W!f ESSENTIALS IN HISTORY prepared in consultation with ALBERT BUSIINELL HART ^Essentials in English History ALBERT PERRY WALKER I^^^W^^^ti^^^ yC^ O ^m^a/ 8 ■• ^';'^:• (:/o'. ^4-X(rni^ ^^^C^AAe^n^ uCnM/cr.if/ir ^ yrjoAf-orfnO' Prof. Stephens Ci-n^ Pro?. Stephens ESSENTIALS IN HISTORY ESSlvXTIALS LN ENGLISH HISTORY (FROM rilK EAHLIEST HKCOUDS TO THE PRESENT DAY) BY ALHEur ri:uKV walkku, a.m. MASTER IN THE ENGLISH llHill !^< imilL, BOSTON IN CONSri.TATIoN WITH ALUKUT 1!USI1X1:LL llAKT, LL.l). rUOFKSSUR OK III8TOBY, HAKVAKD UMVKR8ITT NEW YORK ■:■ (TNCINNATI:. CHICAGO AMKUMAN r.ooK COM PA NY ESSENTIALS IN HISTORY A SERIES PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY ESSENTIALS IN ANCIENT HISTORY By ARTHUR MATER WOLFSON, Ph.D. ESSENTIALS IN MEDI.^VAL AND MODERN HISTORY Bv SAMUEL B. HARDING, Ph.D. Ill preparation ESSENTIALS IN ENGLISH HISTORY By albert perry AVALKER, A.M. ESSENTIALS IN AMERICAN HISTORY By albert BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. Copyright, 1905, by ALBERT PERRY WALKER. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. essen. eng. hist. \v. p. I GENERAL INTRODUCTION This is the third of the series of Essentials in History, designed for use in secondary schools, and arranged on the system recommended in the Report on the Study of History in Schools hy the Committee of tiie American Historical Association. Dr. Wolfson's hook, ICssen- tials in Ancient Ilisluri/, describes the origins of civilization in Kgypt and Mesopotamia, the bloom of (ireece, the rise of Rome, the spread f Hellenic civilization, and the decay of the Roman Empire. Pro- iVssor Harding's volume follows with the later median-al and modern Euro}>ean history, from about SOU a.i>. to tlie present time. This ]'resent volume is a consecutive account of English history. The fourth and final volume treats of American history. The title " Essentials" suggests that the authors of all the volumes have addressed themselves to the things which have really been sig- nificant and vital in the development of western civilization. rerser of chapters corresponding nearly to the number of weeks in a school year. The texts are continuous, although the uuml)ered sectional headings in the margin show the progress of thought and the chronological sequence. Each author has in a few prefatory pages indicateil how he thinks his book may best l»e u.sed ; and all are alike in adding to each chapter a brief bibliog- raphy referring to " fieograi>hy," " .Secondary aulhoriti«»s," " .Snin*es," and "Hlustrative works," intended to l»e a (piick and easy w.\v of referring pupils to such additional readings as tiie teacher may think satisfactory. Each ciiapter is also furnished with two lists of topics: the first, or "Suggestive topics," are related pretty closely t«i the 5 6 GENERAL INTRODUCTION text and to the ordinary handbooks almost everywhere accessible ; the second, or " Search topics," expect a search into a wider range of authorities, including sources. The appendix matter has been made brief; it consists of a few documents actually necessary to make clear the allusions and discussions of the text. Besides the chapter bibliographies, Appendix A is a " Brief List of Books," which is intended for the teacher's desk and for constant con- sultation by the pupils. Such a list, costing about twenty-five dollars, will greatly add both to the soundness and to the interest of the course. In the chapter bibliographies the first references are commonly to some of these specially indicated works. For schools or individuals who possess or have access to a larger library, a " General Bibliog- raphy " of the most important books upon the subject of the volume will be found appended, including the titles of most of the books mentioned in the chapter bibliographies. Such a list will be service- able for making purchases to fill up a school or town library, and the books which ought first to be procured are denoted by an asterisk. As to the use of the volume on English history, Mr. Walker has made his own suggestions. A good teacher will always keep in mind the necessity of careful study of the text-book, as the repository of facts and principles necessary for the pupil to know. In order to train pupils to analyze and get the real meaning out of what they study, at the end of each chapter is a brief " Summary," which is not a mere recapitulation of the previous sections, but a succinct statement of the whole ground covered by the chapter. Every good school course ought to include some parallel reading from sources or from good secondary books ; and such outside reading is easily directed through the chapter bibliographies, which refer to . a variety both of sources and of later writers. Throughout the series maps are plentiful. It is expected that teachers will insist on the location of the places mentioned in the text, and, further, that they will make clear the geographical relief so far as it plays a part in history. Many schools require written work of some kind, and the teachers wnll find hints for such work in the special books on the subject men- tioned in Appendix A. For beginners topics must be such as may be simply and easily answered out of a small number of available books; so far as possible sources should be used, because of their suggestive- ness and spirit; and such work ought to be an adjunct, and not the staple of a pupil's work. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART. THE AUTHOR TO THE TEACHER TnK first live .sections of tliis book (pp. 11-13) suggest broadly on what a pupil uiakiug a first survey of English history should be led to focus liis thou,i;ht ; namely, on the great movements by which ancient England has become modern England, and on the forces which have given rise to these movements. In this book, therefore, emphasis is laid on (1) the fusing of several races into the Englisli people ; {'J) tlte successful working out by that people of two great problems in government, — that of self-government under free demo- cratic forms and that of governing remote de(iendencies ; (-i) the exploitation of two great fields of industry, manufacturing and com- merce; and (4) the effect of race tendencies in promoting social and intellectual progress. At the same time the author luvs taken pains not to distort the student's ix?rs2>ective of events by a too brief treat- ment of dramatic but comparatively resultless episodes, like the Komau occupation of Britain, or the Hundred Years' War. The t^-acher should make sure at the outset that tlie opening survey of the field conveys clear ideas to the pupil, and should lead him to refer to it at every stiige in the study. Throughout the book the account of events is approximately chronological, but social conditions, which change but slowly, are disciLssed in special chajiters at suitable intervals. Events are grouped under reigns until the jK-riod when monarchs no longer molded the history of their times. Within the chapters strict chronological sequence ha.s been deemed less important than unity ir> the treatment of a given subject. The subdivision into thirty-eight chapters makes possible the assignment of one chapter a week for a .school year; but the author has found it much more pn»fitable tse which relate to his particular subject; to review over and over the sequence 7 8 THE AUTHOR TO THE TEACHER of dynasties, i^eriods, and significant epochs; and to break away from the tyranny of the printed page and construct his own narrative. Great pains has been taken to make the maps adequately ilhistrate the text, but their study should be supplemented by constant prac- tice in locating places and lines upon outline maps, and by any other methods that will tend to correlate geography and history. The illus- trations are almost without exception views of real objects, chosen for their historic interest and suggestiveness. They should be made the subject of discussion in the class. The suggestive topics at the ends of the several chapters are designed to make the pupil reflect ujion the facts that he has learned, and to suggest profitable exercises in comparison and in the study of causal relations. The search topics have been utilized to point the way to additional information, and no question or topic has been inserted merely as a puzzle. The bibliographies aim to call attention to books of two classes: (1) for the pupil, readable accounts by trustworthy historians, and source material to illustrate these accounts; (2) for the teacher, certain exhaustive and standard works suited to the mature student. In the use of source books, teachers should not require too much work or expect too many tangible results. These books are mines of illustrative, not of structural, materials. The wise method is to assign to each pujul only a single reference to look up at one time, a single topic to investigate. The list of illustrative works ranges from the slight woi-ks of Hentj^ (which have been in- cluded because experience proves that through them many pujiils of immature age gain an increased interest in history) to the great literary masterpieces of Shakespeare, Scott, Thackei'ay, and Tennyson. To sum up, this book aims to present to students of high school age such information regarding English history as can be assimilated in a single year; information selected for its power to enrich and to discipline the mind, and so treated as to aid the teacher in accom- plishing this result. My thanks are due to ]\Ir. Hyman Askovith for valuable assistance in preparing the chapter bibliographies. ALBERT TERRY WALKER. CONTENTS PAOB CHAPTF.U I. Course and Conditions of English History . . .11 CUNCilKSTS OF ENGLAND II. The Honians in Britain (55 b.c.^49 a.i>.) III. Celts aiiainst Teutons (44!)-827) IV. Early En,i;lish Instituti(Mis V. Anglo-Saxons against Danes (787-1042) VI. Anglo-SaxiMis against Normans (104"2-1087) 25 :!«! "(5 65 80 NoKMAN I r.lDALISM VII. The Femlalization of English Institutions . .05 VIII. England under the Later Norman Kings (lnf<7-1154) . 115 IX. Restoration of Order (1154-1100) 12S X. Economic and Social I*rogress (1100-1350) . . .141 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM XI. Defense of Liberty by the Barons (1100-1272) . 150 XIl. First Steps in rarliamentary Government (1272-1307) . 171 XIII. Misgovernment under the Later I'lantagenets (i;iO7-l.;00) 185 XI\'. Social and Economic Progress (1250-1400) . .201 DECADENCE OF FEUDALISM XV. Foreign NVars under the Lancastrian Kings (1390-1453) 217 XVI. Dynastic Wars nf York and Lancaster (1447-1485) . 230 THE TUDOR MONARCHY X \' II. Religious Revolution under the Early Tudors (1485-1547) 245 Will. Crisis in Religion under Edward VI. and Mary Tudor (1547-1558) -'^^ XIX. Political Crisis under Elizabeth (1558-U503) . . . 272 XX. Intellcclual. Industrial, and Social Progres.s under the Tudors '-^88 STI .MMS AND I'AKI.l AMENT XXI. Contest over the Royal Prerogative (lfin:i-lfi40) . 300 XXII. Usurpation of Power by the Long Parliament (1(M0-1(H2) 317 XXIII. The Great Rebellion (1<;12-1040) •125 XXIV, Cromwell and the Commonwealth (H">40-10<10) . . ;W9 10 CONTENTS CHAPTER . XXV. The Restored Stuart Monarchy (1660-1673) XXVI. Fall of the Stuarts (1673-1688) RISE OF PARTY GOVERNMENT XXVII. Limitation of the Royal Authority: William III. (1689-1702) XXVIII. Whigs versus Tories (1702-1715) STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE XXIX. Whig Regimes of Walpole and Pitt (1721-1761) . XXX. George IIL and tlie New Absolutism (1763-1789) XXXI. Life and Manners in the Eighteenth Century XXXIL Period of the Napoleonic Wars (1789-1815) INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT XXXIII. Local Conditions (1783-1820) . . XXXIV. The Removal of Abuses (1820-1850) . . . . GREATER ENGLAND XXXV. Foreign and Colonial Interests (1820-1858) . XXXVI. Reforms and Expansion (1858-1886) . . . . XXXVII. The United Kingdom since 1885 XXXVIII. England's Contribution to Civilization . . . . PAGE 355 371 400 413 427 442 455 470 482 497 510 523 537 Bibliography i, iii Selections from Documents of English Constitutional Histor\; ix Index xxiv Genealogical Tables . . 73, 127, 173, 221, 228, 263, 370, 394, 481 EEFERENCE MAPS Physical Map of the British Isles . . . 14, 15 Roman Britain ... 26 Teutonic Britain ... 40 Norman England ... 94 Plantagenet England . .142 Scotland in 1300 . . .170 France in the Hundred Years' War 190 England during the Wars of the Roses . . . .232 Europe, Sixteenth Century . 246 The Netherlands, about 1650 . 280 England in the Civil War . 326 Ireland : settlements . . 340 The British Isles, 1900 . 384, 385 Eastern North America in 1754 421 Coal Fields and Canals, 1800 . 444 Europe in 1792 . . . 454 India: Growth of British Do- main .... 474 Central Asia : British and Rus- sian Frontiers in 1900 The British Empire . 516 544, 645 ESSENTIALS IX ENGLISH IIISTOUV rHAPTER I. COURSE AND CONDITIONS OF ENGLISH HISTORY (A) TuK Chief Movements ix English Histokv Before a student undertakes to study the history of any country in detail, he will do well to take ii brief survey of the great moveineuts by which its progress has been nuuked. ^ survey of He will thus perceive clearly the road he is to traverse, the field of and will be less likely to lose his bearings and become °*" ^ confused among the innumerable minor events which have contributed to or have accompanied these primary movements. Such a survey of English history shows that the British Isles have formed the theater for the development of four succes- sive invading peoples, each of which brought with it from the neighboring "Continent" of Europe a different type of civiliza- tion, and each of which has left upon the life of the islands some distinctive impress. (1) Some centuries before the Christian era, the Celts (or Kelts) brought to the island of Great Britain their primitive form of civilization. About the beginning of that era g Earliest these Celts were conquered, though not extinguished, political de- , . • 1 T> yelopment by invaders from the Continent, the imi)erial Romans. The newcomers, during four centuries of control over Britain, failed to impart to its people any of the political vigor which Rome had in her prime ; and when disorders in Italy finally forced them to abandon the island, early in the fifth century a.d., they left it but little advanced in jtolitical or social development. 11 ■;, ?1^'; vC-0tf'^SE AKsfT^, CONDITIONS OF ENGLISH HISTORY (2) The territory thus relinquished was soon seized upon by a group of Teutonic peoples from the north of Europe, the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons. Tljese races, although still semi- barbarous, soon showed a remarkable instinct for creating social and political institutions. They promptly changed their government from the tribal to the monarchical form in order to meet their new conditions ; they changed their roving habits and developed a strong love of the soil where they had taken root ; and, above all, they showed an intense conserva- tism, — a quality which gave permanence to every succes- sive improvement which they wove into the fabric of their civilization. (3) These early comers were disciplined into a rude sem- blance of nationality and order by six centuries of strife with 3. Growth their Celtic predecessors, with one another, and with their of national- ^^j.^g rivals the Danes, a body of their kinspeople whose Middle Ages migration to Britain was deferred too late to give them an equal chance in the struggle. (4) The Anglo-Saxons and Danes in their turn suffered invasion and conquest at the hands of a limited body of Nor- mans (1066). This hardy people, although of the same^ stock as the Anglo-Saxons and Danes, were by nature more enterpris- ing; and, because of their more fortunate location upon the western coast of the Continent, had made greater progress in political and social life, and in all the arts and industries by which civilization is advanced. During the following two hundred and fifty years, these four elements, Celt, Saxon, Dane, and Norman, gradually be- came welded into unity, and worked out an efficient political system. Such a development was aided by their isolation from the Continent; but the monarchs of England failed to realize the strength of their insular position, and tried again and again, though vainly, to unite the territories of France and England into a single state. CUir.l" MnVK.MKNrs (>F KN't-LISlI illSlOUY 1 :5 The Iteginning of the >r(Klein l'3ra, inaiktMl by the disi-ovcries of Cohimhiis :intl others, fomul the imitied Englisli peophi ready to enter into a contest of European nations for the 4. Growth tUuuinatiou of the greater worUl then revealetl. Thny °^ '^^od^ern won rii-h territories and fame abroad, at the same time times that tliey perfected their political system at home. Meanwhile England united to herself three lesser units, Wales. Scotland, and Ireland, and laid the foundations of a vast colonial empire. Finallv, l)y defeating Napoleon's ambitious schemes, (Jreat I'.ritain won a leading place among the half dozen Great Powers which thenceforth were to control the old world, and with the nineteenth century entered upon a career of industrial and commercial expansion paralleled only by that of her emanci- pated offspring, the United States of America.' From the time of the Roman occupation onward, the inhabit- ants of southern and eastern England won their living by tilling the rich soil of the valleys and plains. A little 5. Eag- later, sheep grazing on mot»rlands and hillsides enriched ^yg^rial de- them with wool, their chief article of export in the early velopment commercial period. The growth of commerce fostered a spirit of enterprise which soon made England mistress of the seas, ind a vast fishing industry added to her sources of wealth ; while .seaport townis — such as Bristol, Chester, Plymouth, Varmoutli, and Portsmouth (map, p. 385) — grew up at the mouth of every navigable stream. Then, when modern inven- tion made it possiljle to harness the forces of nature for the serv- ice of man, the center of population and of industrial activity -hifted to the mountainous nortliwest, whose water power, fuel, mineral deposits, and lumber were then Hrst available. I'l'hf rlianges Iutc mitlincd sujiKcst a wdhI of warning' in rt'n:inl t.i tlic use of nanus. .\s a >;»'oj,'raplii<-al expn-ssion. •' (ireat Britain, " or "Britain." iiieansthf lar^rst ..f the Britisli Isles : politiially, " (irfat Britain" means the Initeil Kiiii;ili.iii whicli lias exist«^l sinee 17<»7 ami now .Mvupies all the ish>s. " Kn<;lan) the parent kin^'.lotii -.f tlie British Empire; (3) when usererseyare most important, because of their fiord-like mouths. North of the end of the Pennine T'hain, Britain presents an irregular surface. The tumbled mountain masses of Scotland are cleft in two places by partly flooded valleys; the 9. Topog- more southerly of these, opening into the Firth of Forth Scotland and the Clyde, is the more important, as it gives access and Ireland to the entire Scotch Lowlands. Ireland, which is separated from Britain by a wide channel, is of a shallow "basin" shape, with few and scattered elevations. It therefore h:is few navigable streams, and is but poorly drained. 18 COURSE AND CONDITIONS OF ENGLISH HISTORY These physical features of the British Isles have an impor- tant effect upon the climate. Ireland, low and flat, has no 10 Influ- protection from the warm, moisture-laden winds of the ence of Atlantic Ocean. Its climate is therefore too wet. In on develop- Great Britain, on the other hand, the western mountain ment ranges condense upon their cold heights the excess of moisture from the ocean, and send it back in numerous streams, the rapid currents of which furnish power for manu- facturing the materials found in her mines and the products of her soil ; while the deep clefts in these broken ranges, flooded by the sea,'furnish ample harbors for the ships which distrib- ute her manufactured products over the entire world. Ex- posed Ireland receives fifty inches of rainfall annually, with great injury to her low-lying plains; while sheltered eastern Britain, receiving upon her gently sloping downs but half that amount, enjoys the most favorable conditions for agriculture, and indeed for all the varied human activities. The temperate climate, neither too enervating nor too harsh, and the long days of summer, are alike favorable to human progress. The isolation of the primitive islanders of course made their development in civilization different from that of the peoples 11. Influ- ^^ southern or even western Europe. Although their ence of nearness to the Continent led them in time to copy its location on .... , „ .■-, ^■, , ^ develop- institutions instead of creating wholly new ones, yet dur- ment jj-jg |^]^g ^Q^g period before intercourse with the Continent became easy and frequent, this transplanted civilization came to have a marked form of its own. Then, too, the English made more rapid political progress behind their salt-water barriers than the war-harried peoples of the Continent. The southeastern angle of Britain lies nearest to the main- land of Europe ; and here was the point at which the Celts, and later the Teutons, gained access to the island. Further- more, the Thames, which discharges into the North Sea near this southeastern angle, drains a large portion of the territory EARLIEST IMIAniTANTS OK Hini'AIN 19 of southern Britain, :ind makes all the interior of the country easy of ai-i-ess from Kurui»t*. This geograjihical situation, therefore, not only determined what part of the islands should be earliest developed, but also made London almost necessarily the commercial and economic center, tirst of western Kunjpe, and later of the world. (C) The Earliest Ixhabitaxts of Britain- For information regarding the earliest inhabitants of any country, the student must look, not to written records, but to what may be termed " unrecorded history" — the body of 12 Unre- facts derived by scientific reasoning from indirect but ^°^ tory^of trustworthy evidence. For exami)le, geological science Britain informs us that, because of movements of the earth's crust, large areas of land in Britain now stand at different levels above the sea from those which they once occupied. It further testifies that Britain and the Continent were once connected by land masses. In those remote ages, elephants, rhinoceroses, lions, and bears wandered freely from European to British for- ests; and probably all the species of plants and animals a\> parently native to the British Isles really migrated thither before the present bed of the English Channel and the North Sea sank and became flooded by the ocean. (Jeology and kin- dred sciences furnish abundant proof that the earliest men in Britain, also, came by land or sea from the Continent. Andueologists trace several periods in the development of the hinnan race. During the earliest period, men lived in caves, wore clothing of skins roughly .sewed together prehis with bone needles, and ate shellfish, l)erries, and other toric men foods easily obtained. In their struggles with nature and with wild beasts, they gradually learned to make use of roughly chipj^ed stone tools and weapons, whence their age is known as tlie I'aleolithic (ancient-stone) Age. .\fter a lapse of centuries, the I'aleolithic nierged into the 20 COURSE AND CONDITIONS OF ENGLISH HISTORY Neolitliic (new-stone) Age, marked by the use of more finished stone weapons with fitted wooden handles, woven cloth, and pottery ; then followed ages when bronze and iron came successively into use. y ( \\1111\^ That man occupied Britain dur- ing each of these ages we have abundant evidence. In river de- posits and in caves are found flint Chipped Stone tools and. weapons of the paleolithic men dating from a period before 1000 B.C., and in other deposits are found tool-dressed stones with accurately shaped mortises hewn out by neolithic men. Traces of the men of the Bronze and Iron ages are espe- cially numerous. Their huge " barrows " (burial mounds), Arrowhead. Neolithic Age. Bronze Celt. Bronze Age. Bowl-shaped Barrow. Near Avebury ; clay burial mound 20 feet in diameter, 5 feet high. their "dol- mens " (sacred stone pil- lars), their flint and bronze weapons of war, shields and battle-axes, their tools in the shape of chisels and spades, their ornaments in the form of collars, necklaces, and bracelets, their dishes of sun- dried pottery, and their metal coins, all testify to the exist- ence of a considerable degree of civilization in Britain at least as early as the year 200 b.c. Ethnology, the science of race origins, tells us that at the beginning of the Neolithic Age the island of Great Britain was inhabited by two types of people : one, now called the X4< olXCCCS" sion of races Ivernian, low of stature and dark of hair and eyes; the m Britain Q^her of Scandinavian type, taller in stature and light in complexion. During the Bronze and Iron ages these neolithic men were forced westward by two groups of Celts from the EAKLIKST INHAIUIANTS UK HIM IAIN •21 Continent, the Goidels, or Gael, coming first, and the Brythons, or liiitons (nieaiiing probably '' ch>thed men"), following close behind. It is probable that the Gael were early driven by the advancing liritons into the mountains of Wales, the western islands, and the Highlands of Scotland. The Uritons, in their turn, -were forced westward by swarms of Kelgic Celts from Gaul, — the latter being driven across the Channel by Teutonic tribes (the Franks and the Saxons), who were them- selves yielding to pressure from people farther east. NEOLITHIC MEN CELTS -^- TEUTONS^SLAVS- HUNS^ MONGOLS iir Tmuirs L >.iii,lin:ivi:in J Ll'.ril..iis-^l!elf;ic I .ItsJ LKniiik- J Eakly DisTRiuLTiox, Axu Westwaku Pkessi.ke, of Races. Our knowledge of the Celtic inhabitants of Britain is of course very incomplete. In southern Britain, immense monu- mental stones dating from before the Christian era, such as those of Stonehenge and Avebury, probably mark the location of great religious centers. Defensive works like the Wansdike and Grimsdike (in Wiltshire) probably mark the scenes of struggles between the possessing and the invading races. It is said that Phoenician traders visited the shores of Britain in very Stoneue.nuk. 22 COURSE AND CONDITIONS OF ENGLISH HISTORY early times to procure tin ; but it is probable that Pytheas, sent by the Greek colony of Massilia in 330 b.c. to find tin-producing lands in the northwest, first made widely known the possibili- ties of trade with Britain. Posidonius, a Greek geographer, visited and wrote about the island in the first century b.c, but the information he gives is very scanty. It is from the account given by Julius Csesar (55-54 b.c), together with what we can learn from archaeology, that we are able to construct our first satisfactory picture of conditions in Britain. In this picture we see Wales held by a race of mixed Iver- nian and Gaelic (the Silures) ; Cumberland and Scotland held 15. Pre-Ro- by Gaelic tribes known to Eoman historians as the Picts ; mancivili- ^^^^ Ireland held by other Gaelic tribes known as the zation in , , -i, i n i i • Britain KScots. The Gael were probably still wholly barbaric. There were no walled cities in northern Britain, and, indeed, no towns worthy of the name. The hardy Picts dwelt in tent- like structures, wore little or no clothing, and relied for food on hunting, foraging, and fishing. For fishing they used boats made of wickerwork covered with stretched skins. In war time — that is, practically all the time— they stained their bodies with vegetable dyes to make themselves look fierce. The Britons of the south were more civilized, because of their trade with the Continent. They had few large settle- ments, but the inhabitants of each region had " a tract of woody country surrounded by a wall or high bank and a ditch," into which they could retreat with all their possessions in time of war. At other times they lived in scattered cone-shaped huts made of poles interwoven with twigs. They wore clothes made of skins, and cultivated grain for food. They were organized into tribes governed by kings, and often several tribes were banded into a strong confederation. The kings were rather fighting leaders than administrators, and many of the functions of government (including the punishment of crime) were in the hands of the Druids, or priests, — for the Druidic system KAKMKST INUAIJITANTS i)V HKIIAIN li-"? of religion was even more highly devi-loped here than on the C\)n- tinent. Its center wa^ tlie "Holy Island"' of Mona (Anglesey), where the Druids taught worship of nature, of running streams, of trees, of aninuils, of the heavenly bodies. Surface mining and commerce were widely carried on. Kough coins imitating those imported from Brittany were manufactured by the natives, both for the purposes of trade and to be worn as ornaments; but most of the money in circulation was of foreign make. Britain exported silver, iron, tin, grain, cattle, skins, dog.s, and slaves; and imported metal wares, articles of glass, of pottery, of cloth, and that indispensable ingredient of food, salt. The student has now examined the pre-Roman period of English history, and has hastily surveyed the later develop- ments of which it was the basis. Scientific evidence le sum- shows that the island was inhabited in very early times, mary even before metal tools were invented. I^efore the advent of the Romans, Britain was invaded b}' at least four races in turn, — tlie Ivernians, the Gael, the Britons, and the Belgic Celts, — each of whicli was seeking relief, by migration westward, from the pressure of its more powerful successor. At first civiliza- tion was of necessity confined almost wholly to the southern districts, where farming and grazing were the chief means of liveliliooolitical enemies at home. 25 ROMAN BRITAIN SHOWING CHIEF KOMAK ROAUS SCALE OF MILES 20 4U 00 SO lUO NORTH THK KOMANS IN HKIIAIN L'T rmU-r tlic early lloman Emperors, there were tliree notable attempts at eoiupiest in Uritain. (1) An expedition was sent out l»y Claudius in 4.'^ a.d., con- sisting of about tifty tlio\i.sand men under the command of an able general, Aulus I'lautius. Advancing from the jg qq^^. southeast and south, Plautius made himself master of ^^^^^ of ^^^ south under almost the entire basin of the Thames, and of the land ciaudms westward to the mouth of the Severn. Later generals 1*3-50 AD.) })ushed the frontier northward and w^estward, so that l>y the nnddle of the century the Romans controlled the country as far as the mouths of the Humber and the Dee, and had planted important fortresses or colonies at Deva (also called Castra — whence the modern name of Chester), Lindum (Lincoln), and Camulodunum (Colchester). In the year 61 the Roman governor Suetonius Paulinus made a cruel and successful attack on ^lona, the holy island of the Druids. Meanwhile the east was goaded to revolt by the tyranny of the Romans : a war- rior queen, lioadicea, was pidilicly flogged like a mere slave for resisting a tax collector. At her call the Britons rose by thousands (i'A a.u.), and nearly succeeded in recovering con- trol of the land north of the Thames. Camulodunum was stormed, and it is said that seventy thousand Romans were massacred. '• Kail llu- liui.l witli Koinan slaimhter, uiultitudinou.s agonies ; IVrislied many a >naikia.\'s Wall .nlau L'AHKAUiiui;uLuu. Indeed, the Romans had firm control of but little territory outside of the great pentagon marked out by the cities of Eborarum (York), Dover, I'orchester, Caerleon, and Ches- 20. Soman ter. From tlie beginning the administration was, of ' castra" course, largely military. Frontier fortresses were built com- manding the passes from the Severn valley eastward. Forti- fied camps, or aistra, were placed at the intersections of all the important roads, and th<' part wliich they i)layed in the Romanizing of Britain may be inferred from tlu- number of British cities which totlay cany in their names the old Roman castni — as Leicester, Dorchester, >ranchester, Winchester. There were fifty wallfd towns, the ground plan of each of which was based on that of a Roman camp— the city being 30 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND bounded by a square valhim, or rampart, while witliiu were rows of wooden houses with thatched roofs arranged in rectangles like the barracks of the legionary soldiers. From town to town ran the Roman military roads, following direct lines, in strong contrast to the winding roads of pre- 21 Roman Eon^an Britain. Other roads connected the various mili- roads ^a^.y centers with the mining and industrial regions. Many roads were built to endure for centuries ; the foundations were of large stones laid in mortar on beaten earth, and over this in successive strata were placed smaller stones, gravel, sand, clay, and a surface dressing. In laying out these roads the Eomans spared no toil, hewing their way through vast forests, building protecting dikes in the fens of Lincolnshire, draining the marshes and swamps of Somersetshire, or building cause- ways across them on driven pile foundations, bridging streams as large as the Tyne, and constructing sewers and aqueducts along the roads in the cities through which they ran. Of all these roads, the most important were the Watling Street (London to Chester) and the Fosse AVay (Exeter to Lincoln), which formed upon the breast of the island a huge St. Andrew's cross with, its intersection near Leicester, and made commu- nication easy between the extremities of the province. The Roman administration of Britain was very costly. Military expenses were enormous, and the inhabitants suffered 22 Eco- gi'eatly from the Roman policy of draining the resources nomic con- of conquered provinces for the benefit of the central under^he government, and of drafting for foreign service the Romans sturdiest of the Britons. Grinding taxes were laid on land, on trade, on inhabitants : a poll tax was laid upon arti- sans ; the duties on imports amounted to one eighth of the value of the goods; a portion was demanded of all profits from market sales ; large levies of grain were made upon the landowners as supplies for the trooi)S ; rents amounted to from one tenth to one fifth of the profits of the soil. As the Roman THK KOMANS IN HiniAlN 31 Vase of Castor Wark. Empire declined in powor these exactions became greater and greater, and the general effect of the Roman policy was to destroy such capital as had accumulated and to check in- dustry. Nevertheless, the Romans hastened the progress of Britain from barbarism to civilization. Tlie scanty clearings of the natives gave way to large and well- tilled farms. One year (3o~ a.d.) eight hundred vessels were laden with British grain for the Rhine legions. Vast herds of cattle pastured on the open slopes. Iron, tin, copper, and lead mines were operated for the Ijenefit of Roman lessees. The re- mains of earthenware vessels, which aljound for a space of twenty miles around the village of Castor, testify to g,_,,^^..,,^^ ^,^^, ,,,„,^j,^^ the activity of the Romans in the FuuikI in a Koman cfinetery . , ' - ,, near Caiiterliurv. manufacture ot pottery. These renuiins also show something of the social side of Roman life in Britain ; for depicted on the pottery we fiml representations of boar hunting and stag hunting. But 23 Social Roman social life was essentially the life of the city, not "nder'the of the country. The walls of Uriconium inclosed a space Romans three miles iu circuit. ^^'hen Diocletian reorganized the Empire (L".>.*{ a.d.), York, a stronghold at the head of tide water in the riv»>r ( )use, becanu^ tlie seat of government for one of the joint Eujperors (A'Kjiisti), and therefore an imp«)rtant legislative and judicial center. Other cities, like Londinium, Caerleon, and Camulodunum, developed into commercial cen- ters of great importance. Coins were struck at first to com- memorate the victories of the earlier Em])erors in liritain, and later to promote commerce. Some bear the mint mark '' I'[ecunia] Lon[diniensis] '' (" money of London"; and others 32 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND the proud inscription "Vict[oria] Brit[annica]." Temples were built to Jupiter, to Mars, and to the " Genius of Britain." Christian churches, too, wei^e built, as the new faith spread through the Empire under the tolerant Constantino. Baths with tessellated floors and frescoed walls, theaters and amphi- Roman Theater at Verulamium, exhumed in 1847 and 1869. It was 193 feet in diameter, with frescoed plaster walls. theaters, tiled roofs, mosaic pavements, and devices for heating houses, all testify to the wealth and luxury of the upper classes ; and schools of literature and of oratory show that the Eomans in their new abode indulged the tastes brought from their native land. During the fourth century Eome's power was steadily de- clining, because of the decay of good government at home, , and the enormous strain of defending the frontiers. In 24. End of . . ^ , . ^, the Eoman Britain, the Picts and the Scots, issuing from their north- control g^.^^ ^^^^-j ^yggtern strongholds, made repeated raids upon the outlying Roman fortresses; and from the remains of burned villas we may conclude that the Romans had contin- ually to reconquer the island from its original owners. To a "Duke of the Britains" (Dux Britanniarum) was intrusted the defense of the Wall, and to a " Count of Britain " the supervi- sion of administration. Meanwhile, in the year 364, the first TMK Ut (MAN'S IN HKIlAlN 33 Saxon band of raiders appeared on the eastern coast of Britain, and soon a " Count of the Saxon Coast " (Comes Litun's Snx- onici) had to be appointed. Two causes finally compelled the Konians to abandon Britain: (1) mutinies among the troops in (Jaul, and (2) the invasion of Italy by the Visigoths under Alaric. In 383 the general Maximus, ^vho aspired to be Emperor, led his troops from Britain into Gaul ; in 402 the Vandal chief Stilicho, to ■whom the Emperor had intrusted the defense of Italy, with- drew a legion for use against Alaric ; in 409 a second usurper, Constantius, led the Eoman forces remaining in Britain across the Channel to fight his battles in Gaul. In the following year came the closing event in the drama. An appeal of the Roman officials in Britain for aid against the barbarians was refused by the Emi)eror Honorius, and the island was aban- doned to its fate (410). The Roman officials continued to exert a shadowy control for a time, but no strong government existed. The assaults of barbaric Bicts and Scots were no longer repelled, since 25. Fate of the Duke of the Britains was helpless without the the Britons Roman garrisons ; many of the Roman colonists deserted the island ; and the natives had lost their power of resistance to the savages through their long subjection to Rome's iron rule. "At last the Britons, forsaking their cities and wall, took to flight and were dispersed. Thus, being expelled their lipde, dwellings and possessions, they saved themselves from cdl/isiory, starvation by robbing and plundering one another, adding bk. i. ch. is to the calamities occasioned by foreigners, by their own domes- tic broils, till the whole country was left destitute of food except such as could be procured in the chase." A doubtful legend tells how Vortigern, the ruler of Kent, in the year 449 invited Hengist and Ilorsa, leaders of certain Teutonic tribes, to aid him against the Bicts and the Scots. Whether this 1)0 true or not, the invasion (»f Kent by the Jutes, under their 34 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND leadership, about the middle of the fifth century, marks the beginuing of a new period in British history. It was five hundred years after Caesar's landing at Dover, before the first permanent band of Teutonic invaders landed at 26. Sum- the mouth of the Thames. During those five centuries °^^^y barbarism gave way to civilization in southeastern Brit- ain; but the new masters of the soil remained an alien class, which lived chiefly in walled towns and maintained its power only by an overwhelming display of military force, recruited largely from the Continent. Thus, made secure, the conquerors transformed the entire face of the coun- try through their genius for engineering and industry. Their roads, camps, dikes, ramparts, and ports influenced the development of Britain in after years, and their zealous search for mineral and agricultural wealth dis- closed many of the treasures of the soil. But their activity was wholly selfish, and w^hen their overgrown political structure at last toppled from its own weight, Britain was one of the earliest portions of the empire to fall away from the mass. Mean- while the native inhabitants had become unfitted by slavery to perpetuate the civilization bequeathed to them, and Britain was now to become the prize of the freedom-loving Teutonic Roman Grave Slab. Fouud at York. peoples. TOPICS Suggestive topics (1) Why did Rome eagerly seek to conquer countries rich in mineral and agricultural wealth ? Suggest physical, political, economic reasons. (2) Why did Caesar march so far westward TIIK Kn.MANS IN IIUHAIN 35 bf fore crossing the Tlianies '? (:J) Do yf)ii fonsiiier C'a-sar's second campaign in Britain a success? (4) Why was York, rather than Lonilon, the residence of one of the Augusli ? (5) Why do modem railroads follow the lines of old Honian roads? ((>) Why were the Honian roads called "highways" by their Anglo-Saxon suc- cessors? (7) Explain the historical bearing of the title Comes Lilnriii Saj-imici. (8) Trace the route of the earliest Saxon pirau-s fmni their homes to British shores. (0) Why were the Romans unwise in laying duties upon imports int<) Britain? (10) Trace the causes of the downfall of Bouian power in Britain. (11) Ca-sar's successes in (laul and his failures in Britain. (12) The Teutonic tribes as described by Ca-sar and Tacitus, (lo) A comparison of Ciesar's method of warfare with that of the Britons. (14) The wall of Hadrian ; its location, structure, defen.ses. (15) Roman remains in some British towns. (Ki) A list of towns named from rustrn (-caster, -Chester, -cester) in Britain; in New England. (17) Why was the Roman iinperiid system impracticable on so large a .scale ? Search topics Secondary authorities REFERENCES See map, p. 2fl ; Gardiner, Srhool Atlns, map 1; Mackinder. Geographj liritnin ninl (fit' British Si-as, 1!»5-1!»7 ; Hughes, (ieoiiriiphij in British History, ch. iii. ; I'earson, Ilistorinil Maps nf Emjlaml, maj) (J; Toole, Historical Atlas, map xv. ; Reich, ,Y('(/- Students" Atlas, map 2. (Jardiner. Studint's History, l(i-27 ; Ransome, Adranred His- tory, 1>-18 ; Green, Short History, 5-7, — Makiinj of England. 1- 25; I'owell and Tout. Kmjland, bk. i. ch. ii. ; Brewer, StHdint\-i Hume, bk. i. ch. i. ; Lingard, Enijland. I. ch. i. ; Ramsay, Fonn- dationsof Enijland. I. chs. iii. iv. ; Church. Early Britain, chs. ii.- ix. ; Freeman, Old Emjlish History, chs. ii. iii. ; C'onybeare. Boman Britain ; Scarth. Boman Britain ; Wright, C'filt, Boman. and Saxon : I't-arson. Emjland durimj Middle Afjen. I. ch.s. ii. iii. ; Edwards. Wahs. ch. ii. ; Lang, Srotlnnd. I. 0-18 ; Tniill, Sorial En>thind. I. 10-2Jt, 54-'!4, 71-84. Se.' New England History Teaflien' As.sociation. History Syllahus. p. 223. Colby. Silertinns from the Soitrrfs, nos. 1-.'? ; Ca>sar, C<'»/i- rnentarits, l.k. iv. chs. xx.-xxxvi., bk. v. cli«. viii.-xxiii. ; Tacitus. Aijririda, ilis. x.-xxiv. ; Anijio-Saxon ('hronirh to 440 a.k. Church, The Count of the Saxon Shon- ; Henty. Ihrir the Ifriton ; Shakespeare, Cymlnline ; Tennyson. Ilnadinii : B:it«s and Ci'inan. Enrjlish History tidd by Enylish Poets, l-t'>. Sources niustratlve works CHAPTER III. CELTS AGAINST TEUTONS (449-827) According to the Anglo-Saxon CJironide (§ 67) the first per- manent Teutonic settlers on British soil were bands of Jutes g„ _^ who landed on the island of Thanet in the year 449. Teutonic From that time onward, numerous swarms of Teutons from the shores of the Baltic and the N9rth Sea crossed over to Britain and settled there. The prime reasons for these invasions must be sought in the westward pressure exerted by the various migrating races in the north of Europe and in the opportunities for easy conquest afforded by the disorgan- ized and dispirited peoples in Britain. For four centuries the strong arm of Rome had held in check the migratory move- ment described in § 14, the Teutonic Franks being stopped at the Rhine, and their Saxon kinsmen being forced northward to the Baltic coast. Now that this arm was paraly:^ed, the westward movement was renewed with added strength. The newcomers possessed certain barbaric virtues in a high degree. The chief of these was valor, a quality which they 28 Cha ac ^^^^^^^^^ equally while hunting wolves, wild boars, and terofthe bears in the German forests, Avhile pursuing the walrus and the whale upon the turbulent northern waters, and while carrying on wars of conquest. Cowardice they jmnislied Sidonius with death. " When you see their rowers," writes the Letter'to'an ^^^^^°P ^^ ^ Gallic diocese, "you may make up your mind Officer of the that every one of them is an arch pirate, with such won- rieet about <^^6rful unanimity do all of them at once command, obey, 470 A.D. teach, and learn their business of brigandage. Your foe is of all foes the fiercest." They Avere a rough, cruel, hard- 36 CELTS AGAINST TEUTONS 37 fighting, hard-drinking race; yet thev far surpassed the Romans in their capacity lor developing the finer human sentiments, — respect for womanhood, appreciation of tlie sublime and the beautiful aspects of nature, and susceptibility to tenderness and pathos. Furthermore, they possessed a love sc»n Of MiLta 5 ra; sou Sw (AUSTRIA^ Tin; UiiK. I.SAL Homes ok tiik A.