.,-n_n -r\, REESE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class I ENGINEERING STUDIES PART I AMERICAN STONE ARCHES BY CHARLES EVAN FOWLER, M. AM. S< * (p iv_n- REESE LIBRARY : Ml- UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Accession No. 83125. Cla^ N i, ne j^ correct span is ENGINEERING STUDIES PART I AMERICAN STONE ARCHES BY CHARLES EVAN FOWLER, M. AM. Soc. C. E. 11 'Whoever thinks a Faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be." ********* 'Content if hence th' unlearn'd their wants may view, The learn'd reflect on what before they knew." Pope. FIRST EDITION. NEW YORK. THE EXCINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 1899. Copyright, 1M., by CHARLES EVAN FOWL.KK. 10 ENGINEERING STUDIES. INTRODUCTION. This collection of photographic views of Engineering Works should be found valuable alike to the practicing engineer and to the student. Short descriptions and criticisms are appended to point cut the good and the bad features of the designs, with the view of bettering the character of future engineering structures. A stone arch is very often regarded as a work of art so aesthetic, that it cannot be injured in appearance by care- less detailing. Never was there a greater mistake than this, nor one more frequently made. The intention is to bring out a number of parts forming a series which will include, in addition to stone arches, Bridge Approaches of Masonry, Bridge Towers and Portals, Notable Bridge Piers, Tunnel Portals and other engineering works of like character. There will be six parts devoted to stone arches of several countries, and six or more parts devoted to miscellaneous structures. AMERICAN STONE ARCHES., UNIVERSF THE CABIN JOHN ARCH. THE largest stone arch ever built was the one constructed over the river Adda at Trezzo, by order of the Duke of Milan, about the year 1380. It had a span of 251 feet at low water, but it was destroyed in 1427, and now only about 24 feet of the arch ring, near each haunch, re- mains. The largest one in existence at the present time, is the Cabin John bridge and aqueduct over Rock Creek, at Washington, D. C. It was de- signed by Gen. M. C. Meigs, and has a span of 220 feet, a rise of 57 feet, while the roadway of 20 feet width is 101 feet above the stream. The arch ring is of granite, six feet deep at the -Grown and four feet at the cen- ter; the spandrels are of sandstone, laid partially with radial joints. The splendid architectural effect is due to the proportions and to the relief af- forded by the projecting courses at the roadway, which gives a cornice-like effect in entire harmony with the whole design. This can best be expressed by quoting from what Fergusson has to say in his "History of Architecture,'" regarding the efforts of the engineer at architectural effects. "If this is all that can be done with bridges, (their decoration with inap- propriate details) it is far better that they should be left, like most of those recently built, to tell their own tale without any ornament whatever. A long series of tall arches is so beautiful an object in itself that it is difficult to injure it; but occasionally a slight moulding at the impost, a bold accen- tuation of the arch, and bold marking of the roadway render those beauti- ful which otherwise may only be useful in appearance." 11 THE WHEELING STONE ARCH. THE Wheeling stone arch bridge is one of the largest stone arches in the United States, having a span of 159 feet. The intrados is the arc of a circle, with a rise of twenty-eight feet. The depth of key- stone is 4' 6". Longitudinal arched voids are employed underneath the roadway. The engineers of the work were Hoge & White, the bridge being com- pleted in 1893. The large span marks the structure as a notable piece of engineering work, and the detail of the parapet is very pleasing in appear- ance, although very simple in design. The coping with the supporting corbels is also very effective. Berea stone was used for most of the work, which amounted to about 9,000 yards, there being 6,000 yards of dimen- sion stone. The cost of the bridge was $130,000. The meeting of two straight grades at the center of the span is hardly the best solution possible for giving increased waterway, although plenty of precedent can be found for such an outline. A much more pleasing method would have been to use a parabolic curve for the longitudinal profile of the roadway and coping. Had the offset in the retaining wall been made at the springing of the arch, as a division between the spandrel and retaining walls, it would have been more logical and the effectiveness of the structure as an -architectural work much heightened. HARTFORD MEMORIAL BRIDGE AND ARCH. ONE of the handsomest stone arch bridges in the United States is the brownstone structure in Bushnell Park, at Hartford, Conn. Its effectiveness is largely due to the Memorial Arch, over the drive- way leading up to the Capitol building. The bridge was constructed originally in 1850, of Portland brownstone, and at a cost of about $15,000. Of the five arches, each having a span of twenty-five feet, the three center ones are semi-circular, while the two end ones are three center, with radii of 8 l /2 feet and 14^ feet. The original width of the bridge was thirty-five feet, but in 1885 it was rebuilt to match the Memorial Arch, and the width increased to forty-one feet extreme, or with a roadway of twenty-eight feet and two sidewalks of four feet each. The widening was accomplished by tearing down the spandrel-walls to the top of the arch rings and supporting the added width by elegant stone brackets, adding much to the beauty of the bridge; while the design was made to harmonize with the Memorial by a parapet railing of elegant design. The remodeling of the bridge cost $11,287, while the cost of the Soldiers' Memorial was $60,000. This was executed in brownstone and terra cotta, from the designs of Mr. Geo. Keller, a prominent Hartford architect. The two structures, when considered as a whole, form one of the most notable of monumental works. THE ELYRIA ARCHES. THE streams at Elyria, Ohio, have solid rock banks and beds, and the skevvbacks for the eastern and western stone arches are cut in the solid rock of the banks. The situations are very picturesque and the falls below the western bridge, forty feet high, add much to the view. The eastern arch is the third largest stone span in the United States and was constructed from the plans of E. C. Kinney in 1886; the span being 150 feet, the rise 24 feet, the width over all 32 feet, while the depth of the arch ring at the springing is 4 feet 6 inches and at the keystone 3 feet 9 inches. In the view of this arch, a beautiful two-span stone bridge on the Lake Shore Railway can be seen in the background. The western arch was designed by E. S. Jackson and E. M. Bunce and was built in 1894. This span is the fifth largest in the United States, having a span of 112 feet, a rise of 19 feet 6 inches, a width across the arch ring of 38 feet, and a width on top of 44 feet. The skewbacks are from 4 to 8 feet above the bed of the stream, the, arch ring having a depth at the keystone of 3 feet 6 inches. Both arches are constructed with first-class rock-faced masonry, the stone being Elyria sandstone, quarried in the vicinity. The width of both arches has been increased by projecting corbel courses and coping, which only serve to intensify the shallow depth at the center. Had separate corbels been sub- stituted for the corbel course on the large span, and for the lower corbel course on the small one, giving the effect of dentils, the appearance at the center would have been much improved. A stone parapet would have been a still further improvement in this respect. While having the graceful architectural appearance one would expect in arches of such bold outline, they are nevertheless somewhat severe in design. This effect has been lessened somewhat by the addition of the consoles on the eastern arch, which also afford retreats on the sidewalks. THE SCHENtEY PARK ARCH. THE stone arch bridge recently completed in Schenley Park at Pitts- burg is known as the Bellefield Bridge. It was designed by H. B. Rust, Engineer of Schenley Park, and is one of the most elaborate stone bridges in this country.^ ^ It has a span of 136' feet 7 inches and a width across the soffit of 82 feet. The roadway is 60 feet in width, while the two sidewalks have a width of ten feet each. The depth of keystone is four feet. The arch is a very bold one, and the general design leaves little to be desired, while the balustrade is a most elegant piece of work. It is, how- ever, unfortunate that the abutments and the spandrels were decorated with the paneling, as the apparent size of the arch is very much reduced by these details which have been characterized by Fergusson in a criticism of the Chester bridge as a mistaken application. "by exaggerating his details, the bridge has been dwarfed in exactly the same manner as the basilica." ( 'It is far better that we should be content with plain, honest, solid but useful erections, than that our buildings should be adorned on the mis- taken principles which have hitherto been supposed to constitute the Art of Architecture." 