north of the Great Desert. They may 
 be called the Mongols proper, if any are entitled to that 
 name. 
 
 The Kalmuks, so nicknamed by the Mahommedan Tartars, 
 inhabit the Russian province of Astrakhan. A remarkable 
 exodus of these people took place in 1770-71, on which occa- 
 sion half a million of the Kalmuks of the Volga fled from the 
 tyranny of Catherine II., and directed their march eastward 
 by the route by which their ancestors had so often travelled 
 to Europe. During their eight months' pilgrimage they were 
 goaded to despair by hunger, weariness, and savage enemies ; 
 and when they at last found shelter in the dominions of the 
 Emperor of China, they had been reduced to half their 
 number. The Emperor Kienloong allotted to them a settle- 
 ment in the province of Dsungaria, on the north-west of 
 the desert. The Eleuths on the south-east of the desert are 
 also of the race of the Kalmuks. The black Kalmuks are 
 settled near the sources of the river Obi, north of the Altai 
 mountains. 
 
 The Bouriats in the Siberian province of Trans-baikal, 
 although of true Mongol origin, do not appear to have been 
 much mixed up in the military movements of the other 
 tribes. They were nevertheless a warlike people, were sub- 
 dued by the family of Genghis in the thirteenth century.
 
 176 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. x. 
 
 and made a respectable stand against the Russians in 
 the seventeenth. 
 
 There are other tribes of Mongols within the modern limits 
 of China proper, though north of the Great Wall. Some of 
 these till the ground, but tliey are principally kept up as the 
 reserve army of China. 
 
 From the earliest times, these wandering tribes, when not 
 united in a crusade against the human race at large, were 
 constantly at war with each other. These feuds were con- 
 tinued with var}ing results for several centuries after theu' 
 empire was broken up ; but the adroitness of the Chinese on 
 the one side, and the brute force of Russia on the other, have 
 subdued the turbulent spirit of the Mongol hordes, who for 
 the last hundred years have been quiet subjects of these two 
 empires. 
 
 The Mongols, Kalmuks, and Bouriats are all Bhuddists, 
 while the other Tartar tribes, with whom the Mongols have 
 been associated in their wars, are almost all Mahommedans. 
 
 The history of the wars of the Huns and Mongols exhibits 
 some curious psychical phenomena. First, we see these 
 barbarous tribes, living in the most primitive condition, 
 ignorant of everything beyond the range of animal instinct, 
 vanquishing in fair fight the most warlike and civiUsed 
 nations that then existed. By the weight of their masses, 
 and the impetuosity of their onslaught, stimulated by the 
 ferocity of fanaticism, the barbarians broke in on the old 
 empires, which they overwhelmed like a flood. CiAdlisa- 
 tion bowed the neck to barbarism : matter triumphed over 
 mind. 
 
 And yet the materials of which these formidable hosts were 
 composed were in themselves feeble and innocuous. When 
 we see the descendants of the Huns quietly feeding their 
 sheep in their native deserts, harmless and kind-hearted, 
 simple and contented, it is hard to conceive that out of such
 
 Chap, x.] MILITAEY SKILL OF THE LEADERS. 177 
 
 a race could have come the conquerors of the world. Their 
 power indeed was a matter of pure accident, that is to say, it 
 lay dormant until accident raised up men with ability to use 
 it. The shepherds have little power of reasoning, and no 
 notions of self-government ; but they are willing machines in 
 the hands of a man of strong intellect, who can exact from 
 them the worship due to a divinity. Under such a leader 
 they can be handled like a pack of hounds, with which they 
 have a close affinity in the instinct of obedience and un- 
 reasoning courage : animal qualities which are invaluable to 
 the schemes of the master-mind. 
 
 The heroes of the Mongol tribes have been few and far 
 between. The marvel is that such a people could produce 
 heroes at all. Their great conquerors were not men of 
 ordinary ability, but of vast genius, rendered all the more 
 conspicuous by their untutored barbarism. None but great 
 minds could have controlled and directed the movements of 
 such multitudes. The words of the khan were inexorable 
 laws ; without the ruling spirit nothing could be done. 
 China was saved from a second conquest by the accident of 
 the death of Timour ; and it has been said that the fate of 
 Europe at one time depended on the digestion of a barbarian 
 under the Great Wall of China. Nor were the Mongol 
 leaders animated by blind ferocity. They had an object in 
 their wars, which was nothing less than the sovereignty of 
 the world. Their courage was high, and they occasionally 
 fought desperate battles. But that was not their usual 
 custom. Attila, and Genghis, and Timovir, all showed re- 
 markable caution. They calculated the chances of a battle 
 or a campaign with the deliberation of experienced generals, 
 and declined engagements against heavy odds when they 
 could effect a retreat without discouraging their trooj}s. 
 Attila, the rudest of them all, was a skilful diplomatist. He 
 penetrated into Gaul, not so much by force of arms as by the
 
 178 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. x. 
 
 craft he displayed in playing off one faction against another, 
 and so distracting the counsels of his enemies. 
 
 The secret of the ascendency of the Mongol chiefs lay 
 maiidy in the skill with which they used the potent instru- 
 ment of superstition. The shepherds, illiterate and brutish, 
 had a blind awe of the supernatural, which it was the policy 
 of their leaders to encourage. Attila became miraculously 
 possessed of the sword of the Scythian Mars, and thenceforth 
 bore a sacred character which was confirmed to him by his 
 early successes. A divine origin was attributed to the 
 ancestors of Genghis. He was styled the son of God, and 
 was popularly believed to have been born of a virgin.* The 
 Turks traced their descent from a youth who was nursed by 
 a she-wolf, a fable probably borrowed from that of Romulus 
 and Remus. 
 
 The kings of the Huns and Mongols excited the enthu- 
 siasm of their armies by the use of omens. When unfavour- 
 able to their plans, the omens were either disregarded or 
 explained away by the chiefs, who were probably incredulous, 
 but at all events possessed the resolution to rise superior to 
 the oracles. Thus when Attila had raised the siege of 
 Orleans, and was pressed in his retreat by a powerful army 
 of Goths and Romans, the auguries were against him, and 
 his troops were dispirited. But Attila, considering that a 
 defeat would be less disastrous to him than flight, rallied the 
 sinking courage of the Huns by an eloquent oration, in 
 which, with consummate ingenuity, he turned the very ad- 
 vantages of the enemy into encouragements to himself Their 
 well-chosen posts, their strict alliance and close order, he 
 affected to attribute to fear alone. He plied his people also 
 with arguments from the doctrine of fate, and persuaded 
 them that they were as safe in the thick of the fight as in 
 
 * Gibbon, vol. iv. p. 322, and note.
 
 CuAi'. X.] OMENS— FEROCITY OF THE BARBAKIANS. 179 
 
 their own tents. In the desperate battle which ensued, 
 Attila outdid himself in personal valour, and the Huns 
 fought furiously ; the slaughter on both sides was prodi- 
 gious ; but when night came Attila was fain to retire within 
 his camp. The result of the action was nevertheless credit- 
 able to his sagacity, for he was still so formidable in defeat 
 that his enemies compared him to a lion at bay, and they 
 dared not renew the attack. 
 
 Timour, who lived in a more enlightened age, or rather 
 among a more enlightened people, and was himself edu- 
 cated in Mohammedanism, rose to a higher flight in the use 
 and contempt of auguries. Instead of examining the entrails 
 of animals, he consulted the planets and the Koran, When 
 marching on Delhi his astrologers could not educe any 
 favourable indication from the stars, but Timour refused to 
 hamper his plans by such considerations, telling his astro- 
 logers that fortune does not depend on the stars, but on the 
 Creator of them. 
 
 The Huns and Mongols were distinguished from other men, 
 chiefly by their waste of human life. They may be said to 
 have depopulated Asia. The flourishing cities that once 
 existed in the deserts of Tartary have been utterly destroyed ; 
 the history of many of them has been lost ; and where large 
 populations cultivated arts and industry, one may now see 
 only the tent of a herdsman in the vast solitude. The 
 savages boasted that grass never gi'ew where the feet of their 
 horses had trod, and that a horse might run Avithout stum- 
 bling over the places where the great cities had stood. The 
 conquerors built towers and pyramids of the heads of their 
 enemies, that is, their prisoners — not soldiers only — but whole 
 populations whom they massacred in cold blood. 
 
 But yet, though ferocious, the barbarians were not, strictly 
 speaking, cruel. Their systematic slaughter must be other- 
 wise accounted for, and in a way even more humiliating to 
 
 n2
 
 180 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. x. 
 
 human nature. The morahty of the kings, khans or em- 
 perors may be assumed to have been on a par with that of 
 the peoi^le ; it was in intellect only that they were pre- 
 eminent. Attila, in the midst of his sins against mankind, 
 was accessible to pity. His own people loved him. Genghis 
 aspired to the honour of a wise legislator, and primitive 
 thouoh his code was, his motives for devisinec it were honour- 
 able. He encouraged trade so far as he knew how ; patronised 
 the sciences, and favoured the missionaries of all persuasions. 
 He was both just and generous, and if he had but governed, 
 instead of killing, the people he conquered, it is possible that 
 he might have been a benefactor to mankind. Yet, in three 
 cities alone, Genghis caused more than four millions of 
 people to be slaughtered. 
 
 But the strange paradox comes out in more vivid colours 
 in the character of Timour, who, compared with his prede- 
 cessors, was civilised and humane. Amongst his exploits was 
 the massacre of one hundred thousand people at Delhi. He 
 exacted from Ispahan a contribution of seventy thousand, and 
 from Bagdad of ninety thousand human heads to build towers 
 with. Although a Mahommedan he did not spare his co-re- 
 ligionists, but slew indiscriminately all who seemed to stand 
 in his way. When he grew old, and was satiated with blood 
 and glory, he reisented. But his repentance was the most 
 curious episode in the monster's history. He planned a pious 
 mission to China, and in announcing his resolve to his 
 council, he told them that the conquests he had made were 
 not obtained without some violence, which had occasioned 
 the death of a great number of God's creatures. To atone for 
 past crimes he determined to perform some good action, 
 namely, to exterminate the idolaters of China* 
 
 By what law or standard of ethics can such an abuse of the 
 
 * Un. Hist. vol. V. p. 57.
 
 Chap, x.] THEIR LOW TYPE OF MORALITY. 181 
 
 moral faculties be judged ? And how can such antagonistic 
 traits of character be reconciled ? 
 
 The Mongols did not practise the cruelties that have so 
 often disgi-aced more refined peoples. Tortures were excep- 
 tional among them, perhaps because their invention had not 
 risen to such a pitch. Noble captives were paraded in chains, 
 but that was done rather to glorify the victor than to punish 
 the victim. The Monofol massacres seem to have been die- 
 tated less by positive than negative considerations. Their low 
 estimate of the value of human life lay at the bottom of it 
 all. The slaughter of the population of a great city was no 
 more in their eyes than the destruction of so many vermin. 
 Their towers of human heads were to the primitive barba- 
 rians what the trophies of the chace are to sportsmen. Being 
 guided by animal instincts alone, they were unconscious of 
 any wrong. So low is the moral condition of uncultivated 
 races, "the children of nature," that human feelings can only 
 grow in them after ages of gradual education. The social 
 virtues, and even the natural affections, are only developed in 
 their full force by means of artificial or civilised life, just as 
 the perfectability of plants is only attained by the aid which 
 art gives to natvu'e. So, then, the artificial state is in a sense 
 more natural to man than the natural or primitive condition 
 of savages. His moral nature needs culture as much as his 
 intellect does ; and artificial life alone can bring out man's 
 natural qualities. The affections of the Huns and Mongols 
 were little more than such as they possessed in common 
 with the lower animals. They loved their children after a 
 fashion, and sometimes they loved a favourite wife. But if 
 we desire to test the quality of the paternal affection of such 
 people, let us look at the half-tamed barbarian Peter the 
 Great, who condemned and executed his own son, after 
 inviting him to surrender under the promise of a full 
 pardon.
 
 182 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. x. 
 
 The tlieoiy litis been advanced that the exclusively animal 
 diet of the shepherds rendered them ferocious * and that their 
 familiarity with the blood of their sheep excited their pas- 
 sion for the blood of their fellow-creatures. But neither 
 of these hyiDotheses is founded on fact. The elaborate 
 cruelties of the vegetarians of China and Japan supply a 
 sufficient answer to the first. The Chinese have racked 
 their ingenuity to multiply tortures, and a fat rice-eater will 
 sip up liis tea and fan himself with perfect sang-froid, while 
 he causes the nails of a victim to be pulled out. When their 
 blood is up the Chinese are as savage as the Mongols, and by 
 so much the more cruel as their superior intellects supply to 
 them varieties in the enjoyment of their blood-thirstiness. 
 
 To the second observation it may be replied that the pro- 
 fessional butchers are not the least humane class of civilised 
 society ; their occupation does not impair their human sym- 
 pathies. A wild beast may be excited by the taste of blood, 
 but it is merely from the instinct that impels him to seek his 
 natural food. 
 
 The biiitalising influence of war itself is well known. To 
 this rule there are few exceptions. Even among Christian 
 nations, in whom the degrading tendency is counteracted by 
 education and social culture, the hero of many battles is but 
 too apt to value his men at so much per head. Barbarians, 
 with no controlling power to check the natural bent of their 
 passions, exhibit the full dehumanising effects of war. They 
 glory in the mere shedding of blood, as a hunter delights in 
 the death of his game. Yet this savage passion is far removed 
 from simple cruelty, and may be quite comj^atible with a low 
 form of gfoodness of heart. 
 
 * " II est certain que les grands mangeurs de viande sont en general cruels 
 et fdroces plus que les autres hommes. Cette observation est de tons les lieux 
 et de tons les temps ; la barbarie anglaise est counue. " — Emile de Rousseau. 
 Gibbon, iii. p. 350.
 
 Chap, x.] WARLIKE PROCLIVITIES. 183 
 
 Although at first sight the simple life of pastoral peoples 
 does not seem likely to produce a race of warriors, yet the 
 very simplicity of their habits peculiarly adapts them for war- 
 like enterprises. The incentives to war would not be wanting 
 to wandering tribes with no fixed boundary ; for they would 
 be constantly invading each others' pasture grounds. Hence, 
 the habits of predatory warfare would be induced. Their 
 hardiness and endurance would enable them to sustain the 
 fatigue of long marches, privations and exposure. Such a 
 community needs no commissariat. Their food is the flesh of 
 their cattle or horses, which, being accustomed to eat grass 
 only, can always feed themselves on the way. Their tents 
 might even be dispensed with, and the ground would serve 
 them for a camp. Their indifference to life renders unnecessary 
 any provision for the care of the sick or the wounded. They 
 are not hampered in their movements by any tie to localities. 
 The whole world is alike to them. Their life in war, involv- 
 ing the long marches and countermarches which wear out 
 other troops, was little different from their ordinary habits in 
 peace. Their enthusiasm made them formidable. Their 
 ignorance rendered them unscrapulous. They destroyed the 
 noblest monuments of learning and industry with the same 
 wantonness that prompts a child to pull to pieces the finest 
 piece of mechanism. They set no value on anything, and it 
 was a pleasant recreation for them to destroy what they 
 could neither appreciate nor understand. The spoils of civi- 
 lisation allured them to new conquests. Victory inflated 
 their fanaticism. Defeat subdued their spirit for the time, but 
 they had always a retreat- open in the deserts of Asia where 
 they were at least safe from the retaliation of the civilised 
 nations whom they had oppressed. In their career of devas- 
 tation they were often stimulated by necessity. When their 
 earlier successes had attracted great numbers to the victo- 
 rious standard, it was impossible to maintain the vast multi-
 
 184 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROJl TEKIXG TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. x. 
 
 tude stationary. First, tlieir pastures would soon become 
 exhausted ; and, secondly, their leaders could only maintain 
 their own character and their ascendency over their followers 
 by active operations. The alien troops, who entered largely 
 into the composition of their armies, were always ready to 
 secede from their forced allegiance. Any symptom of weak- 
 ness or incapacity in the chief would be the signal for a 
 general disruption. Out of this necessity for perpetual 
 motion doubtless arose the Mongol vision of universal 
 empire. 
 
 The military enthusiasm in the Mongols is only dormant, 
 not dead. We have seen, four or five years ago, with what 
 alacrity Sang-ko-lin-sin, himself a Kalka Mongol, and one of 
 the forty-eight kings, brought a force into the field to bar our 
 entrance into Peking, and with what zeal and energy the 
 Mongol troops acquitted themselves. Given a sufficient mo- 
 tive, and a man to lead them, and the shepherds could 
 soon be put in motion again. By nature they are faithful to 
 their chiefs, and their head lama has but to hold up his 
 finger to stir up the sleeping prowess of the shepherds. 
 Nor is it likely that the sanguinaiy passions, common to 
 barbarians, have been eradicated in the Mongols. Quiet and 
 peaceful as they are among their flocks, they would be as 
 fierce in war as in the bloodiest days of their histoiy.
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 MONGOLS — PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CHAEACTERISTICS. 
 
 The following physical characteristics of the Mongolian 
 race, by a gentleman who resided many years among the 
 Bouriats in Trans-baikal, are equally applicable to the tribes 
 in Mongolia proper, and to some extent also to the Chinese. 
 
 " The high cheek-bones ; the oblique, elongated eye, dark 
 and piercing ; the flat nose, with compressed nostrils ; the 
 strong black straight hair ; the large protuberant ears ; the 
 small sharp chin ; the want of beard in the men, till late in 
 life ; the general gravity of expression, and cautious, inquisi- 
 tive mode of address, are so many marks of this tribe of men, 
 never to be mistaken, and never to be found so strongly deve- 
 loped in any other." * 
 
 There is nothing noble or generous in the Mongol character, 
 and those tribes who have afforded the widest field for obser- 
 vation, are said to be naturally servile to superiors and tyi'an- 
 nical to inferiors. 
 
 Their vieaiiness is remarkable. They are not too proud 
 to beg the smallest trifle, and a man well blessed with this 
 world's goods thinks it no disgrace to receive alms. 
 
 The habits they have inherited qualify them admirably 
 for the lazy nomad life which they lead. But they have 
 no heart for work in the sense of regular, steady occupa- 
 tion. Fatigue and privation they make no account of, but 
 
 * Scottish Congreg. Mag., Dec. 1S4L
 
 186 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO RETERSBURG. [Chap. xi. 
 
 it goes quite against the grain with them to do a day's work. 
 They sadly lack energy and enterprise, and are easily dis- 
 ' courafi-ed. The Mongols proper are seldom tempted to leave 
 the beaten track of their pastoral life, and even the Bouriats, 
 who live amongst Russians, and have incentives to exertion, 
 show little disposition to depart in anything from their tradi- 
 tional mode of life. The Russian government has tried to 
 make them farmers, but with very little success. Every 
 Bouriat family is compelled by law to cultivate a few acres 
 of ground. Government supplies them with seed, generally 
 rye, on condition that an equal quantity be returned to the 
 government granary the following year, or its equivalent • in 
 money paid. They are subject to bad seasons in those re- 
 gions. A backward, dry spring, with no rain before June, is 
 of not unfrequent occuiTeuce ; in such seasons the crops don't 
 ripen before the autumn frosts come, and the year's labour is 
 lost. The seed corn must, nevertheless, be delivered back to 
 the granary, and the Bouriat agriculturist loses heart. 
 
 The cardinal virtue of the Mongol tribes is hospitality, 
 ■ which is as freely exhibited to perfect strangers, as to neigh- 
 bours, from whom a return may be expected. Indeed, the 
 nomad life would be intolerable without this mutual good- 
 feeling and readiness to assist, to feed, and to shelter travellers. 
 The absence of trades, and of the amenities of settled com- 
 munities, renders the Mongol people mutually dependent, 
 and hospitality becomes simply a necessity among them. At 
 the pitching and striking of tents, at sheep-shearing and felt- 
 making, the assistance of neighbours is required by all in 
 turn. When cattle stray, the neighbours help to catch them. 
 When a Mongol is on a journey in the desert, he is dependent 
 on the hosjjitality of the families whose tents he may pass 
 on his way, and he will always be welcome. The Mongols 
 are also attracted to each other's quarters to hear news, 
 or for the mere satisfaction of talking. In such a sparsely
 
 Chap, xi.] FIDELITY— DRUNKENNESS. 187 
 
 peopled country, this feeling makes a stranger all the more 
 welcome. 
 
 Although rather addicted to petty pilfering, the Mongols 
 are, in a general way, honest. At any rate, they Avill not 
 betray a trust committed to them. The fidelity of servants 
 is universal, and theft, robbery, and assault, are of rare occur- 
 rence among them. Their most prevalent vice is di-unken- 
 ness ; and, although drinking, and even smoking, are prohi- 
 bited by the sacerdotal law, the living examj^le of the priests 
 is more powerful than the dead letter of the law. Those 
 Mongols who wander to the frontier of China or Russia, 
 sujDply themselves with tobacco, and distribute it to their 
 friends in the desert. Every one carries a pipe with a small 
 brass bowl, like the Chinese. A steel and flint are invariably 
 attached to the tobacco-pouch. The Mongols also take snuff, 
 using a stone bottle, with an ivory spoon attached to the 
 stopper, after the Chinese fashion. Chinese liquor they use 
 very sparingly, and only on great occasions of bargaining or 
 merry-making. They use a spirit of their own very exten- 
 sively, and as it is made out of milk, an article Avhich is 
 very abundant among pastoral people, their supply of the 
 spirit is almost unlimited. They call it ir'chi, or in the 
 Bouriat dialect avoid, a name applied by the Mongols to 
 all liquors indiscriminately. It is better known to Euro- 
 peans by the name of humiss. The following account of 
 the mode in which the spirit is distilled from milk is 
 interesting : " The milk, previously soured and fermented, 
 is put into a large iron kettle, over which is inverted a 
 wooden dish, fitted to the edge of the former, and luted 
 with cow-dung. One end of a bent wooden tube is inserted 
 into a hole in the inverted dish, and at the other end is 
 placed a cast-iron j)ot to receive the liquid as it comes 
 over. When the fire has made the contents of the kettle 
 boil, the vapour is condensed within the tube, and passes
 
 188 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROxAI PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. xi. 
 
 into the receiving vessel in the form of ardent spirit."* 
 The spirit is fit to drink whenever it is made, and as it 
 is more than usually plentiful when the pastures are richest, 
 that is the season of the greatest excesses. Any sort of 
 milk may be used, but mare's milk is said to make the 
 most approved liquor. The Mongols are inclined to be 
 uproarious in their cups ; and squabbles often occur, but 
 they seldom come to anything very serious. 
 
 The morahty of the Mongols is about a fair average of 
 that of the rest of mankind, perhaps purer than that of 
 more civilised countries. Their customs admit of polygamy, 
 but it is too expensive to be very common, as each wife 
 has to be in a manner bought of her father for a certain 
 number of oxen, horses, or camels. They have a strong 
 objection to marrying within their own families, or tribes, 
 considering all the descendants of one father or head of 
 a tribe as brothers and sisters, however distant their actual 
 relationship may be. " So universal is this custom," says 
 the writer already quoted, " that I never knew or heard of 
 an instance of its being violated." 
 
 The lamas are all celibats, but seeing this class num- 
 bers one fourth or one fifth of the male population, 
 it might safely be j)i'edicated of them that their vows 
 are not strictly kept. As a matter of fact, the celi- 
 bacy of the lamas is in very many instances a merely 
 nominal thing. The lama may not marry, but he can 
 take to himself a " disciple ; " children will be born to 
 him in the natural course of events, and no great public 
 scandal will be excited thereby. Hence a standing joke 
 among the laity is to ask tenderly for the health of Mrs, 
 Lama. 
 
 The Mongol women are childishly fond of small orna- 
 
 *Scot. Cong. Mag., Feb. 1842.
 
 Chap, xi.] FEMALE ORNAMENTS-DECENCY— WRESTLERS. 189 
 
 ments for their hair. Any kind of tinsel, or small glass 
 ware, is highly valued by them. Before marriage, the 
 women wear their hair disposed in plaits which hang straight 
 down. Ornaments of coral, or other articles, are suspended 
 from the plaits. After marriage the hair is collected into 
 two thick ties, one at each side, falling down over the 
 front of the shoulders, and adorned according to the fancy 
 or means of the wearer. They wear a kind of tiara round 
 the head, which is ornamented with coral, glass, strings of 
 mock pearls, or any kind of gaudy trinkets they can pick 
 up. They also wear sometimes, instead of the ordinary 
 cap, a coronet of soft fur, fastened round the head, and 
 projecting over the brow, which gives them, at first sight, 
 a rakish appearance. 
 
 The Mongols, one and all, evince great regard for decency 
 in their dress and habits. Their inner garments consist 
 of cotton trousers, tightly fastened by a scarf round the 
 waist, and a long flowing robe of the same material. These 
 are generally of blue. The long sheepskin is kept in reserve 
 for night-work, or cold days. They never appear uncovered 
 outside of their tents, even in hot weather. In this respect 
 they contrast remarkably with all other natives in hot 
 climates with whom I am acquainted. 
 
 In physical development, the Mongols do not rank very 
 high. They are in stature below the middle height, but 
 moderately stout. Short necks are common, but many thin, 
 scraggy necks are also met with. They do not get corpulent 
 like the Chinese. They look healthy and robust. Their 
 muscular energy is rather low, which may be due to their 
 avoiding all regular work, and partly perhaps to their exclu- 
 sively animal diet. 
 
 Wrestling is one of their favourite amusements, and the 
 trained wrestlers are proud of their skill in the art. A 
 square-built lama challenged me to wrestle with him at Tsa-
 
 190 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. xi. 
 
 gan-tugumk. There was a great concourse of people pre- 
 sent, and to have declined the contest would have been as 
 bad as a defeat. I therefore determined to risk the trial. I 
 soon found that being totally ignorant of the art, I had to 
 act solely on the defensive. After some ineffectual attempts 
 the lama threw me, I had a firm hold of him, however, and 
 we both came down together, the lama under. Having come 
 out of the ordeal better than I expected, I had no wish to 
 try another round, and the lama also had enough. It was 
 my turn to challenge then, and considering that the honour 
 of my country required it, I offered to box my antagonist, 
 which honour he respectfully declined. This incident exhi- 
 bited to me tlie muscular weakness of one of the best-made 
 men I met among the Mongols. 
 
 But their weakest point is their legs, which are rarely 
 exercised. The Mongols begin from their earliest years to 
 ride on horseback. If they have but to go a few hundred 
 yards, they will ride if possible, in preference to walking. 
 They walk with the gait of a duck ; indeed, were their legs 
 good — which they are not — the heavy shapeless leather 
 boots they wear would prove an effectual bar to walking. 
 These boots come up near the knee, are made of nearly uni- 
 form size, so that the largest feet will go easily into any of 
 their boots. Thick stockings are also used, and the foot has 
 ample play Avith all that. They are nearly all bow-legged, a 
 circumstance that might be explained by their constant habit 
 of riding, or by the pressure that is put on them when 
 infants to make them 'sit cross-legged, were it not frequently 
 developed in children before the age when nurses begin to 
 cross their legs. The phenomenon may nevertheless be the 
 indirect result of both these causes. The habits of the tribes 
 being fixed and uniform for many ages, the bow-legged ten- 
 dency which these habits are calculated to produce, may have 
 been gradually impressed on the race as a permanent feature,
 
 Chap, xi.] COMPLEXION— PECULIAR EYES. 191 
 
 by the mystery of hereditary infRience. Thus the peculiarity, 
 although originally accidental, would become permanent and 
 constitutional. The Mongol is rarely seen standing upright. 
 He is either sitting on horseback, or crouching in a tent. 
 
 The Mongols are rather dark-complexioned ; the face and 
 hands, which are constantly exposed to sun and weather, are 
 deeply bronzed ; the skin is very coarse ; the covered parts of 
 the body are much lighter than the exposed parts, but among 
 the men there is nothing like a white skin. The whitest of 
 them are yellowish. During our ablutions the whiteness of 
 our skins was a subject of constant remark among the 
 Mongols, although the skin of our faces became, by constant 
 exposure to the sun while in Mongolia, as dark as that of the 
 Mongols themselves. The Mongols, nevertheless, have often 
 a ruddy complexion, but it is uncommon among the men. 
 The women are much fairer than the men, and are much less 
 exposed to the sun, being mostly in the tents attending to 
 household duties. Their faces, although rough and weather- 
 beaten more or less, have all a " roseate hue." Old women 
 frequently become pasty white in the face. Their children 
 are born fair skinned, and with brownish hair, which gradu- 
 ally becomes darker as they grow up. Shades of brown are 
 however not unfrequent even in adults, and a tendency to curl 
 is sometimes observable. Their eyes are seldom quite black, 
 but run on various shades of brown. The white of the eye is 
 usually " bloodshot " in middle-aged men, probably from two 
 causes, exposure to wind and weather, and the argol smoke 
 of their tent fires. They live, without any inconvenience, in 
 an atmosphere of sharp biting smoke, which our eyes could 
 not tolerate. The small eyes of the Mongols are shaded by 
 heavy wrinkled eyelids, which, in many instances, are per- 
 manently contracted, giving the eye a peculiarly keen ex- 
 pression, as it peers out from under the mass of soft muscle 
 that surrounds it. This feature is entirely absent in children.
 
 192 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Chap. xi. 
 
 and is no doubt produced in adults by exposure to glare and 
 the habit of straining after distant objects in a dry sandy 
 country. 
 
 The almost entire absence of beard is a remarkable feature 
 in the Mongolians. As regards this and other marks of race, 
 it may be useful to compare the Mongols with their near 
 neighbours the Chinese. The two races have a sufficient 
 niimber of broad characteristics in common to warrant their 
 classification under one great type of mankind. But their 
 differences are also well marked, and are deserving of 
 attention. The northern districts of China are not very 
 different from Mongolia in point of climate. Both have a 
 short but hot summer, and an extremely rigorous winter, 
 differing only in degree. Both climates are dry. The 
 northern Chinese assimilate more closely than any other of 
 their countrymen to the Mongol habit of life. They eat 
 animal food rather extensively, and drink strong liquor 
 freely. Yet in physical development they are further re- 
 moved from the Mongols in some features than even the 
 southern Chinese who live on rice, fish, and vegetables. In 
 the matter of beards, which led to this comparison, the 
 northern Chinese are in a marked degree more hairy than 
 their southern compatriots, and these again than the natives 
 of Mongolia. In none of them is the beard developed till 
 towards middle life ; yet they all attain the age of puberty 
 earlier than Europeans. The beef-eaters of northern China 
 are tall, muscular, and robust, as much superior to the 
 Mongols as they are to their own countrymen who lead a 
 different life. But with their animal diet the northern 
 Chinese eat copiously of vegetable and farinaceous food, 
 while the Mongols live almost exclusively on mutton. 
 
 The regularity of habits which prevail in settled populations 
 may also have its influence in the general physical development 
 of the people. The nomads have certain qualities cultivated
 
 Chap, xi.] UNIFORMITY OF TYPE. 193 
 
 to excess, and others almost entirely unused. The animal 
 instincts are naturally found highly developed amongst the 
 Mongols. The sense of sight is very acute in them ; they 
 are sensitive to indications of changes of weather, and so 
 with various other instincts which to these wanderinsf tribes 
 supply the wants of a more artificial life, and enable them 
 to exist in a state of nature. Individuality is in a great 
 measure lost among such people. The habits and education 
 of each individual among them are identical. Their pursuits 
 are all the same. The very same faculties, both physical and 
 mental, are kept in exercise among the whole tribe, and 
 that through many generations, so that they have become 
 hereditary, and indelibly imprinted on the race. A Mongol 
 who was not a good horseman would be as anomalous as one 
 that was inhospitable. The uniformity of life among the 
 members of these nomad tribes, while it keeps back many 
 faculties, the exercise of which is necessary to the existence 
 of civilised people, also renders the type of whole tribes 
 constant, so that no one individual differs greatly in external 
 features from another. In civilised communities, where the 
 division of labour has become so indispensable as to be in 
 itself one great criterion of civilisation, a variety of types are 
 evolved even in a single lifetime. A tailor can never be 
 mistaken for a blacksmith, nor a soldier for a sailor ; but 
 tribes whose habits compel each family to be independent, as 
 it were, of all the rest of the world, whose wants are limited 
 by the means of supplying them, and among whom different 
 occupations are almost unknown, do necessarily present a 
 remarkable uniformity. It would be unsound to generalise 
 too freely, and there are of course the individual distinctions 
 of physiognomy as well marked as among other races, but 
 these differences are more limited in their scope. Some 
 trades are known to the Mongols, such as felt-making, 
 tanning and dressing skins, iron, copper, and silver work.
 
 194 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xr. 
 
 saddle-making, &c. lu more settled parts they also make 
 harness, carts, and sledges ; and printing from blocks, after the 
 manner of the Chinese and Japanese, is also known among 
 them. These arts are most cultivated among the Bouriats in 
 Siberia, who, by their contact with the Russians, and from the 
 nature of the country they inhabit, are thrown more in the 
 way of artificial life than the desert tribes. 
 
 To the casual observer, at least, the Mongols do not 
 present the same individual differences as their neighbours, 
 the Chinese. In complexion they are nearly all alike, 
 although the skin seems to get darker as the face becomes 
 wrinkled with age, which might seem to favour the idea that 
 the brownish skin of the Mongols is due as much to their 
 habits as to their descent, or the effects of climate. But the 
 causes which influence colour are very obscure. In Siberia, 
 where Sclavonic races have been settled for nearly two cen- 
 turies, living side by side with Mongol tribes, and ex- 
 posed to the same climatic influences, these show no signs 
 of variation from the complexion of their ancestors, as it is 
 exhibited by their European representatives. Again, the 
 Portuguese settlers in Macao, who degenerate very rapidly, 
 become in two or three generations much darker in the skin 
 than the native Chinese. It is not the smoky atmosphere of 
 their tents that darkens the skin of the Mongols, for in that 
 case, the women, who are more exposed to it, would be darker 
 than the men, the reverse of which is the case. A comparison 
 with the Japanese again would seem to show that exposure 
 exercises at the most an insignificant effect in darkening the 
 skin. The Japanese live much within doors, and are careful 
 to protect themselves from the sun when they stir abroad by 
 means of broad-brimmed hats and umbrellas. Great differ- 
 ences of complexion exist among them, whether regarded as 
 individuals or classes ; but it is safe to say they are on the 
 whole quite as dark as the Mongols. The contrast between
 
 Chap, xi.] PHYSICAL ENDURANCE— MENTAL CAPACITY. 195 
 
 men and women is singularly marked, the women having 
 fair clear complexions, often rosy. Yet the Japanese women 
 are a good deal out of doors, and are fairer skinned than the 
 Chinese women, who are only blanched by confinement to 
 the house and exclusion from light and air. 
 
 The Mongols, although deficient in muscular energy, and 
 incapacitated for sustained activity, are nevertheless gifted 
 with great powers of endurance. I have already noticed 
 their capacity for enduring prolonged fasts, and their ability 
 to go several days and nights without sleep, with equal 
 impunity. The sudden and important changes to which 
 their climate is subject, are also borne without any great 
 suffering. From a hot summer, they are plunged, with but 
 slight gradations, into an extremely rigorous winter, when 
 the temperature falls very low, and is accompanied by keen 
 cutting winds, that sweep over the steppes with merciless 
 fury, and from which they have no better protection than 
 their tents. 
 
 The Mongol tribes stand low in the scale of mental capa- 
 city. Scattered over vast deserts, remote from civilised man, 
 they are ignorant by necessity. Their intellectual faculties 
 have no stimulus to exertion. Their aims in life, and their 
 whole worldly ambition, are limited to flocks and herds. 
 While there is grass enough to feed the sheep, and sheep 
 enough to feed the men, they have little else to disturb 
 their quiet equanimity. Thus they lead an idle careless life, 
 free from thought and everything that might disturb the 
 negative happiness they enjoy. This kind of existence is 
 truly a low form, having more affinity with the animal than 
 the mental side of human nature, while at the same time it 
 is to be observed that they are almost entire strangers to 
 the varied emotions that fill up the existence of a civilised 
 being ; so that both their intellectual and moral qualities are 
 dwarfed and partially destroyed. The prostrate mental con- 
 
 o 2
 
 196 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xr. 
 
 dition of the people predisposes them to the domination of 
 superior minds, and when their highly superstitious tenden- 
 cies are considered, it is not surprising that they are among 
 the most priest-ridden races in the world. It is not easy to 
 say why these people should be more easily imposed upon 
 than others, excepting that ignorance is always found to go 
 hand-in-hand with this mental weakness. The wild solitary 
 life of the desert is also, no doubt, eminently favourable to 
 belief in the supernatural and mysterious. 
 
 A man who frequently passes days and nights with no 
 society, except the howling waste below, and the deep blue 
 sky above, has his imagination set free from the trammels of 
 the world of fact. He has no resources but in the spirit- 
 world, and it is not unnatural that his fancy should people 
 the air with superior intelligences, whose voices are heard in 
 the desert winds or the rustling leaves of the forest. Under 
 these conditions of life, the poor nomads are in a proper frame 
 of mind to become the thralls of any one who will undertake 
 to interpret for them the spiritual mysteries on which their 
 imagination runs riot. The lamas fill this office, and are 
 treated with unbounded respect by the masses. The religion 
 of the Mongols is Bhuddism, a superstition which numbers 
 more votaries than any other existing religion, true or false. 
 But the fact is, they are Bhuddists only in name ; that is to 
 say, the laity are almost wholly ignorant of the doctrines of 
 Bhuddism. Even the lamas have but vague and confused 
 ideas about it. Their prayers are conned by rote, and these 
 priests- are generally ignorant of the Thibetan language in 
 which they are written. 
 
 The Mongol religion may indeed be called Lamaism, its 
 leading doctrine being faith, implicit and absolute, in the 
 authoritative teaching of the lamas, and that not in any well- 
 digested system of belief settled and fixed by the united 
 wisdom of the sect, but in such interpretation of spiritual
 
 Chap, xi.] LAMA DOCTRINES AND ^VORSHIP. 197 
 
 matters as any individual lama may choose to give. The 
 gods are deified lamas. The Dalai Lama of Thibet is a god 
 incarnate, as is also the Lama king of the Mongols; and even 
 the ordinary lamas, whose name is legion, are considered 
 as oflf-shoots from deity in a sense that entitles them to 
 the worship of common mortals. The abstruse doctrines of 
 the metempsychosis and the future state, are studied by the 
 recluses who live in the retirement of the great monasteries, 
 and spend their time in prayer and meditation. But the 
 every-day lama, although he carries a pocketful of musty 
 papers, in which the eighteen hells and twenty-six heavens are 
 elucidated, cares little for these things. He has more practical 
 matters to attend to than meditating on the Bhuddist notion 
 of bliss consummated by absorption into Bhudda — complete 
 repose — in other words, annihilation. His written liturgies 
 are a powerful spell by which he maintains his moral influ- 
 ence over the people, and it is none the less powerful that 
 neither party fully comprehends their meaning. More regard 
 is paid to the quantity than to the quality of their prayers, 
 and to facilitate their devotions an ingenious machine is in 
 common use, consisting of a roller containing a strino- of 
 prayers. This is sometimes turned by hand, and some- 
 times it is attached to a windmill ! So long as it is turned 
 round by some means, the efficacy of the prayers is considered 
 the same. No doubt it is. The petitions are long-winded 
 and multifarious. 
 
 The following, from one of the lama liturgies, is a specimen : 
 " From the fear of the king, from the fear of robbers, from 
 the fear of fire, from the fear of water, from the fear of loss, 
 from the fear of enemies, from the fear of famine ; of thunder, 
 of untimely death, earthquakes, thunderbolts, of the king's 
 judgment, of the tengri, of the loo, of wild beasts, &c., keep 
 me and all men in safety."* 
 
 * First-fruits of a Mission to Siberia. Cape Town. 1847.
 
 198 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xi. 
 
 The general drift of their religious observances is towards 
 securing immunity from the " ills that flesh is heir to," rather 
 than towards providing for a future state. Both objects are 
 aimed at, but the materialistic greatly preponderates. Medical 
 knowledge is of course at a low ebb among these wandering 
 people. The lamas are their physicians. Wlien a child or a 
 horse is taken ill, the ignorant people are taught to believe 
 that an evil spirit is present, which can only be exorcised by 
 the incantations of a lama. In every doubt and difficulty a 
 lama is consulted. He is at once a detective officer, justice of 
 the peace, priest and physician. His blessing is at all times 
 efficacious. His power over disease is unquestioned. There is 
 virtue for good or evil in all his acts. His authority to 
 declare what is right and what is wrong is never doubted. 
 The punishments he may inflict for violation of his precepts 
 are borne patiently. In a word, the lamas are the beginning 
 and the end, at once the ministers and the objects of rehgion 
 to the simple Mongols. Their persons are held sacred, and 
 they wear a sacred dress consisting of a red cotton garment 
 with a collar of black velvet, and a cap of peculiar shape. 
 Their heads are shaven all over, which is a sufficient distinc- 
 tion from the laymen, who shave the head only in front of the 
 crown, wearing a tail like the Chinese. Wherever a lama goes 
 he is received with open arms, and assumes the place of 
 honour in any tent which he may deign to enter. The 
 priestly tyranny of these functionaries opens a wide door to the 
 most heartless knavery, and dishonest lamas who oppress and 
 eat up the people are very common. Were the lama order 
 restricted to one class of people, it is possible their victims 
 might rise in rebellion against their assumption of authority. 
 But the lamas are drawn from every tribe and household. 
 The second son of every family is generally set apart from 
 his birth as a priest. In childhood and youth he is regarded 
 as a superior being in his parental tent. The place of honour
 
 Chap, xi.] THE SPREAD OF BHUDDISM. 199 
 
 is assigned to him from the time he is able to sit cross-legged. 
 When an opportunity offers, the little devotee repairs to a 
 monastery, where he may learn the Thibetan characters and 
 the rudiments of the lama prayers. Great numbers of lamas 
 reside permanently in these monasteries, which are supported 
 by contributions from the people, or endowed by the Emperor 
 of China. The lama unattached receives no pay, and has 
 therefore to support himself, as the rest of his countrymen do, 
 by feeding sheep and cattle. His special services are paid for 
 according to his cupidity or the wealth of his employers. 
 Many of them grow rich on the spoils of their deluded 
 votaries. Some others, of ultra-nomadic proclivities, keep no 
 cattle and own no tents. They simply roam about where 
 fancy directs, and live on the people whose tents they pass. 
 These are not much respected, but are, nevertheless, hospit- 
 ably entertained wherever they go. 
 
 The spread of Bhuddism eastward over Mongolia, China, 
 and Japan, the deep hold it has taken on the people of those 
 countries, to the extinction almost of pre-existing supersti- 
 tions, are most remarkable phenomena. Looking at the de- 
 generate form of the religion that has sprung up in Mongolia, 
 and the ignorance of the people, tending strongly to adher- 
 ence to the dogmas of their fathers, it seems wonderful that 
 Bhuddism should have had vitality enough to supersede the 
 ancient Shamanism. 
 
 The Bhuddistic doctrines, involved and obscm-e as they 
 are, certainly filled up a blank that must have been felt even 
 among the most unthinking races, for Shamanism had no 
 reference to a future life. In this respect Bhuddism is more 
 elevating than Shamanism, and when first introduced into a 
 new country, it was probably in a purer form, and untarnished 
 by the many abuses that have grown out of it in its subse- 
 quent history. 
 
 Among the Bouriats, Shamanism was almost universal as
 
 200 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xi. 
 
 late as one hundred and fifty years ago. Up to that time it 
 was the only superstition known to the northern nomads. 
 The Shaman worship was directed to the material heavens 
 and heavenly bodies — fire, earth and water, wild beasts and 
 birds, and the malignant spirits of the air, called tengri. 
 Its ritual consisted very little in prayers, but mainly of 
 animal sacrifices. Some curious facts connected with the 
 Shaman superstition are given by Mr. Swan in the " Scottish 
 Congregational Magazine." 
 
 As a preventive against cattle being killed by lightning, 
 a horse is devoted to the god of thunder — light grey or white 
 being preferred. He is brought to the door of his owner's 
 tent, and while the Shaman ceremonies are going on, a cup 
 of milk is placed on his back. Wlaen the ceremonies are con- 
 cluded, the horse is cast loose, the milk falls, and the animal 
 is thenceforth sacred. No one may use him again, and, when 
 he dies, his tail and mane are cut off and twisted into those 
 of another horse, who, from that time, also becomes sacred to 
 the god of thunder. They also had a ceremony of a scape- 
 goat, which in its details coincided most singularly with that 
 of the Levitical institution. The Shaman offerings usually 
 consisted of three animals sacrificed at once — part of the 
 flesh was eaten, and the rest, stuck on a pole, was consumed 
 by crows or magpies. 
 
 Another strange practice of the Shamans, and one which 
 is common also among the lamas, betrays the intellectual 
 imbecility of the people who could tolerate and be deceived 
 by it. To exorcise the evil spirit out of a sick person, an 
 effigy of straw is made, and clothed in the garments of the 
 patient. The priests proceed to kill the man of straw, then 
 convey it away and burn it. The unsophisticated devil is 
 supposed to be watching these proceedings, and to mistake 
 the effigy for the sick person ; so that when it is destroyed, this 
 most accommodating spirit considers his own malignant pur-
 
 Chap, xi.] SHAMANISM SUPERSEDED. 201 
 
 pose accomplished, and at once leaves the sick person, who 
 thereupon recovers. It is even said that human victims are 
 used for this purpose by the rich in Mongolia and Thibet. 
 
 The Shamans were simply sorcerers. Their ceremonies 
 were wild fanatical ravings, and their ranks were usually 
 filled by persons of diseased brains. The people generally 
 were reluctant to become Shamans, and a severe illness was 
 often held to be an intimation to the person affected of 
 the desire of the Spirits that he or she should become a 
 " medium." 
 
 The Bouriats learned Bhuddism from the Mongols, their 
 kinsmen. About the beginning of the eighteenth century a 
 mission was sent from Siberia to Thibet. The members of 
 it returned as lamas and brought the paraphernalia of the 
 new religion with them, built a temple, and set up Bhud- 
 dism. The Shamans were then gradually superseded by the 
 lamas in the districts of Trans-baikal — sacrifices gave place 
 to prayers — and a purely materialist superstition to one 
 which recognised the necessity of providing against a future 
 existence. 
 
 When, and under what circumstances, the Mongols proper 
 embraced Bhuddism, is not so easy to determine. The Chinese 
 received it in the first, and the Japanese in the sixth century 
 of the Christian era ; but it does not appear to have been 
 known to the Mongols before the time of Genghis. It was 
 probably during the wandering career of the hordes under 
 his leadership, that the lamas insinuated themselves into 
 influence over the untutored shepherds. The higher culture 
 which they had acquired, even by their partial education, 
 would mark them in the eyes of the rude Tartars as a 
 superior order of magicians ; and their ascendancy over the 
 Mongol intellects would be natural and easy. 
 
 There are traditions of Lamaism in the district of the 
 Ortous before the time of Genghis, but as that part of the
 
 
 202 SIBERIAN" ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xi. 
 
 desert had frequently been incorporated with China, the 
 existence of Bhuddist monasteries there is not inconsistent 
 with the supposition that the Mongol tribes became Bhud- 
 dists only after the wars of Genghis. 
 
 It would appear that Mohammedanism also was intro- 
 duced into China by means of the armies of Genghis, which 
 traversed Asia in every direction from the Great Wall of 
 China to the Volga. 
 
 The Bhuddism, or Lamaism, of the Mongols, serves the 
 important purjjose of binding the tribes together by one 
 common bond of union. The adoration they are taught to 
 jjay to their Dalai Lama is such as to give that personage a 
 power over them greater, probably, than is exercised by any 
 cro^Tied head over his people. The Dalai Lama is the Pope 
 of the Mongols. He is a valuable ally to the Chinese 
 Emperor, and would be a dangerous enemy. When Russia 
 comes to carry out any aggressive design in Mongolia, the 
 Great Lama of the Kalkas will be the instrument used ; and 
 the Consular establishment at Urga, if it succeeds in gaining 
 over the Lama king to the Russian views, ■^'ill not have been 
 kept up in vain. To conciliate this dignitary the Chinese 
 Emperors liberally endow monasteries, and support and en- 
 courage Lamaism in every way possible ; — but the Russian 
 Emperors will find no difficulty in securing the attachment 
 of the Lama when their plans are matured. 
 
 The Mongol people, though in a sense slaves or serfs to 
 their chiefs, really enjoy every liberty. They pay tithes to 
 their lords of the produce of their herds, but there is no 
 exaction, and no apparent discontent. The forty-eight 
 chieftains enjoy the Chinese title of ivang, i.e., prince, 
 or king, and though tributary to the Emperor, they receive 
 from him more than they pay. Their allegiance is, in reality, 
 purchased by the Chinese court, and they are certainly 
 faithful to their salt.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 KIACHTA. 
 