\c;lu-S.vxo.vs. of country life which led them to leave desolate the great cities f(ninded by the Romans, and settle in scattered rural commu- nities. It is these rpialities that have made the English people peculiarly a race of li(»mf makers, while at the same time they are enterprising and aiulacious in seeking fields of activ- ity in lands even more undeveloped than was Hritain at the landing of the Anglo-Saxons in II'J. 38 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND The invaders were an imaginative race, but their supersti- tions were not degrading; on the contrary, their belief that the operations of nature were due to divine beings was gion of the distinctly ennobling. Thor, their god of the elements, Teutons jjj^^ ^j^^ Komau Jupiter, caused the thunder and light- ning of the summer storms; Frea, their deity of peace, joy, and fruitfulness, caused life and growth in plant and animal; Eastre, their goddess of the dawn and of the spring, caused the revival of vegetation after its apparent destruction in winter. These and Woden, god of war and boundaries, and Tiu, deity of the sky, have left their names embodied in our common English names, Thursday, Friday, Easter, Wednes- day, Tuesday, The Anglo-Saxons had also numerous minor gods, which, indeed, were the chief deities of the common people. To their imaginations, the malarial swamps were the homes of huge fen-monsters; dwarfs lurked in the barrows; " water-nixies " and fairies peopled the glens and pools ; and " weirds " occupied the border ground between the super- natural and the human. Before their appearance in Britain, the Teiitons had already developed a crude political system. In any tribe, the Jjody of 30. Teu- fighting men, including youths of fifteen years and up- tonic tribal ^y.^^^A formed a '' war host " which was led by a military orgamza- ' ■' •' tion chief called an ealdorman. The tribe had also a politi- cal head, or king, who claimed descent from Woden, and there- fore ruled as it were "by divine right," but his authority depended also upon the sanction of the tribe. There were at least two social classes, distinguished by accident of birth. The eorJs were persons of noble blood, the ceorls were simple freemen. At that time a ceorl could not become an eorl, be- cause he could not alter his ancestry, but he might become an ealdorman by brilliant achievements in war. A unique class, distinguished not by blood but by profession, were the gesitJis (companies). These were men who attached them- CELTS AC.MNST TKin'ONS :>".• selves to a king or an t'aldormau, acted as his iMHlyguard and his comrades, and — since tliey made HLjhtin^ their .sole occu- pation — were dependent on him even for food and (dothes. On this latter account, lie bfcanic known as their hUiford, or \o\\\ (bread-i^iverj. So close was the bond between lord ThK "Loltl)" AS TMK •' HKKAD-iWVKK. ' F'ritiii an Anjilo-Saxoii niaiiiisiTi[)t. and gpsith, that it was considered a dis^'race if the latter came away alive from the field on which his chief had fallen. The nn»st important custom jjrevailing among tlie Teutons was that of deciding in concert all matters of common in- 31 xhe terest. " Alx)ut minor matters the chiefs deliberate; about the mor.' iini)ortant, tlie entire tribe. Tlu-ir freedom causes this disadvantage, that they do not meet all at (»ne time, or as they are bidilen. but two or three «lays are wasted through their tardiness in assembling. Wlien the mul- Teutonic moot sys- t/em Tnrittia, GTUKinia, ix. TEUTONIC BRITAIN 40 CELTS A(;AINST TKl'TONS n titude see fit to do so, they seat tliemselves in full armor. Then the king or the chief, according to age, birth, .distinct ion in war, or eloc^uence, is heard — more because lie has influence to persuade than because he has the authority to connnand. If his sentiments displease them, they reject them by mur- muring; if they are satisfied, they brandish their s])ears." By such '"folk-moots" as these were developed the Teutonic spirit of freedom and of loyalty to a chosen leader. Within a half century after 449, three bands of invaders became masters of most of the territory south of the Thames. (1) The first band, composed of Jutes, with great diffi- 32. Con- culty forced their way through Kent until they were southern checked by the Audredsweald, an impenetrable forest of Britain oak and beech exteudiug along the present Wealden Heights. (2) Soon afterwards, a band of Saxons landed near the present Southampton and forced its way eastward toward the same barrier. (.S) Kear the end of the century another band of Saxons, led by the celebrated Cerdic, lauded on the Solent, pushed their way into Wiltshire, and founded the kingdom of Wes.sex. There, for a hundred years, their energies were occupied with the fierce effort to drive back the Britons. The British fortress of Old Sarum, commanding the sacred >l IK <•! 1 II 1 « Ml" i-' ii: 1 "'1 .-^ Mil M. Fortified area was 'SI acres, girded by a ditch and a vallum (rampart). 42 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND Salisbury Plain, was taken by these West Saxons in 552. On the heights of Deorham, overlooking the Severn valley, the allied kings of the Britons made their final but fruitless stand in 577. Three British kings were killed, the allied forces were put to rout, and the West Saxons gained possession of Bristol, Bath, Cirencester, and Gloucester, thus driving the Britons beyond the Severn. During this sixth century, the Angles (North-folk and South- folk) were taking possession of Britain between the Stour 33 Teu- ^^^^^ ^1^6 Humber. Of this movement we have no records, tonic settle- 'but archaeological remains and place names indicate that ments , . ^ . , , north of the the invaders came m great numbers and were very Thames widely dispersed over the district. South of these, a small body of Saxons, perhaps attracted by the wealth of Colchester, occupied and settled what is now the county of Essex. The district north of the Humber, called Northumbria, evidently fell into the possession of two bands of Angles. One built up the kingdom of Bernicia in the Tweed vallej^j the other, advancing up the Yorkshire Ouse, took possession of the magnificent Roman citadel of York, and made it the center of the kingdom of Deira. Meanwhile numerous jjio- neers moved up the Trent to its head waters, — thirty tribes are known to have won locations in mid-Britain, — and south of the Peak of Derbyshire they later fouuded the mid-Anglian kingdom of Mercia, so called because of its position on the " march," or boundary, between the newcomers and the main body of native Britons to the west. The Britons, whom the invaders oddly misnamed "the Welsh " (foreigners), still held the western half of the island, „. _ ., south of the Firth of Forth, in three districts called 34. Failure ' to conquer West Wales, North Wales, and Strathclyde. The strong- ^ ®^ holds of Bristol and Chester controlled the communication between North Wales and the other two districts, and after the CELTS AliAIXST TKUTONS 4:'> battle of Deorham (577) the West Welsh were isolated from their kinsmen. Not many years later, forces from Northum- bria captured Chester, thus isolating Strathclyde and nuiking forever impossible the union of the Britons into a strung nation. Each of the three groups, however, long remained master of its own territory : it was more than two centuries before Strathclyde was reduced to the dimensions sliown on the map (p. 40), and before West Wales was conquered by Wessex; and for more than four centuries all attempts of the Anglo-Saxons to conquer North Wales ended in failure. Of the desperate struggle of the Britons to preserve their national existence we know only through the myths and legends of the Welsh bards and myth-telling historians. The most notable of these, the legends of the Kound Table, deal especially with the exjdoits of a half-mythical champion of ^^'elsh liberties, King Arthur, son of the wholly mythical Uther Pendragon. Arthur's real achievements are hopelessly buried in the mass of fable that has gathered about his name. " He in twelve set battles discomfited the Saxons," says Sir Richard Baker's Chronicle of the Kings of England, "but in one most memorable ; in which, girding himself with his sword 'Calibourn,' he flew upon his enemies and with his own hand slew eight hundred of them : which is but one of his own wonderful deeds." The Anglo-Saxon conquest was very bloody and destructive. Flourishing cities like Anderida (I'evensey), Verulamium, and Chester were wholly destroyed. The language of tlie S5. Destruc- Britons — except a few homely words (such as "gown," of the con- "mop," "pitcher") used by women and slaves — ceased quest to 1)6 heard. Roman law almost disappeared. Christianity persisted only among the unconquered liritons of western Britain. Elsewhere tlie natives were expelled, annihilated, or enslaved. The Picts, whoso raids had led to the introduction of the Teutons into Britain, could make no effective stand 44 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND against the invaders, and by the end of the sixth centnry were driven beyond the Firth of Forth. There they founded a strong kingdom, but soon found new enemies in a body of Scots from Ireland, who founded ■ / / VJj-i 'tii \ My ^'V^\-..t' \^^Ff\V-d^ a rival kingdom just north of the Firth of Clyde. The description of the conquest written by the Venerable Bede sets forth graphically its character Bede, and effects. "Public Eccle&msu- ^^ ^^^ ^g private cal History, *■ bk. i. ch. 15 structures," he says, " were overturned ; the priests were everywhere slain before the altars ; the prelates and the people, without any respect of per- sons, were destroyed with iire and sword ; nor was there any to bury those who had been thus cruelly slaujghtered. Some of the miserable remainder, being taken in the mountains, were butchered in heaps. Others, spent with hunger, came forth and submitted themselves to the enemy for food, being destined to undergo perpetual servitude if they were not killed even upon the spot." While Christianity was thus being destroyed in southeastern Britain, there was growing up in the north an imported Celtic 36. The branch of the Christian Church. About the year 432, Church in Saint Patrick, then a monk of Tours in France, was sent the north by Pope Celestine to Ireland as a missionary. He is said to have consecrated four hundred and fifty missionary bishops, to have caused the erection of three hundred and sixty-five churches, to have spread the knowledge of the Scriptures, and North Britain, 600-900 a.d. CELTS AGAINSr TKIIDNS 45 to have founded numerous schools. Irish Christianity, tluis created, always preserved an essentially missionary type, and early set itself the task of converting the Picts and Scots of northwestern Britain. One of the Irish njissionaries, called Saint Coliunba, founded a famous monastery at lona, an island otf the west coast of ScotUmd (r^Io), and the next half cen- tury was devoted by Irish and Scottish missionaries to building up the Christian Church in north Britain. Almost at the end of the sixth century, the Latin or jjarent Church gained a new foothold in the south. In the year 597, a monk named Augustine was commissioned by Pope 37. The Gregory I. to attempt the conversion of the Anglo- _, ^^^.°- Saxons. At this time Kiug Ethelbert of Kent had mar- the south ried a Frankish princess, Bertha, who was a Christian; and therefore when Augustine with forty assistants landed in the islaiul of Thanet, he was permitted to preach and conduct services in Canterbury. It is hard to imagine a more im- pressive sight than this group of devoted Christians, marching into the future capital of British Christ- endom, with upraised crucifi.x, chant- ^i^Si^: ^- — ing in solemn litany the phrases g^^^,^. p^^.^_ cxtkk.uky. ■which mark the "world-wide differ- ence between the barbaric and the Christian conce])tion of life: " We beseech Thee, Lord, in all Thy mercy, that liede, Thv anger and wrath be turned away from this eitv, •'■''''""•"• »- and from all Thy Holy House, because we have sinned." hk.i.ch.25. To the barbarians of Kent, the scene, made gorgeous Avith all the Boiuan civil and ecclesiastical symlxjlism, must have been deeply impressive. The conversion of King Ethelbert soon took place, and the first English archbishopric was estal> lished at Canterbury. Within a few years njissionaries had 46 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND converted all southwestern Britain to the new faith. The Welsh bishops, however, rejected the attempts of Augustine to bring them under the authority of Canterbury. Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, Glastonbury. Reputed to be on a site consecrated by Joseph of Arimathea, guardian of the Holy Grail. Throughout the entire century and a half of migration and conquest, the various tribes were gradually working out a new 88 Con- political system based on Teutonic ideas. At first, many structive ealdormen became kings, having earned their higher 6ff6CtS * of the title by skillful leadership, bravery in battle, and organ- conquest izing ability. In their various kingdoms, the ancient folkmoots and the council of chiefs took on a definite form of procedure, and a rude system of laws grew up. Later these petty kingdoms, after much warfare among themselves, became united under overlords, who frequently assumed the old Roman title of Dux Britanniarum (Duke of the Britains) or its Saxon equivalent, " Bretwalda." Thus went on an evolutionary pro- cess tending to secure the "survival of the fittest" among the warring states. CELTS AGAINST TKl'IOXS 47 B}- the year GOO this process had resulted in raising s«'ven states — the so-called Saxon Heptarchy — into a position of importance. Four of these — Kent, Sussex, Essex, and East Anglia — were cramped within rigid natural boundaries; the other three — Xorthumbria (formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira), Mercia, and Wessex — were free to expand, and it was therefore natural that these states should absorb those less favorably situated, and should then ti;-,dit with one another for supremacy. The first accretion was about Northumbria, whose king ?Mwin (617-633) drove back the Picts as far as Edinburgh (Edwin's fortress), wrested territory from the Welsh. 39 p^^. forced his overlordship upon Wessex, and formed an dominance . . , ,.. T^ , 1 of Nor- alliance with Kent. His marriage with King Ethel- thumbria bert's daughter led to his acceptance of Christianity, (617-633) and his conversion involved the conversion of the nation. The heathen high priest, Coifi, mounted a horse, rode to the pagan temple, hurled his spear into its sacred precints, Bede, and ordered it to be burned to the ground. Northumbria ^^J/J*^/^); was rapidly Christianized, and an archbishopric was bk. a. ch. 13 established at York. Edwin, now at the height of his power, affected great state. He assumed the title of Bretwalda because of his Welsh con- quests, carried a spear adorned with a tuft of feathers as a sort of scepter, and caused a standard always to be borne before him. His pride, however, went before a fall; for by his con- quests he had created an enemy in Cadwallon, the most i)0wer- fiil of tlu- Wrlsh clii.-fs. and aiiotlier in Penda, king of Mercia. The struggle with these enemies was in es.sence a con- ^^ wars of test between i)aganism and Christianity. "Penda was Mercia and , ' r /.I • *. I f Northum- an idolater, and a stranger to tin- name ot ( lirist; out ^^^ Cadwallon, though he liore the name and ])rofessed hi in- ^e'*''. self a Christian, was so barbarous in his disi)osition aiul ^^.^ nuinry, behavior that he spaied neither the female sex nor the bk. a. ch. 20 48 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND innocent age of children, but with savage cruelty put thein to tormenting deaths, ravaging all the country for a long time, and resolving to cut off all the race of the English within the borders of Britain." For thirty years Penda strove to conquer Korthunibria. King Edwin was slain at Heathfield (633), and his successor Oswald at Masertield (642); the missionaries from the south fled back to Kent, but others from Columba's monastery at lona (§ 36) took their places and kept alive the flame of Christianity, while Deira was devastated by the barbarians. Bernicia, although harried by raids, clung to its independence; and finally, in the battle of Winwaedsfield, near the present Leeds (655), King Oswy annihilated a Mer- cian force three times his own in numbers. The north was saved to Christianity, and Northumbria was again supreme. In the year 652 Wilfrid of Lindisfarne, a monk trained in the school of Columba, traveled to Rome, and after six years ., „, returned to Northumbria filled with enthusiasm over the 41. The conflict of idea of more perfect uniformity of discipline between c urc es Rome and the church in other countries : and his return precipitated the question whether the clergy of the Celtic Church should consent to become absorbed into the eJ.aborate and complex system centering in Rome ; and whether, if they should prefer not to do this, their rites and the ordinations performed by their bishops would be technically valid. The clergy were also in doubt whether certain of their prac- tices were orthodox. There was disagreement as to the correct method of shaping the priestly tonsure — a matter of no small importance, because the tonsure was held to be an inheritance from apostolic times, and its shape was thought to be sym- bolic. And again, there was disagreement as to the correct method of computing the date for Easter. The Celtic Church was using the traditional formula which it had received from the earlier missionaries ; the Latin Church was using a later formula based on more thorough astronomical knowl- c'Ki-rs AiiAiNsr ti;l'T(»ns 41) edge, preserved aiul registered in the decrees of the Council of Nice. To settle the question of orthodoxy, King Oswy, the victor of Wiuwaedstield, called a grand synod at Whitby in the year 664. Bishop Colman, from Columba's monastery at lona, was spokesman for the Celtic branch ; Wilfrid champi- of the Latin oned the Koman claims. Oswy and his Witan (councilors or wise men) are said to have been influenced by the fear that Church k *-6 TOPICS (1) Contrast the motives and tlie metliods of the Romans in Sugr^estive utilizing the resources of Britain willi tiiose of tiie Teutonic iiivaf Eng- land, 23; Reich, Xew Students' Atlas, maps 1, 3. Bright, Ilistnry of Em/land, I. l-o, 28-:jl ; Gardiner, Student's Secondary History, clis. ii. iii. ; Ransoine, Adranred History, 10-30; (Jreen, authorities Short History, ch. i. §§ 1-4, —History of the English People, bk. i. ch.s. 1. ii., — Making of England ; Powell and Tout, History of England, bk. i. ch.s. iii. iv. ; .Montague, Elements of English Con- slitufional History, ch. i. ; Stubi)s, Select Charters, 1-7, — ('un.sti- tutional History. I. ch. Ii. ; H. Taylor, 'Hie English Constitution, I. ch. ii. ; Cunningham, (irowih of English Industry and Com- merce. I. .'>4-r(0 ; Brewer, Stuil'nl''s Hume, ch. ii. ; Lingard. ///'.y- tnry of England. I. chs. ii. iii. ; Ramsay. Foundntions of England, I. ch.s. ix. xi.-xiii. ; Church, Early Britain, ch. xvil. ; Ithy.-*, Celtic 54 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND Sources Illustrative works Britain^ chs. iv. v. ; Skene, Celtic Scotland ; Lawless, Ireland chs. iii.-vi. ; Edwards, Wales, cli. iii. ; Lang, History of Scotland., L ch. ii. ; Freeman, Old English History, chs. iv,-vii., — The Eng- lish People in Their Three Homes ; G. Allen, Anglo-Saxon England ; E. L. Cutts, Augustine of Canterbury ; J. R. Allen, Mon- umental History of the British Church ; Traill, Social History, I. 149-153, 176-180. Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 4-7 ; Kendall, Source- Book, ch. i. ; Howland, The Early Germans (University of Pennsylvania Reprints, VI. no. 3); Tacitus, Agricola, bk. v., — Germania ; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 449-827 a.d. ; Beds, Ecclesi- astical History of ijngland ; Gildas, Wo7-ks ; Gee and Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History, nos. i.-ix. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllab^is, 233-235, — Historical Sources in Schools, 143-145. Lanier, The Boy's Mabinogion, — The Boy''s King Arthur ; Hall, Beowulf. CHAPTEK lY. EARLY ENGLISH IXSTITUTTONS Most of the permanent features of Anglo-Saxon civilization may be traced back to the period described in the preceding chapter. Throughout all subsequent English history the . .. . chief factors in English national life were to remain of English (1) the state, (2) the church, and (3) a social organization "^^titutions based on the possession of land. The Teutonic practice of discussing matters of common interest in '' moots " was the germ from which developed the representative system of gov- ernment that England has given to the world; the Teutonic councils of chiefs and " wise men " foreshadowed the privy councils, cabinets, and parliaments of modern times ; the unique Teutonic device of making the monarchy elective, but only within a certain family, still prevails in the United Kingdom, over which the sovereign rules " by hereditary right and by the choice of the people." For these reasons, it is desirable at this point to examine in detail some of the institutions which grew up under Egbert and his immediate successors. The basis of the Anglo-Saxon political system, as of the Norman feudid system which was later engrafted upon it, was landownership. Apparently, during the period of ^g _ ^ invasion, a portion of the land .seized by a conquering stat* and tribe was reserved for the state, and other jiortions were allotted to individuals as a reward for their services during the conquest. The largest share, of course, fell to the king; but each warrior of uoble blood received generous estates for 66 66 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND the support of himself and his followers ; and each fighting freeman received an allotment proportionate either to his serv- ices or to the needs of his family. The customary unit allot- ment for a freeman (called a "hide" of land) was probably about thirty-three acres. Under Egbert and his successors the bond between land and rank became very close, and definite proportions were fixed 49. Caste between rank and landholding. (1) The gesiths, who at based upon ^^.^ lived with their chief and needed no land, now landowner- ' ship developed into a lower landed aristocracy, but they still owed military service to the king. Curiously enough, they assumed a more humble title as their dignity increased, and were now known as tliegns, or "servants." Soon, any ceorl who held five hides of land was held to be " of thegn- right worthy." (2) The thegn who came to own forty hides might even become " of eorl-right worthy " ; for the wars of supremacy had confused and partly obliterated mere distinc- tions of blood. (3) No one could become an ealdorman who did not hold forty hides. (4) The ethelings/ or immediate kindred of the kings, held still larger estates. (5) The king possessed vast crown "demesnes," or estates, both for»his own support and as a source from which he might reward his followers. (6) Below the freemen was a large non-land- holding class, probably sprung largely from con- quered races. Most of Wooden Plow. ^ r, , , „ , , its members were serfs From a baxon calendar of the tenth century. bound to labor on a particular estate, occupying land for which they paid rent in labor or in produce ; otliers were mere slaves. While every lord of an estate was responsible for the govern- EARLY ENGLISH INSTITUTIONS 57 ment of his domains, the affairs of tlie nation were in the hands of the king and liis Witan (couneilors or wise men). Any etlieling miglit succeed to the throne, if accepted bj' the 50 powen Witan and crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury on °^ ^^^ king his solemn oath to " govern in accordance with right and cus- tom." In the king's hand, lay the appointment of all jjublic servants of the nation. He regulated trade through customs duties, market dues, and monopolies, and he was in a limited way the preserver of public order and the fount of justice ; yet his more important edicts had the force of law only when ratified by the ''counsel and consent'' of the "Witan. As most public matters were settled in the various moots, many of the royal edicts were merely records and amendments of existing customs regarding fines, punishments, and the general administration of justice. Among other things, Alfred (890) legislated about treason, Edward (920) about social privileges, — for instance, scholars and enterprising merchants were made thegn-worthy, — and Edgar (959) about uniform coin- age and measures. Important actions like the declaration of war and the grant- ing of land had to be ratified in the Witenagemote (assembly of the Witan), which included (1) the ethelings, (2) the „ _ ^ ^ " * ^ ^ 51. The ealdormen or eorls, — for the two classes were now be- Witenage- coming merged through the customary appointment of ^°^ eorls to the position of ealdormen, — (.^) the bishops (§ 109), and (4) the king's thegns or personal followers. The assumption of power by the Witenagemote in place of the folkmoot prob- ably came about by insensible degrees, and for purely practical reasons. Ordinary men, though entitled to vote in the folk- moot, were loath to leave their work and journey, at some expense, to a distant meeting; hence they shirked responsi- bility, while the officers of church and state and the great landholders had to assume it. The Witenagemctte met twice (later thrice) a year, at Easter, (Whitsuntide), and Christmas; 58 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND but after the union of the kingdoms (827), it rapidly became a mere agency for registering the king's will. The royal revenue consisted (1) of the king's own income from his crown demesnes, (2) of the feorm, or tribute paid 52. Public ^y landholders as a condition of their tenure of the soil, finance and (3) of the king's share of the fines and fees collected by the royal officers of justice. The king received no salary from a state treasury, nor, indeed, was state finance in the modern sense possible, since no corresponding system of taxa- tion had been created. The great public expenditures required in a modern state — for salaries, public education, highways and water ways, international relations, national defense, internal police, etc. — had no direct counterpart in the Anglo- Saxon system ; all of them that were then deemed indispen- sable were provided from the king's private purse, or through the trinoda necessitas (triple obligation) laid upon every land- holder (1) to keep roads and bridges in repair, (2) to maintain fortresses, and (3) to do military service when summoned by the king or ealdorman. For administrative purposes, the land was divided into shires, hundreds, townships or boroughs, and estatps. The .„ - . earlier shires, such as Kent, Sussex, Essex, and Middle- 53. Organi- ' > j - zation of sex, were often kingdoms which had been absorbed by more powerful states during the process of unification. Later shires {e.g. Derbyshire) were districts each dominated by some fortified stronghold, and therefore erected into a shire under the government of the owner of the fortress. Each shire was ruled by an ealdorman as military leader, and by a sheriff as the king's fiscal agent and legal representative within the shire. Several shires were frequently placed under the same ealdor- man, but each had its own sheriff, through whom were issued all proclamations, summonses to the various moots, and other official communications to the inhabitants of the shire. Mat- KARLV i:n«;i.isii iNsrnirioNS ")9 tei'S of I'ominon interest to all tlio iiiliabitunts were disenssed and settled through a shire moot, or meeting of all landowners in the shire, whieh was called twice a year (in ^lay and in Octo- ber). At these moots the ealdormau was present to declare the secular law, and the bishop to declare the ecclesiastical law. In most shires the smaller divisions were called " hundreds," a name the origin of which is not clearly known. The hundred was governed througli its hundred moot, which, 54 gmj. in the earliest times, every head of a family was com- dreds pelled to attend on penalty of a fine. As the number of inhabitants increased, each town within the hundred sent its reeve (or steward), its parish priest, and four householders to act in its behalf — an arrangement which foreshadowed the modern system of representation. In five of the shires the minor divisions were called ** wapentakes" instead of hundreds. The political units within the hundreds were the "town- ships," each consisting originally of a collection of tillers of the soil bound together by neighborhood and common interest. Some of these townships were governed by the reeve of ships and the local landlord, but others gradually attained self- oroug government under an elected reeve, and regulated their internal affairs in town moots in accordance with "by-laws" enacted by themselves. The more important townships natu- rally provided themselves with permanent defenses in the shape of a A\all, a stockade, or a rampart and ditch, and were then known as "burghs," or "boroughs." Upon the township governments rested the responsibility of executing within their limits the decrees of the hundred and shire moots, and of en- forcing the common law (§ of)) of the locality. Thus the citi- zens of a township learned to recognize the value of public discussion and of the free expression of opinion, and devel- oped a sentiun-nt of loyalty to the common law which they had had some share in creating. The student should remember that in the time of Egbert 60 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND no national code of laws existed. The laws of the time were hardly more than precepts applicable to the simplest and most _ common relations of life. Ethelbert of Kent roughly 56. The 11. "common codified the most important laws of his kingdom about ^^^ " the end of the sixth century. Ine did the same work for Wessex a hundred years later, and OfEa for Mercia at the end of the next century ; but their work was local, unsystematic, and fragmentary. Under Egbert's descendants, however, the elements common to all three of these codes were gradually blended into a body of customs prevailing from the Firth of Forth to the English Channel, which made up the " common law " of the land. The criminal law rested upon the rude Teutonic notion of crime as an injury done to an individual or to the community, 57. Legal which could be made good by suitable compensation. Its penalties penalties therefore took the form of money payments: procedure ivergUd (man payment) for murder, and bot (reparation) for bodily injury. The wergild of a ceorl was 200 shillings, of an ealdorman 2400 shillings, of a king 14,400 shillings. The scale of bot was ridiculously minute. For knocking out a ceorl's tooth it was 8 shillings, for cutting off a thumb 30 shil- lings, for gouging out an eye 66 shillings, 6 pence, and 3 far- things. The person charged with crime might free himself of guilt by denying it on oath in open moot, and getting twelve responsible persons to swear that his word was reliable. But the oaths of these "compurgators," as they were called, were of varying value ; for an ealdorman's word outweighed that of six thegns, and the king's oath was good against all others. If the accused could not secure compurgators, he underwent some " ordeal," or appeal to God as his compurgator. He was taken to some church, and there was compelled to walk blind- fold among red-hot plowshares, or to thrust his hand into boiling water and take out a stone. If he escaped injury, he was held to be innocent. KAULY KN(;L1SII INSTITI TK tNS CI One of the greatest tasks of tlie early Christian ('hurch in Britain was to alter the Teutonic standard of conduct and chai-acter, by teaching men that injury to others was 53 Anew sinful as Avell as criminal. The standards of Christianity moral code sharply condemned the faults most prevalent in that age and race. In a period when individuals resented any attempt to limit their freedom of action, the church stood for the prin- ciple of submission to law; in a periud when every man's hand was against his weaker neighbor, it stood for the duty of refraining from aggression and retaliation. By making its churches sanctuaries, it mitigated the terrors of the blood- feud, which made no distinction between volun- tary and involuntary man- St. Mauy's Chavel, Kingston. slaughter. It stood for Early Saxon type of .hurch edifice, the development of intelligence and of self-sacrifice, amid a society whose interests were largely material and physical and selfish. Furthermore, the monasteries, whose inhabitants labored unceasingly as woodcutters, farmers, herdsmen, students, writers, first taught the barbarians that industry is dignified ; that toil, study, devotion to an end not immediately realizable, are worthy of man's pursuit. "We have already noted the general effect of the adoption of Latin Christianity in creating a connection between Britain and civilized Europe. One specific effect was the iutroduc- ^^ ^^^^ tion into liritain of Latin as a living language, by the of English ,, . . , ^ . . 1 . literature use of which the student in British monasteries might come to know the classic treasures of literature, of scieme. and of philosophy. liofore the Syno-.'.2, (((M'.l, (i7-7.") ; Han.souie, Aihuiiired ///••»- tiiry, 4»)-.'jO; (Jreen, Short Ilintory, 1-5, 14-33, 38-41, 58-01,— Makituj of Emjlund, 147-188 ; Montague, Elements of Constitu- tionnl History, chs. i. ii. ; Feilden, Constitutional History, see Index; Stubbs, Select Charters, 7-13, — Constitnlionul History, I, chs. v.-viii. ; Medley, Students^ Mnnnnl of Cottstitutionul History, 1&-10 ; Ta.Hwell-Langmead, Kmilish Constitutional History, eh. i. ; Gibbins, Industrial History, 1-7 ; Powell and Tout, History of Emjland, I. i:i-li>, 2r>-27 ; Church, Early Britain, chs. xv. xvi. ; Secondary authorities 64 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND Ramsay, Foiuidations of England, I. chs. viii.-x. ; Wakeman and Hassall, Essays on English Constitutional History, no. i. ; Lin- gard, History of England, I. ch. vii. ; Freeman, Norman Conquest, I. ch. iii. ; Brooke, History of English Literature, ch. i. ; Lappen- berg, England under Anglo-Saxon Kings, II. pt. v. ; Traill, Social England, I. 121-140, 153-161 ; Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce, I. 65-83 ; Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law before Edward First, I. bk. i. ch. i. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 234-235. Source Rowland, Ordeals, Compurgations, etc. (University of Pennsyl- vania Reprints, IV. no. 4). CHAPTER V. ANGLO-SAXONS AGAINST DANES (787-1042) The tunuilL and confusion of the tirst Anglo-Saxon inva- sions had scarcely died away under the orderly rule of Egbert, and the sea rovers had liardly become changed into g^ Yh^ peaceful farmers and herdsmen, when a second series of Northmen invasions by Teutonic hordes threatened once more to deso- late Britain, The new invaders belonged to a race of Scandi- navian "Northmen" who, from the eighth to the thirteenth century, carried terror into every part of Europe and even into northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands. Their assaults were due to an invincible love of fighting inborn in every son of the North, and to the physical condi- tions about the Baltic Sea. Those sterile lands furnished but a scanty living for a race of active and enterprising warriors, and all the younger and more energetic spirits turned naturally to piracy and conquest. Thus the bauds of Northmen that from time to time harassed the coasts of Britain and the Con- tinent were composed of the most reckless, haughty, desperate, and untamable elements among the Baltic peoples — adven- turers who, having nothing to lose and wealth and glory to gain, fought with desperation and slow without mercy. ^. ^ " Snorro tells us that they thouglit it a shame and misery On H-ro^g, not to die in battle; and if natural death seemed to l)e **" ""^^ ' coming on, they would cut wounds in their flesh, that Odin might receive them as warri(jrs slain." The assaults of the Northmen upon Britain began with an attack on Wessex in 787. Thenceforth, for over fifty years, the Co 66 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND entire coast from Lands End to the Firth of Forth was scourged by repeated raids. The largest towns, Winchester, Rochester, 62. Attacks Canterbury, London, York, did not escape. A band ^?^- would land without warning near some prosperous town, (787-850) plunder it of all its valuables, slaughter all the inhab- itants that resisted, and on the approach of an armed force would take flight in its long, swift ships of war; or the horde would leave its ships, seize horses from the nearest farms, and ride swiftly inland to despoil some wealthy monastery of its gold and silver plate, its rich altar cloths, its jeweled images. As these ''Vikings" (creek- dwellers) grew bolder, they advanced up to the head of tide water in the rivers, built in- trenched camps, and then harried the adjacent country at their leisure. > Encouraged by the almost uniform success of these raids, the Northmen became more ambitious, and in the middle of 63 Danish ^^^® ninth century began a period of conquest and settle- conquests ment. One horde marched across Scythia and terrorized the region about the Hellespont, another moved eastward into Russia and founded a dynasty which lasted for seven centuries, a third settled at the mouth of the Seine, others occupied Sicily and various other lands upon the Mediter- ranean, and still others seized upon Ireland and the smaller islands west of Britain. Apparently these "Danes," as the English called them, made their first permanent English settlement in East Anglia, whose stout-hearted king, Edmund, chose to die ratlier than to A Viking Boat. Found in a clay barrow in Norway, 1880; 78 ft. long ; fitted for 16 pairs of oars. The owner was buried in a grave-chamber behind the mast. ANGLO-SAXON'S AGAINST DANES GT renounce Christianity and reign as their dependent. "Can not we kill you?" cried they. "Can not I die?" answered he. So they bound him to a tree and sliot him to death Avith arrows. Martyrdom of Krxo Edmund of East Anglia, by the Danes. From a MS. psalter of the fourteeuth century. East Anglia now became a Danish state under the rule of King Guthrum, and thus the Danes had a permanent base for their attacks upon the rest of Britain. In 871 Guthrum pressed southward to conquer Wessex. The resistance offered to these incursions by Egbert's grand- son Alfred, king of Wessex from 871 to 901, makes him one of the most celebrated kings in British history. In the 64. Alfred's first year of his reign he fought nine pitched battles, ''weasex and the next six years were taken up with desperate (871 878 > struggles to check the raids of the Danes. Again and again did he drive them from vantage points which they had seized on the southern and eastern coasts, blockading them in estu- aries and streams, storming their intrenched camps, and forc- ing them to make peace under most solemn engagements to withdraw from his territories — engagements whic-li were im- mediately broken. Finally, in the winter of 878, the Danes 68 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND appeared iu overwhelming force under the leadership of their king Guthrum, and Alfred had to retreat to Athelney, an island among the marshes of the river Parret, until he could gain time to rally his followers from Somerset and Wilt- shire. Having done this, he defeated the Danish host in a pitched battle at Ethan- dune (Edington), by the most desperate fighting. Then, having surrounded the enemy's camp at Chippenham, he forced a surrender after a fourteen days' siege. This double victory enabled him to ob- tain favorable terms with King Guthrum G5 Aif d' ^y ^^^® so-called treaty of Wediiiore, treaty with dividing Britain into two portions by a line which (roughly stated) ran from London northerly to Bedford and then northwesterly to Chester. The terri- tory northeast of that line as far as the Tees was conceded to the Danes, and all territory southwest of it was to be free from their incursions. As Guthrum supplemented the treaty by accepting Christianity, Alfred had some reason to hope that this agreement would be observed; but although Guthrum remained inactive in East Anglia, a Danish pirate named Hasting soon renewed the harrying process, and it was only in 895 that Alfred drove him out of England into France. In the midst of his brilliant military successes, Alfred's mind was busy with the problems of good government. His 66 Alfred's statesmanship was shown in the adoption of a new de- military fensive policy, which included (1) the creation of a fleet for coast defense, the forerunner of England's mighty "navy ; (2) an entire reorganization of the national army ; and (3) the construction of strongly fortified camps at important points, held by permanent garrisons. In training Saxon Soldier. With shield and battle ax. reforms ANGLO-SAXONS AliAINSl DANKS 69 seanipii for the fleet of more tlian four hundred vessels with whii'h he i^uarded his three coasts, Alfred did not scorn to learn of his enemies, emi>loying NN'elsh, and even Danes, for the in- struction of his sailors. In reorganizing the army, he substi- tuted for the old untrained _/>//-f/, levied only when invasion had actually been made, a system — the same in principle as that employed in France and Germany to-day — by which the fighting population underwent a training in arms by turns, one third being in camp while the rest attended to their home duties. Alfred's ability was shown no less clearly in the direction of internal atfairs. Abandoning the futile dream of universal lordshijt over Britain, he devoted all his energies to secur- 67. Alfreds ing good government in his own kingdom — securing sys- ^g^i^^gg^an^ tematic justice by the codification of the laws of Ine and ship of Offa, replacing the earlier system of money fines by other ontnidnc fiTKtji ma-jtc 'bco6cnccc cdivn ha^-on Portion of Cai.kndar PRKFrxKO to thk Anolo-Saxon Chko.mclb (Kr.KVKNTH Ckntukv MS.). "Crist wses a-Saxnn Chronirh', to which we owe most of our knowledge regarding the Teutonic conquest of England; 70 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND he imported teachers from the Continent and created schools for his young nobles ; he devoted much of his own time to writing treatises, and to translating works in foreign languages. "It seems to me better," he wrote, "that we turn into the lan- guage that we all know, certain books which are most needful for all to know." After Alfred's death in 901, his successors restored the West Saxon supremacy in England. Alfred's son Edward (901-925) forced Mercia, Essex, East Anglia, ISTorthum- 68. Alfred's ^ ^ ' ^ ' . successors bria, southern Scotland, and Strathclyde to recognize his (901-940) overlordship. In the reign of Edward's son Athelstau (925-940), the Danes and Scots, assisted by Vikings from the Hebrides, formed a confederacy to throw off the yoke of Wessex; but they were defeated in a desperate battle at Brunanburh (937). To this victory is due the fact that Britain remained funda- mentally English rather than Danish. ' ' There lay smitten On the field of battle Battle Song Five young kings of Bninan- Lulled by the sword ; burh, 937 And seven lords by them, * Earls of Aulaf ; An host untold. Of the Fleet and the Scots Was never more slaughter In this island Since hitherward English and Saxons Came up from the East." Both Edward and Athelstan were able rulers, continuing Alfred's enlightened policy of internal administration, and 69. Arch- making England respected on the Continent ; but their DunsUn successors were either short-lived or incompetent, and (960-988) then the direction of affairs fell into the hands of Arch- bishop Dunstan, the first of England's great ecclesiastical states- AXr.LO-SAX'ONS ACAINST PANES '1 AlJCHBISHOP DUXSTAN WRITING. From a twelftli t-eiitiiry MS. liu'ii. riitU'i- liis i^uidaiioo tlip West Saxon niinian-hs won* Ifd to attniipta luiliiv natiiuial lathor than local. Tiu-y .sccureil a uniform standard of \vt'i,i,'lits antl measures throughout the island, and thus aided eomuier- eial intercourse, the most effective of all unifying forces. The main roads of England were placed under the '• king's peace " ; that is, his protection was extended over the highways of trade, and all crimes committed thereon \vere punishable in his courts. The local jurisdiction of the hundred moots was everywhere strength- ened by the authority of the king. Thus the powerful earls ^ who had usurped local author- ity, and the outlaws who had grown numerous during the dis- turbances of the Danish wars, were reduced to submission. The clergy, too, had become inefficient during these wars, and Duustan seized the opportunity to encourage the monks at the expense of the parish clergy. He rebuilt the monasteries destroyed by the Danes, founded forty new abbeys, and in- stalleil monks over the cathedrals and larger churches. He fought earnestly to enforce the celibacy of the clergy, and to make them zealous, industrious, and temperate. Most of these reforms were brought about during the reign of the able King Edgar (0.">9-975). His successors were but weak rulers, and adopted the policy of i)urchasing inimu- 70. Decline . T.i 11x1 " ^ e ^ rof the West nity from Danish raids by the payment of large sums ot gaxon line tribute money, which were levied upon all citizens under (975 1016) the name of " Danegeld *' — the first general tax in English history. This jtolicy only increased the greed of the Danes, and > TIk' fi>rm rorl was hcinj: ilisplact'd by the form fart \uu\vr the iiiriiicnce of the Danish cquivaUMit term Jurl. 72 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND led to a catastro})!)!' (luiiii.n the reign of Etlielred, called the Unready (that is, ''the ill-advised"), because of his lack of proper rede, or wise counsel. This king, after paying tribute again and again, finally resorted to the insane policy of order- ing a massacre of all the Danes in Wessex on Saint Brice's day in the year 1002. To avenge this terrible deed, Sweyn, king of Denmark, invaded and laid waste the territory of Wessex A.