13 HIGH BRIDGE, CROTON AQUEDUCT. THE most notable stone bridge in the United States, not on account of the size of the spans, but because of its height, chaste design and mon- umental character, is the structure which carries the Croton Aque- duct over the Harlem River at New York City, from the mainland to Manhat- tan Island. The erection of the remarkable Washington Bridge, close to it, with its great steel spans, instead of detracting from its appearance as might be expected has only enhanced it. The original intention was to carry the water across the river by a siphon pipe line through a tunnel, and, while the estimated cost was much less than for a high bridge, the uncertainties were so great as to cause its abandonment. The location is a very beautiful one, the south shore being an abrupt bluff of solid gneiss rock, crowned with trees. The requirements of navigation made it necessary to have a clear height of 100 feet above the river, and openings of 80 feet in width. The top of the parapet is 116 feet above high water, while there are eight semicircular arches of 80 feet each over the river, one arch of 50 feet in the Manhattan ap- proach and six arches of 50 feet span in the opposite one. The river is 620 feet in width at ordinary high water, the distance up to the springing of the arches being 60 feet, or 95 feet above the lowest foundation. The total length of the bridge is 1,460 feet, and it originally car- ried two cast-iron pipes, 3 feet in diameter, to convey the water, their use being with the object of preventing leakage, which would eventually injure tne bridge. When it was desired to increase the carrying capacity a third pipe, 7 feet 6 inches in diameter, was added. The structure was designed under John B. Jervis, Chief Engineer of the Croton Aqueduct, and was let at a contract price of $737,755. It occu- pied five years in building, being completed in 1842. The arch ring is finely accentuated, but, unfortunately, the tailing of the ring stones does not match with the courses in the spandrels. The piers, spandrels and parapets have a batter of I in 48, the width across on top of ihe parapets being 21 feet. The length of the piers is greater than the width of the arches, and counterforts are carried up with good effect. The belt course directly above the voussoirs is in entire harmony with the cor- nice above, which is formed by ornamental corbels supporting the coping, thus making a portion of the footways on each side. The footways are protected by iron railings of light design, which, how- ever, appear well, owing to the great depth of masonry above the extrados. The difference in the height of the springing of the 50 feet spans and the 80 feet spans is taken care of in a very appropriate manner by the two coping courses on the piers which are common to both. The water tower of elegant design adds much to the architectural ef- fect, which is not much marred by the well-designed stack. While many European structures are more expensive and more elaborate, High Bridge compares favorably with them, and will remain for scores of years, a credit not alone to the engineer who conceived it, but to the City of New York as well. 14 THE WISSAHICKON ARCH, PHILADELPHIA. THE bridge in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, over Wissahickon Creek is a very handsome structure, having been built from the design of General Russell Thayer, chief engineer of The Fairmount Park Commission, at a cost of $27,743, including the removal of the old bridge. The arch is on a skew of 69 degrees 26 minutes, which is taken up by arch rings, four feet wide each. The span of each ring is 106 feet 6 inches, the clear span of the arch 105 feet and the rise 11 feet. The spring of the arch is about six feet above the surface, at which point thearch ring has a depth of 4 feet 6 inches, while the depth of keystone is 3 feet. The roadway 25 feet in width and the two sidewalks of 5 feet width each are paved with asphalt. The stone of which the arch was built was quarried about one-half mile from the site and is a dark colored gneiss. The stone work is quarry- faced ashlar, with a one-inch chisel draft at each joint, thus making a two-inch draft at each joint. This gives a very fine appearance to the work. The shallow depth at the center is relieved by the solid parapet, which has dressed stone coping, post and caps, and which is supported on a cop- ing, carried by well proportioned modillions. The symmetry of the design is unfortunately spoiled by the character of the bank at the left end, which is the more to be regretted as the right abutment is a most suitable and elegant arrangement. ENGINEERING NEWS i-y Thurs'. BRIDGE BOOKS. $3.00 'foot, inch and one-sixteei. i' and !(> ing ,exi- and ] /2 ins - .25 -1.-2 ins.; 24 ins.; 12 pp. ietal Hi;-; P., and CUNN1N ] P ENGINEERING STUDIES PART II OMAN STONE ARCHES "Wh< hence th' The learn'd reflect on w! WS PUBLISH 1900. ENGINEERING STUDIES PART II ROMAN STONE ARCHES BY CHARLES EVAN FOWLER, M. AM. Soc. C E. OF THK | UNIVERSITY ) "Whoever thinks a Faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be." * * * # * * # -|: * "Content if hence th' unlearn'd their wants may view, The learn'd reflect on what hefore they knew." Pope. FIRST EDITION. NEW YORK. THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 1900. Copyright, 1900, by CHARLES EVAN FOWLER. 10 THE OLD ROMAN AQUEDUCTS, THERE are no more striking examples of the grandeur of simplicity in the design of stone bridges than the old Roman aqueducts. The long lines of arches still standing on the otherwise deserted plains of the Campagna, are examples likewise of the splendid character of the workmanship of the Romans, who apparently built their engineering struc- tures to last for all time. The rectangular stone piers were capped with simple stone copings, the full semi-circular arches sprang directly from these, while the depth above the arch ring necessitated for the conduits, ornamented, hy simple belt courses and surmounted by a coping and a triangular capping gave the structure a dignity which even in the ruined condition of the present time has not been lost. The engineering skill displayed in their design was remarkable, show- ing that the Romans were well informed in scientific matters. The conduits have uniform grades for long distances, having been apparently constructed from precise levels of the country over which they were built. The stone of which they were constructed was carefully squared and in some instances different colored stone was employed for architectural effect. Most of the work was done upon them during the winter season, as the masonry was thought to dry out too quickly if laid in the summer. There were nine aqueducts used to supply the city of Rome with water in the time of Frontinus, the Aqua Appia, Anio Vetus, Aqua Marcia, Aqua Tepula, Aqua Julia, Aqua Virgo, Aqua Alsietina, Aqua Claudia, and the Anio Novus. Of these the Aqua Claudia was the most remarkable for its construc- tion and arrangement, having a length of nearly fifty miles and carrying water from two streams above Tivoli. Nearly one-third of its length was carried on arches. BRIDGE OF SANT' ANGELO. THE bridge of Sant' Angelo, was originally called the Pons a Elius, being at the time of its construction the seventh bridge over the Tiber. The river being only about 300 feet wide on the average on this portion. It was constructed under Hadrian, A. D., 138, being opposite the tomb of Hadrian, which is now known as the Castle of Sant' Angelo. The piers were surmounted by colossal bronze statues and columns, which were destroyed during troubles in Italy. The width of the bridge is 50 feet 9 inches, while the small spans are 26 feet 3 inches, and the large spans 62 feet 4 inches. The statues were replaced by Pope Clement IX. in 1668, by colossal statues of angels on pedestals of white marble, from Bernini's original design. While such decoration is entirely out of place in bridge construction, it does not mar the effect of such a structure in Rome, where everything is of a monumental character, as it might elsewhere. The molded archivolt, while a somewhat trivial detail for a bridge, really adds to the appearance of arches having such small spans. 11 BRIDGE OF AUGUSTUS AT RIMINI. THE most copied, probably, of old Roman bridges is the one built by the Emperor Augustus at Rimini. There are five semi-circular arches, which was the universal Roman out- line, the two spans next to the shore on either side being of twenty- three feet five inches span, and the three intermediate spans of twenty- eight feet nine inches span. The piers are very thick, being nearly equal to half the opening, and rise thirteen feet one inch above the water, carrying columns which support an entablature. The remains of decorations on the keystones, the ruined cornice and other details, indicate that the bridge was one of great elegance. That some of the design should have been duplicated in other struc- tures was indeed fortunate, but that the columns and entablatures were added to bridges of later design, points to this as an unfor- tunate field of study for modern engineers. This detail could be replaced by counterforts which would be appropriate and harmonious as well. BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA LESS is known about the architecture and engineering of Spain than of any of the other European countries. There are many interest- ing bridges at various points, but the most famous ones are those at Toledo. The oldest one was constructed by the Emperor Trajan and was a marvel of engineering. The one illustrated was constructed in the year 997. The general style of the structure is Roman bold circular arches, of which the larger one has a span of ninety-three feet. The starling of triangular section, supports a counterfort, which afforded opportunity for constructing a retreat. A second retreat is cantilevered out over the right abutment, and while it is a pleasing detail, the patched con- dition of the wall destroys the effectiveness of this and the small Moorish arch, which is placed in a location which is unaccountable. The tower at the left and the arched portal at right end of the roadway contribute to make it a striking piece of bridge architecture, notwithstanding the lack of harmony which has resulted from the various additions which have been made. The portal at the left is of Moorish origin and is a very notable example of this feature of bridge design. 