 As we approached the Russian frontier we reflected on the 
 savage condition in which we had been Hving for so long, and 
 were not without some anxiety as to iiow we should brook 
 the glimmering of civilisation which we might expect to find, 
 even in that remote corner of Christendom. It was also un- 
 certain what reception we would meet with from the Russian 
 officials, for although we had every reason to anticipate cor- 
 diality and friendly assistance, still political complications in 
 Europe might have altered the relations of either of our 
 respective countries with the court of Russia, and difficulties 
 might possibly be raised, I had not forgotten the advice of 
 a Russian official, high in the confidence of his Government, 
 to defer my journey till more tranquil times. While indulg- 
 ing in these vain surmises, a smart shower of snow diverted 
 our attention to other matters. 
 
 The Chinese town of Maimachin has first to be jDassed 
 through. It is surrounded by a modern palisade, and looks 
 mean enough externally, but improves vastly on acquaint- 
 ance. The streets are regular, wide (for China), and tolerably 
 clean. The houses are solid, tidy, and tastefully decorated, 
 with pretty little courtyards, and ornamental screens for their 
 doors, &c. The Chinese settlers have evidently improved by 
 contact with the Russians, for the style of their houses in 
 Maimachin, where the Chinese are only sojourners away from 
 their own country, is superior to what one usually sees, even
 
 204 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xii. 
 
 in fasliionable cities in China proper. The yamun, or Go- 
 vernment office, is at the far end of Maimachin, and is pre- 
 sided over by a Mongol. Beyond the Yamun is an open 
 square, which is considered neutral ground between Russia and 
 China. On the Russian side of the square we pass through a 
 gate and are in Kiachta, under the wing of the great Russian 
 eao-le, which we see paraded everywhere over our heads. The 
 black and white posts, said to have been a pet fancy of that 
 miserable pedant, Paul Petrovitch, that offend the eye every- 
 where in Russia ; the elegant houses with white-washed walls 
 and red or green roofs ; the gorgeous churches with tall 
 tapering spires ; and the wide streets, with nobody in them, 
 are all taken in at the first glance through the gateway, 
 and establish it beyond doubt that we are really in the 
 territory of the Czars. 
 
 With little trouble we found out Mr, Pfaffius, Commis- 
 sary of the Frontier, an office established in lieu of the 
 governorship which had been abolished. The Commissary 
 received us in a very friendly manner, gave me some letters 
 that had overtaken me from China, files of the "Times" 
 newspaper up to the 5th of August, and finally, to my great 
 joy and comfort, announced that he had instructions from his 
 superiors to facilitate my journey homewards, in consequence 
 of an application from Lord Napier to the authorities at 
 St. Petersburg. Nothing could be more satisfactory, and 
 we had only now to get lodgings and make ourselves easy for 
 a little. 
 
 Kiachta itself is but a small place, and contains few inha- 
 bitants, except the Commissary and his dependents, and the 
 Russian merchants who are engaged in the China trade. The 
 general population lives at Troitskosarfsk, which is a good- 
 sized town, about two miles from Kiachta. Thither we pro- 
 ceeded with our caravan, and soon fell into comfortable 
 quarters by the kind assistance of my countryman, Mr.
 
 Chap, xii.] FAREWELL TO OUR MONGOLS-A BATH. 205 
 
 Grant. The day was wearing on, and our Mongols were in a 
 hurry to get back to their grazing-ground. The camels were 
 soon relieved of their burdens, but we could hardly reahse 
 that they were now unloaded for the last time in our service. 
 The lama called us to count over the packages, and see 
 whether everything was right ; he then received the balance 
 of his contract money, and was off. We did not charge him 
 the forfeit he was liable to for the four days' over-time. 
 Tellig received a small present, which gratified him beyond 
 measure, for he never considered that he had done anything 
 to lay us under an obligation to him. We really felt sorry to 
 part from our Mongols, especially the faithful Tellig, and we 
 could not help commiserating them as we thought of the 
 severe season they had to pass on those dreary steppes, so 
 intolerable in September, that one would suppose flesh and 
 blood could not withstand the cruel cold of winter. They 
 had in view a return cargo from a Chinaman in Maimachin, 
 and, after a few days' rest, they would probably be on the 
 march again towards the Great Wall of China. They had no 
 intention of laying up any part of the winter, that being in 
 fact their busiest season, and they would be in Kiachta again 
 about December. What a miserable life it seems to live day 
 and night almost on the back of a stinking camel ! And yet 
 these people, in the midst of hardships, are as happy as the 
 day is long. 
 
 One of our first objects of inquiry at Kiachta was a Rus- 
 sian bath, which we found in the house where we lodged, and 
 anything so exquisitely luxurious I never experienced, bur- 
 dened as I was with a month's sand and dust, Avhich we had 
 no efficient means of getting rid of in the desert. The 
 Mongols, indeed, never attempt to wash themselves, being 
 only too glad to get water enough to boil their mutton 
 and make their tea, and that is generally carried from 
 a considerable distance, for a yourt is never found very
 
 206 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cu. xir. 
 
 close to a well. I never could get an explanation of this, 
 but presume it is so ordained by law, to prevent any one 
 family from monopolising a well. Although the Mongols do 
 not wash at all, they did not look so dirty as we did after 
 twenty-four hours travel, — either the dust does not stick 
 to them, or it does not show on their darker-coloured skins. 
 Anyhow, it does not inconvenience them, and all the purify- 
 ing I have seen them attempt is a rough wipe they occa- 
 sionally give to their greasy mouths with the skirt of their 
 garment, either calico or sheepskin. 
 
 We were agreeably surprised to find so much refinement 
 in this outpost of Siberia. The houses are mostly large and 
 comfortable. All are built of wood, and mostly of round 
 logs dovetailed together at the ends, and caulked with moss, 
 giving them a massive warm look, even from outside. Those 
 of greater pretensions are faced outside with planed wood, 
 painted white, which, with their red or green painted roofs, 
 give a cheerful air to the whole place. The churches are 
 a great ornament to the to^m. They are all three built 
 of brick, and white-washed, the tall cupolas being painted 
 green. 
 
 The streets are well kept, which is not difficult to do, 
 seeing that the ground is dry, and there is no great traffic 
 to cut up the roads. Several of the streets are provided 
 with wooden side-walks, which are very agreeable to the feet 
 where the planking is sound, but in many places it has given 
 way, exposing dangerous pitfalls to nocturnal or inebriated 
 pedestrians. 
 
 Every Russian above the rank of a moujik (peasant) 
 drives in some sort of a vehicle ; and there are all sorts in 
 Kiachta, from the droshkie, pure and simple, drawn by one 
 or two shaggy Siberian ponies, to the luxurious carriage of 
 " the swell," mounting a coachman, and perhaps a footman 
 in livery, and draAvn by two well-bred showy little horses
 
 Chap, xii.] SUPEEFICIAL CIVILISATIOK 207 
 
 from the west. The Russians never ride for pleasure or 
 exercise ; in this respect resembling the Chinese, who never 
 ride, walk, dance, or do anything that they can afford to pay 
 some one else to do for them. A few of the Kiachta notabi- 
 lities, who have been put under strict regimen by their 
 doctors, certainly may be seen in the afternoon taking a 
 constitutional, closely muffled up in their fur over-coats, 
 which they hug round them with both hands, greatly im- 
 peding the free movement of the limbs. Fast walking 
 would, however, probably be considered derogatory to the 
 dignity of their station. These solitary and sombre-looking 
 figures, covered up to the eyes, look like assassins, and the 
 imagination can easily picture to itself a dagger concealed 
 under the ample folds of the cloak as they pace slowly along 
 in the dusk on the open road between Kiachta and Troits- 
 kosarfsk. 
 
 The Russians generally have a lurking consciousness that 
 they are but half civilised, and they are quite aware that they 
 are so esteemed by ihe rest of Europe. Hence they are at 
 unusual pains to maintain punctiliously the external forms of 
 civilised life, mistaking the husk for the kernel. The tailors 
 and milliners of Kiachta are as particular, and their cus- 
 tomers perhaps more so, about getting the latest Parisian 
 fashions, as their contemporaries in the most fashionable 
 towns in Europe or even America. A morning visit in a 
 shooting-coat to a merchant in Kiachta would grievously 
 shock his sense of propriety, and if such an outlandish garb 
 were to meet the ultra-refined eyes of his wife, the probable 
 consequences to her delicate system are too serious to con- 
 template, albeit she is " fat, fair, and forty," and will chal- 
 lenge you in champagne on a proper occasion till all is blue. 
 I had the misfortune to be the innocent cause of an alarming 
 attack to a gentleman, who was civil enough to call at an 
 unexpectedly early hour in the morning, by apjDearing before
 
 208 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xir. 
 
 him in slippers and a Chinese sleeping-dress. The appari- 
 tion paralysed him for two minutes, nor did he entirely 
 recover his equanimity during the interview. It is this 
 mistaken notion of what constitutes civilisation that induces 
 the well-to-do Kussian to wear expensive furs, simply because 
 they are expensive, and to drink English bottled porter, not 
 because he likes it, but because it costs twelve shillings a 
 bottle. 
 
 In the streets and in the bazaar (Gostinnaidvor) a strange 
 mixture of races is seen. The hairy, greasy, drunk-when- 
 he-can Russian moujik ; the small-eyed cunning Russian 
 shop-keeper ; a sprinkling of fine, dirty, rough-looking Bou- 
 riats, a Tartar tribe subject to Russia ; a few Mongols who 
 have business, — for their authorities, instigated by the" Chi- 
 nese government, are jealously watchful of their crossing the 
 frontier, — and a few astute Chinese, the most business-like 
 of the whole crowd. 
 
 The merchants of Kiachta are mostly reported to be enor- 
 mously wealthy — several millions of roubles are not considered 
 too much to ascribe to the most prosperovis of them. These 
 great fortunes are doubtless for the most part mythical, and 
 as mammon is devoutly worshipped here, and the Russian 
 " swell " has no qualities but wealth to recommend him to 
 the respect of his countrymen, their reputed millions are 
 merely a figure of speech, by which the public mean to 
 express their appreciation of character. That the Kiachta 
 merchants are, on the whole, wealthy, there is no doubt, and 
 the most approved means for attaining that desirable condi- 
 tion seems to be to fail periodically. On those occasions the 
 gentleman makes a journey to Nijni-novgorod and Moscow to 
 see his creditors, — offers them fifty kopeks in the rouble or 
 — nothing. The comiDOsition is accepted for various reasons : 
 first, because it would be too much trouble to dispute it, and 
 secondly, because the said creditors have made a good thing
 
 C'HAr. XTi.] COMMEPX'IAL FALLACIES. 209 
 
 out of the connection, and hope to do so again. All this being 
 satisfactorily arranged, the merchant starts afresh in the old 
 line, having in the meantime added " house to house, and 
 field to field." I would not be supposed to insinuate that 
 this is a common practice in Kiachta, but some instances 
 were pointed out to me of Croesuses who had passed through 
 the ordeal more than once, rising higher in public estimation 
 each time, as their worldly prosperity increased. Large 
 profits are made, or rather have been made, in the Kiachta 
 trade, both with China and the west of Russia. Almost 
 every merchant has a shop either in the bazaar at Troits- 
 kosarfsk or in Kiachta, and their principle in business is 
 rather to do little with large profits, than to accept smaller 
 profits with a greatly extended trade. They don't seem to 
 try to undersell each other, but rather combine to tax the 
 public heavily for all the necessaries of life. The prices of 
 nearly all articles in the shops are extravagant, even allowing 
 for the expensive carriage their goods have to bear from the 
 gTeat distances most of them have to come. Were they to 
 be content with such profits as would be considered ample 
 in any other civilised country, they would place the necessa- 
 ries of life, and even luxuries, within the reach of a vast 
 number of people whose means do not at present admit of 
 expensive indulgences, and thereby increase consumption to 
 an extent that would in the long run bring them in greater 
 aggregate profits than they now realise, and indirectly add to 
 the general prosperity and well-being of the place. For one 
 bottle of porter they now sell at three and four roubles, they 
 ■would sell ten at one-and-a-half or two roubles ; and so with 
 other things. But the Russians have no notions of expan- 
 sion, and the merchants are far behind the Government in 
 commercial enlightenment. The recent measure of opening 
 the Russian sea-ports to the import of tea direct from China, 
 has utterly disconcerted the Kiachta people, who looked on
 
 210 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xn. 
 
 the overland tea-trade through Siberia, with its sure snug- 
 profits, as part of their inheritance ; and bitter complaints 
 are heard on all sides at such an arbitrary interference with 
 their prerogative. They considered themselves to have a 
 vested right to supply the Russian people with dear tea for 
 ever. 
 
 The Chinese of Maimachin are likewise reputed wealthy, 
 and no doubt they are, to judge by their portly figures. This 
 is considered a sure sign of prosperity in China, where rolling 
 in wealth, and rolling in fat, are often considered synonymous 
 terms. I have, however, known the criterion prove frequently 
 fallacious. The Chinese merchants of Maimachin live there 
 without their families, and consider themselves as mere so- 
 journers, although many of them spend the best part of their 
 lives there. They have an unconquerable aversion to moving 
 their families from the spot where they and their fathers 
 were born ; and even within the bounds of their own country 
 they rarely migrate for good from one district to another, 
 unless driven to such a step by some potent cause, such as a 
 visitation from the " rebels." 
 
 The Russians and Chinese are peculiarly suited to each 
 other in the commercial, as well as in the diplomatic depart- 
 ments. They have an equal regard for truth, for the Rus- 
 sian, spite of his fair complexion, is at the bottom more than 
 half Asiatic. There is nothing original about this observa- 
 tion, but it serves to explain how it is that the Russians have 
 won their way into China by quiet and peaceable means, 
 while we have always been running our head against a 
 stone wall, and never could get over it without breaking it 
 down. The Russian meets the Chinese as Greek meets 
 Greek : craft is encountered with craft, politeness with polite- 
 ness, and patience with patience. They understand each 
 other's character thoroughly, because they are so closely alike. 
 If some matter has to be negotiated, it is quite understood
 
 Ch. XII.] MORAL AFFINITIES OF RUSSIANS AND CHINESE. 211 
 
 that each begins as far from the -subject as j)ossible : much 
 conversation takes place on both sides ; many pipes are 
 smoked, and many cups of tea sipped, while they are beating 
 about the bush. They receive each other's statements for 
 what they are worth, that is, not as being intended to convey 
 any definite signification, but as merely put in for the pur- 
 pose of concealing their real purpose and to smooth the way 
 to the object in view. Of course much valuable time is lost 
 by this circumlocution, but it is a matter of ajDparent indif- 
 ference to either party whether the negotiation is concluded in 
 one day, or three days, or three weeks. They prefer their own 
 way of dealing, and don't understand any other. -When either 
 Russian or Chinese meets a European, say an Englishman, he 
 instinctively recoils from the blunt, straightforward, up-and- 
 down manner of coming to business at once ; and the Asiatic 
 either declines a contest which he cannot fight with his own 
 weapons, or, seizing the weak point of his antagonist, he angles 
 with him until he wearies him into acquiescence. As a rule, 
 the Asiatic has the advantage. His patient equanimity, and 
 heedlessness of the waste of time, are too much for the im- 
 petuous haste of the European. This characteristic of the 
 Russian trading classes has enabled them to insinuate them- 
 selves into the confidence of the Chinese ; to fraternise and 
 identify themselves with them, and as it were make common 
 cause with them in their daily life ; while the European holds 
 himself aloof, and only comes in contact with the Chinese 
 when business requires it, — for all the rest, a great gulf sepa- 
 rates them in thoughts, ideas, and the aims of life. The 
 Russians and Chinese are equally low in their tastes ; intel- 
 lectual and manly recreations are equally foreign to them, 
 while eating and drinking, play-going and gambling, are the 
 congenial amusements of both ahke. I have been told that 
 the Russian merchants of Kiachta, when they wish to treat 
 each other to something worthy of a highly cultivated mind,
 
 212 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKIXG TO RETERSBURG. [Cn. xii. 
 
 order a Chinese dinner in Maimachin, a feast tliat most 
 Europeans would rather undergo the incipient stages of star- 
 vation than come within the smell of But in this and other 
 things the Russians pay tribute to the superior civilisation 
 of the Chinese, all the more genuine that it is unconsciously 
 done. That the Chinese are the more civilised of the two, I 
 am thoroughly convinced. Their notions of civilisation cer- 
 tainly run in a different groove from those of Christian 
 nations, but it is a spontaneous growth, and genuine of its 
 kind. But the Russians, after all that they have borrowed 
 from their western neighbours, remain barbarians at bottom ; 
 and their living m large houses, and drinking expensive wines, 
 serve merely to exhibit, in more striking colours, the native 
 barbarism of the stock on which these twigs of a higher 
 order of life have been engTafted. This does not, of course, 
 apply to the educated gentlemen of Russia, the 7ious autres, 
 who constitute a higher caste, and who have been largely 
 leavened with foreign blood, but only to the middle and lower 
 ranks. There is no middle class in Russia, as we understand 
 the term, but there is a pretty large number of merchants who 
 have risen from the condition of serfs, many of them very 
 rich, and who must be taken to represent the middle class, 
 but between whom and the gentlemen in uniform there is as 
 impassable a bamer as between a merchant in Japan and a 
 daimio. The Chinese far outstrip the Russians as a nation 
 of shopkeepers, and in commercial matters generally have 
 more enlarged and liberal ideas. Much of this is due to the 
 non-interference of Government with trade. The restrictions 
 of shops to one locality in Russian towns has its advantages 
 and disadvantages ; but the licence fees required for admission 
 to the guilds, and for permission to open a shop in the bazaar, 
 are so onerous as to exclude that class of small shopkeepers 
 who are the life and soul of Chinese cities. 
 
 The largest building in Kiachta is called the Custom
 
 Chap, xii.] THE DROSHKIE. 213 
 
 House, but it is no longer used as such, all duties on 
 merchandise having been recently abolished through the 
 enlightened exertions of the present Governor-General of 
 Eastern Siberia, who has done much to develop trade in 
 his government. And truly the whole of that inaccessible 
 region, including the Amoor provinces, is so ill-favoured by 
 nature in its geographical position, and so thinly inhabited 
 by a race who have had all enterprize gi'ound out of them 
 by centuries of oppression, that it is only by coaxing and 
 nursing that prosperity can ever take root and flourish. The 
 old Custom House is now occupied by the chief of iwstes and 
 some other Government officials. It is situated on an eleva- 
 tion above the town and at the far end of Troitsk osarfsk, at 
 as gTeat a distance as possible fi'om the residence of the 
 Commissary of the Frontier, who holds his court at the 
 opposite extremity of Kiachta. 
 
 Having much business to transact at both these places, we 
 hired a droshkie by the day at two roubles, an old shabby 
 looking machine, very groggy on the springs, with two wild 
 half-broken ponies tied to it with ropes, and an unkempt 
 moujik on the box. In this turn-out we rattled along the 
 dusty streets of Kiachta, passed by everything we saw ex- 
 cepting costermongers' carts, I felt very small, perched on 
 the old rattle-trap, and had it not been for the " honour of 
 the thing" I would infinitely have preferred walking or 
 riding, but that was not to be thought of in a Eussian, and 
 especially a Siberian, town. Our reputation was at stake. 
 
 Kiachta lies snugly in a hollow between hills of sand and 
 fir-trees, well sheltered from the northerly winds, and open- 
 ing out southwards towards Mongolia. A small rividet runs 
 through the ravine, which turns west through the sandy 
 plain on the Mongol side of the frontier, and falls into the 
 general receptacle of the other rivers we had crossed. 
 Kiachta and Troitskosarfsk are said to contain 20,000 in-
 
 214 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xii. 
 
 habitants, wlio are pretty well supplied with provisions from 
 the interior. Great numbers of peasants' carts may be seen 
 in the morning bringing in the products of their farms and 
 gardens to market. All the common vegetables are to be 
 had in abundance ; good beef and nautton of course, though 
 the Russians, for some unexplained reason, eat very little 
 mutton. The supplies for Kiachta come from great dis- 
 tances, and the peasants start from their homes long before 
 break of day. They generally hunt in couples, the man with 
 his sheepskin coat hung on him, leading the horse and riding 
 by turns, while the good-wife, swaddled up into a round 
 bundle of clothing, and booted to the knees, sits on the top 
 of the cabbages. A large square in the centre of Troits- 
 kosarfsk is set apart as a corn and hay market, and is pro- 
 vided with sundry weights and scales sanctioned by the 
 proper authorities. Here the vendors of agricultural produce 
 assemble, and generally manage to get rid of their stocks by 
 an early hour in the afternoon. Everything seems to be sold 
 by weight in Russia, but they can hardly carry this to the 
 same extent as the Chinese, who sell live chickens by weight, 
 and by way of making up for any deficiency stuff their crops 
 with sand, which adds an ounce or two to the aggregate 
 weight, but produces death in a very short time. This trick 
 used to be played off on masters of steamers, who thought to 
 do a service to their countrymen at Shanghae, where pro- 
 visions were at famine prices, by bringing a few hundred 
 fowls from other ports where they were to be had cheap. 
 The mortality in the middle passage was so great, however, 
 that the second day generally threw a very different light on 
 the venture. 
 
 Kiachta is also well supplied with excellent fish, the 
 sturgeon among others, from the river Selenga, and it was 
 here for the first time that we indulged ourselves in fresh 
 caviar.
 
 Chap, xii.] THE CLIMATE OF KIACHTA. 215 
 
 In this town there is a public recreation ground within a 
 neat enclosure, where ladies promenade in the afternoon 
 to inhale the fresh air, or exhibit the latest thinof in 
 bonnets, for Russians don't care much for air or exercise. 
 Some retired nooks there are in the enclosure, suggestive of 
 love-making at a more genial season, but they looked dreary 
 enough in September, with a hard frost on the ground, and 
 snow on the neighbouring hills. The whole goes by the 
 name of "the garden," and in the three short months of 
 summer it may possibly show something to justify this ap- 
 pellation. The mere attempt at gardening under such diffi- 
 culties as a Siberian climate imposes, is creditable to the 
 enterprise of the Kiachtaites, and it were much to be wished 
 that the sun would shine on their efforts. The severity of 
 the weather drives those who have a taste for flowers to 
 cultivate them in their houses, which they do very success- 
 fully. Many of their rooms are like greenhouses, furnished 
 round with large flowering shrubs in pots, very pleasant to 
 the eye, whatever may be the effect of so much vegetation 
 on human health. The plants are put out into gardens 
 during the short summer, and withdrawn to the warm rooms 
 when the chill winds give notice that winter is near. 
 
 The climate of Kiachta is very cold in winter, and pretty 
 hot in summer. The air is very dry, soil sandy, and little or 
 no rain or snow falls. It lies in lat. 50° 15', and at an eleva- 
 tion of 2200 feet above the sea. The population is reputed 
 to be healthy, and old people of eighty and upwards are as 
 lively as crickets. The houses are very comfortable, so far at 
 least as warmth constitutes comfort, and in severe climates it 
 is undoubtedly the first essential. The massive wooden walls 
 well caulked with moss, which is said to be better and more 
 lasting than oakum, are well adapted to exclude cold. They 
 have all double windows a few inches apart, with the space 
 between filled with cotton wool along the sill. The rooms
 
 21G SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM TEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xii. 
 
 are heated by large closed stoves or ovens, which are used for 
 cooking as well as warming the house. In general, one stove 
 is made to heat several rooms, being built into the corner 
 presenting one face to each apartment. The great drawback 
 in all this is the absolute want of ventilation, which was to 
 us very trjdng and disagreeable, but the Russians are ac- 
 customed to Hve in health in the close stuffy atmosphere of 
 their houses. The temperature of their rooms is kept up 
 to about + 16° Reaumur (68° Fahrenheit), and varies but 
 little from that range. They use a great deal of firewood, 
 which is cheap in the neighbourhood of those vast primaeval 
 forests, and in the yards of Kiachta immense stores of this 
 fuel are piled up for winter use. 
 
 The Russian manner of living was not quite suitable to us, 
 although more regular than we had lately been accustomed 
 to. They eat but one meal a-day, and that about twelve or 
 one o'clock. The everlasting samovar fills up the morning 
 and evening with its incessant bubbling and spluttering. 
 Much tea-drinking is calculated to take the edge off a 
 ravenous ajDpetite, and in addition to the fluid we were fain 
 to eat all the little cakes that usually accompany the 
 samovar, in order to tide over the long twenty-four hours 
 that interfered between regular meals. The stock dish of 
 the Russians is a vegetable soup, with beef boiled in it. It is 
 called shtchee, and is good or bad, according to the materials 
 available for its manufacture, and the skill of the cook. Our 
 cook in Kiachta was a lady of the mature age of eighty -two, 
 who was justly proud of her attainments. The shtchee is 
 enough of itself to make a substantial meal, as the houilli is 
 served up with it ; but it is generally followed by a solid 
 piece of roast beef The bread is very good and white, but a 
 strange custom prevails of putting black bread on the table 
 along with the white, for the apparent purpose of showing off 
 by contrast the extreme whiteness of the white, for no one
 
 Chap, xii.] AN ISOLATED CITY. 217 
 
 ever touches the black when he can get the other. The real 
 black bread is heavier, and as clammy as if potatoes entered 
 largely into its composition. It is used almost exclusively by 
 the peasants, and is doubly economical, being in the first 
 instance cheap in price, and moreover a very little of it goes 
 a long way, as it resists digestion as long as a hard-boiled 
 egg. The black bread used by the well-to-do classes is a 
 compromise, and is of a black-brown colour, known as demi- 
 hlanc. 
 
 The Kiachta community is for the most part permanent. 
 The official portion of it is of course migratory, as the Govern- 
 ment employes look for promotion to other regions, but some 
 of them also settle down in Kiachta and found families. Many 
 of the merchants also move westward, or intend to do so, but 
 the whole substratum of peasants, artisans and tradesmen is a 
 settled population. They talk little of Petersburg and Mos- 
 cow, and when they do, it is with a kind of distant awe, as if 
 these holy places belonged to a higher world. Irkutsk is the 
 centre of their thoughts, the pivot on which they move. 
 Wliatever is defective in Kiachta is sure to be found in per- 
 fection in Irkutsk ; the best hotels, horses, carriages, doctors, 
 houses, churches, shops — everything — are there. A journey 
 to Irkutsk is not an unfrequent occuiTence, but a journey to 
 Moscow is something to be talked about on every convenient 
 occasion for the remainder of one's life-time. 
 
 The town was founded in 1728, as an entrepot of the 
 caravan trade with China, and to that alone does it owe its 
 importance. Tea has always been much the largest item in 
 this trade, and although Kiachta must continue to command 
 the trade between China and Eastern Siberia, the direct im- 
 portation of sea-borne teas to the Baltic ports cuts off an im- 
 portant source of prosperity from Kiachta. The mercantile 
 community have, up to last year, endeavoured to compete 
 with their rivals, and pushed into China to purchase the tea
 
 218 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xii. 
 
 in the same markets ; but the conditions of the trade are so 
 much altered that they are deprived of their former facilities 
 for bartering Russian produce, and in other respects the 
 caravan trade is too heavily weighted ever to compete suc- 
 cessfully wath the long sea route. Even in Russia, wedded 
 as the masses are to prejudice, common sense must gain the 
 day in the end, particularly where roubles and kopeks are in 
 question. 
 
 We did not grudge ourselves a few days' rest at Kiachta, 
 considering we had accomplished the most tedious part of 
 the journey, and henceforward would get over the ground as 
 fast as horses' legs could carry us. But no such luck was in 
 store for us. The first news we had from the commissary and 
 others, was that the whole country between the shores of the 
 Baikal lake and Kiachta was inundated by the flooding of 
 the river Selenga. It seemed that our adverse fortune was 
 to follow us along the whole journey. "We need not have 
 been surprised, however, at the intelligence we received of 
 the condition of the Selenga, since into it all the rivers we 
 had crossed in Mongolia discharge themselves. The post 
 from Europe was long overdue, and no news had been 
 received from the Baikal for ten days. We were constrained 
 perforce to remain quiescent until the waters should subside, 
 and a day or two after our arrival a courier who came with 
 the missing mail reported a slight improvement in the com- 
 munication, he having succeeded in carrying the mail in 
 small boats from station to station. Our time was not, how- 
 ever, misspent, for we had a number of preparations to make 
 for our jovirney. In the first place we had to exchange our 
 Chinese silver into Russian paper money. We were pre- 
 pared of course to lose on this operation, but were agreeably 
 surprised to find we had got off with only about one per cent. 
 For one tael of sycee we received 2r. \okoi')., which, at the 
 then value of three shillings to the rouble, gave us 6s. 5-j^fZ.
 
 Chap, xii.] THE TAEANTASS. 219 
 
 for our tael, which was worth roundly 6s. 6d. We had 
 then our ponies and carts to dispose of, and my pony was 
 quickly sold for ten roubles, of which my share was eight, 
 that is twenty-four shillings for what cost thirty-two, — so far 
 so good. But, when we came to offer the carts for sale, 
 difficulties presented themselves. No one had ever heard of 
 such articles being sold in Kiachta. This seemed strange, for 
 the Chinese — if not the Russians — use no other conveyance 
 in their frequent journeys to China. The carts are made 
 only in China, and therefore ought to be at a premium in 
 Kiachta. But the Russians were not to be reasoned with in 
 this way, but maintained- that it was hopeless to attempt to 
 sell our carts, and we abandoned the idea. We happened, 
 however, to mention the subject to some Chinese in Mai- 
 machin, and having persuaded them to come to Troitsko- 
 sarfsk, and see the articles, we concluded a bargain, on the 
 eve of our departure, for sixty-five roubles, about half what 
 they cost. 
 
 It was necessary to our comfort to purchase a tarantass, or 
 large travelling carriage. It was possible to travel without 
 one, using the kihitka, or small carriage, provided at the 
 post-stations; but that mode of travelling involved the an- 
 noyance of changing at every station, which, with our huge 
 amount of baggage, would have been intolerable. We had 
 some trouble to find a tarantass, and when we had got one it 
 was not quite what it should have been — indeed we should 
 have done better to have used the post kibitkas as far as Ir- 
 kutsk, and bought a tarantass there, where we would have 
 had a better selection. 
 
 In Maimachin we purchased some goat skins, with hair 
 twelve inches long. These we had sown together into a sack 
 for each of us to put our legs into when sitting in the car- 
 riage; a very simple contrivance, well worthy of the attention 
 of all travellers in those regions in cold weather, and which
 
 2-20 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO RETERSBURG. [Cii. xii. 
 
 contributed in no small degree to our comfort on the 
 road. 
 
 The remnant of our stores, &c., tent, saddles, and such like, 
 had to be abandoned in Kiachta, and we could only make 
 room in the tarantass for a little brandy, and some tins of 
 bacon, and smoked tongues. Hitherto we had trusted 
 nothing to the chance sujiplies of provisions that might be 
 found on the road; but now, being in a civilised (?) country, 
 we depended solely on its resources, such as they were. 
 
 We had no trouble with our papers in Kiachta, and our 
 luggage was never looked at ; neither did we require to take 
 out a Eussian passport, but merely had to get our Peking 
 ones vis^d for Irkutsk by the master of police, which for- 
 mality enabled us to obtain from the chief of the posts a 
 2)adaroshna, or pass for post-horses, which are entirely under 
 Government control. In addition to this, Mr, Pfaffius sup- 
 plied us with a special pass, to give greater effect to the 
 padaroshna, and to ensure us proper attention from the 
 various station masters as far as Irkutsk. This document 
 was to be exchanged for a similar one, which we hoped to 
 obtain from the higher authorities at the provincial capital. 
 We experienced the greatest civility and ready assistance 
 from all the Russian officials with whom we came in contact 
 in Kiachta, and the bugbear of troublesome interference by 
 the authorities vanished away. 
 
 We soon got tired waiting for better news of the state of 
 the roads between us and Lake Baikal, and determined to 
 start on the 7th of October at all hazards. The steady frosty 
 weather, with occasional falls of snow, gave us warning of 
 winter, and of the uncertainty of getting our heavy carriage 
 over half-frozen rivers. Every day was important at such a 
 critical season, and the motherly counsels of the good old 
 lady we were living with, to postpone our journey till Decem- 
 ber, when the snow roads would be in perfect order, only
 
 Chap, xii.] THE PADAROSHNA. 221 
 
 made us the more impatient to be off. Had we stayed 
 another day we might have been tempted to give ear to 
 these reiterated remonstrances against tempting Providence 
 by starting at such a time. 
 
 Some hours were occupied in loading our tarantass, for we 
 discovered to our dismay that the machine, large as it was, 
 was still too small for our baggage and ourselves. After seve- 
 ral attempts to dovetail unwieldy boxes into corners and use 
 up all smaller articles as broken stowage, we eventually suc- 
 ceeded, between the inside and the outside of the machine, 
 to get everything on board, and with a severe struggle we 
 squeezed ourselves in, horizontally, between the baggage and 
 the hood of the conveyance. Our padaroshna was for three 
 horses, but when the driver brought them to be harnessed, 
 and saw the load he had to drag, he at once protested against 
 going with less than four. "We felt that he was quite right, 
 but to establish a character it was necessary that we should 
 be firm at the outset. To have admitted the necessity for 
 four horses would have exposed us to all manner of imposi- 
 tions at the successive stations, where our ignorance of Russ 
 would have placed us at the mercy of every ruffian of a post- 
 master. With great misgivings, therefore, we started with 
 our three horses, driven by a Bouriat yemschik. The taran- 
 tass is a strong roughly made four-wheeled carriage, placed 
 on poles, which rest across the two axletrees. The poles are 
 made of soft wood, but have some spring in them, and the 
 tarantass is at least more comfortable on rough roads than a • 
 Chinese two-wheeled cart. The hood comes well forward, 
 and with an apron that comes up nearly to the top, and a 
 curtain that can be let down from the front of the hood, the 
 tarantass can be pretty well closed in. 
 
 The " horses " are only ponies, a little over thirteen hands 
 high, strong shaggy little brutes, full of beans and of great en- 
 durance. They are harnessed, or rather tied, to the vehicle.
 
 222 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xit. 
 
 or, as the Russians like to call it, the equipage, in the 
 loosest possible manner. A stout steady one is put in the 
 shafts without any traces, the collar being secured to the for- 
 ward part of the shafts by strong leather bands, A wooden 
 tree arched over the collar and fixed to the shafts by its two 
 ends, has a bearing rein running from the top, and kept 
 rather tight on the horse's mouth. A bell is also sus- 
 pended from the top of this cumbrous-looking apparatus, 
 which denotes to all whom it may concern that it jingles 
 over a post-horse. The bell is an intolerable nuisance on 
 the road, but it is of some use in arriving at a station to 
 announce the important event to the station-keeper, who 
 peradventure may be asleep. 
 
 The other horses are attached by rope traces to the axle- 
 trees, or any part of the outside of the tarantass which 
 may be available for making fast a rope. Each horse is 
 independent of the others, and any, except the middle one, 
 may get off the road, kick, fall, or do what he likes, with- 
 out disturbing the general equilibrium. The favourite num- 
 ber of horses in Russia is three, which they call a troilki 
 — they all go abreast, whether the number be two or six. 
 Everything about the " turn out " is of the loosest and 
 rudest construction — the wheels have plenty of scope, and 
 oscillate three or four inches on the axle, so as to be easily 
 oiled. Something is constantly going ^vl•ong — the wonder 
 is that the whole aiTangement does not break down on 
 the road beyond the hope of remedy; but the Russians 
 are very clever at making shifts, and with the constant 
 demands that are made on their resources, their talents 
 are kept in full exercise.
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 KIACHTA TO LAKE BAIKAL. 
 
 We got out of Troitskosarfsk about three o'clock in the 
 afternoon, for as we intended to travel as the Russians do, 
 night and day, it made no difference at what time of the 
 day or night we commenced the journey. The first stage led 
 us over rather hilly roads, in many places heavy with sand. 
 The hills around have a sandy appearance, but after crossing 
 the first ridge we opened out fine broken scenery with richly 
 wooded heights. Our yemscJiik, or driver, being a Bouriat, we 
 were able to converse with him in his mother- tongue, for 
 though the Bouriats grow uj) speaking Russian, they preserve 
 their own domestic institutions, and among themselves speak 
 their own language, which, with some slight differences, is 
 identical with that spoken by the Mongols of the Great Desert. 
 
 The first station we arrived at was Ust Kiachtinsk^ which 
 is a fair-sized village of small wooden houses, with a very 
 neat little church. We were prepared for all the horrors of 
 a Siberian post-station, but found instead a new station- 
 house, well kept and scrubbed inside, warm and clean. It is 
 twenty-three and a-half versts, or nearly sixteen miles, from 
 Troitskosarfsk. Our doubts and fears regarding our ability 
 to deal with Russians, of whose language we were ignorant, 
 awed us into great circumspection at this, the first point 
 where we were left to our unaided resources. Our first 
 anxiety was to maintain our prestige among the Russians, 
 for, that failing, we should have been helpless indeed. The
 
 224 SIDEPJAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xiii. 
 
 only sure way of saving our name under the circumstances 
 was to decline all discussion, and as far as possible hold our 
 tongues. This succeeded very well at Ust Kiachtinskd — four 
 horses were put to our tarantass, and no extra fare asked. 
 The post had left that day, and the poor jades allotted to 
 us had already performed one stage over very heavy roads, 
 and were in no condition to drag our unwieldy equijDage. 
 Our Bouriat yemschik had not gone very far over the soft 
 sand before he discovered this, and after exhausting all his 
 persuasion to no good purpose, he sent a message to the 
 station by a chance Russian whom we met on the road. In 
 answer to this a fifth horse was sent from the post-house. 
 The yemschik resumed his efforts to proceed, and by dint of 
 yelling, carressing, and whipping, we got along a few miles 
 further. A nasty steep hill lay before us, and arrested our 
 progress finally for the night. When the yemschik had 
 bawled himself hoarse, and had goaded his horses to despair, 
 he entreated us, first in Russian, and then in Mongol, to get 
 out and unload the carriage. It was a cold dark night, and 
 we were warmly wedged into the carriage in a way that if 
 we got out we could never have readjusted our beds in the 
 dark. Finding us deaf to remonstrance, our poor yemschik 
 took the horses out and let them graze — made a fire for 
 himself of the end of a fallen tree, and waited patiently for 
 morning. 
 
 When daylight came we found ourselves in a thick wood, 
 half way up the hill. An hour and a half was spent in 
 unloading and getting the vehicle over the hill. After which 
 we proceeded slowly to the station Piravolofsk^, which we 
 reached at 8 o'clock. On the road we passed several villages, 
 with some cultivated enclosures farmed by Russians, who also 
 keep a good many cattle. 
 
 It was plain that we could not go on so heavily laden, for 
 even if horses could draw our tarantass, the machine itself
 
 Chap, xiii.] SIBERIAN POST-MASTERS. 225 
 
 would certainly break down, and we should run the risk of 
 being wrecked on the road beyond the reach of assistance. 
 We therefore determined if possible to secure an extra car- 
 riage at Piravolofskd To this the station-keeper demurred, 
 and told us that with only one padaroshna it was impossible 
 to horse two equipages. The pass from the commissary was 
 efficacious in removing his doubts, and after expending all 
 his eloquence in proving the impossibility of comi3l}dng wth 
 our request, he quietly ordered a Jdbitka, into which we trans- 
 ferred a portion of our dead weight, and we went on our way 
 rejoicing. The roads were rather sandy and a good deal 
 up and down hill. At 2 o'clock we passed Paravotne station, 
 where we had shtchee. We then proceeded by a good road 
 up a long valley through which runs a tributary of the 
 Selenga. Turning with the river into another valley to our 
 left, we again encountered sandy and hilly roads. We soon 
 struck the Selenga, a fine deep river, running through a wide 
 valley, hemmed in by steep and well-wooded hills. A ferry- 
 boat which was in attendance carried us across easily, horses, 
 carriages, and all. The people who manned the boat were 
 Russians and Bouriats, some of them showing unmistakeable 
 marks of mixed blood. The river had fallen about twelve 
 feet by the marks on the rock. A few miles from the ferry 
 lies the small, but rather pretty town of Selenginsk. It has 
 commodious barracks, one fine church, and some good houses. 
 The station-master at Selenginsk was an old, fat, consequen- 
 tial and surly fellow. His room was adorned with some 
 poor pictures, among which was an engraving of Cathe- 
 rine II. The companions of his solitude were a wretched- 
 looking girl, maid-of-all-work, and a small cur, trained to 
 perform certain tricks before travellers, on whom it seemed 
 to dej)end for its daily bread. This old follow was too im- 
 portant a personage in his own estimation to allow us to pass 
 without challenging our right to the two carriages, but by
 
 226 STBEEIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xiii. 
 
 dint of holding our tongue we conquered his objections as 
 effectually as if we had greased his palm with roubles. 
 
 Nio-ht was on before we got away from Selenginsk. At 11 
 o'clock we passed Arbusofskd, and at 5 next morning we 
 passed Nijni Ubukunske. A bitterly cold morning was the 
 9th of October. Passed through a well-peopled valley, in 
 good cultivation compared with what we had seen, though 
 still far short of what it might be. The valley runs north- 
 east to Verchne TJdinsk, a considerable town. We did not 
 go round by that town, but turned off at Mohinski into a 
 valley on our left, and struck the Selenga again, keeping on 
 the left bank of the river. We now began to experience the 
 effects of the recent inundations. Although the flood had 
 abated very much, the water in the river was still high, and 
 the flat banks were great marshes. The road had been al- 
 most obliterated by the flood, and new tracks had been 
 struck out through the driest parts, over large boulders, deep 
 holes filled with water, and heavy mud. The horses floun- 
 dered, but struggled bravely, and the yemschiks vociferated 
 for miles, through this impracticable compound of land and 
 water. We were five hours in going sixteen miles. 
 
 The valley narrows to a steep gorge through which the 
 Selenga forces its way under a shade of overhanging trees 
 that almost conceals it from view. The river was running 
 about four miles an hour, but so smoothly and silently, that 
 the current would have been hardly perceptible but for the 
 floating branches of trees borne on its surface. The scenery 
 is most beautiful. The perpendicular walls of rock that form 
 the gorge are thickly wooded with pine and birch, which, 
 combined with the willows that grow in great luxuriance on 
 the low banks of the river, and seem to stretch their branches 
 almost across the water, give quite a tropical appearance to 
 the valley. 
 
 The road through the gorge is scarped out of the rock, and
 
 Chap, xiii.] JEALOUSY EXCITED. 227 
 
 rises to a good height above the river. It is narrow in tlie 
 parts which are entirely artificial, so narrow that in some 
 places there is not room for two vehicles to pass. The 
 grandeur of the scenery faded away before our eyes as we 
 looked down from the height into the deep abyss below. 
 The edge of the precipice is guarded by a rough, strong, 
 wooden parapet, without which, restive horses and drunken 
 yemschiks would inevitably be immolated by the score at 
 this dangerous place. 
 
 At 3 p.m. we arrived at Polovine station, simultaneously 
 with a number of other travellers from various quarters. 
 The long interruption of travelling from the flooding of the 
 country, had accumulated a great many on the west of 
 Baikal lake, and now they crowded on all at once. Amongst 
 our fellow-travellers were several government officers, and 
 two loquacious Poles from Irkutsk, The station could not 
 furnish horses for half of the number, and as we had all 
 arrived together, it was a question who should get them. 
 We required seven for our two carriages in the then state of 
 the roads, and it was no small satisfaction to us to find that 
 the postmaster assigned to us the precedence. The govern- 
 ment officers made no remark, but simply ordered the 
 samovar to make tea. The Russian travellers also took it 
 very quietly. But the two Poles were not so easily ap- 
 peased. We could glean a few words from the volleys of 
 abuse with which they indulged themselves, the gist of 
 which was anathemas on the Russian government, the 
 postal system, and things in general, winding up with a 
 threat to set up a " republic " in Siberia. Leaving our ex- 
 asperated friends to digest the venom of their spleen, we 
 rattled away over good roads along the left bank of the 
 Selenga, till we arrived at dusk at the post station of 
 Ilyensk, six versts short of the town of that name. .The 
 postmaster here was an old sergeant who kept house with 
 
 Q 2
 
 228 SIBEEIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xiii. 
 
 bis ao-ed wife. She seemed to be a good sort of woman, 
 for the house was in capital order, the wooden floor clean 
 scrubbed, and the walls beautifully white. Tables and chairs 
 were in the like good trim, as were also the pots and pans and 
 crockery. The sergeant received us with open arms, and was 
 obsequiously civil. It is probable that the yemschiks who 
 had conducted us from Polovind had passed the word to him 
 of our being distinguished personages, whom all good post- 
 masters delighted to honour. When the little man had 
 acquitted himself of his bowing and scraping, he began to 
 expatiate on the coldness of the night and the badness of the 
 road that lay before us. The end of it was that he pressed 
 us, with his most winning grimaces, to make ourselves com- 
 fortable under his roof for the night, and proceed at daylight 
 next morning towards the Baikal. "We were but too willing 
 to listen to the voice of the charmer, for experience had 
 taught us that night travelling in Siberia is no great luxury. 
 Having' therefore satisfied ourselves that we should be in 
 good time to catch the steamer on the Baikal, which makes 
 two trips a week, we resigned ourselves with a good con- 
 science to the kind solicitations of our host. When supper 
 was over and bedtime came, visions of Kussian vermin began 
 to haunt us, and seriously disturbed our prospects of rest. 
 The most careful scrutiny of the apartment, however, led to 
 no discoveries of a disagreeable nature, beyond the shoals of 
 small cockroaches which the heat of the room brought out in 
 high condition. These animals are inoffensive enough in 
 their habits, but restless, and ever on the move, running to 
 and fro over the room and everything in it. They emit a 
 fetid odour, which is the most unpleasant thing about them, 
 particularly when you inadvertently crush them. But the 
 close, oven-heat of the room itself was in my case a suflficient 
 objection to sleeping there, and the tarantass was to me the 
 more attractive dormitory of the two. Indeed, when well
 
 Chap, xiii.] A NIGHT AT ILYENSK. 229 
 
 wrapped up with furs, and only a part of the face exposed to 
 the frost, the tarantass affords sleeping accommodation that 
 might well be envied by a king, provided always there is no 
 jolting over rough roads to disturb the sleeper. 
 
 The jingHng of bells at various periods of the night an- 
 nounced the arrival of other travellers, and in the morninof 
 we found that one party of Russian officers, whom we had 
 left drinking tea at Polovind, had come and gone without 
 stopping at Ilyensk, Another party of merchants had arrived 
 later, and were all ready to start again when we got out of 
 bed. We were naturally, though perhaps unjustly, suspicious 
 of the Russians, and the first thought that flashed across our 
 minds, on surveying our situation, was that we had been 
 duped by the post-master into remaining all night at Ilyensk 
 in order to let the others get a clear start of us on the road. 
 It was of the last importance to reach the shore of Lake 
 Baikal, from which we were still ninety versts distant, in 
 time to save the steamer, and in the bad state of the roads it 
 was impossible for us to calculate the length of time we 
 should require to travel the distance. The advantage we 
 had been induced to yield to our fellow-travellers might 
 prove fatal to our own success, for although horses would be 
 kept for us at Ilyensk, there might be a scarcity at the 
 following stations, and our neighbours having the lead 
 might take every available beast, leaving none for us. 
 Under such circumstances the old sergeant was regarded 
 with very different feelings from those we entertained of 
 him when we retired to rest the night before. He did not 
 escape a fair quota of abuse, but he still protested that his 
 intentions were honourable. Great haste was made to get 
 our horses in, and we had faint hopes of overtaking some of 
 our friends. 
 
 The road from Ilyensk was good for fifteen versts, and 
 quite level. Beyond that it had been completely destroyed
 
 230 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xiii. 
 
 by the recent floods, and tlie country was full of lagoons. 
 The bridges were washed away, and their debris were 
 scattered about over the fields. The main road was quite 
 impracticable, and by-paths were struck out wherever the 
 fancy, or topographical knowledge of the yemschik directed 
 him. It was a wild chase for many weary miles, through 
 great sheets of water, over high banks, and wide deep 
 ditches, which were charged at full gallop, the lumbering 
 machine being got over apparently by the sheer force of 
 momentum. We then plunged into a dense forest where a 
 lane had been cut out, leaving the stumps of the trees still 
 sticking up. The ravines had been roughly bridged over 
 with new-cut trees, overlaid with branches. This road, 
 besides being as rough as wheeled carriage ever travelled 
 on, was very circuitous, and our stage of twenty-four versts 
 by the main road was stretched out to not much short of 
 double that distance by the tracks we were compelled to 
 follow. It says something, however, for the energy of the 
 government, that the emergency should have been met so 
 promptly. Their postal communication had not been inter- 
 rupted a fortnight before this new road had been cut through 
 the wood, on the slojae of a hill above the reach of inun- 
 dation. 
 