-S C'/iron- ^'^ ^^^^ following year. Ten years of fighting followed, ide, 1010 \^x\t " at the last there was no chief who would assemble forces, but each fled as he best might; nor, at the last, would even one shire help another." In 1013 King Ethelred fled to Normandy, the lioiue of his queen Emma, and Sweyn became sovereign of England. He died, however, in the next year, and the Witans of ^Vessex, Mercia, and Northumbria attempted to repudiate the authority of his son Canute, and to restore Ethelred and his son Ed- mund Ironside to power. A long struggle ended in the disastrous battle of Assandun in 1016, when " all the English nobles were slain " ; and on the death of Edmund, a few- months later, Canute became undisputed ruler of all England.^ During the long struggle of Egbert's descendants ag;ainst the Danes, a most important social and economic change was being „, - . , wrought throughout rural England — namely, the growth 71. Social o o o J) o changes of a landed aristocracy, at the expense of the earlier more (827-1000) clemocratic social order. In the first place, the increased size of the kingdom forced the kings to create great provinces, or earldoms, the rulers of which had to have ample territories to support their dignity, and ample powers of jurisdiction in order to preserve order. Again, the king's thegns, by whose prowess in battle his throne was upheld, received from time to 1 In the foregoing account, the less important kings of Egbert's line have been passed over without mention ; but in order that the student may view the events related in their true chronological perspective, he should examine carefully the list of English monarchs from Egbert to Sweyn on the opposite page. -WEST S.VXON AND DANJSH KINGS OF ENGLAND EGBERT- Ttnnre scalo, 50 yinirs lo one Inch ETHELWULF T— ii? 3 ETHELBALD-^— ! 866 j^. 871 — ETHELBERT ETHELRED I ^ A LFREg EDWARD Klfrlda=;=Earl of Flanders 8 ATHELSIAN ROLF Pouod«T of tb« 11b* »11-9S7 . - WUiiam lL* Cooqacror LMM I. o" f ' EDWY EDMUND I EDRED- "EDGAR a7a>'3 EOW^ARD. otyhtwmady 1016^16 —EOMUNCr I03S< g- 20. SWEYN 'C«Bqa trilniting one or moio oxt-n to tho tt":iiii wliicli tlia^'i^pd the heavy wocnlen plow throni,'li the roui,'li and imperfectly drained soil. The estate also eontaiiu'd uiaiiy iiiliabitants who pos- Anolo-Saxox Plow Team. From a MS. Saxon calendar, tenth century. sessed no cattle, but served as shepherds, swineherds, hedgers, and tlie like. Large strips of waste and wooded land, utilized for the pasturage of vast herds of swine, separated one manor from another. The reign of Canute (lOlG-lOSr)) includes eighteen years of prosperity, during which England formed part of his great Anglo-Scandinavian empire. This period is marked by 73 Danish the rapid growth of English commerce, due to the respite England from the struggles which had so long interfered with the devel- opment of the island, and to the enterprising spirit of the Danes. Commerce, in turn, promoted the growth of towns. In East Anglia some three hundred Danish names of cities and towns indicate how effective was the colonization and settlement of that region. P^ast Anglia with southern Northumbria formed the Danelaw, or district where Danish law in part replaee.l the English common law ; and these with Mercia and Wessex formed the four great earldoms into which Canute divided his English kingdom. Each earl, like the monarch, niain- taine-s.\.\(ins AciAiNsr danks (•»m1o(1 to Rolf tlu' Nortli- man all the lower Seine valley, thus creating a new Kreneli state, the iliicliy of Normandy. This province was sub- ject to the French crown under the feudal system described in §0."3; l)ut so weak was the royal au- thority that France long remained hardly more than a geographical ex- pression. It was the influence of this weak, di- vided type of government whitli Edward brought witli him to Kiiglantl. The Danish period also saw the rise of a flourishing Scf>ttish kingdom north of the Cheviot Hills, which was destined to he most intimately connected with the history of England. 76 Growth The Scottish tribes from Ireland, which had gained a foot- Scottish hold in ufuthern Britain about the time of the Teutonic kingdom invasion of the south ($ 35), after a long series of struggles placed one of their own rare upon the ancient throne i»f the Picts (859). The English monarchs who succeeded Alfred greatly strengthened the kingdom thus established, by granting to various Scottish kings extensive territories north of the Tweed, reserving to England only an ill-detined overlordship. IHCHIKS AM> Ct>CNTIKS OK FrAJJCE .\BUUT lOtJG. The earlier attacks of the Vikings were directed against a poorly consolidated state, in which were to be found -7 jum. neither atb-ciuate military strength nor a genuine spirit ™»»'y of patriotism. The result was the conquest of eastern England 78 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND by the Danes; but just when the Anglo-Saxon organization seemed about to disappear forever from Britain, a defender ap- peared in the person of Alfred of Wessex. This great monarch not only conserved the Anglo-Saxon state and the Anglo-Saxon civilization,, but also left to his successors a nation much advanced in political organization, in intellectual culture, and in ethical standards. Not long after his death, all England again recognized the authority of the native raonarchs Edward and Athelstan. Then followed a period of gradual decline (re- tarded, however, by the good work of Archbishop Dunstan), at the end of which England Avas merged into the Anglo-Scandi- navian empire of Canute. But the latest conquerors, now Christianized and civilized, proved worthy to carry on the work which Alfred had begun. Into the more phlegmatic Anglo-Saxon stock the Danes infused an element of enter- prise, especially in commercial matters; and to this their kinsmen the Normans were soon to add an intellectual and refining influence. TOPICS Suggestive (1) How far does the success of the Danes throw light on the topics ggg^^ ^j jjjg jj^ England upon the Teutonic races? ^(2) What defects in the military and political conditions of England invited these attacks ? (3) At ^Yhat times in the year would they meet with the most success ? (4) Just what is meant by the phrase " Guthrum accepted Christianity," and what advantages could Alfred hope to gain from his conversion ? (o) What motives probably influenced King Athelstan to grant the dignity of thegn- hood to every merchant who should " fare thrice across the sea " ? (6) How would this action affect social life in England ? (7) Give the different reasons why it was unwise to pay tribute to the Danes. (8) State the difficulties that hampered the monarch in collecting the Danegeld. (9) Distinguish between an eorl and an enrl. (10) Why was it undesirable to separate the plots of the different tenants of a manor by fences or hedges? (11) Why did not each tenant of a manor plow his own land ? (12) AVhy was one third of the land left untilled every year? (13) What features in the early life of the Danes tended to develop their genius for com- merce ? ANGLO-SAXONS AdAINSl' DANKS '!) (14) A Viking craft. (15) The caiver of Hasting. (10) The Search Norlliinen in FraiRe. (17) The Daue.s in Ireland. (18) Some *°P"=8 signiticant anecdotes about Alfred tiic Great. (19) Make a map to show the results of the treaty of Wedmore. (20) Traditions of Canute. (*J1) Au account of a Danish foray. REFERENCES Secondary authorities See map. p. 40 ; Gardiner, Schnol Athts, maps 7, 8, !) ; Mackinder, Geography Britain and t/ir Brititih S^'as, 204-207 ; Poole, Historical Atlan, map xvi. ; Keicli, X>>r Studentx^ Atlas, maj) 4. Bright, Jlixtnr;/ of En-2;]7, — Historical Sources, 145-147. Hughes. The Scouring of the White Horse ; Tliackeray, King Canute ; Bates and Coman, English History told l>y English Poets, 18-25. Sources niustrative work! CHAPTER VL ANGLO-SAXONS AGAINST NORMANS (1042-1087) The new monarch owed his title of " the Confessor "' to his simple-minded, saintlike character. Gentle by nature, reli- 78. Charac- gious by training, esteemed by his followers to be a saint terandpol- ^ seer, Edward turned his thoughts naturally toward icy of 'the ' . Confessor" the other world, and left his political policy to be shaped largely by more practical and efficient men. Such a man was Earl Godwin, whom Canute had selected as ruler of Wessex ; a man of states- manlike ability, of great wealth, of energetic, am- bitious character, and of wide experience in affairs. Edward's life, in Nor- mandy made him familiar with the idea of a mon- archy divided into great semi-independent fiefs, and it was therefore natural that he should leave Godwin in possession of Wessex, and give large powers to two other earls, Siward in the north, and Leofric in mid-Britain. The conditions thus created were as harmful in England as in France, for the rivalry which later developed between the houses of Godwin and Leofric weakened England when she most needed strength. At Edward's accession he found little that was congenial to him in his rude and uncultivated English subjects ; and a 80 Penny of Edward the Confessor. Found near the battle ground of Senlac, in 1876. ANGLO-SAXONS AdAlNsr NoK.MANS 81 bloodless "Xornian romiuest " bv tlie j^rasping foreign favor- ites wlio folh)we(l him to England seemed to he threatened. He placed Normans in nearly all the positions of trust, 79 Earl and even gave to a Norman the artdibishopric of Can- Godwin and ^ '■ the Nor- terbury. Hut (iodwin, although he had seen foreign mans service under Canute and had allied himself with the Danish king by marriage, now championed the policy of England for Englishmen. Unfortunately, Godwin's power for good in the land was weakened by his ambition. l>y heaping honors and lands upon his own sons, even when they proved incapable and untrustworthy, he weakened his popularity among the English ; and the Normans at Edward's court of course intrigued against him. In 1051 the citizens of Dover mobbed a body of Edward's Norman friends who were on their way to the Con- tinent. Godwin defended their action, refused obedience when ordered by Edward to j)unish them, and was outlawed in con- sequence. In lOyj lie returned with a strong force and was welcomed enthusiastically by the Londoners, and his Norman enemies were banished in their turn. Even the foreign Arch- bishop of Canterbury, Jurai^ges, was expelled from his office to make way for an P>nglishman, Stigand. Godwin died a few months after his return to power. Edward turned with attach- ment and respect to Godwin's more genial son, Harold, made him his chief minister, and intrusted to him all the details of government. Though Harold was a mail of courage, of intellectual ability, of administrative genius, he was only "the ablest man of an unprogressive race." Under him England enjoyi-d a 80. Harold , . . , .^ , ., i.1 1 1 Godwin 8 son j)eriod of internal prosperity, while on tlie Ixuders a ^^^^ ^^^ series of successful expeditions resulted in the subjuga- succession tion of the Welsh, whose rulers became vas.sals of the Englisli monarch. It is true that, like his father, Harold employed the great earldoms as a means of aggrandizing his own family; 82 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND yet his love for justice was so great that when Northumbria revolted against his brother Tostig's tyrannous rule and deposed him in 1065, Harold supported the action of the rebels, and allowed them to receive as their earl Morkar, the grandson of Leofric. This revolt was hardly settled before the approaching death of Edward raised the question of the succession to the throne. Some years before, Edward had given his cousin's son, Wil- liam of Normandy, some reason to hope that he might succeed to the English throne. Later the weak-willed king fixed upon his nephew Edward (son of Edmund Ironside) as his successor; but the latter died in 1057, leaving only two minor children, Edgar (called the Etheling) and Margaret. King Edward then turned to Harold as the only Englishman fit to govern the na- tion on his decease, and on his deathbed he named the latter to the Witan as his successor. By Eng- lish custom' the suc- cession was limited to a grown son or brother of the pre- ceding monarch, but in default of such person the Witan were probably justified in making a fiiesli choice. They chose Harold, as Edward had suggested ; and on the same day that Harold was crowned, Edward was buried in the abbey church which he himself had founded at Westminster, just west of London. William, duke of Normandy, who now laid claim to the 81. Wil- crown of England, was the fifth in descent from that liamofNor- Rolf the Northman who won the Seine valley from the mandy '' (1027-1087) king of France (§ 75). He succeeded to the duchy of Westminster Abbey. AN<;i,tuSAX<>Ns ACAINSI- NORMANS 83 Xonnaiuly at seven years of a.i^e, and spent all his youth and young nianhoiHl in a series of struggles, first with his own unruly vassals, and later with the count of the neighboring province of Anjou. ^foreover, he was compelled continually to combat the secret or open hostility of his sovereign, the king of France. Thus by hard experience he learned the lessons of subtlety, shrewdness, deliberation, and endurance. Under ids rule, Xornuuidy became one of the most strongly governed and pow- erful provinces in France. "Throughout his career, we Frtpnum, atlmire in him the embodiment, in the highest degree ^ Gorman " " Conqutst, \ . that nature will allow, of the fixed purpose and the un- i'.r bending will. Utterly unscrupulous, though far from unprin- cipled, taking no pleasure in wrongdoing or oppression for its own sake, ... he yet never shrank from force or fraud, from wrong or bloodshed or oppression, when they seemed to him the straightest ])aths to accomplish his purpose." Such was the man who, long before Harold's election, had set his heart on l>eeoming king of England. As early as lO.")!, during (Godwin's e.vile, William visited England and obtained from the too complaisant Edward a ])romise that he should succeed to the crown of England. 82 In- A few years later, accident gave ])im another advantage ; tji^e E^n^iigh for Earl Harold wa.s thrown by shipwreck upon the crown coast of Ponthieu. The wily Norman secured his ransom from the count of that district (his vassal) by the payment of money and land. Harold, now completely in the power of his secret enemy, was compelled to take a solemn oath recognizing William's claims to tlie English throne, and wa.s also induced to accept knighthood at his hands, probably with its attenrlant oath of homage and fealty (§ 93). Hence William had .some plausible grounds Im- urging his really Him.sy claim to the throne of England. Ar«-ording to the feudal system of E\iroj)e, he asserted that he was HaroM's 84 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND overlord ; to the friends of Edward the Confessor he quoted the king's early promise to him ; to the devout churchmen of both England and the Continent he magnified the crime of Earl Godwin in deposing the Archbishop of Canterbury, and dwelt on the sanctity of Harold's oath renouncing the crown ; to the sticklers for legality in England he could denounce the revolu- tionary ii-regular choice of Harold; and to military adventurers everywhere he could magnify the opportunities for plunder and personal aggrandizement. By thus joining a, large num- ber of ciphers, he delud'ed many into believing that the result was a real quantity. Ships of William the Conquerok. Restored from tapestry made in England for William's bi-Qther, Odo of Bayeiix. I^ the early summer of 1066, William gathered his vassals and allies from Flanders, h-om Ponthieu, from Brittany, from Sicily, and from all the other regions whither the Norman dual inva- blood or the Norman spirit had penetrated, and prepared Bion (1066) ^Q g^^-j £^^ England. To meet this army of professional lighters, Harold gathered a large body of land and naval forces, mostly recruited from the tillers of the soil, and therefore un- trained and undisciplined. William was delayed by the diffi- culty of securing transportation and supplies for his array, and by contrary winds ; so that for four months the English troops and fleet waited for the invasion which failed to come. About the middle of September, large numbers of Harold's troops ANCI.n-S.W'oNS ACAINSI' NkKMANS 80 (lisbamled and it'tunu'd to the fields tu j,':itlier ihcir uvei-rii.t- liarvests, ami liis wt-aktMifd Heel n-tin-il fnnii tli.- soiitluTii coast to liOiuloii. MeanwliiK' JlaroKl's lnotli.-r Tosti^,' srizt'd tliis occasion to recover liis forfeited earldom of Nortluunbria, with the aid of his reUitive, tlie king of Norway. Eight days before William's landing in England, Edwin and Morkar, the earls of Mercia and Northumbria, were defeated by the Norwegian king, who sailed nji the JIumber and sent a body of troops to eaiiture York; and Harold was obliged to hnrry north- ward at the very moment when 'William 's landing was daily exjiected ujion the southern coast. By an extraordinarily vapid march, Harold reached York in 84 Har- time to check the old « costly victory in advance of tlie in- the north vading forces. At the bat- tle of Stamford liridge, on Sej)tember l'.">, the traitor- ous Tostig and his ally, the king of Norway, were both slain : the invaders withdrew, and Harold was flee to turn south again. He did not arrive in time to ojtpose Williiuu's landing, however, for, on SeptemUM- L'8, the latter disembarked his troo|ts at I'evensey with no opixjsition. Wil- liam advanced northeast through Sussex with great delilieration, IIVICC \M> Williams M vk. hks. 86 OONQUESTS OF ENGLAND so that Harold, luinTing from York and collecting forces from the southern and eastern shires as he came, was able to face him on a lield (later called Senlac) seven miles fi'om the town of Hastings on October 14. Harold's advisers urged him not to fight, but to starve William out by laying waste the country ; but Harold, with true British pluck, declared that he had "been set to protect his people, not to destroy them." He therefore ranged his militia upon the crest of a ridge crossing the road along which William was advancing toward London. At the highest point on this ridge w^ere stationed the leaders of the host, grouped about the standard and encircled by a ring 85. Battle of hus-carls, whose interlocked shields formed a strong °l ^^^^^^^^^ line of defense. As the Norman forces, consisting of both (Oct. 14, . 1066) cavalry and archers, advanced to the attack, they were checked by flights of javelins and stones hurled by the Eng- lish ; and then, as the attacking columns reached the battle line, they met a storm of blows from heavy battle- axes that would cut off a horse's head at one blow. Although William's forces had the advantage in in- telligence, mobility, and discipline, Harold's were stronger in numbers and in position, and stoutly resisted the repeated charges of the iSTorman cavalry up the difficult slope; but, acting wholly on the defensive, they were unable to inflict serious harm upon the enemy. After the battle had lasted from nine in the morning until late in the afternoon, William's cavalry, suffering an apparently C .Norman heaij.arined foot ^~ Battle of Hastincj.s. Positions at the betjiiiiiiiiij of the battle. AN(1L(>-SAX()NS AC.AlNSr NoIIMANS 87 (lisustntiis ropiilse, inettMidi'd Hij^lit; tlio Miidiscipliiu'd troops on Harold's right, wing broke thrir lim- of d«'fen.se and ruslicil iu pursuit of the fleeing Normans in a disorderly iiioh; and it was an easy matter for the Normans to turn, ride down their disordered pursuers, and make a flank attack on Harold's jjositiou through the gaj) thus left open. Even so, the battle remained undecided for hours, until the archers, instructed by AVilliam, directed their shafts over the heads of the line of hus-carls so that they fell into the center of the struggling nuiss about the king. A chance arrow pierced Harold's eye and struck him down. Two of his brothers had already fallen, and all leadership was now lost ; the English broke in rout, and William remained master of the field. It is difficult to determine whether cowardice or mere in- efficiency and disunion among the English shaped the course of events after Hastings. Certain it is that Edwin and 86 Corona- ^lorkar failed wholly to assist Harold during this battle, Ji°J^ i^ , J^jJ; or to art promptly after his fall. The Witenagemote, too, 25, 1066) although it immediately elected Edgar the Etheling king, made no preparations for a vigorous resistance to AVilliam. Instead of advancing upon London, the Concpieror spent several weeks in gaining possession of Kent, Surrey, lierkshiro, and Hert- fordshire. He thus isolati'd the capital and overawed the country districts. This policy served its intended jturpose. The puppet king Edgar, with his bishops and his leading noblemen, quickly lost heart and united in offering the crown to William. On Christmas day, lOGd, William was crowned by the Archbishop of York in Westmin.ster .\l>bey, his election having been ratified by the acclamations of the assend)led multitude. Thus he was able to claim, not only that he was the rightful heir of Edward the Confes.sor, but al.so that he was the choice of the repre- sentatives of the state, of the chundi, and of the last heir of Egbert's lin*-. To maintain the liction of legality, he solemnly 88 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND repeated the ancient coronation pledges to defend the church, rule justly, make good laws, and abolish evil customs. For four years after the battle of Hastings, William's ener- gies were largely spent in reducing to submission the two 87. Pacifi- thirds of England which at his coronation did not cation of acknowledge his sway. His first expedition, in 1068, (1068-1070) was directed against the southwest, where adherents of the family of Godwin were plotting against him. Follow- ing the precedents of the English monarchy, William sum- moned the militia (a risky experiment), overran the entire district of Dorsetshire, and finally captured Exeter and built there a castle to overawe its inhabitants. The reduction of Cornwall followed immediately. Then he turned to the north, where Earls Edwin and jSIorkar, aided by Edgar the Etheling, the Scotch, the Welsh, and the Danes, organized several uprisings. Three several times was William compelled to lead his forces to York during the years 1068 and 1069. The third time, he laid waste the whole dis- trict from York to the river Tees, causing indescribable suffer- ing. " The men who had joined in the revolt were slain. Gardiner, The storcd-up crops, the plows, the carts, the oxen and Student s g^eep were destroyed by fire. INIen, women, and children 100 dropped dead of starvation, and their corpses lay un- buried in the wasted fields." Then a hard winter's march brought him to Chester, where early in 1070 the last rebellious stronghold was taken, and the submission of the entire north was secured. A later revolt in the fen country, under Here- ward, " the Last of the English," and a contest with King Malcolm Canmore of Scotland (who had married Margaret, the sister of Edgar the Etheling) served only to show how firm was his position. "William's policy toward his conquered subjects was a wise ?• ^r^'^y mixture of leniency and severity. As he claimed to of the Con- queror be not a usurper but a lawful king, he treated as trai- ANc;Ln-SAX(»NS Ai.AlNSl' .NOKMANS S'.l ti>rs all those who had atlht'ii'd to Harold, and declared their lauds to be fort'eited ; but the estates of those who submitted to him i>iomptly were restored to them on pay- ment of a tine. This shrewd policy enabled him to adjust anew the conditions of land tenure (described in the next chapter), and to raise large sums of mouey for his imme- diate needs. In cases where Englishmen remained hostile he granted their lands to one of his Norman barons and then left the new owner to make good his claims by force, thus getting rid of the burden of conquering the more remote districts. To all the warriors of his invading host "William made gen- erous grants of land. This he could well afford to do, for, besides the lauds contiscated from rebels, he held the ancient crown lands and the extensive possessions of Godwin's sons ; but he took care that the tenure of land should depend upon the regular payment of dues. Grants to his followers were located almost wholly in the agricultural districts; the im- portant towns remained permanent portions of the king's demesnes. As William advanced through the country and reduced the various districts to submission, he seized upon every position offering important military advantages, and planted tliere gg Boyal a fortress or rudimentary castle to command the sur- castles rounding region. In every considerable town he did the same, for the purpose of overawing its citizens. Those nio.st hastily erected were of wood, but later they were replaced with solid stone. The castles had usually two parts: (1) the keep, or tower, a massive, lofty .struetnre; {'2) clustered closely about it a group of insignificant structures of wood or rough rubble, serving for the NS AdAINSl' NuKMANS 'Jl Oils iiioasiiros. William at liis doatli in 1(iS7 left En^'laiul a strung state, well ]ia(itie(l and well administered; Imt he had also created what Mr. Freeman has called "one of the most tremendous tyrannies on record." As a contemporary put it : '• he caused castles to be built and oppressed the poor. ... lie was given to avarice, and greedily loved gain. . . . The rich eom- plaiiied and the poor mur- mured, but he was so sturdy that he recked nought of them ; they must will all that the king willed if they \oiild live, or would keep I heir lands, or would hold their possessions, or would Statik ..f William thk Conqueror. I'g maintained in their riglits. At Falaise. his birthplace. s,\as\ that any man should so exalt himself, and carry himself in his })ride over all I " A.-S. CTiron- iclc, 1087 England l)eeame independent of Danish c(mtrol under Edward the (.'oufessor in 104L', but it suffered greatly from quarrels between Edward's foreign friends and his native gj g^^ advisers, and also from jealousies that s})rang up among mary the natives themselves. The loosely organized kingdom therefore became an easy prize to the strong arm of William of Normandy, who rewarded his followers with its richest and fairest estates. I5y these and other measures William gave to English institutions the imi)ress of Ct)ntinental feudalism. The work of the Teutonic pioneers from the Baltic shores was 92 CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND done ; and the gentler southern civilization influenced by Roman tradition henceforth shaped English development. Yet though England was changed, she was not transformed ! The enduring force of the Anglo-Saxon character was shown in the partial continuance of the English language, the English common law, English territorial divisions, and English politi- cal institutions. Furthermore, the work of Alfred and of Dunstan, and the broadening effect of intercourse with the enterprising Danes, helped the English people to receive and absorb without violent change the more advanced civilization of the Normans. TOPICS Suggestive topics Search topics (I) What national change is suggested by the fact that Edward tlie Confessor removed the seat of government from Wincliester to Westminster? (2) What advantages could Pope Alexander 11. hope to gain, by espousing William's cause? (3) Did the battle of Hastings illustrate the law of "the survival of the fittest"? (4) Cite other examples of victories won by pretended flight. (5) Can you account for the inefficiency of the Witan at this period ? (6) How would William's conception of the rights of a king differ from Harold's ? (7) What grounds had Tostig's ally for invading England ? (§) Indicate, with the aid of a topographi- cal map, why castles were placed at Hastings. Dover, Ex,eter, Nor- wich, Bristol, Winchester, London, York, and Lincoln. (9) Why were the Cambridgeshire fens the latest district in England to be conquered ? (10) Was Hereward a true patriot ? (II) Earl Siward and Malcolm Canmore as depicted in Shake- speare's Macbeth. (12) Description of Westminster Abbey. (13) The story of Harold's oath to AVilliam. (14) The Bayeux tapestry, and its value to historians. (15) The relation of Corn- wall to the English crown since the days of William I. (16) Trace in the coronation ceremony of King Edward VII. the remains of the ancient election of a monarch by the Witan. (17) Archers in battle, (18) William's fleet. REFERENCES Geography See maps, pp. 40, 77, 04 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, map 10 ; Hughes, Geographt/ in British History, chs. v.-vii. ; Reich, Nni} Students'' Atlas, maps .'i, 7 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xvi. liv. AN(iL() SAXONS AtiAlNsr N<>KMANS MH Brifiht, History iif Emjland, I. 21-28, 40-'>5 ; Ganliiu-r, StmhnCs Secondary History, Ht)-1(M, 114 ; Kansoiiu-, Advumed Hixlury, 7tt-102 ; (ireen, *"i'»°""«'« Short History. 67-8'.», — History of the Emjlish People, bk. i. cli. iv., bk. ii. cli. i. ; Powell and Tout. History of Eiujlund. 48-4!!) ; Hrewer, Student's Hume, chs. iv. v. ; Linpinl, History of Enylnnd. I. chs. vi. viii. ; Church, Early Britain, chs. xxix.-xxxiii. ; IJanisay, Foundations of Enijhind, I. ih. xxvii. ; II. oh. i. ; Freeman. Xonnan Coniiuest, vols. II.-IV., — Short History of the Xorman Conquest, chs. i.-xii., — Old Enylish History, chs. xi.-xiii., — William the Con- queror; Johnson, Xormans in Europe, chs. viii. xii. ; Kdwards, Wale."!, ch. iv. ; Lang, History of Scotland, I. ch. v. ; H. Taylor, Enijlish Constitution, I. 228-270; Powell, Alfred the Great and William the Conqueror; Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages, ch. ii. ; Creasy, Fifteen Derisive Battles, ch. viii. ; Clark, Mediceval Military Architecture, I. chs. iv. v. ; M. Creighton, Historical Lec- tures and Addres.ies, 241-2»i0 ; Fowke, The Bayeiix Tapestry ; Pollock and Maitiand, History of Enylish Lam, I. hk. i. ch. iii. See Xew Kngland History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 2.>8, 230. Colby, Sf lections from the Sources, nos. 11-1 "I; Kendall, Sourci- Sources Book. nos. 13-1(5; Henderson, Select Historical Documents of (he Middh- Ayes, 7, 8 ; Anylo-Saxon Chronicle, 1042-1087 ; William of Malme.sbun,', History of English Kings, bk. iii. ; Gee and Hardy. Documents of Church History, nus. xiii.-xvii. Bulwer, Harold, the Last of the Saxon Kings ; Henty, Wnlf the Illustrative Saxon ; C. Kingsley. Herein, mt, the Las/ of the English ; Macfar- lane, The Camp of Refuge; Tennyson, Harold (a drama). 1 Lonsritwde West 2 from Grct-nwiih K-^t 94 ciiArrKK VII. THE FEUDAI-IZATION (»F ENGLISH INSTITrili i\S (A) The Fki'dalized State FoK at least three centuries before the Norman conquest all the politieal and social institutions of western Europe tended to shape themselves aceordinpr to a common ^ 92 English model, known as the feudal system. As we have seen, institutions Eni,'lish institutions early felt tliis tendency in the ten- il087; are of laud and in the authority exercised by landowners over their tenants; so that the influence of the Normans was suffi- cient to bring about the feudalization of state, ciiurch, and societ}' alike. The feudal system was partly a device for securing public order at a period when the king's authority was still weak and no national judicial system existed ; partly a levy of a standing army for natidual defense; partly a convenient substitute for money rents and money taxes ; jjartly an expre.s- sion of man's natural tendency to exalt pliysical strength and attacli himself to a leader. The system was not fully devel- oped in England until a century after the concpiest, but for clearness of description we shall group here all its parts as they were developed on English soil under the Norman kings. Under tlie feudal system the nionarch was in theory the owner of all the lands in the realm. " The battle of Hastings was looked upon as a settlement of all the estate in I'^ng- g, - land, not even excepting the estates of the Church. No rain and man could hold an acre bv an ante-Noniian title. .Vll }liir;/iin. were obliged to seek the king and to buy their lands.'" Kni/lund M<.st of these lands were bv him '* granted " in large "'"'"'«/«^ 111(1 1» fJcCU' blocks to individuals on condition that they rendered pa(ion,2i 96 NORMAN FEUDALISM Seal showing Act of Homage. Twelfth ceutiuy. to him three things: (1) homage — that is, public acknowl- edgment of the fact that the land was received as a grant for which service was owed, and not as a free gift ; (2) fealty — that is, loyal adherence to the interests of the giver ; (3) serv- ice — that is, assistance to the mon- arch in certain stipulated ways. The chief of these was military service, and in general the gran- tee was expected to furnish a " knight "' (mounted warrior) for every "knight's fee" (five hides of laud). The lands thus received, called " fiefs," were said to be '•held of" the grantor, as "suze- rain." The recipient, called the " vassal " of the monarch, received from him a title (earl, baron, etc.) varying with the amount of territory and the degree of the dignity conferred. If any vassal refused to perform any of the services above mentioned, his lands were forfeited to the donor. At the death of any vassal his lands by right reverted to the monarch ; bqt it was customary, if the vassal left a male heir, to invest that heir with the vassal's lands. Any vassal with large holdings was at liberty, by " subinfeudation," to grant portions of his lands to vassals of his own, and thus there arose the two classes of " tenants in chief " and " mesne tenants," or tenants of tenants. The most obvious effect of this feudal system was to create a large military aristocracy, and to make fighting power the 94. Effect chief measure of a man's political and social impor- ismon^" tance. As William I. had about 600 lay tenants in society chie^, and they had about 7400 mesne tenants, and as the lands held of William T. amounted to 60.000 knights' fees, it was certain that there would always be some thousands of linen in England trained to the profession of arms, owning war Tin: 1 1.1 1>A1.1/.A 1 InN ny KMil.IsiI INSTITUTIONS H7 lioiscs ;iud 11 complete oiittit of armor and weapons, and rea«ly to assemble promptly at the call of their sovereign, on penalty of losinj,' both ^iroperty and honor. Such a body was more than a match for any mass of untrained, unorganized eivilians. light- ing, as they must, ou foot and without effective weapons or armor. The nulitary supremacy of the armor-elad horseman - xplains why the barons, with their bands of armed retainers and their castles as a base of operations, kept whole* districts in subjection, even when their rule was unbearably harsh. Along with military importance, a vassal accpiired high social distinction : he was subject to an elaborate system of initiation into knighthood; he recognized a strict code of honor; associations or orders of knights were established which became noted for their wealth, military proAvess, chivalric conduct, and social prestige. In France this system proved faidty because the king's vassals were too few, and their Hefs were corresi)ondingly large. Each duke or count (as the vassals were called) 95. English was so powerful tliat he could make private war at his and Conti * nental own jileasure, and defy the will of his suzerain whenever feudalism he chose, .strong in the support of bodies of knights owing allegiance only to him. William had seen the evils of this system in Normandy, and he was determined that the Con- tinental j)rini'iple, '• vassallus mei vassalli non est mens vas- sallus" (my vassal's vassal is not my vas.sal), should not jirevail in England. Hence arose the first uni(pie element in Knglish feudalism, the paramount obligation of all landholders to the monarch. William first ordered a systematic survey of all the landed estates in England south of the Tees (lOS;"), to learn the 96. Domes- iiiiount of taxable pro|>erty in the (country, and the cor- and the resjionding services c(vw-/ Beginning of the Domesday Book Entry for Oxford. ^ Then, having summoned all the landowners to a national moot at Salisbury in August, 1086, he demanded an oath of 4 -S Chron- fealty directly to the crown. Then came "all his Witan icle, 1086 and all the landowners of sidjstanee in England, whose vassals soever they were, and they all submitted to' him and became his men, and swore oath of allegiance to him that they would be faithful to him against all others." Thereafter no landholder in England could aid in a struggle against the crown without being guilty of perjury and treason. AVilliam further safeguarded the authority of the monarch 97. Wil- by making the numl)er of his vassals very large. He sub- tipHcation " ^^i^ided the few great earldoms already existing, so of fiefs that no such great noble houses as those of Godwin and 1 Translation : " In King Edward's time, Oxford paid to the king for toll and gable and all other customs yearly £20 and six sextaries of honey. More- over, to Earl Algar £10 in addition to the mill whieh he had within the city. When the king went on an expedition, 20 burgesses went with him fur all the others, or they gave £20 to the king that all might be free." TllK FKrn.M.lZATInX oF KNCKISII INS 11 IT III »NS V»9 Leofiic iiiiijht arise to tlueateu tlie power of the monarch ; and he distrilmted the liolilini,'s of the more jiowerful barons through various seetions of the countiT. For example, liis half-brother. ( )do of Hayeux, was given four hundred and thirty manors, but they were distributed through seventeen different counties. Thus William's great vassals were able to maintain many small bodies of troops for use in his wars, yet were prevented from creating large, well-organized armies. In one respect only was this policy dejiarted from. On the western " marches " (borders) William created two large earl- doms, Chester and Shropshire, the rulers of which exercised almost sovereign powers within their own domains, and he per- mitted the Bishop of Durham to exercise similarly extensive powers in his see ; — whence Chester and Durham later became known as '-palatine counties.*' The reason for this policy was that in those remote districts an especially strong government was needed to preserve internal order and to protect the king- dom from the raids of the Scots and the Welsh. Limitation of the power of the king's vassals was the more necessary because with the feudal holdings of land went im- portant powers of government. In a modern .state, the gg j-gudal work of making laws, applying them to particular cases, jurisdiction administering and enforcing them is given over to officials — legislators, judges, governors, police officers — most of whom are elected or appointed to do this work, and devote their lives to it as a jirofession. In the feudal state, these duties fell to the holders of fiefs, every one of which was, as it were, a little state where one man held most of the offices. To this man the king looked for feudal dues and military service pro- portional to the size of the fief ; to him he looked for the pres- ervation of order on his lands: and he therefore gave him ample powers of jurisdiction, including "sac and .soc," or the right of holding courts and levying fines, over all persons residing upon his lands. 100 NORMAN FEUDALISM In this matter of local jiirisdictioii, William reduced the powers of his nobles below those of the French peers, using 99. Fusion for this purpose the older Anglo-Saxon machinery of gov- of ^axon ernment. Reserving the dignity of " earl "' as a general and Norman o o ^ o elements thing for the lords of the marches, he governed the midland shires through sheriffs, whose dignity, not being he- reditary, could never become dangerous to the crown. By retaining the customary hundred and town moots for local business, he limited the authority of the barons and yet left them strong for military service. By retaining the English common law as the standard in these moots, he made it easy for the people to accept the new order of things, and thus lessened the excuse for severe government by the barons. Some changes in existing laws were necessary, to adjust the relations of Normans and Englishmen. For example, in criminal cases, the accused was permitted to choose between the old English ordeal and the newer Norman "trial by battle " with his accuser ; and a special law was passed to pun- ish the treacherous or violent maltreatment of Normans by Englishmen. Nevertheless, the old English constitution per- sisted beneath the feudal veneering ; and this mixture of Saxon democratic elements with Norman aristocratic features forms a second distinguishing mark of English feudalism. The nomenclature which sprang up after the conquest illustrates this happy union : the sovereign preserved the English title of " king," not the Norman title of roii, but his council became a "Parliament" instead of a " Witan " ; the administrative divisions were called "counties" as well as "shires," but their chief officers Avere " sheriffs," not viscontes (viscounts). One important element in the Saxon state, the Witenage- 100. Devel- mote, disappeared with the advent of Norman feudalism ; ?,^°^f^^°^, for the king was now in theory an absolute monarch, the " King s ^ . Council" requiring no control or advice save that of his vassals assembled as a Magnum Concilium, or " Great Council." Tin: FKIDALIZATION OF KNOLISII TNST' IITI- )\\S 101 l>ut a sucopssor to tlie Witenageraote soon appeared ; for uinor laiulowiiers cared little to attend the meetings of the "ireat Conneil, where only the rich and the powerfnl feudal ( liieftains could speak with authority, and where the monarch \>as surrounded by a group of advisers skilled in the political science of the Continent. Since the Xornians used seals on public documents, a practice till then unknown in England. ^Villiam had always at court a Chauei'llor, or keeper of the king's seal ; a Treasurer was h.\i Hi;<^rKK lALLlKS Notched sticks were split, ami jjayer and payee took eaoli a half as evideiii-e <>f the tiausaetiou. needed to care for the hoard which the Norman kings laid away for emergencies ; William's transformation of the Danegeld into a permanent land tax forced him to develop an " Exchequer," or treasury department ; and the increase of the king's authority led to the custom of ai)peals from the decision of the baronial courts, and thus to the aj)pointntent of a Supreme Justiciar. It is not surprising that these officers, together with other permanent othcials like the king's marshal, his steward, and the two archbisli()])s (of Canterbury and of York), soon assumed such widt^ powers as to make it unnecessary to assend)le the Great Council frequently, and that they early became (trgaui/ed into a permanent Curia lioijis, or " King's Council." Tlie eliief iluties of the Curia Regis — which was in theory only a com- mittee of the Great ('ouncil — were (1) to frame legislative measures for ratification by that council, (2) to supervi.se the libordinate government officials, (3) to assess and collect the :i(V'2 NOHMAN FEUDALISM king's revenues, and (4) to decide appeals to the king's justice. The development of this system Avas of course slow, but its rudiments all existed during the reign of the Conqueror. 101. The manorial system Ruins of Ludlow Castle, on the Welsh Marches. Built iu 1090. Norman type of architecture. (B) The Maxorial System The feudal institution which had most effect upon modern English life was perhaps the '• manor " — a political, indus- trial, and social unit from which in many cases was developed a town or a city. With these manors the face of England was checkered after the Korman conquest, although many of them were of earlier origin. Each manor was a separately managed estate, forming })art of the domains of some baron (tenant in chief), or of the king. Naturally its boundary lines tended to follow the boundaries of some older estate, township, or parish (§ 108). The baron had upon each manor at least three classes of riir. KKIDAI.I/AI'ION (tK KNCI.ISII I NS II ITIK »NS 1(1:5 tenants: (1) fighting men, who liold l»y "ti'iiiiro of kniglit-serv- ice" aud by whose aid he tultiUed liis military oltligatioii to liis suzerain ; {'J) ''freemen," or ''soke men," vohmtary tenants who paid only a small fixed rent, but wi-re sul)jeet to the jurisdic- tion of his courts; (."■>) the "villeins,'' who were ''bound to the land " of their lord. Those who held by '• privileged tenure " could not be expelled from the land by the lord, paid to him oidv a si)ecified rent, and performed only specified serv- ices ; those who held their land by " base tenure ' ' were Uv Lff/iims tenants at will only, and " knew not in the evening what -ifjl'^ was to be done in the morning." Some held no laud, but were employed as household servants, being virtually slaves. As dispenser of justice, the lord of the manor held in his manor house at stated times several kinds of manorial courts, annnig them (1) the "court-baron," in wliich jQg Mano- disputes in regard to services due from tenants were set- rial courts tied by examination of the "rolls," or records kept by the bailiff; (2) the " court-leet,'' in which the military force of the manor was reviewed twice a year and criminals were tried. Unjust tolls, poaching, brawling, scolding, larceny, and drunk- enness were the chief offenses, punished by light fines which went to swell the income of the lord. His jurisdiction of course included the right to assign lands to his tenants, and to enforce :ill the services due him as lord of the manor. Witli- out the consent of his lord no villein tenant could sell any jtor- tion of his live stock, alienate (transfer to another) any i)ortion it the land assigned to him, give liis daughter to any ])erson in marriage, or ju'miit his son to be ordained to the service of the chuich. In e;ich manor about half the arable land was set a])art as the "demesne lands" of the lord. 'I'he rest was divided ,„^ ^ _, 103 Indus- into (1) "doses," or fenced fields, each .set apart for a tries of the special crop; (2) moa si ^ a ?:» oj 3 .