12 THE BRIDGE OF THE RIALTO. THE city of Venice is built upon two islands, which are separated by a serpentine waterway, known as the Grand Canal, across which is built the bridge of the Rialto. The name Rialto is derived from the original name of the island first settled Ripa Alta. The foundations of all the structures were made with great care, re- quiring the use of masses of concrete or the driving of piles. The bridge of the Rialto was constructed from the design of Michael Angelo, in 1578. As is well known, the painters of this period were also architects of recognized ability and applied this knowledge to the design of engineering works as well, with the result that such structures partake very largely of the character of works of architecture, being decorated with its conventional details. The span of this arch is 96 feet 10 inches and the rise 20 feet 7 inches. The arch ring is handsomely molded, while the spandrels, the masonry of which is laid with radial joints, are decorated with figures of angels in relief and tablets bearing inscriptions. At either end are niches of beau- tiful design, forming places for other figures. The bridge carries two rows of shops, formed by arcades, between which is a passage. The principal footways on the outside are supported by corbels, an arrangement which causes the depth at the center to appear more shallow than it is in reality on account of the great overhang. The footways are protected by balustrades of beautiful design, and on account of the ascent being steep marble steps are provided. The arcades are quite a study in themselves, the large central arches forming a cross passage. The six arches on either hand springing at dif- ferent levels, present a remarkably good solution of this difficult problem in design. The lack of a thick abutment at each end and the shallow depth over the haunches of the large arches are faults which are to a great extent lost sight of, owing to the striking character of the entire bridge. OF THE UNIVERSITY THE PONT DU CARD, NIMES, FRANCE. THE Pont du Card was among the first of the great Roman en- gineering works to be built in the countries conquered by them, and was probably constructed by Agrippa, the gov- ernor at Nimes, France, under the great Augustus, about the begin- ning of the Christian era, and is still in good condition, due to the perfect and solid construction and to repairs which have been made from time to time. Hamlin in his "History of Architecture," says "these Roman works of utility were in many cases designed with an artistic sense of proportion and form which raises them into the domain of genuine art. A remarkable effect of grandeur was often 13 produced by the form and proportions of the arches and piers, and an appropriate use of rough and dressed masonry. They are impressive rather by their length, scale, and simplicity, than by any special re- finements of design." The structure illustrated was a part of a great aqueduct system. It has a height of 161 feet from the bed of the river, a length at the top of the first story of 562 feet, and at the top of the second story of 885 feet. The large arch, through which the river Garden runs, is 80 feet 5 inches, the other large arches from 51 to 63 feet span, while the small arches of the upper story are 15 feet 9 inches. The original width at the top of the first story was 20 feet 9 inches, while the second is 15 feet and the third 1 1 feet 9 inches. There is now room on the first story to allow for travel across the valley. The foundations are built on bed rock, six feet above the stream, the entire structure being built of a fine-grained freestone, quarried near the site ; the blocks are many of them very large, only two or three for the width of each pier, the piers having triangular cutwaters and laid in courses of about two feet. The projecting stones or cor- bels seen on various parts of the structure were used to support the centering on which the arches were built. The keystone for the large arch is 5 feet 3 inches, for the other large spans 5 feet and for the small ones 2 feet 7 inches. The arch stones are not bonded crosswise, there being several distinct arches in the thickness. The cut stonework is laid without cement, depending on nice fit and weight for solidity, each stone having been lowered into place by the lewis ; rubble work was used for the filling in of the piers, spandrells and haunches of the first and second stories, and for the work above the third story which formed the water conduit, and which was laid in cement, now as hard as the rock itself. The channel was 4 feet in width by 4 feet 9 inches in height, being lined with 2 inches of cement and this in turn covered with fine dark red mastic, giving a surface as smooth as polished marble; the channel being covered with stone slabs. The arches are all semi-circular and very simple as was the Roman custom, but the effect is magnificent and the structure worthy of much study. THE BRIDGE OF THE TRINITY, FLORENCE. MORE criticisms have been written concerningthe bridge of the Trinity at Florence, Italy, than perhaps of any other of equal importance. There are three spans, the center one having a clear length of 95 feet 10 inches and the two side ones 87 feet 7 inches, with a rise of one-sixth the span. The piers, as can be seen 11 from the view which shows one side span, are in reality abutments with the great thickness of 26 feet 3 inches and with prominent acute-angled starlings both up and dow r n stream. The intrados is made up of two parabolic curves, which meet at the center with a slight angle, which is concealed with a large escutcheon that ex- tends up over the parapet as well. The piers are faced with cut stone, the moldings being very elegant. The arch ring is very heavily molded and the spandrels paneled. This method of detail- ing is not so inappropriate for spans of this length as it is for very large spans and the structure presents a very finished and elegant appearance. The engineering is very good for the date of its construction, the year 1750, the design being that of Ammanati. Had the two piers been made of only ordinary thickness and abutments employed pro- jecting out from the river walls, the proportions would have been much more pleasing. The parapet walls are of perfectly plain design except a slight molding under the coping, and pedestals at the ends which are surmounted bv statues. CANAL REGIO, BRIDGE, VENICE. THE fact has been clearly brought out in the description of the bridge of the Rialto, that the bridges of Venice are more a part of the architecture, than of the engineering of the city, and this is the most valid excuse for the employment of architectural details in their embellishment. Artists have so often pictured the various bridges and the poets described them so prominently that they have become famed the world over. Especially is this true of the Rialto bridge and of the Bridge of Sighs, made famous by Byron's lines: "I stood in Venice on the Bridge of Sighs, "A palace and a prison on each hand, "I saw from out the waves her structures rise, "As from the stroke of the enchanter's wand." Some of the less noted bridges are of more interest to the engineer, where the bridge effect is not so much detracted from by the covered passages or arcades. The span over the Canal Regio has steep approaches to give head- room over the canal, but steps make the ascent easy. The molded arch ring with the heads in relief is not inappropriate with such sur- roundings, and the balustrade with the lofty newels heightens the architectural effect. OF THB UNIVERSITY Established 1874. ENGINEERING NEWS Published Every Thur BOOKS. . Prof. CHAS. 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'Content if hence th' unlearn'd their wants may view, The learn'd reflect on what before they kn -Pop FIRST EDITION. NEW YORK. THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISH! 1901. ENGINEERING STUDIES " PART HI ENGLISH STONE ARCHES BY CHARLES EVAN FOWLER, M. AM. Soc. C. E. "Whoever thinks a Faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be." ********* "Content if hence th' unlearn'd their wants may view, The learn'd reflect on what before they knew." Pope. FIRST EDITION. . NEW YORK. THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 1901. Copyright, 1901, by CHARLES EVAN FOWLER. GENERAL LONDON BRIDGE. ONE of the most renowned of modern stone arch bridges is the new London over the river Thames. It is also one of the most chaste and harmonious designs of the many stone bridges that have been built the world over, and was Ren- nie's masterpiece. The lack of waterway under the old bridge had occasioned great public controversy, and of the many plans pro- posed, the one from which the bridge was constructed seemed to meet best the needs of the river, of navigation, and for a structure which should be a work of architecture. There are five spans of elliptical outline, the center one having a span of 152 feet, a rise of 37.7 feet, a depth of arch ring at the keystone of 4.8 feet and at the spring of 10.0 feet. The two spans on either side of the center one are 140 feet each, with a depth at key of 4.6 feet and at spring of 9.0 feet. The two shore spans have a span of 130 feet each, a depth at key of 4.5 feet and at spring of 8.5 feet. The piers were founded in cofferdams, one of which was car- ried 29 feet 6 inches below low water. The stone used was of granite, and the masonry, up to the springing of the arches, was specified to be ashler in horizontal courses of from 15 to 24 inches thickness. All of the arch stones were to be headers, unless the engineer allowed stretchers to be used. At the intrados they were to be 18 inches in thickness and the faces dressed smooth and straight. The spandrels between the arches are of granite and the ring stones of the arch are tailed into the spandrel courses. The cornice and parapets are also of granite, finely dressed and jointed, and none of the stones belonging to the cornice, plinth, dado, or coping were allowed less than 4 feet 6 inches long. All these stones were to be free from flaws of any description. The centers for turning the arches were composed of eight ribs for each span, each rib being a truss. They were framed at the Isle of Dogs, were floated to the bridge site and raised from a large barge into place by means