 Changed horses at Tarakanofske, a small miserable sta- 
 tion, and at 1.30 reached Kabansk, a neat town with a 
 pretty church. Here we dined, and proceeded at 2.30. 
 The high mountains west of the Baikal were now distinctly 
 visible. At the next station, Stepne-dvaretsk^, the post- 
 master was a Pole, a fine old gentleman, who was exiled 
 under Nicholas in 1854. He appeared very anxious to talk 
 about the affairs of Poland, but we had not acquired enough 
 Russian to make conversation very interesting to either 
 party, and besides we were in a hurry, and daylight was 
 fast failing. The old fellow exulted in the expectation of
 
 Chap, xiii.] THE SHORE OF THE BAIKAL. 231 
 
 foreign intervention in Poland, and became radiant with 
 delight when we revealed our respective nationalities. 
 
 After leaving Stepne-dvaretskd we soon reached the shore 
 of the lake, when we turned to the left, and followed the 
 coast-line, through occasional thickets and wide lagfoons, till 
 we reached Pasoilsk^ the terminus of the Trans-Baikal 
 post-road. The station-house was full of travellers waiting 
 for the steamer to cross the water. The fixed time of her 
 departure was 9 o'clock the ne^A morning, and the crowd 
 of travellers spent the night in the post-house. No beds, 
 and few seats are provided at these places. Men, women, 
 and children roll themselves down on the floor indiscrimi- 
 nately, and sleep soundly through the incessant turmoil 
 and noise that would make night hideous to nervous people. 
 It is often impossible to thread one's way into the dormi- 
 tory without treading on half the people who are sleeping 
 among the bundles of clothing that cover the floor; but 
 aggi'essions of that sort, being of common occurrence, are 
 borne with stoical indifference. I slept as usual in the tar- 
 antass, and was lulled to sleep by the harmony of a howling 
 wind, and the loud murmur of the waves of the lake that 
 washed the sandy beach within a few yards of me. 
 
 The Selenga is formed in Mongolia by the junction of a 
 number of small streams south of Lake Kosgol, 280 miles 
 south-west from Kiachta. It is afterwards joined by the 
 Orkhon, and its tributaries from the Kinghan mountains. 
 The length of this river has been computed at 800 miles, 
 which is probably near the mark. It is singularly rich in 
 fish, among which is the sturgeon. The fisheries are a great 
 blessing to the peof)le who inhabit the valley, among whom 
 fish forms a staple article of diet. 
 
 The Selenga falls into the Baikal, by several mouths, about 
 twenty miles north of Pasoilskd. That part of the coast 
 would not be so convenient for the steamer to cross at, and
 
 232 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xin. 
 
 would moreover make the crossing so much longer. But as 
 the Selenga itself is navigable, by properly constructed 
 vessels, from its mouth to a point higher than Selenginsk, 
 the steamer route may possibly be eventually diverted to 
 the river. 
 
 The valley of the Selenga is hemmed in to a narrow com- 
 pass by mountains as far down as Ilyensk. Thence, down- 
 wards, the two mountain baiTiers diverge gradually, leaving 
 a fine open valley, which widens to about forty miles on the 
 coast of the lake. This valley suj)ports a pretty large agri- 
 cultural population, and the peasants seem all well-to-do. 
 Agriculture is certainly not in an advanced state, if Europe 
 be taken as a standard, but still a large portion of the valley 
 is enclosed and cultivated; weeds are kept down; and stubble 
 looks like stubble, and not merely grass of a different shade 
 of colour from the surrounding pastures, which is the charac- 
 teristic of the fields nearer Kiachta. The soil is light, dry, 
 and friable ; furrows don't hold their shape. The crops are 
 chiefly cereals — wheat, barley, rye, and oats. 
 
 There is an immense tract of uncleared country in the 
 Selenga valley, only wanting hands to fell trees and bring the 
 soil under the plough, to make this a rich and fertile region. 
 The slopes of the hills are also capable of cultivation, but 
 centuries will probably elapse before they are required. In 
 the meantime, both hills and plains bear magnificent crops of 
 timber, which will keep the Siberians in fuel and building 
 material for a thousand years to come. 
 
 Cattle are abundant, but under-bred and rather small. 
 The milk cows are poor, which is singular considering that 
 milk is such a valuable item in the subsistence of the people. 
 They have a good hardy breed of sheep, which are nearly all 
 black. Pigs are also very common in the villages. They 
 are a peculiar breed, very active, do not gi'ow to any size, 
 rather long in the legs, and bristly. Their owners do not
 
 Chap, xrri.] ATHLETIC PIGS. 233 
 
 seem to feed their stock much, if at all, and consequently 
 the animals have to follow their own instincts of self-pre- 
 servation. They may be seen in the morning trooping it 
 down the street at a steady trot, turning neither to the right 
 hand nor to the left, until some edible substance arrests 
 their attention. They are not very particular about what 
 they eat, and they manage, by dint of rapid movements, to 
 eke out a subsistence off the odds and ends to be found in 
 the streets, and the roots they can burrow out of the fields. 
 Many of these Siberian pigs are of a brown colour, which is 
 uncommon in the porcine race. 
 
 The dogs of Siberia are of the ubiquitous breed which is 
 common all over China, Japan, and many other countries, 
 and is nearly akin to our own collie dog.
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 LAKE BAIKAL TO IRKUTSK. 
 
 The post-house of Pasoilske was all alive at an early hour 
 on the 11th of October. Cart-loads of wood were piled on the 
 fires. All the samovars were in requisition at once, and the 
 company waited patiently, or impatiently, for their turn to 
 come, for a Eussian is very useless until he has guzzled three 
 or four tumblers of tea. The " postilions," as they call the 
 soldiers who travel with the mail-bags, and other hangers-on, 
 generally came off best. Their instinct leads them to make 
 friends with kitchen-maids, and the kitchen being their 
 centre of attraction, it goes hard if they don't get their tea 
 in good time. 
 
 The kitchen was the only place where one could get a 
 wash, which is a difficult operation to the unskilful. No 
 basin is provided, but an urchin, or a robust maiden, holds a 
 pitcher of water, the contents of which you receive by instal- 
 ments in the hollow of your two hands, and with good 
 management you succeed in getting a few drops to your face. 
 
 While we were all stretching our necks to catch a glimpse 
 of the steamer, every moment expected to heave in sight, an 
 officer gave us the valuable hint that our tarantass could not 
 be embarked at Pasoilske, there being no boat there capable 
 of conveying it to the steamer. This was unwelcome intelli- 
 gence to receive at the eleventh hour, but it was confirmed 
 by the post-master who, however, had told us a different 
 story the night before.
 
 Chap, xiv.] THE BAIKAL MARINE. 235 
 
 The " shipping port " was nine versts further south, and 
 thither we had to transport our carriage. It was off the 
 governinent post-road, and private horses had to be hired at 
 rather an exorbitant rate. But there was no time to lose, and 
 the Russian had us on the hip, an advantage which none 
 know better how to turn to account. The road runs along a 
 narrow sand-sj)it between the Baikal and the inner lagoons. It 
 is very heavy, and the water has broken in on it in some 
 places. The sand-spit runs out to a point forming a sheltered 
 harbour inside for vessels of light draught. The entrance 
 round the point has a shoal sand-bar, somewhat dangerous, 
 running across it. Several Russian barges, rigged very much 
 like Japanese junks, with one enormous mast placed near 
 the centre of the vessel, and of about 150 tons burthen, lay 
 aground discharging their cargoes on the shore. Several 
 more were lying at anchor in the harbour. These vessels are 
 of the rudest construction, and the most primitive model — 
 very short, enormously high-sided, and of great beam. They 
 have preposterously large rudders like the Chinese and 
 Japanese junks. Their "lines" are so imperfect that no 
 ordinary rudder would steer them. They must be incapable 
 of any nautical movement except running before the wind. 
 They carry large crews, chiefly Bouriats. Their heavy main- 
 sail and rudder necessitates plenty of hands, and when in 
 harbour (where they seem to spend most of their time) the 
 large crew is useful in loading and discharging cargo. 
 
 When we consider the kind of craft, and the quality of 
 their crews, by which the Baikal has been navigated, it is easy 
 to account for the terrible stories of the storms that fre- 
 quently spread destruction over the surface of the lake. That 
 the lake, like other lakes similarly shut in by high moun- 
 tains, is subject to sudden and violent storms, fraught with 
 danger to crazy barks and unskilful navigators, there can be 
 no doubt ; but we had occasion to observe that a very gentle
 
 236 SIBEPvIAN ROUTE FROM REKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xiv. 
 
 zephyr indeed is accounted a storm on the Baikal. It is said 
 that a peculiar phenomenon is sometimes observed in the 
 lake, — a wave, or succession of waves, bubbling up from the 
 bottom in the calmest weather as if moved by submarine in- 
 fluences. But it is not likely that this, or other anomalous 
 convulsions in the waters of the Baikal are of frequent occur- 
 rence. But, although such phenomena have no doubt for- 
 tified the popular superstitious dread with which the lake is 
 reo'arded, it is of the wind-storms that the Russian sailors and 
 travellers are so apprehensive. 
 
 There is only one house at the port, which belongs to the 
 company who own the steamers, as also many of the sailing 
 craft that cross the lake. In the house we met but one tra- 
 veller, all the others having stopped at Pasoilsk^ to join the 
 steamer there. There was a large concourse of people, how- 
 ever, engaged in landing and shipping cargo, and the scene 
 was most animated. The sand-flat was covered with mer- 
 chandise, in bales done up in cow-hides, casks, and all manner 
 of packages — that from the west waiting to be carted away to 
 the post-road for China or the Amoor river, — and eastern 
 jDroduce, principally Chinese, waiting vshipment. The people 
 moved about with more business-like energy than we had yet 
 observed amongst Russians. The whole traffic with the 
 Amoor crosses the Baikal here, as does also that with the 
 south-eastern provinces of Siberia, which includes all Russian 
 trade with Chifia, excepting what finds its way to Semipala- 
 tinsk, further west on the Khirgis steppe. Large caravans 
 of one-horse carts, laden with merchandise, are constantly 
 met with on the post-road. The heavy portion of the trade 
 naturally goes eastward, for all the clothing, all the luxuries, 
 and much of what may be considered the necessaries of life of 
 the Siberian cities, are supplied from Western Russia. Siberia 
 has not much to send in return, except furs, the precious 
 metals, and Chinese produce.
 
 Chap, xiv.] ENGINEERING ENTERPRISE. 237 
 
 While we were waiting for the arrival of the steamer, we 
 were roused by a wild kind of chant outside, and presently a 
 procession of three Russian priests, with long hair and long 
 beards, came into the room where we were sitting, and after 
 doing reverence to the picture of the saint, stuck up in a 
 corner of the room, they besprinkled the apartment with 
 holy water, and retired. It was Sunday, and this imposing 
 ceremony served to remind the Russians of that circum- 
 stance. 
 
 An officer from the Amoor country showed us great civility 
 here, and made the time pass very pleasantly. He was worn 
 with hard travelling, having ridden a long distance through 
 forests where no proper road had yet been made. The usual 
 way of travelling up the Amoor is by steamer, as far as the 
 navigation is practicable, which is as high as the junction of 
 the Shilka. But the steamers often tow huge barges, laden 
 with grain, which greatly retards their progress, and besides, 
 they are almost constantly breaking down. So that, where 
 time is important, the shortest way is to ride until the 
 regular post-road is struck. 
 
 This gentleman gave us some interesting information 
 regarding the new road now being constructed by the govern- 
 ment from Irkutsk to Kiachta, round the south end of Lake 
 Baikal The present route across the lake is very inconve- 
 nient, and not always safe. In summer and winter the com- 
 munication by the lake is pretty regular ; but during the inter- 
 regnum between the seasons it is very uncertain. When ice is 
 forming on the lake it is always doubtful whether the steamer 
 can cross with safety, and she is probably laid up for the 
 winter sooner than is really necessary, from fear of being 
 nipped by ice. Again, when the ice is melting, it would be 
 hazardous to leave on the surface the post-stations which are 
 used in winter traffic, for on such a large sheet of water, exposed 
 to gales of wind, the ice may break up suddenly when thaw
 
 •23S SIBEEIAX P.OL'TE FROM PEKIXG TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xiv. 
 
 has once set in. This has actually happened : on one occasion 
 a sudden break-up in the ice submerged a post-station with 
 all the men, horses, &c., belonging to it. Thus the post esta- 
 bbshments will generally be cleared off in spring, some time 
 before the navigation is open. The inconvenience of depend- 
 ing on this one route for the transport of merchandise and 
 gold has long been felt by the government, but the nature of 
 the country on the southern shores of the Baikal presents 
 almost insuperable ditficulties to road-making. The pre- 
 cipitous mount-ain ranges in that region are at present impas- 
 sable, except on foot or horseback, and dangerous even then. 
 Our informant once tried it in winter, and had to abandon his 
 horse to perish in the snow, saving his own life with diffi- 
 culty. The road now being made is scarped out of the rock 
 in the same wav as the one I have described in the gorge in 
 the Selenga valley. It is only worked at in winter when the 
 peasants are frozen out of the mines and fields. One of the 
 means employed to split the rocks, is to make enormous bon- 
 fires of trees when the temperature is very low ( — 30° to — 40° 
 Reaumur), the action of heat on the stone causing huge 
 masses to crack, and enabling the workmen to dislodge it. 
 This is necessarily a slow process. Several years have already 
 been spent on it, and a good many more will elapse before 
 the work is completed. "WTien this road is finished it 
 will materially shorten the distance between Irkutsk and 
 Kiachta. 
 
 At noon a white column of wood-smoke on the horizon an- 
 nounced the approach of the steamer, and in a couple of 
 hours she came-to off the port, dropped a barge which she had 
 towed across, and proceeded to Pasoilske to embark mails 
 and passengers. Her return was expected at 4 o'clock, but 
 she did not appear till 6. It was then getting dark, and to 
 our surprise it was unanimously pronounced too stormy for 
 us to embark that night. It was even hinted that the
 
 Chap, xit.] THE STEA3[B0AT TARIFF. 239 
 
 steamer might run across to the other side of the lake where 
 there was good shelter, and return next day to take us across. 
 It was vain for us to remonstrate against this folly, though 
 the wind Avas so light that we really could hardly tell which 
 way it was blowing — with a chorus of bawling Russians all 
 speaking at once. We had but to wait, and it was some con- 
 solation to us to hear the steamer's cable rattling through 
 the hawse-pipe. She had dropped anchor in the offing, and, 
 unless the "gale" increased, would remain there till morning. 
 
 The rates of passage by steamer across the lake are 
 eight roubles fii'st class, and five roubles deck jjassage, say 
 twenty-four and fifteen shillings respectively. Distance 
 about seventy miles. No table is kept on board. The 
 freight on oiu' tarantass was twenty roubles. Freio^ht 
 on general cargo is thirty kopeks per pood, equal to 
 sixty shillings per ton. There seems to be no fixed 
 rule as to passengers' baggage, but the agent is always 
 open to an " arrangement." We were to pay the regular 
 freight on ours, and the agent, to save himself the trouble 
 of weighing it, asked us how much we had. I forget what 
 the quantity was, but say it was ten poods. "Oh, then 
 we will call it fifteen," said the agent. Our indignation 
 was of course roused at this. We appealed to the Russian 
 officer before mentioned, who laid it on so .smartly to the 
 agent for first asking us for the weight, and then assuming 
 that we were necessarily trying to cheat him, that the 
 wretch got frightened, and took our baggage free. This 
 afforded the officer an opportunity, which the higher classes 
 in Russia never let slip, of commenting on the low state of 
 Russian moraUty, that is, of the merchant and moujik class, 
 as distinguished from nous autres. 
 
 In tlie early morning the hive was all animation again. 
 The clumsiest of boats were manned by crowds of Bouriats, 
 with short paddles, to tow out to the steamer two of those
 
 240 SIBERIAN EOUTE FliOM TEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cn. xiv. 
 
 huge barges that were lying in the harbour. The steamer 
 was unable to approach nearer the shore than half a mile, 
 owino- to the shoalness of the water. The towing business 
 pays the steamer well, and there are always numbers of 
 sailing craft waiting at both ends for their tm-n to be towed 
 across. Time is no object with them, and they miss many 
 opportunities of sailing over with a fair wind, while waiting 
 for the steamer to tow them. The trade is highly remune- 
 rative, as at present conducted, but it would pay much 
 better to keep a smart steamer running regularly with mails 
 and passengers, and a good tug to do nothing but tow 
 baro-es. Half the number of these would then do as much 
 work as the whole fleet does at present. A little healthy 
 competition would work great results, but the Russians are 
 fonder of combinations and monopolies than competition. 
 
 When the two barges had got their hawsers on board the 
 steamer, one of the boats embarked our tarantass and our- 
 selves, with a few other passengers who had turned up, and 
 by eight o'clock we stood on the deck of the General 
 Karsakof, so named after the present governor-general of 
 Eastern Siberia. She is a rare specimen of naval archi- 
 tecture, and might have been built any time the last hundred 
 years. Roughly put together, clumsy and unshapely, she 
 would be a curiosity in any other part of the world ; and for 
 dirt 1 am certain she has not her match. The engines, 
 which are of fifty horse-power, are the only redeeming 
 feature in the vessel. They were made by an Englishman 
 in Western Siberia. It is no doubt a great thing to have 
 floated a steamer at all on the Baikal lake, but while they 
 were about it the builders might have produced something 
 more ship-shape. The General Karsakof and her sister 
 ship are coining money for their owners, however, and they 
 have no reason to be dissatisfied with their property. 
 
 We made but slow progress with the two lumbering barges
 
 Chap, xiv.] LAKE BAIKAL. 241 
 
 in tow. There was a slight head wind at first, and our speed 
 was about one mile per hour. Latterly the barges made 
 sail, and we got on better. 
 
 Our course lay obliquely across the lake, about W.S.W. 
 towards Listni-nijni at the head of the lower Angara. Had 
 the weather been less severe we should have been tempted 
 to keep the deck, and enjoy the sublime scenery with which 
 we were surrounded. Both shores of the lake are very 
 mountainous, those on the south-eastern side being highest, 
 and covered with snow down to the water's edge. There 
 was very little snow on the western side, the snow showers 
 up to that time having been very slight and partial. The 
 water of the lake, away from land, is of a very deep blue, 
 almost black. Its depths have never been fathomed, probably 
 from the want of proper tackle, for I am not aware that 
 any ocean-sounding apparatus has ever been used on the 
 Baikal. It has been said, I know not on what authority,, 
 that "no bottom" has been found at three thousand fathoms; 
 but much that has been said of the Baikal is exaggerated, 
 and I greatly doubt whether such a dej)th has been satis- 
 factorily established. I Avas informed by a gentleman on the 
 spot, personally acquainted with that part of the country, 
 that the deepest soundings yet obtained in the lake wei-e 
 two hundred fathoms, and that beyond that depth nothing- 
 was known. It is only in a few places where soundings 
 have not been taken. 
 
 The lake is over 300 miles in length, averaging about 
 thirty in breadth; it covers a surface of 11,000 square miles, 
 and is 1300 feet above the sea level. It is fed by two 
 considerable rivers, the Little Angara on the north, and the 
 Selenga on the east. It has only one outlet, the Great 
 Angara, on the west, which drains the waters of the lake 
 into the great river Yenisei, and that again into the Frozen 
 Ocean. It is estimated that the water so drained. out of the
 
 242 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Oh. xiv. 
 
 lake does not amount to more than one-tenth of the quan- 
 tity poured into it. This estimate may be a little wide of 
 the mark, but there ca,n be no doubt of the fact that the 
 lake receives a large surplus of water above what it gives 
 out, Avhich the quantity lost by evaporation must be utterly 
 inadequate to account for. The level of the water fluctuates 
 only a few feet between seasons. 
 
 Baikal is a Mongol name. In saintly Russia it is called 
 the Holy Sea, and among the peasant navigators it is con- 
 sidered high treason to call it a lake. 
 
 So much for the much be-written Baikal. To return to 
 the General Kavsakof. She is piifiing and spluttering, with 
 no apparent result but the rapid diminution of the pile of 
 firewood which cumbered her deck. The passengers, mostly 
 on deck, wrapped in huge furs, sit patiently wherever sitting- 
 room can be found, facing the keen air with unruffled 
 equanimity. Their noses look a little blue, but what of 
 that ? — every other portion of their body is warmly covered. 
 The saloon, so called, is under deck, cold and cheerless. It 
 was occupied by a few Russian officers and ourselves, who, 
 between intervals of sleep, called for the samovar, and 
 sipped tea ad libitum, the only kind of entertainment the 
 steamer seemed capable of providing. All travellers in 
 Russia carry their own tea and sugar. 
 
 I presume some one navigated the steamer, but I never 
 could discover who occupied this important post. She was 
 steered mostly by Bouriats, who take it very easy, sitting all 
 the time on neat little stools to that end provided. 
 
 We succeeded eventually in reaching the western shore. 
 We were eighteen hours crossing, the distance being seventy 
 miles. A good little harbour, with deep water, shelters 
 the steamers at Listni-nijni. A pier has been built for the 
 vessel to go alongside, and everything would be perfect were 
 the easterly shelter a little more complete.
 
 Chap, xiv.] CUSTOM-HOUSE APPARITION. 243 
 
 The captain of tlie steamer now appeal's on the scene to 
 superintend the disembarkation. He is charged by govern- 
 ment with the examination of the padaroshnas of passengers, 
 which gives the authorities a check on any unauthorised 
 persons going about the country. 
 
 It was 3 o'clock, and a bitterly cold morning, when we 
 landed in the government of Irkutsk, but, as the steamer 
 had been expected, there was no difficulty in getting horses 
 at the station. A few versts beyond the station we observed 
 a great bonfire blazing on the road-side, and certain wild- 
 looking fissures gliding about between the fire and a small 
 hut close by. On reaching the spot, we detected a black 
 and white bar suspended across the road, intimating that 
 we were under arrest for the time being. The unearthly 
 figures that reflected from their faces the fitful glare of the 
 burning logs resolved themselves into men, clad in the grey 
 great-coat of the Russian soldiers. Our luggage, it seemed, 
 had to be examined here, which involved the torture of 
 turning out of our warm berths. The officials were inexo- 
 rable. Not knowing who was chief, — for as usual they all 
 spoke at once, and every one seemed more officious than 
 another, — we did not know whom to bribe ; and, after turning 
 out of our tarantass, we were not at all in a humour to 
 bribe anybody. The officers of the customs, for such we 
 assumed them to be, took plenty of time to turn over our 
 boxes before opening any of them, but finding at last that 
 the coveted coin was not forthcoming, they opened one or 
 two jDackages for form's sake, repacked them, and performed 
 the ceremony of putting a seal on them. We were then 
 furnished with a certificate, which we were instructed to 
 produce at Irkutsk, failing to do which it would be the 
 worse for us. We never did produce it, and never were 
 asked for it. Indeed this was the first and last time our 
 baggage was looked at during the whole journey through 
 
 R 2
 
 244 SIBEEIAX EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xiv. 
 
 Siberia aud Russia. The other passengers by the steamer 
 came up after us, and passed the barrier without stopping. 
 We should have done the same, no doubt, had we been 
 better acquainted with the language. 
 
 The country west of Baikal, like that east of Baikal, is a 
 vast forest, but not so mountainous. Between the lake and 
 Irkutsk there is a gi-eat deal of cleared ground, and a consi- 
 derable population. The Russian cottages are bare-looking, 
 but neat and substantial. Their cattle-yards are mere open 
 wooden palings, unsheltered and dreary-looking. 
 
 The road runs along the right bank of the Angara, the 
 river that runs out of Lake Baikal, and falls into the Yenisei, 
 about 1200 miles below Irkutsk. The water of the Angara 
 is perfectly clear. 
 
 From the Baikal to Irkutsk we pass through a very fine 
 country, whether regarded from a tourist or agricultural 
 point of view. The cleared portion is in an advanced state 
 of cultivation, carefully fenced, and very fertile. The people 
 have more of the appearance of men who mean to make a 
 living out of the soil, than any we had seen further east. 
 The bold mountain scenery of the envii-ons of the lake has 
 disappeared, giving place to richly-wooded undulating hills, 
 which are shown to great advantage by the intervals of vil- 
 lages and 23loughed land. The rapid river flowing between 
 steep banks, generally covered with trees or brushwood down 
 to the water's edge, works its way circuitously through the 
 hills, and gives a finish to as fine a bit of scenery as can 
 anywhere be seen. 
 
 The road to Irkutsk is in capital order. Our horses were 
 good, and our yemschiks willing, and by 11 o'clock we had 
 rattled over the forty miles between the BaikpJ and Irkutsk. 
 This distance is divided into three stages. At the last station 
 the post-master was a German, of a Jewish cast of face, who 
 seemed to be hired to tout for the Amoor Hotel in Irkutsk,
 
 Chap, xiv.] RIVAL HOTELS. 245 
 
 which is the most popular with strangers. We had been 
 specially warned against this establishment, and had the 
 address of another, Metzgyr by name, which our yemschik 
 pretended to know, and we started on our last stage with the 
 understanding that we were to be conveyed to Metzgyr 
 Hotel.
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 IRKUTSK. 
 
 The sun shone brightly on the domes and cupolas of 
 Irkutsk when they burst on the view; the effect of the 
 dazzling white walls and bright green roofs of the churches 
 was strikingly beautiful. Before entering the town, our 
 yemschik descended from the box, and tied up the bells 
 of the horses, in deference to a municipal law of the town, 
 and in mercy to the inhabitants. 
 
 The streets of Irkutsk are straight, wide, and well kept. 
 Indeed the main streets are too wide, and have always a 
 more or less desolate ajapearance. 
 
 Our yemschik was again catechised about Metzgp- Hotel, 
 but, after all, drove us into a hotel which, after unloading 
 our gear, turned out to be the Amoor. The combined action 
 of tAVO conspirators was too much for us, and we had but 
 to make the best of our situation. We were indeed too 
 travel-worn to be particular about our quarters. A room 
 was allotted to us, facetiously said to contain four bed- 
 chambers. On inquiring for the said chambers we were 
 pointed by the maltchik (boy) to certain corners and re- 
 cesses, in which, by skilful dove-tailing, it was certainly 
 possible to find sleeping-room for four people. Beds there 
 were none, but there was a good solid floor, a plain hard 
 sofa, three chairs, and a table. There was no fire-place in 
 the room, the temperature being kept up by blazing fur- 
 naces opening in the corridor. The windows were hermeti-
 
 Chap, xv.] SIBEEIAN DISCOMFORTS. 247 
 
 cally sealed for the winter. Our first and last sensation, 
 during our occupancy of that apartment, was suffocation, 
 only to be relieved by active out-door exercise. The 
 room was adorned by a few pictures, and a large placard, 
 framed and hung up in a conspicuous place, advertised the 
 'prix-courant of liquors, cabs, billiards, and viands. Here 
 we found cotelettes and bifsteks, admirably adapted to the 
 Russian spelling. 
 
 The attendance was of a very mean order. An unkempt 
 urchin in tattered habiliments, did the duty of maid-of-all- 
 work, always in the way when not wanted, now and again 
 disturbing the time-honoured dust of our fusty chamber by 
 besoms and dish-cloths, but never to be found when he was 
 required. No bells are provided for the convenience of 
 visitors, and you may roar yourself hoarse with cries of 
 maltcJtiJc or tchelavek! before any one will deign even to 
 answer sey tchass! This word, literally interpreted, means 
 directly, but it may be more practically translated to-mor- 
 row, or next week, or when convenient. It is only thrown 
 out to allay your impatience, and keep you in play while 
 the tchelavek is eating his dinner, or gossiping with the 
 cook. No progi'ess can be made till you have discovered 
 his retreat, when the d posteriori argument of boot leather 
 may be applied with good effect. This is the only form of 
 entreaty that can impress a low Russian with respect, and 
 one application will generally suffice. 
 
 All things considered, there is not much to complain of in 
 the culinary department, but the service is enough to blunt 
 the keenest appetite in the world. Everything is cold, dirty, 
 and miserable. A good beefsteak is put on the table hot, but 
 you have to wait twenty minutes for something to eat with 
 it; then knives and forks are wanting, and when you flatter 
 yourself all is in order, and you begin your dinner, salt is 
 found to be missing. All that can be tolerated, but oh take
 
 248 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cn, xv. 
 
 care of the eggs ! In Siberia they keep a stock of these in 
 a fossil state for the entertainment of the unwai-y, for pro- 
 bably no Russian would be so green as to ask for them. At 
 first we doubted whether Russians recognised any difference 
 between a new-laid egg, and one that had been addled for six 
 months. But, whatever their own proclivities may be, they 
 do know a fresh egg when they see it. We succeeded at last 
 in getting some only " suspicious," by taking hold of the boy 
 in a menacing manner, and vowing that we would dash in his 
 face every bad egg he should bring to us. 
 
 In a building separate from the hotel is a dining-room and 
 tap-room, as also a billiard -room, with two tables. This part 
 of the establishment is almost entirely monopolised by mili- 
 tary officers, who play billiards all the morning, dine at the 
 table d'hote at 2 o'clock, and continue billiard-playing all the 
 afternoon. Their billiard-cues have no leather tij^s, and the 
 one table we attempted to play on was so uneven, from about 
 twenty patches in the cloth, that we soon tired of seeing the 
 balls steeple-chasing across the table. The dining-room is a 
 large oblong, the walls covered with j)ictures of gentlemen in 
 cocked hats and epaulettes, in a very low gaudy style of art. 
 In the centre of one wall is a full-length portrait of the pre- 
 sent emperor, which, with all its artistic defects, is neverthe- 
 less a fair likeness of his Imperial Majesty. The Russians 
 are a loyal race, and naturally fond of pictures, whether of 
 saints, or tsars, or heroes. 
 
 At the Amoor Hotel, I was greatly pleased to meet a friend 
 and countryman who was travelling from St. Petersburg to 
 China. The effect of this unexpected meeting was exhila- 
 rating, and I don't know whether it gave us most pleasure to 
 recount the circumstances of our journey from China, or to 
 hear our friend's experiences of that part of the road home- 
 wards which still lay before us. We certainly had no com- 
 fortable news to give each other. In exchange for the
 
 Chap, xv.] RESOURCES OF IRKUTSK. 249 
 
 horrors of the road through Western Siberia, we threw in the 
 picture of what a month's ride across the Mongolian steppes 
 in November would be. 
 
 Irkutsk is a towTi that will bear a close inspection. The 
 houses are all large, and as handsome as wooden buildings 
 can well be made. The sombre hue of the external walls is 
 the only unsightly feature about the place ; but the general 
 aspect of the to^vn is so well relieved by the numerous hand- 
 some ■ churches and other public buildings, that the whole 
 effect is pleasing. The streets are adorned with many fine 
 shops, where every European luxury is obtainable for money. 
 Tailors and milliners are very fond of parading flourishing 
 sign-boards in French, and even in that remote corner of the 
 world, Paris is looked to as the seat of fashion. The gostin- 
 noi-dvor is well supplied with all the staple articles of mer- 
 chandise, including every variety of fur. We purchased very 
 good Congou tea in the bazaar at 1 ruble 85 kopeks per 
 pound, equal to four shillings. 
 
 Bakers are in great force in Irkutsk, many of them Ger- 
 mans. Frantsooski Jdileh (French bread) is all the rage in 
 Siberia, and this sign is adopted by all bakers indiscrimi- 
 nately. The " French bread " is simply white bread made 
 into rolls. It is very good, and being unobtainable in the 
 country villages, travellers carry a supply with them from 
 one town to another. 
 
 The tobacconists of Irkutsk are famed in Eastern Siberia 
 for their " papiros," or paper cigars, which they make out of 
 Turkish tobacco. The Russians, almost without exception 
 of age or sex, smoke quantities of tobacco in the shape of 
 papiros. In Irkutsk itself, however, " Moscow " is considered 
 a better brand for papiros than " Irkutsk." 
 
 The prison occupies the corner of two streets. It has one 
 iron-grated window facing the street, at which the prisoners 
 are always to be seen clamouring for alms. The Russians are
 
 250 SIBEEIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xv. 
 
 very charitable and give a great deal to these prisoners. It is 
 very common also in the streets for passers-by, especially old 
 ladies, to stop the convicts who are employed under a guard 
 of Cossacks in carrying water, &c., and give them money. 
 This is so much a matter of course that when any well- 
 dressed person, suspected of being charitably disposed, is 
 seen approaching a convict, the Cossacks halt by instinct. 
 
 Every resident in Irkutsk who can afford it keejDS a car- 
 riage. Their horses are very showy in harness, and there 
 are enough of them generally to be seen in the street to be 
 an ornament to the place. The droshky service is also very 
 good. The drivers always go fast and their horses are gene- 
 rally fresh and fiery. 
 
 There are several good libraries in Irkutsk, branches of 
 scientific societies, a theatre, a newspaper, and other concomi- 
 tants of cultivation. On the whole, I confess that my pre- 
 conceived notions of Siberian life proved utterly fallacious. 
 I had pictured to myself a barren, inhospitable climate, unfit 
 for the habitation of any except those who were compelled 
 by law to exist there, and who necessarily had to suffer every 
 privation. Instead of that, I found settled communities, not 
 only enjoying all the amenities of civilised life, but living in 
 expensive luxury, and many of them in extravagance. 
 
 Irkutsk, like most other Siberian towns, is named after a 
 river. It has a settled j)opulation of 23,000, but in winter, 
 when the gold-washing ceases, the population is swelled by 
 the addition of about 4000 miners, who pass the winter in 
 town, and manage to spend every farthing of their earnings 
 before the mining season comes round again. The town 
 derives great importance from its being the residence of the 
 governor-general and the capital of Eastern Siberia, which not 
 only includes the Amoor country, but that large tract recently 
 acquired from China, and now called Primorsky, or the Mari- 
 time Region. The heads of the police, military, financial, and
 
 Chap, xv.] THE VICE-ROYALTY. 251 
 
 post departments, have their offices in Irkutsk, which not 
 only gives a tone to society, but keeps a large substratum 
 of subordinate officers, with their families, about the place, 
 and indirectly tends to promote the general prosperity. An 
 archbishop also resides in Irkutsk. 
 
 On the second day of our stay in Irkutsk we visited the 
 governor-general, and made the a,cquaintance of the chief of 
 police, who put our papers in train. The governor-general 
 holds a levee once a week, which hajDpened to be on the day 
 of our visit. About twenty persons in full dress presented 
 themselves, including a number of officers, among whom we 
 recognised with difficulty some of our late fellow-travellers. 
 A number of peasants were assembled in the hall long before 
 the appointed hour. They wore the most woe-begone vi- 
 sages, and each seemed to have his own special gi'ievance. 
 Each was armed with a scroll of paper, probably a petition, 
 that he had got some one to write for him. These petitions 
 were being patiently examined by an aide-de-camp, who 
 seemed to decide on which were fit to be presented to his 
 chief. The governor-general of Eastern Siberia has no sine- 
 cure. He has on his shoulders the affiiirs of a region larger 
 than the whole of Evu^ope, and which is yet but in the 
 infancy of its development. The population is certainly 
 scant, but it is composed of heterogeneous tribes, and the 
 mere scarcity of population enhances the difficulty of general 
 progress. A scattered population is, ipso facto, deprived on 
 the one hand of the great stimulant to improvement which 
 rivalry imparts to large communities, and on the other, of 
 the facilities for carrying out the aspirations after better 
 things which it may have. These disadvantages are a 
 serious obstacle to any people, but to a race not naturally 
 progressive, they are doubly so, Russia is not one of those 
 countries where government ought to hold aloof from the 
 affairs of the people. It may greatly err in doing too much ;
 
 252 SIBERIAJT EOUTE FEOM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cn. xv. 
 
 but something it must do if Russia is to follow even at a 
 great distance in the march of development. The people 
 will not put the government in motion, but the government 
 must lead the people in every step. In Eastern Siberia there 
 is vast scope for the energy of a man of administrative 
 ability and singleness of purpose. Untold wealth lies under 
 its soil. With its iron and coal and lead, and the natural 
 fertility of a large portion of its soil, it might by well-directed 
 enterprise, become to a great extent independent of the 
 world ; while the fine rivers that traverse the country offer 
 means of water-communication perhaps unequalled, certainly 
 unsurpassed, in any other country. Very much has been done 
 of late years to utilise these natural j)iivileges ; but much 
 more remains to be done. And it depends gi'eatly on 
 the governor-general, whose vice-regal power is almost as 
 absolute as the sway of the Tsar himself, whether the 
 commercial and productive resources of those regions will 
 continue to develop under the same enlightened impulse 
 as heretofore. 
 
 Another element of the importance of Irkutsk is to be 
 found in the circumstance that it is the commercial centre of 
 Eastern Siberia. The houses of business of the out-stations, 
 such as Kiachta, have mostly their head-quarters in Irkutsk. 
 It is the principal depot on the highway between Western 
 Russia, and China and the Amoor provinces ; and a great deal 
 of wealth has been accumulated there by persons engaged in 
 trade. 
 
 The manufactures of this place, and indeed of Siberia gene- 
 rally, are insignificant and hardly worth alluding to. Manu- 
 factures of all kinds in Irkutsk employ a few hundred work- 
 men, the principal works being in leather and soap. In a 
 country so rich in minerals this need not be so. It only 
 needs an enterprising population to turn the resources of the 
 country to account, and cheapen many of those articles of
 
 CiiAr. XV.] SOCIETY AND EDUCATION. 253 
 
 daily consumption wliicli the Und carriage from Europe 
 makes so exorbitantly daar in Siberia. 
 
 This, and the other great towns in Siberia, are well pro- 
 vided with educational institutions, and every good family 
 employs private tutors and governesses. Education is prized 
 by the higher classes, but utterly neglected by the lower, 
 which include, generally speaking, the merchants. The 
 society of Siberia is, on the whole, as good as in Russia 
 proper. The higher class are generally of the Russian no- 
 bility, who, either to retrieve their broken fortunes, or with a 
 view to more rapid advancement in rank, go out to Siberia 
 to fill high official stations. Three, and in some cases two, 
 years of public service in Siberia count for five years in 
 Russia. There are other inducements to men of rank and 
 intelligence to seek their fortunes in Siberia, among which 
 may be named the greater scope for ambition which a half- 
 settled country affords, and the freedom from the curse of 
 cliques and intrigue which exist in Petersburg, and which 
 only a few can hope to turn to their own advantage. A 
 man's individuality counts for more in a country where he 
 meets few of his peers, and that consideration may possibly 
 weigh with some of them. 
 
 Many of the j)roprietors of gold-diggings are scions of the 
 highest class of Russian aristocracy. These, and most of the 
 officials, have generally their families with them in Siberia ; 
 and although they never lose their hold of Russia, practically 
 Siberia is their home. They spare no expense in the edu- 
 cation of their children, and hence the amount of both native 
 and foreign talent that is employed in teaching. Foreign 
 artists and men of science are frequently to be met with in 
 Siberia, and are much sought after and hospitably entertained 
 in the highest circles. The educated Russians, being con- 
 scious of their native deficiencies, have a high appreciation 
 of talent, whencesoever it comes. Of late years Siberian
 
 254 SIBERIAN ROUTE FEOM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xv. 
 
 society has received large accessions of educated people in 
 the Polish political exiles, who are mostly students and pro- 
 fessors in the universities, members of the Roman Catholic 
 priesthood, and artists. 
 
 But what has done more, perhaps, than anything else to 
 give a high tone to the upper classes in Siberia, and to stamp 
 their manners with elegance, is the thirty years' residence of 
 the political exiles of 1825, so-called Decembrists. On the 
 day of the accession of the late Emperor Nicholas, a wide- 
 spread conspiracy against him was discovered before it was 
 quite ripe for action. Growing out of the general discontent 
 which had hatched the abortive plot against the life of 
 Alexander I., it assumed a definite shape and formidable 
 magnitude during the three weeks' interregnum which 
 occurred between the death of Alexander and the accession 
 of Nicholas, during which time Nicholas had been coquetting 
 with the crown, before formally intimating his acceptance of 
 it. The army was involved, and many of the officers of the 
 Imperial Guard were deeply committed. The premature 
 discovery of the conspiracy disconcerted the most active 
 leaders of the malcontents, and when the crisis came, the 
 rebellious troops were reduced by whole regiments who 
 backed out at the last moment, and the few thousands who 
 were left found themselves deserted by many of their officers. 
 The forlorn hope assembled in St. Isaac's Square on the 26th 
 of December, and the very first act of Nicholas's reign was to 
 blow the insurgents to atoms with artillery, and cut up the 
 flying remnant with cavalry. 
 
 A fearful day of reckoning followed this ill-fated attempt. 
 A searching inquiry was at once instituted, conducted by 
 commissioners. It lasted nearly half a year. Instigated by 
 fear, and the thirst for vengeance, the government in- 
 terpreted the most trivial circumstances into treason. The 
 leaders of the insurrection were mostly young men of good
 
 Chap, xv.] POLITICAL EXILES, 255 
 
 families, but they were indirectly encouraged by noblemen of 
 great wealth and power. All this was ferreted out in the 
 protracted investigation. The end of it was the capital 
 punishment of a few of the most active instigators of the 
 plot, and the exile of the rest to Siberia. 
 
 Among these exiles were many members of the highest 
 aristocracy. Their wives in mo&;t instances followed them 
 into Siberia, which they were permitted by government to 
 do, on certain conditions. One condition was, that the wives 
 of exiles should come under an obligation never to return 
 from the land of their banishment. Another was, that all 
 their con-espondence should pass through the hands of the 
 governor-general in Siberia, and the ministry of secret police 
 in St. Petersburg. This latter condition their ingenuity 
 enabled them easily to evade. These ladies, among whom 
 were princesses, countesses, and others of rank, fortune, and 
 refinement, soon began to be influential in Siberia. Their 
 husbands, who had been condemned to labour in the mines 
 for various terms, some to ten, others to twenty-five years, 
 and some others for life, were never detained much more 
 than one year at any of their penal settlements. None Avere 
 ever compelled to labour at all, except a few who were re- 
 fractory, or who had committed misdemeanours while in 
 Siberia. As time wore on, and the fury of the government 
 abated, the interest of the friends and rela^-ions of the exiles 
 induced the governor-general of Eastern' Siberia to look 
 favourably on them. They were then permitted to reside 
 in, and to register themselves as residents of, various 
 villages in the different provinces of Siberia. It was not 
 long before they were allowed to reside in the larger towns, 
 and once there, they soon built for themselves elegant houses 
 in such places as Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk, and Yeniseisk, where 
 they lived openly and in comparative comfort, and took up 
 their natural position as the ^lite of society. But though
 
 256 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cn. xv. 
 
 fortune seemed to smile on tliem, tlie exiles were politically 
 dead, that being tlie inexorable sentence of the law which 
 drove them from their native country. Children were born 
 to them in Siberia, but although they took up the position 
 in society which their birth and education entitled them to, 
 they were, nevertheless, in the eye of the law, illegitimate, 
 and incapable of enjoying any social or political rights. The 
 sins of the fathers were visited on the children to inter- 
 minable generations. Not only could the children of exiles 
 not inherit their father's hereditary titles, but they were 
 debarred even from bearing their own family name ! And 
 they inherited their parents' exile in never being permitted to 
 return to Russia. This has, no doubt, been in some instances 
 evaded, by daughters marrying Russian noblemen, and return- 
 ing to Russia under cover of their husband's names, but such 
 procedure was nevertheless strictly against the law. 
 
 Thus did the Decembrists expiate their political offences 
 in their own persons, and in their descendants', for full thirty 
 years, until the accession of the present emperor. As the 
 iron rule of Nicholas was inaugurated by an act of crushing 
 severity, so the milder sway of Alexander II. was marked at 
 its outset by an act of mercy to the exiles of his father. A 
 free pardon, with permission to return to Russia, was granted 
 to all the survivors. Their children, born in Siberia, had 
 their father's hereditary honours and full political rights 
 restored to them. It is by such measures as this that 
 Alexander II. has made his name respected and beloved by 
 bis people. 
 
 The influence of political exiles of various periods has 
 made an ineradicable impression on the urban communities 
 of Siberia, but the Decembrists, from their education and 
 polish, have certainly done most to form the nucleus of good 
 society there. 
 
 The mercantile class in Siberia, and indeed all over Russia,
 
 Chap, xv.] DISTIXCTIOX OF CLASSES. 257 
 
 stands decidedly lo-\v in the social scale. A merchant, though 
 enormously rich, and doing a very large business, is essen- 
 tially a huckster. In manners they are little removed from 
 the common peasant, from which class they have generally 
 sprung. They are for the most part illiterate themselves, 
 and, until very lately, have been incapable of appre- 
 ciating the advantages of education for their children. 
 They are widely separated from the upper classes, who 
 regard them with unmixed contemj)t. The line of distinc- 
 tion between the nobility and the substrata of society is 
 more broadly drawn in Eussia than in any other country, 
 excepting in the empire of Japan, where, however, the 
 mercantile, and classes in our estimation below them, are 
 well educated. This distinction of ranks is undoubtedly a 
 relic of barbarism, but whether the mean tastes of what ought 
 to be the middle classes in Russia be the cause, or the effect, 
 of their relatively low status in society, they both mutually 
 act and re-act on each other as cause and effect, and so the 
 evil constantly perpetuates itself 
 
 While resting in Irkutsk, we employed ourselves casting 
 about for means of attaining the maximum of comfort, that 
 is to say, the minimum of hardship, for the remaining part 
 of the journey. We had learned the mode of travelling, 
 and thought we knew exactly where reform could be applied 
 with most effect. The greatest annoyance the traveller 
 experiences in Russia and Siberia, is the necessity of paying 
 horse hire at each station. It is bad enough during the 
 day, but to turn out of a warm nest two or three times in 
 a night, to banter postmasters and yemschiks, settle your fare 
 to the next station, and see that your wheels are oiled, is 
 simply intolerable, especially when the thermometer is any- 
 thing you like below zero. The postmasters, with the 
 most laudable desires possible, cannot cheat you. In every 
 station is exhibited a placard, framed and -glazed, signed and
 
 258 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xv. 
 
 sealed by high functionaries, stating the distance in versts to 
 each of the tAvo nearest stations, and the fare in roubles and 
 in kopeks, which, in Eastern Siberia, and also as far west as 
 Tumen, is one kopek and a-half per verst per horse, that is, a 
 little over three farthings per mile. Besides this, you are ex- 
 pected to pay twelve kopeks, or fourpence, for oiling wheels, 
 which is necessary, on an average, at every third station. 
 Then, if you use a post-carriage, or kihitka, another fourpence 
 is due for that at every station. The drink-money, or 
 navodku, due to the yemschik, must on no account be for- 
 gotten, for the speed with which you will be driven on the 
 next stage will bear some proportion to the amount of drink- 
 money which you are reported to have given for the pre- 
 ceding. Money does not always procure speed, but speed will 
 always draw money. In the anxiety to award the due meed 
 of merit a nice estimate must be made of the value of the 
 service rendered, and the reward fixed at ten, fifteen, or 
 twenty kopeks, or nothing at all, as the case may require. 
 The condition of the roads and horses, over which the yems- 
 chik has no control, must be carefully weighed in this im- 
 portant calculation. But while nobody can attempt to cheat 
 you with any decent prospect of success, it is always open to 
 the station-keeper to say he has no change to give you. To 
 meet this dodge you must cany a bag of coppers, which, un- 
 less it weighs nearly a hundred weight, will not last you from 
 one toAvn to another where alone the coin is procurable. 
 Then, again, it was not to be denied that our knowlege of 
 Russian was too limited for our purpose, in the event of 
 our getting into any real difficulty, from the thousand and 
 one accidents to which travellers in such a country are 
 liable. 
 
 We contrived to magnify all these imaginary difficulties in 
 our own eyes, when a young Russian, bearing the German 
 name of his father, Schwartz, waited on us to offer his
 
 Chap, xv.] ENGAGE A PRODIGAL. 259 
 
 services on the road as far as St. Petersburg. He had 
 literally devoured his patrimony with riotous living, and had 
 been in all employments, from clerk in a government office in 
 Irkutsk, to actor in the provincial theatre, and was now bent 
 on returning to his family, like the prodigal, as he was, with- 
 out a shirt to his back. His antecedents were nothing to us : 
 seeing he was a Russian, spoKe German perfectly, French in 
 telligibly, as also a few words of English which he had picked 
 up from grooms in St. Petersburg. We settled with him 
 at once, giving him fifteen roubles down, to furnish him with 
 clothes to cover his limbs from the cold — for the rest he was 
 to work his passage to Petersburg. An agreement was duly 
 drawn up and signed, and, to conform to Russian formalities, 
 it was certified by the police, on which a special passport 
 for him was issued. When all was in order, a creditor of 
 Schwartz's appeared, and lodged a claim against him for the 
 sum of ten roubles, which we had of course to pay, or forego 
 the valuable services of the scamp. The ten roubles was 
 not very alarming, but the number of similar demands that 
 might follow, inspired us with sore misgivings on Schwartz's 
 account. The more we actually paid for him, the stronger 
 arguments we should have to go on paying. To save the 
 equivalent of the fifteen roubles we had already given him, it 
 was well worth while to pay other ten. But when we had 
 spent twenty-five roubles on him, we should only have a 
 stronger reason to pay twenty more, which, at that stage of 
 the proceedings, would be evidently throwing good money 
 after bad. After grave deliberation we determined, illogic- 
 ally as I confess, to pay the ten roubles demanded, and stop 
 there. By good luck we were not called ujDon for more 
 roubles. But our experience with Schwartz proved so unsatis- 
 factory, that it would have been an economy to pay a hundred 
 roubles to get rid of him. He was a trouble and a dead 
 loss to us from first to last. His only real use was, as a
 
 2C0 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xv. 
 
 standing butt for invective. His follies were, at tlie same 
 time, aggravating and amusing. When he left at a post- 
 station some of the things of which we had given him charge, 
 it was a solace to us to know that he had also lost an extra 
 pair of his own boots. And when we missed a preserved 
 ox tongue, which had been put into water to soak at a pre- 
 vious station, it relieved our resentful feelings mightily to 
 make Schwartz go without his dinner. 
 