§3 5 eS to O - c: II * & ©as -§ ■ « -c. -5 01 M 7^ o ^ a S o a ^ .2 < a> a cS jj sS 3 - a tc ^ H M .^^ ";s 2 =S^ £ CB f^ a; a . *- a § t^ if S -? S ^ § « a J; Oh a, a TS a F 2 a p e gath- vved ; (o) forests, wliere swine were pastured ; and (0) the liohlings of the individual tenants of the manor. The free- liolders might hold any amount of land ; the class of villeins railed rotsetla.% ior instance, had holdings of five acres each, for which they paid rent by working for the lord of the manor one day a week all the year round and three days a week in harvest ; another class, the geburs, held thirty or forty acres each, stocked with two oxen and one cow and six sheep, as well as with tools for work and utensils for the house ; these did proportionately more work for the lord. The work of the manor was carried on under the supervision of a reeve or a bailiff, who assigned strips in Ihe wheat tield, the barley field, the oat field, the bean field, in different years to different tenants; and who set aside portions of land to lie fallow and recover their fertility. He directed the work of plowing, sowing, reaping, etc., for which the villeins fur- nished oxen and manual labor in proportion to their holdings; and in general he was the responsible director of all the organ- ized activities of the manor. " W»l wiste he by the drouglit, and by the rain, The yeldint; of his seed, and of his grain. Chaucer, His lord^s shepe, his nete,i and his deirie.a Canterhun/ His swme, hi.s hors, his store, and his pultrie' Prologue Were holly* in this revfis governing." The principal buildings on a manor were the parish church and the manor hoiLse; the former located at a central point, the latter on the most picturesque or commanding site. ,., ^ ' » " 104 Do- Kor some centuries after the coufjuest, the manor houses mestic life were rud« buildings of wood or riibble, and contained °° * manor but few rooms, including a hall, a <'hamlM'r for the lord of 1 cattle 2 dairy. ' p«jiiltry. * wLully. 106 NORMAN FEUDALISM Hundred Men's Hai.l, near Winchester. Showing central open fireplace, without chimney. the manor, a kitchen, and cellars. In the great liall was a fire- place, the smoke from which escaped through a "lantern " (a sheltered ojjening in the roof). In rare cases there was a roughly made and leaky chimney, but never a stove. The earth or stone floor of the hall was covered only with rushes, and it contained little furniture except stools and the great table, at which the entire house- hold dined four times a day during the brief period when the lord was in residence. " They roam with a train of followers Warner, from one estate to another; there is a great bustle of lAfJ'in^the preparation ; a few days' stay Middle Ages consumes the produce stored up during the year ; then they go on to the next manor, and the coun- try-side sinks back to its accustomed quiet." The freeholding tenants, of course, dwelt on their own farms. In a 105. Mano- ^"°^^ °^ ^*"^^® houses, grouped rial vil- along the main road through the manor and forming a little village, dwelt tlie villein agricultural tenants and the few artisans (the miller, the wheelwright, the black- smith, the armorer, the carpenter, the weaver) attached to the estate. The homes of the villein tenants lages A'lLLEIN. From a MS. Life of Christ, twelfth century. TIIK l-i:ri)Al.lZAlU»N (»F KNCiLlSll INS lllLTK >N.S 1()7 wore one-storied cottages, with thatched roots, unglazed win- dows, aud earth floors. Their life was extremely hard as measured by nn)dern standards ; their food was ccjarse and poorly cooked; their clothinL,' was designed for a covering, without tliought of adornment; and they often shared their one-roomed cottages with the animals that they owned. In manors iav(tral)ly situated for trade or handicraft, miglit Ite fouml also a few merihants, and i)ossibly a few craftsmen, the nucleus of an industrial community, which might later be- come a free town (§ 148). A contem2)orary writer describes the development of such villages as follows: "In the said manor are two towns, one called Over-Combe, in which William oj reside the yeomen who are occupied in the culture and Worceaior, working of the land which lies on the hill ; and the <^'''«'-'"^"'"i/ other called Xether-C'ombe, in which dwell the men who use to make cloth, as weavers, fullers, dyers, and other tradesmen." Many military tenants and freeholders paid only nominal rents : a hound, or a falcon, or a piece of armor, or candles for the parish church, or a jiound of some rare substance like pepj)er. The villeins paid beans, hens, honey, eels (for water rights), and furnished service in hauling or cutting wood, harvesting grain, jdowing the lord's land, making fences or thatches, and many like tasks. The artisan (for example, the miller or the smith) usually paid a snuill sum in silver. Almost the only sources of income for the lord of the manor were the rent of his lands and the crops rai.sed on his own • lemesnc tidds. Df these [jroducts a part was used in 106 Finan- the maintenance of his crowd of retainers, his chaplain, "^^ °^ffj° ' * ' of the and his menial servants; the rest was disjjosed of by manor his bailitT at the market, generally held weekly in .some neighV)oring town, or at the fairs held annually in more remote parts of the country. Thus small sums of money were l»rocured. but so scarce were gold and silver that, in the few cases where rents were paid in money, the annual rent rarely 108 NORMAN FEUDALISM exceeded sixpence an acre. One shilling in silver would purchase an ox, and fourpeuce a sheep. The income of the king was very large. To the Conqueror (William I.) " one thousand and sixty pounds, thirty shillings, 107. Na- and three halfpence were returned, day by day, from the tional -j^jgj- x-e venues of England, without including donations finance '' o ? OrdericusVi- ^^^ pardons and manifold other resources." Allowing talis, IV. 7 for the historian's inaccuracy, we can not reckon this at less than a million dollars a year in modern currency. The only portions of this sum which could properly be called the revenues of the state were the proceeds of the Danegeld (which William I, revived as a land tax, and fixed at sixpence a hide), and the king's share of the fines levied in the shire and hundred moots. All the rest of his income the king held practically in his own right, and he was expected to live, as the phrase went, " of his own." He received (1) rents from the royal demesne, which at the Domesday survey (§ 96) included 1422 manors and many royal towns ; (2) property falling to him through escheats and forfeitures ; (3) receipts from the sale of the " royal fish " (whales and sturgeons) which might be taken upon the coast; (4) " profits of jurisdiction " derived from fines levied on of- fenders, etc ; and (5) the " incidents " of sovereignty, of which the chief were as follows : (a) when a vassal died, his son paid the king a fee called a " relief " for receiving his father's hold- ings ; (&) when a vassal wished to dis])Ose of land to another person, he paid an "alienation" fee for the privilege; (c) on the death of a vassal, his minor children became wards of the king, who received the profits of their property until they became of age ; (d) female wards had to marry whomever the king chose, or pay a fine ; (e) when the king's son was to be knighted, or his daughter was to be married, vassals were called upon to contribute an "aid" towards defraying the attendant expense. riir. I T.rDAMZAiioN of knclisii iNsri rrrioNs loO Par- ishes (L') TiiK Fi:ri> Ai.i/.KM (inucii The orgauizatiuu of the ehureh was siuh that it could adapt itself readily to feudal conditions. The unit of ecclesiastical organization in Eni^land was the parish, which was usu- io8 ally a single village or township, containing the parish church, under the chai'ge of a clergyman ranking as rector, vicar, or curate, according to the wealth or importance of his chai'ge. Whenever a clergyman was made rector of a parish, he was said to be *' invested " with a •' benetice,"' or living. He was then in the eye of the law an •* endowed corporation," enjoying (1) the '• temi)oralities " of the benefice, including the church edifice, the churchyard, the parsonage, and the glebe, or land set apart for the support of the church ; (2) the " spir- itualities," including the revenues due him as a servant of God ("tithes" and income from religious endowment), and the right to con- duct religious services and perform religious rites in that parish. Like the temporal fiefs, all these rights were bestowed by a superior, were held in virtue of certain duties to be fulfilled, and lapsed to the grantor on the death of the incumbent. Parishes were grouped into dio- ceses, each constituting the " st^c " of a bishop, who .supervist-d ^gg Bish- the i)arish clergy. This offi- oprics cial usually cho.se for his residence the leading town in his dioce.se; and its parish church.in which was placed the bishop's throne (Latin cathedra), acquired the dignity of a "cathedral church." With the growth of the population in the diocese, the cathedral church l^ecame ex- BisHop WITH .Staff (Ckosikk). From Oriiinuiii l/ubilHit,a.n ancient Dutch pamphlet. 110 NORMAN FEUDALISM ceediugly important. An ample edifice was needed for elabo- rate ceremonials, and for meetings of the clergy ; and the many special services called for the support of the "canons," a large number of clergymen ^organized into a corporate body called the " dean and chapter " of the cathedral. Lastly, the sees of the bishops were grouped into two " met- ropolitan provinces," under the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Archbishop of York respectively, the forjuer ranking as primate of all England. In this organization the monasteries held a unique place because of their numbers, their wealth, and the influence ex- 110. Mon- erted by their officers. Besides those of ancient foun- asteries dation, twenty-six new ones were founded under the Conqueror and his successor. All were great landowners. Their abbots (or heads) ranked with the bishops as barons of the realm ; their officers sat with the other clergy in a church legislative assembly called Convocation ; and their tenure of lands was affected by the general feudal conditions prevailing. But the monasteries were largely independent of the authority both of the local ecclesiastics and of the monarchs ; for they were governed by the superior officers of their order;, who in many cases were responsible only to the Pope. Thus the mon- asteries stood in less close relation to the state, and for that very reason, after a period of prosperity during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, they were ultimately left behind in the march of progress. The church organization, as a whole, Avas in very close relations to the state. The monarch appointed or influenced 111. Rela- the selection of archbishops, bishops, abbots, etc. These c^u ^ had offi*^6rs held their estates on feudal terms, and sat in the state Great Council. Ever}' English subject was a member of the church, every resident in the parish was bound to contrib- ute yearly to its support a tithe, or tenth, of the produce of his lands, and the church applied a " civil," or ecclesiastical. 1111. 1 1.1 l»AI,l/.A HON OF i;N(,l,lSil INSTITUTIONS 111 The Tithk Barn, Glastuniuky. Showing influence of church architecture ou other buildings. law, whii-li within its own spliere hail the same binding force as common hiw. Again, in " vestry'' meetings of the i>arislie.s, much of the town business was transacted, including the ap- pointment of constables, '•way wardens"' (road commissioners), and the like. On many manors, too, the lonl had the sole right of " advowson," or ** presentation to tlie liv- ing,'' which still further tended to confuse reli- gious and secular matters. Moreover, as the clergy were the only educated class in the community, brilliant ecclesiastics were constantly tailed upon to act as advisers and ministers of the crown. From the accession of William I. until the reign of Edward III., every chaiicfllur ami every justiciar was a churchman of high rank. Nowhere were the strength and wisdom of William the Con- queror more clearly shown than in his attitude toward the church. Pope Gregory VII. (d. 108.")), whose ambition 112. Eccle- was to make the Pope something like a universal suze- siastical rain over suzerains, demanded that William should do the con homage to him for his crown, and pay certain sums quest already long due to Rome ; but the Conqueror declared stoutly that he would ''give what the kings before him had given and no more." To prevent encroachments on his rights as mon- arch, he declared (1) that whenever there should be two rival claimants for the papacy, he should have the right to determine wliich should be recftgriized within his kingdom; (2) that no servant of tlie king shouhl l)e excommunicated witlinut the royal sanction ; (3) that no [lapal bull shouM be 112 NORMAN FEUDALISM promulgated in his kingdom until it had been inspected by the king. Again, he held churchmen strictly to account in mat- , ters non-ecclesiastical. Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, who was charged with misgovernment during William's absence on the Continent, pleaded that he could be punished only by the ecclesiastical authorities. William replied, " I do not seize a clerk or a bishop ; I seize my earl, whom 1 set over my kingdom." At the same time William gave to the English bishops very greatly increased powers in their own field. Bishops' courts were created for the trial of cases in which either clergymen or offenses against church law were concerned ; and the church received a more centralized organization. In par- ticular, under the advice of Lanfranc, whom he brought from Normandy to be Archbishop of Canterbury, he gave the see of Canterbury definite precedence over its sister see of York, thus bringing the entire Church of England under a single administrative head. The Norman conquest converted all landowners in England into holders of land by grant from the sovereign ; it greatly 113 Sum- enlarged the king's demesne lands, and brought the ™ary self-governing towns under his immediate jurisdiction ; it checked the tendency toward the development of powerful principalities within the state; it caused the disappearance of the Witenagemote by absorption into the Magnum Con- cilium, and by the transference of some of its functions to an administrative machine, the Curia Regis. Thus the con- quest itself determined that English institutions should be permanently feudal in form, and such measures as the Domes- day Book survey and the Salisbury Law made this feudal state strongly centralized and efficient. Hence it results that all English landowners to-day are in theory direct tenants of the crown ; that the number of landowners is relatively Till-: I'KLDAI.l/A rioN ol" KMJl.lSll INSTni'TK ).\S 11:} small, whole villages being still owned by a single individual, and that as the "gentry" and the "nobility" they wield a powerful influence on political ^uul sogial life. To the same period may be traced the feudalization of the eluarh because of its large holdings of land ; and the consequent close union of church and state in local and national politics. Thence- forth the church, with its special legislative body, its special laws (based not on English but on Koman models), its great wealth, its able leaders, and its moral influence, exerted a dominating influence over the entire public life of the nation. TOPICS (1) Why dill William's barons allow him to curtail their privi- Suggestive leges ? (2) What title is borne by the wife of an English earl, ^°^^'^^ and what does it indicate in regard to iiis rank as estimated in land ? (3) Why was not the power of the palatine lulei-s in Dur- ham and Kent as carefully restricted a.s that of the rulers of Chester and Shrewsbury ? (4) Why was Salisbury a suitable location for the important national moot of 1086 ? (5) What features of the domestic life of this period made against refinement of taste and manners ? (6) Was there any justice in requiring that all grain raised on a manor should be ground at the lord's mill ? (7) Why were bee keepers to be found on every manor ? (8) Enumerate the advantages which tenants, widow.s. and wards derived from their lord, as a compensation for their state of dependency. (0) To what special cla.ss of landowners were water rights e.specially valu- able ? (10) What evils were fostered by the .system of i)resenta- tion to benefices? (11) Enumerate the advantages possessed by a cathedral town. (12) How could a bi.shop fulfill his military obligations to his suzerain ? (lo) Compare tlie food of a villein of the twelfth centun,' witli that of a moilerii laborer. (14) Contrast in the .same manniT his ordinary dress, in materials and style, with that of a modem laborer. (15) In what ways was the feudal military sy.stem wiusteful ? (10) Sac and soc. (17) The effect of the Norman conquest in Search .southern Scotland. (IH) Significance of the law of Kiigli>hry. ^"P''^' (111) William and the forest law.s. (20) A descrij)tion of Donies- d.iy Book. (21) The right of presentation to benefices in the nine- teenth century. (22) The origin of the crown jewels of England. 114 NORMAN FEUDALISM (23) Trace the status of the different residents on a manor men- tioned in the Prologue to Chaucer's Cnnterbnr>/ Tales. (24) Nor- man and Anglo-Saxon sporis, as illustrated in Scott's Ivanhoe. Secondary authorities Sources REFERENCES Bright, History nf England, I. 36-39, 42-43, 48-50, 55 ; Gardiner, StudenVs Ilistorn, 81, 104-114, 116-117, 127, 140-141 ; Kansome, Advanced History, 94-101, 116-117, 258-260; Green, Short His- tory, 83-90, 245-246, — History of the English People, bk. i. ch. iv. ; Montague, Elements of Constitutional History, chs. iii. iv. ; Gib- bins, Industrial History, 7-22 ; Cheyney, Introdvction to the Indus- trial and Social History of England, ch. ii. ; Cunningham and McArthur, Industrial History, 28-37 ; Ashley, Growth of English Industry and Commerce, I. 134-162, 229-244 ; H. Taylor, The English Constitution. I. 222-267 ; Medley, Students'' Manual of English Constitutional History, 19-36-; Taswell-Langmead, Consti- tutional History, ch. ii. ; Stubbs, Select Charters, 13-19, — Con- stitutional History, I. chs. ix. xi. ; Freeman. Norman Conquest, V. ch. xxiv. ; Powell and Tout, History of England, bk. ii. ch. v. ; Johnson, Normans in Europe, chs. xiii. xiv. xvii. ; Ramsay, Foun- dations of England, II. ch. x. ; Wakeman, Introduction to the History of the Church of England, chs. iii. ix. ; Wakeman and Hassall, E.fsays Introductory to English Constitutional History, no. ii. ; Creasy, Rise and Progress of the English Constitution, chs. vii. viii. ; Traill, Social England, I. 236-253, 356-359 ; Lang, History of Scotland, I. ch. vi. ; Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, I. bk. ii. chs. i. ii. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 238. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents of English Constitutioiuil History, nos. 1-6; Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 14-16; Henderson, Select Documents, 9 ; Cheyney, English Manorial Documents (University of Pennsylvania Reprints, III. no. 5), — Documents Illustrative of Feudalism (University of Pennsylvania Reprints, IV. no. 3). CHATTKH VI I r. KNCLANI) INDKU Till: LATKK NOII.MAN KINGS (1087-1104) It is nut to be supposed that the followers of the < "oiKpieror, who had hoped to carve out for themselves in England coun- ties and duchies like those in France, accepted without 114. Char- protest the novel feudal linntatioiis imposed by William, actenstics ' ' "^ of the Nor- In the century which followed the conquest, the great man period Xonnan landliolders struggled hard to exalt the power of the baronage at the expense of that of the monarch. The palatine earls, in particular, often took advantage of their i)Osition and their privileges to defy the authority of the king. In this contest between the lower Continental and the stricter English types of feudalism, the instinct of the English peojde to seek liberty througli order rather than through anarchy finally gave tlu» victory to the champions of centralization. The Conqueror left his domain of Normandy to Robert, his eldest surviving son, and named his younger son, William Iviifus (or ''the Red"), as his successor on the English 115 Rei^ throne. During William II. 's reign of thirteen years, jt los-)" i^iiglaud suffered from the misgovernment of a head- llOOi strong, violent, and grasping moiuirch. So wicked in his pri- vate life that at his death he was buried without religious -^ervict*s, naturally violent and rendered still more harsh by the relndlions of his Xonnan-English nobles, by quarrels with his brother, and by controversies with the kings of Scotland, Wales, and France, William Rufiis is remembered chiefly for his acts of tyranny. 115 116 NORMAN FEUDALISM These acts took the form of excessive taxation, in which the fiscal machinery created by his father was employed to wrest from his vassals the largest possi- ble sums of money, so that some of his subjects complained that they "would rather wish to die than to live under his tyranny." Aided by an able but ruthless justiciar, Eanulf Flambard, he exacted the feudal dues of relief, wardship, and marriage with extreme severity. He sum- moned twenty thousand men to rendez- vous at the coast for an expedition into Norman Foot Soldier. Withcoatofmailmadeof Normandy, and then seized the money rings quilted on cloth, they had brought for passage and sent style of eleventh cen- ,, , -i tt i. j-m-y them home penniless. He not on sold appointments to benefices, but even kept important ecclesiastical offices vacant for long terms of years in order to enjoy their revenues himself. The archbishopric of Canterbury was thus left vacant for a period of four years. When he finally was frightened by sickness into appointing Anselm, a Norman monk, to the vacancy, the latter at first refused to be "yoked to Eng- land's plow with a king fierce as a savage bull ." Anselm finally accepted the office, but was soon forced to leave England for Rome, where he remained vmtil William's death in 1100. William's harsh forest laws, and the death penalty which he im- NoRMAN Spearman. In full suit of mail made of square plates quilted on cloth or leather, style of eleventh century. From an ancient MS. psalter. KNCI.AM) INDKH 11 IK LA 1 Kli NuKMaN KIN(.S 117 posed tor tlieir non-observance, are remembered because he met his death while hunting in the New Forest. Wliether due to treachery or to accident, this fate seemed to liis sul>- jects a retribution for his tyranny. William's elder brother, Robert, should now have succeeded him, but Henry, a younger brother, took advantage of Robert's absence on the First Crusade, and, hastening to Winches- ,,. _. ' ' ° 116 Henry ter, secured from the barons there present his own elec- I. 1100- tion to the kingship, gained possession of the royal ^ treasury, and proceeded to fill the offices with his own friends. In contrast with his brother's reign, that of Henry I. stands out as a period of good government. Born in England, edu- cated like a churchman, gifted by nature with a wise and stable character, he atoned for his hasty seizure of the crown by thirty -five years of good rule. Henrv Vjegan his reign by issuing a charter, which is ex- tremely important because up to this time the royal powers of the Norman kings were never formallv defined; ,,.. _, '^ • '111. Char- thenceforth the people had the king's written acknowl- ter of edgment of certain limitations upon his own authority. ^^^^ In the charter, Henry restored the laws of Edward the Confessor wherever they had fallen into abeyance ; promised to archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons, earls, and wards of the crown freedom from unjust exactions ; granted remission of debts; forgave past crimes; and guaranteed order in the future. In its i»ledges against certain forms of arbitrary ta.xation, against tyranny over vassals or the church, against violation of the "laws of the land,"' and against (tppri'ssion of mesne tenants by the baronage, this charter contained by imi»lication all that was vital in the later Magna Tharta (§ 170). Later, lltnry won the favor of the church by recalling to Knglaml .Vnselfn, the able .\rchbishop of Canterbury whom William Rufus had exiled; and he attached to himself the hearts of 118 NORMAN FEUDALISM the English people by marrying Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland and Margaret of England (pp. 73, 127). Except at the beginning of his reign, when his brother Robert disputed his right to the crown, England enjoyed under Henry a needed peace. A strong hand was required, ry's re- however, to curb the headstrong ambitions of his more °^™^ powerful vassals. Henry brought charges of treason against their leader, Robert, Earl of Shrewsbury, seized his castles on the Welsh border, and drove him into exile in 1102. He followed this up by banishing and fining several other un- ruly earls, and thus crippled the power of all the greater earldoms created by his father. He then undertook the promised reforms in administration, in which he was aided by his great justiciai", Roger of Salis- bury. William Rufus had allowed the barons to usurp many of the powers of local government; Henry gave them back to the hundred and shire " courts," as the moots were now called. He encouraged suitors who failed to get justice in these courts to appeal to the Curia Regis at Westminster, and also induced the great barons to do the same instead of deciding quarrels by private warfare or judicial combat. By the advice of Roger of Salisbury, he organized the members of the Curia into a Court of the Exchequer, to deal only with fiscal matters, and sent these "Barons of the Exchequer" on circuit to assess the sums due to the king. In 1124, also, he sent out a dep- utation from the Curia Regis which began the system of royal control over criminal justice. In Leicestershire alone A -S. Chron- these judges " hanged more thieves than had ever been icle, 1024 executed within so short a time, being in all four and forty men." By the common people, grateful for the restora- tion of order, Henry was hailed as the " Lion of Justice." Just at this time the subject of the " investiture " of bishops 119. The ^^^ abbots was becoming a burning question on the Conti- question of o o ^ i • t investiture nent : the Pope claimed the right to invest them with KM. LAND INDKn llli: I.AI'r.R NoK.MAN KINCS 1 1'.t tlif syiulxils «>t tlieir ottices, because of tlieir ecclesiastieal (liguitv ; the iinmarelis t-lainied the same right heeause bishops were temporal nUers. The question was in truth complex and far-reaching: the obligations of the bishops to the church were paramount; yet they were among the largest landholders, manv of them kept large bodies of vassals in arms, and under feudal ctinditions it was essential that such powerful subjects >hould be under the control of the sovereign. On the other hand, the sovereign was very likely, if unre- strained, to appoint to these important positions favorites who had not the proper intellectual and spiritual qualifications. In 1074 a synod instigated by the fearless Pope Gregory VII. ' Hildebrand) issued its ultimatum upon the subject: "If any '<\\e henceforth receives from the hand of any lay person a bishopric or an abbey, let him not be considered an abbot or a bishop. ... If an emperor, a king, a duke, or a count . . . presume to give investiture of any ecclesiastical dignity, let liim be excommunicated." In 1090 a council called by Pope Urlxm II. laid a curse upon all ecclesiastics who even took the oath of fealty to a lay sovereign. (^n the accession of Henry I., he required Archbishop .\n^t'lMl to do homage for the temi)oralities attached to his office. Since Anselm had taken part in the church ^go Henry council of 1090. he submitted to be again exiled rather I s plan for ,' , , , . n ire ^ investiture than to oljey Henry; but the king was of a different t.-mper fr<»in William, and at last came to an agreement witli the archbishop. Hisho[»s wciv thenceforth to be elected by the ••athedral <'hapters, instead of being selected by the state au- thorities : but the election was to be held at the court, under the supervision of the king. The bishops thus elected wen' to do homage to the king for their temporalities, since thus only could his feudal rights be safeg\iarded ; but they were to l)e invested with the ring and the staff, the symbols of spirit- ual authority, only by the representatives of the church. 120 NORMAN FEUDALISM Durius the eleventh century many reformed monastic orders were founded on the Continent, and after the conquest scores of monasteries for monks or nuns (called abbeys, ofmonasti- priories, or subpriories, according to the rank of their cism governing officers) were founded in England. These abbeys at once became the intellectual centers of the age. They sheltered in their guest houses alike the king on his royal progress, the knight, the traveling merchant, and the roving beggar, and thus gathered and disseminated every kind of informa- tion. Their carefully managed es- tates served as object lessons in thorough and skillful farming. Upon them rested the entire burden of public charities. The monks aided education and literary culture by co}>ying manuscripts and making historical compilations. To the in- dustry of Henry, Archdeacon of Huntingdon, Avho completed an His- toria Angloruin about 1135, we owe most of our materials for construct- ing a history of the times j to the monks of Peterborough is due our From the HarieianMSS.,Bi-itish most nearly complete copy of the Museum. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The Crusades caused the development of a kindred move- ment in the foundation of semi-religious orders of military knis^hts, the Knights Hospitallers in 1104, and the 122. World- o ' o ^ . . linessofthe Knights Templars in 1118. By their wealth and their monks q\o^q . organization these bodies gained great importance both in England and on the Continent, and they soon became worldly in spirit. INIore important for England were the Cistercian monks, who appeared there in 1128; beginning Monk of the Twelfth Century. r.NCI.ANI) INOKK THK I.AIKIJ NolJM.W KINCS VJl as a |iiirt'ly rliaritalilo hixly, they soon .L:ai)it'tl for tlienisclves iiliiiost a iiioiio|Mily of tin* Houiisliini; wool iiidustiv. Tlie monastic cori»oiations were always disliked by the secular clergy, because tliey showed their independence of the local authorities. They soon became wealthy through the gifts of the pious, and their officers had great influence in political matters. Much of Henry's time was spent in re- peated quarrels Avith his brother Ivobert. and war broke out between the two in 123. Second 1104. Xormandv was invaded ; in the ' Pe^^o^^ ' union of battle of Tinchcbrai, 1100, llobert was England captured and imprisoned; and Henry mandv became I')uke of Normandy. After (1106^ A Kmcht Tkmim.\r. , , . , 1114. \ 1 i' 1 • this he was obliged to spend much of his A\ itii mantle to \tut- teotarmor from the time upoii the Continent, defending his do- l.eat of the troi.i.-.il j^^j^j,^^ agaiust the attacks of the king of sun. France, and of his neighbors the counts of Flanders and Anjou. His absence weakt-ned the force of his earlier reforms, and left England with no defense against the turbulent barons. Henry was anxious that his daughter Matilda should succeed him, and bound his barons by three successive oaths to recog- nize her as their .sovereign at his death. Unfortunately ^24 Ste- for his plans, Matilda was living on the Continent, hav- pben's usur- pation of ing married (Jeoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou: the throne while her cousin Stephen of lUois was living at the 'll35i English court. Stephen was popular, while ^latilda's cause suffered from the hereditjiiy hatred of the Normans for Anjou. Henry's plan therefore failed. He died suddenly while re- sisting an uprising in Normandy in II.'!."); and while Matilda ami her husband were taking possession of Henry's Nonuan donuiins, Stephen .secured the supix)rt of the city of London, 122 NOKMAX FF>UDALISM Avon over the barons at the court in ^Mne]lestpr, anil induced his brother, the Bishop of Winchester, to put liini in posses- sion of the king's treasury, containing ii 100,000. ^lean while, on the news of Henry's death, England blazed into disorder. The great state officials, dreading the effect of a woman's rule under existing conditions, determined to support Ste- phen, and he was immediately crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The nineteen years of Stephen's reign were filled with the strife which usually follows a disputed succession. Matilda 125 Char- ^^ ^^'^^ ^^^^ ^^^ champions except her own relatives; acterof Stephen, on the contrary, had many adherents, for he rule was personally brave, and as yet gave no indication of 11135-1154) those faults Avhich made him so unsuccessful as a ruler. However, he soon showed' his lack of administrative ability, and by degrees his unwise and ungrateful acts lost him the good will even of those who had placed him on the throne. As Stephen began to see that he was losing ground, he showed himself still more tactless than before : by greedy demands for money he soon alienated the clergy, his warm- est supporters; he quarrelled with his justiciars, and thus cut down his revenues. To win supporters he created many new earldoms, endowing them with estates from the demesne lands of the crown, with pensions paid directly from his purse, or with the fines levied within their eai'ldoms — all measures which lessened the royal income. He then at- tempted to recoup himself in part by debasing the coin of the realm, and thus injured the great and growing merchant classes. Since the new landless earldoms could not furnish many fighting men for his armies, he antagonized his English subjects by bringing into the kingdom mercenary troops, whose wages added to his already severe financial burden. The result was taxation beyond the power of the people to bear. KNcLANi) rNi)i:i: rm: i.Air.u N(»i;man KiN(i.s 1-23 While inteiiKil affairs were thus disorganized, Stephen was constantly i-alled upon to resist the friends of Matilda, includ- ing her uni'le David, the king of Scotland, and the earls 126 Strug- of CUoueester and of Hereford. In 1138 the Scots were &le for the crown repulsed at the JJattle of the Standard, near Xorlhal- (1138 1153; lerton ; but Steidien was compelled to buy peace by granting the county of Xorthunilierland to David's son to l>e held as a lief. In 1139 even the justiciar, Stephen's own brotlier (the Bishop Nknvakk Castlk. Built l»y tlic Bi>lii>|) of Limi.ln iliiriiii; tlic rt'i;,'ii nf Stoplion. of Winchester), went over to Matilda. It would be fruitless to follow the contest in detail. For three years Matilda's cause was in the ascendant; Stephen was fov a time a prisoner in 111(1. but in 1112 the tide turned, and Matilda's fortunes again declined. The actual struggles of the two contending armies had less effect upon England tlian did the endless quarrels and the invasions of per.sonal rights indulged in by individual barons tinder cover of the war. Kvery petty lord built for himself a castle or stronghold in the strongest position on his domains. 124 NORMAN FEUDALISM Heiresses were abducted, luanors were sacked, their owners were held for ransom, towns were raided and burned. " If three men came riding into a town, all the inhabitants fled." Is it any wonder that the helpless victims of the rapacity and cruelty of the feudal classes came to believe that (in the words of the chronicler) "Christ and his saints were asleep '" ? After eighteen years all parties concerned were exhausted; and the church seized the first opportunity to mediate between the contestants. This opportunity came upon the death of Stephen's only grown son; and the Treaty of Wallingford (November, 1153) 127 Com- P^^^ ^" ^^^ ^o hostilities. Matilda was ambitious rather promise on fQ^. i^^y children than for herself, and Stephen Avas Henry Plan- , , , i • ^ • n ■ .^ tagenet broken by age and misrortunes, especially since the (1153) recent death of his son Eustace, to whom he had hoped to transmit the crown. It was therefore agreed that he should rule until his death, and that the crown should then descend to Matilda's son Henry, now a young man of twenty years. The other terms of the treaty were directed toward undoing the evils wrought during the period of anarch}'. Stephen, aged more by care and trouble than by disease, died within a year, leaving the crown and the duty of promoting these reforms to Henry II., the first of the English line of Plantagenets. The sixty-seven years from the death of William I. to the accession of Henry Plantagenet in 1154 cover the reigns of 128 Sum- ^^® Conqueror's sons, William Rufus and Henry I., and mary of his grandson Stephen. Two of the three reigns were marked by tests of strength between sovereign and vassals — the tenants in chief aiming to destroy the centralized sys- tem created by William I., and thus to secure for themselves irresponsible powers such as were enjoyed by the princes of France and Germany. This state of aft'airs was due partly to the character of the monarchs, and partly to their deter- r.N(;i.AM) rNDKK riir. i.Air.i{ norman kincs i-_';> inination to rule both En.t,'lauil and Xonuaiidy. 'Vha attempt to liolil and ^iivt'in Ixitli regions resulted in a feeble hold uitoii eaeh. Of the three nionarejis, only Henry I. showed genuine states- inanship, and liecause of the weakness of his successor, only- two of his aets i)roilueed lasting results. His settlement of the question of investiture left the ehureh in a strong posi- tion, freed from undue control by the state; and his grant of a (diarter served as a precedent for similar grants by later monarchs. These charters, first conceived as grants from an individual sovereign to his subjects, and therefore termina- ting with his life, came in time to be constitutional docu- ments eujbodying the rights of the peojtle by " immemorial custom " — in the eyes of an Englishman the strongest possible authority. TOPICS (1) NVliat modern conditions w.uild make it easier for one man Sugrgrestive to rule Normandy and England now tlian in tlie tweiftii century '• ^°P'*=^ (2) What important obstacles would still exist ? (8) Show wiiy the possession of the royal treasury wa.s especially im|)ortant to Henry and Stephen. (4) Estimate the approximate value of Henry's treasure to-tlay, and explain tiie decrea.se in the purchasing power of money. (5) Define and de.scribe a charter, with reference to its source, its purpose, it« operation, ius revocability. (6) Compare tlie .status of one of Stephen's " fi.scal earls'" with that of an earl treated by William I. (7) .Mention .several rea.sons why Henry's selection of Matilda as his succe.s.sor wjus unwise. (H) Show how and why the coinaije would become debitsed during the period of anarchy. (!>) Ex|ilain the significance of Henry I.'s titles, ((() The Lion of Search .Fiistice, il.) Henry Heauclerc, (10) The relations between Anjou *°P"=* and Blois, and their effect upon English history. (11) The forest laws ; their purpose and their operation, beneficent and harmful. (12) The extension of the king's feudal right.s under William Kufu.s. (13) The character and career of An.selm. (14) The struggle over investiture on the Tontinent. (I'j) The value of a twelfth-century matmsrript, and the rejtsons therefor. (1(J) The story of the Whitf Ship of Henry I. (17) Life in a mediiuval abbey. (18) A brief hi.story of "the Temple," in London. 126 NORMAN FEUDALISM REFERENCES Geography Secondary- authorities Sources Illustrative works See maps, pp. 77, i)4 ; Poole, Historical Atlns, maps xvii. liii. liv. ; Mackiiider, Britain and the British Seas, 208-211 ; Pearson, His- torical Maps of England, 4i)-53; Reich, New Students'' Atlas, map 8. Bright, History of Englatid, I. 56-88 ; Gardiner, Student's His- tory, chs. viii. ix. ; Kansoiiie, Advanced History, 103-134 ; Green, Short Histoi-y, 89-104. — History of the English People, bk. ii. chs. i. ii. ; Powell and Tout, History of England, bk. il. chs. ii.-iv. ; Brewer, Studenfs Hume, ch. vi. ; Lingard, History of England, I. chs. ix.-xi. ; Ramsay, Foundations of England, II. chs. xi.-xxviii. ; Freeman, History of William Rufus ; Stubbs, The Early Plantag- enets, chs. i. ii., — Select Charters, 19-21, — Constitutional History, I. ch. X. ; Taswell-Langinead, Constitutional History, 03-73 ; Nor- gate, England binder the Angevin Kings, I. chs. i. v.-viii. ; Johnson, Hie Xormans in Europe, chs. xv. xvi.-; Edwaixls, Wales, ch. v. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 7-11 ; Colby, Selec- tions from the Sources, nos. 17-20 ; Kendall, Source-Book, nos. 17, 18 ; Hill, Liberty Documents, ch. i. ; Henderson, Select Doczt- ments, 361-360; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 1087-1154; William of Malmesbury, History of English Kings, bks. iv. v. ; Gee and Hardy, Documents of Church History, nos. xviii.-xxii. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 239, — Historical Sources, 147-151. Crawford. Via Crucis ; Landor, Acts and Scenes (" Walter Tyrrel and William Rufus ") ; Macfarlane, The Legend of Blading Abbey ; Bates and Coman, English History told by English Poets, 4.5-62. NORMAN KINGS Time ijcale, 50 years to one Inch q?g - - WILLIAM irJT^ '°'» PLANTACiENET KINGS iobt^ Time MMlf. 50,vours u> one inch I too M3i^ -I 15 I 189 I 199 '26 ~ ^HENRY ir.^Eleanor |_uf JuiuUusi E ofTrev 1 113* ■ 1 Henry OeofTrev „,"d.n« —J. 113* " ^ RICHARD I WILLIAM II. Rufui Ituben Duk« uf Nunnajidj Adda m. Stephen - Count uf Bloll — >24- M atllda =HEWRY I. .^(ieofTrey _=Mutild»- Plantageiiet "Count of An;ou " STEPHEN - 1 1 ISO JOHN HENRY II. Eustace (Sm nut labtou left) ■*■ "" >30- EDWARD I. _£dmuod. f3^ EDWARD 11.^ Isabella >W Enrt of LAB<«Mrr Henry Earl of LuM-sKv Uelirj' EDWARD III. -The Black I'rtnce —Lionel *. l»I6 Dnko of Clu« DnkaofTuik "•• '.*" J ohn ofUaunt I>«k«« >33_ -RICHARD IL PhHIppa 127 -HENRY IV. ip. ail H40P CHAPTER IX. RESTORATION OF ORDER (1154-1199) Hekry Plant agexet (Henry 11.) was a constructive states- man of the first rank, and during his long reign of thirty- 129. Char- five years (1154-1189) he brought about a series of Henrv°II 's Political, military, judicial, and ecclesiastical reforms, reign although hampered by the difficulty of ruling over vast and widely separated domains. On his accession to the throne at twenty-one years of age he was ruler over four realms : (1) England, west to the Welsh marches and north to the Cheviots ; (2) Normandy, with its dependent province of Brittany (map p. 77), inherited through his mother from William the Conqueror ; (3) the provinces of Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, inherited from his father, Geoffrey Plantagenet ; (4) Aquitaine, — including (besides the original duohy, later called Guienne) also Poitou, Gascony, and some smaller neigh- boring districts, — acquired through his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Unfortunately his Continental possessions brought him and his English kingdom many troubles, for both Louis Vll. of France and his successor Philip Augustus made it a feature of their policy to stir up insurrections in different parts of his domains. Nevertheless Henry could not resist the temptation to extend his territories still more widely. During the dozen 130. Con- years following his accession, he forced both the Welsh quests m evinces and the king of the Scots U) do him homage. He Ireland then turned his attention to Ireland, which he planned to conquer and convert into a kingdom for his youngest son, 128 restiii;a I loN (ir (ii{i)i;i; ( ii.'.i-iuii)) 12!t John. Separated from I'.iitaiu by a t-hannd fmm tliirteeii to one hundred and thirty-eight miles wide, and harassed by con- tinual piratical raids, Ireland had lagged far behind England in her develo}»nient. Up to the seventh century her peo})le had not generally abandoned the pastoral for the agricultural type of life; then Danish in- vaders occupied the Ma\..k Hoise nkak Wklsh Bukdkk. entire eastern coast; Built in lloO, at Millichope, Shropshire, later, native chieftains reduced the Danes to subjection, and carried on the Irish sept or elan system of tribal organization. In 11()0 a Norman adventurer named Richard de Clare, later called Strongbow, was encouraged by Henry to inter- fere in a quarrel between factions of the Irish. "Within two years Strongbow married the daughter of the '' king '' of Leinster, succeeded to his possessions, and brought a con- siderable portion of Ireland under English control, so that Henry was able to visit it and receive the submission of certain kings and bishops. Five years more of military opera- tions failed to reduce the rest of the island ; and Henry decided to copy the policy of William I., by granting the still uiicon- quered provinces of In-land to various vassals on condititju uf fealty to I'rince .lolin. Thus a quant-l botwi-cn Irishmen aided the first of the many invasions by which this niiliapi>y island was brought under the dominion of selfish and tyrannous landowners, alien in race, alien in spirit, alien in motive, from tho.se whom they governed. At his aeeession Henry had given assurance of his intention to rule equitably by issuing a charter granting and contirming 130 NORMAN FEUDALISM all the liberties and customs that his grandfather, the Lion of Justice, had granted, and promising to abolish all evil customs ,„, „ and to maintain order among the barons. Not only did 131. Ees- ° _ _ _ -^ toration of he do this, but through his genius for organization he "^ ^^ brought about many improvements in the law, methods of justice, and means of national defense. (1) The first necessity was the better ordering of the baron- age ; he began by pulling down the thousand and more unau- thorized castles l)uilt during the previous reigns, abolishing the earldoms recently created by Stephen, and resuming the alienated crown lands. He then turned to constructive work, aided in most cases by the approval of the Great Council. This body was summoned at least twice or thrice a year throughout his reign, except during his many and long absences upon the Continent. (2) A reform partly fiscal, partly military, was the accept- ance of " scutage " payments instead of actual knight service 132 Henry (§ ^''^)- ^^ theory, all landholders were bound to furnish II. 