of screws and the tide. On these ribs were 7-inch plank laid close to carry the masonry. The first arch laid was allowed to stand the entire winter, and when the wedges were struck, the arch sank an inch and a half, but the curve was not broken. The bridge has two 9-feet sidewalks and a roadway, making the entire width, face to face of masonry, slightly in excess of 56 feet. The roadway is supported on longitudinal arched voids and has an easy grade. The beautiful elliptical outline of the arches is but one of many details by which an appearance of elegance is obtained. The starlings of almost perfect design are coped and capped in an appropriate manner, and support counterforts, which are very effective in overcoming any tendency toward flatness of design. The parapet or cornice is supported by corbels, and while of the simplest design is in entire harmony with a most studied and effective piece of bridge architecture. The unsightliness of the piping which is laid on top of the cor- nice would suggest the necessity in modern structures of providing a conduit for pipes, wires and other similar appurtenances of modern civilization. The bridge, exclusive of land, houses, compensations, and law expenses, cost about two and one-eighth millions of dollars. THE WATERLOO BRIDGE. THIS structure, as is mentioned in the description of the Krlso bridge, was built by John Rennie, who used that one as his model for what is probably the most remark- able of English stone arch bridges. The roadway being nearly level for the entire length, adds much to the appearance of a work which is really monumental. There are nine semi-elliptical arch spans of 120 feet each, with a rise of 34.6 feet, the depth of the arch ring being 4 feet 6 inches at the key, and 10 feet at the springing. The keystone is not accentuated in any way, and all the arch stones tail into the spandrel courses in groups, all joints being chamfered to correspond with the spandrel masonry. The piers, which were founded in cofferdams, have semi-circu- lar ends, being 30 feet thick at the base, 20 feet at the spring, with a length of 87 feet. The broad abutments have staircases down to the river, are 40 feet thick at the base and 30 feet at the spring. All the exterior masonry is of dressed granite, and the filling is of Cragleigh or Derbyshire stone. Over the spandrels are rows of columns to carry the roadway, which has a width of 28 feet, be- sides which there are two walks of 7 feet each. The end of each of the long piers, supports two severely classic Doric columns, supporting an entablature, and it is almost a regret that such ornamentation is open to criticism as being misplaced, as has been done in describing other bridges with similar details. When compared, however, with the counterforts on the London bridge it is seen that nothing has been gained in appearance by the use of columns. The whole structure is surmounted by a well-designed parapet and balustrade with finely detailed turned balusters. Over each keystone is "mis"-placed a lamp, which very much mars the other- wise grand effect of the bridge, and which should have been placed over the piers instead. The uneven number of spans, the carefully worked-out design, the character of the engineering, and the great finish of the whole work, makes this one of the most notable of bridges and one which will bear careful studv into the minutest details. THE MAIDENHEAD ARCHES. THE railway bridge at Maidenhead, England, constructed by Brunei, in 1837, is an example of the grandeur given to engineering works by simplicity of design. The two large arches are elliptical, with a span of 128 feet, a rise of 24.2 feet, and a depth of key of 5.3 feet. The spandrels are built with longitudinal voids the bridge 12 of brick laid in cement. The curve of the intrados is very graceful and the whole effect is one of boldness. The parapets are well proportioned and afford the relief necessary, while the abutments are finely accentuated by the twin pilasters. The prevalence of such work gives an air of completeness to a landscape and one has reasonable expectation of seeing other evi- dences of civilization in its neighborhood ; and this is not disap- pointed, as the arch bridge seen through the large span forms part of another landscape set in a frame of masonry. KELSO BRIDGE OVER THE TWEED. THE location of the Kelso bridge is near the junction of the Tweed and Tevoit Rivers, where the scenery is most beau- tiful. It was designed by Rennie, and is of practically the same style as his Waterloo bridge, which was built at a later date. There are five equal spans of 72 feet each and a rise of 20 feet 9 inches, while the width is 26 feet. The arches are elliptical, with the arch stones tailed into the spandrel courses. The piers have semi-circular ends and support two Doric columns and en- tablature, on which rests the cornice. The roadway is perfectly level throughout, and is guarded by solid parapets, with retreats over the piers. The abutments also have columns supporting the cornice, and quadrant concave wing walls. The severeness of the design, together with the height above the stream, gives the structure an imposing appearance and makes it appear that the spans are quite large. The ruins of Kelso Abbey to the right adds materially to the view. This bridge was com- pleted in 1799 and the Waterloo bridge begun in 181 1. The Water- loo bridge had nine elliptical arches of 120 feet and was one of the first bridges constructed over the Thames with the roadway nearly level. THE CHATSWORTH BRIDGE. WHILE there is nothing especially remarkable about the Chatsworth bridge, it is a typical example of English Palace accessories in bridge engineering. As Chats- worth House is considered the most splendid private palace in England, it is to be expected that the bridge would be somewhat too ornate. It is almost entirely a piece of architecture, as the engineering problems involved in its construction are of a very simple character. The piers are well proportioned, and are capped with elegant molded copings. The springing of the arch is well defined and the arch ring is neatly emphasized by a molded archivolt. The statuary over the pier starlings is entirely out of place in bridge design, but it must be admitted to be in perfect harmony as part of a group of architectural works. The beautiful coping and balustrade are of such elegant design as to be worthy of much study and imitation. The abutments are elegantly defined and it is to be regretted that a work otherwise so 13 deserving of commendation, should have its beauty impaired by the broken profile of the roadway, which could easily have been avoided by a gentle curve and another element of elegance added. BROOMIELAW BRIDGE, GLASGOW. THIS bridge has seven segmental arches, the center span being 58 feet 6 inches and having a rise of 10 feet 9 inches, the two adjacent ones 57 feet 9 inches span and 10 feet 5 inches rise, the next ones 55 feet 6 inches span and 9 feet 8 inches rise, while the shore spans are 52 feet 3 inches. The piers range in thickness from 8 to 9 feet and have octagonal ends, supporting octagonal counterforts, which carry the pedestals and lamps. The bridge has two sidewalks and a roadway with two car tracks, mak- ing up a total width of 58 feet in the clear between parapets. The arch ring is composed of uniform ring stones with chisel draft on all edges, while the spandrels are paneled. The balustrade has turned balusters and a pilaster over each keystone. The piers and abutments are of freestone, while the face work of the arches and spandrels is of granite. The bridge was designed by Telford, who is credited with having built upwards of eleven hundred stone bridges, having over twelve hundred arches. The foundations were built in cofferdams having a five or six feet puddle chamber. Piles were driven for the foundations,, cut off to a level, and capped with grillage platforms on which to lay the masonry. The paving for the roadway is laid upon concrete, the sidewalks are of flat stone, the 12-inch curb of granite has the angle rounded off, while the gutter, also of granite, is 14 inches wide and has a triangular channel cut in it, 8 inches wide and 4 inches deep. THE NEW BRIDGE OF AYR. THE "Twa Brigs o' Ayr" have been made famous by the poet Burns, one of the bridges being the old one in the background which is now used only for foot passage, while the new one in the foreground occupies the site of the other, the present bridge being the third to occupy the same place. The bridge consists of five spans of small rise, the side spans being somewhat shorter than the other three. The arch stones are tailed into the spandrel courses in a very pleasing manner and the key- stones accentuated by a pyramidal face. The piers have rounded ends, with appropriate coping and caps, and are surmounted by counterforts with molded tops. The dentiled cornice, while very plain, is of neat design, being broken over the piers by the orna- mental brackets which support the pedestals of the balustrade. The parapets or balustrades are of very beautiful design, that over each arch being divided into several sections by paneled pilas- ters, each section having four circular openings in the dado with other simple but effective decoration, except that the long spans have an extra panel at the center with only one opening. At the 14 ends and over each pier there are pedestals carrying ornamental (amp posts. The contrast with the old bridge is very great and is a strik- ing illustration of the progress made in bridge design. Scarcely anv fault is to be found with the appearance of the new bridge unless it is the lack of more prominent abutments at both ends, there being an appearance of the bridge having been crowded in between the river walls. THE GROSVENOR BRIDGE. THE fourth largest stone span in existence is the one built at Chester, England, over the river Dee, from the plans of Mr. Harrison, an architect of that city. It is known as the Grosvenor or Chester-Dee