 Snow fell in Irkutsk on the 17th October, and for two 
 days, sledges were at work in the streets. The sun was 
 powerful enough on the 18th to melt it a little during the 
 middle of the day. But still there was the snow, a fortnight 
 before its regular time, and we were just too late to be able 
 to get over the rivers while they were still open for boats. It 
 was an early winter in Eastern Siberia : that world-renowned 
 individual, the " oldest inhabitant," only recollected one sea- 
 son in which snow-roads were practicable in Irkutsk as early 
 as the 1st October, Russian date, or 18th, new style. 
 
 The 19th was a fine hard morning, with a sky slightly 
 overcast ; and on that day we resumed our nomad life, after 
 six days' rest. 
 
 The River Angara flows through Irkutsk, but there is only 
 a small portion of the town on the left bank. The Irkut, 
 rising in the mountainous region near Kosogol, on the fron- 
 tier, south-west of Irkutsk, falls into the Angara opposite the 
 town. The post-road crosses the Angara below the con- 
 fluence. The crossing is effected by means of a most efficient 
 floating bridge, which consists of a boat held by a strong 
 warp to an anchor dropped about 500 yards up the stream in 
 mid-channel. The slack of the warp is buoyed up by three 
 boats at equal intervals. In crossing, the boat's head is 
 pointed obliquely across the stream by means of a large oar 
 over the stern. The strength of the current does the rest. 
 The boat swinges on her anchor until she is laid alonef-
 
 Chap, xv.] THE RIVER AITGARA. 261 
 
 side the landing on the opposite bank. The boat is 
 double-bottomed, with a spacious platform on deck, and a 
 moveable rail on each side. There is room on deck for 
 three or four carriages to stand, and the passage is effected 
 without taking the horses out. The Angara flows as clear 
 as crystal out of the Baikal, and maintains its purity after 
 receiving the Irkut. It is deep at Irkutsk, and the current 
 is nearly six miles an hour. 
 
 The town again appears to good advantage from the 
 left bank of the Angara. The river banks are in them- 
 selves rather picturesque, and when the water, the pretty 
 white spires of the town, and thick woods around, are com- 
 bined in one view, the effect is beautiful, and the traveller 
 retains a pleasing impression of Irkutsk.
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 IRKUTSK TO KRASNOYARSK. 
 
 For the first two stages from Irkutsk we caught occa- 
 sional glimpses of high mountain ranges at a great distance 
 to the south-west. But the dense forest soon shut in our 
 view. The roads were tolerably good, and we rumbled along 
 expeditiously and comfortably. The country maintains the 
 same characteristics as already noted — thick woods for the 
 most part, with clear patches here and there, and villages 
 at intervals of a few miles ; while its surface is pleasantly 
 varied with hill and dale, and if only there were less forest 
 to enable one to see round him, it would be a very cheerful 
 drive. Innumerable small rivers have to be crossed in ferry- 
 boats, which help to break the monotony of the journey. 
 Reading is next to impossible on Russian roads, and the art 
 of sleeping — when there is nothing better to do — is a most 
 valuable accomplishment to the traveller. We had attained 
 considerable proficiency in this, and I have been ferried 
 across a river amid the hubbub of taking out and putting in 
 horses, and rolling the carriage into and out of the ferry- 
 boat, without suffering any interruption of a profound 
 slumber. 
 
 Being eager to make up lost time, we drove our yemschiks 
 hard with drink-money, and they certainly responded heartily 
 to the stimulant. The roads are very steep, and nothing 
 has been done in the way of cuttings or embankments. The 
 ravines have generally small streamlets running along the
 
 Chap, xvi.] POST-ROADS AND POST-HORSES. 2G3 
 
 bottom, which is ragged and broken. These are bridged over 
 in a rough-and-ready manner. But the ascents and descents 
 are fearfully steep. When a heavy carriage starts down a 
 hill with three rats of ponies in front of it, one only bearing 
 the weight of the vehicle, no earthly power can stop it. The 
 drag on the wheel is of little use. The only safety is in the 
 plan the Eussian drivers adopt of going full tilt from top to 
 bottom, to the delight of Siberian ponies — dashing over the 
 wooden bridge like madmen, and halfway up the opposite 
 hill before they draw rein. There is a fascinating excite- 
 ment about this mode of charging a ravine which kills all 
 sense of danger, except, perhaps, when the road is slippery 
 with snow, well polished with sledges. Under these circum- 
 stances it is only the more necessary to urge the beasts at top 
 speed ; but a qualm of nervousness will occasionally rise, 
 unbidden, until you have learned to confide implicitly in 
 the infallibility of the yemschiks and their high-mettled 
 steeds. 
 
 The ponies are always in prime condition for work. Little 
 or no attention is paid to them in the stable or out of it, but 
 they have always as much corn as they can eat, and they are 
 notoriously good feeders. They are capable of a great amount 
 of continuous hard work. On an average every one of them 
 travels two stages a day, both ways, for they. always return to 
 "their own station. That is equal to about forty miles with a 
 loaded carriage, and the same distance back, with an empty 
 one, on the same day. When the roads are tolerable they go 
 at a good speed. We have travelled eighteen miles at a 
 stretch within an hour and a half. The roads seldom admit 
 of this rate of travelling, however, being generally, saving the 
 bridges and the original cutting through the woods, left pretty 
 much to nature. 
 
 Along the whole length of the post-road the distances from 
 station to station are marked at every verst by wooden poles,
 
 26 i SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO RETERSBURG. [Cu. xvi, 
 
 painted black and white ; and at each station a high post in- 
 dicates the distances from the chief towns. A feeling of 
 depression always came over me on spelling out the interest- 
 ing word St. Petersburg, and finding it was more than 6000 
 versts or 4000 miles off. It was a tedious business to reduce 
 such an imposing figure as that. After Irkutsk we had got it 
 under the 6000. When wearied out with rough travelling, 
 the few versts to the next halt were painful enough, and on 
 such occasions the 5000 odd were really appalling. 
 
 We never stopj)ed by day or night, unless compelled by 
 force of circumstances. Our meals were consequently uncer- 
 tain and irregular, both as to time, quantity, and quality. At 
 most of the stations shtchee and beef could be had about 
 mid-day, though unless it was ready we did not wait for it, but 
 pushed on, trusting to what we might pick up in a chance 
 way, and having our small stock of preserved meat to fall 
 back upon, should everything else fail. Twice a day we 
 drank tea. The Russians lose a great deal of time in tea- 
 drinking at the post-stations. Give them plenty of tea, and 
 they care little for food. Indeed they encourage the habit 
 partly to blunt the appetite. It suits their constitutions, but 
 it certainly did not answer with us, to be jolted and tumbled 
 about on bad roads with a stomach full of fluid. Besides the 
 loss of time was an object to us, but of little account appa- 
 rently to the Russians. A sufficiency of solid food can be dis- 
 posed of in a very few minutes, not so boihng tea, and I 
 have constantly seen Russians slowly sijoping quarts of the 
 decoction long after their horses were ready for the road. In 
 a very cold night the hot tea is no doubt acceptable, but 
 one tumbler of hot grog is worth a gallon of tea, and occupies 
 less time and less room. 
 
 After three days and nights' travelling we arrived at the 
 Birusanskaya station, distant from Irkutsk 638 versts, or 426 
 mileSj which was very fair going, all things considered. In
 
 Chai'. XVI.] STOrPED BY ICE— THE TELEGRAPH. 265 
 
 that distance we had only passed one to'vvn — Nijni-udinsk. 
 Birusanskaya stands on the right bank of the river Birusa, 
 which, at this part of its course, divides the government of 
 Irkutsk from that of Yenisei. This river, as well as those 
 crossed to the eastward, rises in the mountain ranges near 
 the southern frontier of Siberia. They all flow northward, 
 and fall into the Angara, before its junction with the 
 Yenisei. 
 
 At Birusanskaya we were told that the river was impass- 
 able on account of the ice, and that there were no horses, 
 with a number of similar stories, more or less true. It was 
 night, and we were not the only sufferers ; so, as soon as we 
 had fairly exhausted all the persuasive means at our disposal, 
 we quietly went to roost like the rest. At 10 o'clock next 
 morning we were furnished with horses, and drove to the 
 river. It was fast freezing over, and at the regular crossing- 
 there was too much ice at the edges to admit of the ferry- 
 boat's " communicating." Another crossing had therefore to 
 be used, where there was no proper road on either side of the 
 river, and which consequently involved much loss of time. 
 On leaving the river, and before joining the post-road, a tract 
 of prairie ground had to be crossed, all holes and hillocks, and 
 anything but an eligible road for wheeled carriages. 
 
 The distance from home seemed to diminish suddenly as 
 we came in sight of the telegraph wires which had been 
 carried as far as the river Birusa. The posts were put up at 
 some parts of the road eastward. Coils of wire were lying at 
 every station, and the workmen were busy stretching and 
 carrying it on. The posts are tall rough spars, placed at 
 intervals of one hundred yards, and only two wires are 
 used. The telegraph was completed to Irkutsk in December 
 last. 
 
 A marked improvement in the roads was observable in the 
 government of Yenisei. They had been macadamised, and
 
 26G SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xvi. 
 
 although the stones had been overlaid with a coating of mud 
 during the early part of autumn, it was not so deep as to 
 become very rough with traffic. In some parts a thin cover- 
 ing of snow lay on the ground, and sledges were in use in such 
 places. 
 
 In the middle of the night (a very cold one) of the 23rd 
 October, we arrived at the river Kan, which, from the town 
 of Kansk, flows nearly west, and joins the Yenisei north of 
 Krasnoyarsk. The ferrymen were all on the opposite shore 
 with their boats, and of course asleep, and we were anything 
 but sanguine of rousing them. We called lustily, but the 
 echo of our shouts alone responded, as if in mockery. " You 
 may call spirits from the vasty deep," &c. But either we 
 must get over, or shiver on the banks of this river Styx till 
 day-light. Fortunately the yemschiks were as impatient as 
 ourselves, and possessing stentorian lungs, they plied them 
 vigorously, until at last a gruff response from the log-hut on 
 the other side was vouchsafed. Then some low mutterings 
 were heard (for the air was so still and frosty that you might 
 have heard a pin fall), then a little rumbling of oars and 
 heavy footsteps on the loose deck-boards of the ferry-boat, 
 some splashing in the water, and in due time the boat itself, 
 with the grim ferrymen in beards and sheepskins, was seen 
 approaching us. The town of Kansk is a verst and a half 
 from the ferry. The sharp air had affected all and sundry at 
 the post-station of Kansk, for a deep sleep had fallen on 
 them. With a little perseverance we knocked them up, in 
 anything btit an amiable frame of mind, and it was near 
 4 o'clock, a.m., before the sleepy yemschiks had got the 
 horses in. 
 
 We had picked up a fellow-traveller the day before, and 
 arranged to travel in company, if possible, as far as Tomsk, 
 He was carrying gold from Irkutsk to Barnaul, which is the 
 great place for smelting it. Our first introduction to him was
 
 Chap, xvi.] A NEW COMPANION. 267 
 
 at the Biriisa river, which he excited our jealousy by crossing 
 in advance of us. To get a rise out of him we promised extra 
 drink-money to our yemschik if he would pass him, which he 
 did. The Russian was annoyed at being passed, and at the 
 next station he recorded his grievances in the book kept for 
 that pui^pose. We left him there drinking tea, and soon 
 after we missed some things which we had in the huiTy left 
 behind. Our new friend came up with us at the next station, 
 and brought with him the missing articles. This began to 
 make us feel kindly to him, and as we encountered him at 
 every station, we soon got intimate, and he ended by propos- 
 ing to keep company with us, dining and drinking tea toge- 
 ther. His name was Yasil Vasilovitch Something or other (I 
 never could catch his family name), but as his talk turned 
 greatly on the charms of Barnaul, we gave him the nick- 
 name of Old Barnaul. He tried hard to speak French and 
 English, but as he had only acquired about ten words of the 
 former, and five of the latter, we could only get on with 
 a conglomeration of Russian, French, and English, or through 
 the interpretation of Schwartz. " Prendre tM — very good," 
 was about his highest effort in philology. Old Barnaul 
 talked much of San Francisco, whither he had been carried 
 as a prisoner on board H.M.S. Pique, during the Crimean 
 War. He was captured at Sitka, and after spending some 
 time at San Francisco, studying American character, and 
 acquiring his modicum of the English language, he found his 
 way back in an American vessel to Sitka. Old Barnaul had 
 a cossack in full accoutrements, i. e., armed with a long 
 sword, a most kind, good-natured Russian soldier, who 
 was infinitely more useful to us than the empty-headed 
 Schwartz. 
 
 Travelling in company has its arguments pro and C07i. 
 First, 2^'i'o — you have the chance of exciting in the respective 
 yemschiks the noble ambition of landing you first at the next
 
 263 SIBERIAN EOUTE FEOM rEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xvi. 
 
 station, by liolding out the promise to each of extra drink- 
 money if he wins. This is also exhilarating to yourself, as in 
 every stage of the journey you have the excitement of a race 
 to beguile the tedium of the way. Then, by preconcerted 
 arrangement, you determine at what station you will dine or 
 drink tea, so that whichever of you arrives first can make 
 the necessary preparations. Second, con. You throw a 
 heavier burden on the yemschiks at the stations, and thereby 
 protract the usual time required to change horses. And you 
 run the risk of stopping the whole party by the greater num- 
 ber of horses you call for all at once, for there may often be 
 horses for one traveller, where there are not enough for two. 
 On the whole, it retards progress, just as in the case of ves- 
 sels keeping company on the water, the speed obtained is 
 somewhat less than that of the slowest of the convoy. 
 
 To the west of Kansk, the country is nearly cleared of wood, 
 and is for the most part rather flat. Cultivation becomes 
 more general, and the clear view occasionally obtained over 
 the bare country, revealed many large villages dotted here 
 and there. 
 
 The wind rose early in the day, and sent a cold chill 
 through us as we drove up in its teeth. Wliile halting at a 
 station, a smart shower of snow fell, and caught our tarantass, 
 half-open in front, and face to wind. It was fast filling with 
 snow, and we rebuked Schwartz for his negligence. He at 
 once transferred the responsibility from his own shoulders, by 
 going out into the yard and kicking the first yemschik he 
 met, which seems to be the most civil kind of salutation a 
 Hussian moujik expects. When the shower stopped, it was not 
 difficult to shake out' the snow from our blankets, and what 
 was left was no great inconvenience to us, for the air M'as too 
 cold to allow it to melt. The road was kept clean by the 
 wind, which drove the snow before it like fine sand drift. But 
 the wind was a sad inconvenience to us, and this was perhaps
 
 Chap, xvi.] A STOEM ON THE YENISEI. 269 
 
 the only clay on which our heavy fur.s and blankets were 
 inadequate to retain warmth. The roads were excellent, 
 however, and we went merrily along. We found the incon- 
 venience of travelling "svith Old Barnaul, on coming to a sta- 
 tion where horses were obtainable for us, being privileged, 
 but none for him. The "cold without," and a good dinner 
 within, induced us to wait a few hours until he could get horses. 
 Besides, the Yenisei river was before us, and we were assured 
 that the passage could not be effected in such a wind. 
 
 Very late at night we reached Basailsk, a station ten 
 versts short of the Yenisei. There we remained all night, 
 and next morning drove on to the river. Here was one in- 
 stance, out of many, of the absurd situations that have been 
 chosen for many of the post-stations in Siberia, with refer- 
 ence to the rivers. The station is nearly alw^ays placed at 
 some distance from the river, sometimes only one or two 
 versts. Horses have to be harnessed and driven to the river, 
 there unharnessed again, transported across the water, and 
 put to again on the other side. This extra work and loss of 
 time would be saved by placing the station on the bank of 
 the river, and so by having one on each side, the horses need 
 never be femed over at all. 
 
 The Yenisei is a noble river, the largest in Siberia. Its 
 banks are bold, but very bare, while the lack of timber, and 
 general baldness of the country, give the scene a bleak and 
 inhospitable aspect. The sprinkling of snow that hung about 
 the crevices served to intensify the gloom. 
 
 It was questionable whether we could cross the Yenisei in 
 the face of the wind, which blew in strong gusts from the 
 north-west, but we managed to get our establishments into 
 a boat, rather small for the load she had, but quite large 
 enough for the power available to propel her. She was 
 headed straight across the stream, pulled by four men in 
 the bow, and steered by the usual rudely made oar over the
 
 270 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xvi. 
 
 stern. They made very little way with her, and when we 
 had reached the right bank of the river, we had dropped 
 about a mile down stream, A horse was ready on the other 
 side to tow the boat up to the proper landing-place. A rope 
 was joassed ashore, but before it was properly secured to the 
 horse, the end slipped, a gust of wind caught the boat, and 
 she was blown from the shore. This was too good an oppor- 
 tunity for jabbering and gesticulation to be lost on our lusty 
 crew, and accordingly to this luxury they abandoned them- 
 selves, while the unfortunate boat, bearing us, the unfortu- 
 nate passengers, was being blown out to the middle of the 
 stream by the wind, and at the same time gliding swiftly 
 down the river. When the crew had recovered themselves a 
 little, they hesitated about which shore they ought to make 
 for; and at last concluded it would be best to go back again 
 to the left bank, which we reached at a point three miles be- 
 low our original starting-place. The men landed, and went 
 to the town to fetch horses to tow the boat up again. We 
 walked to the town also to seek some shelter from the biting 
 wind, and wait the arrival of the boat. She got up at noon, 
 and we made a fresh start to cross, which was successfully 
 accomplished the second time. A used-uj) team of horses 
 awaited us, and we travelled slowly to Krasnoyarsk. 
 
 Amid a great deal of grass and waste land, the country 
 round Krasnoyarsk is well cultivated, but very bare. The 
 town is situated on a raised plateau in a large valley. Like 
 other Siberian towns its streets are wide, straight, and clean, 
 with dull-lookino: wooden houses, and handsome churches. 
 There is something incongruous in this combination. The 
 churches are undoubtedly highly ornamental to the to^\^l — it 
 would be poor indeed without them — but the contrast be- 
 tween their snow-white walls and spires, and the earth-colour 
 of the houses, is too great. They seem to have no connec- 
 tion with each other.
 
 Chap, xvl] TRAVELLERS' TALES— THE BLACK BOOK. 271 
 
 Krasnoyarsk, though the government town of Yeniseisk, is 
 comparatively a small place, its population being something 
 under 10,000. As an exception to the general rule, its name 
 is not derived from a river, but means " red cliff." 
 
 The station-master at Krasnoyarsk combines with his ofli- 
 cial duties the business of hotel-keeper, an arrangement ad- 
 mirably convenient for travellers. The station hotel is a 
 very good one from a Siberian point of view, and we were 
 induced to shake down in it for the night from a variety of 
 reasons, chiefly because we were very tired, and it was snow- 
 ing heavily. 
 
 Other travellers from the west were there at the same 
 time, and we were entertained by their accounts of the state 
 of the roads from Nijni-novgorod. It was amusing to hear 
 the different reports of travellers, and compare them. Most 
 of them were absolutely contradictory, and we were con- 
 strained to come to the conclusion that Kussian travellers fill 
 up the blanks in conversation with whatever comes upper- 
 most, without taxing their memory to the extent necessary 
 to give an accurate statement of their experience. 
 
 The amount of attention which the efficient management 
 of the hotel exacted from the landlord left him no time for 
 the duties of his less remunerative position of postmaster. 
 All the postal an-angements were in dire confusion in the 
 morning, when we wished to start on our journey, yemschiks 
 drunk, and no one at his post. We lost the whole morning 
 waiting for horses, which was so vexatious that we resolved 
 to record our complaint in " the book." At every post-station 
 a black book is kept in a corner of a room on a small table, 
 to which it is attached by a cord, and sealed. It is open for 
 public inspection, and every traveller has the privilege of 
 writing in it any grievance he may have suffered from inat- 
 tention, incivility, or unwarrantable delay on the part of 
 yemschiks or postmasters. The director-general of posts
 
 272 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKIXG TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xvi. 
 
 makes a periodical tour, and examines the black book of 
 every station. The complaints of government couriers are, 
 perhaps, the only ones that excite much attention. Every- 
 thing else in the posting system is made subordinate to the 
 rapid despatch of government intelligence. Horses can 
 never be refused to a courier on any pretence whatever, for 
 the station-keepers are obliged, at all times, to keep a certain 
 number in reserve for such emergencies. When news of 
 imiDortance has to be transmitted, it can be done with very 
 great rapidity by means of an estafette, which will carry 
 news from Kiachta to St. Petersburg, a distance of over four 
 thousand miles, in less than twenty days. 
 
 The rapidity with which the Eussian government has, on 
 certain occasions, obtained important news from China, proves 
 the efficiency of the courier service. The signing of the 
 treaties at Tientsin in 1858, and the Taku disaster in 1859, 
 were known at St. Petersburg some two weeks before the 
 official despatches reached this country. And now that the 
 telegraph has been extended to Irkutsk, the Russians receive 
 news from the Chinese commercial ports, on the direct 
 steamer route, a good many days earlier than we can, even by 
 telegraph from Suez. The capture of Nanking, for example, 
 was rei^orted in England via St. Petersburg on the 11th Sep- 
 tember, while our Suez telegram did not reach till the 23rd.
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 KRASNOYARSK TO TOMSK. 
 
 It had snowed all night in Krasnoyarsk, and sledges were 
 actively employed in the streets next day. The conveyance 
 given to us for our extra baggage was a sledge. 
 
 Old Barnaul could not get horses, so we left him behind. 
 He managed to hire private horses for one stage, and came 
 up to us at the next station. 
 
 The roads were good, but yemschiks sulky, and we were 
 driven along at a snail's pace. When drink money was 
 asked for, we upbraided the yemschik for his contumacy. 
 He appealed to the "regulations," which only authorise a 
 speed of eight versts per hour. We had nothing to object to 
 this. But as the yemschik defended himself by the strict 
 letter of the law, we could avail ourselves of it also, and there 
 was nothing about drink money in the " regulations." 
 
 The wind had fortunately subsided, but the cold was 
 intense. The country west of Krasnoyarsk continued very 
 bare. The crisp snow made travelling easy, and later in the 
 day we managed to mend our pace, making good way during 
 the night, and arriving early on the following morning at the 
 town of Achinsk, 166 versts, or 110 miles, from Krasnoyarsk. 
 There are two pretty churches in Achinsk, and the houses 
 are rather handsome for a small town of two or three 
 thousand inhabitants. It is situated near the river Chulim, 
 which trends w^estward and joins the Ob. Achinsk is the
 
 274 SIBEEIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xvii. 
 
 last town of the government of Yenisei, and also stands on 
 the boundary line between eastern and western Siberia, 
 
 The country is more woody near Achinsk, and game of 
 various kinds is abundant. We here for the first time tasted 
 the ryahchik, a bird something between a pheasant and a 
 partridge in size and in flavour. 
 
 While at Achinsk we were bluntly told we could not cross 
 the Chulim, owing to the quantity of floating ice. The river 
 is one verst and a-half from the town. The postmaster 
 offered to drive us there, but said we should have to come 
 back, unless we chose to encamp on the bank of the river. 
 When we did get there, we succeeded, after a long debate, 
 in inducing the boatmen to ferry us over. But for a full 
 hour they stoutly refused to take the tarantass. The large 
 boats had been laid aside, and smaller and more handy craft, 
 better fitted for threading their way through thick blocks of 
 ice, were being used. With patience, however, we gained our 
 point, and got tarantass and all across the river, though not 
 without considerable difliculty and danger. 
 
 We now entered the government of Tomsk, a fact of which 
 the state of the roads would have been sufficient evidence. 
 All through the government of Yenisei, a distance by our 
 route of 350 miles, the roads are well kept up, with side 
 drains and cross drains to keep them dry ; but in Tomsk 
 government the roads were far worse than nature made 
 them, for traflic had ruined them and made them all but 
 impassable. During the wet weather of early autumn they 
 had been a mass of soft mud, which was cut up by wheels 
 and horses' feet to a fearful extent. The frost caught them 
 in that condition, and the result can be more easily imagined 
 than described. The main road had been in fact abandoned, 
 until enough snow should fall to fill up the inequahties ; and 
 in the meantime by-roads had to be struck out through the 
 forest, that being the only practicable means of travelling at
 
 Chap, xvii.] NO ROADS-COLD AND WEARY. 275 
 
 all. It is considered that between the autumn and the snow 
 there are " no roads," and no Russian travels at that season 
 unless under the most urgent circumstances. In the post 
 regulations it is laid do"\vn that travellers can demand to be 
 driven at the rate of ten versts per hour in summer, eight in 
 autumn, and twelve in winter, from December to March. 
 These rates are, in practice, greatly increased in summer and 
 winter, but, in the month of October, it is hard work to 
 average even the government speed. The state of the road 
 beyond Achinsk had necessitated the subdivisioii of the 
 stages, by erecting temjDorary intermediate stations. The 
 whole of the arrangements were in confusion ; so much so 
 that after an early breakfast in Achinsk, we found no oppor- 
 tunity of dining till near midnight. 
 
 The cold continued very severe. Our freezing breath kept 
 our faces in a mass of ice, large icicles formed on the horses' 
 muzzles, and they were white all over with hoar frost, formed 
 by the perspiration freezing on their hair. Our bread, and 
 everything we had, was frozen through. 
 
 As we toiled on, painfully and slowly, on the 28th of 
 October we met travellers who assured us of the impossi- 
 bility of crossing the Kiya river at Mariinsk. We had 
 learned, however, rather to take courage from this kind of 
 Job's comfort with which we were so often entertained on 
 the road ; and we did not hesitate to advance to the river, 
 which we reached at seven in the evening. An hour sufficed 
 to persuade the ferrymen to tempt the crossing, and another 
 hour saw us over the water and in the town of Mariinsk. 
 We were fain to rest our aching bones a little, and finding 
 a very civil but garrulous postmaster, a Pole, we dined com- 
 fortably at the station, and started again at midnight. 
 
 On the preceding night we had come to grief, by the 
 wheel of our tarantass sinking into a pit that had been dug 
 for a telegraph post, and then filled with snow. With the 
 
 T 2
 
 276 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xvii. 
 
 assistance of a peasant whom chance threw in our way, and 
 a stout pole for a lever, the vehicle was extricated ; but we 
 had not gone two stages from Mariinsk before the same 
 wheel fell suddenly to pieces without any immediate pro- 
 vocation. We were a number of miles from any station 
 when this accident occurred, but the yemschik, being no 
 doubt accustomed to similar mischances in driving four- 
 wheeled carriages through tangled woods, proceeded at once 
 to put us in temporary travelling order. He cut down a 
 pretty stout tree, one end of which he laid on the axle of 
 the fore wheels, while the other end rested on the ground 
 behind the carriage. This formed a bridge for the axle of 
 the hind wheel (the broken one) to rest upon, and by that 
 simple expedient we got safely to the station, Berikulskod 
 The accident delayed us a whole day at the station. Old 
 Barnaul jDarted company with us to proceed to Tomsk, which 
 was then only 120 miles distant. On entering the village, a 
 blacksmith, spying our condition, and smelling a job, fol- 
 lowed us to the station. We settled with him to repair our 
 wheel, which was equivalent to making a new one all but 
 the tire, for the sum of six roubles, and it was finished in the 
 afternoon. 
 
 At this point we discovered that our special pass had been 
 left five stations behind us. It was a serious matter to lose 
 a document so essential to inspire postmasters with respect, 
 and we wrote to the station where we supposed it had been 
 left, requesting it might be forwarded to us. During the 
 day, however, the post from Irkutsk passed, and brought 
 us the paper, for which delicate attention we felt duly 
 grateful. 
 
 From Berikulsko^ we resumed the circuitous tracks through 
 the forest. During the night our yemschik contrived to drive 
 us up against a tree, to the irretrievable injury of the hood 
 of our tarantass. Misfortunes seemed to come thick upon us
 
 CiiAi'. XVII.] BLANK SPORT. 277 
 
 and our ill-fated tarantass. Indeed, considering the terrible 
 ordeal it had passed through, it was sui-prising that it had 
 held together so long. Apprehension is lively in the dark 
 hours, and visions of a final break down haunted us all 
 that night, as we threaded our way in the deep shade of 
 the forest, pitching and rolling like a ship in a storm. Our 
 minds were sensibly relieved on reaching the town of Ishim- 
 skaya, at daybreak on the 30th of October. 
 
 Here we found Old Barnaul and his Cossack sleeping 
 soundly on the boards. He had arrived the evening before, 
 but had allowed himself to be cajoled into resting all night, 
 and now it was too late to cross the river. The post that 
 had passed us the day before had crossed the river in a boat 
 at midnight, but since then the ice had set in so strong that 
 the passage was impossible. It was therefore necessary to 
 wait at the station till the ice on the river was strong enough 
 to bear horses and carriasfes. 
 
 The station-master was a Pole, a very good sort of fellow, 
 who would talk on any subject but Poland. He was some- 
 thing of a sportsman, possessed two old guns and some under- 
 bred pointers. His wealth consisted in three curious old- 
 fashioned watches, which he offered for sale. One was by 
 Dent, and he informed us he had bought it of a traveller for 
 125 roubles. 
 
 As the force of circumstances compelled us to spend the 
 day at Ishimskaya, we endeavoured to make the most of it, 
 and tried to induce the postmaster to accompany us on a 
 shooting excursion. This he declined, but proffered us all 
 the topographical information necessary to enable us to find 
 the game for ourselves. So armed, we plunged into the 
 woods, and beat about for hours among the snow without 
 the satisfaction of seeing a feather, or finding traces on the 
 snow of anything but vermin. "We returned about sunset, 
 tired and cold, spite of all our walking, and an irreverent
 
 278 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM REKIXG TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xvii. 
 
 magpie, on the outskirts of the town, paid the penalty of our 
 disappointment. 
 
 The delay at this outlandish place was the more vexatious 
 that it w^as within less than a day's march from Tomsk, where 
 we purposed resting a day or two to refit. On the second 
 morning we again stirred up the postmaster, but he abso- 
 lutely refused to attempt the crossing with our tarantass. 
 One traveller had come to grief that same morning trying to 
 get a carriage over the ice. We resolved, however, to go 
 without the tarantass, packing up a few necessaries in a 
 small sledge, which we had drawn over the river by one 
 horse, two more being sent from the station and put to on 
 the other side. Old Barnaul accompanied us. The tarantass 
 we left behind in charge of Schwartz, with orders to follow 
 on as soon as the ice was strong enough to bear the carriage. 
 Let it not be supposed that the same place that was open 
 for boats on the 29th of October was frozen strong enough 
 to bear horses and sledges thirty-six hours afterwards. When 
 the river is freezing the ferry is removed to some distance, 
 where a passage is kept open as long as possible by the 
 constant tralBfic of boats. During that time the usual cross- 
 ing at the post-road is left to freeze quietly, so that by the 
 time the temporary ferry is no longer practicable, the ice at 
 the regular ferry may be thick enough to bear the traffic. 
 
 Old Barnaul managed to slip on the ice and fall into a 
 hole that had been broken by the horses' feet. A more 
 miserable-looking object, on his emersion fi-om the cold bath, 
 I never saw. In the sledge his clothes became sheets of 
 hard ice, but we were, fortunately for him, delayed for want 
 of horses at the second station from Ishimskaya, so that 
 the old man had time to melt down his congealed habili- 
 ments. 
 
 A good deal of snow fell during the day, but still the 
 roughness of the road was but slightly mitigated thereby.
 
 Chap, xvii.] TPIE SIBERIAN SKY. • 279 
 
 The sledge was comparatively easy, however, the runners 
 lying on two or more hillocks at once, instead of jolting 
 up and down each separate lump, like the wheel of a 
 carriage. 
 
 During the night we were again stopped, with a number 
 of other travellers, for want of horses, and it was 3 o'clock 
 on the morning of the 1st November ere we entered on the 
 last stage before Tomsk. Our sledges were quite open, and 
 we could but abandon ourselves to the enjoyment of a night 
 scene more gorgeous than fancy ever pictured. The snow 
 had ceased falling, and the sky was clear and cloudless. Not 
 a breath of wind stirred. It was a little past full moon, and 
 the pure white surface of the ground sparkled in the bright 
 moonlight as if it had been strewn with diamonds. Some of 
 the finest constellations were high above the horizon. Orion, 
 Taurus, and Gemini were conspicuous ; and Sirius was never 
 seen in greater splendour. Towards daybreak, Venus ap- 
 peared in all her glory, and completed the most brilliant 
 group of celestial phenomena the human eye ever rested on. 
 There is a peculiar transparency in the Siberian sky, both by 
 night and by day, but it needs a still frosty night to show it 
 off to its best advantage. 
 
 Long before daylight we passed numerous trains of pea- 
 sants, with their sledges, driving towarks Tomsk with their 
 daily, supplies of provisions for the market. 
 
 Before sunrise we entered the town of Tomsk, and were 
 not sorry when Old Barnaul conducted us to a lodging-house, 
 where we could thaw ourselves and take rest. We were 
 made excessively comfortable there by the old lady and her 
 daughters. The cuisine was excellent, attendance good, and 
 charges very moderate. Our room was adorned with a num- 
 ber of pictures. Christ and the apostles, with some others 
 of saints, were most conspicuous. A view of Kazan, the 
 column of Alexander at St. Petersburg, coloured German
 
 2S0 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO RETERSBURG. [Cii. xvii 
 
 lithographs of the bombardment of Sevastopol and the 
 battle of Inkermann, and, finally, a certificate, signed and 
 sealed, purporting that the old lady had made a donation to 
 "the Church " in 1846. Great value appeared to be set on 
 this document, but whether the lady regarded her good deed 
 as laying up treasures in heaven, or thought the evidence 
 of it, given under the hands of holy men, to be proof against 
 ill luck, is not easy to say. It is difficult to separate the 
 religion of Russians from the gross superstition with which 
 it is mixed up. The upper classes, as a whole, keep aloof 
 from religious observances, while the peasant class are con- 
 stantly crossing themselves to churches and saints, and never 
 will enter a room without uncovering the head and doing 
 reverence to the picture of the saint that always faces them 
 as they enter the door. Many excellent men are to be found 
 in the Russian priesthood, but as a class they certainly do 
 not stand high. The Russian government has always used 
 the clergy to work on the illiterate masses by means of 
 their superstitious fanaticism. The cross was borne in front 
 of the troops in St. Isaac's Square when Nicholas put down 
 the insurrection of 1825. And the Empress Catherine II., 
 whose life was the reverse of all piety, invoked the protection 
 of the saints in order to excite the enthusiasm of the people. 
 The Russian jDeasants are pharisaical in their observance of 
 saints' days and fast days, but their sense of religion stops 
 there. A characteristic anecdote, illustrative of the religious 
 sentiments of the Russian moujik, was told us at Tomsk. 
 A moujik killed a traveller on the road, and robbed him. In 
 his pocket was found a cake made with fat, which the moujik, 
 being hungry, was preparing to eat, when he suddenly recol- 
 lected that it was a fast day, on which it was unlawful to eat 
 animal food. His religious creed, which placed no obstacle in 
 the way of murder and robbery, was inexorable in the matter 
 of eatins: meat on a fast dav.
 
 Chap, xvii.] THE TOWN OF TOMSK. 281 
 
 Tomsk is not equal to Irkutsk in size or population, and 
 lacks the mathematical symmetry which distinguishes the 
 latter town. The buildings in Tomsk are also less elegant, 
 but they have an air of more homely comfort than those of 
 Irkutsk. Its architectural defects are, however, amply com- 
 pensated by the superior advantages of its site, as it is built 
 upon several hills, sloping on one side to the river Tom, 
 and on the other side forming deep ravines, which gives the 
 town a picturesque and even romantic appearance. A good 
 many houses are built of brick, which the Russians call 
 stone. On the outskirts there are great assemblages of small, 
 miserable-looking, wooden huts, which help to disfigure the 
 town. The principal houses are insured against fire, and 
 the emblem of the " Salamander " Fire Office, nailed on the 
 outer wall or over the door, meets the eye everywhere. Fires 
 are by no means common, which is surprising consider- 
 ing the combustible material of which the cities are con- 
 structed, and the necessity of keeping up large fires during 
 at least six months of the year. Nor do the inhabi- 
 tants display any extraordinary caution in their habits, for 
 though smoking in the streets (where it could not possibly 
 do any harm) is strictly prohibited in Russia and Siberia, 
 smoking within doors is universally practised by all classes. 
 
 Tomsk has been considered the coldest town in Siberia on 
 the same parallel of latitude. The temperature in wanter is 
 as low as — 30° to— 40° Rdaumur ( — 35° to — 58° Fahrenheit), 
 but it is becoming milder. An English lady, who had 
 resided there a dozen years, informed us that during that 
 period a marked improvement in the climate was noticeable. 
 The extension of agriculture has probably been the means of 
 producing this change. During our stay in Tomsk the ther- 
 mometer showed-8° to-13° Rdaumur (14° to 3° Fahren- 
 heit). 
 
 Excellent water is procured from the river. Water-carry-
 
 2S2 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM TEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xvii. 
 
 iiig is quite a trade, employing a number of people from 
 morning till night. A large hole in the ice is kept open, 
 whence the water is carried up the steep bank in buckets, 
 and conveyed through the town in carts, which are kept per- 
 fectly water-tight by the thick coating of ice that accumu- 
 lates from the water dropped in filling. 
 
 All classes in Siberia are careful to cover themselves well 
 from the cold. Wealthy people muffle up in expensive furs, 
 and the peasants attain the same end by means of sheep- 
 skins or deer-skins, which cost very little. No peasant is so 
 poor as to be without very substantial gauntlets, made of 
 stout leather with some warm substance inside, which pro- 
 tect both hands and wrists. They make little of the cold, 
 however, when their avocations necessitate the endurance of 
 it. In Tomsk, for example, it is not uncommon for the 
 women to do their washing on the ice. Cutting a hole 
 with an axe, they will stand or kneel over the water till their 
 work is done, without even the appearance of hurrying. How 
 they escape frost-bite it is hard to understand. 
 
 A few boys were seen skating on the river at Tomsk, but 
 so few in number, and so grave in their demeanour, that it 
 was sad to see them. Elsewhere we had observed skating in 
 a small way, and in some villages small sledges even were 
 used as playthings for children, but all so demurely as to be 
 suggestive of the absence of real enjoyment. It may be 
 that the Siberians make little of the ice because they have 
 so much of it. But all roystering games in which the exu- 
 berant spirits of youth in other countries delight, are con- 
 spicuous by their absence in Siberia, and the genus, little hoy, 
 may almost be classed among the extinct mammals. So 
 much the worse is it for the country. The youth who grow 
 up without a taste for manly exercises are very likely, in 
 maturer years, to betake themselves to in-door recreations of 
 the most unprofitable kind.
 
 CiiAP. XVII.] GOLD AND SILVER MINES. 283 
 
 Many of the largest mining proprietors have their town 
 residences in Tomsk, and about four thousand workmen are 
 in the habit of wintering in the towns, and spending their 
 earnings there. I will here note a few particulars relative to 
 mining in Siberia, supplied by a gentleman of extensive per- 
 sonal experience in that department. Siberia is rich in 
 nearly all mineral treasures ; but little attention has been 
 paid to any but gold and silver, and even few of the latter 
 mines have been worked. The richest gold-diggings that 
 have ever been worked in Siberia are situated in the northern 
 part of the government of Yeniseisk, but they are now 
 nearly worked out. Very rich diggings, or mines, have also 
 been worked in the Altai-saian chain, or " White Mountains," 
 in the south of the same province, on the Chinese frontier. 
 Within a recent period, gold has likewise been worked in the 
 northern part of the government of Irkutsk, and in the 
 Trans-baikal regions, which have only lately been thrown 
 open to private enterprise. Within the last two or three 
 years, gold discoveries in the Amoor districts have attracted 
 thither many exploring parties, but I have not ascertained 
 what success has attended their efforts. 
 
 Gold-diggings are to be met with in nearly all the unin- 
 habited parts of Siberia. But in western Siberia the gold- 
 fields are almost worked out, so that they are now of little 
 value, and are carried on only in a small way. 
 
 In the Kirghis steppe there is one very rich silver mine, 
 called the Zmeiewskoi, the property of a private family in 
 Tomsk, the descendants of the first discoverer of gold in 
 Siberia. This gentleman turned his discovery to good ac- 
 count. He was the first who worked gold-diggings in 
 Siberia, and obtained many immunities from the govern- 
 ment, who have always eagerly promoted the working of that 
 metal. In his lifetime, he amassed a colossal fortune, and at 
 his death, left mining property of enormous value. His
 
 284 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROJI PEKIXG TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xvii. 
 
 successors, however, contrived to dissipate their inheritance 
 by various means; but tlie silver mine in the Kirghis steppe 
 has once more raised them to affluence. 
 
 The government gold, silver, copper, and iron mines are 
 worked by criminals, condemned to hard labour, after bav- 
 in"^ undergone corporal punishment for capital offences. 
 They receive no pay for their labour, but only food and 
 clothing enough to keep body and soul together. The 
 works are all under the control and management of officers 
 trained in the mine corps, called Mining Engineers. These 
 officers are strongly imbued with the national weakness 
 of peculation, and their position affords them ample 
 opportunities for promoting their own personal interests. 
 Generally far removed, in uninhabited regions, from the sur- 
 veillance of superiors, no efficient check can be put on their 
 doings. As a necessary consequence of this state of matters, 
 all government mining works are very far behind private ones 
 in machinery, and indeed in everything else essential to their 
 efficiency, and are therefore unproductive. So far from being 
 a source of revenue to the government, they are, for the most 
 part, a constant expense. These mines are all private pro- 
 perty of the Crown, and within the last five years the Empe- 
 ror, despairing of being able to work them to a profit, has 
 proposed leasing them out to private individuals, and would 
 now gladly do so were persons of sufficient capital and enter- 
 prise to come forward. 
 
 Private gold-diggings and mines, and, in a few instances, 
 silver mines also, generally situated in entirely uninhabited 
 parts of Siberia, are ceded by government to private individuals 
 on certain conditions. The applicant must be either a heredi- 
 tary nobleman, or he must have the right of doing business 
 as a merchant of the second class, and must pay the dues of 
 the second guild. The portion of ground ceded to him is 
 seven versts (nearly five miles) in length, and one hundred
 
 Chap. XVII] THE TENURE OF GOLD MINES. 285 
 
 fathoms in breadth. The pLace always chosen is along the 
 margin of a stream flowing through the mountains. Hence 
 the elongated form of the allotment is adopted, in order to in- 
 clude as much water privilege as possible. The claimant 
 may, however, if he chooses, take a greater breadth, but in 
 that case the length must be reduced so as to give the 
 same area. The river, or stream, is always included in the 
 claim, as the richest gold is often found in its bed. The land, 
 once allotted, is the property of the claimant only until it has 
 been entirely worked out, or has been thrown up and aban- 
 doned, when it reverts to the Crown. Or, if not worked by 
 the claimant at least one out of every three years, the claim 
 is forfeited to the government, who may let it out to another 
 apjjlicant. The object of the government is to promote the 
 working of gold, in order to secure the revenue from it, which is 
 of some importance, as all gold must be delivered to the mint 
 at a fixed price, which leaves a good profit to the government. 
 
 Then, as to the manner of working the mines. To get 
 at the gold-sands an upper layer of earth, varying in depth 
 from five up to thirty-five or forty feet, must be carted away. 
 On the depth and extent of earth necessary to be removed 
 principally depends the value of a gold-digging, and the first 
 business of the speculator is to discover whether the gold- 
 sands are rich enough to pay for the removal of the upper 
 strata. To ascertain this, shafts are sunk at various distances 
 over the gi'ound where the works are proposed to be opened, 
 and the exact depth of the upper layer taken. Then the gold- 
 sands are bored through, and their depth ascertained. The 
 proportion of gold contained in a given quantity of sand is next 
 ascertained. With these data, an easy calculation will show 
 the practical miner whether the claim will be remunerative. 
 
 The outlay in buildings and machinery necessary to start 
 the work is very heavy, the expense of conveying the mate- 
 rials to the spot being alone a considerable item. For what
 
 2S6 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xvii. 
 
 are considered small works, employing from four to five hun- 
 dred workmen, at least ten thousand pounds must be laid out 
 in buildings and machinery. The works require a constant 
 expense to keep up, and alterations and additions are fre- 
 quently needed. After all, the works must be abandoned as 
 valueless when the claim is worked out, or given up as unre- 
 munerative, as the cost of removing them to an inhabited 
 region would far exceed the saleable value of the materials. 
 
 Many diggings employ as many as two, and even .three, 
 thousand workmen. The largest item in the working ex- 
 penses is the wear and tear of horseflesh, and one horse for 
 every two men employed is considered necessary in the cal- 
 culation of the year's expenses. Provisions for the men, and 
 com and hay for the cattle, are brought during the winter 
 months from distances of four or five hundred versts, and do 
 not cost much. The free peasant seldom goes to work at the 
 diggings, for, if at all industriously inclined, he can earn 
 much more by agriculture at home. The workmen employed 
 at the diggings are generally convicts sent to Siberia for theft 
 and minor offences. Bad characters of all sorts, drunkards, 
 vagabonds, men who will not settle to any steady work, con- 
 victs who have paid the penalty of the law, but have not 
 found homes of their own — these are the kind of men who 
 find a refuge in the gold-diggings. When all his money is 
 gone, the digger engages himself to a proprietor for three 
 roubles per month (equal to nine shillings). This looks a small 
 sum for an able-bodied man to eara, but his regular wages is 
 a matter of minor importance to the scapegrace who thus 
 engages himself His primary object is to obtain the hand- 
 money, amounting to five or ten pounds sterling, which is 
 paid him by his employer on making the contract. Out of 
 this sum, as much of his debt is jDaid as the authorities are 
 cognizant of, and with the whole of the balance he proceeds 
 deliberately to get drunk, the extent and duration of his
 
 Chap, xvii.] WOEK AND WAGES OF THE MINERS. 287 
 
 sjpree depending solely on the amount of money in his pos- 
 session. He is then ready to proceed to the gold-works, and 
 with one or two hundred comrades, under the charge of a 
 couple of clerks, he is despatched to the scene of his labours. 
 On arriving there, the digger has invariably to be clothed 
 from head to foot by his master, and generally by the open- 
 ing of the summer months, the beginning of the gold-wash- 
 ing season, the workman has contracted a debt to his master 
 equal to twenty or twenty-five pounds sterling. The work- 
 ing-season lasts about 110 days in the year, and terminates 
 invariably on the 11-23 September. To enable the workman 
 to reduce his debt, and possibly have some money in hand on 
 receiving his discharge at the end of the season, he is hand- 
 somely paid for all extra work he may do, over and above the 
 daily task assigned to each. No holidays, Sundays, or Saints' 
 days are allowed to a workman who is in debt. The law 
 compels him to work on these days. What with compulsory 
 and voluntary labour, a workman has it in his power to earn 
 from five to seven pounds sterling per month. But he must 
 work very hard to do it. The bell is rung at half-past two in 
 the morning ; by three o'clock he must be at work, all 
 weathers. He seldom can leave off before nine in the even- 
 ing. He is allowed half-an-hour for breakfast, an hour for 
 dinner, half-an-hour for tea, and he takes his supper after the 
 labour of the day is finished. The task generally set for the 
 day is the bx'eaking up and carting away of two cubic fathoms 
 of earth to every five men and two horses. Extra work is 
 allowed up to one-half of the daily task, and for extra work 
 the workman receives pay at nearly ten times the rate of his 
 contract wages. If a workman finds a piece of gold he is 
 also paid extra for that according to its value. When not 
 working " extra," the five men are allowed to leave the 
 field as soon as their task is done, whatever hour of the 
 day it may be.
 
 288 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xvii. 
 