's device on demand armed and mounted warriors equal in number tage" to the knights' fees which they held; but it waspracti- (1156-1159) cally impossible for churchmen to fulfill this ojjligation. In 1156 Henry required the bishops to pay a sum in cash for each scutum (shield-bearing knight) that they failed to furnish. Three years later, he called the feudal array to attend him on an expedition to southern France, and as the knights were unwilling to go beyond seas, he accepted from them also a " scutage " payment of two marks (26s. Sd.) a man in lieu of service. With the £80,000 thus raised, he easily secured mercenaries for his foreign wars. The change thus intro- duced was far-reaching, for through the device of scutage the barons (unlike the corresponding class in France) became accustomed to bear their share of the national burdens, and as taxpayers felt the same interests as those of the common people. Moreover, they lost the habit of fighting, and so HESTOUATION OF (iKDl-.K (^llJ4-ny the sheriff. (4) The administration of justice had hitherto been ham- pered by the fact that the existing laws of England were derived partly from the tjld coinnum law, partly from feudal sources, and partly from the civil law of the cial re- church. Henry caused these to be collected, harmo- nized, and reduced to order. (5) Taking a hint fronx his grandfather, Henry I., he divided the country into six circuits, and appointed a permanent corps of circuit judges ( 117.'5-117<») ; and he still further separated the Court of the Exchequer fiom the Curia Regis. Ife was also the first monarch to set apart a lujdy from the Curia to sit regularly on civil and criminal cases, as the Court of the King's Hench (1178). The effect of these reforms was to increase the power of the king. In the tirst i)lace, they led the jjcople to look more 1 A coat of ring-tnuil. - -V imdded coat. 132 NORMAN FEUDALISM and more to the king and liis council for justice and pro- ' tection ; in the second place, they put the more important judicial decisions into the hands of a staff of well instructed lawyers, who performed their duties under the immediate eye of the monarch. (G) In Henry's reign, too, was laid the foundation of the jury system in court cases, which developed from a practice 135 The ^^ ^^^6 earlier Norman kings when they wanted in- jury system formation about local customs, taxable property, etc. The jury developed in two forms. The first, the Jury of Presentment (the modern grand jury), was charged with the duty of bringing criminals to trial in the hundred court ; the second, the Jury of llecogni- tors (the modern petty jury), acted at first as witnesses to the fact, not as weighers of evidence ; and was for a time busy chiefly in fiscal cases. For example, the facts re- corded in Domesday Book were ascertained through twelve recognitors ; and Henry II. applied the jury system first to disputes over land, and later to other cases. The Assize of Clarendon (1166) decreed that twelve recognitors from the vicinity where the dispute arose should be chosen by four knights selected by the sheriff of the comity, to decide the question at issue fairly upon their knowledge and the evidence presented. Such trials by jury gradually superseded the older trials by ordeal, by battle, and by compurgation. Trial by Battle. From an illuniinated letter, fourteenth century. KKSinUAl'lON (>F oKDKK ( 1 1".4-1 1'.Utj 133 Ilemy was anxious to briiijj chuii-h ami state into better relations and j)articularly to do justice upon ecflesiasties as well as on lavmen who committed crimes. He therefore ,„„ „ 136. Henry called a council at Clarendon in 11G4, and made the entire li and the body of " archbishops and bishops, earls and barons, and ^ "^ most noble and ancient men in the kingdom " a body of recog- nitors to determine '• some part of the customs, liberties, and dignities'' prevailing in the time of Henry I. Their report, called tlic Constitutions of Clarendon, contained sixteen arti- cles, many of which tended to restrict the rights claimed by the clergy. Hitherto the church had claimed that only the ecclesiastical (;ourts might try '' clerks " (members of the clergy), but these courts generally imposed only slight penalties or none, so that clerical offenders stood in but little fear of the law. The ( "onstitutions of Clarendon provided that in certain kinds of ^iiits clerks must plead in the king's courts like ordinary • itizens ; and lay inspectors were appointed to see that justice was done in the ecclesiastical courts. Other clauses forbade the excommunication of the king's otticers and immediate vassals without his consent ; and still others confirmed former arrange- ments about investiture and ecclesiastical appeals. Though these provisions were clearly not intended to work any injustice to the church, the church was jealous of even an apparent encroachment upon its powers ; and the Constitutions of Clarendon led to a seven years' quarnd between Henry 1 1, and Thomas a Hecket, Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket. was the son of a wealthy merchant of Norman descent. He rapidly rose in the service of the church, and like other able churchmen he was drafted into the service of ,„„ „ 137. Henry the state, bring made chancelbir of thr kingdom shortly II and after Hfury's accession. Henry made him .\rchbishopof < 'anterliurv. hoping f<»r aid in his .schemes for ehnri'h reform; liut from the tirst Becket acted as a defender of the existing 134 NORMAN FEUDALISM rights of the chur(!h against all change. It is hard to determine how far he was honest in taking this attitude. More than once he behaved so arrogantly, and resorted to such doubtful methods, that it is hard to believe him sincere at heart ; on the other hand, he bore disgrace, deprivation, exile, and final martyrdom in defense of his fundamental position — no weak proofs of single-hearted devotion to a cause. A quarrel early arose between the king and his minister over Henry's attempt to collect the Danegeld tax on the lands 138 Con- ^^ *^^® clergy. The officers of the church, although troversy perfectly willing to levy all the money required and Becket make a gift of it to the state, denied that they were U 163-1 170) subject to ordinary taxation, and Becket flatly refused to pay the Danegeld. " The king in anger replied, ' By the eyes of God, it shall be given as revenue, and it shall be entered in Stubbs, the king's accounts.' . . . Becket replied, *My Lord Constitu- king, by the reverence of the eyes by which you have tiotud His- b! J ^ J J J tory, I. 500 sworn, it shall not be given from my land, and from the rights of the Church not a penny.'" A second cause of quarrel arose when Becket, after having once approved the Constitutions of Clarendon, wit^idrew his acceptance and thus roused the bitter anger of the king. After six months of strained relations, the quarrel became so bitter that Becket fled :^rom England in disguise and took refuge, first with the Pope, and later with Louis YIl. of France. Through the intervention of the Pope, Becket was allowed to return to England after six years of exile. But his spirit 139. Mur- was still unbroken. Henry, while holding court in ISTor- B^^k^t mandy, learned with indignation that the proud arch- (1170) bishop had used his newly recovered authority to excommunicate all the bishops who supported the king's schemes. In a characteristic outburst of passion he exclaimed, "Will all my servants stand by and see me thus defied by one RKSTOUATloX OF nUDF.n (1154-1100) 1?.') wliDiii I iiiysoH' huvi' laisod fnuii itovt-rty to wnillli ami power? Will lu) Hiu' rid iiie. of this troiiblesoine cUtU ".' "' In tlii's»^ wild words four private eneiiiies of lieeket saw their opportu- nity to wreak vengeance upon liiiu with impunity. They hastened to En;j:land and, on December 29, 1170, they murdered Becket before the altar of Saint Benedict in his own cathedral of Canterbury. Henry, aghast at the effect of his thoughtless words, appealed to the Pope for absolution for his Dkath of Bkckkt. From tlie m:ir:,'iii of a fourteenth reiuury jisalter. -in. After two years of delay, and appropriate acts of humiliation on the part of the king, the absolution was '-.'ranted, but the victim of his fury w:)< inionized as a saint :uhI martyr. The dreadful outcome of this (puirrcl obscured the real matter at issue. It is now very clear that Henry's rcfornis tended not only to the gofMl of the kingdom as 140 Merits a whole, but also to the purititation and better gov- ggcket c^* ••rnment of the church ; and since the (.'onstitutions troversy of Clarendon remained legally valid, although they were not enforced in practiee. the victory niay be said to have 136 NORMAN FEUDALISM been with the monarch. The problem of church and state' was so complex that it could not be solved until each party had learned to be less tenacious of its powers and more sen- sible of its responsibilities. Throughout his long reign, Henry found himself in difficul- ties because of his feudal relations in France ; and in luuner- ous wars he took the field against his foes. In the 141. Death , . ^ j, ^ ■. of Henry II. latter part of his reign, his s6ns, greedy tor territory ^^^^^^ and power, joined his enemies in several attempts to seize portions of his domains. The labor and distress resulting from this contest exhausted the rapidly failing strength of the king, and he died in July, 1189, heart-broken at dis- covering the treason of his youngest son, John, whom he had believed to be loyal to his cause. He bequeathed his king- dom entire to his eldest surviving son, Eichard. Richard I., know^n as Coeur de Lion (the " Lion-Hearted "), reigned as king of England for ten years, although he can 142. Reign not be said to have ruled. From the beginning he was °f ■^i°i^Q^'^^ interested chiefly in his Continental possessions and in the 1199) cause of the Crusades; not in his English kingdom. Dur- ing his entire reign he was in England less than a single year, and the government of the country was intrusted to various officers, notably William Longchamp, Bishop of Ely and after- ward chancellor, Hubert Walter, and Geoffrey Fitz-Peter. The period was one of order and progress because these men carried on the traditions of systematic administration which they had received from Henry II. Richard was personally brave, chivalric, and fond of adven- ture. The Third Crusade, organized to rescue Jerusalem (re- cently conquered by the sultan Saladin), aroused in him 143. Rich- J H J /' ardl. asa such lively interest that he hastened to ta.ke the cru- crusader gader's vow. To secure the large sum of money needed for equipping and maintaining his army he sold a])pointments to the offices of sheriff and justiciar, sold to the King of Scots Rl^sTuliArioN OF ORDKH (1104-1199) 137 absolution from an oath of homage made to Henrj- II., sold concessions to the church and to individual prelates, and sold charters of privileges to many prosperous cities and towns. His exploits while on this crusade have made him a favorite figure in romance, but as a whole the expedition achieved nothing of importance. Richard was shipwrecked on the way home, and taken captive by his enemy Duke Leopold of Austria, and delivered to the Emperor Henry V'l. As Richard was the brother-in-law of Henry the Lion of Saxony, the Emperor's chief rival in German political struggles, he was held for more than a year in captivity, and was finally released only on condition that he should pay a ransom equivalent to the present value of ten million dollars. [To obtain the required sum, the justiciars f" strained the financial resom-ces of his English domains to the utmost; the knights l)aid scutage tax, the towns and demesne lands were heavily assessed, every lesser freeholder jiaid in proportion to his ability, the Cistercian monks contributed a large proportion of the jjrofits from their wool, and the people, clergy and laymen alike, Richard I. in Prison. were compelled to pay one fourth of their From an illuminated . f.^ 11 1 thirteenth ceiitiirv MS. ' iitire moval)le goods. While Richard was in tlie toils of his enemies abroad, his brother John in England was leagued with his enemy and rival Philip Augustus of France, to undermine his ,,, „ ^ , , 144 Death jKAver; and he even offered the Emperor d^L'O.OOO a of Richard month to detain him in captivity. Richard arrived in ^ ^^^^ I'.iighiiid only just in time to thwart John's intrigues, and 138 NORMAN FEUDALISM after raising fresh sums by levying severe fines on the conspirators, by re- newed sale of privileges and offices, and by a gen- eral tax, he hastened to France to engage in war with Philip. In France his career was cut short while he was engaged in a petty war with one of his vassals, and he died in 1199. DkATH UK KiCllAUD I. From an illuminated thirteenth centurj^ MS. The progress made dur- ing the half century cov- 145. Sum- ei'i"g the reigns of mary Henry II. and his son Richard was due al- most entirely to the states- manship of Henry II., who, in a long reign of thirty-five years, was able to establish certain reforms so firmly that they with- stood even the evils caused by Richard's absentee rule. His greatest success was the setting up of a strongly centralized government ; to this end, he weakened the military strength of his vassals by the device of scutage, and he lessened their local importance by forcing his circuit judges into their courts for the trial of cases, and by allowing appeals from their courts to his own higher authority at Westminster. Indeed, he went so far toward absolutism that Glanville (author of the first treatise on English law, 1181) declares, "whatever he willed had the force of law." At the same time he gave the people a share in the administration of justice, as jurymen in fiscal and political cases, and was thus the first English monarch to RESTORATION OF OKDKK (n'.4-lllK)) l:V.t recoguize clearly that the people should have an active share in carrying out the laws by which they are governed. This prin- ciple logically pointed to the admission of the freemen to a share in the making of those laws, but for some time to come all progress depended on the only class which had sufficient coherence and strength to make itself felt — the baronage. This party had hitherto often struggled to subvert orderly government ; it was henceforth to struggle against encroach- ments upon its rights. TOPICS (I) Compare Henry's methods in Irt'laml witli those of William Suggestive the Conqueror in the English marches. (2; Dehne accurately and *°P''^^ fully a knight's fee. (3) What advantages did a mercenary force possess over a regular feudal levy ? What counter advantages had a feudal force ? (4) In case of a civil struggle between king and barons, to which party would the membere of the militia probably ally theui-selves, and why ? (.5) Why was the early jury system especially applicable to suit.s over the ownership of land ? (6) Wiiy was the sheriff generally instructed to impanel knights as jurj-men ? (7) Why was it necessary to forbid the excom- munication of the king's officers without his consent ? (8) Why- did the Constitutions of Clarendon forbid the consecration of a villein without his lord's consent ? (0) On what grounds did Becket's nuutlerers defend themselves ? (10) Origin of the name Plantagenet. (II) The sept .system in Ireland. (12) The Knglish Pale. (13) search The personal character of Henry II. (14) Richard I. in Palestine. *°P'<=8 (1.')) The romantic legends regarding Richard's captivity. (16) The attitude of other English monarchs than Richard to the Crusades. (17) .\ppeal8 to the King in Council. (18) The murder of Becket. (19) How did Ik'cket become a .saint ? REFERENCES Ste maps. pp. 77, 04 ; Oardiner, School Alfna, map 1 1 ; Poole. UUtoriral Alius, map x.\i.\. ; Reich, New SludenUs' Atlas, maps 6, 9. Bright, Ilistonj of Eu'jhtnd, I. bl>-12'>; GanlintT, Stwleut's His- tory, I. l;{^10.'>; lian.somt-. Advanced Histort/, 13.j-l(5(i; fireen. Short History, }Oi-\\r,. — History of the English Peopl,-. bk. ii. ch. iii. ; Montague, Eltmcnta uj Constitutional History, 40-51 ; Oeography Secondary authorities 140 NORMAN FEUDALISM Sources Illustrative works Stubbs, Tha EarJij Plantagenets, chs. iii.-vi,, — Select Charters, 21- 29, — Constitutional History, I. ch.xii, ; Mrs. J. R. Green, Henry II. ; Brewer, Stndenfs Hume, ch. vii. ; Lingard, History of England, I. ch. xii., II. ch, i. ; Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings, I. chs. ix.-xi., II. chs. i.-viii. ; Ramsay, The Angevin Empire, chs. i.- xxii. ; Wakeman and Hassall, Essays Introductory to English Constitutional History, no. iii ; Taswell-Langniead, Constitutional History, 73-8i, 121-161 ; Traill, Social England, I. 267-298 ; Pearson, England during the Early and 31iddle Ages, ch. xxiii. ; Edwards, Wales, chs. vi. vii. ; Lawless, Ireland, chs. ix.-xii. ; Bar- nard, Conquest of Ireland ; McCarthy, Outlines of Irish History, ch. iii. ; Pollock and Maitland, History of English Laio, I. bk. i. ch. V. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 12-21 ; Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 22-24, 27 ; Kendall, Source- Book, ch. iv. ; Henderson, Select Documents, 10, 11 (a forged document) ; Archer, Crusades of Bichard I. ; Barnard, Strong- bow^s Conquest of Ireland ; Hutton, St. Thomas of Canterbury. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 240, — Historical Sources, 152-154. Helps, Henry II. ; Hewlett, Bichard Yea and Nay ; Scott, Tlie Betrothed, — The Talisman, — Ivanhoe; Tennyson, Becket (a drama), — The Foresters (a drama); Bates and Coman, English History told by English Poets, 60-8O. i CHAITKU X. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL I'KOGKKSS (1100-1850) TiiR late Norman and early Plautagenet periods began an economic and social change which was destined to do away with some of the most striking features of feudalism. . Through slow crystallization of customs, feudal service cline of was lifted one grade higher. The menial servant who could not be kept biisy during his lord's absence from the manor, often was assigned small i)ortions of land to work ; such land, if held by him and his children in succession for several generations, gradually became reserved by customary right; and thus he rose from the base to the privileged class of villeins. Again, lords of the manor would often set free a portion of their serfs, either as penance for sacrilege or some worse crime, or upon their deathbeds, as a preparation for departure from life. \ illeins might earn their own enfranchisement, since such of tliem as had a talent for handicrafts were able during their free hours to earn enough silver to commute their dues 147. En- in kind into a money payment, an exchange which the lord g^^ °of ^y^{_ was always glad to make. They were then able to devote leins all their time to their wage-eaniing crafts, and speedily became free tenants. Others, shrewd in purchasing and bargaining, bought their freedom with the proceeds of trade. i^Iany strung-willed villeins fled from their manor and took refuge in some distant town, where, by eust(jmarv law. a residence of a year and a day freed them from their bondage to the soil of the manor whence they had fled. A still more important UI PL ANTA GENET ENGLAND L.UPOATES, ENG'R, n:v. i Longitude West 2 fi-om Greenwich East 143 KCONoMlC AND SOCIAL rUcxiUK.SS OlOU-l.loO) 143 means of nsiii;_r in tlie world lay tliiough entrance into holy onlors; for the ohunh was reaily to seek everywhere, in the villein's cottage as in the lord's manor honse, for intelligent, devoteil servants. As with individnals, so with comniunities. Places which, like Chester and Carlisle, were located near some old Roman or Norman stronghold ; others -which, like Oxford or 148 Rise \\ inchester, were the sites of important monasteries : of char and others which, like Norwich, stood at the head of ^^^^^ '°^^ navigation on some stream, attracted to themselves the carpen- ters, masons, glass and metal workers, for whom the Normans now found employment. Villages developed rapidly into towns through the growth of trade, and as soon as they were rich enough • they sought charters of privileges from their jfi Wv ^1^ "» ^t 4" '""rSw""' tM jure ^\malp'^ > %to».^Wi jit CJ BE<;ixMVf; of a Chartkk <»k Hknkv III., gr.\.\tino a Giildhall to Ox KURD. 1 lords. Furthermore, nearly all the towns formerly free, bnt absorbed into the crown demesne at the time of the conquest, now began to purchase from the king charters granting them certain rights of self-government. Among the towns to which c-liarters were early granted we find London, Winchester, r»ri.stol, Exeter, Gloucester, Worcester, Norwich, and York. For many reasons the inhabitants of thriving villages 144 NORMAN FEUDALISM desired a cliarter. In the first place, the financial system of feudalism was both complex and indefinite; no two vassals 149 Value stood on exactly the same basis, and no vassal could of charters foresee what demands might be made on him. Such a system was intolerable to the shrewd financiers who built up the earliest trading centers. They preferred to commute their irregular and indefinite payments into a single definite tax (the firma hurgi), and to assess and levy this by business- like methods devised by themselves, without interferences from the king's petty officers. Furthermore, in the " guilds," or trade associations which they formed to advance their business (§ 158), they had a machinery suitable for local gov- ernment, and capable of preserving much better order than was possible under the king's officers. In their charters, therefore, the commercial and industrial communities sought to secure at least three special rights : (1) a quitrent tax instead of the uncertain feudal charges ; (2) self-government under a mayor and aldermen ; (3) regulation of trade. Many of the towns were in the demesne lands of the crown, and purchased the coveted privileges from the king; others lay in the domains of some monastery, bishop, or lay baron, and bought charters from their lords. For example, the citizens of Lincoln paid 200 marks in silver and 4 marks in gold to be freed from the control of the local lord, so that they might hold directly of the king. London was naturally the earliest town to gain important immunities. At the time of the conquest William I. took 150 G pains to win the confidence of the Londoners by special ernment of pledges. " William, king," reads its first charter, London ^^ greets William, bishop, and Gorfrith, port-reeve, and Documents, all the burghers within London, French and English, *- friendly ; and I do you to wit that ye two be worthy of all the laws that ye were worthy of in King Edward's day, and I will that every child be his father's heir after his father's ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 1'K0) 147 The Fk'inish traders traversed tlie country, visited the various markets, fairs, and even individual manors, to col- lect the raw wool pro- duced in England, and transported it in bales to Dover ; there it was stored up in warehouses until the arrival of vessels which plied between England and Flanders. In the latter country it was woven Ship of Henry Ill.s Timk. into cloth, and then was ^^nh fighting-deck in slfrn. f^n.in H MS. Le , , ,, , , Livre des Hisloires, l'2ii\) A.D. marketed throughout southern Europe. Hitherto ships from the Mediterranean had largely monopolized the carrying trade, but now England be- gan to build merchant ships in large numbers. These were clumsy affairs constructed of oak, with high sides and rounded ends, and equipped rather for ability to resist both stress of weather and piratical attacks, than for speed or freight ca- pacity. (4) The Normans did more than to teach the English com- merce and manufacture ; they also taught them to want many things whidi tliey had never desired before. For exam- ,,^ „ •^ •' 155. Nor- ple, under William II. the upper classes in England be- man fash- came for the first time extremely fastidious alx)ut their dress. Long, flowing hair, loose, sweeping garnu'nts, long and pointed shoes, were the fashion at William's court; these fa.shious were changed under his successor, Henry I., and the close tunic with a flowing loo.se outer cloak came into use. As with dress, so with articles of food, witli aristocratic pas- times like hunting and hawking, with a'sthetic delights. In all these the Normans set an example for the English, whose lives had been comparatively barren antl unWautiful. 148 NORMAN FEUDALISM man and Gothic architec- ture (5) It was the Normans, too, who taught the English to care for noble and dignified architecture, although as yet they 156 Nor- P^^t ^P churches, monasteries, and castles, rather than fine residences and civic buildings. One hundred and ninety-five religious houses were built during the reigns of William I. and his sons. During the early part of the twelfth century, architects in England adhered to the massive round pier and arch, plain or but slightly ornamented, character- istic of the Normans in France ; but about 1174 appeared the Gothic pointed arch, with its lighter clustered sup- porting columns and its wealth of free orna- mentation. The noble cathedral at Canter- bury, which was more than a century in build- ing, has both styles. The crypt, certain piers, and parts of the wall are Norman ; while the clustered shafts, the trefoils in the arches, and the lancet-shaped windows date from the era when Gothic art was introduced by returning crusaders. (6) Another influence favorable to city life was the Cru- sades, which spread a desire for luxuries among the wealthier ,,- ^., classes of England, by making them acquainted with 157. Effect o J J o 1 ^ of the Cru- Eastern products, such as muslin and fine silks, and with the luxury of Oriental civilization. The Crusades lMtiD.tfi«rw.»»jfiafc,i^.:^, Stairway with Norman Piers and Ah( hes. In the close of Canterbury Cathedral. sades ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL THOGRESS (1100-1350) 149 led English inerohants to venture into the Mediterranean, to exchange their wares for foreign products. These products were distributed to buyers in England through great fairs held at stated intervals in towns situated at the intersection of main roads. The greatest fair in Eng- land was held yearly at Stourbridge (map, p. l.">0), from Sep- tember 18 to October 9, when hundreds of booths or stalls were erected in rows form- ing long streets, and leased to merchants from Hamburg, Bor- deaux, Florence, Bru- ges, and other Euro- pean marts. Here merchants and bailiffs procured their annual supply of salt, pepper, spices, wine, arras,etc., and disposed of their wool, hides, grain, and hay. (7) Still another up- lifting force was the ChoUI ok ( an i l.t:i;l KV L Allll.lilwVl. O-Ui'KlMi East), bitlt 1174-1180. lllustratin>;j Xoniiaii ami early fJothic vaulting. organization of guilds and associations of merchants, which were started upon the Continent and adopted by the English as local commeree increased. Thus commerce made much more ,^„ „ ^ 158. Trade rapid progress than agriculture. Every manor carried on guilds and its farm work in isolation, and most bailiffs plowed, sowed, "^ft guilds and reaped precisely as their predecessors had done; but iu the 150 NORMAN FEUDALISM Principal Fairs in the Thirteenth Century. guilds all traders worked to a common end, and were thus able to control not only methods and hours of worl<:, but also to a large extent quantity, quality, and even price of product. They maintained trading posts in foreign cities, and got from the king a monopoly of the right to impoi-t or to sell certain articles, and exemption from paying tolls and duties on others. The merchants' guild was the pioneer organization of its kind, but many others were speedily developed on the same model. Thus we find the small tradesmen (bakers, grocers, butchers, clothiers) and the handicraftsmen (weavers, dyers, fullers, leather workers) forming guilds, and securing special privileges in return for the payment of sums of money. Since the privileges obtained by these guilds were costly, they were too precious to be wasted. The guild, therefore,' adopted strict rules for the training of skilled artisans, took measures to ECONOMIC AM) SOCIAL riioGKESS (llOO-l.-JoO) lol [•revent the marketing of cheap and ill-made wares, and exer- I'ised a wholesome supervision over the morals of the work- men employed. In their provision for the payment of sick and death benefits to their members they anticipated the work- ingmen's mutual associations of our day. (8) One important cause of economic progress was the intro- ductiou of a Jewish colony into England by William the Con- (jueror, from his Norman capital of Rouen. In both coun- 1 T 11-1 1^^ ^■ tries the Jews were merely dejjendents of the sovereign ; portationof for the Christians of the eleventh century were wholly capitalists unchristian in their attitude toward them. Thus the Jews had in Englaiul no right to protection under the laws of the land, or redress for wrongs in its courts. In 1189, during the reign of Kichard I., they were massacred by thousands during an outbreak of race hatred. Their only safeguard from murder and outrage lay in the fact that they were valuable to the kings, who were always famous borrowers. The poorer Jews also found scope for their talents as stewards on manors, or as finan- cial agents of the king in the management of the demesne lands. The Jew had a natural monopoly of the business of lending money, for the Christians were afraid of incurring the guilt of usury; and since commerce and manufactures depend in a large degree upon borrowed cajutal, the Jews were almost in- dispensable to the new economic prosperity of England. It is a curious fact that much of the capital with which the Norman mnnarchs and churchmen built those noble and costly cathe- drals and churches that lent a glory to the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries, was Iwrrowed from the despised enemies of the Christian faitli. C'ertain conditions less favorable to English i)rosperity should also be nretluKls of farming were still 160 Condi- crude; tlie nse of si>e(;ial soils and fertilizers fur particn- tions unfa- ' ' vorable to lar crops was not understoo different schools of London, strove against one another in (Latin) verses, and con- o-^caiLS tended about the principles of grammar and rules of the past and future tenses. Two of these schools, Carlisle (founded under William II.) and Salisbury (1319j later became notable public schools. Of the universities, that of Oxford was the more ancient. The first mention of the town as a place of resort for students dates from the year 1117, when a certain "doctor," or 163. Oxford licensed teacher, is said to have '-had under him sixty or . ^ j^ ^^™" -' bridge um- i hundred clerks more or less." Students were in attend- versities anoe there all through the twelfth century, and many men came after the settlement of a body of Dominican friars at Oxford in 1221. In 1209 a quarrel between the townspeople and the students led to a great migration from Oxford, and many of the deserters settled at rambridge. For a long time the students in both towns lodged wherever they could tind accommodations, and were under little or no discipline. 154 NORMAN FEUDALISM . "Instead of long fronts of venerable colleges, of stately walks beneath inuneniorial elms, history plunges us into the mean Green, and filthy lanes of a mediaeval town. Thousands of boys, 01 1 IS- i^^x (Celled in bare lodging houses, clustering around teach- ch.III.^iv. ers as poor as themselves in church porch and house porch — drinking, quarreling, dicing, begging at the corners of the streets — take the place of the brightly colored train of Doc- tors and Heads — Mayor and Chancellor struggle in vain to enforce order or peace on this seething mass of turbulent life." The influence of the Normans in England was seen in the growth of city life, with its diversity of industries and refine- 164 Sum- ment of taste. Architecture, literature, fine arts, and mary handicrafts followed in the wake of the merchant, and with the wider opportunities for individual usefulness and the general increase in intelligence, serfdom gradually waned. Political, mercantile, and industrial corporations promoted the welfare of all classes, made possible the conduct of enterprises on a large scale, and thus, by creating a demand for capital, promoted the very important economic change by which the commodity-barter system gave way to the monetary system of modern times. With the increase in wealth, the monks fell away from their high ideals, and the mendicant friars took up their missionary work, carrying religion everywhere into the new-grown towns. The beginnings of education were seen in the founding of schools and colleges, but the masses — espe- cially in the country districts — were still grossly ignorant. TOPICS Suggestive (1) Compare a modern trade union with a mediaeval guild. topics ^2) wiiy did towns prefer the control of the king to that of a local lord ? (3) From what authority does a city in the United States get its charter? (4) Why could the English raise wool more cheaply than the Flemings ? (5) Make a list of the novel articles of commerce which appeared in England with the advent of the ECONOMIC AND SnClAL I'ROGRESS (IKKl-lIJoO) loo Nt>riii;iiis. and ilisiMiss llu-ir signiHcanci'. (('») What is iiinney, aiitl why tlid it Ihcoiir' more abuiuiant in Kn^land at this time '.' (7) As it bt-canu' innri' abundant, did it increase or decline in value ? Diil prices, in consequence, rise or fall '.' (H) Enumerate the various advantages, political and econouiic, which England derived from its conquest by William I. (9) An imaginary account of a day at the Stourbridge Fair. Search (10) Traces of the ancient government of London in its present '^'•P'^^ government. (11) The typical ground plan of a cathedral, and the reasons for its assuming that form. (12) The mechanical reasons for the adoption of the pointed arch ; of the buttress ; of the pin- nacle ; of Gothic tracery. (13) An account of the Norman method of hunting with falcons and hawks. (14) The medieval theory about usury, and its expression in Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice. (15) Boys' schools. (10) Life at the English univer- sities. (17) The banks of the period. (18) •' Liveried Companies" of London at the present day. (19) Life in an abbey. Geogrraphy Secondary- authorities REFERENCES See maps. pp. 77. 142. Reich, Xnr Students" Atlas, map 7. Bright. History <>f En, 83. 86-88, 113-110; Gardiner, Slwlfiit'n History, 157-158, 10.>-171 ; Ran.some, Ad- vanced History, 100, ll!t-122, 164; Green, Short History, '.•2-'.)5, 117-121; Montague, Elements of Constitutional History, 3r>-;i!> ; Feilden, Constitutional History, chs. vii. viii. ; Stubbs, Constitu- tional History. L ch. xiii. ; Taswell-Langraead. Constitutional History, ch. iii. ; Gibbins, Industrial History, 22-39 ; Cheyney, Introduction to Industrial and Social History, ch. iii. ; Cunning- ham, Groicfh of Enyltsh Industry and Commerce, I. 182-228 ; Powell and Tout, History of Emjland, bk. iii. ch. v. ; Ram.say, Anyecin Empin-. ch. xxxi. ; Xorgate, Enyland under thf Amjivin Kinijs, 11. ch. X.; Jenks, Edward Plantayenet, chs. i.-iii. ; Traill, Social England. 1.319-388, 403-4(18, 4.')0-489 ; Wright. History of Dotnestir Manmrs, chs. v. vi. ; Jessop. The Coming of the Friars. ch. i. ; Gas(|uet, English Monastic Life ; Uman. Art of War in the Middle Ages, ch. iv. ; Bateson, Mfdiceval England, pts. i. ii. ; (iross. The Gild Merchant, chs. i.-vii. ; Pollock and Maitland, History of English f.aic, I. bk. ii. ch. iii. §§ i. v.-viii. Adam.s and Stephens, Stlert Documents, nos. 7-11, l:i-21 ; Colby, Sources Selections from the Soiircfs, nos. 25, 2«i, 28 ; Kendall, Sonrci-Book. no. 23; Cheyney. English Constitutional Documents (University of Pennsylvania Reprints. I. no. 0). — English Towns and Gilds (I'niversity of IVnu-sylvania Reprint.-*. II. no. 1). wai.kkk's kx.. Hist. — lu CHAPTER XT. DEFENSE OF LIBERTY BY THE BARONS (1199-1272) The nearest heir of Richard I. was Arthur, a twelve-year-old son of his brother Geoffrey ; but Richard quarreled with 165 Acces- Arthur's mother over the possession of Brittany after sionofKing Geoffrey's death, and named his younger brother, John, John (1199) ,. -^ mi . ii • i as his successor. The barons accepted his recommenda- tion, much to their later regret ; for during the seventeen years of John's reign, from 1199 to 1216, his faults of char- acter brought disaster on himself and on the kingdom. Eager to en- rich himself at the ex- pense of his subjects, acting with cruelty and violence when violence could do least service, selfish, untrustworthy, short-sighted, by these very faults King John provoked a very great advance in English con- stitutional liberty. King John, hunting. From a MS. forest charter, dating from Edward I. Like his father, he began his reign with a struggle over territory ; for King Philip Augustus of France recognized tests over Arthur's claims to most of the French fiefs of Richard, domains ^"*^ ^® ^^^° summoned John as a vassal to appear at the (1199-1204) French court and defend himself against charges of mis- 166 DEFENSE DF LIBKIMV 15V TIIK IJAliONS (lll>9-1272) loT government in his province of Poitou. On John's refusal his French fiefs were declared forfeited. In the war wjiich followed, Arthur was captured by John, and soon after died. The charge that he was murdered liv John's orders was of great advantage to Philip, who now invaded Normandy, supported by almost all John's French subjects. John was driven from France, and all Nornuinily, Maine, An- jou, and Touraine passed permanently into the hands of Philip (1204), in spite of John's later efforts to reconquer them. Of all the vast French domains of Henry II. the only portion left to John was Afpiitaine (including Gascony, Guienne, and part of Poitou). Thus after being connected witli England for nearly a hun- dred and forty years, Nor- mandy reverted to French Joh.n's FoRFKrrKD Fkk.\( h Fikks. control. Of William's possessions, the Channel Islands alone remained (as they still do) subject to the English crown. .Meanwhile John quarreled with the church still more bitterly tlian had his father. When the Archbishop of Can- terbury died in 120"), John forced the chapter to elect 167 Stnig- one of his favorites, the Pishoi* of Norwich. The monks ^^® ^'^^ ^^® ' church of the cathedral chapter protested that they had the <1205-1213) sole right to choo.se the archbishop; John admitted their right to elect, provided they chose whomever he shoidd nom- inate. Both parties appealed to Pope Innocent III., and "proctors" (deputies) were sent to Rome to hiy the case »CAIE or uiies A 158 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM clearly before him. Innocent saw in this event an oppor- tunity to assert the supremacy of the Pope over monarchs, a doctrine of which he was a most ardent champion. '*Xo king," said he, **can rule rightly unless .he devoutly serve Christ's Vicar." He therefore ordered the proctors at Rome to elect a candidate of his own, an Englishman named Stephen Langton. "Personally a better choice could not have been Green's made, for Stephen was a man who by sheer weight of Short H/s- learning and holiness of life had risen to the dignity of ///. § ii. Cardinal, and whose after career placed him in the front rank of English patriots. But in itself the step was a violent usurpation of the rights both of the Church and of the Crown." John refused to accept the decision, and carried on a struggle against the clergy with so great violence as almost to renew the terrors of Stephen's reign. He seized the property of the see of Canterbury for his own use, and refused the protection of the law to the bishops and clergymen, avIio were in many places driven from their lands and subjected to rob- bery and outrage. A Welshman was brought before John, charged with murdering a priest. " Let him go," said John, " he has killed my enemy." The Pope now laid the kingdom under an interdict, by which it was made unlawful to perform any church service or to 168. Vic- celebrate publicly the sacraments of marriage and of chrn-ch ^ burial. "The bodies of the dead were carried out of (1213) cities and towns, and buried in roads and ditches without Roger of prayers or the attendance of priests." John retaliated Wendover, y^^ confiscating all the property of the clergy, and the Majora Pope, in turn, excommunicated John. As the king re- fused to yield, the Pope, after waiting three years, issued a " bull " (papal decree) deposing him, absolving England from the duty of obedience to him, and authorizing his enemy Philip Augustus of France to expel him from his kingdom. Disaffection among his own subjects left John without DEKKNSK uF LIHKIMY BY 1111-: IJAHoNS (1109-1272; l')9 support against liis enemies; and in 121."! he waii obliiijed to sultniit to the authority of the Pope, to Inimiliate himself he- fore the papal legate, Pandulf, and to resit;ii his crown into the legate's hands and receive it again as a vassal of the I'oite. Furthermore he was required to accept Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury, to restore the church lands to the bishops and monks, and to make good the losses sustained during the recent trouble. John's submission to the Pope was partly due to his wish to invade France and recover his forfeited domains; but his barons refused to accompany him beyond seas. Never- 169. Strug- theless, with the assistance of the German Emperor, glewi'^bthe ' baronage of loyal vassals in France, and of English mercenaries, he (1213-1215> attacked Philip ; but his cause was hopelessly lost when tlie Emperor's allied force of Germans and English was defeated in the disastrous battle of Bouvines (1214). The l)arons took advantage of John's difficulties to urge refonys in the government, for he had persistently violated the rights guaranteed in the charter of Henry I. At St. Albans, and at St. Paul's in London, they pressed their demands for better government, and in a final conference at Pury St. Ed- munds they swore that "if the king delayed any longer Stuhbs, to restore the laws and liberties, thev would withdraw Constuu- their allegiance, and would make war upon him until he toiy, i.r,67 should confirm the concession by a sealed charter.'' John attempted resistance, tried to separate the clergy from the barons by an offer to grant them frecthim in the election of bishops and arclibishops, cajoled individual barons in order to create disunion among liis enemies, appealed to the Pope for assistance, and finally took the cross of a crusader to i»rotect his person from violence, at the same time that he was pre- paring for war. The rebels met at Stamford and marched southward to London. For a while John dreamed of resistance, b\it ilay by 100 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM day his adherents fell off, until he could command the support of only seven knights. Cowed for the time, he met the barons at llunnymede on the Thames near Windsor, and after a single day's discussion agreed to the terms of the Magna Charta, or Great Charter, practically as dictated by the barons, June 15, 1215. This charter as originally agreed upon contained forty-nine articles (afterward increased to sixty-three), setting forth the 170. Magna rights and privileges of each class of people and each Charta department of the government. Among other things, 1215) (1) it guaranteed freedom of elections within the church ; (2) it insured the regular judicial system created by Henry, ^£1Ij: i Vefv^rr. Portion of Magna Charta. with special provisions regarding the circuit courts ; (3) it limited judicial tines to a reasonable amount ; (4) it provided securities for personal freedom to earl, baron, freeman, and villein, especially in the famous thirty-ninth article, which declared that "no freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned DF.rKNSK Ob' LIHKUTV 15V 1111-; HAKONS (11'.»;»-1l'7i') Uil or outlawed, or banished, . . . but by the lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land"; (oj it reviewed the whole question of the financial relations between lord and vassal, abolishing all exorbitant and irregular demands in the case of inheritances, wardship, and the like, and laying down the ])rinciple that the consent of the Great Council should be necessary to the levying of scutage or of aids other than the three kinds which were fixed and undisputed — namely, for ransom of the sovereign, for the knighthood of his son. and for the marriage of his daughter; (6) it guaranteed the intelli- gent administration of justice by sheriffs or other officers "who knew the law of the realm," and wisely proliibited the torture of criminals; and (7) it provided for uniform weights and measures, and for the protection of merchants at home and abroad. The inii)<»rtance of Magna Charta can not be exaggerated, but its character should not be mistaken. It did not create new conditions or formulate novel constitutional nrin- • I T^ ■ , , iTl.signifi- ciples. It was simply a comi)rehensive, definite, and cance of systematic statement of principles of government which <^^i8 charter had been already recognized in practice; it was the first de- tailed yet brief enumeration of the relations between the monarch and his subjects, and it was the first compact in English history in which these two jiarties neg(»tiated as equals. Previous charters had been granted by the monarch to the l»eoi)]e. and (•(•ntained no guarantee beyond the king's word ; this one authorized a committee of twenty-five ])eers to enforce its provisions, by forcibly resisting the monarch if necessary, .seizing his castles, and going to any extreme short of violence to his person or to his family. The weakn«'ss of this provisi(jn was that it provided, not a truly legal remetly like impeachment, but simply civil war sanctioned in advance. The charter was especially significant in that its benefits were not confined to a single class. In the assemblies sun)- 162 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM moned during the struggle, both king and barons sought the support of tlie burgesses (citizeMS of tlie boroughs) and the influential inhabitants of important towns ; London was repre- sented in the rebellious army and its Lord Mayor was one of the twenty-five guardians of the charter, and the document applied to villeins and to simple freemen, as well as to noblemen. After the acceptance of the charter, John's reign lasted but sixteen months, a period of confusion and distress for England. 