bridge. The span is exactly 200 feet, the rise 42 feet, the depth at key 4.5 feet, at spring 7.0 feet, while the roadway is 33 feet in width. The following description of the bridge is taken from Cresy : "The bridge is situated between the castle and the village of Overlegh, immediately at the head of the harbor, where the tide rises 12 feet at ordinary springs. The abutments are founded on the solid rock, except for a small portion, where it was necessary to pile. The arch is the segment of a circle whose radius is 140 feet, and the rise, or versed sine, 42 feet. The voussoirs at the crown are 4.5 feet deep, and increase toward the springing, where they are 7 feet. The center, executed by Mr. Trubshaw, the con- tractor, consisted of six ribs in width ; the span of the arch was divided into four spaces by three piers, at regular distances, built up in the river, from which the timbers spread like a fan towards the soffit, so that each timber received its weight in the direction of its length ; the lower ends of these radiating supports rested on cast-iron shoes, placed on the tops of stone piers, and the upper ends were bound together by two thicknesses of 4-inch plank, cut and arranged to follow the form of the arch ; on these were laid the lagging or covering, 4^ inches thick, which was supported over each rib by a pair of folding wedges 16 inches long and I foot broad, tapering about i/^ inches; each course of voussoirs has six pair of striking wedges. The horizontal timbers of the center were 13 inches deep, and the six ribs were tied together trans- versely near the top by bolts of inch iron ; the timber used was fir, and the quantity required about 10,000 cubic feet. When the center was removed the crown sunk only 2^/2 inches. The cost of the bridge was 42,400, and the approaches 7,500, making a total of 49,900-" In several previous examples, quotations from Fergusson's crit- icism on this bridge have been given, so that it would seem ap- propriate to quote in full what he has to say concerning it. While quite severe in tone, it must be said that personal inspection of the bridge invites respect for the bridge and for the designer. Fergusson says : "In all these cases the primary object of the engineer is use, not beauty; but he cannot help occasionally becoming an architect, and sometimes with singular success, though too frequently, when 15 he ornaments, it is, as architects generally do. bv borrowing feat- ures from the Classical or Mediaeval styles, or by some mistaken application of them, betraying how little he has really studied the problem before him. "In illustration of these definitions, let us take the Dee bridge at Chester. As an engineering work, nothing can be nobler. It is the largest single span for a stone bridge in England, probably in the world ; built of the best materials, and in a situation where noth- ing interferes with its beauty or proportions. Its engineer, how- ever, aspired to be architect ; and the consequence is, that instead of giving value to an arch of 200 feet span, no one can, by mere inspection, believe that it is more than half that width. In the first place, he introduced a common architrave moulding round the arch, such as is usually employed in domestic architecture, and which it requires immense thought to exaggerate beyond the di- mensions of a porte-cochere. He then placed in the spandrels a panel 30 feet by 50, which, in like manner, we are accustomed to, of one-third or one-thirtieth these dimensions. He then, on his abutments, introduced two niches for statues, which it is imme- diately assumed would be of life size ; and beyond this, two land- arches without mouldings or accentuations of any sort, conse- quently looking so weak as to satisfy the mind there was no diffi- culty in the construction. ''Had Mr. Harrison been really an architect, he would have rus- ticated these land-arches with Cyclopean massiveness, not only to continue the idea of the embankment, but also to give strength where it was apparently most needed ; and would have avoided any- thing in the abutments that savored of life-size sculpture or of temple building. A Mediaeval architect would have pierced the spandrels with openings, thereby giving both lightness and dimen- sions to this part ; or, if that was not mechanically admissible, he would have divided it into three or four panels, in accordance with the construction. The essential parts in the construction of a bridge, however, are the voussoirs of the arch ; and to this the architect's whole attention should first be turned. If there had been fifty well- defined arch stones, the bridge would have looked infinitely larger than it now appears. With one hundred it would have looked larger still; but, if too numerous, there is a danger of the struc- ture losing that megalithic character which is almost as essential as actual dimensions for greatness of effect. The true architect is the man who can weigh these various conditions one against the other, and strike a judicious balance between the different ele- ments at his command. At Chester the builder has failed in this at every point, and by the same process which ruined St. Peter's. By exaggerating his details, the bridge has been dwarfed in ex- actly the same manner as the basilica. "If this is all that can be done with bridges, it is far better that they should be left, like most of those recently built, to tell their own tale without any ornament whatever. A long series of tall arches is so beautiful an object in itself that it is difficult to injure it; but occasionally a slight moulding at the impost, a bold ac- centuation of the arch, and bold marking of the roadway render those beautiful which otherwise may only be- useful in appearance/ 1 tfl ENGINEERING NEWS Established 1874. Published Every Thursday. Price, $5 a Tear. BRIDGE BOOKS. ,ENE, Prof. CHAS. E., "Structural Mechanics." Cloth, 6 x 9 iiis.;-27i pp. $3.00 HALL, JOHN L., "Tables of Squares." Containing the True Square of every foot, inch and one-sixteenth of an inch between one-sixteenth of an inch and 100 ft. Flexible mor : ins.; gilt edges 2.00 JOHNSON, Prof. J. B., "Engineering Contracts and Specifications;" includ- ing a Synopsis of the Law of Contracts and Examples of Various En- gineering Specifications. New edition, containing additional specifica- tions for electric railway work 3.00 MARSHALL, THOS. 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BRANCH OFFICES: BOSTON, CLEVELAND, LONDON. ENGINEERING STUDIES PART IV STONE ARCHES :HARLES EVAN FOWLER, M. AM. Whoever thinks a Faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. " ********* Content if hence th' unlearn'd their wants may view, The learn'd reflect on what before they knew, ' ' FIRST EDITION NEW YORK. INEERING NEWS PUBLISH1NC 1903. ENGINEERING STUDIES'" PART IV FRENCH STONE ARCHES BY CHARLES EVAN FOWLER, M. AM. Soc. C. E. Whoever thinks a Faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be." ********* 'Content if hence th' unlearn'd their wants may view, The learn'd reflect on what before they knew." Pope. FIRST EDITION. NEW YORK. THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 1903. Copyright, 1903, by CHARLES EVAN FOWLER. 10 BRIDGE OF ORLEANS. AMONG the oldest of modern stone bridges in France is the bridge at Orleans, constructed from designs of the en- gineer Hupeau, between 1750 and 1760. There are nine elliptical spans, the shortest being 98 feet and the longest 106.5 feet, and they are more pleasing than many others of similar out- line by reason of the curve of the intrados finishing tangent to the face of piers. The arch stones are dentiled into the spandrel ma- sonry, the entire masonry work of the bridge being dressed work. The rise of the arches is from 16 feet in the shortef~spans to 28.8 feet in the longer ones, the thickness of the arch rings being 5.8 and 6.9 feet respectively. The piers range from 18.1 to 19.2 feet in thickness, and the semi- circular ends extend upwards above the curve of the extrados, with coping and stepped conical capping, which gives the bridge great individuality. The neatly laid ripraping around the piers also adds to their finished appearance. The piers were founded on piles and a grillage, the piles being driven through a bed of sand from 4 to 13 feet in thickness into the underlying hard layers. A great deal of water was encoun- tered, and the pumping was no small part of the cost of the foun- dations. One of the piers settled i foot and 7 inches, and some considerable settlement took place after the bridge was completed, which was stopped by the driving of additional piles outside, to- gether with ripraping. The width of the bridge from face to face of masonry at the crown is 49 feet. A molded cornice or coping supports a very plain parapet wall, which agrees well however with the massive charac- ter of the entire structure. The cost of the bridge was very close to half a million dollars, including the later additional work. THE PONT NEUF, PARIS. THE most famous bridge to be seen in Paris is the Pont Neuf. It was begun in 1578 under Henry III. from the plans of Andronet dn Cerceau. The wars interrupted its progress, and it was recommenced in 1602 under Henry IV., being com- pleted in 1607. The river Seine is divided at this point by an island, and the bridge is in two sections, one on each side of this island. One sec- tion has seven arches ranging from 46 feet to 62 feet 4 inches in span, while the other section has only five arches ranging from 31 feet 3 inches to 48 feet, all the spans being semi-circular. The entire width of the bridge is 72 feet, part of it overhanging the arches, being supported by brackets. The piers have triangu- lar cut-waters, which carry triangular counter-forts up to the cornice. The space between the two portions of the bridge is ornamented by the equestrian statue of Henry IV. Here is where Napoleon II made his famous stand during the French Revolution, before his name had been made famous. The splendid condition of the masonry after