 The workmen at these gold-diggings are well fed, as indeed 
 their excessive labour renders it necessary they should be. 
 Each man is allowed from one pound to one pound and a- 
 half of beef per diem. This is a luxury to him, for the 
 Russian peasant at home seldom can afford to eat meat 
 except on great holidays. Salt, buckwheat or other grain, 
 and as much bread as he can eat, are daily issued to the 
 workman. His lodging is made as comfortable as possible, 
 every care being taken to have the barracks dry, warm, and 
 well ventilated. Their health is also in a general way well- 
 cared for. Every gold-digging has a fully equipped hospital, 
 with a superintendent in charge, who must have some 
 medical knowledge. A qualified surgeon either resides on 
 the premises or on a neighbouring establishment, his services 
 being paid for jointly by two or more proprietors. The 
 surgeon has then the general superintendence of hospitals, 
 and the care of the sick over the district. The proprietor 
 of these works in fact takes as much care of his workmen 
 as he would do of his horses, knowing well that unless they 
 are kept healthy and contented, it would be impossible to exact 
 the desired amount of work out of them. Besides the fixed 
 rations of food, large stocks of corn-brandy (vodka) are kept 
 for the men, who each get a tumblerful of the liquor two or 
 three times a month, by way of counteracting the effect of 
 the rawness of the climate. Of clothing also, large maga- 
 zines are kept by the proprietors, and the workmen supplied 
 with them as required for winter or summer wear. Tobacco 
 is also considered a necessary, and is extensively consumed 
 by all Russians. It is thought to be anti-scorbutic, and good 
 for the climate. Supplies of brick tea are kept on hand, and 
 of this article every workman consumes at least one pound 
 per month. All these articles are supplied to the labourer 
 in advance of his wages, and reckoned up when he gets his 
 discharge. But even should he be deeply in debt the sup-
 
 Chap, xvit.] PRODIGALITY OF THE MINEES. 289 
 
 plies are not withheld, the proprietor wisely considering that 
 one sick man would be a dead loss far exceeding the cost of 
 the few extras he might need. 
 
 The proprietor obtains all the goods he requires at whole- 
 sale prices, in the principal commercial and manufacturing 
 towns, and they are supplied to the workmen at lower prices 
 than they themselves could purchase them. The goods are 
 always of the best quality, and it would not be considered 
 respectable for a proprietor of gold-diggings to take a profit 
 from his workmen on the articles supplied to them. To the 
 original cost is added the expense of transit, and at the most 
 an interest of three or four per cent, on the outlay. Even 
 the latter item is not always charged. 
 
 When the gold-washing season is all over, the majority of 
 the workmen find their way to some of the large towns with 
 the balance of wages in hand, and spend the winter in riot 
 and wantonness, often no doubt in gi-eat miseiy, until the 
 next season comes round. They seldom or never think of 
 saving money, or of bettering their condition.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 TOMSK TO OMSK. 
 
 While waiting for our servant to come up with the 
 tarantass, we had sundry matters to look to in Tomsk before 
 committing ourselves once more to the road, of which we 
 continued to hear shocking accounts. Our portmanteaus 
 were so smashed by the concussions the hard rough roads 
 had exposed us to, as to be unfit for further service, and it 
 was necessary to replace them with Russian chemaddns. 
 This is an excellent contrivance for rough travelling ; being 
 consti'ucted of soft leather, hard knocks have no effect, and 
 it is capable of being so tightly lashed up as to be practically 
 waterproof. It has also this advantage over an ordinary 
 tiiink or portmanteau, that whether it is full or not, there 
 is no empty space left in it to block up the carriage where 
 there is no room to spare. 
 
 A few accessories, in the way of fur gloves and such like, 
 completed our wardrobe so far. To replace a broken ther- 
 mometer we were led into an optician's establishment, 
 managed by some clever Germans. Here we were sur- 
 prised to find as good an assortment of instruments as is 
 usually to be met with in any similar establishment in this 
 country. Telescopes, microscopes, transit-instruments, theo- 
 dolites, and all kinds of surveying instruments, of excellent 
 workmanship, were there for sale. Everything, except the 
 veiy simplest articles, was of foreign make, many of them 
 German, but mostly French.
 
 Chap, xviii.] THE OEEAT TILLOW QUESTTOX. 291 
 
 We had been strongly advised at the outset of our Siberian 
 travels to provide ourselves with feather pillows, after the 
 manner of the Russians, to use as buffers between our pro- 
 minent bones and the hard substance of the carriage. 
 Judging that our bedding would suffice, we, with the 
 vanity of ignorance, rejected these good counsels in de- 
 fiance of the well-known travelling maxim which inculcates 
 the wisdom of taking your cue from the people of the 
 country. Our carcases had been so unmercifully knocked 
 about on the road to Tomsk, that we dared not go, farther 
 without pillows. It was not so easy to find them, however ; 
 for although Tomsk is said to be celebrated for them we 
 could not hit on the right place to buy them. They are sold 
 at about fourteen roubles per pood (36 lbs.). Our landlady 
 was appealed to, but she avowed that there was not, and 
 never could have been, any sucli thing in Tomsk, least of all 
 had she any to dispose of. We were actually beginning to 
 despair of pillows when a young Russianised German intro- 
 duced himself to us, and, as usual in such rencontres, the 
 conversation tm^ned on civilisation. We happened to allude 
 to the pillow difficulty, as proving the primitive state of 
 society in Tomsk. On this our friend at once undertook to 
 provide us. He went first to the old lady, and then to 
 the younger members, none of whom he had seen before, and 
 spent full half an hour ingratiating himself with them. The 
 pillow question was in due time gently hinted at, and 
 before very long one, and then another, and another, was 
 produced, until we had pillows to our hearts' content. De- 
 lighted with his success, we begged our friend to tell us how 
 he had achieved it. " First," he said, in very good English, 
 
 " you must beat about the bush with these Russians ; 
 
 you must flatter them and humbug them. Then you must 
 talk about everything but the thing. If you want to buy a 
 horse, you must pretend you want to sell a cow, and so work 
 
 u 2
 
 292 SIBEPwIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xviii. 
 
 gradually round to the point in view." He went on to tell 
 us how he had coaxed and cajoled the good people into part- 
 ing with their pillows, and how he backed up his requests by 
 a touching appeal to their sense of hospitality. " You have 
 two distinguished foreigners in your house, they are very 
 good people, and you ought to treat them with the kindness 
 due to strangers from distant countries. When Russians go 
 to their country they are well treated. But if you refuse 
 this small favour to these people, they will go home and tell 
 their countrymen what beasts the E-ussians are," &c. 
 
 We were in a dilemma about the mode of travelling from 
 Tomsk. Our tarantass was very much the worse for the 
 wear, and on bad roads it might break down at any time. 
 It would hardly be safe to leave the town with it. It would 
 be equally imprudent to purchase a sledge, for there was 
 very little snow ; none fell during our stay, and there 
 was reported to be none to the westward. We might of 
 course use the j)ost-carriages, but that mode of travelling 
 has many inconveniences. It is uncomfortable in the ex- 
 treme to sit in, and it necessitates changing at every station. 
 The nuisance of turning out luggage, and turning out one's- 
 self, every few hours, multiplies tenfold all the horrors of the 
 road. Had we listened to the advice proffered to us on all 
 hands in Tomsk we should have remained there till snow 
 fell, which might be in one week or in six. We were en- 
 tertained with terrible accounts of the road through the 
 Baraba steppe, and the post had been six days coming from 
 Kolivan, a town only 1 20 miles from Tomsk. The delay 
 was attributed entirely to the roads, but making due allow- 
 ance for Russian vagueness, we thought it just as likely to 
 have been diie to the difficulty of crossing some of the large 
 rivers. In this uncertainty a diversion occurred in the 
 advent of Schwartz, on the third day, minus the tarantass. 
 He had been talked into the impossibility of getting it over
 
 CiiAP. XVIII.] ANOTHER PARTING. 293 
 
 the ice, and was induced to soli it for the small sum of ten 
 roubles silver. The Russians designate their paper money 
 by the high-sounding term " silver " roubles, lucus a noii 
 lucendo. This crowning act of folly, coupled with the fact 
 of his having left behind (or sold) sundry articles which were 
 in the tarantass, determined us to give Mr. Schwartz " the 
 sack/' and nothing but reflection on the probable conse- 
 quences of his being left with no money, and a blighted 
 character, to the " cold charity of the world," caused us to 
 relent. 
 
 Old Barnaul left us a few hours after Schwartz's arrival. 
 His destination lay nearly due south from Tomsk, a few 
 stations beyond which town the road to Barnaul branches off 
 from the Moscow road. The old gentleman refused to leave us 
 entirely by ourselves, and had cheerfully sacrificed two whole 
 days of his time, simply to keep us company until our own 
 man came up. There was much genuine kindness in this, as 
 in all his intercourse with us, and we parted with the plea- 
 santest recollections on both sides (I hope). 
 
 Having made all necessary arrangements for resuming our 
 journey, and armed ourselves with a pass from the Director- 
 General of Posts for Western Siberia, we started on the 5th 
 November in a post kibitka, with the intention of buying a 
 sledge when we found an opportunity, and snow enough to 
 use it. It was late in the afternoon before we got away from 
 Tomsk, and dark before we emerged from the thick wood 
 into which we plunged on leaving the town. The post- 
 station had been at a village eighteen versts from Tomsk, but 
 on arriving there we learned that it had been removed that 
 very day to a place more convenient for crossing the river 
 Tom, or on the other side of the Tom, for it was hard to 
 deduce any positive conclusion from the various and partially 
 contradictory statements we heard. At all events, be the 
 new station where it might, our yemschiks refused to drive
 
 29i SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM REKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xviii. 
 
 US any further than the old station in the village. To be 
 east adrift with our baggage in a village where no accredited 
 oflEicer of the government was located, would have consigned 
 us to unknown troubles. We refused, therefore, to let the 
 yemschiks go, but insisted on their proceeding to the next 
 station, wherever it might be. The assistance of the starust, 
 or village elder, was invoked, and he, with a few peasants, 
 piloted us at our request to the river Tom, that we might 
 examine for ourselves the state of the crossing. The ice was 
 good, and aiDparently strong enough to bear the carriages, 
 but the yemschiks lapsed into a state of mulish obstinacy, 
 and refused to stir. The starust and his satellites, all speak- 
 ing at once, held forth vigorously on general topics for the 
 edification of the company, and went to bed. As for us, we 
 had simply to keep possession of the carriages, and leave the 
 rest to time. The yemschiks would get hungiy, the horses 
 would certainly have to be fed, and we might hope that when 
 they got tired of waiting they would go on. With this idea 
 we committed ourselves to rest in the kibitka. It was sadly 
 deficient in comfort, as compared with our old tarantass. 
 The kibitka is open in front, and rather over-ventilated every- 
 where. Cold kept sleep from our eyes for a time, while our 
 ears were regaled with spasmodic bursts of indignation from 
 the yemschiks, who now threatened to take us back to Tomsk, 
 bag and baggage. To these attacks we offered nothing but 
 passive resistance, and even the yemschiks wearied of a dis- 
 cussion so entirely one-sided. We were lulled to sleep in 
 time by the chanting of some wild native airs by a Russian 
 family in a neighbouring house. Their songs, many of them 
 very sweet, are mostly, if not all, of the plaintive order. A 
 drunken " brute of a husband," w^hom his poor wife was 
 trying to decoy homewards, was the only incident that broke 
 in upon the dead stillness of the night scene in the village 
 of Kaltarskaya. There stood our wearied horses in the
 
 Chap, xviii.] STRAXGE BED-FELLOWS. 295 
 
 street that livelong night, bearing their sufferings from cold 
 and hunger with resignation. How the yemschiks bestowed 
 themselves during the night I know not. One at least must 
 have kept awake to watch the horses. As morning ap- 
 proached the cold proved too much for my somnolence, and I 
 was fain to turn out and grope my way into the house that 
 had until the previous day been the post-station. On getting 
 the door of a room open, the warm, fulsome exhalations of 
 closely pent-up human beings that greeted the nostrils were 
 enough to have produced a revolution in a sensitive stomach. 
 The hard breathing of some, and the more sonorous articula- 
 tions of others, enabled me to ascertain the positions of the 
 heads of most of the sleepers, but still with every care I 
 came into collision with sundry legs and trunks in my voyage 
 across the floor in quest of a clear space where I might 
 stretch myself. At length I discovered an unoccupied bench 
 or table, and yielded to the luxury of sleep till daylight. 
 ^Vllen I again opened my eyes, my night companions had 
 begun to stir about. Some were engaged in their toilet, 
 which consists in stretching legs and arms, yawning a little, 
 shaking up their clothes, and tightening the scarf which 
 forms their girdle. By stooping low on entering the room I 
 had escaped a broken head from a false ceiling which was 
 used as a sleeping bunk. This is a common arrangement in 
 post-houses, where the family of the post-master and all the 
 yemschiks and hangers-on of the establishment are often 
 jumbled up together, some climbing up to the top of uie 
 brick stove to sleep, and others lying on the boarded floor or 
 ceiling which overhangs part of the room like a hay-loft. 
 The Russian houses generally are built on traditional princi- 
 ples, the first thing aimed at being the exclusion of air, and 
 consequently cold. They always feci warm, the temperature 
 during the day being kept up to a pretty uniform scale by 
 the large stoves. At night the fires go out, but the house
 
 290 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xviii. 
 
 retains its heat until about daylight in the morning, when it 
 begins to feel a little chilly. There is scarcely one perfectly 
 level floor in the countiy, and many of the houses, especially 
 the old ones, are tipped up at one end so that the line of the 
 roof makes a very wide angle with the level ground. Some 
 indeed tumble over altogether, where the owners are too 
 poor or too indifferent to take them down before they pro- 
 gress so far towards demolition. This phenomenon is not 
 caused by the sinking of one end from the timbers rotting in 
 the ground, but by the action of frost in the earth, which, un- 
 less the uprights are sunk deep enough, expands with cold so 
 much as to heave up the foundations of the houses. 
 
 Early in the morning our yemschiks had made up their 
 minds to take us over the river and to the next station. 
 They had first to obtain the services of some peasants from 
 the village, to pilot them over the ice. This local knowledge 
 was necessary to enable them to avoid holes that had been 
 only recently frozen, and other dangerous places. The Tom 
 was here a fine broad expanse of ice, white with snow, very 
 rough and lumpy. The crossing was satisfactorily effected, and 
 we made the best of our way during the day through a flat, 
 barren, and most uninteresting country, but still well wooded. 
 A little snow fell, but only to tantalise us, for the ground 
 never got covered more than half an inch. 
 
 Soon after daylight on the 7th, we arrived at a station on 
 the right bank of the river Ob, which was the most formid- 
 able-looking obstacle to progress we had yet encountered. 
 But as we had only ourselves and our baggage to get over, 
 no serious diSiculties were made, though we were threatened 
 with trouble from a gang of drunken ice-men. The Ob, Obe, 
 Obi or Oby, for all these spellings are used, is a noble river, 
 and at the point where we crossed it is nearly half-a-mile 
 wide. The cuiTent is rapid, and ice had only formed along 
 the edges of the water. The difficulty in crossing arose from
 
 CiiAP. xvm.] THE FIRST TELEGRAPH STATION". 297 
 
 the huge masses of floating ice that were carried rapidly 
 down by the current. To avoid being shut in by these small 
 icebergs required all the dexterity of the adepts who manned 
 the ferry-boat. Not only skill, but real hard work was neces- 
 sary. Poles and boat-hooks were vigorously plied. The short 
 paddle-oars were of comparatively little use ; but by hooking 
 on to the floating ice and hauling round them, then shoving 
 off into clear water for a short space, and hooking on to the 
 next lump of ice, we managed to thread our way through. 
 The current had carried us down stream, but it was not 
 nearly so strong on the left side of the channel, and there 
 was a ofood breadth of clear water there which enabled the 
 men to recover their lost gTOund. On reaching the landing- 
 place, a rope was passed ashore, that is, to the solid ice, and 
 the boat hauled up bodily far enough on the ice to enable 
 horses to fetch the luggage. The sides and bottom of the 
 boat being thickly coated with ice, enabled the men to slide 
 her about with great facility. 
 
 From Tomsk our course had turned southerly, following 
 the course of the river Tom, and striking the Ob obliquely. 
 From the Ob we turned west again, and entered the great 
 Baraba steppe. 
 
 Two stages from the Ob we reached the town of Kolivan, 
 which is perhaps the most dreary, cold-looking to\^^l in 
 Siberia, situated in a perfectly bare country, and exposed to 
 every wind that blows. It possessed a peculiar interest for 
 us, however, as being the then most easterly telegi-aph station 
 in Siberia. The Tomsk station had been completed, but the 
 manager had not arrived to inaugurate the opening when we 
 left. Kolivan, being a second-rate station, only Russian mes- 
 sages could be sent ; but having got a gentleman in Tomsk to 
 write one out in that language, I was enabled to send a tele- 
 gram from Kolivan to St. Petersburg, a distance of 2700 
 miles. Many repetitions were necessary in the transmission of
 
 298 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xviii. 
 
 this message, but it was delivered with perfect accuracy in 
 thirty-six hours. 
 
 The Siberian telegraph, being now completed as far as 
 Irkutsk, will no doubt be extended in time to the Amoor 
 country. It is also probable that a branch will be formed 
 from Irkutsk to Kiachta, and the Russians in Siberia confi- 
 dently believe that their government will establish a line 
 across Mongolia to Peking. 
 
 The Baraba steppe is, for the most part, one vast marsh, 
 extending from the left bank of the river Ob westward to 
 Tumen. It borders on the Kirghis steppe on the south, and 
 is apparently a continuation of it. Its natural features are 
 barren, being at the best a succession of wild prairies. The 
 gi-ass is long and coarse, but there is so much water on the 
 ground that, in the summer season, the grass can hardly be 
 available for pasture. The steppe is bare of wood, with the 
 exception of strips here and there of dwarf birch-trees, 
 which struggle for existence. In some of its more elevated 
 parts, trees grow to a good size, but these spots are like 
 oases in the desert. The inhabitants of the steppe are 
 few, and lack the comforts enjoyed by the natives of other 
 parts of Siberia. Villages are thinly scattered, and poor and 
 mean-looking. The principal subsistence of the people con- 
 sists in their cattle, and at every village a large tract of com- 
 mon land is fenced in for pasture. 
 
 At the stations in Baraba the post-master is seldom 
 found at home, the domestic part of the establishment being 
 generally left in charge of women, and the posting-depart- 
 ment in that of the senior yemschik. The women in the 
 steppe, we were informed, are mostly Kirghis, called by the 
 Russians by the generic name of Tartars. The Kirghis 
 women are physically superior to Russian women of the 
 same class, — cleaner, better dressed, and handsomer. They 
 have, in many instances, blue eyes and fair complexions, in
 
 Chap, xviii.] A FROZEN MARSH. 299 
 
 marked contrast to the Kalmiiks and Mongols. In manners 
 they are more cheerful than the Russians. 
 
 Game abounds in the steppe. Blackcock were in some 
 parts met with in great numbers. Pure white pheasants 
 and ryabchik are plentiful, and, I have been told, though I 
 did not see any, that the ptarmigan and capercailzie are also 
 to be found. 
 
 The most conspicuous objects in the steppe are the wind- 
 mills, a number of which are to be found round every village. 
 These are the only marks that exist in the country, and 
 they indicate the positions of the villages long before any 
 other evidence of liabitation is visible. They are primi- 
 tive in construction. In order to face the wind the whole 
 fabric is moved round on its axis by means of a clumsy, but 
 powerful lever. 
 
 The road through Baraba looks like a strip of ploughed land 
 in a desert, and was frozen so roughly that if solely depended 
 on, traffic would soon have been brought to a stand. As it 
 was, the heavy cart caravans were stopped for a time, and veiy 
 few travellers were met with on this part of the journey. We 
 rarely ti'avelled on the road at all, only crossing it occasionally 
 in quest of tracks through the open country. The frozen 
 marsh greatly facilitated our progress. There was enough 
 grass overspreading the ice to enable the horses to keep a 
 footing, and by taking advantage of every sheet of ice we 
 came to, we managed, by circuitous paths, to keep clear of 
 the main road. 
 
 The weather was mild in the steppe. The sun was strong 
 enough in the middle of the day to melt the thin covering of 
 snow that lay on the ground ; and even the nights were 
 not so cold as we had experienced to the eastward. Snow 
 fell occasionally, but not enough to make a slcdge-road. 
 
 Slow as our progi*ess was, it was quicker than we could have 
 anticipated, and it was some satisfaction to keep ahead of
 
 300 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM REKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xviii. 
 
 the post wliicli left Tomsk at the same time with lis. Our 
 yemschiks in the steppe were an unusually drunken set, but 
 though often in jeopardy, we escaped without accident, saving 
 one upset. 
 
 Passincf Kainsk on the 9th, we reached the town of Omsk 
 at midnight on the 11th, putting ujd at the Hotel Moscow, an 
 establishment of the same empty, comfortless character as 
 other Siberian hotels. 
 
 Omsk is built round a hill at the junction of the Om river 
 with the Iiiiish. It has a j)opulation of about 12,000 ; and is 
 at present the residence of the Governor-General of Western 
 Siberia. This functionary had recently made a tour to the 
 Kirghis frontier, where some disputes had occurred between 
 the Russian soldiers at the outposts and the Kirghis tribes. 
 These ^meiites are of constant occurrence. The Cossacks at 
 the Russian stations make raids on their own account on the 
 Kirghis people, and subject them to very rough treatment. 
 An outbreak among the Kirghis occurs, which requires a 
 military force to subdue. An expedition for this purpose is 
 sent every year to the Kirghis steppe — the Russian outposts 
 are pushed further and further south — more disturbances 
 occur, and so the frontier is, year by year, extended, on the 
 pretext of keeping the peace. That has been the system pur- 
 sued by the Russian Government in all its aggressions in Asia. 
 Siberia is dotted all over with old forts, which have become 
 obsolete as the country has become quiet and settled under 
 Russian sway. One of the strongest of these works is on the 
 hill that stands in the middle of the town of Omsk. It is 
 almost intact, and still kej)t up after a fashion. On the 
 Kirghis frontier forts continue to be planted as footholds 
 on the soil, and centres from which outlying territories may 
 be subjugated. 
 
 A great deal of injustice, oppression, and cruelty have un- 
 questionably attended the aggressions of Russia among the
 
 Chap, xviii.] AGGRESSION ON THE NATIVE TEIBES. SOI 
 
 various Asiatic races, but in the long run the results have 
 been rather beneficial than prejudicial to the tribes. The 
 Kirghis who live as Russian subjects in the province of 
 Omsk, are probably more comfortable than their semi-nomad 
 brethren who feed their cattle on the southern steppes. The 
 Mongol tribes who dwell under the auspices of Russia 
 under the name of Bouriats, are more cultivated, and lead a 
 more civilised life than the Mongols proper. They enjoy 
 some degree of comfort, and have undoubtedly improved by 
 their contact with the Russians. The wild hunting tribes, 
 again, who inhabit the forests of Northern Manchuria, re- 
 cently annexed to Russia, are said to have longed greatly to 
 be transferred from allegiance to the autocrat of China to 
 that of the Tsar. On the whole, the ambitious projects of 
 Russia have been the means of spreading the benefits of 
 civilisation and Christianity (in a much diluted form, it must 
 be confessed) to many savage tribes. Highroads have been 
 opened through deserts, and commerce has followed in the 
 wake of conquest. The tribes who have become Russian 
 enjoy, under the shelter of a strong government, immunity 
 from war with neighbouring tribes, to which they were 
 in former times constantly exposed, and have at least the 
 opportunity of giving more attention to the arts of peace. Of 
 course many bad, as well as good, results have flowed from the 
 contact of Russians with these barbarous people. Those who 
 were too low in the scale of humanity to bear the shock of a 
 superior order of life, have been demoralised by it. The Tun- 
 guses and Ostiaks, who live in the northern parts of the 
 provinces of the Irkutsk and Yeniseisk, are of a veiy low 
 order of savages. The Tunguses are thievish, treacherous 
 and cowardly, and live solely by fishing and liunting. The 
 Ostiaks live almost entirely on and about the water, eat little 
 else but fish when they can get it. They wander as far norths 
 as the Frozen Ocean. When deprived of their usual food in
 
 302 SIBERL\X ROUTE FRO.AI PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xviii. 
 
 winter, they are reduced to eating carrion and garbage of all 
 kinds. In tlieir liabits they are filthily dirty. Small-pox 
 and drunkenness together make frightful havoc in their 
 numbers. These tribes have been greatly injured by their 
 contact with Russians. Naturally addicted to drunkenness, 
 they have been supplied with ardent spirits to their heart's 
 content by the invaders. The use of money being unknown 
 to them, they only receive brandy in exchange for their 
 services and products. They supply the gold-diggings with 
 game, which brings them in return large quantities of 
 spirits. They also act as guides to exploring parties, and 
 such services are invariably requited with brandy. To obtain 
 this liquor seems indeed to be the main object of their lives, 
 and they have recourse to the most extraordinary expedients 
 to gain their pui'jDose. They are low idolaters, but they know 
 how to turn to account the solicitude of the Russian Church 
 for proselytising. They will allow themselves to be baptised 
 in consideration of a bottle of brandy, but on the next favour- 
 able opportunity, they will pass over to another part of the 
 ^ country, and again offer themselves as candidates for baptism, 
 if a similar inducement be held out. Brandy is fast ruining 
 these people, and in a few generations they are likely to be- 
 come extinct — a catastrophe which will have been greatly 
 accelerated by the Russian settlers. 
 
 The reverse of this is the case with the nomad tribes who 
 are spread over the steppes of the southern districts of Siberia. 
 Their nomad habits have been so far circumscribed that they 
 remain for many years together in the same places, moving 
 only to suit the seasons and the pastures for their horses. 
 They have a fixed place where they live in spring, but move 
 off for the summer months, then again to winter quarters. 
 At each of these encampments they leave their tents of felt 
 or skins standing, thus evincing great confidence in the secu- 
 rity of life and property. These tribes use tents of the same
 
 Chap, xviii.l MAHOMETAN TAETAES. 303 
 
 construction as those of the Mongols ; but, unlike them, 
 they care little for the rearing of horned cattle or sheep, their 
 wealth consisting in horses, of which they keep large herds. 
 They do not pi'actise agriculture, but live a great deal by the 
 chase, and a few of them cany on a kind of wandering trade. 
 They obtain bread and other necessaries of life in barter for 
 the skins of wild animals, but never part with their horses 
 until hard pressed by necessity. If they have no skins, they 
 will rather want bread than sell their horses. These tribes 
 respect themselves, and command the respect of others by 
 the strict sobriety of their habits, their general honesty, and 
 cleanliness. They are mostly Mahometans. In man}^ re- 
 spects these people stand higher than the Russians, and are 
 not likely to be demoralised by them. 
 
 Another Mahometan tribe may be mentioned in this 
 category — the YaJatts, who occupy some of the northern part 
 of the province of Irkutsk. They are no longer nomads, 
 although they still live in tents. The Yakuts are very indus- 
 trious people, rear large herds of horses and cattle, occupy 
 themselves with trade, are skilled in ironwork, and have 
 more recently taken to agriculture. They bear the character 
 of sobriety, and are much more cleanly in their habits than 
 any neighbouring tribes. The Yakuts have a tradition that 
 they were once settled in the province of Kazan, whence 
 they were expelled during the great irruption of Tartars into 
 Russia, and wandered to their present habitat before they 
 settled. 
 
 The wildest and most unmanageable of all the Siberian 
 aborigines are the Khargasses, who live about the Altai 
 mountains on the Chinese frontiers, in the south of the pro- 
 vinces of Yeniseisk and Ii-kutsk. The Khargasses are quite 
 nomad, canying tent and all with them when they move. 
 They are said to be fierce and treacherous, perfectly uncivi- 
 lised, and idolaters. It is a common pi'actice with them
 
 304 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xviii. 
 
 when the time for the collection of their essak, or poll-tax, 
 comes, to strike their tents, and cross the mountains to 
 Chinese territory. There they remain until some similar 
 claim is made on them on behalf of the Emperor of China, 
 when they again pack up and return to Siberia. The Khar- 
 gasses are great hunters, and live on the produce of their 
 guns. They own no cattle, their riches consisting of reindeer 
 and guns, like the Tunguses. 
 
 We saw two small tug steamers and six huge barges frozen- 
 in at the junction of the Om with the Irtish. These barges 
 go as far as Tumen with their cargoes, but of this more 
 hereafter. 
 
 As there was still too little snow on the roads to warrant 
 us in buying a sledge, we were obliged to continue under- 
 going the torture of a small kibitka, changing at every station. 
 Sleep had now become out of the question, and if we could 
 get a nap once in forty-eight hours we had to be satisfied. 
 Eating was almost equally irregular, for the steppe afforded 
 but few opportunities of enjoying a good meal. And yet this 
 rough mode of life rather improved my health than other- 
 wise. The constant exposure to the clear bracing Siberian 
 air was certainly most beneficial, and I am convinced of this, 
 that Avith all its ice and snow, there is no finer — that is, more 
 salubrious — climate in the world than Siberia.
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 OMSK TO OCHANSK. 
 
 On the 11th November, we bade adieu to Omsk at an 
 early hour in the evening. At the end of the second stage, 
 forty-four versts from Omsk, we came to the river Irtish. At 
 the station we found an officer travelling with a courier's 
 padaroshna, who had failed in an attempt to cross the 
 river in the dark. This was a sufficient hint that we had 
 no chance, so we quietly lay by till morning, spending the 
 night in the station in the company of the officer aforesaid. 
 He was bound to the town of Tara, some distance north of 
 the place we met him. His mission was to convey recruits 
 thence to St. Petersburg. They are marched at the rate of 
 thirty versts a day, which was slow enough to make us feel 
 grateful for the moderate progress we had ourselves been 
 making. Recruiting was going on very extensively in Siberia 
 at this time. In Russia proper, and in the territories subject 
 to it, recruiting is carried out on similar principles. The 
 empire is divided into two zones, southern and northern. 
 In each zone recruits are levied every alternate five years. 
 They are chosen from among the free peasants and agi-i- 
 culturists, and when levies are made, every proprietor tries 
 to get rid of a bad subject. The usual levy is one in every 
 thousand of the men ; but the government always takes into 
 consideration circumstances that may entitle certain pro- 
 vinces or districts to partial exemption, — such as a bad 
 harvest, or other similar misfortunes, to which agriculture
 
 806 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xix. 
 
 and cattle-breeding are liable. When these circumstances 
 occur, the suffering districts frequently have the term of the 
 levy postponed a certain number of years, and in many cases 
 they are wholly exempted. All that is aj)plicable to times of 
 peace. In war time, the frequency, as well as the per-centage 
 of the levies, depends entirely on the exigencies of the govern- 
 ment. For instance, during the Crimean War, recruiting in 
 Eastern Siberia occurred twice in one year, and beginning at 
 one man in a thousand, it increased gradually to seven in a 
 thousand. The peasants on the rivers Lena and Yenisei are 
 exempted from furnishing recruits on certain conditions, such 
 as providing horses for travellers, and conveying the post, for 
 which services they are of course paid besides. The peasants 
 on the Angara enjoy similar exemption in consideration of 
 their providing pilots for that very dangerous river. 
 
 Next morning we crossed the Irtish on the ice, without 
 difficulty, and re-entered a frozen marsh, exactly similar to 
 that part of the steppe which lies east of Omsk, windmills 
 and alL Late in the evening, we passed through the town 
 of Tukalinsk. At daylight on the IStli, passed Ishim. It 
 snowed steadily all that day, and we soon had practicable 
 sledge-roads, which enabled us to travel 160 miles a day. 
 Early on the 16th, we passed through Yalootorofsk, and the 
 same evening arrived at Tumen. 
 
 Finding at Tumen a very comfortable covered sledge for 
 sale at the post-station, we immediately purchased it, as well 
 as a smaller one for the accommodation of Mr. Schwartz and 
 the baggage. The posting from Tumen westward is better 
 organised than in Eastern Siberia. It is managed, not by 
 government, but by a private company. No scarcity of 
 horses is ever comi^lained of in the company's line ; for 
 government takes care that the work is well done. But not 
 the least of the improvements we experienced was, that we 
 no longer required to pay the fare at every station. At
 
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 Chap, xix.] LUXURIOUS TRAVELLING. 307 
 
 Tumen we paid our irrogon through to Ekaterineburg, and 
 had no more trouble about it. In consideration of these 
 facihties, double the government rate of fare is charged by 
 the company from Tumen to Perm. Eastward the rate is 
 about three-farthings per mile per horse. Westward from 
 Tumen it is three-halfpence per horse. 
 
 We are now fairly through the great marshy steppe. The 
 country from Tumen is undulating, and thick pine forests 
 reappear. 
 
 We were in thorough condition to enjoy the soft luxury of 
 travelling in a warm sledge, gliding so smoothly over the 
 snow that at times we could not tell whether it was in 
 motion ; and it is not very surprising that we slept the 
 gi-eater part of the way to Ekaterineburg. Hunger even 
 could not seduce us out of our snug retreat. The distance 
 from Tumen to Ekaterineburg is 240 miles, — time occupied 
 thirty-five hours. This is far from being a quick rate for 
 sledge travelling, but the roads had not yet been properly 
 formed, and in many places even the gi-ound was quite bare 
 ot snow, the little that had fallen having been blown away 
 by the wind. 
 
 k Ekaterineburg is first sighted at some miles' distance 
 through the vista formed by the road. A few scattered 
 streets of small log houses form the outskirts of the town, 
 and give one a poor opinion of the place. On emerging 
 from the forest the town itself bursts on the view, and pro- 
 duces an impression of elegance, comfort, and even grandeur. 
 It is spread over a large surface, and is divided into two 
 parts by the river Irchet, which, though a small stream, 
 widens out here to the dimensions of a lake. The situa- 
 tion of the town shows it off to better advantage than the 
 other towns we had passed through as more of it can be 
 seen at once. The proportion of brick -built houses to wooden 
 ones is much larger, and the array of handsome churches and 
 
 x2
 
 308 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xtx. 
 
 public buildings is more imposing. The bridge which con- 
 nects the two portions of the town enhances considerably the 
 beautiful effect of the whole. Although an improvement on 
 the rest, especially in the matter of stone houses, Ekaterine- 
 burg presents a strong family likeness to the other large 
 towns in Siberia, and is a fair specimen of the general type. 
 The population is about 19,000. 
 
 The government mint is the most important building in 
 Ekaterineburg. The principal coinage is copper, and I 
 think I am right in stating that all the copper currency of 
 Russia and Siberia is coined there. The Ural (pronounced 
 by E-ussians Oo-rdl) range, at the foot of which stands the 
 town, is rich in precious stones, the cutting and setting of 
 which is a standing occupation for a great number of people. 
 The government lapidary establishment was formerly cele- 
 brated, but through neglect or mismanagement it has sadly 
 fallen off of late, and very little of interest is now to be seen 
 there. Strangers in Ekaterineburg are beset by little boys 
 of most agreeable address, regular walking polyglots, who 
 bring for sale amethysts, topazes, and other stones, with 
 heaps of malachite, which latter is the most abundant in the 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 There are several large iron-foundries in this place, the 
 best one belonging to an Englishman who has been 
 many years resident in Siberia. The mention of this 
 gentleman recalls pleasing recollections of the kindness we 
 received from him and his family on the day we rested 
 there. It is refreshing to meet a countryman in such a 
 far-off region, and this circumstance greatly enhances one's 
 appreciation of true hospitality. There is a fair sprinkling 
 of Englishmen scattered over Siberia, and there is con- 
 siderable scope for their enterprise, both in private under- 
 takings and as government servants. One gentleman who 
 preceded us a few days in the homeward journey had
 
 Chap, xix.j ENGLISHMEN IN SIBERIA. 309 
 
 lived some years at Stretnoi, the head of the Amoor navi- 
 gation, in charge of the government machine-shop there. 
 His salary is 3000 roubles silver (i.e. paper) per annum, with 
 the perquisites of a house, fire, and light. He was so well 
 satisfied with his post that he was then travelling to England 
 to return with liis family to Stretnoi, some 2000 versts beyond 
 the Baikal lake. This instance out of many shows first that 
 the English skill in machinery is prized by the Russian 
 government, and also that even the most remote districts of 
 Siberia are not very disagreeable as places of residence. 
 
 But to return to Ekaterineburg. The iron mines now 
 being worked are at the convenient distance of 100 miles 
 from the town, and the cost of transit of the pig-iron is 
 comparatively small. This town is therefore advanta- 
 geously situated for iron-work, and a large quantity is 
 turned out every year. Most of the iron-work for Siberia 
 goes from this place. The boilers and engines for the Baikal 
 steamers are made in Ekaterineburg, and transported nearly 
 2400 miles to their destination. The workmen in the 
 English foundries are chiefly Germans and Russians, with 
 English foremen. Experience has proved the remarkable 
 fact that English workmen deteriorate in Siberia. The 
 native Russians are excellent workmen under skilful super- 
 intendence. Some few of them have intellect enough to be 
 trusted with the more responsible departments of their 
 business, but such cases are quite exceptional. They are 
 in general mere imitators, exhibiting no power to think for 
 themselves. 
 
 A large fish-curing trade is carried on here. The fish is 
 brought from the great rivers, chiefly the Ob, near its mouth. 
 About 50,000 poods, equal to 1,800,000 lbs. avoirdupois, are 
 salted annually in this town. 
 
 Recmiting Avas going on actively here also. Having 
 occasion to call on the master of police on a little
 
 310 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xix. 
 
 matter of business, we drove up in a sledge to his office, 
 but found the doorway and the portion of the street imme- 
 diately adjoining it, so crowded with rough-looking moujiks 
 wildly vociferating, that we could neither get in, nor even 
 make our presence known, for some time. These were re- 
 cruits who were being registered, passing one by one into the 
 bureau, and coming out again by the same crowded door- 
 way. It seemed to be quite an understood thing that each 
 recruit should drop kopeks into the hands of the gendarmes 
 who acted as door-keepers. By dint of hard pushing we suc- 
 ceeded in insinuating ourselves into the passage, bvit only to 
 find a yet more impenetrable crowd inside. Sickened by the 
 exhalations of so many unclean animals in sheep-skins, half 
 suffocated in the frowsy atmosphere within, and crushed in 
 the living mass till we had to fight for breath like a person 
 in a nightmare, we were glad to escape into the fresh air, 
 and abandon the purpose of our visit. The moujiks were 
 followed to the rendezvous by their wives, who made con- 
 fusion worse confounded by their frantic yelling and pushing, 
 each one eager to get her own j^rofe^/e into a good place. 
 There were many hundreds of them, and one day would not 
 suffice to register them all at the rate they were then pro- 
 gressino^. 
 
 The temperature was ominously high on the 18th of 
 November, — only one degree of frost. Some days previously 
 it had been down to — 15° Reaumur ( — 2° Fahrenheit). We 
 were fairly committed to sledge travelling, and there was so 
 little snow on the gTound that a few hours' thaw would have 
 melted away our charming sledge road. The frost set in 
 about the usual time at Ekaterineburg, October -jL-, but the 
 snow there as elsewhere was late. 
 
 The hills and forests in the neighbourhood are well stocked 
 with game. Black-cock, white partridges, . ryahchik, rein- 
 deer, elk, and hares, are more or less abundant. Wolves
 
 Chap, xix.] THE URAL MOUNTAINS. 311 
 
 are also common, but there are no wild boar. Game is 
 plentiful in most parts of Siberia, but the Russians are no 
 great sportsmen, except those who make a living by hunt- 
 ing. The nomad tribes are, however, expert in the use of 
 the rifle. 
 
 Ekatei'ineburg is the most westerly town in Siberia, lying 
 at the foot of the Ural mountains which separate Europe 
 from Asia. I had formed great conceptions of this moun- 
 tain chain, but the illusion was dispelled when, on in- 
 quiring for the Urals, I was pointed to densely wooded un- 
 dulating hills, in appearance not more imposing than the 
 Lammermoor range in Scotland. I know not why they are 
 so darkly shaded on most of our maps, and made to look like 
 a formidable barrier between the two continents. They cer- 
 tainly cover a broad expanse of country, but in elevation 
 they are really insignificant, and rendered still more so in 
 appearance by their very gradual rise from the level country. 
 The elevation in the latitude of Ekaterineburg is little more 
 than 2000 feet above the sea, and the plain on the Siberian 
 side being between 800 and 1000 feet in elevation, the gentle 
 slope of the mountains makes them look diminutive. 
 
 While settling about our horses at the post-station of 
 Ekaterineburg, we fell in with an elderly Gemian lady, who 
 was going to start the same day for St. Petersburg. As she 
 spoke very little Russian, it occurred to her friends that it 
 would be a good thing for her to travel with us. There was 
 plenty of room for her in our sledge, and we willingly con- 
 sented to take her in. This was arranged accordingly. But 
 old ladies (and young ones too) like to have their own way, 
 and she discovered that she had too much luggage to go 
 comfortably with ours in one sledge, besides little baskets 
 of sweet cakes and knick-knacks, of which she had laid in 
 a store for the journey, and which were likely to come to 
 harm lying under our feet. She therefore determined to
 
 312 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xix. 
 
 travel in her own sledge, where she could munch cakes 
 at pleasure, but keeping company with us for the sake of 
 the collateral protection our escort afforded. 
 
 At six in the evening of the 19th we left Ekaterineburg 
 with our convoy, and about ten at night we reached the highest 
 point of the road on the ridge of the Ural. In a heavy fall 
 of snow we turned out to see the obelisk which has been 
 erected there, as the boundary stone between Europe and 
 Asia. It is a plain stone with no other inscription than the 
 word " Europe " on one side and " Asia " on the other. It is 
 said to have been erected in honour of Yermak, the Cossack 
 robber-chief, who atoned for his other offences by discovering, 
 and partly conquering, Siberia for the Russians in the end of 
 the sixteenth century. 
 
 It is quite unaccountable that the vast country of Siberia 
 should have been left to be discovered by Yermak at such a 
 late period. It was well known to the Tartars, for the dynasty 
 of Genghis had extended their conquests there, and yet the 
 Russians, during their communications with the Mongols of 
 the Golden Horde which subsisted for two hundred years, had 
 never learned what was beyond the Ural mountains. 
 
 Yermak compelled by some accident to "leave his country," 
 i.e., being outlawed, found his way, with some two hundred 
 adventurers, across the Ural. After jjillaging the Tartars for 
 some time, liis handful of troops, i.e., robbers, became so 
 wasted with constant fighting that he could no longer main- 
 tain himself among his numerous enemies. It then occurred 
 to Yermak to return to Moscow, announce his discovery, and 
 make his peace with the Tsar. The robber was promoted to 
 the rank of a hero, and was appointed to command an expe- 
 dition for the conquest of Siberia, Yermak first crossed the 
 Ural in 1580, and in 1660 nearly all the Siberian tribes 
 were subjugated by Russia. 
 
 After a night's travelling we were still among the out-
 
 CiiAr. XIX.] INLAND NAVIGATION. 813 
 
 lying spurs of the Ural range, well wooded with pine and 
 birch, the former in greater variety than on the eastern side 
 of the chain. On the road to Perm we passed through many 
 cleared spaces, with villages and farms at short intervals. 
 
 On the 21st we reached Perm, a very flom-ishing manufac- 
 turing and commercial to^vii on the left bank of the river 
 Kama. Perm is the first (or last) town in Europe, and a 
 little earlier in the season it would have been our last stage 
 of road travelling. But we were too late and too early all 
 the way through. The river Kama was not frozen, but so 
 much floating ice was coming down, that the steamers which 
 run between Perm and Nijni-novgorod had been taken off 
 and sent down the Volga to Astrachan for the \vinter. Only 
 a few small craft were left for repairs to their machinery. 
 We met some more English workers in iron in Perm, and 
 they seemed to have a good winter's work before them. A 
 few weeks earlier, we should have embarked on one of the 
 passenger steamers at Perm, steamed down the Kama as 
 far as Kazai}, where it joins the Volga, then up the latter 
 from Kazan to Nijni-novgorod. This voyage would have 
 been accomplished in five days, the whole of which time 
 would have been available for sleep, but no luck fell in our 
 way. Not only must we continue our journey by land, but 
 it was very doubtful whether we could even cross the Kama 
 at all, owing to the velocity of the current and the weight of 
 ice that was borne downwards. The ferry is not at Perm, 
 but at a point fifty versts lower down. 
 
 The navigation of the Russian and Siberian rivers is 
 making astonishing progress. There are now no less than 
 370 tugs on the Kama and Volga, and new steamers are 
 being added every year. One company runs steamers from 
 Nijni to Perm, and two from Nijni down the Volga to Astra- 
 chan. The Volga Steam Navigation Company is managed 
 by an Englishman at Nijni-novgorod, and in his hands has
 
 314 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO RETERSBURG. [Ch. xix. 
 
 proved a very remunerative undertaking. Under Russian 
 direction it had been quite the reverse. Nearly all the 
 steamers are of foreign constiiiction. Many come from the 
 German ports, and many from England. They are usually 
 sent to Russia in pieces, but several have steamed across the 
 North Sea, and have made their own way into the very heart 
 of the country by means of the canals in communication 
 ■yvith the rivers. 
 
 The facilities enjoyed by Russia and Siberia for inland 
 navigation are so vast, as to afford almost unlimited scope for 
 capital and enterprise in introducing steam. It is, of course, 
 a serious disadvantage that vessels have to be built in foreign 
 countries, but there is no good reason why this should con- 
 tinue. If the authorities had encouraged the working of 
 their own iron and coal mines with half the zeal they have 
 misai^plied to the gold-diggings, the country would have been 
 further advanced in real wealth than it is. The Russian 
 statesmen must sooner or later learn that mere gold no more 
 constitutes wealth than tallow or any other article that has a 
 mercantile value. The capital and labour consumed in pro- 
 curing a given quantity of the precious metals would have 
 probably produced a higher marketable equivalent, if coal 
 and iron had been the object. At any rate, iron would have 
 proved a surer basis for the propagation of wealth than gold. 
 Wlien steamers, for example, are built in Siberia, the manu- 
 facturing profits will, in the first instance, be disseminated in 
 the country, and the gold that would, as now, be sent abroad 
 for their purchase, may lie in the bowels of the earth, and 
 no one be a loser by it. A good deal has already been 
 done on the Siberian rivers, and the heavy traffic between 
 Irkutsk and the west is conveyed for the most part in barges, 
 which on the Om and Irtish are towed by steamers. The 
 mere navigation of rivers in the Russian dominions is not 
 new, but in former times the barges were incapable of as-
 
 CiiAr. XIX.] THE GREAT WATER-ROUTES. 315 
 
 cending the rapid streams. They were constructed merely 
 for the one trip down stream, and on reaching their destina- 
 tion and discharging their cargoes, they were broken up for 
 fire-wood. The water communication between Eastern Si- 
 beria and Western Russia is necessarily very circuitous from 
 the circumstance that the great rivers in Siberia run from 
 south to north, and fall into the Frozen Ocean. For example, 
 the distance by water from Omsk to Tumen is 3000 versts, 
 and by land only 632. The Amoor and its tributaries form 
 an exception, flowing eastward and falling into the Sea of 
 Ochotsk. To begin at the extreme east ; the grand water- 
 route now used for goods is from the Pacific up the Amoor 
 as far as the Shilka. Thence to the Baikal land carriajre is 
 at present used, but the Shilka itself is capable of naviga- 
 tion much higher up. The London and China Telegi-aph, 
 August 15, 1864, reports that a steamer has lately ascended 
 this river and its tributary the Ingoda as far as Chita, the 
 government town of Trans-Baikal. From the Baikal the 
 communication is by water down the Angara to Irkutsk, and 
 1400 miles beyond that town, to the junction of the Angara 
 with the Yenisei, in the north of the province of Irkutsk. 
 The water-route on the Angara below the town of Irkutsk 
 is only used for traffic to the north. Goods in transit for 
 Europe go by land from Irkutsk to Tomsk. 
 
 From the west, the Siberian water-route begins at Tumen, 
 proceeding down the Irtish from Tobolsk, then up the Ob 
 and the Tom as far as Tomsk. Then, if for the northern 
 part of Eastern Siberia, land carriage from Tomsk to Kras- 
 noyarsk ; from the latter town down the Yenisei to the towns 
 of Yeniseisk and Turukhansk, beyond which the country is 
 inhabited only by wandering Tunguses and Ostiaks. There 
 are other important water-routes in Siberia, such as that 
 from Tumen by the Ob and Irtish to Semipalatinsk on the 
 Kirghis steppe; and from Irkutsk down the Lena to Yakutsk,
 
 316 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cn. xix. 
 
 but the lines of greatest traffic are those running east and 
 west. The ice interposes a serious difficulty in the naviga- 
 tion of these rivers, especially in the more northern parts, 
 where the summer is very short, and frost sets in early. 
 Goods are frequently caught in the ice, and in some parts 
 of the rivers, they may be frozen up for six, or even eight 
 months together. This risk would, of course, be greatly di- 
 minished were steam in more general use. The duration of 
 a voyage could then be calculated with tolerable certainty, 
 and a convenient port reached after the premonitory indica- 
 tions of freezing-up had sho^^^l themselves. Steam would 
 also afford the means of expediting goods so much quicker, 
 that the heavy part of the year's traffic might be conveyed 
 by the rivers during the open season. 
 