172. Close John chafed and struggled against the chains with which of John's Yie had been shackled. The Pope, troubled by the power ^ reign J^ ' j i '(1215-1216) of the barons, — though his own nominee, Langton, was a leader among them, — attempted by a bull to make the charter null and void, suspended Langton from office, and launched an anathema against the whole body of rebellious barons. The barons, elated by their success against John, divided the king- dom among their chiefs — partly to secure the enforcement of the charter, partly to humiliate the king, partly to gain per- sonal advantages for themselves. Discord was certain ; one party secured the friendship of Louis, heir to the throne of France, and even recognized him as king of England. John by great exertions recovered control of the north and ^est, but when Louis appeared in London, many nobles and bishoj^s has- tened to swear homage and fealty to him. Successes in the southeast strengthened their hopes, and John, reckless and despairing, was vainly struggling to keep his ascendency in the midland counties, when he died suddenly at Newark, October 19, 1216. The pro-English barons named his nine- year-old son Henry as king, and secured for liim the support of the church. The other party, who had tolerated Loiiis only as a weapon against John, soon abandoned their ally, and in less than a year he was obliged to retire to France. During Henry III.'s long reign of fifty-six years the barons struggled constantly to defend the charter which they had wrested from John. During the eleven years of Henry's DEFENSK OF LlHKKrV HV TllK 15AI{i>.\S (I l'.i!»-l:.'7i.') Id:') minority the govt'niiiient was i-aniod on by the King's Council (a body developed tium the original Curia Regis), directed bv two able and patriotic ministers, William Marshall, Earl i~3 qj^^j. of Pembroke, and Hubert de Burgh, who defended alike ^cter of the rights of the monarch and of the people; but after j-eien Henry came to his majority, his reign, from 1227 to 12.")8, '1216 I272i abounded in quarrels between the king and his ministers and barons. By his own marriage with Eleanor of Trovenee, and that of one of his sisters with the Em})eror Fred- erick II., Henry createil ties of interest and affec- tion with foreigners; and the most important offices about the court, together with the major- ity of the bishoprics and their temporalities, were given to Frenchmen. William of Valence, oik- of Eleanor's uncles, wa> made Earl of Richmond : another, Peter of Savoy, succeeded him in this earldom, and in his posi- tion as head of the royal council, and a third was made Archbishoj) of Canterbury. French relatives of Henry's mother, Isabflla of Angouleme, also received earldoms and l)ishoprics. Under the iuHufiice of these aliens Ifcnry adopted a Coulinental ratlicr than an Eng- lish policy ill goveninifiit. 'I'his policy aiili'd in laced by an oligarchy of the barons. For three years the barons had free sway, fur the alien friends of the king fled to France; but the king first intrigued to stir up discord among the barons, and then attemi)ted to reassert his own anthorit}-. After an indecisive struggle between tiarons and king. King Louis IX. of France was asked to arbi- 166 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM trate between the contestants. By the " Mise [treaty] of Amiens " (1263) Louis, who was accnstouied to think of kings as absohite rulers, annulled the Provisions of Oxford ; but he stipulated that Henry's foes should receive full amnesty, and that all charters granted in the past should be held valid. The champion of the baronial party, and the head of the council of fifteen, was Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, a 177. Second nobleman of French descent, who had gained military iDe Mont- experience as a crusader, and had proved himself an fort s) rebel- ^ ' ^ lion (1264) able and fearless governor over the turbulent province of Gascony. De Montfort was resolved not to submit to Louis's decision, a resolve in wdiich he was supported by the citizens of London, the burgesses of the other important towns, the more patriotic members .of the clergy, and the masses of the people. He accordingly renewed the contest, and attacked Rochester with a force of Londoners. The king and his eldest son. Prince Edward, after some success in the midlands, met the rebellious army near the castle of Lewes, in Sussex (May, 1264). De Montfort offered to surrender and make recompense for all damages inflicted during the recent contests, if the mon- arch would but reconfirm the Provisions of Oxford. 'This offer having been refused, the forces joined battle. Although De Montfort won a decisive victory, and captured both Henry and his son, yet he acted with great moderation, and even agreed to a fresh arbitration by the king of France. In the meantime, a new council of nine members was created, three of whom (De Montfort, the Earl of Gloucester, and the Bishop of Chichester) virtually controlled the experiment king's business. The Pope, the king of France, and the ment^bv"^' foreign party in England, all set to work to undermine barons this government, which so seriously threatened the king's ' independence. De Montfort turned to the nation for support, and, in his capacity as chief minister of the crown, summoned a Parliament to meet in January, 1265. This DEFKNiSK OF l,II?KIMV 15V rilK 15Al{(iNS (1100-127L') ItIT Parliament is notable in English history because De Mont- fort summoned not only lords, churchmen, and knights as representatives of the shires, but also representatives from the boroughs and cities. Its importance in the history of a representative Parliament will be discussed later (§ 193;. Its immediate effect was slight, since it was packed' with friends of De Montfort, and failed to pass any measures of lasting importance; but it proved the weakness of the oli- garchical form of government, and showed that De IMontfort, at least, felt the need of national support in a ruovement for the defense of the national liberties. A quarrel soon arose in the council between De l\Iontfort and the Earl of Gloucester ; and the latter, joining forces with Prince Edward, began a civil war by operations in the west. In a battle fought at Evesham on August 4, 1265, De Montfort was killed, and the king's return to power naturally followed Within a year Henry became absolute master throughout P^ngland, and met with no further resistance up to his death in 1272. The reign of John had two conflicting results. His failure in his quarrel with the Pope greatly increased the influence of aliens over the church in England ; but the loss of his i^g gym. French fiefs left England free to develop politically ™ary without foreign entanglement; and at the same tinie Magna ( 'harta laid down splendid principles of I^nglish liberty which have never died out. Thenceforward England made rai)id ])rogress towards a genuinely national lift-, a progress curi- ously j.arallel to, yet different from, that made in France dur- ing the same jteriod. In France the kings, es|tecially John's contemporary, I'hilip Augustus, combined with the towns to Im-ak the i)o\vcr of the tyrannical barons; in England the liarons became defenders of popular liberty against tyrannical kings. Their action helped to develop a new King's Council, \ 168 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM with functions varying at different periods from the simple giving of advice to almost unlimited control over the king's actions. But the events of Henry III.'s reign proved that neither king nor barons could be trusted with unlimited powers. Meanwhile, the successive contests helped to create a genuine national sentiment, to teach each party to respect the other, and to show the importance of a system of govern- ment carefully defined in constitutional charters. Suggestive topics Search topics TOPICS (1) By what right and what precedents could the barons justify their action in making John Itiug instead of Artliur ? (2) Why should John disobey Philip's summons ? (3) Upon whom did the burden of the interdict really fall, and what did Innocent III. hope to accomplish by it ? (4) Cite other instances of the deposition of a monarch by a Pope. (5) How would John's reduction to a state of vassalage affect the attitude of the nation toward the Pope ? (0) What is the exact import of the phrase " the judgment of his peers" ? So far as possible, trace in the previous history of Eng- land the origin of the evils rehearsed in Magna Charta. (8) Which of these seem inevitable under the political system then existing ? (9) How do you account for the decision of Louis IX. ? (10) What weakness in Magna Charta did the reign of Hebry III. dis- close ? (11) Why should the trading towns, with London at their head, have been the chief supporters of De Montfort ? (12) The common elements in the successive charters issued by the Plantagenet monarchs to the nation. (13) A study of the 14th, 36th, 39th, and 40th articles of Magna Charta. (14) London in the thirteenth century.- (15) Simon de Montfort the Elder. (16) A comparison of De Montfort and Becket. (17) American claims to the liberties of Magna Charta. (18) Why was Magna Charta written in Latin ? (19) Did Magna Charta help the villeins ? Geography Secondary- authorities REFERENCES See maps, pp. 142, 157 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, map 12 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, map Iv. ; Reich, JSTew Students'' Atlas, maps 10, 11. Bright, History of England, I. 126-170 ; Gardiner, Studeiifs History, chs. xii. xiii. ; Ransome, Advanced History, 167-200 ; Green, Short History, 15-16, 122-132, Ul-WO, — History of the DKFKNSK <>K I^II'.KIMV IJV I'llK 1!.\ li< i.\> , i |;i..._i_'7jj 1»;;) £■«(/(';■ s7i I'xifilf, bk. ii. rli. iv., bk. iii. elis. i.-iii. ; Moiiia^'iu-. Ele- ments of Ciiiiittitutiiinal Ilistonj, r)l-(J8 ; Stubbs, Early PlfintUf/- enets. chs. vii.-ix., — Selti-t Charters, 29-^J5, — Conntitutiunnl History, II. §§ loS-178 ; I'owell and Tout, History of Etojlntnl, bk. iii. clis. iii. iv. ; Brewer, Student's Hume, cli. viii. ; Linp;ard, History of Emjland, II. chs. ii. iii.; Norgate, John Lackland; liauisay, The Angevin Empire, chs. xxiii. xx.\. ; Traill. Social England, I.4i)8— 115; Lawless, Ireland, chs. xiii. xiv. ; Uicliard.son, ITie Xatiiinal Movement in the lieitjn of Henry III. ; .M. Creigliton, Historical Lectures and ^Ihlresses, 11(3-148, — Siuuni de Muntforf ; I'rolluTO, Simon de Montfort ; Taswell-Laiigniead, Constitutional History, oh. iv. ; Creasy, liise and Proijress of the Eni/lish Consti- tution, chs. xi.-xiii. ; Pollock and Maitland, History of Eni/lish iMir, I. bk. i. ch. iii. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 22-36 ; Colby. Sources Selections from the Sources, nos. 21»-^31 ;• Kendall, Source- Hook, ch. V. ; Ilill. Lihirty Documents, ch. ii. ; Henderson, Select Docu- ments, 1:55-148, 4;JO-431 ; Ilowland, Ordeals, Compurgation, etc. (University of Pennsylvania Keprint.s, IV. no. 4) ; llutton. Mis- rule of H'liry III., — Simon de Montfort and his Cause; Gee and Ilanly, Documents of Church History, nos. xxiv.-xxvii. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 241-242, — Historical Sources, l-'A. Bates and C'oinan, English History told hy English Poets, 81- illustrative 93; (i. P. H. Janu-.s, Fonst Days; Shakespeare, King John; '^°^^^ Yonge, II" t\,,isi,il.i,' nf ih, Tninr. SCOTLAND Slieriflfdoms In 1300 SCALE CF MILES 1 ^^'|•st 4 from Greenwich 170 CHAPTER XTT. KIKST STEPS IX rAKMAMKNTARV GOVERNMENT (1272-1307) Henry III.'s son, Edward I., who became king in lL'71'. was thirty-tliree years of age at his accession. His military expe- rience in the barons' wars, and later in the seventh and , - , ^, , / , 180 Char- last of the L rusades, made him an able soldier ; but his acter of claim to greatness lay in his strong political instinct. Edward I. The legal bent of his mind led him to ask of every action, both of king and of subject, " Is this act constitutional '.' " To answer this question, he was compelled to give definite form to constitutional principles: and he therefore stands forth as the greatest English lawgiver. Edward's instinct for system made him anxious to unite all Britain under a single monarch, and, at the very beginning of his reign, events made it possible for him to change 181 An- Wales from a vassal principality into an integral part °®*^^° °' of the kingdom. At Edward's coronation, Llewelyn, (1284) Prince of Wales, refused to attend and do homage for his principality; but in 1277 he was induced to recognize Ed- ward's suzerainty. Five years later he again rebelled, occu- pied three of Edward's castles, seized the person of the justiciar of Wales, and committed outrages upon the inhab- itants of the English marches. Edward promptly invaded north Wales ; Llewelyn was captured and killed, and soon all Wales submitted to him. Western Wales remained a distinct province, not repre- sented in Parliament, but governed under a special ctxle, en- titled the Statute of Wales, which roughly copied the laws 171 172 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM Coronet of the Prince OF Wales. Gold, with inner cap of crimson velvet, edged with ermine. and system of administration by shires prevailing in England. Eastern Wales remained in the control of the lords of the marches, under feudal law. In 1301, the king's son Edward, who had been born at Car- narvon castle in 1284, was given Llewelyn's forfeited title of "Prince of Wales " ; since that time it has been customary to bestow this title upon the eldest sons of English monarchs, and occasionall}^ it has been bestowed upon younger sons who have become heirs to the crown. Edward strongly desired to bring Scotland as well as Wales into a closer union with England, by inducing the kings of 182. Ed- Scotland to do homage for their entire kingdoms, instead ward's su- of for their English fiefs alone; and in a contest over the over Scot- succession to the Scottish throne which took place in land ]^290, he found his opportunity. Three of the thirteen claimants — Robert Bruce, John Baliol, and John Hastings — could present plausible grounds for their claims ; and to avoid civil strife it was agreed betw^een these claimants and the Council of Regency that the judicial-minded king of England should be asked to arbitrate in the matter. Edward demanded that he should be recognized as overlord by that claimant to whom he should award the crown, and the Scotch barons had to consent to his demand or face a war with a powerful state while their own lacked a head; they therefore sullenly yielded their castles to Edward and acknowledged his suzer^ ainty. In 1291 Edward fairly enough awarded the crown to John Baliol and received the latter's homage "for himself and his heirs." Two years later war broke out between France and England, and Edward demanded that his Scottish vassal should aid him i KIN(;S OF SCOTLAXn 1034-1513 DUNCAN I. Kiiri 1.4.. 1,, hi, ,„„,io MACBETH MarK«m=MALCOLM III. Grmixl\1 IP SM) 173 174 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM against the French. Tlie Scottish barons resented this call, and, instead of obeying, formed an alliance between France and 183 First -Scotland which lasted (with brief intermissions) more Scottish war than three hundred years. Baliol was placed under '' the control of a committee of peers, and in 1296 was compelled to renounce all allegiance to England. Edward at once attacked Scotland. In four months he took Berwick, Edinburgh, Stirling, Perth, and Dunbar — a series of victories which made him master of the situation. He promptly declared Baliol's crown forfeited for treason against his overlord, had himself pro- claimed king of Scotland, and transferred the ancient coronation seat of the Scottish kings from Scone to Westminster Abbey. Later, while Edward was occupied with France, the Scots, inspired by a gentleman of the Lowlands, William Wallace, at- — - tempted to expel the English. For a year Wallace made repeated gains by able strategy ; but on Edward's return in 1298 the forces of AYalkce were utterly defeated in the battle of Fal- kirk. The Scots, however, continued the struggle for a time, but by the year 1304 almost all Scotland had been reduced to submission by Edward. Wallace now carried on a guerrilla warfare, w^as outlawed as a rebel, and finally was captured and executed as a traitor (1305). Edw^ard now imposed upon Scotland a new constitution, under which the government was intrusted to a council of 184. Sec- Scottish nobles, and the Scottish people were represented on CO tis -j^ ^i^g English Parliament : but it divided the country into war ° ' '' (1306-1307) shires similar to the English counties, deprived the Scot- tish nobles of their castles, and in other ways outraged the CoKONATiON Chair, West- minster Abbey. Containing the " Stone of Scone." FIIJST STKi'S IN rAKLIA.MKNTAUY (JOVEKNMKNT ITo national \n'u\e of the Scots. They tlierefore speedily broke out in fresh rebellion, under the leadership of youiif,' Robert Bruce, grandson of that Kobert Bruce who had claimed the throne in 1290. This young man had hitherto sui)ported Edward, hop- ing to be given the crown forfeited by Baliol ; but now he threw off the mask of friendship, and induced the Scots to crown him as king at Scone in 1306. On hearing of this new breach of faith, Edward made a solemn vow that he would punish that *• l)erjifred and rebellious country of outlaws." lie invaded Scotland, routed the Scottish army, and drove Bruce from the mainland to the Hebrides ; but in July, 1307, Edward died while about to lead an expedition from Carlisle into Scotland. His death gave an opportiuiity for Bruce, who had returned from exile, to pre- pare an organized resistance to Edward's successor. Notable as were tiiese events, they were far less important than the great administrative and legislative reforms whitli made Edward's reign memorable. He seized, with the igs. Re- instinct of a statesman, niton the best ideas of liis ereat ^ormsmthe ' ^ judicial predecessor, 1I«muv II., and molded and elalM)rated theni. system (1 ) ICdward I. completed tlir breaking up fif the Curia Regis into separate courts, each with its own judicial staff: the Court of the KxcluMpuT had entire control of casfs affecting the The Bkitk .Md.m'mknt, Stirmno. 176 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM revenue of the state ; the Court of Common Pleas had juris- diction in suits between private individuals ; and the Court of the King's Bench heard cases to which the crown was a party, including appeals from the lower courts. The king's chancellor was given jurisdiction in cases where there was no adequate remedy at common law, a practice from which later sprang the equity Court of Chancery. In the Circuit Courts of Assize, the judges were assigned to special circuits, and their duties were clearly defined. In trials by jury, witnesses were permitted and the original twelve jurymen became merely judges of the evidence presented. (2) Up to this time there had been no good system for pre- venting crime and punishing criminal's. By the old system of 186. Crea- "frankpledge," men were divided into groups, and each tion of local gj^.Q^p ^g^g j^gif]^ responsible for crimes committed by any system one of its members ; that is, the group was bound to de- liver him to the sheriff, or pay his fine. On the discovery of a Decree of Crime, the citizens generally were bound to follow the 1195 « hue and cry " in pursuit of offenders, on penalty of be- ing held as malefactors themselves. Edward now added the system of " watch and ward," by which towns were required to maintain constables on watch, and to put strangers under ward, at night ; he also caused " conservators of the peace " to be appointed from among the knights in every county, to hold for trial persons charged with crime; and he had the high- c, . . ^ ways between market towns widened, so that there might statute of "^ 7 o Westi7iin- be "neither dyke, underwood, nor bush, whereby a man * ^^' ^ might lurk to do hurt," within two hundred feet on each side of the road. (3) During the thirteenth century, many landholders began to find the conditions of feudal tenure burdensome, and to 187. devise schemes for lightening feudal restraints and obli- Changes in orations. One scheme was to make a sham transfer of the tenure of '^ land land to some church corporation (since the church was FIRST STEPS IN I'AKLIAMENTAHY GOVEKNMEXT 177 «>xpni|»t from certain feudal dues); anothfr was to divide the land hy sul)iufeudatii>n, so tliat the landholder received au income from the various "incidents" due from his mesne tenants, while the hold of the king and the greater lords over their part of the fief was correspondingly weakened. Edward attacked these evils in the Statute of Mortmain (1279), which forbade persons to place land in the ''dead hand " of the church, and in the two Statutes of Westminster (1285 and 1289), which fixed the conditions under which land could be transferred to laymen. The Statute of 1285 (de donis conditio ncdih us) permit- ted owners to " entail " their estates, so that they could not be sold in fragments but must pass as a whole from parent to child ; the Statute of 1289 stopped any further subinfeudation by providing that whenever a vassal sold laud, the new owner owed service and dues directly to the lord of the person from whom he bought it. (4) So long as land was the only or the principal source of wealth, feudal dues (virtually a tax on real estate) naturally constituted the chief source of revenue for the state; 188 Taxa- but by the time of Edward I. a second source of w^^alth tio^^o'"^; '' ports and was disfovcred in foreign commerce, and Edward tried exports to make the merchant bear his share of the public burdens. This was the more necessary because the Danegeld was no longer collected, and because in 1290 Edward was forced by the pressure of public opinion to expel all the Jews from England. At that time it was believed that exports reduce the sum total of wealth within the country ; and that imports injure the dealers in home products by flooding the country with foreign wares. The sovereign was therefore ])ermitted, as giiardian of the general welfare, to lay duties upon both im- ports and exj)orts. Edward developed an elaborate system of export duties, i^rincipally bearing upon the wool trade with Flanders, lie also imposed im]»ort duties, which foreign mer- 178 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM chants were glad to pay in exchange for special trade privileges at English seaports. (5) The inhabitants of market and manufacturing towns had been rapidly amassing wealth in the form of salable goods, and 189. Taxa- the kings reached this form of wealth by a tax on "mov- '^°° °^ ables/' corresponding to the modern tax on personal prop- property erty. In 1188 Henry II. levied the first extraordinary tax of this kind in England, and later kings resorted to it at intervals ; but Edward made it a part of his system for raising a revenue from the towns and boroughs on the royal demesne, which by their charters had secured a ridiculously small firma burgi levy in commutation of the sums formerly paid to their lords. Henceforth, whenever the king made a request through Parliament for a special grant from feudal tenants, special fiscal officers were sent to the above-mentioned towns to levy a tax of one fifteenth of their movables. (6) Since these various sources of income were insufficient to meet the expenses of Edward's many enterprises, he tried to raise large sums by levying direct taxes upon the 190. Taxa.- • i i tion of the clergy, and thus brought on a new struggle with the clergy church. So far from refusing to share the burdens of the state, the clergy had on several occasions previous to 1294 contributed a tenth of their annual income toward Edward's expenses. In that year the necessities of his war with France led him not only to demand a half of their annual income, but also to demand as a right what had before been granted as a free gift. He actually frightened the clergy into paying this exorbitant tax, which yielded him £105,000; but soon the threat of a new war with France led to new demands, and the clergy refused to make a grant (1296), on the groinul that in a recent bull {Clericis Laicos) Pope P.oniface VIII. had for- bidden the clergy to pay any tax upon demand of the secular authority, under penalty of excommunication. Instead of entering upon a contest witli the Pope after the FllJSr STKl'S IN rAlUJAMKMAKV (ii »V1;1{NMI:n T 170 manner of Homy II. or of Jolui, Edward simply announced that if the clergy would not contribute like other citizens toward the support of the state, they shoidd receive none of that i»rotectiou which the state offered to other citizens. If this were withdrawn, the clergy, although liable to suits insti- tuted by laymen, would be unable to bring suit against jtheir vassals for their i)roperty or for rents ; and they would have no redress against acts of highway robbery or depredations of any sort. When Edwai'd further threatened to confiscate all their property, the clergy were compelled to yield the tax, Edward's victory over the church would have been complete hatl he not at the critical moment offended the barons by demanding that they should take a force into Gascony jg^ pariia- to attack France from the south, while he himself led ment s control another into Flanders for a similar attack from the north, over special The barons refused to leave England, on the ground that, taxation although by their oath they were bound to attend Edward in the field, they were not bound to take the Held without him. Aided by the disaffected clergy, and by the merchants, who hoped to secure the repeal of the duties on commerce, they compelled the king to make a most far-reaching concession: he permitted the Prince of Wales (after his own departure for France) to issue tlie so-called Confinnatio Cartancm, or con- firmation of former charters. It was based ui)on Magna C'harta, but it contained seven additional clauses, the most important of which nuide illegal any tax without the consent of Parlia- ment, "saving the ancient aids and prises due and accustomed.'* This clause gave tf) tlie national legislature that control over the jiublic pnrsf which later served to make it the supreme authority in the realm. It marks the climax in a long proc- ess of parliamentary development, and ofTfis an (HM-asiou for reviewing its ri.se and growth. The student will rememlior that in the Angli>-Saxon stale two diverse elements were combined — tli»' democratic in tlie 180 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM national, shire, and town moots, and the aristocratic in the Witan. This double system lasted after the Norman conquest; 192. Class but very soon the weaker portions of the aristocratic body distinctions |^^^^ ^^^ j^-^^ hands with the democracy, the meetings of in Parlia- ment the Magnum Concilium gradually became limited to the larger landowners (§ 100), and these greater barons, or "mag- nates," by custom acquired the right to be notified of a con- templated meeting of the council b}^ a personal writ, while the The Old Housks of Parliament at Westminster. (Burned in 1834.) lesser tenants in chief were summoned by the sheriffs in gen- eral writs for the whole shire. This distinction was expressed by Magna Charta, which declared that archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons should receive individual summonses. All those distinguished enough to receive this w^rit came to form an aristocratic class, the so-called " peers of the realm," while the lesser barons were brought down among the knights and freeholders and members of town corpora- tions, with whom they constituted a new ])olitical body, the "commons" of England; but not till centuries later did the commons include the masses of the people. Before the reign of John, the commons had practically no share in the national government, although its members were FIRST STKl'S IN I'AULl AM KMAKV (ioVKlJ.NMKNT ISl all-powerful in the shire, where the knights ami ireelioklers con- trolled the shire moots, served on juries, took part in the elec- tion of sheritt's, assessors, and collectors, voted on matters ^93 ^ of police, finance, and administration, and took action on resentation the royal orders published by the sheriffs. The turbulent ° monsTn events of John's reign placed in their hands a power Parliament over the national government which they never relincpushed. In iL'li^ each town was asked to send to the assembly at St. Albans its reeve and four men to assess the damages suffered by the clergy (§§ 167, 168), and in the same year each shire was required to elect at the shire moot four representatives to attend the Great Council at Oxford. These meetings, and De Montfort's Parliament of 1265 (§ 178), served as precedents for Edward 1. when he summoned his Model Parliament in 1295. To this, as to every subsequent Parliament, were sum- moned, by special writs, the peers of the realm (now called lords temporal) and the archbishops and bishops (now called lords spiritual) ; ami by general writs issued to the sheriffs of the several counties, were also summoned two knights from each county, and two citizens or buigesses from each of the important cities and boroughs. Besides these two great classes, representatives of the chapters of cathedrals and of the ])arochial clergy were summoned by writs addressed to the several bishops. A rejiresentative Parliament was the natural body to solve the king's money difficulties. William I., as we have seen, lived '"of his own"; but, as the state grew larger, his 194 Parha- suocessors had to siiend more and more on the iJublic ment and ' ' the money service, and to call upon their vassals nmrc and more power freq\icntly for money aids. At first they made their de- mands on the barons at a session of the (Jreat. Cduiicil, (tn the counties through the sheritYs at the county moots, and on the boroughs through agents sent to treat with the corporation officers; but it was much easier and (|uick»"r *■• >;>immon 182 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM representatives from the counties and boroughs to gather at the same time and place as the Great Council. The fact that the sums voted, although often required for public uses, were apparently gifts to the king, led to two results. (1) It enabled the nation to bargain with the monarch, demanding good government in return for money, and securing tangible guarantees of their right to good govern- ment in the form of charters signed and sealed ; and, al- though these were often violated, yet whenever grave tyranny provoked a revolt, they could be quoted by the rebels as a defense against the charge of treason. (2) Until Parliament gained the right of making laws, in addition to its duty of voting supplies, representation therein was not wholly a desirable privilege, especially as the towns had to pay their representatives for their trouble ; often during the fourteenth century constituencies petitioned to be excused from sending representatives, or even neglected to obey the royal writ. One feature of this period was the recognition of the princi- ple of hereditary succession. All the Anglo-Saxon kings based 195. He- their claims to the throne on royal blood and election by reditary ^|^p AVitan ; all the Norman kings based theirs 'on royal succession to the blood and the consent of the baronage, clergy, or people. throne Neither AVilliam II., nor Henry I., nor Stephen, nor John, could claim the throne as nearest heir to his predecessor ; but from the reign of Edward I., the monarch s were regularly proclaimed king as by hereditary right, with no mention of the consent of the barons, and the reign of each was held to begin from the moment of his predecessor's death. England employed the period from 1272 to 1307 in building up a definite constitutional structure. Under Edward "the 196. Sum- Lawgiver," England acquired a body of roughly codified nia^ry laws ; improved her machinery for executing these laws ; secured specific reforms in the matter of land transfers FIRST STKl'S IN rAUI.lA.MKMAUV (;()VKUNMKNT 1S3 ;uul of subiiitfudation ; forced tin- climTli to suhmit to taxa- tion in (•(iinnioii witli all other hmdholtlcrs ; after a loii;^ series of experiments, found a j)raeticable basis for a representative Parliament in a body wliieli combined democratic with aristo- cratic elements, yet limited representation to those who had most at stake in the government ; and thus provided a means of restraining the monarch in all questions, such as wars, involv- ing the expenditure of large sums. Her noble classes became separated into peers (or hereditary legislators) and gentry (a hereditary middle-class aristocracy, destined to be conservers of liberty and orderly government). Lastly, she reduced the num- ber of her dangerous neighbors by annexing \Vales, but offset this by making Scotland for a long time hostile to herself and friendly to France. TOPICS (1) How did it liappen that the lords of the marches continually Suggestive eiicroachetl on Welsh territory ? (2) Was Edward's treatment of '•"P'*^^ Wales wise or unwise, and why ? (3) What inherent weakuess in the feudal theory does the vassalage of the Scottish to the English kings suggest? (4) Why did Edward wish to hold the Welsh and Scottish castles during his war with France? (5) What ancient bond was there between the natives of France and those of Scot- land? (»■>) Discuss the justice of Eiiwanl's cause at different stages in his quarrel with Scotland. (7) What was meant by the state- nu-nt that land owned by the clmrch was held in "mortmain" (a dead hand) ? (8) Point out the mistake in the medieval theory of the effect of foreign commerce. (0) Describe the application of the representative principle in the shire moots. (10) Show tliiit a county court, or shire moot, was a miniature Parliament. (1!) Contrast the concession about tioxation in the Confirmatio Ciirianini with that in Magna Ciiarta. (I'J) The atatns. income, and functions of a modern Prince of Search Wales. (i:i) The Coronation Stone and \U lecendary liistory. ^°P'c« (14) Wa.s William Wallace a patriot, or a disturber of the peace? (15) Tlie various privilegis and immunities included in "bene- fit of clergy." (16) The organization and functions of Convo- cation during this iH>riod. (17) What is a court of equity? (18) Why would not the barons leave FIngland ? (lU) A session of Parliament in Edward I.'s reign. 184 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM REFERENCES Geography Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works See maps, pp. 142, 170 ; Gardiner, Srhuol Atlas, map 1.3 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xviii. xix. xxv. xxvi. Iv. ; Mackinder, Britain and the British Isles, 211, 221; Hughes, Geograph;/ in British History, eh. vili. ; Reich, JVeio Students^ Atlas, map 12. Bright, Historij of England, I. 171-196 ; Gardiner, Studenfs History, 208-224 ; Ransome, Advanced History, 205-227 ; Green, Short History, 161-193, — History of the English People, bk. iii. ch. iv. ; Stubbs, Early Plantagenets, chs. x. xi., — Select Charters, 35-51, — Constit2itional History, II. ch. xv. ; Powell and Tout, bk. iv. ch. i. ; Montague, Elements of Constitutional History, 63-81 ; Brewer, StiidenVs Hume, ch. ix. ; Lingard, History of England, II. ch. iv. ; Traill, Social England, 1.396-403; Edwards, Wales, chs. viii.-xi. ; Lawless, Ireland, xv. ; Lang, History of Scotland, I. 162-211 ; Jenks, Edioard Plantagenet, chs. vii.-xiii. ; Tout, Edward I. ; Maxwell, Robert the Bruce ; Morris, Welsh Wars of Edward I. ; Wakeman and Hassall, Essays Introdiictory to English Constitutional History, no. iv. ; Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional History, ch. viii. ; Pollock and Maitland, History of English Laic, 1. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 37-50 ; Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 34, 35 ; Kendall, Source-Book, no. 28; Henderson, Select Documents, 148-151, 432-437; Hill, Liberty Documents, chs. iii. iv. ; Cheyney, English Constitutional Documents (University of Pennsylvania Reprints, I. no. 6) ; Gee and Hardy, Dociiments of Church History, nos. xx-\yii.-xxxiii. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 242- 243, — Historical Sources, 155-157. Bates and Coman, English Histoi-y told by English Poets, 94-97 ; Gray, The Bard (a poem) ; Henty, In Freedom^s Cause ; Palgrave, The Merchant and the Friar ; Porter, Scottish Chiefs ; Scott, Castle Dangerous, CHAPTKK Xlll. MISUOVEKNMENT UNDKK TllK l.Al'EU ri.ANlAGENETS (1307-130y) Edward II. was a young man of weak cliaracter, who de- voted liis time chiefly to huntiug, feasting, and tournaments, and was not fond of real warfare. "While not really 197 Mis- vicious, he was negligent of duty, indolent, foolish, and m°enTof obstinate. Instead of following up the Scottish war Edward II vigorously on the death of his father, in 1307, he gave his attention first to arranging elaborate funeral and coronation ceremonies, and then to placing liis iniworthy favorites in jtositions of trust and gain. His favor was chiefly bestowed on an ambitious and avaricious foreigner. Piers Gaveston, whose arrogance and misgovernment soon roused the barons to resistance. When Edward unpatriotically ai)pealed for aid to the Pope and to the king of France, the barons were still more angry. In l.'UO a body of twenty-one barons, called the Lords Ordainers, was chosen, whose duty it was to formulate ordinances for the reform of grave abuses in tlie government. Edward first accepted and then annulled these ordinances, and a struggle followed, in which Gaveston was captured and executed without pretense of legality, by the leaders of the baronial party. The barons remained dictators of the king's policy for some years. During these absorbing events, Bruce was making such headway in Scotland that Stirling was the only stronghold left in the hands of tlu* English, Edward, at last roused jgg Loss to action, invaded Scotland in the year 1314 with an o^ Scotland army nund)ering 100,000 men. Bruce prepared to dispute his 186 186 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM Stirling Castle. advance by taking up a position on a hillock which com- manded the roads to Stirling from the south, with the right flank of his army protected by a little brook called Bannock- burn, and the front protected by a marsh and by a series of shallow pitfalls each containing a pointed stake. Edward attacked this strong position on June 24, 1314. At the crisis of the contest, a flank attack by Bruce's cavalry carried con- fusion into the English ranks, and Edward, mis- taking a crowd of Bruce's camp followers for a body of Scottish reenf orce- ments, ordered a retreat. At this moment Bruce attacked with his main army, the English archers and cavalry were both driven in hopeless rout, and Edward, barely escap- Battle of Bannockburn. ing capture, fled, attended THE LATKIJ I'LANrAlJKNKTS 187 by ;i few hundird moii. l-Or sc vtMi years UnicL' iu'li'annockburn left his cousin the Earl of Lancaster, now leader of the baronial i)arty and commander in chief of the army, virtually ruler of Eng- jgg ^g. land. Edward, meanwhile, gave his attention to a new bellions against Ed- favorite. Hugh Despenscr; and his lavish gifts to the ward II. relatives of this favorite (two of whom received sixty- (1321-1326) three English manors) led to a fresh revolt headed by Lancaster and certain other lords of the Welsh Marches. At the battle of Horoughbridge (1822) the rebels were defeated, and Lan- caster and thirty of his associates were afterward executed ; but one of the leaders, Roger Mortimer, escajjcd from prison and took refuge in France. For a time Edward was free to conduct the government as he pleased; but soon his <|ueen, Isabella of France, while ab- sent in I'aris, fell under the inflnencc of ^Mortimer and was per- suaded to aid him in overthrowing Edward, in .September, I'A'Ji'i, Isabella and Mortimer landed in 8urt'olk, where they were joined by the king's brothers, his cousin (the new Earl of Lancaster), the Archbisho[( of Canterbury, and indeed all the leading men of the nation. Edward fled into Wales, hoping to liiid a refnge in Ireland, but was captured and imprisom-d. At a Parliament called in January, 1827, the Bishop of Hereford presented charges, alleging (1) that the king was too indolent or incompetent to judge between right and 200 Depo- wrong, (2) that he had listened to evil counsel, (8) that sition of '^ Edward II. he had lost Scotland through his own fault, (4) that iJan 7. he had injnred the chnreh, and (5) tlmt he had broken 1327; his coronatiiiii oath to '-do justice to all." The wretched king 188 . CULMINATION OF FEUDALILM admitted the truth of these charges and abdicated his throne ; whereupon Parliament renounced all allegiance to him and declared his son Edward to be king of England. The reign of Edward III. extended over exactly lift}' years. At his accession in 1327 he was but fourteen years old, and 201 P ■ d therefore the government was for a short time in the of Regency hands of a Council of Regency. This was of course ( 1327-1330) ' dominated by the queen and Mortimer, but the latter, who was created Earl of March, rapidly made himself hated by his haughty bearing and by his violence toward those who remained faithful to Edward II. The deposed king was soon inurdered, probably by Mortimer's orders. In 1330 Edward III., now married and a father, determined to take the government into his own hands. With the support of the Earl of Lancaster, he suddenly caused the arrest of Mortimer ; brought him to trial on the charge of overawing Parliament by force, of usurping royal castles and lands, and of embezzling public moneys ; and caused him to be hanged, drawn, and quartered at Tyburn. At the same time, he caused the unworthy Isabella to go into permanent retire- ment in one of the royal castles. » While England was still suffering from the misgovernment of Isabella and Mortimer, the Scots broke the truce of 1323, 202. Re- crossed the border, and forced the regents to recognize Scott" h Bruce as independent sovereign of Scotland in 1328. wars (1328) Within a year Bruce died, leaving as heir a son David, five years old ; but John Baliol's son Edward seized the throne (1332) and was supported by Edward III. The Scots took up the cause of David Bruce, but were totally defeated at Halidon Hill in 1333. Young Bruce sought a refuge in France, and Baliol, as king of Scotland, ceded to Edward III. all the terri- tory south of the Forth, and did homage for the rest. During more than twenty years Baliol held his throne only when he was supported by an English army in Scotland, and in TIIK LATER I'l-AN lAliENETS 189 LSA; (the y»Mr iifttM- lialiol's death) PMwaid laid the luuiKhi- tions of a thirty years" peace with Scotland l)y ackiiowh'dging David Hnue as kiuj;, in letnrn tor the payment of 100,000 marks and the cession of the town of Herwick on Tweed. Fonr years after Halidon Hill there broke ont a great war between France and England which, continuing with short intervals from 1387 to 1453, is popularly known as the 203 Causes Hundred Years' War. It was i)rovoked by Philip VI. of of the Hun- France (p. 221), who coveted Edward's French province ^ar aa"-^- of Guienne, and, while plotting to gain possession of it, 1*^3) sought to weaken his rival by jtromoting the Scottish struggle for independence, abetting the jjiracies of Frenchmen upon the English merchant vessels in the Channel, and destroy- ing England's wool trade with his vassals, the Flemings. rr.u r, ^^ . ,. Student's ine war, says Gardnier, " was in reality waged to History, discover by an appeal to arms whether the whole of ''^'^ Aquitaine was to be incorporated with France and whether Scotland was to be incorporated with England." Unfortunately for England's future peace, Edward, in order to gain the alliance of Flanders, put forward a claim to the crown of France. His argument in support of this claim may be paraphra.sed as follows: "When King Charles IV. KIXUS OF FKANTK PHILIP IV. LOUIS X. PHILIP V. CHARLES IV. 1314-1310 131.,1T.-J I .-.-. 1 «, Jranne Jt-aiiiK' Murgu ret m« PHJLIP III. 1^^ul»'lla = E0WAR0 II. Cliarlea PHILIP VI. }HN Cburles Philip Louis Piilllp Rki.