such long usage, under very heavy traffic, attests the careful study given to the de- sign and the care with which the work was done. The bridge is not an example to be copied with profit, but is an example of the character which is given to an engineering work by a massive design. BORDEAUX BRIDGE. THE seventeen arch spans over the Garonne River at Bor- deaux is one of the most remarkable stone bridges in existence. It was constructed between the years 1813 and 1822 by the French engineer Deschamps, and while the great- est span is only 86.9 feet, the great number of arches renders it very imposing by reason of length alone. Not by any means ornate, its chaste design renders it still more striking. The ends are flanked by guard houses of very simple design, but, as may be seen from the view, they are in entire har- mony with the bridge itself. The parapet wall, while perfectly plain and free from ornament, does not mar the design, resting as it does on a neat coping course, supported by corbels or brackets. The arches are elliptical, with a rise of 28.9 feet, the thickness at the crown being 3.9 feet. The piers are semi-circular on the ends, with caps which form a neat and fitting finish, the thickness be- ing 13.8 feet. The bed of the river is only mud and sand, the borings showing a depth of from 39 to 52 feet to hard material, so that two hundred and fifty piles were driven under each pier, cut off approximately twelve feet below water, and loose rock filled in around their tops to steady them before beginning the masonry. The material used in the construction was brick and stone. ROQUEFAVOUR AQUEDUCT. WITH the old Roman Aqueduct at Nimes as an inspira- tion, it is not surprising that de Montricher should have conceived the Aqueduct of Roquefavour near Marseilles in France. With fifteen arches of 52.5 feet, and reach- ing upwards from the bottom of the valley to the great height of 271 feet, with studied elegance of design, detail and workmanship, it is not surprising either that the Pont du Card should be so far eclipsed. Being the highest stone bridge in the world, its slender piers are braced by arches low down which give the structure a three-storied effect. Projecting belt courses relieve the piers at the springing of all the arches, which are circular, there being re- lieving counterforts on the piers between the large arches of the top story. The canal or aqueduct is carried by 52 small arches in the top story, the span of each arch being 16.4 feet. 12 Not without some study is it discovered why this story is so in- finitely more pleasing in effect than the corresponding portion of its famous prototype ; the reason is very simple, each large arch is surmounted by three small arches an uneven number and symmetrically disposed throughout the structure. Surmounted by a cornice, composed of a well proportioned capping supported by consoles, the effect of the entire structure is most pleasing, be- ing simple, harmonious and commanding admiration. THE PONT AU CHANGED, FRANCE, holding a position pre-eminently among nations as a builder of stone bridges, it is to be expected that in Paris would be found remarkable examples of this de- partment of bridge engineering. It is doubtless evident from the illustrations that the bridges of this most wonderful of the world's cities were constructed to give uninterrupted flow to street traffic across the Seine. This is well illustrated in the view of the road- way of the Pont Neuf, but perhaps better shown in the view of the Pont au Change, where the bridge is the full width of the street, and except for the balustrades on either side, in place of enclosing buildings, it would not seem different from the avenue approach- ing it from both directions. Not satisfied with having designed a structure of maximum utility, the engineer gave to the arches a beauty comparable with other Parisian bridges and architecture. Nothing certainly can exceed in beauty an elliptical outline for an arch, and the details are in harmony with the general design. It is to be regretted, however, that the break in grade was not overcome by a vertical curve. The same fault is to be found with this as with many simi- larly designed bridges, in that the springing of the arches is con- cealed, and in the lack of abutments at the shore ends instead of the abrupt ending in the shore wall, which was rendered necessary by the provision of a proper waterway. The decorative imperial wreath and N is too large and could have been made one-fourth smaller to the enhancement of the beauty of the entire design. With these criticisms, however, it must be said that no serious fault can be found with these beautiful engineering creations, which are subject, like all else in this world, to mistakes of judg- ment. THE AUTEIL VIADUCT. TO no countrty can the engineer turn for the study of bridge architecture with the same degree of satisfaction as to France. The easily discerned cause for this was the early organization of the Ecole de Pont et Chaussees, which insti- tuted a system in the engineering endeavor of France. The greatest perfection has been attained in the bridges across the Seine at Paris, where naturally the expenditure has been 13 most lavish in the direction of architecture. The Auteil viaduct crosses the Seine with five large arch spans, five of which can be seen in the view. The piers are of beautiful design and appropri- ately coped, while the arch ring is accentuated ; the only possible fault being the concealment of the springing. The ornamenta- tion of the spandrel filling, above the pier, with the imperial "N," adds much to the design ; the coping course, supported by corbels, is surmounted by an elegant balustrade. This story carries a road- way, while the viaduct proper is carried above on thirty-one small arches, the supporting piers being pierced with two arches cross- wise. A balustrade, in entire harmony with the one on the first story, surmounts the whole structure, while the connection with the approaches is effected by a very flat segmental arch on each side. The unquestioned elegance of the viaduct was not obtained by the employment of any details except those absolutely necessary for the structural execution of the work, nor could anything fur- ther be added without detracting from its finished appearance. PONT DE AUSTERLITZ NAPOLEON at St. Helena, in recounting the deeds and works for which he would be remembered, did not fail to mention the bridges he had caused to be constructed, for of the engineering works constructed during his reign he was justly proud. Between the years 1804 and 1813 he expended for bridges alone the sum of 39,305,000 francs, of which sum 3,000,000 francs were for the bridge of Austerlitz. This bridge was built to commemorate the victory of Austerlitz the greatest of his vic- tories as others of his bridges were constructed as monuments to other battles where he was victorious. That he did not mistake in choosing his monuments is evidenced by the interest yet taken in the works of his engineers and from the fact that these bridges are as worthy of study to-day as they were scores of years ago. The Pont de Austerlitz is in the first place a work of architecture because of the division of the crossing into five spans, an odd number being the most elementary feature necessary to perfection of design. The arch ring stands out bold and in full relief, with the springing of the arches in full view not concealed as is the case with many stone bridges which are otherwise remarkably near perfection. The flatness of the arches is in pleasing contrast to those of more rise and consequently of greater boldness. The piers on this account become mere supports to the superstructure and are well designed to this end. Above them decorating the spandrels are the palm leaves, wreath, and imperial "X" sur- mounted by the crown, emblematic of victory and empire fixing beyond question the purpose of the construction. The balustrade is of chaste design, unbroken in detail except over the piers, where a short panel marks the spacing of the spans and serves to break the monoton. ENGINEERING NEWS Established 1874. Published Every Thursday. Price, $5 a Year. BRIDGE BOOKS. GREENE, Prof. CHAS. E., ''Structural Mechanics." Cloth, 6 x 9 ins.; 271 pp. $3.00 HALL, JOHN L., "Tables of Squares." Containing the True Square of every loot, inch and one-sixteenth of an inch between one-sixteenth of an inch and 100 ft Flexible morocco, 3% x 5%ins.; gilt edges. .. . 2.00 JOHNSON, Prof. J. 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Cloth, oblong, 12 x 9 ins.; 53 pp., including 19 full-page plates. Price 2.00 SPECIFICATIONS. BOUSCAREN, G., "Specifications for Railway Bridges and Viaducts of Iron and Steel." Paper, 8 x 13 ins. ; 9 pp 25 COOPER, THEODORE, "American Railroad Bridges." Cloth, 7x9% Ins.; 60 pp.; 7 tables and 26 full-page and folding plates 2,00 "General Specifications for Foundations and Substructures of Highway and Electric Railway Bridges." With 12 full -page plates illustrating the various Types of Foundations and Diagram for Calculating Economical Spans. Paper 7 X 9Ms ins.; 50 pp., Including 13 full-pase plates 1.00 "Specifications for Steel Highway Bridges." (1901.) Paper, 7x9% ins.; 38 pp - 50 "Specifications for Steel Railroad Bridges." (1901.) Paper, 7 x 9% ins.; 34 pp ,. 50 FOWLER, CHAS. E., "General Specifications for Steel Roofs and Build- Ings." Paper, 6x9 ins.; 12 pp 26 OSBORN CO., "General Specifications for Railway Bridges." Paper, 8 X 12 ins.; 10 pp 25 "'General Specifications for Bridge Substructure." 8 X 12 ins.; 10 pp 25 "Specifications for Metal Highway Bridge Superstructure." 8 X 12 Ins.; 12 pp 25 8TOWELL, CHAS.F. and CUNNINGHAM, A. C., "General Specifications for Structural Steel." Paper, 8% x 13^ ins.; 11 pp 25 ftWAAB, S. M., "Tables and Diagrams for Making Estimates for Sewerage Work." Paper, oblong, 4% x 7% ins.; 20 pp.; 16 plates. 