 A project for improving the water communication in 
 Siberia was set on foot by an enterprising Russian in 1859. 
 The scheme was revived in 1862, and the projector was sup- 
 ported by a Hamburg banker, and assisted by a Russian 
 colonel of engineers. Their intention was to form a complete 
 water route from Tumen to Kiachta, first by the rivers Ob, 
 Tom, Tchulim and Ket. From the last-named, a canal 
 thirty to thirty-five miles in lenglh would have to be cut into 
 the river Yenisei. From the Yenisei, the Angara would be 
 used to its source in the Baikal lake. From the lake the 
 route would be up the Selenga to a point about eighteen 
 miles from Kiachta. Thus, by one cutting, of, at the most, 
 thirty-five miles, clear and uninterrupted water conveyance 
 would be established from near the Ural mountains to the 
 frontier of China. But the difficulties in the way of this 
 entei-prise are very serious. The river Angara is, in its present 
 state, not navigable except dowa stream. In a distance of 
 800 miles below Irkutsk, there are no less than seventy-eight 
 rapids and dangerous passes, some of which it would be im- 
 possible even for a steamer to ascend. Native craft shoot
 
 Chap, xix.] SIBERIAN RAILWAYS. 3] 7 
 
 the rapids when the water is high, and effect a passage down 
 the river, but of course never return. To render that part of 
 the river fit for navigation, rocks would have to be blasted 
 and cleared away. Above Irkutsk also, there are one or two 
 places on the Angara that would have to be cleared before 
 the steamers could ply with safety on the river. But suppos- 
 ing all that accomplished, to carry out the water communica- 
 tion with efficiency, steamers of various classes suited to the 
 depth of water, and the nature of the different rivers, would 
 be necessary, thereby adding greatly to the expense. On the 
 whole, the cost of clearing out the channel of the Angara, and 
 other minor items of expense, would be so enormous that it 
 is highly improbable the scheme will ever be carried out ; 
 certainly not for some generations to come. All that can 
 now be done is to improve the water communication at pre- 
 sent in use in so far as steam traffic is practicable. Before 
 the Angara is cleared of rocks, railways will probably traverse 
 Siberia. Not that I consider the construction of railways in 
 that region nearer than a remote possibility. For, although 
 Siberia would be no exception to the general rule that rail- 
 ways make traffic for themselves, yet the cost must bear some 
 proportion to the return. The length of railway necessary to 
 connect the traffic of the various distant parts would be enor- 
 mous, and as these matters are managed in Russia, would 
 probably cost three times the amount that would be required 
 in any other country. There is no capital in Russia available 
 for such a purpose, and foreign capital will find many more 
 attractive investments than Siberian railways. 
 
 From Perm we were driven by " Tatars," who are capital 
 coachmen. We first met these Western Tatars at Ekaterine- 
 burg, where they live in peace and good Avill with the 
 Russians. They have no apparent affinity with the Mongol 
 races, but yet they betray, in their manner of life, their 
 descent from nomad tribes. Many of them are engaged in
 
 318 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROJI PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xrx. 
 
 trade, but they prefer liawkiug to settling in a sliop ; and 
 even when they have opened shoj)s they Hke to sally forth 
 with a " pack " on their shoulders and roam about the gTeat 
 towns with their merchandise. 
 
 The general and sweeping misapplication of the name of 
 Tartar, or Tatar, to the various wandering tribes of Asia, has 
 led some persons to doubt whether there ever was any one 
 tribe properly entitled to the appellation. The name has 
 been too widespread — say from China to Kussia — not to 
 have had a foundation in fact, and there is not much doubt 
 that an insignificant tribe of the Mongol family was known 
 to its neighbours, and called its people by the name of Ta- 
 tars. But the dominant tribes, even of the Mongols, have 
 always repudiated the appellative ; and although the Russian- 
 speaking " Tatars " of the west acknowledge the name as ap- 
 plied to them, it is much in the same sense as an English- 
 speaking Chinese calls himself a Chinaman (CAeenaman) to 
 accommodate himself to western phraseology, although the 
 term has no equivalent in his own language. 
 
 It is indeed curious to trace old names of countries and 
 races to merely accidental circumstances. The name of 
 China in use among the Mongols and Russians, is still Kited, 
 which is the Kathay of Marco Polo, and the name of the 
 northern part of China during the reign of the Mongol 
 dynasty. The name originated with a northern tribe, also 
 called the Liau, who pushed the frontiers of their empire into 
 North China, and held sway there from the tenth to the 
 thirteenth centuries, and who, defeated by the Niu-ch^ 
 retired into the desert, and at a later period founded the 
 formidable empire of Khara Khitan, or the Black Khitan, 
 near the source of the river Obi. 
 
 But the name of Tartar has been liberally bestowed on all 
 those Asiatic tribes who led a roving life, and of whose his- 
 tory little or nothing was known. The Chinese, for reasons
 
 Chap, xix.] CHANGEABLE WEATHER. 319 
 
 somewhat similar, term all " outer " nations " barbarians," 
 just as the Jews grouped all who were beyond their own 
 pale under the comprehensive title of " gentiles ;" and the 
 ancients gave the name of Scythians to all the barbarians of 
 Asia, of whom they could not give any more definite ac- 
 count. 
 
 Arriving at the last station before crossing the Kama, late 
 at night, we were compelled to wait till morning, as no 
 inducement would prevail on the men to attempt the ferry at 
 that hour, although there was a bright moon. The truth was 
 the men were all so hard worked during the day as to be 
 unfit for anything at night. In the morning, however, we got 
 across with our sledges, and proceeded to Ochansk, a small 
 town three versts from the right bank of the river, where we 
 breakfasted. 
 
 During the 22nd the frost disappeared for a few hours, 
 and to our confusion the snow vanished so rapidly during the 
 short time as to leave us in many places bare ground to drive 
 our sledges over. The sight was really appalling, for all our 
 hopes of ease and comfort for the journey rested on the snow. 
 It was absolutely essential to us, seeing we were committed 
 to sledges, and when we saw the black patches appearing 
 here and there, we could sympathise in the despair which a 
 fish must feel when abandoned by its native element and left 
 panting on dry land. A westerly wind got up, and increased 
 to a gale in the afternoon, coming round to north in the 
 evening. This brought cold weather back again, and that 
 night was one of the most severe we encountered in the 
 whole journey. With the extreme cold the wind feU, and a 
 dead calm ensued, which lasted a night and a day. The 
 hard frost converted the soft, melting snow into a magnificent 
 sledge-road, so far as it went ; but all the way to Kazan we 
 were plagued with bare places where the wind or sun had 
 been most powerful.
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 RUSSIAN AND SIBERIAN PEASANTRY. 
 
 We had not travelled far into Russia proper, before the 
 difference in the condition of the peasantry there, and in 
 Siberia, forced itself on our attention. The houses in Russia 
 are decidedly inferior to those in Siberia. They lack the 
 air of rude comfort peculiar to the latter. Windows are 
 broken and stuffed with straw, and roofs are out of repair. 
 Women and children are ill-clad and squalid. The men are 
 haggard, abject, and degraded. Everything is suggestive of 
 poverty, negligence, and misery. In remarkable contrast to 
 these phenomena are the outward circumstances of the pea- 
 sants in Siberia. As I have intimated in the course of 
 this narrative, these latter are well clad, well housed, and 
 at least adequately fed. They have something of indepen- 
 dence in their bearing, and the condition of their families, as 
 well as the tasteful decorations often met with in their 
 houses, evince a certain amount of self-respect. The differ- 
 ence is easily accounted for — the explanation lies in the 
 words serf and no serf, and it illustrates the inevitable effects 
 of slavery on a people. And if slavery, in its modified form 
 of serfdom, can so deeply mark the character of the subjects 
 of it, what may be expected from the pure, uncompromising 
 " institution ? " 
 
 The Siberian free peasant is the descendant of a convict. 
 This applies to almost the whole Russian population of 
 Eastern Siberia, as also to the gi-eat proportion of that of
 
 Chap, xx.] THE PRIVILEGES OF THE EXILES. 321 
 
 Western Siberia. In the latter region there are still the 
 descendants of many of those Cossacks who followed the 
 renowned Yermak in his victorious march across the Ural, 
 and who continue in the enjoyment of certain privileges 
 granted to them by the Emjjress Catharine. But Eastern 
 Siberia, by far the richest of the two, may be said to be 
 entirely peopled by the descendants of convicts. These 
 belong to two categories — those who are condemned for 
 capital crimes, and those who are expatriated for minor 
 offences. The criminal who belongs to the first category, 
 when he has undergone the corporal punishment allotted 
 to him, and served his term (generally mitigated) of hard 
 labour in the government mines, has a portion of land 
 granted him, on being released from his confinement. He 
 may cultivate as much ground as he chooses to clear, using the 
 timber for building purposes or fuel. He is exempt from the 
 payment of taxes, and from the conscription. The children 
 of these convicts, born in Siberia, enjoy the same privileges, 
 but they are still what are called minors, and do not possess 
 the rights of a free peasant. For example, they are disquali- 
 fied from holding any honorary appointment in the village 
 or community where they may reside. Such disabilities may 
 be, and frequently are overcome by means of money ; for 
 an industrious peasant has an opportunity of saving, and 
 it is not an unusual thing for them to become rich. 
 Many of the most wealthy men in Siberia at the present 
 moment — large gold-digging proprietors, merchants, &c., are 
 the descendants in the second or third generation of convicts 
 who have undergone the penalty of the law. These men 
 generally manage to "write themselves up," by a judicious 
 application of their money, and then by paying the dues of 
 one of the three guilds of merchants, they obtain a status in 
 society, and enjoy the right of trading; they often make for- 
 tunes, either in trade, gold-digging, or other enterprises.
 
 322 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROII PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xx. 
 
 The other class of criminals is composed of those who 
 have been exiled for minor offences such as theft ; and 
 of serfs, who, before their great emancipation in 1859, were 
 liable to be sent to Siberia for any offence against their 
 masters, or even for no offence at all, but from sheer 
 caprice. I met an old woman in Tomsk who had been 
 exiled on the latter count. She had inadvertently stuck a 
 needle into the wall, and her mistress, with the nervous- 
 ness that a bad conscience produces, took it ijato her head 
 that the serf intended to bewitch her. For this offence 
 the old wretch (though I dare say she was young then) was 
 sent to the police, to be despatched to Siberia with the next 
 batch of government exiles, and the official record stated 
 she was so sent " by the will of her master." 
 
 Well, these convicts not possessing the rights of free citi- 
 zenship, are, on arriving in Siberia, appointed to reside in, or 
 registered as belonging to, a certain district of the province 
 where the Governor-General may determine to colonise 
 them. After three years' residence, certain advancement 
 is held out to these people, if they can produce a certificate 
 of good behaviour. They are allowed to marry, to become 
 settlers, to clear and cultivate land at pleas-ure. They are 
 exempt from taxes for the space of twelve years ; and after 
 that they only pay a trifle. These convicts are, however, 
 legally dead, can never hold property in their own name, and 
 of course can never return to Russia. But so far from this 
 latter restriction being a real hardship, if a return to their 
 native air were permitted them, it is highly improbable that 
 any woidd avail themselves of the privilege. Siberia is really 
 the land of promise to them. The descendants of these con- 
 victs become free agriculturists, and live in independence. 
 They pay to government a tax of from three to four pounds, 
 sterling, per head,* per annum, which is very much higher 
 
 * This tax is levied on every male above 18 j'ears of age.
 
 Chap, xx.] A FIELD FOR ENTERPRISE. 323 
 
 than the tax levied on the peasants of Russia proper. But 
 there the peasant had, in addition to the small tax to 
 government, an ohroh to pay to his master, amounting 
 on an average to about four pounds sterling a year. The 
 Russian peasant, before the emancipation, got nothing in 
 return for this tax, but was bound body and soul to his 
 master, and unable to do anything to better his condition 
 that was not entirely agreeable to the arbitrary will of his 
 owner. The peasant in Siberia, on the other hand, is abso- 
 lutely free in all things to follow the bent of his own will. 
 He has no master to dread and serve, and owes obedience to 
 nothing but the law of the land. The Siberian peasantry 
 are treated with every liberality by the government, whose 
 ruling purpose with respect to that country is to colonise 
 it with industrious communities, who will turn its natural 
 wealth to account, and become an arm of support to the 
 state. For the single tax above-mentioned, the peasant re- 
 ceives as much land as he can clear, as much timber as he 
 chooses to fell, and no rent is required from him. The land 
 he has worked is his own. No other person can disturb his 
 possession, and the government even cannot claim from him 
 any portion of the land so acquired without his formal re- 
 nunciation. The primeval forest may be said to cover the 
 whole of Siberia — the cleared spaces are as drops in the 
 bucket, and the bare steppes, where timber is scant, bear 
 but an insignificant proportion to the whole. In the imme- 
 diate vicinity of some of the large towns, where the people 
 have been burning wood for two hundred years, a palpable 
 impression has been made on the forest, and there it has 
 been found necessary to restrict the cutting of wood to 
 cei'tain limits, both as to the quantity consumed, and the 
 boundaries within which trees may be felled. These re- 
 strictions are enforced with a view to securing the gi'owth 
 of young wood within a convenient distance of the towns. 
 
 y 2
 
 324 SIBEEIA]Sr ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cu. xx. 
 
 There is but one Siberian nobleman and proprietor of 
 serfs in existence, — Mr. Rodinkoff, Counsellor of State and 
 Vice-Governor of the Province of Yeniseisk, a kind-hearted, 
 good old man. His grandfatlicr received from the Empress 
 Catharine a grant of lands and peasants in Siberia on the 
 terms of Russian serfdom. But neither he nor his successors 
 ever attempted to exercise proprietary rights over their 
 peasants, who lived very much as the free peasants do. 
 One of the family, the brother of the present proprietor, 
 broke through the custom of his fathers, and paid the 
 penalty of his life for his imprudence. He attempted to 
 put in force his full signorial rights, and to levy contribu- 
 tions on his peasants, as in Russia proper. The consequence 
 was that he was murdered in one of his excursions to visit 
 his estate, within thirty miles of the town of Krasnoyarsk. 
 The present proprietor seldom interferes with, or visits his 
 peasants, but contents himself with the modest imposts of 
 wood for winter fuel for his town residence, and hay for 
 his horses, with which they cheerfully supply him. 
 
 In the matter of recruiting, the Siberian peasants have 
 always been leniently dealt with. In many parts of the 
 country they are exemj^ted altogether for certain conside- 
 rations. Those who settle on the rivers Lena and Yenisei, 
 are exempt from all taxes and recruiting, on condition 
 that they supply travellers with post-horses, and convey 
 the government post, for both which services they are, 
 moreover, paid at a higher rate even than in other 
 parts of the country. This privilege extends from near 
 Irkutsk to the frozen ocean on the Lena, and from the 
 town of Yeniseisk to the frozen ocean on the Yenisei. The 
 extreme severity of the climate, and the inhospitable nature 
 of the soil in these regions render it necessary to encourage 
 settlers, and so to secure uninterrupted communication 
 through the country. There is no spring, and no autumn in
 
 Chap, xx.] CONCESSIONS TO PEASANTS. 325 
 
 these parts. Three months, and in some districts less, of 
 Slimmer, is all the time allowed them for cultivation of 
 the soil. The rest of the year is winter, during which snow 
 lies to the depth of from seven to upwards of twenty feet. 
 The temperature then falls to 30°, 40°, and in some parts 
 50° Reaumur of frost (equal to ~ 35°, - 58°, and - 80°, Fah- 
 I'enheit). No corn grows, and but few vegetables, but the 
 country abounds with wild animals such as bear, elk, deer, 
 sables, foxes, squirrels. The inhabitants become expert 
 hunters, and make a good living out of the furs they obtain. 
 
 The settlers in the river Angara are also exempted from 
 taxes of all kinds, and from recruiting, on condition of their 
 supplying government and private travellers with skilful pilots 
 and guides, for which they are of course likewise -well requited 
 by those who employ them. This is necessary on the Angara, 
 that river being one of the most dangerous in the world. 
 Being the only river that runs out of the Baikal Lake, a 
 heavy volume of water is forced down into it, and during its 
 course from the lake to its confluence with the Yenisei, it is 
 full of falls and rapids, which can only be passed with safety 
 under the guidance of pilots of local skill and knowledge. 
 
 The amenities of free life enjoyed by the peasants of 
 Siberia have produced the unmistak cable effect of, in some 
 measure, eradicating the impress of slavish degradation which 
 centuries of servility had stamped on the whole race of moujiks. 
 The hereditary marks of the yoke are still too plainly to be 
 seen, and many generations will probably pass from the scene 
 before even the Siberian Russians can claim to be really 
 civilised. But it is a great thing to have made such a good 
 start on the road to improvement. The progress made is not 
 likely to be lost; each stage of advancement rather becomes a 
 guarantee for still greater, an^ more rapid progress in the 
 future. The feeling of independence has taken deep root in 
 the minds of these freemen, and it would be no longer pos-
 
 326 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xx. 
 
 sible to enslave tliem, -without causing a revolution. Their 
 ideas have been enlarged. Industry and economy are seen to 
 have their full reward. The security of life and property, and 
 the liberation from the arbitrary dictates of a superior will, 
 give the people encouragement to cultivate their talents in 
 the full faith that their labours shall not be in vain. Un- 
 limited wealth is open to all who have the energy to seek it. 
 Great numbers of the Siberian peasants have amassed for- 
 tunes abeady. Other tastes naturally flow from worldly pros- 
 l^erity, and already among the merchants who have enriched 
 themselves from the ranks of the peasants, education is begin- 
 ning to attract attention. In due time mental culture wiU, 
 no doubt, spread downwards, and the distinction of classes, 
 Avhich has so greatly retarded the progress of civilisation in 
 Russia, may gradually be smoothed away. The amalgama- 
 tion of classes will consolidate and strengthen the whole 
 body politic, and should that happy consummation ever be 
 realised in Russia, Siberia will have the honour of leading the 
 way. The barriers that obstruct free intercourse between the 
 different strata of society are already partially broken down, 
 greatly to the advantage of all. For slavery or serfdom exer- 
 cises a demoralising influence on masters and slaves alike. 
 The institution in Russia crushed the energy of life out of 
 the serfs, and almost destroyed their thinking faculties — so 
 much so that centuries of fi-eedora may be inadequate to 
 enable the emancipated to rise to their proper level of 
 intelligence. 
 
 While the serfs were thus degraded and kept down to a 
 position but little superior to that of domestic animals, their 
 masters, having no community of feeling with them, were 
 actuated by the single motive of extorting the maximum 
 revenues out of their human property. The cares of manage- 
 ment devolved on the serfs, and the masters, being for the 
 most part almost as much as the serfs shut out from their
 
 'Chap. XX.] THE SERF EMANCIPATION. 327 
 
 legitimate share in public affairs, abandoned themselves to 
 extravagant pleasures and dissipation, or to mischievous 
 intrigues. Without any healthy occupation for body or mind, 
 a highly artificial mode of life developed itself in the ranks of 
 the wealthy serf-proj3rietors, the sole refuge from which was 
 in the military or civil appointments of the government. 
 Practical education was wanting in the great body of them, 
 so that when their source of revenue was taken away by the 
 liberation of their serfs, they broke down from the want of 
 any resources within themselves by which they might have 
 maintained their standing in society, and even have im- 
 proved their pecuniary condition in other careers. There were 
 very many exceptions to this, but such was the necessary 
 tendency of the institution of serfdom, and such was the 
 actual fate of those proprietors who allowed their energy 
 to be sapped by the unnatural life to which they were 
 born. 
 
 It was probably the growing prosperity of Siberia, and 
 the marked superiority of the condition of the popu- 
 lation there, that induced the government to emancipate 
 the serfs of Russia proper. The importance of this great 
 measure can hardly be over-estimated, and I doubt whether 
 the Emperor Alexander II. has received the full credit due to 
 him for the enlightened liberality which dictated, and the 
 noble courage which carried into execution, this truly magni- 
 ficent conception. It is well known that the most determined 
 hostility of the great majority of the nobles was arrayed 
 against the measure, which, from their point of view, threat- 
 ened to sweep away at one blow their whole worldly wealth. 
 The Emperor stood almost alone, being supported by a small, 
 and not overwise minority. His life was several times in 
 jeopardy. But he maintained his purpose with singular per- 
 tinacity through three years of discussion and deliberation, 
 during which the ill-timed zeal of his supporters raised serious
 
 328 SIBERIAN EOUTE FEOM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [C'li. xx. 
 
 difficulties in his way by trying to drive matters too fast. At 
 the end of three years the ukase was signed, and in two years 
 more twenty-three millions of male serfs, with the correspond- 
 ing number of females, were set free. Whether we consider the 
 vast numbers of men and women whose destiny was involved, 
 the radical character of the change effected, the fomiidable op- 
 position which had to be borne down, or the germs of expan- 
 sion which it implanted into the Russian people, moulding the 
 wdiole future history of the nation, this act of the Emperor of 
 Russia stands unrivalled as a measure of reform in the history 
 of the world. Many other reforms have been introduced 
 during the present reign, but the emancipation of the serfs is 
 an achievement in itself worthy of a lifetime. 
 
 Peter the Great did much to promote the progress of the 
 material prosperity of his country, and considering the bar- 
 barous character of his education, and of the age in which he 
 lived, more than established his claim to the title of Great. 
 Catharine made her reign " glorious ; " Nicholas made his 
 name terrible ; but to Alexander II. belongs the immortal 
 honour of liberating his people from slavery. The full results 
 of this great work will only be manifested in future ages. The 
 serfs have now, as it were, been born to political life — their 
 education is but beginning. With freedom, industry will 
 gi'ow ; the comforts of life will be enjoyed ; intelligence will 
 spread, and higher aspirations will be infused into the servile 
 millions. In course of time the Russian population will 
 be capable of exercising the rights of freemen, and the day 
 may come when even the despotism of the government may 
 yield something to the claims of the people for representa- 
 tion. Already a change for the better is observable among the 
 liberated serfs. Each had a piece of land allotted to him, 
 varying from eight to twenty acres, with the right to farm or 
 purchase more. Residents in Russia have noted an increase 
 in the productiveness of many parts of the country, in conse-
 
 Chap, xx.] ITS EFFECTS ON THE XOBLES. 329 
 
 quence of the improved system of agi'iculture tliat has been 
 initiated since every man began to grow his own crops, 
 instead of slaving his life away for behoof of a master whom 
 he seldom saw, and who took little interest in the manage- 
 ment of his property. Even the character of the people is 
 already sensibly ameliorated. They show more self-reliance 
 and self-respect than formerly, and their increased industry 
 is implied in the greater production of the country. 
 
 The effect of the emancipation on the nobles has been 
 various. The spendthrift portion of them have been ruined 
 by it, as also those who had not the ability, foresight, or 
 resolution to take timely measures to meet the consequences 
 of the social revolution. Others lost heavily, to the extent 
 of half or two-thirds of their incomes ; but, facing the emer- 
 gency in a practical spirit, they betook themselves to useful 
 emplo3niients, with a view to improving their circumstances ; 
 and many of these have regained by such means all that they 
 had lost. The more prudent and economical proprietors, who 
 devoted themselves to the improvement of their estates, and 
 were fully prej)ared for the change, have been j)ositively 
 gainers by the movement ; for, besides making more out of 
 their property by efficient management and free labour than 
 they could extort from their serfs, they have the indemnity 
 paid by government to the credit side of their accounts. 
 
 The highly exasperated feelings displayed by the majority 
 in the first instance cooled down considerably during the 
 five years which elapsed between the first notice of the 
 intended reforai and the actual consummation of it. The 
 Russians are tolerably well accustomed to arbitrary measures, 
 and their feelings are not naturally very deep. But the 
 nobles were still far from being satisfied, and the mutterings 
 of general discontent that were heard long after the inaugu- 
 ration of the new regime, continued to be a cause of anxiety 
 to the Emperor. The dissatisfaction of the nobles was fed
 
 330 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSI5URG. [Cii. xx. 
 
 from various causes apart from the serf question. A pretty 
 general reform of abuses was instituted about the same period. 
 Many time-honoured privileges and monopolies were invaded, 
 to the prejudice of those who were battening on the spoils of 
 office. Matters continued in a critical state until the perpe- 
 tration of the infamous deeds of incendiarism which preceded 
 the Polish insurrection. These occurrences brought all the 
 best part of the population to the side of the government, 
 and restored the wavering loyalty of the nobles and military 
 officers; and the malcontents, whose nefarious gains in public 
 offices of trust and otherwise were put an end to, were fain 
 to sink their grievances in oblivion.
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 KIZAN — POLISH EXILES. 
 
 We passed through a great deal of bare, flat and unin- 
 teresting country on the road to Kazan. The ground being 
 covered with snow, we could not judge of the soil, but 
 farming villages were tolerably numerous, and a fair amount 
 of population seemed to find a subsistence there. Oaks, 
 of which we saw none on the Siberian side of the Ural 
 range, now began to appear. The birch trees grow straight 
 and tall, and pines were less conspicuous in the woods. 
 
 The number of Polish prisoners we found on the road 
 threatened seriously to impede our march. We had met 
 them occasionally in Siberia, but between Perm and Kazan 
 we encountered companies of them on the way, and at 
 almost every station. The resources of the posting esta- 
 blishment were severely taxed to provide horses for so 
 many travellers at once, and we had frequently to wait till 
 the Poles were gone, and then take the tired horses they had 
 brought from the last station. The Poles travelled in the 
 same manner as we did, in large sledges containing three 
 or four people, sometimes more. Those who could not be 
 accommodated with sledges had carts, or telegas, which were 
 more or less crowded. None of them travelled a-foot. All 
 were well clothed in furs. On the whole I was surprised to 
 find such a number of people travelling with so nmch comfort. 
 When we met a party of them in a post-station we were 
 very short of room, unless when we happened to be there
 
 332 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM REKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xxi. 
 
 first. Then the cooking establishment was entirely mono- 
 polised by the exiles when it pleased the officer in charge to 
 dine them. On such occasions we postponed our repast to 
 the next station. The prisoners are invariably treated with 
 kindness and consideration by the officer in charge and by the 
 gensdarmes. They are under close surveillance, but I did 
 not see any of the prisoners in irons, though I was informed 
 that some of them were so. I remember one fat, jolly felloAV 
 in charge of one of the detachments of jjrisoners. He was a 
 captain in the army, and had hard work to console himself in 
 his forlorn situation. He did not at all like the service he 
 was engaged iu ; indeed he seemed to feel his banishment to 
 Siberia more than the exiles themselves. He envied our 
 destination homewards, and took occasion to bemoan him- 
 self a little. " Ah ! you are happy," said he ; " in a few days 
 you will be in Moscow, but I, poor devil, must go to Tobolsk 
 with gensdavnies'' — accompanied by an expressive shrug 
 of the shoulders, and downcasting of the eyes. He made 
 companions of some of the prisoners ; one in particular he 
 seemed to be on cordial terms with. The officer told us this 
 prisoner had held a commission under Garibaldi, and had 
 been lately captured leading a band in Poland. He was a 
 handsome young fellow, with a wild look in his eye. As for 
 the rest of the prisoners, there was nothing remarkable about 
 them. They ate well and talked loudly ; the din of their 
 voices at a post-station was intolerable. They joked and 
 laughed a great deal, by way of keeping their spirits up I 
 suppose ; but no indication whatever was given that they 
 were exiles undergoing the process of banishment. If one 
 might judge from appearances, I should say they rather 
 liked it. 
 
 On the 24th of November, late at night, we reached Kazan, 
 a fine old town, the name of which is closely bound up with 
 the ancient history of Russia. I found a letter waiting me
 
 Chap, xxi.] FREEZING OF THE VOLGA. 333 
 
 at the post-office there, in answer to my telegi-am from 
 Kolyvan, which was a comfort. How I got into the post- 
 office at eleven o'clock at night, and how the men happened 
 to be there in their places at that hour, I was not very clear 
 about. But it was explained that two posts were then ex- 
 pected, one from the east and one from the west, and that 
 when I hammered at the door they thought it was at least 
 one of them. Arriving in Kazan very late, we took up our 
 quarters for the night at the station hotel, where we were 
 half suffocated as usual by the close fusty atmosphere of a 
 room kept up to -f- 16° Reaumur (68° Fahrenheit), no air 
 being ever allowed to enter. , 
 
 In the morning we began to hear ominous warnings about 
 the Volga. The ice was coming down in big lumps, and our 
 sledge could not be got across — so we were informed. It was 
 seven versts from the station to the ferry. We might drive 
 there and see for ourselves, but then it would have been 
 excessively disagreeable to have to return defeated. We con- 
 sulted a Russian gentleman to whom we had a letter of in- 
 troduction, but no comfort was to be got from him. The 
 state of the river was as bad as it could be, and he strongly 
 advised us not to leave Kazan until the Volga was hard 
 frozen. The voice of the tempter had been saying " wait, 
 wait," at every point of our journey from Kiachta to Kazan, 
 but as vve had not listened before, we were not likely to do it 
 now, when so near the end of our journey. I could not help 
 remarking how singularly we had been baulked by contu- 
 macious rivers during the two months that had passed since 
 we encountered the Tolla in Mongolia. The}^ were always 
 just in the impassable crisis when we happened to reach 
 them, and last of all the Volga gave us trouble, a river that 
 we never reckoned on crossing at all. A little earlier we 
 should have passed up the river in a steamboat. A little 
 later we should have driven up the Volga on the ice, for that
 
 334 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xxi. 
 
 is an almost direct road to Nijni-Novgorod, But of course we 
 hit the wrong time, just betwixt and between. The river 
 must however be crossed if we would proceed. 
 
 An offer of twenty roubles being made for the sledge, we 
 sold it to the post-master. It was he who persuaded us 
 that we could not take it further, and of course we 
 thought ourselves " done " in consequence. We got our traps 
 stowed in two post-chaises and drove towards the ferry on 
 the Volga. In leaving the main town of Kazan we crossed 
 over a causeway, or embanked road, through a marsh which 
 connects the town with a kind of suburb. The view of 
 Kazan from the other side of the swamp is very fine. 
 It is built on high ground, and its spires and domes 
 show to great advantage from a distance. In the summer 
 season, when tree leaves and green gi-ass are out, the environs 
 of Kazan must be very pleasing to the eye ; for even in 
 November, when the country was one great snowy waste, 
 bleak and cheerless, the town looked really handsome. The 
 best houses, as well as public buildings, are built of brick, 
 indeed a wooden house is rather the exception there. 
 Having crossed a flat tract of country, we reached the Volga 
 at a point about five miles from Kazan, and as many above 
 its confluence with the Kama. It is truly a noble river, and 
 the high banks enable one to get a sort of bird's-eye view of 
 the broad sheet of watpr. I should rather say a compound 
 of water, ice, and snow, for . the surface of the river was 
 covered with large blocks of ice, loaded with snow, moving 
 rapidly down the stream, with a few open spots of clear 
 water here and there. There was great commotion at the 
 ferry among moujiks, Cossacks, and Tartars. Several boats 
 were busy conveying passengers across, but they made 
 slow work of it. The men refused to start from either side 
 until they saw, or thought they saw, sufficient space clear to 
 hold out some hope of tlieir being able to effect the passage.
 
 Chap, xxi.] ICEBERG NAVIGATION. 335 
 
 They would wait an hour or more for a favourable opportu- 
 nity to start, and even then they were just as likely to be car- 
 ried dowTi by the driving ice as to fetch the opposite landing. 
 One boat was jammed in mid-channel and borne down in a 
 perfectly unmanageable condition for two or three miles, 
 until the moving icebergs voluntarily released her, when she 
 was got to land at a j)lace where it was impossible to get 
 horses or sledges near, owing to the precipitous nature of 
 the bank. The model of these boats is beautifully adapted to 
 this kind of iceberg navigation. Their sides are cut away, 
 so that a straight line is drawn from the gunwale to the 
 keel. A section of the boat is represented by the letter V, 
 but the angle formed by the two sides is much gi'eater than 
 that in the usual form of that letter, so that the boats are 
 very flat. They may be nipped between two fields and no 
 damage be done, as there is nothing for the ice to get hold 
 of. Did the boats present a perpendicular side to the edge 
 of it, they could not escape destruction. We unfortu- 
 nately had ample time to make observations on the naviga- 
 tion of the Volga and other matters that came under our 
 notice, for we were compelled to kick our heels about the 
 whole day, without finding a boat disengaged. Long before 
 dark the men stopped work for the day, to make sure they 
 would not be caught in the dusk of the evening essaying a 
 passage which demanded all their wits in broad daylight. 
 The first hour or two passed pleasantly enough while we 
 entertained ourselves watching the process of a river freezing. 
 A margin of thick ice had already formed along the bank, 
 strong enough to arrest the progress of the " pack " in its 
 downward course, when borne against the projecting points. 
 The floating ice-fields crashed with great impetuosity on the 
 fixed ice, were shattered by the shock, and, urged by the 
 force of the current, the fragments were piled up one above 
 another in huge chaotic masses. When left still for a short
 
 336 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROII REKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xxi. 
 
 time the pile congealed, and in a few hours was ready to 
 serve as a barrier to stop more of the pack and annex it to 
 the mass. During that one day the solid ice was extended 
 six or eight feet, and with continued frost a very few days 
 would suffice to freeze over the whole river. 
 
 The military were in great force on the banks of the Volga, 
 and carried everything their own way, regardless of the 
 interests of the general public, as represented by the few 
 civilians who presented thernselves as candidates for the 
 middle passage. We had seen some of the soldiery before 
 this time, but they were so-called " Cossacks " of the old 
 t}^e. Those we encountered at Kazan, and on the Volga, 
 were smartly set off with French military caps, and had 
 really a soldier-like bearing. The traditional grey over-coat 
 was universal, but there was enough of innovation in their 
 get-up to mark the recent improvement that has taken place 
 in the Russian soldier. I shall probably allude in the sequel 
 to the army reforms introduced into Russia during the 
 present reign. 
 
 A good many Tartars were sprinkled among the crowd 
 that infested the landing-place at the Volga ferry. They 
 usually wear a round fur cap, somewhat different from that 
 worn by the Russian moujik. Their physiognomy is widely 
 removed from the Sclavonic type. They have the flat features 
 of the Mongol races, but are not to be confounded with any 
 of them. 
 
 The ferry-boats were engaged the whole day in conveying 
 Polish exiles across the river, bound for Siberia. It is a sad 
 sight to see so many people in captivity, and still more so to 
 see a number of women accompanying the exiles. It is quite 
 common for the wives, daughters, and mothers of the political 
 convicts to follow their relatives into Siberia. This is not dis- 
 couraged by the Russian government ; on the contrary, every 
 facility is granted to enable the families to emigrate, and they
 
 Chap, xxi.] EXILES ON THE MARCH. • 337 
 
 have always the means of travelUng in company. The object 
 of the government is to colonise Siberia, so that the more 
 people go there the better. Besides, the residence of families 
 in exile offers some guarantee against any attempt at a re- 
 turn to their native country. Two old ladies I particularly 
 noticed coming out of a boat, accompanied by two soldiers. 
 They were both well dressed in black silk and wai-m fur 
 cloaks. One of them was extremely old, and unable to walk. 
 She stooped a great deal, and leaned on a crutch while stand- 
 ing on the ice. The other was also very frail. We pitied these 
 old creatures, exposed as they were day after day in such 
 inclement weather, compelled to undergo the hardships and 
 privations inseparable from all Russian and Siberian travel- 
 ling. They w^ere treated with great kindness by the soldiers, 
 who lifted them carefully out of the boat, carried them to 
 their sledges, which were in waiting, and put them in as ten- 
 derly as if they had been their own mothers. After carefully 
 wrapping them up with their furs, a Cossack got in beside 
 each of the ladies, and they drove off to Kazan. A girl who 
 was with them was equally well attended to by the officer in 
 command of the party, who seemed to consider the Polish 
 maiden to be his especial charge. 
 
 Much has been said and written on this Polish question, 
 and an unusual number of distorted and exaggerated state- 
 ments have gained cuiTency in Europe on the subject. It is 
 certain that neither the oppressors nor the oppressed are to 
 be implicitly trusted as regards their veracity, and it is not 
 easy, in consequence, to sift out the bare unvarnished truth. 
 But, leaving out of sight for a moment the actual merits of 
 the question, as between the Russian government and the 
 rebellious Poles, the fate of the exiles is by no means such a 
 hard one as is too commonly supposed. I have taken pains 
 to inquire into this, and the more I have heard about it from 
 persons well able to judge, the more have I been convinced
 
 33S SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxi. 
 
 that the Poles in Siberia are very much better off than the 
 averao'e of those in Poland. The Russians to a man con- 
 demnthem, and justify their government in the measures that 
 have been adopted to put down the insurrection. But their 
 feelino-s of loyalty to the Emperor may possibly warp their 
 judgment. The foreign residents who have no such influ- 
 ence to sway their opinions, may be considered impartial in 
 the matter ; and they, on the whole, indorse the Russian views 
 as regards the Poles. Those English residents in Siberia with 
 whom I have conversed, assert that the Polish exiles enjoy a 
 degree of peace, comfort, and prosperity, that they were alto- 
 gether strangers to in their own country. Wealth, talent, in- 
 dustry, and education have the most ample scope in Siberia, 
 and are set free from those distractions which sap healthy enter- 
 prise in a country torn with civil wars. I have already given 
 some hints of the position occupied by Russian political exiles 
 in Siberia, and I need not dwell on the subject now, further 
 than to say that the Poles are treated with still gTeater 
 leniency and consideration. 
 
 That the exiles are, on the whole, dissatisfied, there can be 
 no doubt. But the more sensible of them admit that their 
 worldly circumstances are improved by going to Siberia. Many 
 of them are pleased at the change, and would not Avillingly re- 
 turn home if it were open to them to do so. So long as they 
 remain in Poland, they say, they are at the mercy of every 
 band of malcontents, who have nothing of their own to lose. 
 In revolutionary times they are constrained, in spite of them- 
 selves, to take part in the proceedings, and to sacrifice their 
 time, property, and everything else to schemes of which 
 they may strongly disapprove. They never feel secure from 
 the consequences of the folly of their hot-headed countrymen. 
 They have no heart to work, when they are liable, at any mo- 
 ment, to be involved in ruin by the rashness of some insurrec- 
 tionary party. But Siberia offers an escape from all this strife
 
 Chap, xxi.] THE POLES IN SIBERIA. 339 
 
 and endless conspiracy, and some of them hail with delight 
 the sentence that exiles them to a more congenial soil. No 
 one, indeed, who has observed, in an impartial manner, the 
 conditions of life in Siberia and Russia respectively, will 
 be disposed to doubt that the former is really the more attrac- 
 tive residence, and although it is remarkable, it is not incre- 
 dible, that many Poles should deliberately prefer it to their 
 own country. 
 
 As a precautionary measure, the Russian government has 
 always studied to scatter the exiles over Siberia, to prevent 
 any large communities of them from congregating in one 
 place. The governor-general of Western Siberia has the 
 power of distributing them as he may see fit. All the exiles 
 are taken to Tobolsk as a rendezvous, and are there told off to 
 the various districts they are destined to reside in. In their 
 final distribution there is great room for favouritism, as well 
 as for the gratification of malevolence on the part of the 
 governor ; some of the exiles may be sent to the large towns, 
 and others to wild, uninhabited regions, and inhospitable 
 climates. Oppression and cruelty have doubtless been in 
 former days practised on them, and may possibly still, to some 
 extent, exist. But, in the main, they are treated kindly, 
 both while travelling, and in their appointed residences. 
 Whatever sentence may have been awarded (speaking of 
 criminals), it is invariably mitigated in practice. The stigma 
 of exile is no bar to their well-doing in Siberia. Everything 
 combines to make their lives pleasant, except that one ele- 
 ment of bitterness, the ever-present consciousness that they 
 are under the ban of the law, and doomed never to return to 
 their own unhapj^y country. That one consideration is, no 
 doubt, powerful enough, in ardent and sensitive minds, to 
 neutralise all l^e elements of happiness that their banish- 
 ment affords ; but time mellows it down to a vague, latent 
 feeling of oppression, and sympathy with those of their 
 
 z 2
 
 340 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKIXG TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xxi. 
 
 countrymen wlio may still be engaged in the hopeless struggle 
 for indejDendence. Those of the exiles who have sense 
 enough to accept their lot in a philosophical spirit, and 
 do not weary their lives out in chafing under their fate, 
 have comparatively little cause for dissatisfaction. The 
 object of the Russian government is not so much to punish 
 the insurgents, as to colonise Siberia with people of education 
 and intelligence. Attempts to escape are punished with the 
 utmost seventy ; but these attempts are rare. 
 
 Mrs. Atkinson relates a story of a Pole who was caught 
 in a desperate effort to return to Europe, and sent to the 
 mines. The same is still the stock-story served up for 
 the entertainment of travellers, the ten years or more 
 that have elapsed not having ajDparently supplied another 
 instance. 
 
 There cannot be much difference of opinion on the ques- 
 tion of the spoliation of Poland by the three great powers. 
 Although the vices inherent in the Polish constitution ren- 
 dered the subjugation of the country by its powerful neigh- 
 bours almost inevitable, nothing can justify the unscrupulous 
 proceedings of Russia and her two satellites in seizing it. 
 But in the immediate causes that prompted the recent 
 insurrection, and the measures adopted by the Russian 
 government to quell it, the Poles have perhaps received more 
 sympathy, and the Russians more odium, than they de- 
 served. It is certain that the Emperor was liberally disjDOsed 
 towards the Poles ; but they aspired, not to greater liberty, 
 but to absolute independence of Russia. As was well shown 
 by the correspondent of the " Times," no reform, however 
 radical, would conciliate them while they were connected with 
 Russia, and the easy rule of Alexander II. was the very thing 
 that enabled the Poles to rebel, which, under the iron hand of 
 Nicholas, was impossible. 
 
 It is, doubtless, a legitimate grievance that a highly cul-
 
 Chap, xxi ] THE POLISH INSURRECTION 341 
 
 tured people, as the Poles are, should be goverued by semi- 
 barbarous Russians ; but, on the other hand, the superior 
 intelligence of the Poles found its full value in Russia. They 
 were rapidly gaining posts of trust and emolument in the 
 imperial service, and I have heard it said, by a person emi- 
 nently qualified to judge, that if they had but postponed 
 their insurrection for ten years, they would then have had no 
 cause to rebel, because by that time they would have virtu- 
 ally governed Russia as much as Russia governs Poland. If 
 the Poles had possessed the practical jahilosophy of the 
 Chinese, they might have overcome their conquerors by a pro- 
 cess somewhat analogous to that by which the latter people 
 have successively out-civilised the various Tartar powers, and 
 overrun their territories. Bat they cast to the winds their 
 opportunities, and committed their destiny to the hazard of a 
 desperate venture, in which success was, humanly speaking, 
 impossible. The only result, indeed, that could reasonably ' 
 have been expected from this fatal enterprise was that the 
 old relations between the two counti'ies should be replaced 
 on the footing of a rigorous despotism on the one hand, and 
 absolute subjection on the other. 
 
 Without attempting to extenuate the severities, often arbi- 
 trary, and cruelly unjust, that have been practised on the 
 Poles by the Russian officials in the later stages of the insur- 
 rection, due allowance should be made for the exaggerations 
 inseparable from one-sided accounts, especially in times of 
 great excitement. And it is reasonable that their fair share 
 of responsibility for the blood that has been needlessly shed, 
 should be borne by the leaders of the movement, who with 
 suicidal rashness plunged their country into a war, which a 
 little calm reflection might have shown them was hopeless 
 from the beginning. 
 
 It is well also to note that, since the rebellion has been 
 finally put down, the Russian government has evinced no
 
 .342 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xxi. 
 
 vindictive feeling towards the subjugated Poles ; but, on the 
 contrary, has set itself to improve their condition by the 
 establishment of many liberal measures, social and educational, 
 the progress of which was interruj)ted by the outbreak of the 
 insurrection. 
 
 But supposing even that the insurrection had been suc- 
 cessful, what substantial advantage would have accrued to 
 Poland ? A return to the conditions existing before the 
 partition, the hostile factions and the confederations more 
 tyrannical even than Kussia, would not have been a great 
 improvement. And Poland would then have been a small, 
 weak, and poor kingdom, surrounded by three powerful ene- 
 mies, who would never want a casus belli. How long would 
 the kingdom have been likely to maintain its existence under 
 such conditions ?
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 KAZAN TO PETERSBURG. 
 
 When, far on in the afternoon, we saw no prospect of 
 effecting a crossing of the Volga that day, we were glad to 
 pack our traps into the first sledge that offered, and make 
 our way back to Kazan. We were not the only disappointed 
 ones, but the other v/est ward-bound travellers, having more 
 practical knowledge than ourselves, took the precaution to 
 drive down in a town sledge, without their baggage, to recon- 
 noitre the ferry. With our bulky impedimenta, we were in 
 a condition eminently favourable for being victimised l)y the 
 rapacious rascals who repaired to the spot with horses and 
 sledges, attracted thither by the same instinct that brings 
 the eagles to the carcase. In the first instance, we had been 
 charged the fare for fourteen versts, for a stage that was 
 acknowledged to be only seven — no better reason being 
 alleged for the charge than that it was " necessary." The 
 sledge had been sent back to the post-station, after being 
 discharged of our persons and appurtenances, and at the end 
 of the day we found ourselves at the mercy of a set of 
 wide-mouthed moujiks, with the most exalted ideas of the 
 value of their services. 
 
 The hotel " Ryazin," where we took up our quarters, had 
 the reputation of being one of the most fashionable in 
 Kazan, as was made apparent to us by the thick atmosphere 
 of stale tobacco-smoke that pervaded the long narrow cor- 
 ridors, and close pent-up rooms. Deeming ourselves to have
 
 34 i SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxii. 
 
 entered a country so far civilised that we could get anything 
 for money, and feeling greatly in need of consolation under 
 the defeat we had sustained, we mustered courage to order a 
 bottle of wine with our dinner. We had carefully eschewed 
 liquor at the hotels in Siberia, not expecting great things 
 there, and from a desire to discourage a taste which we 
 should rarely have the means of gratifying. In old Kazan 
 we had more confidence, and the classical names and aristo- 
 cratic prices on the " wine card " of the Kyazin gave promise 
 of something good. But we were only tantalised — the wine 
 was not only of no recognisable species, but positively 
 nauseous. We did get good fresh butter, however, an 
 article, strange to say, scarce in Siberia, notwithstanding 
 the abundance of milk. It is worth notice that the Russians 
 have but one word, raaslo, to signify butter, cart-grease, and 
 oil in general. Can it be possible that the confusion of ideas 
 frequently caused by this circumstance has given rise to the 
 exaggerated, but generally believed, reports of the foid 
 feeding of the Russians ? 
 
 A diorama was being exhibited in a distant part of the 
 huge building of the hotel. The pictures were mostly copies 
 of originals in the Hermitage at St. Petersburg, and their 
 merits were extolled after the usual fashion by the exhibitor 
 in French and Russian. The attendance was fair, but the 
 entertainment very so-so. The only impression I carried away 
 was that the Russians of Kazan were easily amused. 
 
 On the following morning we again proceeded to the 
 Volga to try our luck. The river had totally changed its 
 appearance during the night. The thick masses of conglo- 
 merated ice and snow had disappeared. The open water had 
 shifted from the right to the left bank, and the middle of 
 the river was covered with a thin sheet of new ice, floating 
 downwards. A boat was soon loaded by ourselves and a few 
 other passengers, and half-a-dozen lusty moujiks tracked us
 
 Chap, xxil] FERHYMEN'S DEVOTIONS. 34.5 
 
 slowly up the stream by means of a rope. Sometimes a 
 towing path on the high bank was used, and sometimes a 
 path was extemporised on the margin of solid ice, which in 
 places was piled uj) in liigh sharj) peaks that entangled the 
 towing-rope. The master of the boat urged on his team, 
 familiarly addressing them as " dogs," which I am bound in 
 charity to consider as a term of endearment, when applied to 
 Russian moujiks. When we had gained a position whence 
 we could cross the river easily, the crew was brought on 
 board, and the boat launched into mid-stream. The thin 
 ice was easily broken up by poles and boat-hooks, and no 
 great difficulty was experienced in effecting this passage. 
 The Russian ferrymen have a very inconvenient habit of 
 stopping to cross themselves, and mutter invocations to the 
 saints while in the most critical situation. They do this 
 sometimes at starting, but invariably when in the middle 
 of the river. I frequently felt that we were put in peril by 
 this ultra-superstitious practice, for often at the moment 
 when the greatest care is needed to pilot the boat through 
 treacherous ice-fields, the whole crew lay down their oars, 
 take off their hats, and perform the ceremony. The Chinese 
 sailors beat gongs and burn joss paper to ensure good luck 
 on their voyage, but they are too sensible to endanger them- 
 selves by such superstitious observances, and on the whole, 
 show less confidence in supernatural aid than in the appli- 
 ances within their own control. " Prayer and provender 
 never hinder a journey," is an excellent maxim within reason- 
 able limits, but the practice of Russian ferrymen shows how 
 the best of rules may be abused. 
 