\tiov ok Enw\Ki> III to tuk Fkkv Then, scorning to retreat on his own soil, he prepared to 192 CULMINATION UF FEUDALISM Battle of Crecy. Success went to fight the vastly larger army of Philip. The English were po'sted on the slope of a hill in three masses, each consist- ing of men at arms and archers, the latter arranged like the pieces on a checkerboard so that each man had free play for his weapon. The French advanced in successive lines, the first containing 15,000 mer- cenary crossbowiuen from Genoa, in Italy, and the others composed almost wholly of mounted knights in heavy armor, the more intelligent combatants : the mounted knights were unwieldy, and too thickly massed, the English were light-armed, and in open order ; the Genoese had allowed their bowstrings to be wetted by recent rains, while the English kept theirs dry under their coats; the French commanders lost their heads; the English were cool and self- contained. "When the Genoese . . . approached the Froissart's . n • i Chronicles, English, they set up a loud shout in order to frighten bk. I. ch. 55. ^j-^gjjj . |3^^^ ^j-^gy remained quite still, and did not seem to attend to it. They then set up a second shout, and ad- vanced a little forward ; but the English never moved. They hooted a third time, advancing with their crossbows presented, and began to shoot. The English archers then advanced one step forward, and shot their arrows with such force and quick- ness that it seemed as if it snowed." As corps after corps of the French rode up, they were hurled against the English with less and less hope of success. At nightfall the French with- drew, leaving thousands of dead upon the field, including 1552 counts, barons, and knights, or half of the entire nobility of France. The battle of Crecy is historically significant because it 207. The showed that the armor-encased mounted knight, fighting fruits of . T • 1 J. Crecy with striking and thrusting weapons, was destinea to THE LATER PLANTAlJENKTS 193 give way to the more mobile foot soldier, armed with mis- sile weapons. In spite of its brilliancy, the victory was on the whole disastrons to the Kntjlish, for its snccess tempted them to further aggressions, while it brought the war no nearer to a close. Its immediate result was that Edward was able to move northward and lay siege to Calais, the possession of which he coveted as an open door into France, and as a means of checking the French pirates of the Channel. Philip induced David Bruce to invade England in order to draw Edward's forces back from the Continent, but at the battle of Nevilles Cross (1346) the Scots were re- pulsed and ]iruce was cap- tured. Calais was taken within a year, and was immediately populated with thousands of emigrants, chiefly English merchants and mariners ; while such of its citizens as remained loyal to France were t'xi)elled. After a lull in hostilities, during which the Black Death (§ 227 j crippled the fighting power of England, the war was renewed in l.Sof), when Edward's son, the " Black Prince," 208 Second sought to win glory and wealth by invading southern *^^^ °^ **** France. Marching through Languedoc and Toulouse, he (1355 1360. penetrated clear to the Mediterranean Sea, but won no per- manent advantage. The next year he marched northward toward the Loire, and the experience dI Cn^y was repeated Three Stages in the Evoi.i i lu.v ok Mkdia:val Wkapoxs. Crosstlow, longbow, bombard with stone biills. From a MS. Le C/ironi'/ue tie Saint Denis, fourteenth oenturj'. 194 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM at Poitiers on September 19, 1356. Fourteen Frencli counts and nineteen hundred French knights were slain in this battle ; more important still, the king of France and his youngest son were taken prisoners. For the next four years the French suffered greatly from the ravages of the English forces, which ranged throughout the land at will, while the French, shutting themselves up within walled towns, made no resistance to their progress. Since Bruce was acknowledged by Edward as king of Scot- land in 1357, one chief ground for the war was already removed. „ France had suffered untold miseries, and was so poor as 209. Peace ' . ^ of Bretigny to furnish no plunder. "Nothing presented itself to . . (1360) [the] eyes but a fearful solitude, an extreme poverty, ^t''dtrv'' ^^^^ uncultivated, houses in ruins." Finally peace was History, signed at Bretigny, in May, 1360. Edward abandoned his claim to the throne of France, and in return received free from vassalage the sovereignty of all Aquitaine, and of the districts around Calais and Ponthieu ; for his personal ransom the king of France was to pay within six years the enormous sum of 3,000,000 pieces of gold, equivalent in purchasii^g power to at least $40,000,000 now. By this apparently dazzling suc- cess, Edward really gained no advantage; for the ceded dis- tricts contained only some millions of disloyal subjects, the ransom was never paid, and in Charles V., the successor of the imprisoned king, Edward acquired a crafty and unscrupulous enemy. The war was renewed after a few years, and when the next truce was made (1375), the English had lost all their territory in France except a few coast cities. During the last years of Edward III.'s reign England was sadly misgoverned. Edward was ill and in his dotage, the 210. Close Black Prince was dying of fever, and the government of the reign ^vas of necessity left to John of Gaunt, now Duke of Lancaster, and to certain favorites of the king. John, who was not fit for so important a task, became very unpopular: TlIK LATKK I'LAN'PACiENETS 195 and in lo76 the so-called Good rurlianient endeavored to remedy matters by banishing obnoxious favorites of the king and by impeaching certain officers of the government who had embezzled public money and accepted bribes. Ten ])t'rsons were nominated by the Parliament as an advisor}- council, not so much to gain immediate reform as to secure the suc- cession on Edward's eleath to the little Prince Kichard (sou of the Black Princej, in whom the hopes of the nation were centered. Richard II. became king in 1377 at eleven years of age, and the years of his minority were made turbulent by the struggle between his father's friends and those of John of Gaunt, 211. Early a struggle in which the clergy under Wyelif (§ 222) years of 1 mi T^ 1 • 1 1 • Richard bore a prominent part. The French seized this op- n s reign portunity to renew the Hundred Years' War, and the (1377 1396 enormous expenditure of money thus entailed led to a rebel- lion of the lower classes in England, under the leadership of Wat Tyler, in 1381 (§ 230). In 1385 Kichard undertook the government, but he unwisely chose fur his advisers the Earl of Suffolk, who was grasping, and the Earl of Oxford, who was frivolous. Their misgovernment led to a conspiracy of five great barons, later called Lords Appellant, — the Duke of Gloucester and the earls of Arundel, Warwick, Nottingham, and Derby (son of John of (Jaunt), — who put so much pres- sure upon the king that he ruled acceptal)ly for several years. In 1396 Richard freed his hands for a struggle at home by securing a twenty-eight years' truce with France. He then broke the strength of the opi)osition by winning over 212 Tyr- Derby and Nottingham, ami entered upon a course of ^ ph^'t.H^i tyranny. He secured his personal safety by keeping a (1396 1399> bodyguard; revenged himself upon the othcM* three obnoxious Lords Appellant by imprisoning one, executing another, and banishing tlir third; and induced a sub.servient I'arliament to vote him a large annual tax for life, and to resign its jtower 196 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM into the hands of a committee of the king's friends. To obtain additional sums of money he levied forced loans and still worse extortions ; and finally, with insane folly, he banished Nottingham and Derby, whom he had not long before made dukes of Norfolk and of Hereford respectively. The death of John of Gaunt, in 1399, left his son, Henry of Lancaster (Earl of Devby and Duke of Hereford), heir to the possessions of the duchy of Lancaster. Richard Lancas- now confiscated the Lancastrian estates, thus giving his trian revolt j,jyj^j Henry an excuse for invading England to assert his rights. Fortunately for Henry, serious rebellions broke out in Ireland, which required Richard's presence there. Henry Alnwick Castle. Built at the time of the Norman conquest as a barrier to the Scots. Home of the Percys, 130&-1682. promptly crossed to England and rallied to his support all the followers of his father, together with the Percys of Northumberland and other barons in the north of England who were hostile to Richard. By proclaiming everywhere that he came merely to redress the wrongs of the nation, he even won the sup])ort of the Duke of York, regent in Richard's absence. The king returned to find himself helpless in the hands of the man he had wronged, and was easily frightened into signing a paper absolving his subjects from fealty, Tin; LA IKK I'LANTAGENETS 107 luiiiiacre, and allegiance, and declaring himself worthy to be deposed. The I'arliament which met on the next day (September 1^0, I'.VM) declared that llichard had forfeited his crown through violation of his coronation oath and misgovernment, antl „, . „ ' 214. Depo- set forth thirty-three distinct reasons why he shoukl be sition of deposed. The must notable were Richard's own asser- tions that '"the laws were in his own mouth . . . and that he alone could change and frame the laws of the kingdom " ; and that " the life of every liegeman, tenements, goods, and chattels, lay at his royal will without sentence of forfeiture." Richard having been formally deposed by vote of the Parlia- ment, Henry of Lancaster claimed the crown of England, as being " descended by right line of the blood " from Henry III., and as the preserver of the realm which was "in point to be undone for default of governance and undoing of the good laws."' Parliament acquiesced in this claim, and the new king was immediately crowned as Ilciirv IV. by the archliishops of Canterbury and York, binding himself by oath to ''act by common advice, counsel and consent,'' and to " do right by all people." During the fourteenth century. Parliament steadily gained in importance. (1) Edward IL, in 1.322, ratified a declaration of Parlianjent that "matters to be established for the 215 Par- estate of our lord the king and of his heirs, and for the liame°tary " ' progress estate of the realm and of the peui)le, shall be treated, (1300-1400 accorded, and established in Parliament by our lord the king, and by consent of the prelates, earls, ami l)ai(Uis. luiil coni- monalty of the realm, as hath been hitherto accustomed." Tliis action made it illegal to enact statutes without the con- sent of the commons. (2) Hetween l."!.S2 and l.'ill arose the custom of dividiut,' I'arliament into two houses, with the lords and prelates sitting in one house and the knights, citizens, and burges.ses in the other; and after l.'ill Parliament remained 198 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM permanently a legislature of two houses. (3) During the next half century, the lower clergy, who preferred to act through Convocation, gradually ceased to obey the summons to Par- liament, so that the bishops and archbishops and some mitred abbots ^ remained the only representatives of the clergy in Par- liament after 1400. (4) The Good Parliament in 1376 estab- lished the right to impeach unsuitable ministers of the crown. (5) By the Statute of Provisors (1351) Parliament rescued the benefices of the English Church from the control of foreigners ; and by the Statute of Praemunire (1353) it limited appeals to foreign courts, and excluded from England the legates of the Pope except when authorized by the monarch to exercise their functions there. (6) Finally, in deposing Richard II., Parlia- ment showed that there was an authority above even that of the monarch — namely, that of the sovereign people. During this century, too, advances were made in tlie methods of taxation. The monarchs had long had a right to levy 216. Finan- "tallages" (special taxes upon towns in the royal ciai prog- demesne) : but as money was now provided by Par- ress ^ ' •' ^ "^ (1300-1400) liament, the right was given up in 1340. With the growth of the wool trade the monarch was forced to give up the practice of levying duties on wool (1362) ; but he gained the right to levy other customs duties. After 1373, Parliament regularly granted to every monarch in turn the right to levy "tannage and poundage" duties on every tun of wine and pound of goods imported or exported, the theory being that this money would be spent on the defense of the realm. Another new source of revenue was the poll tax on all citizens, but this seemed so unjust that it was very unpopular. 1 " Mitred " abbots were a class which during the rivalry between the monastic and secular clergy had assumed the right to wear mitres, as being on an equal rank with bishops, and for the same reason claimed to be peers of the realm. riiK i.AiKK i'i..\M.\(;i:NKrs 199 The period frf)m l.'^O" to \'AW saw the failure of Kilwanl I.'s scheme of a unified Britain, Ix^causeof mismanaf^eineiit in 217 Sum the Scottisli wars; hut the lesson tau£?htat Hannockhuni — mary that skilled aiehers eould put to rout the hitherto invincible mounted knii,'ht — was put to effective use in the long struggle with France that began in 1337. Profitless as were Crecy and I'oitiers, they proved how superior was the free-spirited English yeoman to the arrogant aristocracy and the servile peasantry of France. At home, two unworthy monarchs were deposed on the authority of Parlia- ment, which was now roughly representative of the nation, and fixed in form. The po|)u- lar branch of Parliament, however, had not yet learned its strength, but still relied upon the leadership and support of the magnates of the upper house. At the same time, cer- tain economic, social, and religious changes (desciibed in the next chapter) were rais- L()n<:h<>wma.\. ing the masses of the people to a higher iniu- of Ht-nry V. level, and thus making possible a real democracy in England. TOPICS (1) Compare the various attempts tlius far made by the barons Su^^estive to control the iiionarch tliroiigli a coiiuiiittee uf their number. *°P'" (2) Compare Edwanl II. '.s ^'ifLs of manors to his favorites witli those (if William I. (3) ClaRsify the accusation.s against the '>? (M) Who would have succeeded Kiohard II., 200 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM Search topics had not the Lancastrian revohition succeeded ? (9) Wcie Richard's statements quoted in § 214 proofs of radical and irrenuidiable evils in his govermnent ? (10) From what sources did Richard derive his absolutist sentiments? (11) Compare the offenses, and the treatment, of Edward II. and Richard II. (12) A detailed study of Edward's claim to the throne of France. (18) The battle of Sluys, as illustrating naval tactics now obso- lete. (1-1) The share of the Black Prince in the battle of Cr^cy. (15) Cannon at Cr6cy. (16) The experiences of a knight at Poitiers. (17) A session of Parliament. (18) A Scottish army. (19) British archers. (20) Later instances of the de]iosition of English sovereigns. (21 ) Captivity of the king of France. (22) Cap- tivity of David Bruce. (23) Ireland from 1200 to 1400. Geography Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works REFERENCES See maps, pp. 142, 170, 190 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 14, 15; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxv. xxvi. Ivi. ; Reich, JVew Students'' Atlas, maps 12, 13, 14. Bright, History of England, I. 198-254 ; Gardiner, StHdent''s History, 224-240, 251-260, 278-288 ; Ransome, Advanced History, 228-294 ; Green, Short History, 207-235, 260-264, — History of the English People, bk. iv. chs. i. ii. iv. ; Stubbs, Early Plantagenets, ch. xii. ; Powell and Tout, History of England, bk. iv. chs. ii.-iv. ; Brewer, Studenfs Hume, chs. ix. x. ; Lingard, History of England, II. chs. v.-vii., III. ch. i. ; Longman, Life and Times of Edtcard III. ; Warburton, Edward III. ; Creighton, The Black Prince ; Pearson, English History in the Fourteenth Century, chs. iii.-xii. ; Edwards, Wales, chs. xii.-xiv. ; Lawless, Ireland, chs. xvi. xvii. ; Lang, History of Scotland, I. 214-284 ; Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages, ch. vi. ; Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional History, ch. viii. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 51-08, 71-88 ; Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 38, 39 ; Kendall, Source- Book, nos. 29-31 ; Henderson, Select Documents, 15V-16S ; A.shley, Edward III. and his Wars ; Frazer, English History from Original Sources, pt. i., pt. ii. nos. 1-31, 85-114; Smith, The Troublous Days of liichard II. ; Gee and Hardy, Documents of Church His- tory, xxxiv.-xli. See New England Histoiy Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 243, — Historical Sources, 158. Bates and Coman, English History told by English Poets, 98- 156 ; Henty, St. George for England ; Marlowe, Edward II. (a drama) ; Shakespeare, King Eichard II. ; bTonge, Lances of Lymmod. CHAPTER XIV. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC TKUGUKSS (12.')0-14(:K)) The period liom 1250 to 1400 was marked by a notable advance in intelligence throughout England, which showed itself ill an increasing demand for education among the 21 8. well-to-do, in revolts of the lower classes against their Growth of conditions, and in a sjjirit of inquiry in religion. This ties awakening led to a lapid growtli of the universities. He- MKRTON roM.KGK. THE F'lRST OK lliK OXl ''KL> I OILMilS. FoumlctJ by Walter dc Mertoii, 1204. tween TJCO and 1275, Walter de :M.'rton and Jolni Baliol (father of King John Baliol) founded the earliest "colleges" at O.Kfonl. each with its scjiarate buildings, sejiarate board of government, and rich enilowments, from whifh wert^ supported a teaching staff, "fellows" fposfc-graduate students), and " .scholars." a picked bwly of undergraduates. The new system of colleges rapidly displaced thf older haphazard system; and 201 202 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM by the year 1400 Oxford embraced nine and Cambridge six colleges, each group being organized into a university. The course of study in these institutions naturally expressed the needs and ideals of churchmen, either as priests or as civil 319. Mediae- administrators. Separate institutions were organized val studies for the study of arts, of law, and of theology. In the last two the study was distinctly technical ; in the hrst there was the quadrivium,, an introductory course in geometry, arithmetic, music, and astronomy ; and the triviimi, an ad- vanced course in grammar, logic, and rhetoric. It should be remembered that the term " grammar " means Latin grammar (Greek being at this time practically unknown in England) ; that the term " geometry " then meant little more than the ele- ments of geographical mensuration ; that in arithmetic the study of compound proportion and the decimal system of nota- tion were not in common use ; and that the entire astronomical theory of the time was based on a fundamental error, the assumption that the earth is the stationary center of the planets, sun, and all stars. Here and there a student of unusual independence, ventured beyond the narrow bounds then set, and won immediate perse- 220. Friar cution but future renown by investigating the mysteries Soger ^£ natural science. Such a man was Roger Bacon (1214- Bacon '^ ^ (1214-1294) 1294), a Franciscan friar, who in his zeal for knowledge mastered not only the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, but also the Arabic ; who studied not only the mental and physical philosophy and scientific explorations of Aristotle, but also the scientific discoveries of Oriental investigators. He invented and applied magnifying lenses, discovered anew the properties of gunpowder (already known to the Chinese), and made great advances in mathematics and its application to astronomy. But the spirit of the age was against him, and he lived, as he himself said, "unheard, forgotten, buried." By the middle of the fourteenth century the friars, like the SOflAL AM) ECONOMir 1'K0GRP:SS O250-14U0) lOli monks, liatl in a larsje degree lost their purity *>f cliaracter and l)econie corrnpted tlirongh the temptations peculiar to their conditions — their roving life and their power of l)hiy- 221 Reac- iui,' upon tlie superstition of the families to Avliicli their tionagainst ' ^ ^ the fnars religious mission gave them admittance. Yet the ]nil)- (1350-1400 lie conscience })roved trustworthy, even when its professed teachers failed in their duty ; and in such woriv as The Vision of Piers the Ploivman, written by William Langland between 1362 and I'.VXS, we find proof of a growing desire for a purer religion. Tliis poem attacks the friars who aid Pride, Envy, and Sloth to corrupt the church and stifle the individual con- science, ami narrates how Conscience is obliged to reject the guidance of those recreant servants of religion and depend upon itself to find Christ, the Savior (identified with the despised laborer "Piers the Plowman"). At the same time, the church itself was scathingly criti- cised by John Wyclif (1324-1384), Master of Paliol College. Oxford, who thought that irreligion and worldliness 222. Else among the .secular clergy were due to the close connec- °^ '^^ ^°^' tion between church and state. His zeal gave rise to a (1378-1400) new sect, nicknamed the Lollards (psalm-singing loafers). The Lollards demanded that churchmen be no longer employed in the pul)lic service, and they clamored for the reform of church abuses, including (1) "simony," or the purchase of lucrative benefices ; (2) " pluralities," or the holding of several bene- fices by a single clergyman, who enjoyed the revenues but left most of his pastoral cares to cheaply paid assistants ; and (3) " absenteeism," or the holding of a living in one parish while residing in another. Wyclif himself lielieved that the clergy, in accordance with Christ's teachings, ought to remain poor; and he mged that the church be di.sestablished, and all its uts teach- ])roperty confiscated to the uses of the state, lie still "^K" further shocked his superiors by (1) denying the supremacy of 204 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM the Pope over the other bishops of the church and his author- ity "to bind and to loose" by exconunnnication, and (2) denying transubstantiation, the important Roman Catholic dogma that, at the celebration of the mass, the substance com- posing the bread and wine is miraculously changed into the body and blood of Christ. Attacked by the church officials for heresy, he was saved once by the interfer- ence of John of Gaunt, and once by that of King Richard's moth- er ; on a third occa- sion he found himself strong enough to ignore the decree of a church council. The secret of Wyc- lif's influence lay in the fact that by a translation of the en- JoHN Wtclif. tire Bible into English, From an old print. prepared by himself and his pupils, he opened the more important portions of Scripture to the general reader. Equipped with these weap- ons, missionary priests trained by him went all over Eng- land, to tell the people that they were being defrauded by their religious teachers, since they were losing the true Gos- pel teaching necessary for the salvation of their souls, and since the wealth bequeathed to the church for the needs of the poor was wasted. So widespread was the movement that it was said "every other man you meet is a Lollard": so far- reaching was their teaching that twice (in 1404: and in 1410) SOCIAL AND ECONoMK" 1>R0GRESS (12i>M400) 20.*) it was seriously proposed in the lower house of I'arliauient to confiscate the temporalities of the church. Ever since the Norman conquest there had been slowly de- veloping a new tongue, the modern English language. The language of the ruling classes after the conquest was, of 224. Eng- course, Norman French, and to this the natives wen- „,//„„ f°i ' guage and obliged to adapt their own speech. The result was that literature about a third of the Anglo-Saxon words formerly in use were discarded for their French equivalents, and the other two thirds (the homely terms required for everyday use) lost most of their numerous grammatical inflections; for instance, half a dozen different plural eiulings for nouns. Moreover, the language gained many new words referring to Norman manners and customs — to hunting and hawking, to architecture and the other arts, to law and to religion. Poetry, too, changed its form. Under the Anglo-Saxons, alliteration was the essential element in poetic form ; under the Norman.s, rhyme and meter were the essentials, final e being in English, as in French at that time, always pronounced as a separate syllable. There are two or three notable landmarks in the history of the new English language : one when the first royal proclamation was made in English (llTiS); another when instruction iu the schools was first given in English (1349) ; and another when the use of English was authorized in the law courts (Viit'2). Up to this time all the English poems had been "written in dialects of English.'' Now "a standard English language was l)orn. ... It was fixed in clear form by Ciiaucer ami /irooke. Gower. ... It was the King's English, and the fact f^"{/''»'' ° " ' Literature, that it was the tongue of the best and most cultivated ch.H. society, as well as the great excellence of the works written in it by these poets, made it at once the tongue of literature." ^foreover, its existence ]»roved that the |)roc«'Ss of blending con(pierors and conquered, Normans and Anglo-Saxons, into a new English people, was now an accomplished fact. WALKKit'- km;. iii*r. — 13 206 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM For iuforniation regarding the state of Englisli society as it existed in the middle of the fourteentli century, the stu- 225. Chau- dent need only turn to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The cer s pic- tales themselves are drawn very largely from Continental tures of . . society romances, but in their Prologue, which describes a com- pany assembled at the Tabard lun at Southwark, on their way Chaucer's Pilgrims settixg out from the Tabard Inn. From Urry's Chaucer; 1721; probably copied from a print made before the burning of tlie inn in 1()76. to the shrine of Saint Thomas a Becket at Canterbury, Chaucer depicted for posterity every important type among the middle classes in England. In the Knight and his Squier we are shown the temper of the crusader, who ever " lov6d chivalrie, Trouthe and honour, fredom and curtsie," and of the troubadour, who " Coulde songes make, and well endite. Juste and eke dance, and well pourtraie and write. So hole he lov^d, that by nightertale He slep no more than doth the nightingale." In the account of the Merchant and the smuggling Shipmau, we see the system of international exchange, of SOCIAL AM) IX'ONOMIC IMJoiJUKSS (12.')0-140()) L'01 business credit, and of customs duties, and tlie demand for state suppression of piracy; the Sergeant of the Law knows by rote not oidy all the old ''dooms" (judgments) as far back as the Xornian con(picst, but also the latest statute laws of King Edward; the Clerk from Oxenforde and the Doctour of Physike share the new interest in intellectual pursuits, and its accomitanying tendency toward independence in religion; and the several ecclesiastics show the vices which gave ground for public criticism. The sentimentality of the nuns, the laziness and luxury of the monks, the sensuality of the friars, the greediness and trickery of the pardoners, all are set forth with merciless frankness, and are sharply contrasted with the holiness and devotion of the parish priest, who not only taught " Cliristes lore, But first 1r' fuhved it liimselve." All the political divisions are represented in this company. From the towns have come the haberdasher, the carpenter, and the weaver, -wearing the liverv of their trade and craft Laoy travkli\laek Death," which ravaged Europe and reached England in the summer of 1348. At this time the SOCIAL AM) KroNO.MK" TUOGRESS (12o0-l»n(i) i^QO mass of tho population, both in tlie towns and in tin- count ly, lived under very unhealtliful conditions, wliieli in l.'M.S were aj^'gravated by a rainy season. For thirteen wt-ary months England suffered from the scourge, which assumed the form of violent typhus fever, accompanied by eruptions and black blotches on the surface of the skin. The manorial rolls show that hsjlf of the rural population died within a year. Among the victims were a daughter of Edward III., two arch- bishops of Canterbury, and an enormous number of the clergy, whose religious duties took them constantly to the bedsides of the sick. In Yorkshire, half of the parish priests fell victims to duty, and the records of the Franciscan friars show that one hundred and twenty-four thousand of them met the same fate. Business at Bristol was so interrupted that grass grew in the market place; in London a new cemetery thirteen acres in extent had to be pi-ovided to receive the bodies of the fifty thousand people struck down by the disease. The Black Deatli found England with a population of four millions; it left England with but two millions. So vast a mortality among the working classes wholly altered the conditions of agricultural labor in England. On many manors there were few or no villeins left alive, 228. Rapid and the landholders were obi i^red to offer high wages in spread of the wage open market for laborers. This led the laborers on other system manors, where the lords had already commuted the irregulai- rents and services of villeins for money and were employing day labor, to demand increased pay; but their lords, in turn, repudiated their agreement to commute rents and services for money, and required from all former villeins their customary amount of weekly labor at plowing, sowing, harvesting, woodcutting, etc. Where this failed, they, too, were forced to bid for labor. The otTer of high wages tempted villeins to leave their nmnors, thus creating vagabondage and conflicts of authority. 210 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM In 1349 Edward III. decreed that every able-bodied man aud woman of the kingdom, bond or free, under sixty years of age, should accept the same wages as before the Black Death, and forbade any one to give charity to an able-bodied laborer. In 1351 Parliament enacted a Statute of Laborers, which empowered conservators of the peace, now called justices of the peace, to establish a legal rate of wages. This jii-oduced little effect, and in 1360 a statute Avas framed, which provided that a laborer who deserted his manor should be imprisoned and branded in the forehead. Whenever such painful changes occur as a result of irresist- ible economic laws, the less intelligent classes are prone to 229. Dis- lay the blame upon the government. To thirty years' con ent brooding over their wrongs may be attributed the Peas- among the * *^ peasants ants' Revolt of 1381. The villeins were stirred to rebel- lion through comparison of their lot with that of the free tenants; the townspeople resented tolls and market fees which raised the price of provisions, and the heavy taxation due to useless foreign wars. The peasants were especially affected by the teachings of a priest named John Ball, who went about Kent urging the lower classes to organize a communistic state by abolishing class distinctions and the private ownership of land. " Are _ . , we not descended," he cried, "from the same parents, Froissart, ' ' r > Chronicles, Adam and Eve ? and what can they [the upper classes] show, or what reasons give, why they should be more the masters than ourselves? . . . They are clothed in velvets and rich stuffs ornamented with ermine and other furs, while we are forced to wear poor cloth ; they have wines, spices, and fine bread, when we have only rye and the refuse of the straw, and if we drink, it must be water; . . . but it is from our labor they have wherewith to support their pomp!" Thou- sands were made ripe for revolt by such teachings, condensed into the doggerel couplet, SOCIAL AM) KCOM'MK' rUUGKESS (ll'aO-lk»()) 211 " When Adam iklved, and Vive span, Who was tlien the gentleman ? " In 1380 a poll tax was laid upon all persons over fifteen years old, the money to be spent upon the French wars. The next year a brutal tax collector, in Kent, insulted 230 Wat the daughter of an artisan named Wat Tyler, who "^^^ ^,^®" ° •^ ' bellioa promptly struck him dead and rallied to his support all (1381) the discontented men in the neighborhood. Plunder and the murder of tax collectors and other <,'overnment otticers followed in various parts of England; mobs overran Hertfordshire and Essex, destroyed much property in an attempt to burn up the manorial copy rolls, released John Ball from prison, and con- centrated on London, demanding the abolition of villenage, the total withdrawal of certain taxes and the adoption of a reasonable rate for the rest, and free pardon for all concerned in the movement. At this time Richard II. was only fifteen years old, but he had great courage, and shrewdness far beyond his years. Tyler was killed in a scuifie, and the king himself assumed the leadership of the insurgents, pledging his word for the redress of grievances. Thirty clerks were set at work drawing up new charters, and the insurgents dispersed. Then the King's Council again assumed control, and by seiz- ing and executing the leaders individually, stamped out the revolt everywhere. Neither kings, nor Parliament, nor the execution of rebels, nor labor legislation could check the operation of e('(»iu)mi(' laws. The lords of the manors were obliged either to 231 Per- hirt' laliort-rs at tlit-ir own terms or to seek a profit from . J°*f^^ tln'ir estates and stiwk l)y leasing Iwth in small lots to changes the more enterprising of the former villeins. Thus arose the moilern tyi)e of small farmer, paying rent to a landlord and paying wages to his laborers. Villenage now ])raetically dis- api>eared ; for, although the law covered all villeins who broke tiieir contracts, labor was scarce, and " men in prison reap 212 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM no fields." Indeed, in the years succeeding the Black Death not all the laborers in England would have sufficed to till the arable land ; and, in consequence, a further involuntary change was brought about. During the next two centuries wool growing, which I'equired but comparatively little labor, and which constantly became more profitable with the development of manufactures, by degrees replaced agriculture as a source of revenue on the greater manors. Until the middle of the fourteenth century, the entire crop of English-raised wool was shipped to Flanders for manufac- 232. Eise ture, where, in Bruges, Ghent, Lille, and Ypres, forty o manu ac- ^j^Q^g.^j^^j looms were busy converting it into cloth fab- ture and -^ ® commerce rics to be rein) ported into England for sale. Edward III. saw that this was economically wasteful, so he took measures to induce skilled Flemish weavers to immigrate into England; he also restricted the exportation of wool and the importation of woolen cloth, thereby building up the English cloth manu- facturing industry. More important still, he helped to create an English mercantile marine, to destroy the monopoly of trade hitherto enjoyed by the Hanseatic League. This Hansa, founded in 1169 for the defense of vessels in the Baltic and North seas against piracy, later included all the great trading towns of north Germany. So powerful was it that it maintained armies and fleets, made treaties like a sovereign state, and monopolized for a time the trade of northern Europe. It was no small triumph for the English merchants to compete successfully against the Hanse mer- chants, with their great weighing depot called the Steelyard in London, their monopoly of the right to trade with northern Europe, and their vast capital and agencies for exchange. A curious indirect result of the rise of manufactures and 233. commerce in England was a change in the standards of fastens of ^^^^^^o- LaWs passed during this period, especially in re- dress gard to wearing apparel, testify to luxurious tastes and SOCIAL AM) KCONO.MIC I'UOGKKSS (1200-1400) 213 liabits liitlieito unknown. "(,)ne ordiuauce sets out that 'shei>- herils and all manner of people attending to husbandiv are not to wear any maimer of cloth except blanket and russet Finmmore, wool of V2d. a yard ; ' another, 'that the poor come to eat '^'"■"'' ^'-^^ in a manner that pertaineth to them, and not excessively.' j-m, 140 No age was marked by greater splendour and more costly ex- travagance than that of Edward III., when many of these laws were passed, lioth men and women wore a tight-fitting dress called a ' cotte-hardie,' and over this a large mantle buttoned at tlie shoulder. Both of these garments were magnificently embroidered, made of the richest and most expensive materials, and of the gayest hues, scarlet or some equally brilliant colour. The head was cov- ered by a small hood decorated with gold, silver, and jewels. The men wore parti-coloured hose, and their sho«»s had long points curling up- wards, sometimes so long that they were looped to the knee with chains of gold." A further result of the growth of commerce was the rapid develop- ment of a rudimentary intermitional, law. Before the fourteenth century, a noble hail certain rec- ognized rights the world over, but a merchant, outside of tlie limits of his native state, liad no rights: if he died 234 Kise abroad he could leave no valid will for the disposal of of inter ' national his property: if his vessel was wrecked on a foreign law shore, ship and property became the possession of the lord of that coast. Edward III. established certain "stai)le towns," in which foreign commerce was carried on under the suj)er- Men'.s Costdmk, TiMK OF EnW.VKI) III. C'bains at knee to hold up the points of shoes in walking. 214 CULMINATION OF FEUDALISM tt \ \ vision and protection of responsible authorities, and he regu- lated the rights and privileges of foreign merchants. ■ Finding that Englishmen were still at a disadvantage in for- eign trade, he made Calais a staple town; and he chartered a Mercer's Company which was the nucleus of the later Com- pany of Merchant Ad- W P I 53 XK Av XX Staple Marks of Merchants, Fourteenth Century. John Walden. John Prowse. George Slee. venturers (§ 275). Still more important was his at- tempt to protect merchant cargoes in crossing the Channel ; for iu order to do this he was led to put forth a claim to the sovereignty of the " narrow seas " (all the coast waters of Britain) ; and the maintenance of this claim fostered the maritime spirit of the English people, and powerfully influenced their history during three hundred years. In the later Plantagenet period, England underwent an intel- lectual and an industrial revolution. By the former the fa- 235 Sum- vored few were initiated into the larger intellectual life mary which comes through the knowledge of books and asso- ciation with thinkers ; by the latter the masses were freed from the bonds of the personal-service system of labor, emerging into the comparative freedom of the competitive-wage system. The intellectual uplift, whether it foilnd expression in the movement for religious reform or in that for scientific research, had to contend against tradition and settled beliefs. Its cham- pions therefore failed to accomplish their immediate aims; but the influence of Wyclif, imparted to certain students from Bohemia then residing at Oxford, was reflected back to Eng- land in the later labor of disciples of Huss, Luther, and Calvin. The industrial uplift was appai-ently a more immediate success; SOCIAL AND KCt>N<>MIC I'KOGUESS (r>o(i-14|>ii Roger MortlnuT Sir I'°.uc««t«T srCCESSION OK pl.v\ta(;enet, LAN< .VSTKli, AM) VOUK C«rt of Cmmbrldf* I E, EDWARD iV Hl.ruirU Duke of York IV 1, I r f r..4ll,i. 1 1 7. RICHARD 6. EDWARD V RkI.AI liiN OK l)|.:srKNDANTS ity EpWAUli III. years old. As the cn\itnre of Parliament, Henry wa.N obliged to defer to the wishes of the great barons and >ni;K\v.si>riiY likely. Feelini,', j)rol)ul)ly, tliat religious excitements might px'omote agitation for political changes, Heniv made himself the chanipiou of ortho- doxy in religion. With his assent the statute De Uieretico Combitreiulo was passed in 1401, which decreed the burning alive of persons convicted ot heresy for the second time. Under this statute many of tlie Lollards suffered imprisonment and death. Henry IV. suffered from ill health after 1407, and the young Prince Henry was forced to assume most of the burden of adminis- tering the government, until his father's death in the year 1413. Henry V., although he reigned only nine years, has always been a notable figure in English history, i»artly througli his romantic and attractive personality, partly because he was the last English monarch to win renown in the long V 1413- struggle with France. Shakespeare's jucture of him in I422j Henry IV., where he is represented as devoting his youth to riotous anuusements with coarse companions, is wide of the truth. He was trained in administration and the art of war from his very boyhood, having been made Earl of Chester and intrusted with the guardianship of the Welsh lx)rdcr under Hotsjmr's direction when only twelve years of age. He was a strong ruler, self-<'()ntr(>lK'd, industrious, earnest, and religious. Unfortunately, he felt tliat honor bound him to maintain the English claims on Franct- ; and |)erhaps he sought the safety of a usurpin.: nioiiarch by da//ling his subiHcts with military Battlefield. 220 DECADENCE OF FEUDALISM 240. Condi tions in France (1413; glory and employing their surplus energies in foreign expedi- tions. However brilliant his immediate success, Henry's foreign policy was disastrous to England and to his own dynasty. Political dissensions in France at Henry's accession to the throne appeared to invite the interference of an enterprising monarch. The king of France, Charles VI., was insane ; his cousin the Duke of Burgundy and his brother the Duke of Orleans were engaged in a blood feud ; and the youthful Dauphin (heir to the French throne), as regent, was powerless to preserve order. The Duke of Burgundy was Heraldic Device ^-Iso Count of Flanders, a province with which OF Louis, Duke England enioyed tlie closest trade relations: OF Orleans. ^ j j " I defy you." i and in 1413, as the Orleanists were gaining ground, he turned for aid to Henry V., and was ready to recognize the almost obsolete claims of the English monarch s to the crown of France. In the year 1415 Henry landed on the coast of Normandy with a 241. Re- force consisting of 6000 newalof the nien at arms, 21,000 arch- Hundred ' ' Years' War ©rs, and a considerable (1415) ^Q^iy of artillery. He wasted live weeks in the siege and capture of the unimpor- tant town of Harfleur, and lost more than half of his troops there through camp fever. Then, after leaving Heraldic Device of Johx, Duke OF Burgundy. " I liold it " 1 [i.e. the king and kingdom]. 1 These mottoes are from cou temporary gamblers' slang. After the assassi- nation of Louis by John. Parisians said, " Le baton cpineux a ete racle par le rabot ■' (The knotty stick has been smoothed by the plane). KINQS KINQS OF FRANCE OF ENGLAND ORLEANS- ARMAGNAC BURQUNOY'FLANDERS r \ r w 1328. I327-, ; .PHILIP VL. Lou Is III. _ V-EDWARD III. —JOHN >- CHARLES V. I377'< I'hilip the Bol(L=iIargaret l>ukc uf UuiKund;. 13CJ . C»rrej«iit uf Eiuo, ISW |-3;7S IsabeUa=>= RICHARD ii. -^niidaoa of- I Kd»ud III. Louis Duke uf Urlcui*. 1301 Co-n«uk« of Uurnin.tj, Ul»_ Humphrey l>uk« of ii\uucmitm Pruto-lut of IU>(tUil, 1 411 - CHARLES VII. Cltnix-I t; J.UI of Vn, Utt >--MENRr VI. KIN(;S OF FIJANC'E (.VND OF KN(;i..VND) OURINQ THE HUNOBEO YEARS' WAR Time scale, i1 years to one Inch 2-.il 0-70 DECADENCE OF FEUDALISM 1200 men for the garrison of the place, he fonnd himself so much weakened that he could not hope either to subdue Nor- mandy or to capture Paris; so, in a spirit of boyish bravado, he determined to insult the enemy by marching along the coast of France from Harfleur to Calais. He was obliged to turn inland along the Somme for more than fifty miles, in order to reach a ford, and then found his march barred at Agincourt by Route of Henry V., 1415. an Orleanist army of more than three times his own force, and could not escape a combat. This battle of Agincourt, October 5, 1415, was essentially a repetition of the brilliant events at Crecy and Poitiers, and its 242. Battle results were no more far-reaching. The Constable of of A-gm- Pi'ance, three dukes, seven counts, and ninety barons court (Oct. ' ' T J 5, 1415) were killed, and fifteen hundred prisoners of rank, includ- ing the dukes of Orleans and of Bourbon, were taken ; while of common soldiers more were slain than the entire English army numbered. The English lost only two peers of note, and only six- teen hundred of the soldiery ; but Henry's forces were so scanty and so much exhausted by the strain of the campaign that he was unable to reap any fruits from this victory, and felt compelled to proceed to Calais, and thence to England. While Henry was carrying on a second invasion, four years later, the Dauphin caused the Duke of Burgundy to be assas- sinated. The enraged Burgundians vowed that the Dauphin Agincourt 'i\'0}jrli>- ENC-' ,^l«sisoncelles Battle of Agincourt. FDKEIGX WAUS r.NDKH LANCAS IKl A N K1N(,S 2l':J should never reii^n in France, aecepted the Enijlish as sov- ereigns over all their possessions in the north oi' France, and in 1420 nej,'otiuted the treaty of Troyes, by which Henry 243 Hen- was reco>rnized as rej/ent of France, with the right of sue- ^y ^ ™*^' .... riage and cession to the throne npon the death of the imbecile king ; death and the interests of the French and English royal fani- ^1420 1422 ilies were harmonized by the n\arriage of Henry to the Dauphin's sister Catherine. The Orleanists refused to give up the struggle ; and Henry, while attempting to conquer a portion of the territory south of the Loire, fell a victim to the unhealthful conditions of camp life in a rainy season. His death in 1 1'Jl*. when only thirty-five years old, left France and England exposed to the evils of government by a regency, for his son and heir was a weakly infant, less than one year old. This son, Henry VI., was promptly proclaimed king of France at Varis, but the south adhered to the i)arty of the former Dauphin, now King Charles YII. While one of Henry's ^^ Minor- uncles (the Duke of Gloucester) was made Protector in ity of Henry England, another (the Duke of Bedford) was made Regent in France. The only important position held by the Orleanists north of the Loire was the city of Orleans, and to this Bedford laid vigorous siege in 142S. Now appeared a new factor in the contest in the person of a jteasant maiden frum ])omr('iiiy, in the district of Lorraine. This maiden, Jeanne d'.Vrc (Joan of .