50 THACHER, EDWIN, "General Specifications for Highway Bridges." Pa- per, 8 x 13% ins.; 8 pr 25 "General Specifications for Railway Bridges." Paper, 8 X 13V& Ins.; 8 pp. .25 THOMSON, G. W., "Standard Specifications for Structural Steel for Modern Railroad Bridges" 10 Complete price list of books published by us and a sample copy of Engineering Newa will be mailed on request. THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 220 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. BRANCH OFFICES: CHICAGO, BOSTON, CLEVELAND, IiONDON. ENGINEERING STUDIES PART V GERMAN AND AUSTRIAN STONE ARCHES BY CHARLEf EVAN FOWLER, M. AM. Soc. < Whoever thinks a Faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. " * * * * * * * * * Content if hence th' unlearn'd their wants may view, The learn'd reflect on what before they knew," FIRST EDITION. NEW YORK. ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO 1903 ENGINEERING STUDIES PART V GERMAN AND AUSTRIAN STONE ARCHES BY CHARLES EVAN FOWLER, M. AM. Soc. C. E. Whoever thinks a Faultless piece to see. Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be." ********* Content if hence th' unlearn'd their wants may view, The learn'd reflect on what before they knew." Pope. FIRST EDITION. NEW YORK. THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 1903. ^NERAL 1 Copyright, 1903, by CHARLES EVAN FOWLER. IO DRESDEN BRIDGE. THE old and new towns of Dresden are separated by the river Elbe, and communication is had over the stone bridge constructed from designs of Engineer Fotins, between 1179 and 1260. There are eighteen arches of 72 feet 6 inch span, with a rise of 36.3 feet. The arch ring is 6.4 feet thick at the crown, and the width of the bridge is 37.3 feet. The piers cover a large area on the base, and extending out so much beyond the roadway, are formed into retreats, which gives the bridge a very novel appearance. The bridge is widened by the brackets under the sidewalks, which are the only ornamental feat- ures of the structure, as everything else is of the greatest plainness, and the parapet railing is an ordinary iron one. There is nothing in Dresden to at all compare with the architec- ture at Munich, and consequently the bridge is not so out of keep- ing with its surroundings as would be true if located in a city with more magnificent architecture. THE OBERBAUMBRUCKE. THE electric railways of Berlin are of such excellent construc- tion as to have been the subject of many descriptive arti- cles. By excellent is meant not only the best and most solid construction, but elegance and beauty of design of the struc- tures. A recent writer says : "The one respect in which the Ger- man constructors leave others far behind and offer an object lesson worth careful study, is in the artistic beauty, the architectural charm and sense of fitness which they have imparted to the stations, the bridges, and even the ordinary overhead viaduct sections of the new road. Elevated railways in America, for example, are admittedly effi- cient and well managed; they run spacious, well-ventilated, com- fortable cars at high speed, for fares which are very low in com- parison with carriages and other means of transportation. But they are for the most part plain and commonplace in appearance, and the stations, even in central and populous precincts, are often buildings which are considered blemishes to the neighborhood. Here the requirements of public taste are never permitted to be neglected or forgotten. Where a new Berlin line passes through a public square, it is on solid and artistically designed masonry. The above ground stations are of stone, steel, and glass, no two alike, but each specially designed to fit not only the requirements of traffic at that point, but the adjacent buildings as well the archi- tectural frame-work in which it is set. Where, for instance, shall we look outside of continental Europe for interurban railway sta- tions like those at the Schlesisches Thor, and the Nollendorfer Platz, or a bridge like the Oberbaumbrucke, on which this new Ber- lin line crosses the Spree?" ii This has been illustrated in the Studies to emphasize the possi- bilities in the artistic design of the structures of our every-day utilities. With such an ornate bridge, rather too ornate than otherwise, the necessity for destroying the effect by such guard piles and fenders is certainly to be deplored. MUNICH BRIDGE MUNICH is one of the great art centers of Europe, and has many renowned works of architecture, and which individ- ually are deserving of great admiration, although in gen- eral the subject of much criticism. Fergusson says, regarding the works executed during the reign of King Louis of Bavaria : "\Vhen a young man, residing at Rome, as Crown Prince of Bavaria, Louis seems to have been struck with admiration for the great works he saw there, and from their contemplation to have imbibed a love of Art, which led him to resolve that when he came to the throne he would devote his energies to the restoration of German Art. and make his capital the central point of the great movement he was contemplating. Earnestly and perseveringly he worked towards this end during die whole of his reign; and if the result has not been so satisfactory as might be wished, it has not been owing either to want of means or of encouragement on the part of the king, but to the system on which he proceeded, either from inclination, or from the character of the agents he was forced to employ in carrying out his designs. ''The ruling idea of the Munich School of Architecture seems to have been to reproduce as nearly as possible in facsimile every building that was great or admirable in any clime, or at any pre- vious period of history, wholly irrespective either of its use or of the locality it was destined to occupy in the new capital. Whatever the king had admired abroad his architects were ordered to repro- duce at home. The consequence is that Munich is little more than an ill-arranged museum of dried specimens of foreign styles, fre- quently on a smaller scale, and generally in plaster, but reproduc- ing with more or less fidelity buildings of all ages and styles, though in nine cases out of ten designed for other purposes, and carried out in different materials. "Had the king, on the other hand, insisted that his architects should copy nothing, but must produce buildings original in de- sign, and adapted to the climate of Germany and the usages of the nineteenth century, he had it in his power to be the founder of a School of Art which would have rendered his name illustrious in all future ages. Probably such a conception was as much beyond the calibre of the royal patron's mind as it might have exceeded the talent of his artists to execute it. Unfortunately, the reproduction of the Parthenon or the Pitti Palace enabled flatterers to suggest that he had equalled Pericles or the Medici ; and it was not thought necessary to hint that the printer, who multiplies the work of a great poet, need not necessarily be as great as the author of the 12 first conception. To the architects it was Elysium ; they had only to measure and repeat; authority sanctioned all blunders and re- lieved the artist from all responsibility. "The experiment was so novel, at least in Germany, that it was at first hailed with enthusiasm ; but, after this had subsided, the taste of the nation recoiled from the total want of thought dis- played in the buildings at Munich, and their common sense re- volted at their want of adaptation to the circumstances in which they are placed. The result may eventually prove fortunate for the development of the art of Architecture. The king placed be- fore his countrymen specimens of all schools and all styles; and the contemplation of these may arouse the German mind~to emu- late their beauties instead of servilely copying their details. But meanwhile the mind of the student is puzzled by the variety of ex- amples submitted for his admiration. Is it the Walhalla or the Aue-Kirche he is to admire? The Konigsbau or the Wittel- bacher Palace ? To which end of the Ludwig Strasse is he to look for his model of an arch? It may prove to be a useful school; but it is now only a chaos, and no master's hand exists to guide the student's mind through the tortuous mazes of the unintellectual labyrinth in which he finds himself involved. It is difficult to im- agine in what direction the tide may ultimately turn. If the Ger- man mind is capable of originality in Art, it ought to be for good. They have copied everything, and exhausted themselves with imi- tations ad nauseam. It remains to be seen whether they can now create any worthy of admiration." The view here reproduced shows not only the bridge over the Iser River, but gives a very good idea of the magnificence of the buildings of the city, as represented by the Maximilianeum. Attention will only need to be drawn to the details of the bridge, which are of the richest character. The arch ring is highly molded on the intrados and on the extrados. The Keystone of each span, highly carved, is capped and becomes a console under a post of the parapet railing at the center of the span, while similar posts over the piers, carrying lamp posts, are supported by caps on coun- terforts. The railing itself is in panels, with turned balusters and molded capping. The brick spandrels are decorated with royal insignia. MOSELLE BRIDGE. THE town of Coblenz, at the junction of the Moselle and the Rhine, was founded by the Romans. Aurelian rebuilt the great military road about the year 270, and remains of the pile bridge over the Moselle were discovered in 1864, just below the present bridge. The Moselle bridge was built in 1344 by Elector Baldwin, and was restored in 1440. It was further rebuilt and widened in 1884. Hoary with age, its many arches in well nigh perfect preserva- tion, it is one of the most pleasing stone bridges in existence. The '3 details, while in many respects not of the most pleasing character, are neat and carefully executed. The cutwaters of the piers are plainly capped, and while neatly pointed against the spandrel