 A number of small steamers were frozen in on the right 
 bank of the Volga, as also a fleet of hulks elegantly fitted up 
 with rooms on deck. These were the floating steam-boat 
 and other offices, government oflices, &c. In the season, 
 when the navigation is open, and passenger steamers, tugs.
 
 346 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxii. 
 
 and barges are plying to and fro, this part of the Volga must 
 be a busy scene. 
 
 A sledofe was sent for us at the farther side, and we were 
 once more en route. A tap-room, kept by a very low kind 
 of Jew, is conveniently situated near the ferry on the right 
 bank. Here the boatmen indulge themselves freely in liquor 
 out of the proceeds of the harvest they make while the ice 
 is forming. We got slightly warmed with tea in this house, 
 but the publican objected to our drinking our own brandy 
 " on the premises." The law was on his side, and we could 
 say nothing, but the alternative of drinking the poison 
 which he was licensed to sell was too repulsive, even had our 
 need been greater than it was. 
 
 At Kazan and the Volga we observed that the Russian 
 pourhoire changed from na vodku (" for brandy ") to na tsai 
 {" for tea "), the latter being the common expression in 
 Russia proper, and the former the current phrase in Siberia. 
 Tea drinking is considered a matter of superlative impor- 
 tance in Russia. When a cab is hired for the day, the driver 
 will ask for a quarter of an hour " to drink tea," and a little 
 money on account to provide the means of doing so. People 
 repair at stated times to a traldeer, or tavern, in Moscow and 
 Petersburg to drink tea. After the opera, parties retire for the 
 same purpose. It does not follow that tea is always the beverage 
 patronised on these occasions. The tea drinking at midnight 
 is more likely to consist of caviar, ryabchick, and champagne. 
 
 Our road lay parallel with the general line of the Volga, 
 occasionally approaching near to some of the elbows of the 
 river. The country is flat and marshy, but well cultivated, 
 and farming villages are numerous. The villages and small 
 towns are built on raised ground, whether naturally or artifi- 
 cially raised, I am uncertain. The most remarkable feature 
 in the towns is the extraordinary number of churches. In 
 one very small place I counted eight.
 
 Chap, xxii.] THE FINAL MISERIES OF THE ROAD. 347 
 
 Oaks are abundant in the country between Kazan and 
 Nijni-Novgorod, and the beech trees grow to a good size, and 
 in beautiful form. The forest has been cleared away to make 
 room for agriculture, and the bare flat is only relieved by the 
 clumps of gnarled oak and the fine avenues of birch, which 
 are planted in double rows on each side of the post-road. In 
 winter, they looked handsome in their nakedness, and in the 
 summer heats they will afford a grateful shade to travellers 
 on the road for some hundreds of miles. 
 
 The roads were bad ; but habit had inured us to that. The 
 postal arrangements were, however, worse than anything we 
 had experienced. The reason was obvious. This part of the 
 road being only used for a few weeks, between the closing of 
 the Volga navigation and the complete freezing of the river, 
 no provision is made for the comfort of travellers in the way 
 of covered conveyances. Having parted with our own sledge, 
 we travelled 'pevacladnoi, that is, changing at every station. 
 No covered sledges could be procured for love or money, but 
 so long as we could use sledges, the discomfort was not into- 
 lerable, although the snow became gradually scantier as we 
 advanced westward. On the 28th, however, the little snow 
 that remained melted, and some rain and sleet fell. Sledg-e- 
 travelling was discontinued, and we had to resort to the 
 telega, simpl}'^ an open cart without any springs. For the 
 whole day we did dreadful penance in these lumbering vehi- 
 cles, over the most atrocious roads that can be imaoined. 
 Our progress was, of course, slow in the extreme, and to 
 complete the catalogue of our miseries, a heavy shower of 
 sleet fell, which soaked our furs and wraps to such an extent 
 that we could hardly bear their weight. In tliis pitiable 
 condition we reached the last station before Nijni at 10 
 o'clock at night. We had resolved to pass the night there, 
 and get our clothes dried before morning, deeming further 
 exposure to the cold dangerous to our health. The surly
 
 348 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xxii. 
 
 brute of a postmastei", whom it was our misfortune to meet, 
 put his veto on our intentions. I shall never forget his face, 
 nor his blue coat and brass buttons. He was one of those 
 slaves, dressed in a little brief authority, whose sole expe- 
 rience had been the iron heel of tyranny planted on his 
 neck, and whose one idea, when not licking the dust himself, 
 Avas to make others do so if possible. It is a necessary result 
 of a slavish education in some minds, that they cannot con- 
 ceive of any other relation in life, than that of oppressor and 
 oppressed. For the honour of Russian postmasters in 
 general, I am glad to say that such specimens as the jack-in- 
 office at Kstavo are rare. He refused us a fire, or a room, or 
 any means of making ourselves decently comfortable, so 
 after shivering for an hour we determined to resume our 
 journey to Nijni. A hard frost had set in, accompanied by 
 a keen wind that cut us to the bone. The misery we suffered 
 during the last stage of our journey, was beyond all de- 
 scription. Never was I more grateful than when we 
 gained admission to the hotel "Russia" at Nijni-Novgorod, 
 at four o'clock next morning. Under the genial influence 
 of a warm room and a dry bed, our miseries were soon 
 forgotten, and the horrible experiences of the night dissolved 
 into a dream that helped to intensify present enjoyment. 
 " Sweet is pleasure after pain." There is no rest without 
 labour, and happiness itself would be insipid without a season- 
 ing of misery. Life, to be really enjoyed, must be chequered 
 with light and shadow. The bright passages remain vivid in 
 the memory, while the darker shades fade into forgetfulness. 
 The time to see Nijni-Novgorod is during the great fair 
 which is held in July, and which attracts to the spot people 
 of every race and language. The Nijni fair is one of the 
 great commercial events in Russia, Goods are brought to it 
 from vast distances, and as much business is done there in a 
 few days as in many months in the larger cities. There are
 
 Chap, xxii.] NIJNI-NOVGOROD. 349 
 
 several other gi-eat fairs still held in Russia, such as the one 
 at Irbit, in the west of Siberia. They are relics of an un- 
 settled state of society, and will no doubt gradually give way 
 before modern civilisation. The enormous cost of transport 
 necessarily incurred in bringing merchandise to the fair, and 
 in carrying it away again to its destination, does not equal 
 the guild dues, and other charges, which the traders would 
 have to bear, in order to do the same business in Moscow or 
 Petersburg. The consuming population are, therefore, taxed 
 out of all reason, with no advantage to the merchants, or to 
 the government revenue. One merchant may, for example, 
 take his wares from Moscow or Kiev to the fair at Nijni, and 
 sell them to another, who carries them back to the point 
 whence they were originally despatched, and the double 
 expense of carriage may still be less than the cost of trans- 
 acting the same business in the towns.* It cannot be that 
 such a state of affairs can long withstand the inevitable 
 march of enlightenment. 
 
 We of course saw Nijni-Novgorod at a disadvantage. The 
 toAvn was comparatively empty ; the steam traffic which 
 keeps the neighbourhood alive during the summer was all 
 over for the season, and the rivers Volga and Oka looked 
 deserted. The snow was melting fast, and the streets were a 
 mass of slush. This, with a leaden sky and drizzling rain, 
 rendered the town as miserable as can be imagined. The 
 Oka joins the Volga at Nijni, and the town is situated on a 
 high peninsula between the two rivers. The suburb in which 
 the great fair is held is opposite the town, on the other side 
 of the Oka, and there also is the terminus of the railway. 
 At the time we passed, there was but one train a day to 
 Moscow. It started at about four o'clock in the afternoon, and 
 was calculated to arrive at Moscow — three hundred miles — 
 about six or seven next morning. 
 
 ♦ " Russ. Shores of the Black Sea."— L. Olipliaut.
 
 350 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cn. xxii. 
 
 Our journey virtually terminated with our joining the 
 railway, for though still some 2500 miles from London, we 
 had no more hardships to look forward to, no toilsome days, 
 or sleepless nights, no hard fare, and no struggles with the 
 elements. It was hai'd to realise the superlative comfort of 
 a railway carriage in our shaken and shattered condition. It 
 seemed too good to be true. The varied incidents of our 
 four months of travel crowded on the memory, and we soon 
 dropped into a delicious sleep amid confused visions of 
 drunken yemschiks, broken wheels, diabolical roads, icebergs, 
 and ferry-boats, with deserts and strings of camels dimly 
 shadowed in the back ground. In the grey of the morning, 
 we found ourselves in Moscow the Holy, and were soon com- 
 fortably settled in M. Billet's hotel. Our progress towards 
 civilised comfort culminated here, and the luxury of bed 
 and board at M. Billet's seemed a full compensation for the 
 miseries of the road. 
 
 To do justice to the delights of Moscow would require a 
 higher inspiration than I am blessed with, and all I could 
 say about the Kremlin, its palaces and churches, the 
 theatres, operas, &c., has been much better said already. 
 The few days spent there seemed very short. Should I ever 
 be tempted to revisit the fine old city, however, I hope the 
 municipal council will have made some arrangement for light- 
 ing the streets with gas. In this respect they are sadly behind 
 the age ; and in a gay population like that of Moscow, which 
 lives mostly at night, it is surprising that illumination has not 
 before now been demanded by the popular voice. The portable 
 gas which is carted about the streets in hogsheads, is a wretched 
 makeshift. The sudden exhaustion of the supply of light fre- 
 quently causes a theatrical performance to be interrupted 
 until another hogshead of gas is procured ; and during the in- 
 terregnum young Russia delights in electrifying the audience 
 by yelling and whistling, as if they would bring the house down.
 
 Chap, xxii.] FROM MOSCOW TO PETERSBURG. 351 
 
 A large building on the outskirts of Moscow was pointed 
 out to us as the foundling hospital, a great institution in 
 Kussia, one of whose chief uses seems to be to rear ballet- 
 girls, and most efficiently does it perform its functions. 
 
 From Moscow to Petersburg by railway is a monotonous 
 and uninteresting journey, especially in winter. The country 
 is flat and bare ; here and there a patch of winter wheat 
 struggled through the thin covering of snow, but the general 
 aspect in the month of December was that of a desert. The 
 only town of note on the line is Tver, on the Volga, where 
 the railway crosses that river. In the construction of the 
 line, the convenience of the various small towns has not 
 been consulted. It was a purely imperial project to connect 
 Moscow with Petersburg. It is said that when the engineeivs, 
 who were engaged in the construction of the line, applied to 
 the Emperor to know what curves they should make so as to 
 pass through the most populous towns, he laid a ruler on the 
 map, drew a straight line from Petersburg to Moscow, and 
 bade them follow it. 
 
 Railways, like all other public works in Russia, have been 
 constructed at enormous expense, from the peculations of 
 the officials who had to do with them. It is related of the 
 Emperor Nicholas, that when he had failed to impress certain 
 Persian ambassadors with the magnificence of his capital, he 
 turned in despair to Prince Menschikoff, and asked him 
 whether there was nothing that would astonidii them. The 
 prince suggested that they might be shown the accounts of 
 the Moscow railway. 
 
 We were not so favourably impressed with Petersburg, as 
 a place of residence, as we had been with Moscow. It is a 
 magnificent city, no doubt ; its quays, bridges, " perspectives," 
 palaces, and squares present a faultless exterior, and leiive an 
 impression of grandeur on the memory that makes other 
 things small by comparison. But the chill of officialism
 
 352 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKIKG TO PETERSBURG. [Cn. xxii. 
 
 rests on the place ; it was created out of a swamp by the 
 fiat of an emperor, and the imperial will is all-pervading 
 still ; you cannot shake off the idea. Looking down the 
 " Nevsky," you take in at a glance miles of street laid out 
 with mathematical accuracy, and the effect is very striking ; 
 you admire the magnificent Nicholas bridge that spans the 
 Neva, a work that made the fortune of others besides the 
 architect ; in short, you admire everything separately and 
 collectively about the capital, but the reflection always crops 
 up that this fine city and the glory of it exists by the will of 
 the emperor. Moscow is antiquated ; its streets are not so 
 straight, nor so wide, nor so regular ; its buildings are not 
 so imposing ; but it is a natural and spontaneous growth ; 
 there is a more homely and comfortable air about it than 
 Petersburg ; and it was not built for the admiration of the 
 world, but because people wanted houses to live in. Peters- 
 burg lacks the historical interest that invests the old capital, 
 and it will be long before it disj)laces the holy city in the 
 affections of the Russians, who one and all have a kind of 
 superstitious reverence for Moscow. The Czars also hold 
 the old city in high esteem, and are said to regard the Kremlin 
 as the focus and ultimate asylum of their power. 
 
 The season was late in Petersburg. Up to the middle of 
 December the little snow that fell melted. The temperature 
 varied from a little above to a little below the freezing point. 
 Some days the Neva brought down masses of floating ice 
 from Lake Ladoga, and on other days the river was quite 
 clear. I fear the pork -butchers of the interior were pre- 
 mature in sending in their supplies of frozen pigs, for they 
 seemed very likely to get thawed in the mild atmosphere of 
 Petersburg. The sky was constantly overcast, and the few 
 hours of daylight were consequently cut short at both ends. 
 Everything conspired to throw a gloom over the place, and 
 the people were longing for their snow roads and their
 
 Chap, xxir.] WAYS AND MEANS. 353 
 
 sledges, their races and games on the Neva, and the 
 pleasures of their winter season. The " Court " was at 
 Tsarskoe-selo, writing despatches, while the Polish insur- 
 rection, the proposed congress of Paris, and the financial 
 difficulties of the government, supplied food for gossip to all 
 circles in the city. The reply of the Emperor to the invita- 
 tion of his " good brother," as published in the Journal, 
 excited universal admu'ation. And as for the currency crisis, 
 everyone had some nostrum of his own which would infallibly 
 put things right, but none of them seemed to touch the es- 
 sential point, the supply of bullion. 
 
 Great activity prevailed in the government dockj^ards, 
 where a number of iron-clads were being built. One of 
 these building yards was close to Miss Benson's, where I 
 lived, and we got the full benefit of the clanging of hammers, 
 from a very early hour in the morning, till the latest hour at 
 night at which we happened to be awake. I believe they 
 worked day and night, as if busily preparing for war. Some 
 vessels had been hurried out of England unfinished, and 
 enormous quantities of iron-plating, and other materials, had 
 been imported from England for vessels to be constracted in 
 Russia. The yards we were shown through were all under 
 the superintendence of English firms, and Englishmen occupy 
 responsible positions in the admiralty. The number of iron- 
 cased fi-igates in progress at Petersburg and Ki-onstadt, is 
 sufficient to account for the abstraction of bullion from the 
 government treasury in such amounts as to derange the 
 paper currency of the country. 
 
 But the financial disturbance is of some years' standing, 
 although it has gradually been getting worse. It dates 
 from the Crimean war, which drained the resources of 
 Russia, both in men and treasure, to an extent which the 
 government has been reluctant to admit. The difficulty Avas 
 met at the time by the increased issue of paper-money, 
 
 A A
 
 354 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO. PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxii. 
 
 which government has never been able to redeem. The 
 crisis was not much felt until the Polish insurrection again 
 taxed the energies of the government, while it was still lan- 
 guishing under the effects of the Crimean war, and unpre- 
 pared for this fresh demand on its resources. This was 
 probably the real reason why the government was so slow to 
 meet the emergency in Poland with adequate means. More 
 paper-money had to be issued, unrepresented by bullion, and 
 unconvertible. The paper currency became depreciated 
 twelve to fifteen per cent, below its ostensible value, and in 
 the uncertainty that prevailed as to the future, business was 
 for a time brought almost to a stand. All the financiers of 
 Russia have been labouring to restore the equilibrium, 
 but as yet their best laid schemes have failed, for none of 
 them has discovered the means of replenishing the bank 
 treasury. 
 
 The most casual observer cannot fail to mark the respect 
 in which all classes in Russia hold the Emperor. In the most 
 distant provinces, indeed, the peasants regard the Czar as a 
 kind of demi-god who, if he could only be informed of their 
 grievances, would set all to rights. But in Petersburg, where 
 his majesty may be seen any day in the street, divested of 
 ethereal attributes, the people love him. The contrast be- 
 tween the reign of the present emperor and that of his father 
 is very striking. Formerly the interests of agriculture, manu- 
 factures, and commerce were sacrificed to the ambitious 
 schemes of the Czar. The military glory of the empire, and 
 the imperial projects of aggrandisement absorbed the ener- 
 gies of government; and to promote these ends the substance 
 of the country was wasted. That is all changed now. The 
 Emperor Alexander II. from the time of his accession has 
 devoted his energies to the amelioration of the condition of 
 the people, to the encouragement of native industry, to the 
 economising of the national resources, and to promoting the
 
 Chap, xxii.] GOVERNMENT REFORMS. 355 
 
 efficiency of the executive. Reforms have been set on foot 
 in all departments of the state, — military, legislative, finan- 
 cial, and social. Success has attended many of these new 
 measures ; many are still in progress ; but the gi'eat work 
 is only begun. It is an important step gained, however, 
 that the government has become alive to the need of admi- 
 nistrative reform, and if the life of the present monarch be 
 spared to the age of his father, he will have left his country 
 a century in advance of where he found it. 
 
 The Russian soldier is now smart and well equipped, well 
 armed, well fed, and well treated. Military discipline has 
 been greatly improved, and the men have now to go 
 through regular courses of gymnastics. The army is under- 
 going a transformation. Recruiting is more regular. The 
 term of service has been reduced to fifteen years, but practi- 
 cally it is much less. The soldiers begin to look like civilised 
 beings, and to acquire self-respect. 
 
 Important reforms in the legislature of Russia have also 
 been introduced. The term of penal servitude has been 
 greatly reduced. A project of law-reform which will include 
 trial by jury is under deliberation. This, if carried, will be 
 a startling innovation in Russia ; and will no doubt be the 
 precursor of many other popular measures. 
 
 A budget is now published yearly, which, though it is not 
 of much practical utility, is nevertheless in some sort a re- 
 cognition of the political rights of the people. 
 
 The police, customs, and the navy are all being subjected to 
 improvements more or less important ; in short, the spirit of 
 reform has been so active, that its influence pervades every 
 institution, except perhaps the Church. Some evils have 
 necessarily attended the recent changes. For example, the 
 abolition of the brandy farm, and the substitution of a sys- 
 tem of excise, by reducing the cost, has increased the con- 
 sumption of spirits among the peasantry. The fatal conse- 
 
 A A 2
 
 356 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxii. 
 
 qiiences of excess threatened to be alarming in some parts of 
 the country, and I heard great complaints in Siberia of the 
 increase of drunkenness. But as a financial measure it has 
 been very successful. The excise duty on spirits in 1863 
 gave the government 117,000,000 silver (i.e., paper) roubles, 
 which is more than one-third of its gross annual revenue. 
 
 The revenues of the Russian government are still suscep- 
 tible of great development. The system of corruption that 
 prevailed so long that it had become almost respectable, has 
 been attacked, but it must be rooted up before the govern- 
 ment can reap the full harvest of its own financial resources. 
 This is not a matter of easy accomplishment, however, as the 
 men from whom the Emperor is entitled to look for support 
 are themselves directly interested in the continuance of the 
 old system of universal peculation. The vast extent of ter- 
 ritory also over which the government executive is diffused, 
 adds gi'eatly to the difficulty of the radical reform of time- 
 honoured abuses. 
 
 No annoyance of any kind, either about passports or lug- 
 gage was experienced by us in arriving at, or departing from 
 Petersburg ; but the pleasantest impression the Czarish 
 capital left on my mind was that of the kindness and hospi- 
 tality of my own countrymen, and of all others whom I hap- 
 pened to meet there.
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 RUSSIA AND CHINA. 
 
 One cannot travel for four months througrh the two 
 largest empires in the world, without reflecting on the 
 analogies and contrasts which they nmtually present, and 
 trying to figure out the causes which have been working 
 such different results in each, since they first became ac- 
 quainted with one another." Analogies in the manners, cus- 
 toms, and modes of thought of the two races are constantly 
 turning up ; and their resemblance to the Chinese has 
 become a proverb among the Kussians themselves. 
 
 Both empires were subjugated in the thirteenth century 
 by the Mongol-Tartar hordes under the descendants of 
 Genghis ; and both succeeded in expelling the invaders from 
 their respective territories. 
 
 From that time the histories of Russia and China have 
 been closely interwoven ; their frontiers have been gradually 
 approaching each other, as Russia extended her conquests 
 eastward, and China westward ; and for the last two hundred 
 years the advancing wave of Russian aggression has impinged 
 on the whole northern line of the outlying deserts and 
 wildernesses which own the sway of China. 
 
 The triumphal advance of the Russians over the aboriginal 
 tribes of Siberia was checked when it came in contact with 
 the superior civilisation and higher military organisation of 
 the Chinese ; and, after a five years' war, China was in a 
 position to impose conditions on Russia, which was done by
 
 358 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiii. 
 
 the treaty of Nerchinsk, 1689. But the Russian schemes 
 have never been abandoned. With the patience of the 
 Asiatic, combined with the determination of the European, 
 Russia has contested the frontiers of China with slow and 
 fluctuating, but ultimately certain, success. Sometimes by 
 force of arms, sometimes by diplomatic craft, by every device 
 that cvmuing could suggest, Russia has made good her pro- 
 gress in Chinese territory from jDoint to point, until the last 
 grand coup of General Ignatieff in 1860 crowned all her 
 endeavours with success. By making dexterous use of the 
 victory of the Anglo-French troops at Peking, he, with a 
 stroke of the pen, transferred to Russia the whole coast of 
 Manchu-Tartary, from the mouth of the Amur river to the 
 frontier of Corea. 
 
 When China first encountered Russia in the debates about 
 the frontier, every advantage was on the side of the former. 
 China was in the position of a powerful, wealthy, populous, 
 and civilised nation, dealing with barbarians. If men were 
 wanted, the warlike Manchus were ready at call. If money 
 was wanted, the resources of China, with her vast pro- 
 ducing population, were immeasurably superior to those of 
 Russia, and perhaps to any country in the world at that 
 time. The Chinese were acting on the defensive, and near 
 home. The government was vigorous and intelligent, and 
 naturally confident of its own superiority. The Russian 
 people were, on the other hand, ignorant, servile, and 
 degraded. Their government was not much better ; and their 
 military resources could only be drawn from vast, thinly 
 peopled, unproductive steppes. 
 
 Peter the Great infused new life into Russia by the energy 
 of his own character, and the judicious encouragement of 
 foreio-ners, by which means he tried to graft civilisation on 
 liis unpromising stock. Amid his varied cares he did not 
 forget his supposed interests in the far east ; but both he
 
 Chap, xxiii.] THE DECLINE OF CHINA. 359 
 
 • 
 and his successors found China too hard a nut to crack. The 
 
 Manchu emperors had consolidated their power in China, 
 and from the days of Kanghi, who drove the Russians from 
 the districts they had occupied on the Amoor in 1688, till the 
 early part of the present century, China was strong and 
 prosperous. The Czars could do no more than send em- 
 bassies, chiefly charged with mercantile questions, to the 
 " Khan of Khans," at Peking. 
 
 The Russian ambassadors were treated as suppliants at 
 Peking ; their reception was such as was accorded to the 
 missions from subject states — in Chinese phrase, " tribute 
 bearers." 
 
 But Russia was all the while making rapid strides in her 
 own internal progress ; foreign inventions, and foreign enter- 
 prise, were largely subsidised, and Russia became a great 
 military power. 
 
 The passion for aggrandisement was strongly developed 
 in Peter, in Catherine II., and in Nicholas ; but still Russia 
 could only knock at the gates of China by means of peaceful 
 missions, and China could still afford to be supercilious. 
 But while Russia progressed, China at the best was sta- 
 tionary ; and, since the first English war in 1839 — 4*1, the 
 germ of decay which the effeminate luxury of the Chinese 
 court had implanted into the Manchu dynasty, born in a 
 hardier climate, has rapidly spread over the whole complex 
 machine of Chinese government. 
 
 The degenerate Manchu emperors, forgetting the wisdom 
 of their fathers, abandoned themselves to flatterers, dis- 
 continued the manly sports to which their predecessors 
 attached so much importance, neglected the affairs of 
 government, and wallowed in sensuality. 
 
 The last emperor, Hienfung, died almost in the prime of 
 life of the grossest debauchery. A wide-spread corruption 
 was the natural result of the demoralisation of the court,
 
 360 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiii. 
 
 and injustice and oppression pressed heavily on the people. 
 Brigandage on a gigantic scale appeared, and soon wasted 
 the fairest provinces of China, running riot for ten years 
 almost unchecked by the imbeciles who ruled at the capital 
 and in the provinces. The whole fabric was ready to fall to 
 pieces, and only waited for some determined will to take the 
 reins out of the hands that were no longer able to hold 
 them. 
 
 Up to the last, however, the self-blinded rulers of China 
 refused to believe in their vulnerability, until the fatal 
 delusion was rudely dissipated by the capture of Peking 
 itself by the Anglo-French forces in 1860. 
 
 The empire lay prostrate at the feet of her conquerors, 
 whose moderation in the hour of victory was the marvel of 
 the vanquished. But China's extremity was Russia's oppor- 
 tunity ; and the subtlety of Russian diplomacy was never 
 exhibited to greater advantage than on this occasion. 
 
 The Russian minister had affected warm friendship to the 
 Chinese government in its troubles, and volunteered indi- 
 rect assistance to it in the impending struggle with the 
 foreigner. But the moment he saw the Chinese government 
 at its wits' end, he swooped down on it with unscrupulous 
 demands, which included the cession to Russia of the whole 
 sea-coast of Manchuria, and the large tract of country from 
 the Usuri and Amoor rivers to the Sea of Japan. The 
 Chinese were in no condition to demur, and to aid them 
 in iteming to a conclusion, they were gently told that in the 
 event of non-compliance, the vengeance of the Czar would be 
 more terrible than the chastisement they were then smarting 
 from. The treaty was made, and Russia triumphed. 
 
 The substantial loss to China of the Manchurian forests 
 was inconsiderable ; but the importance of the gain to Russia 
 can hardly be over-rated. Up to that time, Russia had 
 possessed no harbours on the Pacific that were not closed by
 
 Chap, xxni.] CHINESE AVERSION TO WAR. 361 
 
 ice for half the year. This new accession of maritime terri- 
 tory gives to Russia many excellent harbours, particularly 
 towards its southern extremity, which are open several 
 months longer than the harbour of Nikolaefsk at the mouth 
 of the Amoor. The new harbours in Manchuria are more- 
 over of easier access, not only shortening the voyage from 
 Europe or China by some 600 or 700 miles, but affording 
 great advantages over Nikolaefsk in the simplicity of navi- 
 gation. 
 
 The present helpless condition of China is in a gi-eat mea- 
 sure owing to the contempt of military affairs which a long 
 peace had engendered. The Chinese people are eminently 
 averse to fighting, and consequently to all military matters. 
 They have a proverb which illustrates this : 
 
 " Haou till pu ta ting ; 
 Haou jiu pu tso ping." 
 
 Of good iron you don't make a nail ; 
 Of a good man you don't make a soldier. 
 
 They are too intent on industrial pursuits to waste men, 
 time, or money in feeding armies. Hence they are at the 
 mercy not only of foreign armed powers, but of any band 
 of native ruffians who may organise a pillaging expedition. 
 An enlightened and energetic government, alive to the pro- 
 gress of other nations, would have seen that an efficient 
 standing army was not only compatible with the prosperity 
 of the country, but absolutely essential to its existence ; and 
 w^ould have made a military nation of the Chinese in spite 
 of their more peaceful proclivities. 
 
 But the government of China has for half a century been 
 the reverse of this. Blind and deluded, it has wrapped itself 
 up in false security, trusting to ancient prestige and adroit- 
 ness in negotiation to keep the wolf from the door, and has 
 let the military element slip through its fingers. The paper 
 wall collapsed at the fii'st touch of the hostile foreigner. The
 
 362 SIBERIAJSr EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. sxiii. 
 
 government lost tlie respect of its own people, and became 
 more than ever a by- word among the nations. 
 
 The ascendancy of Russia, on the other hand, is due 
 directly to her military organisation. Her frequent straggles 
 in Europe compelled her to look well to her armies ; and 
 the ambition of universal dominion, deeply rooted in the 
 Russian autocrats from Peter downwards, and probably even 
 long before Peter's time, was a powerful stimulant to military 
 enterprise. The constant wars of aggression in Asia gave 
 employment to large armies, wasted them, and called for 
 continual drafts of new troops. Everything combined to 
 make Russia a great military nation. The absolute despotism 
 of the Czars, allied to projects of vast ambition, was emi- 
 nently favourable to such a result. This very despotism and 
 lust of conquest probably grew up under the all-pervading 
 influence of the Mongols. Genghis bequeathed to his suc- 
 cessors the sovereignty of the world, just as Peter the Great 
 did five centuries later. The Mongol khans taught the 
 Russian princes how to oppress the people. The extortion 
 which these vassals practised under the sanction of the 
 dreaded Mongol name, inured the rulers to tyi'anny, and the 
 people to submission. When the invaders were expelled, 
 therefore, it was natural that the arbitrary habits of the 
 Russian princes should be retained. It was also a natural 
 reaction of ideas for the Russians, when their time came, to 
 turn the tables on their late conquerors. They had seen 
 Tartar hordes, moved by one strong will, overrun Asia, and 
 rule a large portion of Europe. Why should not emanci- 
 pated Russia issue forth from Europe and subjugate Asia ? 
 But whencesoever the idea of the conquest of Asia had its 
 origin, the history of Russia for the, last two centuries shows 
 how persistently it has been followed up through each suc- 
 cessive reign, and how remarkably itMias ruled the policy of 
 the Czars from Peter to Nicholas.
 
 Chap, xxiii.] UNIVERSAL CORRUPTION. 363 
 
 It was no small advantage to Russia, considered as an 
 Asiatic nation, and not the least barbarous among them, to 
 live on the confines of European civilisation. The Czars 
 have been wise enough to avail themselves of the advanced 
 knowledge, and the energy to apply it, which their European 
 neighbours possessed. They cannot be said to have civilised 
 Russia by this fusion of foreign materials, but they have cer- 
 tainly succeeded in making her a powerful nation. It is not 
 probable that the Russian government could ever have held 
 its head so high in the counsels of Europe without this ex- 
 traneous aid ; and although they might, from their native 
 resources, have overcome the nomad tribes of the Asiatic 
 steppes, they could hardly have been in a position to dictate 
 terms to China. 
 
 The Chinese government has had similar opportunities of 
 using foreign science, and mechanical and other inventions, 
 though in a less degree. But it has, till lately, despised 
 and rejected them, and has paid dearly for its mistake. 
 
 In one respect the two empires greatly resemble each 
 other, and that is in the general venality of their officials, 
 high and low. The fact is recognised, to a certain extent, 
 by the governments, and beiDg probably considered irremedi- 
 able, they seem to make the best of it by placing men in 
 responsible positions, with salaries ludicrously inadequate to 
 provide for the ordinary necessities of life. This has proved 
 one potent cause of the decline of China. 
 
 In Russia the vigour of the government has risen superior 
 to the evil. Official dishonesty may have done incalculable 
 injury to the prosperity of the country, but the will of the 
 Czars makes its voice heard to the remotest corner of their 
 unwieldy empire. The provincial officers have great latitude 
 for defeating the ends of justice and good government from 
 sordid motives, and, in a general way, the government will 
 not scrutinise their conduct very closely. But nothing is
 
 364 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxui. 
 
 allowed to obstruct the execution of an ukase from Peters- 
 burg, and the government is, on the whole, well served. 
 Everything in Russia has been made subservient to the 
 glory of the Czars and the military status of the country, 
 and every consideration is sacrificed to the furtherance of that 
 one object. 
 
 It cannot be denied that the warlike and aggressive policy 
 of Russia has been productive of much good. The hidden 
 wealth of desert regions has been to some extent at least de- 
 veloped, and highways of commerce have been opened up 
 through forests peopled with wild animals and their huDters. 
 The plough has been driven over old battle-fields, and popu- 
 lations have been settled where all was desolation before. 
 These, and such like, have been the good results which may 
 be considered as a set-off against the evils of war. How 
 different have been the issues of the infatuated " peace at any 
 price " policy of China, where fertile plains are being daily 
 converted into battle-fields ! 
 
 These, however, are but some of the external or accidental 
 circumstances which have modified the characters of the two 
 empires, and variously influenced their destinies. The essen- 
 tial causes of the progress of Russia and the decadence of 
 China lie much deeper. Some people would tell us that 
 Russia is in the young, vigorous and growing stage of its 
 national life, just emerging from barbarism, when every step 
 must be towards improvement, because, from their low start- 
 ing point, deterioration would be impossible ; while China, 
 on the contrary, has long since reached maturity, has outlived 
 the natural term of national existence ; its industries, arts, 
 learning, social life, and all that constitutes civilisation, have 
 reached a point beyond which they cannot advance ; that the 
 zenith of its glory has been passed ; and that, in the natural 
 course of things, the only advance it can now make must be 
 towards decay and dissolution.
 
 Chap, xxni.] NATIONAL LONGEVITY. 365 
 
 But that theory of the decline of China does not hold good. 
 The mass of the people have not degenerated ; they are as 
 fresh and vigorous as ever they were. It is the government 
 only that has become old and feeble ; and a change of 
 dynasty may yet restore to China the lustre which legiti- 
 mately belongs to so great a nation. 
 
 The indestructible vitality of Chinese institutions has pre- 
 served the country unchanged through many revolutions. 
 The high civilisation of the people, and their earnest- 
 ness in the pursuit of peaceful industries, have enabled them 
 to maintain their national existence through more dynastic 
 changes than, perhaps, any other country or nation has expe- 
 rienced. 
 
 " La nation (chinoise)," says De Guignes, " s'est trouvde 
 renfermde dans des bornes naturelles et fortifi^e, jusqu'a un 
 certain point, contre les Strangers. D'ailleurs ces Strangers 
 ont toujours ete barbares ; ainsi lorsque quelquefois ils ont 
 et^ assez puissants pour pendtrer dans la Chine et*pour s'em- 
 parer de cet empire, I'attachement inviolable des Chinois a 
 leurs anciens usages a forc^ les vainqueurs d'adopter les lois 
 des vaincus. L' empire a changd de maitres sans changer de 
 lois. Lorsqu'un jour les Tartares, qui le possedent a present, 
 seront chassis par une famille chinoise, il n'y aura que le 
 nom de Tartare d'aboK ; le gouvernement sera toujours le 
 meme, et la nation se retrouvera dans I'dtat ou elle dtait il y 
 a deux mille ans."* 
 
 The barbarian invaders had nothing to substitute for the 
 institutions of the Chinese, and they made no permanent im- 
 pression on the nation. So far from being able to grind down 
 the people, the result of their successive conquests has been 
 rather to open up new fields of enterprise to the industrious 
 Chinese, who have gradually appropriated to themselves the 
 
 Hist, des Huns, torn. iii. p. 93.
 
 366 SIBERIAX EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiii. 
 
 territories of tlieir conquerors. Thus the Manchu Tartars 
 have been edged back into the forests by the energetic 
 Chinese colonists, have lost their influence, become absorbed 
 in many parts of their country, and are now almost extinct 
 as a nation. 
 
 The unprecedentedly long existence of the Chinese nation, 
 of their language and literature, their laws and their philo- 
 sophy, has naturally produced in the people a high venera- 
 tion for antiquity. Their geographical position isolated them 
 from all the rest of the world, excepting the rude nomads of 
 Tartary. So, for many ages, they saw no people equal to them- 
 selves in education and intelligence, and no laws like their own. 
 They were constrained to despise the barbarism, even while 
 they feared the power, of their neighbours or their enemies. 
 Their intercourse with the Romans was not sufficiently close 
 to give them much idea of the culture of that people, and 
 they judged of mankind at large by their experience of the 
 Tartars, i^ was therefore in the nature of things that an 
 overweening self-satisfaction should spring up among them, 
 which would ripen into aiTogance. They came to think them- 
 selves the nation, the '' middle kingdom," the centre of the 
 world, and to look upon all foreign races as " outer bar- 
 barians." "VV^iatever lue may think of this national conceit 
 now, there can be no question that, up to a recent period, 
 the Chinese were justified in their high opinion of them- 
 selves, and their contempt for all other races, languages and 
 laws. 
 
 It is necessary to keep this in view, in order rightly to ap- 
 preciate the character of the Chinese. They are very gene- 
 rally supposed to be so proud and bigoted that they cling 
 with blind affection to the traditions of the j)ast, insensible to 
 excellence of any kind that is new, or of extraneous origin. 
 But this notion of their character is wide of the truth. As 
 their own greatness comes from ancient times, and they have
 
 Chap, xxiii.] EAHLY FOREIGN INTERCOURSE. 3G7 
 
 passed the culminating point of their civilisation, so their 
 reason dictates to them reverence for the past, just as 
 their experience has taught them to despise everything ex- 
 ternal. 
 
 The intercourse between the Chinese and the civilised 
 nations of Europe has, in the first instance, brought out the 
 weak side of the Chinese character into prominent relief, and 
 held it up to the derision of the world ; but as that intercourse 
 has become more intimate and thorough, it has afforded a 
 rational explanation of some apparently anomalous traits of 
 character, and has produced among those of the Chinese who 
 have come within its influence, modifications in their views of 
 relative superiority. Ideas that have gi'own with the growth 
 of a people, through many ages, are not likely to be eradi- 
 cated in a day ; but, if founded on reason, they will yield to 
 reason, when it has shown them to be erroneous ; and the 
 adoption of new ideas is likely to be permanent in proportion 
 to the slow and gradual nature of the transition. 
 
 The Chinese first encountered modern Europeans in small 
 numbers, and in the outposts of their empire. They na- 
 turally applied to these visitors the rules whereby they had 
 from time immemorial been taught to manage strangers or 
 barbarians. The Western adventurers who repaired to the 
 shores of China were actuated by purely utilitarian motives ; 
 and to promote theu* own objects they were not above pan- 
 dering to the arrogance of the Chinese. Had their policy 
 been different, indeed, they had but slight opportunities of 
 exhibiting their superiority in culture and civilisation ; and 
 their numbers were too insignificant to have made any 
 marked impression. The result of the earlier intercourse 
 between Europeans and Chinese was, therefore, rather to con- 
 firm than destroy the self-esteem of the latter, who continued 
 to regard the new tribe as belonging to the category of barba- 
 rians. The East India Company did its share in perpetuating
 
 368 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiir. 
 
 the Chinese conceit, by submitting to every indignity that 
 was offered to it for the sake of trade. The natural ten- 
 dency of this course of action, so soon as the controlling 
 power of the company was removed, was to bring on quarrels, 
 the history of which everyone knows. In these wars, which 
 succeeded each other between 1839 and 1860, the superiority 
 of European civilisation asserted itself in China ; the govern- 
 ment was first compelled to acknowledge the power of the 
 foreigner, and it is now learning something of the moral 
 qualities of nations whom it had affected to regard as beasts.* 
 For the first time in their history, the Chinese came into 
 contact with a people superior to themselves. No precedent 
 could be found to guide them in the great emergency, and 
 hence the aggression of Europeans inevitably entailed dis- 
 aster on China, which experience alone could have enabled 
 them to avoid. The ascendancy of Europeans in China is 
 now a fact accomplished and irrevocable, accepted by the 
 natives themselves, and therefore destined to work important 
 changes on the condition of the people and their govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The people have been quick to appreciate the advantages 
 which foreign appliances offered to them in the conduct of 
 their business. For many years their merchants have been 
 employing European vessels in the coasting trade, induced 
 by economy, despatch, and the facilities for insurance thus 
 secured. The extension of sea-board opened to foreign enter- 
 prise by Lord Elgin's treaty, and the free navigation of the 
 great river Yangtsze-Kiang, have attracted a large fleet of 
 
 * Soo-tuMg-po (a celebrated Chinese classic author), says, "The E and the 
 Teih" (the former term being used to designate foreigners), "are like the 
 brute creation, and cannot be governed by the same rules of government as 
 those of the central nation. If liberal rules of government were ai^plied to 
 them, it would infallibly give rise to rebellious confusion. The ancient kings 
 knew this well, and therefore ruled them without laws (or by misrule). This 
 is therefore the most judicious mode of governing them." — AmhersSs Voyage; 
 Lindsay's Ecjjoi'L
 
 CiiAP. XXIII.] MODERN IMPROVEMENTS ADOPTED. 3G9 
 
 steamers to the coast and rivers of China. These are chiefly 
 employed, and in many instances owned, by natives. In 
 everything the Chinese have exhibited a remarkable free- 
 dom from i^rejudice. They are much too practical to allow 
 any freak of fancy to influence them in matters in which 
 they have a tangible interest. 
 
 The Chinese government also has shown, in the most em- 
 phatic manner, the high value it sets on European aid, both 
 in civil and military affairs. The alacrity with which it 
 has adopted the modern engines of war at the dictation 
 of foreigners in whom it had confidence, proves conclusively 
 that the conservative government of China is not so wedded 
 to its own traditions as to reject innovations indiscriminately. 
 It may be slow in coming to a conclusion, and is naturally 
 jealous of any reform which is imperfectly understood. But 
 it only wants convincing evidence of the utility of any mea- 
 sure that may be suggested to ensure its adoption. And on 
 those occasions when the government may appear most 
 reluctant to leave the beaten track, there may be other mo- 
 tives for this besides mere obstinacy. Its prestige is in peril; 
 indeed, may be said to be already to a gi'eat extent lost. The 
 wholesale introduction of foreign improvements would place 
 the government at the mercy of its foreign employes, and its 
 existence as an active and responsible power would be vir- 
 tually destroyed. The attempt to amalgamate foreign ideas 
 of progress with ancient precedent and stagnation is at best 
 a hazardous experiment, if any value is to be attached to the 
 preservation of the integrity of the government. Great allow- 
 ance must therefore be made for the difficult position in 
 which Chinese statesmen find themselves. Reforms they 
 know to be necessary ; but their duty is so to temper them 
 that they may be adopted with the . least possible shock to 
 indigenous institutions. And, even if they foresee the ulti- 
 mate collapse of these institutions, still their prudence would
 
 370 SIBErJAX liOUTE FROM PEKING TO TETEKSBURG. [Cii. xxiii. 
 
 lead them so to restrain the influx of new ideas, that changes 
 might not be too sudden or sweejDing. 
 
 The Chinese nation is at present in a crisis of its history, 
 in which it is pecuharly susceptible of external influences ; 
 and as its foreign relations become more and more consoli- 
 dated, these influences are brought to bear from various 
 quarters and in constantly increasing force. Great Britain 
 having by far the largest stake in the country, and the 
 largest share of the responsibility attaching to the necessary 
 interference in its affairs, the state and prospects of China 
 demand from us a little more attention than is usually 
 bestowed upon them ; for the destiny of that great empire, 
 and our own future interests, will be to some extent moulded 
 by our present policy. 
 
 The problem that is now being worked out in that country 
 is one of which history affords no clue to the solution. The 
 nation has been convulsed for fourteen years by a gxeat 
 insurrection. That is nothing new to the Chinese ; but the 
 conditions are vastly altered. According to precedent, some 
 powerful Tartar or Chinese prince would have appeared to 
 aid the government in quelling the rebellion, and then seat 
 himself on the throne. Or the empire might have been dis- 
 membered between two independent dynasties. Some such 
 solution may still be found, though it is not easy to see 
 whence the movement is to come. Were the other Euro- 
 pean powers out of the way, Russia would be almost in a 
 position to grasp at the sovereignty of China. Had the 
 crisis occurred a hundred years ago, and our interest in the 
 country been as great as it is now, China might have become 
 a second India. But none of these contingencies is now 
 feasible. The integrity of China, and the independence of its 
 government, are sufiiciently hedged round by the jealousies 
 of rival powers. 
 
 The cause of the insurrection, and the great difliculty in
 
 CiiAr. XXIII.] rROSPECTS OF THE REBELLION. 371 
 
 the way of a settlement of Chinese affairs, and of the re- 
 establishment of order, lie in the utter prostration of the 
 Imperial government. This circumstance, which would have 
 been the strength of the insurrectionary party had they pos- 
 sessed the elements of cohesion or administrative capacity, 
 tends only to prolong the weary struggle. The rebels have 
 forfeited the respect of all classes, except the most profligate, 
 or the most ignorant. Their dynastic ambition has been made 
 a convenient battle-cry to cover their crimes. They have no 
 policy but devastation, and have neither the disposition nor 
 the ability to govern. Even if they succeeded in crushing 
 the existing government, they would still have to be subju- 
 gated in their turn by some other power, before tranquillity 
 could be restored to the country. 
 
 The Imperial government has been at last awakened to 
 the importance of quelling the rebellion, which for many 
 years was only trifled with. The division of authority in the 
 provinces prevented that combined action which alone could 
 have met the exigencies of the situation. It was considered 
 a great success, if a body of insurgents was merely chased 
 out of one province into another. The efforts of the Imperial 
 government were, and are still, constantly nullified by the 
 private interests of the provincial authorities. That is one 
 of the gi-eatest abuses that their peculiar system of govern- 
 ment is liable to. The armies that are levied from time to 
 time to defend the provinces are mere local bands, under the 
 control of the governor or his deputies, over whose acts the 
 Imperial government has little or no check. If left entirely 
 to itself, it is doubtful whether the present government would 
 ever have been able to make head against the rebellion at 
 all. What has been accomplished towards that end has been 
 mainly due to the moral support of foreign powers, and the 
 active services of European military officers. The necessity 
 of centralising the government more and more has been 
 
 p. li 2
 
 372 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiii. 
 
 made obvious to the Prince Regent. That is one of the re- 
 forms most urgently needed to secure efficiency and economy 
 in the administration. The old system worked well enough 
 in quiet times, and as long as there was no disturbing ele- 
 ment. But tlie extension of foreign influence along the 
 coast, and in the interior of the country, is constantly stir- 
 ring up questions of Imperial interest, the inevitable result 
 of which is to sink local customs, and to place foreign rela- 
 tions at all the ports on one level. The embassies at Peking 
 have helped to bring all local and provincial questions home 
 to the Imperial government in a more direct manner than 
 ever was done before. The British minister, deeply im- 
 pressed with the advantages that must result to China from 
 the centralisation of the government, has striven by all legi- 
 timate means to promote it. He has only been partially 
 successful, it is true, and in his despatches of June last he 
 betrays disappointment at the result of his efforts. But still 
 a good deal has been done, and every day's experience must 
 teach the government the necessity of strengthening its own 
 authority, and of exercising a more direct and active control 
 over the provincial governors than heretofore. 
 
 The attitude of France and England towards the bellige- 
 rents in China is anomalous. Their principle at first was 
 strict neutrality, but the rapid extension of commercial in- 
 tercourse has rendered this course impracticable. The Im- 
 perial government has been tamed into gi'anting us a treaty 
 advantageous to us, but much more so to China herself By 
 this treaty several new ports of trade were opened on the 
 coast ; access to Peking, and the residence of foreign minis- 
 ters there, were secured. But above all, the Yang-tsze-Kiang 
 was thrown open to foreign trade and navigation. That noble 
 river had been closed to commerce for about eight years. 
 The rebellion had devastated the country on both sides ; the 
 cities on its banks were in ruins, and their populations dis-
 
 Chap, xxiir.] THE IJEBELS AND FOREIGN RELATIONS. 373 
 
 persed or destroyed. From a point five hundred miles from 
 the sea, downwards, to Chin-Kiangfoo, scarcely a sail was seen 
 on that vast expanse of water. Such was the state of things 
 in 1861, when the navigation was opened to foreigners. Now 
 the muddy waters are ploughed by a large fleet of steamers ; 
 the greatest activity prevails everywhere ; cities are being 
 rapidly rebuilt, and populations are returning. The products 
 of the interior are freely interchanged with those of the 
 sea-board, and a new life has been imparted to great tracts 
 of country. The lion's share of this new trade has as usual 
 fallen to the natives. It is they who chiefly supply cargoes 
 for the foreign steamers, and native trading craft every- 
 where crowd the river. 
 
 These events brought us into contact with the rebels, who 
 held, and still hold, Nanking as their head-quarters. From 
 that 2)oint they commanded the river on both sides, and it 
 became necessary that the British authorities should make 
 arrangements for the protection of commerce. Amicable 
 relations with them were attemj)ted to be established, but, as 
 was natural, it soon appeared that our interests clashed with 
 the assumed rights of the insurgents, and that our close 
 alliance with the Imperial government was incompatible with 
 similar relations with its enemies. But the programme which 
 the Taepings announced touched us more nearly than that. 
 The conquests which they proposed to themselves included 
 some of the very ports which were then being opened on the 
 river, an event which would have nipped the root of that new 
 development of trade. 
 
 Our interest in China, as politicians are constantly telling 
 us, is purely commercial. But peace is essential to the pros- 
 perity of commerce, and the present state of confusion and 
 civil war is inimical to it. 
 