walls, it was evidently not realized by the designer how much appropriate counterforts would improve the appearance of the structure. The parapet was originally of quite elegant finish, as is shown by the details for a portion of the length. While studying the bridge in detail, it is impossible to state just why the structure is imposing, but upon viewing it as a whole, we discover that it is due to the number of the spans ; the multiplica- tion of the unit commanding attention, whereas one single span by itself, while of the same pleasing outline, would fail of causing more than passing notice. THE JAREMCZE BRIDGE THE splendid examples of stone arch bridge construction on the line of the Austrian Street Railways over the River Pruth, has caused the insertion of a description of them in this part of the Studies, which would otherwise have been de- voted exclusively to German Stone Arches. The primary reason for their construction was due to the fact that they would prove cheaper than steel bridges in such locations as were afforded by the narrow and deep valley of the Pruth. The bridge at Jaremcze has the largest span of the four struc- tures, all of which have long spans over the river, with one or more short approach spans on each side as shown in the view. At Worochta there are two crossings, one with a main span of 113.5 feet, and another with a main span of 131.2 feet; at Jamma the main span is 157.4 feet; while at Jaremcze the main span is 213 feet long, or at the time it was built the second largest stone span in existence, and since the completion of the Luxembourg bridge the third larg- est. The rise is 59 feet, the thickness of the arch ring at the spring is 10.2 feet and at the crown 6.9 feet, with a width of only 14.7 feet, or just enough for a single track railway. This narrow width is the one feature of the design most open to criticism. The arch itself has enough rise to give it a bold effect, which is height- ened and made pleasing by the arched spandrels, a mode of con- struction which Edwards learned was necessary by experimenting in building the Pont-y-Pryd bridge, but which he executed in a less happy manner, using circular openings to lessen the weight over the haunches. The arch ring has well defined and exposed skew backs, and is constructed of cut stone, laid in mortar composed of one part Portland cement and three and one-half parts of sand. The spandrel arches have a span of 11.8 feet, while the short ap- proach spans are 26.2 feet and the longer ones 39.4 feet. No particular effort seems to have been made for architectural embellishment, entire reliance having been placed on the simplicity and boldness of the design, but it is to be regretted that a coping or cornice was not added to finish the structure. Ludwig Huss, the chief engineer, has stated that these arches of 14 such length would not have been constructed, except for the satis- factory results of a series of experiments conducted by a -commit- tee on arches of the Austrian Society of Engineers and Architects, even in the face of the existing Cabin John arch of 220 feet and the Grosvenor arch of 200 feet span. The Jaremcze bridge is approximately 600 feet long and cost $33,890; the Jamma bridge is approximately 400 feet long and cost $18,870; while the Worochta bridges are approximately 409 feet and 700 feet long, and cost $14,630 and $16,430 respectively. While these lengths are approximate, they will serve for the pur- pose of comparison, the low cost of the longest of the Worochta bridges being due to the short river span and the preponderance of approaches. THE SCHLOSS BRIDGE. THE details of the stone bridges of Berlin are generally such as one would expect where they are surrounded by so much architectural magnificence. The Museum in the background, being of classic design, naturally calls for details of a chaste description in the Schloss bridge. The piers, with rounded ends, are neatly capped, and with the masonry abutments of the center openings, are sufficiently heavy to give every appearance of stability with the flat side arches which exert such direct horizontal thrust. The arch stones run through to the cornice except in the case of the last few on each side, which joggle into the spandrel courses. A bridge of this character, however, serves mainly to carry the street over the stream, a fact which is evidenced by the parapets. The railings are of very elaborate and ornate design, while over each pier and abutment are pedestals, supporting stat- uary of great artistic beauty. The open space on either side of the street afforded by the bridge, opens UD a vista which is properly introduced by such ornamentation, being reinforced by the notable buildings which are brought to view. HEIDELBERG BRIDGE. HEIDELBERG, situated on the left bank of the Neckar River, is a town mainly of one street, and is famous for its Castle and University. Heidelberg University was founded in 1386, is the third oldest in Germany, and as the cradle of science in South Germany, is also one of the most famous seats of learning in the world. To engineers this lends an especial charm to the old bridge over the Neckar, which in its mediaeval character is quite in harmony with the University and the Castle. Owing to the broken line of the roadway and the crudeness of the details, it is lacking in beauty, but is nevertheless an imposing structure. 15 It was built in 1788 by the Elector Charles Theodore, whose statue is seen on the pier retreat at the extreme right of the view r . The statue of Minerva, on the pier near the center, adds very much to the dignity of the entire bridge. Over the other piers are retreats on brackets, which relieve the otherwise flat appearance of the bridge. The springing of the arches is concealed, the masonry work is not first-class, the arch stones being uneven both in thickness and length, but the coping or cornice is an admirable detail, even though the effect is spoiled bv the iron railing which guards the roadway. With all the faults named, and many others not mentioned, the grandeur and dignity of the ensemble must not be forgotten. THE FRIEDRICHSBRUCKE, BERLIN. THERE are so many works of architecture in Berlin worthy of description, that attention is seldom called to the designs of the bridges, yet in the Friedrichsbrucke there is an exam- ple of stone bridge architecture that will repay a great deal of study. Beginning with the piers, the courses of stone are accentuated by the chamfered joints, while there is both a coping or cornice and a cap to finish them, and counterforts are used above to divide the spandrels of adjacent spans and relieve the flat surface. The skewbacks of the arches are exposed, which should always IK- the case, and the arch ring is full at the springing, although beautifully molded beyond ; a detail which could not well be omitted with such surroundings, although to be avoided in large arches. Upon a coping of plain design, which gives proper relief to the smooth spandrels, is a parapet of very simple design, yet having a very rich effect. Bracketed over the piers are elaborate pedestals carrying statues, holding aloft torch-shaped lamp globes ; bringing out very strongly the appropriateness of ornamental supports for our street lights. While at first glance it may seem that the bridge is made to appear much more ornate than it really is by the magnificence of the buildings beyond, yet upon careful study we must concede that this bridge is one of the best designed stone arch structures to be found anvwhere. 16 ENGINEERING NEWS Established 1874. Published Every Thursday. Price, $5 a Year. BR1DC OOKS. GREENE, Prof, CHAS. E., "Structural Mechanics." Cloth, 6 x 9 ins.; 271 pp. $3.00 HALL, JOHN L., "Tables of Squares." Containing the True Square of every foot, inch and one-sixteenth of an inch between one-sixteenth of an inch and 100 ft Flexible morocco, 3M> x 5%ins.; gilt edges 2.00 JOHNSON, Prof. J. B., "Engineering Contracts and Specifications;" includl ing a Synopsis of the Law of Contracts and Examples of Various En- gineering Specifications. New edition, containing additional -specifica- tions for electric railway work ... .300 MARSHALL, THOS. W., "Tables of Logarithms of Lengths up to 50 ft., vary- ing by 1-16 of an inch." Flexible morocco, oblong, 5% x 3V& ins.; gilt d S- s 2.00 5BORN, FRANK C., "Tables of Moments of Inertia and Squares of Radii of Gyrations." Flexible leather, 4 x 6% ins. ; 175 pp 3.00 SMOLEY, CONSTANTINE, "Tables of Logarithms and Squares." 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Paper 7x9^ ins.; 50 pp., including 13 full .. 1.00 "Specifications for Steel Highway Bridges." (1901.) P 9V> ins.; 38 PP "Specifications for Steel Railroad Bridges." (1901.) Paper, 7 x 9V a ins.; 34 pp FOWLER, CHAS. E., "General Specifications for Steel Roofs and Build- ings." Paper, 6x9 ins. ; 12 pp 25 OSBORN CO., "General Specifications for Railway Bridges." Paper, 8 X 12 ins.; 10 pp 25 "General Specifications for Bridge Substructure." 8 x 12 ins.; 10 pp 25 "Specifications for Metal Highway Bridge Superstructure." 8 x 12 ins.; 12 pp 25 BTOWELL, CHAS. P. and CUNNINGHAM, A. C., "General Specifications for Structural Steel." Paper, 8% x 13% Ins.; 11 pp. . . . , . .25 8WAAB, S. M., "Tables and Diagrams for Making Estimates for Sewerage Work." Paper, oblong, .ty 2 x 7% ins.; 20 pp.; 16 plates.. .50 THACHER, EDWIN, "General Specifications for Highway Bridges." Pa- per, 8 x 13% ins. ; 8 pp 25 "General Specifications for Railway Bridges." Paper," 8* x 13% 'ins. ' ' 8 pp. .25 OMSON, G. W., "Standard Specifications for Structural Steel for Modern Railroad Bridges" ... JQ Complete price list of books published by us and a sample copy of Eni?VneerinK News will be mailed on request. THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 220 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. BRANCH OFFICES: CHICAGO, BOSTON, CLEVELAND, LONDON. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. NOV 6 1932 REC'D UD NOV 2 01961 J.I) 21-50?] YD 2636 B.I 85