 Early in 18(12 the rebels menaced Shanghac in great force, 
 drawing a cordon of forts round tlic city, and cutting off
 
 374 SIBERIAN KOUTE FROM PEKIXG TO PETERSBURG. [Cji. xxni. 
 
 the supplies from tlie interior. Provisions rose to famine 
 prices, and the vast popuhation of the city and suburbs was 
 forced to undergo a siege. Some years before that time cir- 
 cumstances had compelled the • British government to under- 
 take the protection of the treaty-ports, and more especially 
 Shanghae, as being the most important of them, and the most 
 open to attack from the rebels, who held the whole country 
 in rear of it. But, in 1862, it became imperative to do more 
 than that. The little garrison placed there for the defence of 
 the city, might be kept under arms for months, or even years, 
 ready to repel an attack when the invaders should come 
 within range of the city walls ; the pojDulation would live in 
 a chronic state of panic, many of them would leave (as they 
 did) ; trade would be paralysed ; the city and foreign settle- 
 ment would be a mere fortified camp, cut off from all com- 
 munication with the interior of the country. 
 
 In this crisis Sir James Hope, then naval commander-in- 
 chief, came to the front. That officer was well acquainted 
 with the character of the Taepings ; he had had a great deal 
 of communication with them, and had tried every means in 
 his power to induce them to change their manners, so as 
 to secure the respect of their countrymen and of foreigners. 
 He had also repeatedly warned them of the disastrous 
 consequences which would follow any demonstration on 
 their part against the consular ports, Shanghae in par- 
 ticular. 
 
 The state of affairs in Shanghae, in the beginning of 1862, 
 made it clear to Sir James Hope that the effective protection 
 of the city involved the necessity of such aggressive opera- 
 tions as would clear the country in the immediate vicinity. 
 Without waiting for instructions, therefore, he assumed the 
 responsibility of immediate action, and commenced a cam- 
 paign against the Taeping strongholds, which extended over 
 a space of nine months, and ended in the dispersion of these
 
 Chap, xxiii.] BRITISH POLICY. 375 
 
 marauders from that portion of country included in a radius 
 of thirty miles from Shanghae. 
 
 This is a practical illustration of what the policy of the 
 British government has been, and how it has from time 
 to time submitted to circumstances. At first we have the 
 theoretical princiijle of strict neutrality broadly asserted ; 
 then we are compelled to violate that principle in our own 
 defence ; an emergency arises in which the officers on the spot 
 have to choose the alternative of an armed protection of 
 British property, necessarily including a portion of the terri- 
 tories of the Imperial government, or the abandonment of 
 British interests to destruction. Our own government con- 
 firms the decision of its officers — hence, first the ports them- 
 selves, and then the arbitrary thirty-mile radius are placed 
 under foreign jjrotection. At such a distance from the scene 
 of operations, amid such rapid changes in the posture of 
 affairs, and with such important interests at stake, it would 
 be impossible for Downing Street to frame a code of instruc- 
 tions for officers in China which would apj)ly to all possible 
 contingencies, and impolitic to frame them on the pattern of 
 the laws of the Modes and Persians. The abstract principle of 
 non-intervention is very excellent in itself, but to adhere to 
 it when our own material interests are directly assailed, 
 would be pure infatuation. Expediency and self-interest 
 must, after all, be our rule in China as elsewhere. 
 
 Our government at home, and its officers abroad, have 
 always had a dread of complications in China, but much as 
 they have studied to steer clear of them, they have step by 
 step been sucked in, and the end is not yet. 
 
 The disturbances that have ruined so many of the richest 
 districts in China are incompatible with the free course of 
 trade. We have, therefore, a direct interest in tlic restora- 
 tion of peace. The present government of China is on 
 friendly, and even confidential, terms with us ; it has shown
 
 376 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiit. 
 
 gi'eat readiness to cement still closer our mutual relations. 
 It is, moreover, such as it is, and with all its rottenness, 
 the representative of order, and the rallying point for what- 
 ever remains of patriotism in the country. 
 
 The insurgents, on the other hand, are hopelessly given up 
 to their propensities for desolation. If, therefore, peace is to 
 be restored to China at all, within the present generation, it 
 can only be by the subjugation of the insurgents, and the as- 
 cendancy of the Imperial government. With tliis view 
 Admiral Hope first supported the Ameiican, Ward, a soldier 
 of fortune, but a man of energy and genius, who disciplined 
 and led a Chinese force in the service of the Imperial govern- 
 ment. Following up the same line of policy, men and mate- 
 rial were subsequently lent to the force, and, after Ward's 
 death, a great number of her Majesty's officers and men were 
 permitted to join it, and the little army was placed under the 
 command of Captain (now Lieutenant-Colonel) Gordon of 
 the Engineers. Under that officer the force grew to be a for- 
 midable power. Its career during the twelve months or so of 
 Gordon's command wa,s, with one or two exceptions, a series of 
 brilliant successes. 
 
 It can no longer be said that the Chinese do not make 
 good soldiers. Under leaders in whom they have confidence, 
 they exhibit the highest military qualities. Gordon was, 
 perhaps, the first who taught Chinese troops to overcome a 
 repulse. 
 
 The result of Gordon's campaign has been to recover from 
 the rebels the whole of the province of Keangsoo, between 
 the Grand Canal and the sea. He has cut the Taeping re- 
 bellion in halves. The capture of Soochow, last December, 
 gave him the command of the Grand Canal, and enabled him 
 to interrupt communications thereby between the rebel gar- 
 risons of Nanking and Hangchow. Leaving the latter point 
 to be acted on by the Franco-Chinese, who had Ningpo for
 
 Chap, xxiii.] GORDON'S CAREER. 377 
 
 their base, Gordon followed the Grand Canal towards Nan- 
 king, and captured all the cities that lay between. Nanking 
 itself would probably have fallen an easy prey to him, but at 
 that j uncture he was comjDelled to resign his commission in 
 the Chinese army. The service was, from the first, distasteful 
 to him, from the position he occupied in relation to the 
 Chinese officers with whom he had to act. The treachery 
 perpetrated by the foo-tai, or governor of the province, at the 
 capture of Soochow, in putting to death the rebel chiefs who 
 had surrendered to Gordon, disgusted him ; and, failing to 
 obtain satisfaction from the government for this outrage on 
 his o>vn good faith, he determined to quit the service. The 
 Queen's order in council which permitted him to serve the 
 Emperor of China was withdrawn, and the " ever victorious " 
 army has been disbanded, with what consequences the future 
 will disclose. 
 
 It will be always a difficult thing for an officer with a high 
 sense of honour, and with proper self-respect, to serve the 
 Chinese government on its own terms, though it would be 
 comparatively easy for a military adventurer, who is less par- 
 ticular, to build up his own fortunes in such a careei-. The 
 system of management which places the forces of the empire 
 under the control of local authorities, whose interests are 
 frequently antagonistic to those of the nation and the Impe- 
 rial government, precludes foreign officers from attaining 
 their proper position. They are liable to be called upon to 
 participate in proceedings of which their humanity disap- 
 proves. They have to listen to the constant complaints of 
 disaffected troops in arrears of pay. They never can calculate 
 with certainty on next month's sui:)plies, and their men 
 are always on the verge of mutiny. The disbursements for 
 troops are provided out of the provincial treasuries, and hence 
 the provincial authorities have a direct interest in levying as 
 small a number of men as possible, and in doling out their
 
 378 SIBETUAN EOUTE FEOil TEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cii. xxin. 
 
 pay in such measure only as may suffice to prevent a general 
 rising. The scheme of supplying the Chinese government 
 with a steam fleet failed for this, among other reasons, that 
 Captain Osborn declined to serve under any mere provincial 
 authority. 
 
 Whether the Chinese government will now of itself be 
 able to give the couj) -de- grace to the Taepings, or whether, 
 through the incapacity and venality of local officials, anarchy 
 will again distress the newly-conquered districts, is a question 
 of serious import both to them and to us. The policy to be 
 pursued by the British government in China, in any emer- 
 gency that may arise, will demand honest consideration. It has 
 been too much the fashion of political agitators to treat the 
 subject flippantly, and to make the " China question " a par- 
 liamentary shuttle-cock. The general indifference to the 
 subject which prevails in and out of Parliament, affords ample 
 scope for misrepresentation, and some of the men to whom 
 the country looks for sound views are often guilty of hiding 
 their light under a bushel. 
 
 To go no further back than the last debate on China, as 
 reported in the " Times," June 1st, 1864, we there find ample 
 illustration of the fallacious arguments advanced by a certain 
 class of politicians when dealing with this subject. Mr. 
 Bright is very solicitous to clear his friends, who had preceded 
 him in the debate, from the imputation of j)arty motives, that 
 their statements may carry the more weight. The disclaimer 
 will naturally apply a fortiori to himself. But " qui s' excuse 
 s'accuse." How does Mr. Bright treat those who ventured to 
 express opinions at variance with his own ? An honourable 
 member, desirous of obtaining light on the question, sought 
 for it in the prosaic region of fact. Applying to the most 
 authentic sources within his reach, he had collected opinions 
 from a number of persons who had a practical knowledge of 
 the country. These various opinions were remarkably concur-
 
 Chap, xxiii.] TARLIAMENTARY MISREPRESENTATIONS. 371) 
 
 rent, but they did not suit Mr. Briglit's argument. He there- 
 fore considers them " uninteresting," and accounts for their 
 unanimity by insinuating that the honourable member had 
 concocted them all himself ! 
 
 The ponderous speech of Mr. Cobden is as remarkable for 
 what it omits as for what it contains. His object seemed to 
 be to show, first, that our commerce in China was not worth 
 protecting at all ; and, secondly, that he had an infallible 
 scheme of his own which would secure the ends that the 
 policy of the government had failed in attaining. The facts 
 he adduces in support of his argument are judiciously 
 selected ; the inferences he draws from them are framed to 
 suit his foregone conclusions, but have no kind of reference to 
 the relation between one fact and another. Causes and 
 effects are blended in a fantastic medley, well calculated to 
 throw dust in the eyes of the unwaiy, but fatal to the eluci- 
 dation of truth. Mr. Cobden excludes from his view of the 
 China trade the most important part of it, selecting the 
 smallest item — the direct exports from this country — as a 
 criterion of our commercial progress in China. His deduc- 
 tions from such a partial view of facts must necessarily be 
 worthless. But, even on the narrow ground he has chosen, 
 his conclusions are all forced. He avoids saying so in plain 
 language, but the only inference that can be drawn from his 
 line of argument, is that the successive re-actions that have 
 occurred in the advancement of our export trade to China 
 have been the result of our war policy there, and of the 
 closer intimacy of our political and social relations with that 
 country. If Mr. Cobden means anything; he means that. 
 Now what do the facts say, even as Mr. Cobden himself has 
 stated them ? 
 
 After the peace of 1842, our exports increased steadily up 
 to 1845, in which year they doubled the value of 1835, the 
 year that followed the abolition of the East India Company's
 
 880 SIBERIAN" ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Cn. xxur. 
 
 monopoly. For ten years, after 1845, the value of our exports 
 fell to a lower level. Yet during that time we were at peace 
 with China. A marked falling off occurred in 1854, but that 
 was caused by the prostration of trade consequent on the 
 outbreak of the Taeping rebellion, a circumstance wholly 
 overlooked by Mr. Cobden. The wars of 1856 — 60 were 
 followed by an unprecedented increase in our exports in 
 1859, 1860 and 1861. Mr. Cobden is perfectly right in say- 
 ing that the trade of these years was vastly overdone, and a 
 recoil was inevitable. But even in the two following years, 
 when the re-action was operating in full force, the export re- 
 turns showed a vast increase beyond the highest point reached 
 in 1845, or in any year previous to 1859. At this point, 
 Mr. Cobden, probably discovering that he had proved too 
 much, shifts his ground to the single article — cotton. If, as 
 the member for Portsmouth said, Mr. Cobden considers Man- 
 chester as the centre of the world, the cotton test is probably 
 to his mind the most infallible. The exports of cotton goods 
 to China fell from 243,000,000 yards in 1861, to 80,000,000 
 yards in 1862 ; and to 46,000,000 yards in 1863. " That," 
 says Mr. Cobden, " is the character of the business you are 
 transacting in China." 
 
 A word from Mr. Cobden would have explained the dimi- 
 nution of the export of cotton goods on an hypothesis, not at 
 all involving the general decadence of our trade with China. 
 The cotton famine had raised the value of the raw material 
 to two shillings per pound, and the enhanced price which the 
 manufactured goods cost to the Chinese naturally diminished 
 consumption. Again, the Chinese happened, at the beginning of 
 the cotton famine, to be over supplied with cheaper and better 
 goods, and old stocks had to be used up before a response to 
 the exorbitant prices paid in Manchester or an active re- 
 sumjDtion of business could be looked for. 
 
 While surveying our relations with China from the
 
 Chap, xxrii.] INCREASE OF TRADE. 381 
 
 " cotton " point of view, Mr. Cobden might have had the 
 candour to acknowledge the handsome contributions of the 
 raw material which Lancashire has received from China 
 during the last three years. 
 
 Sir Frederick Bruce is a better authority than Mr. Cobden 
 on Chinese affairs, and he says, in a report to the Foreign 
 Office, dated Peking, June 7th, and published in the 
 " Times," September 7th, 1864, " The import trade has in- 
 creased from 41,000,000 taels (about 13,000,000Z.) in 1860 
 (the last year before the opening of the Yang-tsze and the 
 northern ports), to 81,000,000 taels (about 27,000,000^.), in 
 1863. The increase is due in a gi*eat measure to the large 
 and increasing trade from the ports on the Yang-tsze in 
 Chinese produce of all descriptions." 
 
 The vastly increasing trade in imports into this country 
 from China, compared with which the exports are a baga- 
 telle, Mr. Cobden passes over as having no bearing on the 
 question. The opium revenue to the Indian government is 
 also overlooked. The large shipping interest engaged in the 
 China trade goes for nothing in Mr. Cobden's estimate, but 
 it is nevertheless of great importance to the country, even 
 though the vessels are not all owned in Lancashire, and do not 
 all carry cotton. The amount of capital that British ship-o\vners 
 find emplojanent for in connection with China, is not limited 
 to the large fleet of vessels engaged in the direct trade with 
 this country, but is spread all over the coast and rivers of 
 China. In the dispatch above quoted, Sir F. Bruce states 
 that the entries of foreign shipping in China have increased 
 from 293,568 tons, in 1860, to 996,890 tons in 1863. 
 
 The interest which British merchants, and through them the 
 nation at large, possess in the prosperity of Cliina is widely 
 ramified. They are closely involved in the local and coasting 
 trade ; large amounts of Briti.sli capital are sunk in fixed 
 property of various kinds at all the open ports ; and such in-
 
 382 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURa. [Cii. xxiii. 
 
 vestments are inci'easing at a rapid rate. These things lie 
 under the surface, and are not generally considered in esti- 
 mates that are formed in this country of the actual stake 
 Great Britain has in China. But they are none the less real 
 on that account. Theorists may say what they will, but our 
 establishment on the territory of China is a great and im- 
 portant fact ; and whether the process which led to it was 
 theoretically correct or not, it will be impossible to undo it. 
 
 Not only are we fixed in China ourselves, but large native 
 populations at the treaty parts have thrown in their fortunes 
 with ours, to abandon whom would bring calamities on the 
 Chinese for which it would baffle Mr. Cobden to find a 
 remedy. 
 
 To reverse our progress is, however, the policy or the 
 hobby of Mr. Cobden. He would not only undo what has 
 been done, but he would urge the Government on to a new 
 career of conquest in China, without even a pretext for war. 
 He would seize two more islands on the coast in order to 
 make free ports which would draw trade away from those 
 now established. " Get two other small islands .... merely 
 establish them as free ports ; I don't ask you to do more." 
 Mr. Cobden does not commit himself to say how the islands 
 are to be acquired, but he knows very well there is but one 
 way of acquiring them. And supposing we took possession 
 of two islands, how many would France take ? and if England 
 were to lead the way in such schemes of aggTandisement, 
 would the ambition of France stop short at islands ? Many 
 high-handed proceedings have been laid to the charge of 
 this country, but this scheme of spoliation would surpass 
 everything else of the kind. Mr. Cobden would jDrobably 
 suggest purchasing the islands, Avhich would be, at least, a 
 civil way of putting it. 
 
 But the whole scheme is so purely Utopian that one mar- 
 vels that a practical thinker could have shown such contempt
 
 Chap, xxiii.] PEACEFUL NATURE OF THE CHINESE. 383 
 
 for his audience as to propound it. Hong-Kong is tlie model 
 on which Mr. Cobden would shape his new colonies ; very 
 flattering to Hong-Kong, perhaps, but betraying an incredible 
 forgetfulness of the whole history of that colony. The 
 "London and China Telegraph," of 13th June last, in com- 
 menting on Ml". Cobden's speech, shows clearly that the ad- 
 vancement of Hong-Kong as a port of trade was due to 
 purely adventitious circumstances ; and that for many years, 
 when it rested on its o^vn merits for success, it was an abso- 
 lute failure, and a constant expense to the country. If Mr. 
 Cobden aspires to be a second Stamford Raffles, he is begin- 
 ning at the wrong end. Our policy in China will be more 
 safely left to the chapter of accidents than to visionaries. 
 We have hard facts to deal with, and not phantoms of a 
 lively imagination. 
 
 The suppression of the Taej)ing rebellion cannot fail to 
 produce remarkable effects on the condition of the Chinese 
 people. They are ripe for great changes, not in the govern- 
 ment or social institutions (the first is of little or no impor- 
 tance to the people, and the second are stereotyped), but in 
 their relation to the progress of the world. Amid all poli- 
 tical convulsions the people have remained unchanged, and 
 that mainly because they are a non-political people. They 
 are indifferent to affairs of state, but intent on their own 
 business. Yet they have the faculty of self-government de- 
 veloped in an eminent degree. They are quiet, orderly, and 
 industrious ; averse to agitation of any kind, and ready to 
 endure great sacrifices for the sake of peace. Such a people 
 are easily governed, and their instinct of self-government is 
 one important element in their longevity as a nation ; it has 
 enabled successive dynasties, often weak and vacillating, arbi- 
 trary and corrupt, to control three hundred millions of 
 people. This constitutes the elasticity by which they regain 
 lost ground after any temporaiy disturbance. Let the present
 
 384 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiii. 
 
 reign of brigandage be destroyed, and the people will soon 
 rise again ; like pent-up waters they will flow into their 
 former channels, and in a few years scarcely a trace of deso- 
 lation would be left. 
 
 In this prediction we have the experience of various 
 episodes, even of the present rebellion, to guide us. The 
 rapidity with which the city of Shanghae was re-built, after 
 its destruction during the rebel occupation of 1853 — 5, was 
 astonishing. Other cities have been re-built and re-peopled 
 with equal rapidity. Han-Kow, on the great river, has been 
 several times sacked and destroyed by the rebels, and in a 
 short time after each visitation it was worth plundering 
 again. The important city of Soo-chow, captured from the 
 rebels last December, is reported in June following to be 
 showing signs of commercial life, although the surrounding 
 country was still the theatre of war. 
 
 The Chinese people have, however, little cause for confi- 
 dence in the efficiency or the stability of their own govern- 
 ment ; they have on the other hand implicit faith in foreigners. 
 It is obvious, therefore, that any guarantee from Western 
 powers that peace should be maintained in the districts once 
 recovered from the rebels, would stimulate the commercial 
 and industrial energies of the people, and materially contri- 
 bute to the renewed prosperity of the country. 
 
 The prosperity of China is, then, intimately interwoven 
 with our own, for vast fields of enterprise would now be 
 opened out to Europeans which have heretofore been closed. 
 Its resources have been developed to the utmost, per- 
 haps, that a fossil civilisation, unaided by modern invention, 
 is capable of. The Chinese have been ahead of the world 
 from time immemorial in agriculture, commercial economy, 
 manufactures, and all industries ; in short, in everything that 
 constitutes material wealth ; but now in these later days the 
 world has in some things got a little ahead, and is waiting to
 
 Chap, xxiii.] STEAM IN CHINESE AVATERS. 385 
 
 impart its new accomplishments to them. The vast mineral 
 wealth of the country has been but partially taken advan- 
 tage of. Its coal, iron, gold, and silver have hitherto been 
 worked by the most primitive and inadequate machinery. 
 But we are jDrepared to teach the natives how to economise 
 their forces, and to make the most of the natural resources 
 of their country ; and they are being prej^ared to receive the 
 lesson. 
 
 The avidity with which the Chinese have grasped at the 
 advantages offered to them by the steamers that now ply on 
 the coast, and on the great river, is an earnest of their readi- 
 ness to appreciate any other western inventions that are com- 
 mended by their practical utility. The favourable introduc- 
 tion of steam on the Chinese rivers, and the popularity with 
 which their earlier career was attended, wei'e indeed due to 
 fortuitous circumstances. On the Yangtsze Kiang steamers 
 had not to compete with an old-established native trade — 
 that had been for many years dead — but they reopened a 
 commercial route that had been closed, and, at the time, 
 they offered the only feasible means of navigating the great 
 river. Under different conditions they would have had to 
 work their way slowly into the favour of the Chinese ; but 
 now, having established a foothold, they will certainly 
 maintain the position they have assumed, and the Chinese 
 would be soiTy to return to their former T^giinie, under which 
 they could hardly hope to accomplish in a month what is 
 now easily performed in three or four days.* 
 
 There is still great room for the extension of steam traffic 
 
 * " Owing to the violence of the winds, and the rapidity of tlie current in 
 certain places, the application of steam to navigation was required before the 
 Yangtsze could be made available as a highway for transport. The decks of 
 the steamers are now crowded with Chinese passengers, and their holds are 
 filled with produce destined, not for foreign export, but for Chinese consump- 
 tion. The practical advantages of foreign inventions are tlius brought home 
 to masses of the population in the very centre of China, and they can now 
 avail themselves of the natural outlet for the productions of those ricli internal
 
 386 SIBEKIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiii. 
 
 in the interior of China, and great need of it. For the pre- 
 sent, however, foreigners are limited by the provisions of the 
 existing treaties, to the ports formally opened by those 
 treaties. Steamers may penetrate as far np the great river as 
 Hankow, 600 miles from the sea ; but the upper Yangtsze, 
 which is navigable by steamers for 500 miles above that, 
 must still be left to the monopoly of uncouth barges, which 
 are slowly tracked up-stream by men who labour like beasts 
 of burden. The navigation of the Poyang and Tung-ting 
 lakes which communicate with the Yang-tsze ; the Peiho 
 river between Tientsin and Tungchow; the western river 
 from Canton to the province of Kwangsi, and many other 
 water routes — all practicable for properly constructed vessels 
 — are equally excluded from foreign enterprise. The native 
 traders on these routes are deprived of the aid which steam has 
 afforded them in other quarters, and that by a decision of their 
 government which, from a cosmopolitan point of view, is 
 arbitrary and unjust. Inexperience may excuse the Chinese 
 government for this narrow and pernicious jealousy, but 
 what shall we say of European diplomatists who, in full view 
 of the advantages which, as the- past has shown, must accrue 
 to natives and foreigners alike from the spread of foreign inter- 
 course in China, would diminish "the points of contact" 
 from a nervous, and not very rational, apprehension of possible 
 complications ? 
 
 Much has been said of the ruffianism that our newly esta- 
 blished commerce on the Yangtsze Kiang has let loose on the 
 great river. It cannot be denied ; but it would be singular 
 indeed if, with a weak government, a deplorably inefficient 
 executive, and a timid people, outrages should not be com- 
 mitted. In every community there must be lawless charac- 
 
 provinces, instead of being driven to the slow and circnitons method of arti- 
 ficial water communication, and exjiosed to the exactions of the officials of the 
 different provinces they had to pass through." — Sir F. Bruce.
 
 Chap, xxiii.] ROWDYISM EXAGGERATED. 387 
 
 ters whom physical force, or the dread of it, alone can 
 restrain from criminal acts. Under existing circumstances 
 in China, it is the duty of each foreign state to control its 
 own subjects ; but it is manifestly unfair to circumscribe the 
 legitimate privileges of a whole community, in order to punish 
 a few unworthy members of it. Such a policy can only 
 be dictated by indolence in seeking out and punishing 
 offenders. But the instances on record of piracy and other 
 crimes on the Yangtsze Kiang, although authentic, are apt 
 to engender exaggerated views of their relative importance. 
 They are made unduly conspicuous by rhetoricians, who, on 
 the other hand, ignore the smooth under-current' of affairs 
 which is silently conveying blessings to many thousands of 
 people. These occasional outrages are, after all, mere ex- 
 crescences on a system that, in an essential manner, ministers 
 to the well-being of whole populations who would other- 
 wise be in penury. At the worst, the good vastly out- 
 balances the evil ; and, to take the lowest view of the 
 matter, it were better even that the lawless proceedings of 
 a few rowdies should go on unchecked, rather than that the 
 remedy for them should be found in the curtailment of a 
 trade of such great promise. It must never be forgotten that 
 it is the natives of China who derive the chief benefit from 
 foreign commercial intercourse ; and that, while arbitrary 
 restrictions on the plain meaning of treaties, by which it has 
 been sought to limit the application of their provisions, are 
 unjust to foreigners, the refusal to extend foreign intercourse 
 is an injustice of which the Chinese people have a right to 
 complain. 
 
 The unexampled success of steamers in China, within the 
 three past years, has paved the way for a similar result for 
 railways. The Chinese, having satisfied themselves of the 
 advantages that accrue to them from the former, will be per- 
 fectly ready to avail themselves of the latter. They are not 
 
 c c 2
 
 388 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiii. 
 
 naturally given to travel, that is, they travel for profit and 
 not for pleasure. But the facilities for locomotion which 
 steamers now afford them have created a large and increas- 
 ing passenger traffic. The steamers on the coast and on the 
 rivers are usually crowded with Chinese passengers, who 
 seek very moderate accommodation, and therefore can be 
 carried economically. The shortening of a month's journey 
 to one of a few days has induced many thousands to travel 
 who did not think of it before. It is, therefore, a fair infer- 
 ence that the greater economy of time which railways would 
 secure would enable millions to travel who are at present 
 excluded from it. The mere monopolising by railways of the 
 revenues of the present passage-boats, and other means of 
 passenger communication, in certain districts, would be but 
 a trifle compared with the new traffic which railways 
 would create for themselves in such a populous and eminently 
 commercial country. 
 
 And, perhaps, no other country of equal area presents 
 fewer natural obstacles to the construction of long lines of 
 railway. This has been shown by the investigations of Sir 
 Macdonald Stephenson, who has lately published a full 
 report on the subject. The labour, and many of the ma- 
 terials, are to be found in the localities where they would be 
 wanted. 
 
 It may safely be assumed, also, that in no other country 
 would railway investments be more remunerative, if organised 
 on a uniform and comprehensive plan, such as that proposed 
 by Sir M. Stephenson. 
 
 The most populous parts of China are alluvial plains, 
 either fed by great navigable rivers, or intersected in all direc- 
 tions by networks of canals. With regard to the great water 
 routes, which are open to large vessels, it is very problema- 
 tical whether railways could supersede, or even compete with, 
 navigation in the carrying of bulky goods. It could not be
 
 Chai'. xxih.] an opening FOR RAILWAYS. 389 
 
 expected, for example, that on the proposed line from Han- 
 kow to Shanghae, following the course of the great river for 
 650 miles, goods should be conveyed as economically as in 
 steamers that can navigate the river easily, carrying 2000 
 tons of cargo. 
 
 But in those parts of the plain where very small craft only 
 can be used, a railway may easily supersede the present 
 means of transport. 
 
 The saving of time would, perhaps, in all cases attract 
 the passenger traffic to the railways, and that alone would 
 probably be amply sufficient to support them remune- 
 ratively. 
 
 There are many large tracts of country in China less 
 thickly peoi3led than the rich plains, and which do not possess 
 the same facilities of water communication. In the north 
 the traffic is conducted by means of caravans, necessarily 
 slow and expensive ; and in some parts of central China, goods 
 are transported on men's backs. In such regions railways 
 would not only be highly remunerative, but would be an 
 inestimable boon in opening up those parts of the country 
 which, being less favoured by nature, have been kept far 
 behind in wealth and prosperity. To compensate for these 
 natural disadvantages of the north, the Grand Canal was 
 cut to connect the city of Hang-chow with Peking. That 
 stupendous work required constant repairs to maintain its 
 efficiency, and a considerable annual outlay of money. In 
 the disorders of the last ten years the necessary funds for 
 this purpose h^ve either not been raised, or have been mis- 
 appropriated, and the Grand Canal has consequently gone to 
 ruin. The importance which has been attached to this great 
 line of communication by successive dynasties for 900 years, 
 point to the track of the canal as favourable for a line of 
 railway. Of all the branches of Sir M. Stephenson's scheme 
 this is the most obviously desirable. A railway that would
 
 390 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiii. 
 
 restore, and vastly increase the old traffic on the Grand 
 Canal, would do for the forty populous cities it would touch 
 at, what steam navigation has done for the marts on the 
 banks of the great river. Although Peking and the com- 
 mercial cities of North China are accessible by sea for eight 
 months in the year, and in the direct communication between 
 them and the southern coast ports, there is less urgent need 
 of improvement, yet the time now occupied in travelling from 
 Peking to its nearest shipping port is as great as the whole 
 journey to Nanking or Shanghae by railway would take. 
 The benefits which the railway would bring to the inland 
 cities, more remote from the sea or from navigable rivers than 
 Peking, would be incalculable. 
 
 In the correspondence published by Sir M. Stephenson, 
 to show the prospective results of the introduction of rail- 
 ways into China, rather too much stress has been laid on 
 their bearing on foreign trade, and especially on the trans- 
 port of tea from the interior to the shipping ports. There 
 is nothing in the saving of a few hundred miles of a long 
 sea voyage to compensate for the cost of transporting goods 
 by railway. And the conveyance of tea would be a more 
 insignificant item in the whole traffic of railways than it has 
 already become in that of the steamers that trade in the 
 heart of the tea districts. 
 
 The whole question of the foreign trade of China may be 
 put on one side so far as the railway scheme is concerned. 
 The success of railways, and the need of them, rest on a 
 much broader and surer basis. The internal trade of China; 
 the interchange of the products of the diverse climates and 
 soils that are included in the limits of the empire itself — 
 is what really gives life and activity to the people. It is to 
 that source alone that the promoters of railways ought to 
 look for a guarantee of their success. The whole foreign 
 trade in tea does not probably exceed one tenth of the na-
 
 Chap, xxiii.] THE CHINESE CAPITA!,. 391 
 
 tive ; and yet tea forms but a small proportion of the inland 
 trade of China. 
 
 In the consideration of the railway question, therefore, the 
 more such irrelevant matter is kept out of account, the more 
 likely are sound general conclusions to be arrived at. The 
 lines to be established should be determined solely with a 
 view to supplying the wants of the Chinese in the broadest 
 sense. But if a desire to benefit this or that port, or this or 
 that party, be permitted to influence the direction of the 
 undertaking, it will probably be at the expense of its ulti- 
 mate success. 
 
 The political advantages that would flow from the use of 
 railways would be no less impoi-tant than the commercial. It 
 would bring the distant provinces within reach of the govern- 
 ment, and enable it more effectually to centralise its autho- 
 rity, without which it it is no longer possible to govern China 
 well. 
 
 Peking is in the worst situation that could have been 
 selected for the seat of government ; that is, from a Chinese 
 point of view. It was convenient as a citadel for the Tar- 
 tars while they were consolidating their power, as its vicinity 
 to their native wilds kept open for them an easy retreat in 
 the event of revolution. And, while their vigour remained 
 fresh, the enfeebling influence of distance from the provinces 
 was neutralised by the energy of the. executive. But in the 
 process of degeneracy which the Manchu dynasty, like its 
 predecessors, has undergone, the remoteness of the capital 
 has been a fertile cause of misrule, corruption, and distress in 
 the provinces. The natural capital of China is Nanking or 
 Hang-chow, or some other easily accessible j^oint in the 
 central provinces. 
 
 The railway scheme, by comiecting all parts of the empire 
 in rapid daily communication, would bring the government 
 face to face with its officers ; local abuses would be exposed,
 
 392 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiii. 
 
 if not con-ected, and imperial and national interests would 
 cease to be at the mercy of con-upt, mendacious, and 
 treacherous provincial authorities. Nothing would so surely 
 save the existing government from the annihilation which 
 threatens it ; restore order throughout the country ; and 
 promote the well-being of all classes. 
 
 The local famines and inundations to which China has in 
 all ages been liable, and which, from the absence of proper 
 communications, have occasionally entailed great suffering 
 on the people, would, under the reign of railways, lose their 
 horrors. The brigandage with which the government keeps 
 up a desultory snad unsatisfactory struggle over an area too 
 wide for rapid or decisive results, would die a natural death, 
 were railways in operation. Their moral effect alone would 
 do much to keep down local risings, and the facility they 
 would afford for the transport of troops would enable the 
 government to act with promptitude at the point required ; 
 and instead of keeping up half-disciplined, disaffected, and 
 idle hordes, often worse than useless, and yet very expensive, 
 a small, compact, well-equipped force, with the power of 
 motion which railways would supply, would do the work 
 better, and at a mere fraction of the expense. 
 
 Railways would be very popular with the Chinese people, 
 whose readiness to support them is proved by their capitalists 
 offering to invest in shares. But will the consent of the Im- 
 perial government be granted to the project ? Without its 
 co-operation nothing can be done ; and this therefore is the 
 question which will have to be primarily decided. 
 
 In the first j^lace there is the vis inertice — the aversion to 
 innovation — to be got over. That can be accomplished if the 
 government can be convinced of the advantage of the pro- 
 posed scheme. Then, on the other hand, the representatives 
 of foreign powers at the court of Peking may, from national 
 jealousy, influence the government against any reform ema-
 
 Chap, xxiii.] NATIONAL RIVALRIES. 393 
 
 nating from Great Britain. But the determination of the 
 Chinese government will depend most of all on the view 
 which the British minister or charge cVaffaires may happen 
 to take of it ; and he may meet the projectors with active or 
 lukewarm support, or with positive opposition. The concilia- 
 tory and upright spirit which has ruled Sir Frederick Bruce's 
 intercourse with the Chinese government has inspired it with 
 unlimited confidence in the British minister, whose counsels 
 have in consequence acquired great weight in Peking. It 
 is earnestly to be hoped that his successor will avail himself 
 of the good impressions Sir Frederick leaves behind him to 
 promote with all assiduity those reforms and improvements 
 which, while subserving the best interests of China, will also 
 redound to the honour and the profit of our own country. 
 
 It is the duty of our ministers to maintain the legiti- 
 mate influence of this country in China. Our actual interest 
 in that empire greatly outweighs that of any other people ; 
 but we are in some danger of losing our prestige, and allow- 
 ing other powers to rival us. We failed in the telegraphic 
 scheme through Mongolia, but the Russians will certainly 
 accomplish it. The Lay-Osborn fleet failed, but the 
 French and the Americans will supply its place. We 
 have withdrawn British officers from the Chinese service ; 
 but the French and Americans remain. Railways will, some 
 day, be established in China ; the people are as ripe for their 
 introduction now as they ever will be ; if we miss the oppor- 
 tunity, some other nation will seize it, and, with or witliout 
 us, China will have railways. 
 
 The electric telegraph would of course accompany railways, 
 if, indeed, it does not precede them. I am not prepared to speak 
 of the adaptability of the Chinese hieroglyphics to telegraphy, 
 but the Chinese people and government have a keen appre- 
 ciation of the importance of the rapid transmission of intelli- 
 gence. This is shown by the admirable system of government
 
 394 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiii. 
 
 expresses, and the extent to which carrier-pigeons have been 
 used to influence the exchange markets of China. The vast 
 area of the Chinese empire would render telegraphic communi- 
 cation more than ordinarily acceptable, and, in the present 
 ao^e of the world, even necessary. 
 
 It needs no great stretch of imagination to predict that the 
 free use of machinery in China will yet do much to enrich 
 the nation, and to ameliorate the condition of the poorer 
 classes. Many parts of the country are suffering from over- 
 population. Their economy in food, clothing, and housing, 
 together with the great fertility of the soil in such districts as 
 the plains of Che-kiang and Keang-soo, enable an incredibly 
 large population to find a subsistence there. But 800 persons 
 on the square mile is too much, even for the richest part of 
 China, to support efiiciently. A large proportion of these 
 people is consequently underfed, poorly clad, and miserably 
 lodged ; they suffer the penalties of civilised life without its 
 comforts, and their physical and mental development are 
 seriously impaired. The Chinese do not possess within them- 
 selves any remedy for this state of things ; economy of their 
 means and moderation in their desires have already been cul- 
 tivated to perfection. Their manual industry is unexampled, 
 and leaves no room for improvement. Their diligence in 
 taxing the resources of their soil cannot be exceeded. The 
 surplus population might certainly find an outlet in foreign 
 lands, but the Chinese people as a whole are singularly averse 
 to emigration. 
 
 The greatest boon that could be conferred on these people, 
 and the only feasible means of raising many thousands of 
 them from the lowest depths of poverty, would be the intro- 
 duction of new industries which would give them profitable 
 employment, which at present they are excluded from. A 
 promising field is open for this. The perseverance of the 
 Chinese is proverbial, and the perfection they have attained
 
 Chap, xxiii.] MANUAL LABOUR VERSUS MACHINERY. 395 
 
 in making the most out of the means at their disposal has 
 been the admiration of the whole world. But they are still 
 strangers to the modern mechanical appliances of Europe and 
 America for economising human labour. Compared therefore 
 with the attainments of western nations, the material re- 
 sources of China are wasted. The division of labour, as prac- 
 tised in the agricultural districts of China, is diametrically 
 opposed to the princif)le advanced by Adam Smith. Each 
 family grows, spins, weaves, and wears its own cotton ; and so 
 with many other products. This system has the advantage 
 of keeping the people employed all the year round, and 
 there may no doubt be a great deal to be said in its 
 favour. 
 
 But to what purpose — with what results — is all this labour 
 spent ? 
 
 The practical answer to this is, that it has happened 
 that England has imported raw cotton from China, manu- 
 factured it, returned it to China two years afterwards, and 
 sold the cotton cloth cheaper than the article could be 
 produced by domestic labour on the spot where it is grown. 
 It is, of course, to a small extent only, that England 
 can compete in manufactured cotton with the native pro- 
 duct of China. But that it should be possible at all, first 
 to buy the raw material at such an enhanced price over the 
 cost to the natives as will induce them to part with it, then 
 to send it 15,000 miles across the sea, and the same distance 
 back again, and spite of the enormous expenses incun-ed in 
 the operation, still to supply the manufactured article at a 
 lower cost than the natives produce it at, proves that a vast 
 amount of labour is misapplied in this branch of Chinese in- 
 dustry. And yet their manufacture of cotton has, perhaps, 
 been brought to a higher state of efficiency than any 
 other. 
 
 Their coal and iron are worked in the most primitive
 
 396 SIBERIAN EOUTE FROM PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxni. 
 
 manner. Both articles are supplied from abroad, although 
 existing in great abundance in the country. The native coal 
 that is sold in the markets of China costs from thirty to 
 forty shillings per ton, and is so poor in quality that English 
 coal is more economical at double the price. By proper 
 appliances, and a better system of working, the quality of 
 Chinese coal might be greatly improved, and the cost 
 diminished. 
 
 It would be endless to enumerate the various departments 
 in which steam and machinery might be advantageously 
 applied in China. Sugar and paper may be mentioned, as 
 also the various oils used by the Chinese, all produced and 
 consumed in the country in enormous quantities, and all sus- 
 ceptible of great improvement both in the cost and quality 
 of the preparations. 
 
 In everything that constitutes the wealth of the country 
 we see the same disproportion between the power expended, 
 and the results obtained, as has been instanced in the case of 
 cotton. The waste of human labour is multiplied by the 
 vast and varied products of the country ; and the field 
 offered for the expansion of, new entei-prises is commensu- 
 rate with the size and population of the Chinese empire. 
 
 The introduction of machinery into the interior of the 
 country, and its application to the manufactures that now 
 employ the people, will only be secured by a slow and 
 gradual process. Great opposition would be met with, par- 
 ticularly at the outset ; for, though we may claim for the 
 Chinese a freedom from prejudice equal to any other people, 
 it would be absurd to expect of them more enlightenment 
 than our own countrymen have shown, when put to the test 
 by innovations which threatened to supersede manual labour. 
 The Chinese will be convinced, as usual, by results. When 
 they find the materials of wealth which they now possess mul- 
 tiplied to them by the cheapness of the necessaries of life, they
 
 Chap, xxiii.] SOCIAL REFORMS IN CHINA. 397 
 
 will not be slow in following up the idea. The elevation of 
 the poorer classes, when profitable occupation is supplied to 
 them, will create new wants, while it provides the means of 
 gratifying them. The benefits accruing to China will na- 
 turally react on this country precisely to that extent to 
 which a commercial nation must always profit by the in- 
 creasing wealth of its customer.s. 
 
 In small matters also, the social condition of the Chinese 
 people is in a fair way of being improved by their contact 
 with restless and progressive foreigners. Gas, which is now 
 being introduced into Hong-Kong and Shanghae — a simple 
 thing in itself — may nevertheless do something towards 
 elevating the Chinese, and preparing them for more impor- 
 tant advances. The erection of water-works, for the supply 
 of the large cities, would be a boon of no ordinary value to 
 those populations who live on the alluvial plains. The im- 
 pure water, drawn from turbid rivers and canals which are 
 the receptacles of filth, is a fertile cause of disease in many 
 localities. These communities might be supplied with pure 
 filtered water at a lower cost than is at present paid for the 
 mere carriage of the unwholesome compound now obtained 
 from sources as putrid as the Thames. One successful 
 experiment would probably demonstrate the necessity of 
 extending water-works to most of the populous cities in the 
 empire.* 
 
 • Shanghae, from its situation and over-crowded population, is one of the 
 greatest sufferers from the want of pure water ; and tliere cannot be a doubt 
 that this circumstance has contributed, in no slight degi-ee, to the sickliness 
 that has prevailed there for several years past, as the increase in the popula- 
 tion tends more and more to the defilement of the river, — the only source 
 whence water is obtained. The qiiestion of water-supply for that settlement 
 having been submitted to practical and experienced engineers in London, the 
 result of their calculations is, that a system of water-works, with reservoirs 
 beyond the influence of sewage, would provide each household with an un- 
 limited supply of pure, filtered water, at about one-fourtli of the expense 
 •which is at present incurred in merely carrying water from the river to the 
 houses. Messrs. Simpson and Giles have further demonstrated that, at the
 
 398 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROJI PEKING TO PETERSBURG. [Ch. xxiir. 
 
 Nor is the influence of European intercourse with China 
 limited in its scope to the mere commercial, manufacturing, 
 and other material pursuits of the people. Their notions of 
 good govei'ninent must be inevitably modified by it, and no 
 one can estimate the extent to which a few Europeans, by 
 their superior force of character, may impress the huge mul- 
 titudes of China. Circumstances have rendered Shanghae 
 the gi'eat focus from which these external influences are 
 brought to bear on the natives. The distracted state of the 
 surrounding country first brought numbers of fugitives, both 
 rich and j^oor, to seek shelter under the segis of foreign flags, 
 until an enormous population has accumulated on the ground 
 set apart for the residence of foreigners. The kind of small 
 republic which the Europeans set up for their own protection, 
 and for the due regulation of the natives wdio crowded into 
 the settlement, became popular with the Chinese ; its func- 
 tions became more and more imiDortant; and accessions of 
 power were from time to time added to it, but always inade- 
 quate to the efficient discharge of its constantly increasing 
 duties. The Chinese like the municipal administration of 
 Shanghae, because, although heavily taxed, they at least 
 know how the revenue is applied, and they enjoy more or 
 less personal protection, and immunity from extortion. The 
 system has worked with more harmony than could have been 
 ex2Dected, considering that it to a certain extent rivals the 
 provincial government. It has at any rate taken deep root, 
 and may possibly be the precursor of similar growths at 
 other commercial towns. In any disruption of the Chinese 
 power that may result from the present disorganised condi- 
 tion of the empii-e, these anomalous foreign " settlements " 
 
 proposed rate of one shilling per 1,000 gallons, a large return would be secured 
 on the capital necessary to he invested in the works. "VVe may therefore hope 
 that at no distant day the inhabitants of Shanghae, at least, will enjoy this 
 great blessing.
 
 Chap, xxiii.] FREE CITIES. 399 
 
 will certainly play an important part. The weakness of the 
 government of the country and the disorders which accom- 
 pany it, while imp:iiring the prosperity of the settlements as 
 commercial emporia, tend to strengthen their political in- 
 fluence. The prestige which naturally accompanies a Euro- 
 pean residence, and the guarantee of security to life and 
 property, with or without armed protection, which it holds 
 out to the Chinese people, render these consular ports 
 asylums of authority in times of anarchy, and will naturally 
 maintain them as commercial centres when the government 
 of the country has crumbled away. In them a nucleus of 
 power will be preserved, Avhich will facilitate the reconstruc- 
 tion of a government, should the present one be broken up, 
 and in this way these commercial settlements may yet prove 
 of essential service to the Chinese nation. They may pos- 
 sibly grow into free, independent republics, an issue which 
 the leading journal has more than once predicted. In an 
 article of June 2, 1864, the " Times " says : — " The free cities 
 we hope to see are those which grow of their own accord, 
 and which arise out of the circumstances of an abundant 
 commerce and an unsettled country. If the nations of Europe 
 would agree to stand aloof, we should very soon see little 
 commercial republics intrenching themselves and extending 
 themselves upon the shores of China ; just such cities as arose 
 upon the coast of Africa, and in later history upon the coasts 
 of Italy, when similar dangers compelled traders to draw 
 together for defence and self-government. We believe that our 
 cheapest and our best policy is not to establish, but to favour 
 the growth of such communities as may develop themselves 
 into free cities. Nor can we expect that this development 
 will be the work of a day, or that so great a ruin as that 
 which is mouldering over the heads of one-third of the 
 human race can fall, and be reformed into modern habita-
 
 400 SIBERIAN ROUTE FROM PEKIXG TO PETERSBURG. [Cn. xxiii. 
 
 tions, without many clouds of dust and some terrible cata- 
 strophes." 
 
 Sliould such be the destiny of these trading ports, no class 
 will have more cause for satisfaction than the body of 
 Chinese who may reside in them, who regard with pleasure 
 every advance of foreign influeiice, and would be glad to live 
 in peace under any poAver strong enough to maintain it.
 
 POSTSCEIPT. 
 
 Events have progressed rapidly in China since the fore- 
 going chapter was written. Lieutenant-Colonel Gordon, 
 after resigning his commission in the Chinese army for the 
 reasons I have mentioned, apparently considered that it would 
 be too hazardous at such a juncture to leave the Government 
 entu'ely to its own de\-ices. He accordingly remained, with 
 the approval of Major-General Bro^\Ti, to instruct and advise 
 them, and he has had the satisfaction to witness the crowning 
 success of all his labours, in the fall of Nanking, and the 
 extinction of the Taeping rebellion. 
 
 The two provinces of Che-Kiaug and Keang-soo — the 
 richest and most populous iu China — are now freed from 
 rebels, and have had peace and order once more restored to 
 them. It may require some little time entirel}* to reassure 
 the populations of these provinces of tlie security of life and 
 l^roperty in districts that have so long languished under the 
 devastating effects of civil war; but there is now every reason 
 to suppose that the reign of anarch}'^ has been banished for 
 many years to come, and that the pacified region will soon 
 enjoy the prosperity which its natural advantages must 
 bring, enhanced, as it must inevitably be, by the extended 
 intercourse with foreigners Avhich has not yd had an oppor- 
 tunity of bearing its full fruit. 
 
 This success of the Imperial arms has naturally resulted 
 from the acceptance of foreign Ministers at the Court of
 
 402 POSTSCRIPT. 
 
 Peking, and the introduction of China into the family of 
 nations, which is the great triumph of the policy inaugurated 
 by Lord Palmerston twenty-four years ago, and steadfastly 
 folio w^ed up by that statesman through good and evil report. 
 
 Whether the scattered remnants of the Taepings will 
 again become formidable from their concentration in the 
 province of Kiang-si, beyond the reach of the immediate 
 foreign aid which has led to their dispersion, will depend 
 very much on the vigour of the Imperial Government at 
 Peking. If it realises the gravity of the position, and the 
 truth of the maxim that prevention is better than cure, it 
 will adopt timely and energetic measures to anticipate a 
 reorganisation of the Taepings. 
 
 But, however that may be, it is pretty certain that if the 
 provisions of the Treaty w^ere carried out in the broad sense 
 evidently contemplated by the framers of it ; if the Poyang 
 lake and the rivers which communicate with it were freely 
 opened to foreign trade ; if Europeans were permitted to 
 reside at the commercial marts of Kiang-si, their moral 
 weight alone, especially after the campaign just concluded 
 in Keang-soo and Che-Kiang, w^ould go far to prevent any 
 further demonstration of the rebels in that quarter. The 
 authorities at Peking may yet find cause to regret that their 
 suspicion of friendly foreigners has deprived them of such 
 important auxiliaries at many of their most vulnerable 
 points. 
 
 October 27. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 BRADHURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
 
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