\rcj, believed her.self (commissioned by God to reconcile the warring factions, and to rouse the patriotism of the monarch and his officers by her 245 Career own example. She tlierefore went to the king and asked " d Arc for authority to raise the siege of Orlean.s, declaring that (1429 1431) God would guide her efforts to save her country from an alien tyranny, and w(j\ild ultimately enable her to crown him, as all his ancestors had been ciowned. in the cathedral at Rheims — now in the heart of tlie territory lield by the English. She proceeded to Orleans with an army in .Vpril, M'J\K inspired the 224 DECADENCE OF FEUDALISM garrison with her own enthusiasm, dispersed the English forces investing that city, routed the enemy in battle after battle, and in twelve weeks fulfilled her premise by conducting Charles in state to be crowned at Kheims. The Eng- lish power in France seemed doomed; but, in the spring of 1481, Jeanne was taken prisoner l)y the Bur- gundians. Her cap- tors sold her into the hands of the English ; and after an ecclesias- » tical trial before the Bishop of Beauvais, a tool of the English, she was burned to death as a witch (May 30, 1431). Meanwhile England was split into factions by the relatives of the young king. G-louoester, the protector, was at swords' 246. End of points with his uncle Henry Beaufort, a cardinal of the j^^i^w"' , church and the richest man in England. Gloucester dred Years' ° War (1453) swayed the masses; Beaufort ruled the King's Council: Gloucester wanted to continue the French war; Beaufort pointed out the folly of trying to force foreign rule upon a great nation like France. Events proved that he was right, Carbon hij Broun .{■ Co. Jeanne d'Arc at the Altar of St. Catherine. Painting by G. Doyen. FoREKiN WAKS INDKi; I.ANCAS riHAN KINGS '21') for after the death of Jeanne (VArc the English steadily lost grounil. In 14.');") Bedford died ; the Hurgundians then made peace with the Orleanists ; and the English were soon driven into Calais in the north, and into Bordeanx and Bayonne iu the south. With eveiy failure of the English arms, Parliament gi"ew more unwilling to vote supplies for the war, and finally Beaufort's counsels prevailed. In 1444 a truce was agreed upon, and a luarriage was negotiated between the king (now of full age) antl Margaret of Anjou, niece of the French monarch. There was desultory fighting for a few years more; and then, in 14o.*i, after England had lost all her territory in France except Calais, the Hundred Years' War came to an inglorious end. No formal treaty of peace was signed, and the English monarchs continued to style themselves kings of France until 1801, liut the two countries were thenceforth wholly separate. During the Lancastrian period, the powers of Parliament were both strengthened and enlarged. In 1407 Henry 1\'. agreed that all grants of money should originate in the 247. In- lower house, thereby giving to the C(uninons control of creased •' '^ " powers of the public purse. At the same time he ackiu>wledged Parliament the absolute freedom of both houses to discuss the various details of these grants, and to stipulate for what they should be used. Three times in this reign Parliament interfered with the king's choice of his council, ami on one occa.sion it caused the removal of certain objectionable councilors — a long step toward making the king's ministers responsible to Parlia- ment. It often happened that after Parliament had peti- tioned the king that certain laws might be enacted and his assent hail l)epn given, his crafty ministers framed a statute which appeared to embody the substance of the petition, but was really of a quite different purport. Therefore in 1414 the king was made to agree that " fro hensforth no thyng be en- 226 DECADENCE OF FEUDALISM acted to the Peticioiis of his Commune that be contrarie to thir askyug." The increased importance of Parliament is further shown by the fact that after 1430 only those who possessed freehold property worth 40 shillings a year were allowed to vote for knights of the shire. The Lancastrian kings were led by the weakness of their position to make many concessions to Parliament, and they 248 Sum- ti'ied to interest the more restless of their subjects in mary foreign conquest, for which France seemed the best op- portunity. The military genius of Henry V., as displayed at Agincourt, raised high hopes of gaining the crown of France ; but the w^eakness of his claims to the throne, the unconquer- able hatred of the French for the English, the patriotic move- ment headed by Jeanne d'Arc, and the dissensions at home throughout the reign of Henry VI. bore their inevitable fruits of disaster and final failure. Since the long-drawn-out French wars called for enoi'mous expenditures of money, Parliament took increased control over the national finances. TOPICS Suggestive (1) Was there any reason why Henry IV. should be unwilling topics ^^ ransom Sir Edmund Mortimer ? (2) Show that Henry V., " although lawful monarch of P^ngland, had no right to the throne of France. (3) Can you account for the small fatality among the English soldiers at Agincourt ? (4) Trace the history of the vari- ous English regencies up to this time. (5) Can you account for the ease with which the English were beaten by Jeanne d'Arc ? (6) "Why should the Commons insist that money bills should originate in the lower house ? ■ (7) Why did the Lords willingly concede this point ? (8) On what grounds ought the county fran- chise to be restricted to freeholders ? (9) Was it well or ill for the English nation to give up urging claims to the throne of France ? (10) Compare the terms of the treaty of Troyes with those of the treaty of Wallingford. (11) Review in detail the territorial relations of England and France from the personal union of England and Normandy in 1066. (12) Compare the FOREIGN WARS INDKK I.ANCASIKIAN KlNiiS liJT French territory held by Kiiiji Henry II. witli tlial litld by King Henry V. after tlie treaty of Troyes. (l.S) Sliakespeari's portrait of Henry V. as I'rince of Wales. Search (14) Drayton's ballad of J(/(//coMr<. (15) Jeanne d'Arc and her ^°P'<=8 inspired mission. (1(>) The present restrictions on the county franchise in Kngland. (17) Construct a map of all the regions on the Continent occupied by the Enirlish in the Hundred Years' War. (18) Methods of lighting during the French wans. (10) Tlie trial of Jeanne d'Arc. (20) The wealth of Flanders. Secondary authorities REFERENCES See maps, pp. 142, IdO ; Gardiner, SiIukiI Atlas, maps 1<>, 17. (Jeography U) ; Poole, Iliatoriral Athrs, map xx. ; Reich, Xiw Stiidcuta'' Atlas. ma|) 1"). Bright, lliston/ <>/ Etxjlund. I. •J7'i-:;i<> ; Gardiner, Student's History, chs. xix. xx. ; {{ansome. Advauri'tl Ifistur;/, 2W-:V,]i], 3.37- .".39; Green, Short History, 2ii4-28] , — History of the Kiuflish Piijph, bk. iv.. chs. v. vi. ; Gardiner, Houses of Lancaster and York ; Montagne, Constitutional History, 81-80 ; Taswed-Lang- mead, Cunstitutionul History, 2o8-21Hi ; Wakeman and Hassall, Essays Introdurtory to Enylish Cnnstitxtiunal History, no. v. ; Brewer, Student's Hume. eh. xi. ; Lingani, History nf Eiiylaud, III. chs. ii.-iv. ; Powell and Tout, History of Enyland. 280-324 ; Ramsay, Lnmaster and York, I., II. ch.s. i.-viii. ; Wylie, Enyland under Hinry IV. ; Bradley, Otren (Hendirr ; Cluirch, Henry V. ; Kini;sford, Henry V. ; Edwards, Wales, 201)-2!H ; Lang, History of Srotland, I. 280-:3()8 ; Creasy, Fifteen Decisive Battles, cli. ix. ; Oliphant, Jeanne d'Arc ; Lowell, Joan of Arc. See New England History Teachers' As.soclalion, Sytlahtts. 245. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 104-125; Colby. Selertiitns from the Sources, nos. 4-'{-45 ; Hill. Liherty Documents. ch. V. ; Durham. Enylish History from (hu'yinal Sources, l-UU ; Gee and Hardy, /)ocuments of Church History, nos. xl.-xlii. Bates and Coman. Enylish History tolil l,y Enylish Poets, 157- 197 ; Clemens, personal llmdlictiinis of Joan of Arc ; Henty, liidh Siiles the Border, (i. 1'. K. .lames, Ayiiicourt : Manniui:. .1 Xoble I*ur)>ose ; Scott, The Fair Maid of J'l rth ; Shakespt are, Kiny Henry IV'., — Kiny Henry V., — Kiny Henry VI.. I'ari I. ; Taylor. Jeanne d'Arc ; Yonge, The L'ayed Liun. Sources Illustrative works EDWARD lll.cr, 10 Blanche^ of Lancaster Philippa =i;am.und.MoTtinier Earl of llarch rCDJohnof Gaunt(3) = Buke of Lancaster =Katheriiie Swynford John Beaufort Earl of Somerset — Henry Beaufort Bishop of Winchester Cardlnnl HENRY IV. Joan Beaufort= m. Ralph de Neville (bee opposite page) Roger Mortimer Zarl of March ►35 John Duke of Bedford d. 1435 Humphrey Duke of Gloucester d. 144<; HENRY V.= Kdmund Aii'iie Mortimer Mortimer £arl of JIarcb m. Kichard, d. 1129 _ Earl of Cambridge _ (See opposite page) =(I) Catherine C3)= of France Owen Tudor Bebeailed after Mortimer's Cross, H61 John Beaufort 1st Duke of Somerset Lieut. Gen'l of France Edmund Beaufort 2nd Duke of Somerset Killed at St-Albans, 1455 >36- -HENRY VI. m. Margaret uf.Anjoi Ed m u n d ^ Ma rga ret Tudor Beaufort Earl of Richii Hemy Beaufort ■ird Duke of Somerset Beheaded at Hexham U04 Edmund Beaufort 4th Duke of Somerset Beheaded at Tewkesbuir, lill Anne Xeville (1) =Ed\vard Prince of Wales Killed at Tewkesburv, i4n '— John Beaufort Killed at leirkesbury. 14T1 - Henry VI. reigned C months 1470-1471 Earl of Stafford= Margaret Beaufort Henry Staflbrd Duke of Buckingham Beheaded, 1483 1483^38- I485J HENRY VII. (p. 203)= EARLS OF MARCH LANCASTER 338 LANCASTER AND YORK Tlnu- sciile. 16-hi yi-urs to one liicU £dmund Puke of York =Balph de Neville C^ of Wt^tmorcUaJ iUcliurd E"! of c«niiTi(ije===Anne Morllmer UcbeaJal. H16 I)t.<.ctiduit uf Uiioel, Imk* of Cuu«oc« I8c« opptKlu Tf) tiirl of Salisbury Richard Neville= Alice of Salisbury Eul uf iMlbburr Cicely Neville: Earl of War^vick Qoicnuruf llcnrr VI. = Richard Ihike of York Plotvrtor qCJIpfl^iid Ma4. I'M Killed It Wikeadd, 1400 Richard Nfville = t./l ..f » inrl^k "Ttx Kit>< >l>kri" Sii|ip<«t«i York. nw-n:o ' 3u(>| tured their stock. The greater barons maintained hordes of armed retainers — generally soldiers trained to brigandage in the French wars — and renewed the lawlessness of Stephen's reign, robbing their weaker neighbors of goods, cattle, and even whole manors. AVithin the century, a dozen statutes were passed to abate the evils of " livery and maintenance," that is, the keeping up of bands of livieried ruffians who terror- ized alike the i)arliamentary electors and the judges and juries of the law courts; but under such a minister as Suffolk the laws were powerles.s. For a time he gained sup})ortt'rs by making generous grants to court favorites from the crown estates, but in 1450 he was impeached, banished, and murdered on his way to France. Since Suffolk's friends remained in power, riots immediately broke out in Middlesex, Suffolk, Norfolk, and Kent. An Irish adventurer named Jack Cade moved on London with „,. 251. Cades thirty thousand men ; published a manifesto charging upon Rebellion the king's ministers excessive taxation, exclusion of the ''^^^' ^*^^' lords of royal blood from a share in tlie government, promotion of upstarts, abuse of "purveyance," or right to seize gF V(»KK AND LANCASIKK 233 the support of the queen, M;irj,'aret of Anjuu, who l»flieved tliat Vork was plotting to secure the succession to the throne. A son, Edward, was born to her in 145.3 ; but a few weeks 252 Ri- earlier Henrv had been seized with an illness which valry of York and result»*d in temporary idioev, and Tarliajneut, ignoring Somerset Margaret's wishes, appointed the Duke of York Protector <1450-1455> and Defender of the Keahn. On the king's recovery, a few weeks later, he restored the Beaufort faction to power ; and Vork, claiming that his legal rights and even his i)ersonal safety were eudangereil, rallied his followers at Leicester and marched toward London. He was met by the royal army at St. Albans, and in the battle that followed (May 1455) Edmund of Somerset was slain, the king was taken prisoner, and York became head of the King's Council. The battle of St. Albans marks the beginning of the Wars of the Roses, so called from the badges used by the contest- ants — a white rose for York and a red rose for Somerset. 253. First At first the issue was simply whether Richard, Duke of i?^"® ^ *^® '■ "^ Wars of the "^'ork (who might at any time become heir to the throne), Koses or Henry, the new Duke of Somerset (who belonged to a younger branch of the Lancastrian family), should control the l)rincipal offices of state luuler the king. York claimed that he should 1k^ ])laced in a position to guard his pros})ective rights; Mai-garet and Somerset claimed that this would expose the reigning family to intrigue. The issue was complicated becau.se the king was incompetent to choose wi.se advisers, ])ecau.se York was the ablest and most popular statesman in the kingdom, and Wecau.se his claim to the throne wa,s by the strict laws of hereditary succession l»etter than the king's — all of which made the susjiicions of the queen the more reasonable. In less than a year after St. Albans, Margaret induced her husband to dismiss York from office, and for the next 254 First three years the two parties maintained an armed neu- stage of the trality, each warily guarding against a sudden attack. At (1455-1460; 234 DECADENCE OF FEUDALISM Ship, Time of Edward IV. From a MS. Life of Richard, Earl of Warwick. length Queen Margaret, chafing under the uncertainties of the situation, attacked the Yorkist lords by bringing a bill of attainder against them in Parliament, and their lives and estates were declaredforfeited. York, his brother-in-law the Earl of Salisbury, and his nephew the Earl of Warwick, who were all at Calais, promptly set sail for London, and, gaining the support of its citizens, advanced to Northampton with 60,000 men. There the Lancastrians were routed in July, 1460 ; King Henry was again taken prisoner, and jNIargaret fled to Scotland, with her son. The issue was now changed ; for as soon as Parliament could be assembled, a messenger from the Duke of York laid before 255. Death the House of Lords his formal claim to the crown, as of YoSf ''^ *^^® nearest heir of Edward HI. The Lords replied that (1460) the acts of Parliament by which the succession had been settled upon the Lancastrians were of such " authority as to defeat any manner of title made to any person," and that they were bound by repeated oaths of allegiance to Henry VI. However, they proposed as a compromise that Henry should '• keep the crown and his estate and dignity royal during his life, and the said duke and his heirs to succeed 'him in the same," the duke meanwhile to be made Protector, Prince of Wales, and Earl of Chester. To this the king, "inspired with the grace of the Holy Ghost, by good and sad deliberation and advice," gave his assent ; but Margaret, desperately fighting for her son's inherit- ance, succeeded in rallying the north of England to his cause. DYNASTIC WARS OF YORK AND LAXCASTKU 235 Tlie iirotector, lulvaiuing northward to crush out the clisafEec- tion, met the Lancastrian forces at Waketiekl, December 29, 1 U)0, and was totally defeated and slain. His younger son Ednunul and the Karl of Salisbury were murdered, and their bodies were mutilated by >rargaret's commanders. Thenceforth the struggle became a mere blood feud. Edward, the eldest son of the protector, was at this time in \N'ales, where he soon defeated the forces raised to support Margaret's cause. He then manhed to London, while 256 Acces- W'arwick engaged the attention of Margaret's forces in £^^^ard of the second battle of St. Albans. He was enthusiastically York U461) received by the citizens of the metropolis, and was immediately proclaimed king, as Edward IV. : but his crown was yet to be won, and he moved north to attack Margaret, gathering re- cruits as he marched. The decisive contest, which took place at Towton, March 29, 1 K')l. was waged for hours in the midst of a fierce snowstorm. The Yorkists, by furious assaults, forced the higher position (K'cupied by the Lanca.strians, and after ten hours of fighting drove their entire army of 60,000 men into rout. The bodies of 37,000 killed were buried on the battlefield ; five peers were slain in the battle, and two earls were captured and lieheaded. Except the queen and her son, who fied to Scot- land, the Duke of Somerset was the only Lancastrian of impor- tance to escape. Throughout the contest thus far the principal supporter of the Yorkist cause had been Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick ; and he naturally expected to shape the policy of the new 257 Lan- king, who was only twenty years old. In 14(>4, however, ^^fl^^^ Edward, without consulting his council, made a hasty (1464 1470 marriage with a widow. Lady Elizabeth (Wootlville) Grey, whose family Ix^came his chief advLsers and the recii>- ients of all his favors. This resulted in a jealousy between the Woodvilles and the Nevilles sinular to that between the 236 DECADENCE OF FEUDALISM Somersets and the Yorkists . in the first stage of the wars. Still further discord arose out of Edward's foreign policy. To please London and the commons generally, the king was determined to wed his sister to the ruler of Burgundy, the state with which England had the most commerce; Warwick, as the representative of ancient aristocratic traditions, pre- ferred to seek for her a French alliance. Unable to dominate the king whom he had crowned, War- wick married his elder daughter to Edward's brother Clarence, \Vai;\\i< K ( Asri.K. Destroyed iu the Barons' wars. Rebuilt by Edward III. aud his successors. and then induced him to intrigue for the throne ; secretly pro- moted insurrections in Yorkshire ; and finally, when exposed and compelled to flee to France, cast in his lot with Margaret of Anjou, and married his younger daughter to her son, Ed- ward of Lancaster. Under cover of the Yorkshire uprisings, the allies made a descent upon the Devonshire coast. The midlands, as before, adhered to Warwick ; Edward, unable to brave the storm, fled to the protection of the Duke of Bur- DVNASTK" WAIJS OK Yi»i;K AND l.ANCASIKK •_'•>! sjuiitlv ; aiiil in St'ptfiiiltfr, M7f York, assisted by the l)uke i)t" Burgundy, appeared on the coast of England with a small anuv, nroelainiing that he came merely to recover his „,„ _. , -' ' -^ *' 258 Final ancestral domains. The negligence, folly, or treachery victory of York (1471) of Warwick's brother, Lord Montagu, permitted him to ^ ' advance as far as Leicester. There, throwing off all disguise, he proclaimed himself rightful king of England. Adherents tlocked to his standard, but Warwick's forces far outnumbered his when they met at lUirnet (Ai)ril 4, 1471). Edward won the victory, nevertheless, for a fog created confusion in the Lancastrian raidis, Clarence i)layed traitor to Warwick and went over to his brother with all his forces, and the great " King-maker" (as Warwick was called) was slain in the crisis of the battle. Margaret, arriving from France too late, was in- tercepted and defeated by Edward at Tewkesbury (May, 1471). Tlie death of Queen Margaret's son, Trince Edward, in this battle ended the direct Lancastrian line. The last IJeaufort chief, Edmund, I)uke of Somerset, was ca|»turfd and executed, and <^>ueen Margaret herself was taken prisoner. On the day of Edward's return to London the unfortunate King Henry VI. died in the Tower, probably munlercd to prevent further up- risings in his favor. The claims of the Lancastrian line now j»assed to Henry Tudor, the f(jurteen-year-old son of ISLirgaret r.eaufort, great-granddaughter of John of Gannt. Mother and son fled to Hrittany, and for twelve years Edward 1 V. reigned undisputed monarch. l>uring this period, sloth took the place oi Edward's former energy of character, and his security made him indif- 259 Close fcrent to the needs or the wishes of the nation. The jy g reiim wealth gained by confiscating the property of ]..ancas- (1471 1483) trians made extraordinary ta.xation unnecessary, and France 238 DECADENCE OF FEUDALISM paid him enormous subsidies in money to leave the Conti- nent alone. These subsidies were construed by the king of France to be a purchase of Edward's neutrality in the struggle between France and Burgundy, and by the English to be tribute, and a recognition of England's real right to the sovereignty of France. With these resources, increased by the " benevolences "' (gifts) which he from time to time exacted from his wealthiest subjects, the king was able to rule without calling a Parliament for twelve years, and he thus prepared the way for a period of absolute government. Near the end of his reign Edward suffered from ill health, and the conduct of affairs was left in the hands of his brother, Richard of Glouces- ter, and his adherent. Lord Hastings, until the king's death in 1483. Richard of Gloucester was an able soldier and a capable administrator, but very ambitions, and unscrupulous in the 260 Reiffn execution of his designs. Unlike the other leaders of of Edward the period, he was self-controlled, cautious, and deliber- V. (April 9- . , . „ , . . . -^ , 1, 1 -1 1 June 25 ^^^ in the pursuit ot his aims. Among Edward s cliildren 1483) were his eldest daughter Elizabeth, seventeen years old ; a son Edward, of twelve years; and a younger son, Richard, of nine years. The Woodvilles hurriedly conducted Prince Edward from Wales towards London ; but they were met by an .armed force under the Duke of Gloucester, the Prince was seized aud imprisoned, and the council, under the influence of Richard's co-plotter. Lord Hastings, declared Gloucester Pro- tector of the Realm. Richard immediately entered upon a series of craft_v in- trigues to gain absolute power. Two of the Woodville peers were executed, and Hastings, who had made secret overtures to their part}^, was killed by Richard's orders. Richard invented a preposterous story to show that Edward IV.'s marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was illegal, and that therefore he himself was the legal heir to the throne. The nobles present in London DVNASriC WAKS Of YoUK AND LANCASTEK •2:>ll ilaretl not resist liis deinantl, and Kichanl. accepting,' tlioir " petition " that he should take tlie throne, was crounfd on July (J, 1483, :is Richard 111. Richard's bloody course thus tar was condoned liy his countrymen as being perhai)S necessary to his own eontinu- ance in power; but the hearts of all right-minded 261 Reign Englishmen were alienated when, soon after his coro- PL^'?^'}!!'^ " ' III 1 1483- nation, it began to be whispered that he had caused the 1485) muriler of his nephews, who were confined in the Tower. This iniquity brought on him a two years' strug- gle to retain the throne. Witliin three months he had to face a conspiracy which was supported by the Duke of Buckingham and the Woodvilles, to place Henry Tudor (§ 258) upon the throne; but his prompt- "S^=l" ness thwarted this movement. He now tried to buy the favor of his subjects by good government, but he was too unpopu- lar. In desjjeration he resorted to arbitrary taxation in order to raise money with which to bril)e the leaders among the nobility — for none served him save for profit. After ^kl^" the death of his first wife (1484), he even thought of marrying his own niece, Eliza- beth, in order to remove a possible rival ; ^'^^v^^^'y'^'!^,,!^^^ but meanwhile Henry Tudor (who also Scrcoat. planned to marry Elizabeth, in order to StaiHlingonliisJuMal.Iic device, a wild lioar. combine the claims of Lanca.ster and of York) prepared for another attempt to overthrow Richard. With the aid of maby barons of France, Henry raised a SJnall force of mercenaries, and. accompanied bv the re- • • 1 , r , T 262 The mainmg leaders of the Lancastrian and Woodville fac- Tudor revo- tions, landed at Milford Haven, June, 148;"), rallied to ^"''^°° his cause the ever faithful Welsh, and in August met Rich- WAI.KKK >* V.Si,. HIT. \'i 240 DECADENCE OF FEUDALISM arc! in the closing battle of the Wars of the Roses on Bosworth Field. His cause appeared hopeless indeed, as he marshaled his 5000 men against Richard's army of 14,000. His hope lay in the detestation in which all men held the king — a detestation so great that many of Richard's forces refnsed to fight at all, and one large body under Lord Stanley deserted to Henry's side. Richard himself fought with des- peration, but was cut down while striving to force his way into the presence of his rival ; and his crown, which he had worn into the battle, was placed by Stanley on the head of Henry Tudor. The continuous warfare of the fifteenth century had exerted a bad influence iipon English life and character. It was a time . , of low ideals and brutal conduct. The church, after the 263. Social conditions failure of the Lollard movement, became even more (1400-1485) ^yQj.i(3|y a^ncl unspiritual than before. It produced great thinkers (the Schoolmen) and great politicians, but not great moral teachers or pastors. It therefore punished false dogma more severely than vicious conduct. Under Henry lY. and Henry V. the Lollard movement was practically crushed out by imprisonments and burnings at the stake, then first authorized by statute. A ruthless clergy meant ruthless statesmen — but these often lacked the decency even to veil their crimes under the forms of law. Richard II. caused his uncle to be murdered ; Henry IV. killed his cousin ; Henry V. sent his father's cousin to the block; Henry YI. condoned the slaughter of mau}^ of his nearest relatives ; Edward I Y. sacrificed his own brother Clarence ; Richard III., by tra- dition the arch-villain among English monarchs, merely acted in harmony with the times when he thrust from his path in swift succession Hastings, Rivers and Grey (the two Woodville leaders), his two nephews, and the Duke of Buck- ingham. In a time of protracted war, human life becomes cheapened. DYNASTIC WARS OK YORK AM) LANCASTER 241 In spite of the turbulent conditions, the century saw a steady advance in commerce and manufactures. Since the fighting was done by retainers of the noble houses, 264 Eco- the laborers, artisans, traders, and gentry were free to changes carry on their ordinary work. Indeed, the demand for (1453 1485) military weapons, clothing, and supplies stimulated some in- dustries; and since general political control rather than territorial conquest or spoils was the stake, the larger towns and cities rarely suffered from siege or pillage. It was in this period that energetic English merchants broke into the monopoly of trade on the ('ontinent hitherto enjoyed by the Hanse- atic League as middle- men, and for the first time established direct trade relations with Flanders, the Scandinavian kingdoms, and Prussia. Fortuup helped those who thus heljied theuiselves. Vast schools of herring — a fish never seen in the North Sea dnring the fonrteenth century — now appt-ari'tl in the waters about the mouth of the Rhine, and the herfing fishery be- came one of the most important of English irulustries, fur- nishing employment for vast numbers of ships, fishermen, salters and packers, coopers, and traders. The hardy sea- manship developed by her fishermen was no small factor in England's i>rogress during the Tudor period. Of all tlie im[)orts brought over seas by English merchants during this i)eriod, by far the most notable was the j)rinting press brouglit from Flanders by William (*a.Kton in 1476. Workmen of the Fifteekth Century. From a MS. History of Noble Hen and Women. 242 DECADENCE OF FEUDALISM Caxton had been in business in Bruges for thirty years, part of the time- as governor of the English guild of merchant 265. Cax- adventurers, and later as a copyist in the household of duction of ^largaret, Duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. printing Becoming interested in the newly invented art of multi- plying books by printing, he published a few books at Bruges, and then retiirned to England and set up his press in a shop adjoining Westminster Abbey. In the next fifteen years he published nearly a hundred volumes, including religious books, poems, tales of chivalry, and translations from classic authors. It was Caxton wlio preserved for us the text of Chaucer's %vorks, and also Malory's Nohle and Joyous History of King Arthur, which has influenced so much of our later literature and art. By the end of the fifteenth century there were printing presses at Oxford, St. Albans, and London — and the gates of the realm of letters were thrown open to the English people. By the long series of struggles extending from the reign of John through the Wars of the Roses, the warring factions 266. Sum- of the English nobility destroyed their own power to domi- ™^^y nate the sovereign and the other classes of the people ; but it is not true, as is often stated, that the House of Lords was reduced in size. Though the heads of many noble houses perished in battle, or on the block, or by secret murder, their estates and titles descended to collateral heirs or were trans- ferred to other holders, so that only one peerage was actually extinguished as a result of the long struggle. Neither is it true that the cost of these wars was crushing to the people ; for after every fresh contest the possessions of the conquered served to enrich the victors. While the front of the stage was held by bodies of professional fighters, in the background (especially in the towns) the mass of the people continued to pursue the arts of peace, to develop industry and commerce. nVNASriC WAKS OF YORK AND LANCASTER 243 Nevertheless, lout,' before the batth^ of Bosworth, l^irjand had become weary of the dispute over the throne, wt-ary of bloody battlefields and bloodier reprisals, weary of the degenerate feudal- ism that made such con- tests possible. When peace finally came, it found the English people ready to submit to any sovereign who would rule with some regard for their interests, without questioning too closely either the source or the limits of his power. The Wars of the Roses were at last ended, and with them passed away feudalism as a dominant force in English politics, and the old type of warfare, of which Richard's last charge was a brilliant ex- ample. With the reign of the Tudors begins the modern history of England. SlK.iii: (ilN UK THK FiFTKKNTH Ckntlky. From u MS. Chronique M THK Soi'THWARK End), SIXTKKNTH I'KNTCRV. Traitors' heads e.\i>ose, symlHtli/.ing wool fle»'r«'s: p:i- vilioii.s ami robes, synibuli/iiig woolen clotli. 252 THE TUDOR MONARCHY the discoverer of the North American continent, to make the voyage on which was later based the English claims to the American continent north of Florida ; and thus, unwittingly, he gave to his descendants a far more important possession than India itself. The importance of Henry VII. 's work has been overshadowed by the more spectacular reign of his son, but it should not be forgotten that he found the English monarchy helpless and the English nation disorganized, and that at his death in 1509 he transmitted to his surviving son Henry a strong, well-organized, and orderly government. Henry VIII. began his reign at eighteen years of age, with every favoring condition. He was handsome, very strong, 276. Char- skillful in the sports which his subjects loved, intelligent, acter of ^^^^ sliriewd enough to use all his personal attractions to Henry VlII. ° ^ (1509-1547) gain his own way in everything, while outwardly con- forming to the constitution. He inherited his father's abso- lutism, but not his parsimony. He " threw away with both hands " the treasure which Henry VII. had hoarded up, and millions more which fate later placed within his grasp. He loved to dazzle his subjects and his rivals by personal display, and he loved to play a lead- ing part in the Continental wars of the period. In satisfying his de- sires he overbore all opposition, Coin of Henry viit., show- whether of councilors, Parliament, iNG HIS Portrait. or foreign princes ; and when the temper of the nation grew threatening under his exactions, he forced his minister to assume the blame. The first of his scapegoats, and the last and greatest of the 277. Rise long series of English ecclesiastic statesmen, was Thomas Wolse*^^^^^ Wolsey. Born the son of a well-to-do wool merchant, (1471-1530) Wolsey was graduated from Oxford University when THE EAKLV TUUoKS 253 fifteen years (tld. and a few years later was made chaplain, first of the Arehbishop of Canterbury, and later of Henry \'l 1. When fiirty years old, he became a member of the royal council of the young king, Henry VII 1., and his abilities and his attractive personality soon won him high favor. In 1514 he was made Archbishop of York, and in lol") Lord Chan- cellor of England, and a little later a cardinal of the Roman Church. Two years later he was appointed papal legate to England, which gave him precedence even over the Archbishop of Canterbury. Wolsey had an ardent ambition to become Pope, bnt a Vene- tian diplomat declared that he was already seven times more powerful than the Pope. His astonishing advancement roused the worst side of lus character; his splendor of dress and of living was extreme ; his arrogance and domineering bearing toward his subordinates won him universal dislike; and the ruthless taxation of the commons to make possible his bold foreign policy, made his name detested throughout England. Wolsey 's policy aimed to hold the balance between Spain and France by aiding one or the other party in war and by diplomatic intrigue, so as to make his master the arbiter 278 Henry of European politics. This itolicv did not necessarilv ni s for- i r I . eign wars requirt' costly wars; but to satisfy Henry's vanity Wul- (151215251 sey had to organize armies for exj)ensivt! and fruitless in- vasions of F'raiioe in ir»lL' and ini."., and as usual the French war led to a war with iScotland, in which Henry's Ijrothcr-in- law. King James IV., was slain at the battle of Flodden Field. A decade later, when the Emperor Charles V. and the French king Francis 1. were at swords' points, Henry demanded that Wolsey raise money for fresh invasions of F'rance. Although himself opposed to the war, Wolsey secured grants from Parliament, and bcncvolencres from rich citizens. 'I'lu-n a victory of Charh's ovrr Francis at Favia, in l."»L'."i. so shook the "balance of power*' which Henry wished to maintain, that 254 THE TUDOR MONARCHY he deemed it wise to make an alliance with France instead of attacking her. Soon Henry's imperious selfishness involved Wolsey in still more serious trouble. Henry's older brother, Prince Arthur, 279. Wolsey died in 1502 leaving his wife Catherine, Princess of kind's ^ Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain marriage (§ 272). Henry VII., for political reasons, determined that Henry, the n«xt heir, should marry his brother's widow ; and, as such a marriage was contrary to the laws of the church, a dispensation was obtained from Pope Julius II. For thirteen years Henry and Catherine remained happily united, during which time several children Avere born to them; but Princess ISIary, later queen, was the only one that lived. Then, in 1522, a certain Anne Boleyn, fresh from residence in France, became maid of honor to the queen ; and Henry at once began to load her family with honors and favors. Four years later he con- fided to his ministers that he had grave doubts regarding the validity of his marriage, arguing that the death of his children in infancy showed that God disapproved of the marriage. He therefore proposed that the Pope should declare it invalid. Wolsey at first approved this suggestion, for he thought that he might gain prestige by negotiating a second marriage with some foreign princess ; but when he found that Henry was determined to wed Anne Boleyn, he stoutly opposed the project. Still later he yielded to the king's urgings, and exerted himself to secure a favorable decision from Pope Clement VII. Clement, however, was anxious not to auger Catherine's Spanish and German relatives; so he procrastinated until Henry, thinking that Wolsey was the cause of the delay, poured out the vials of his wrath upon his too subservient minister. Wolsey was prosecuted on the ridiculous ground that he had violated the Statute of Praemunire (Appendix I) in acting as the Pope's legate, although he had done this with Henry's consent; he was condemned to forfeit all his property, ■riii: i:.\i;i.v rrixtiis 255 rt'siL,Mi liis cluiuoi'IU)rsliii), ami ii'tiie to his see at York. A subsequent cluirge of treason hastened the death ot the heart- broken minister in 1530. AVolsey's snocessor was hist)\vn secretary, Thomas ( "rumwell, who jiroposfd to remove tlie wlioh' matter of tlie annulment of Henry's marriage from tlie jurisdiction of the Pope by 280 Crom- abolishing his authority over the English Church. He J'^}^ ^^^ " . the king 8 first made an attack on the immunities and the vast supremacy revenues of the clergy, terrifying them by the sweeping charge that in recognizing Wolsey's authority as legate the}- had become involved in his guilt. They offered to pay a fine of £10,000, but Henry refused to accept it, unless they would admit that the king was "the Supreme Head of the English Cliuirh,'' and agree not to assemble in Convocation nor to legislate in religious matters without his authority. This they did in ir).''>l. Next, Cromwell procured the [)assage of the Act of Annates (l.").')!'), authorizing, but not compelling, the king to seize certain revenues liitherto paid to the Pope. As Clement refused to be hurried into a decision, Henry determined to sue for annulment of his marriage in the Eng- lish ecclesiastical courts; and he smoothed the path to suc- cess by apjiointing as primate a subservient priest, Thomas Cranmer, of whose decision he was so certain that he secretly married Anne Holeyn before the trial of the case. Four months later (May, 1533) Cranmer announced the decision of the court that Henry's first marriage had been null and void from the beginning. To tlie Pope's remonstrances against this interference with his authority, Cranmer responded by a momentous declaration, made to the King's Council, that "by Cod's law the „„ _ Pope has no more authority than any other bishop." In Reforma- 1534 Parliament gave its sanction to tliis doctrine in England the Act of Sui)remarv, which decreed that "the kintr our sovereign lord . . . shall be taken, acce])ted, and Vlll.,c.i 256 THE TUDOR MONARCHY reputed the only supreme head in eartli of the Church of England" (Appendix J). The English Reformation was thus, in its first stage, merely a change in the government of the church. " Henr}', head of Thatcher & ^^^ State, became also head of the Church, or briefly, the Schwiii, English Pope." A parliamentary statute provided that History of thenceforth bishops should be elected by the chapters of Europe, 331 ^j^g cathedrals in the different sees, on receipt of letters from the king naming the person whom they should choose. Henry VIH. giving the Bible to Clergy and Laity. Frontispiece to Coverdale's Bible, 15;3o, designed by Holbein. All pa3nnents to Rome were of course abolished, and the church revenues were devoted wholly to local uses. The reor- ganized church claimed the same authority as the parent body to define doctrines, conduct religious services, and regulate all matters spiritual ; and heresy against Catholic doctrine was punished by Henry as severely as by any other monarcli. TIIK KAKl.V n DnUs 257 X»'vi'itlu'lt'ss. Ilenrv pit'iiait'd the \v;iy tor a far <;reater change wlien lie put the Bible into the hands of the laity. 1\V his direction, each cathedral exposed a copy of the Hil)le 282. in Knglish for public use, and copies were placed in ^church every churdi thmughout the land. Less significant, policy although mure spectacular, was his action regarding the mon- asteries, many of which were causes of scandal to the com- munities in which tliey were situated, and nearly all were Mi'N VSIKKIKS (PkIoRIKS, Al.llKYS, AM) HoSPITALS) IN AND NKAR LoNDON AUOIT I'vVi. over-rich. Wolsey had attempted to lessen these abuses by suppressing all monasteries with less tlian seven inmates. Now Henry determined to gain popularity, wealth, ami the i)leasure 'if jiniinying the Pope, l)y suppressing the rest and seizing their property. Cromwell was placed at the head of a commi.s- siiMi to visit and report on the condition of universities, religious liou.ses, and all spiritual corporations : and ou the strength of his report, which stated that the monasteries were hopelessly cor- rupt. Parliament passed acts of suppression (ir).'i() and 1").')9), by which 37(5 monasteries were abolished. Part of their in- come was devoted to church uses, and all the rest went to en- rich Henry and Ids favorites; even the buildings were granted U) his courtiers, to be sold for wliatever tliey would bring, w ai.klk's kn'i,v hixiks 2t;i liberty ilid ii<'t wholly perish during,' this in-iiod is solely due to the f;iet that all the Tudor inonarchs, fioia Ilemv to Klizaiieth, ndi'd (broadly speaking) in tetdmieal conforniity with the "law of the land," and Parliament could resume an independent attitude at any time, when oecasion arose, without necessarily bringing on a revolution. TOPICS (I) What svas the chief source of wealtli in Kuiilaiul diuiii'j; the Suggestive iiiediitval period ? Wliat in modern times '! {;!) Wliat effect did *°p"^^ tlie fniiner condition liave upon tiie importance of the nobles? (3) Wiiy were not the discoveries of the Cabots followed up im- mediately ? (4) Wiiat made the Star Chamber Court certain to become an instrument of tyranny ? (o) Trace tlie different cases in wliicli the I'ope's autliority was detied in England before 1533. (6) What effect did the decision of Cranmer's court liave upon the succession to the tiirone ? (7) In just what ways was monasticism "alien to tlie spirit and temper of the Engli.sh people "' ? (8) Wliat effect did tiie dissolution of the mona.steries have on the popularity of tlie Reformat i.m ? (0) Why were the Tudor inonarchs especially interested in Wales? (10) Why wa.s Henry VIII. so popular ? (II) The .stor>- of I'erkin Warbeck. (12) Henry VII. 's fiscal Search measures, including "Morion's Fork.*' (13) Wolsey in Shake- ^oP'cs speare's Ui'tirii VIII. (14) Henry VIII. 's title of "Defender of tiie Faitii." (!.')) Tiie voyage of the Cabots. (1(5) The Field of the Cloth of Gohl. (17) Education of the Trincess Elizabeth. (18) Character of Queen Catherine. (19) Beginning of the study of Greek in England. (20) Hampton Court. REFERENCES Set- map. p. 240 ; Gardiner. Srlinol Atlas, maps 20. 21, 22; Geography Pooif. IlUton'ritl Atl'in. maps xxi. xxii. xxx.; IJeich, \t'ic .Stndfiitu' Atlds, maps 1!», 20. 21. 2:;. Bright. Ilitttnrij nf Kni/hind, II. .•5r)5-421 ; Gardiner. Stmh nt's Secondary ///a^;rj/, ch.s. xxiii.-xxvi. ; Haiisome. Ailniurpd History. 37(>-42o ; *"t'io'''i'" Green. Short IliKtorij. m\-:\:u, — History of the Eivilinh Pto/il,; bk. V. cha. ii.-iv., bk. vi. <'h. i. ; Montague, Ehnninta of ('onstitu- tional History, U^-h)": ; I'owell and Pout. History of Kinjluiiil. ;{48- 3.J8. :{7;;-l2:J; Brewer, Stud>iU\^ Ilnmr, cha. xiii.-xv. ; Lingard, 262 THE TI'DOR MONARCHY Sources Illustrative works History of England, 111. clis. viii. ix., IV. chs. i.-iv. ; Moberley, Early Tudors ; Gairdner, Henry VII. ; Beazley, John and Sebas- tian Cabot ; Creighton, Cardinal Wolsey ; Taunton, Thomas Wol- sey, Legate and Reformer ; Hutton, Sir Thomas More ; Lee, Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century ; Merriman, Thomas Crom- icell ; Ga.squet, Sitjipression of the Monasteries] Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional History, 304-:]22, 334-364 ; Wakeman, Introduction to History of the Church of England, 253-251 ; Edwards, Wales, chs. xix.-xxi. ; Lang, History of Scotland, 1. chs. xiii.-xvii. ; Law- less, Ireland, chs. xix.-xxii. ; Fronde, History of England, L-IV. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 138-158 ; Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 53-57 ; Kendall, Source-Book, nos. 44-18 ; Cheyney, Early Beformation Period in England (University of Pennsylvania Reprints, I. no. 1) ; Gee and Hardy, Documents of Church History, nos. xlvi.-lxviii. ; Pollard, Tudor Tracts, nos. 1-7 ; Smith, Days of James IV. of Scots. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 24(5-247, — His- torical Sources, § 54. Ainsworth, Windsor Castle ; Bates and Coman. English History told by English Poets, 231-257 ; G. P. R. James, Darnlcy ; Landor, Imaginary Conversations (Henry VIII. and Anne Holeyn) ; Major, When Knighthood teas in Flower ; Manning, Household of Sir Thomas More ; Scott, Marmion ; Shakespeare. King Henry VIII. ; Yonge, The Armourer's Apprentice ; Ford, Perkin Warbeck. THE TUDOR LIXE Time scale, 25 yeurs to one Inch .40 HENRY Vll.= Elizabeth of York Ip. EM) I (P-Sfl) Arthur ^•"i^gs^ptDMarsarete^^ Lord Angus Charles =(2)MAry Brandon Duke of Suffolk ^(--Catherine = CD HENRY VIII. CS)^ Jane "'■^'•f^ — linJ2)Anne Boleyn |_Seymour -MARY JAMES V. -KlUsd at Fluddro. 1M2 EDWARD VIr Margaret Frances — m. Henry (jrey Dukt o Aiffulk Lady June (ircy Execuuj. 1&&4 — m. Lord (Tiilldford Dudley FRANCIS i\.—(VHAUyi2)= Henry Stuart Klofuf Frun jj] (3)|,^,^| Lonl' Uaraltj -Murler^, 1674 — ELIZABETH Arabella Stuart b*ft«r kDowv M JAMES I. — cf EatbM — (p. 370) 368 CHAPTER XVIII. CRISIS IN RELIGION UNDER EDWARD VI. AND MARY TUDOR (1547-1558) The reigns of Edward VI. and of Mary Tudor, together cov- ering only eleven years, were free from serious foreign compli- 289. The cations. During these years other states were rent by Reforma- religious wars and tion in Europe civil dissensions. The Reformation move- ment, which on the Con- tinent involved matters of doctrine as well as of church government and morals, had already swept over Norway, Sweden, Denmark, northern Ger- many, and parts of France, Switzerland, and the Netherlands ; and everywhere the attempts of the Roman Catholic monarchs to crush out the new heresies pro- duced violent civil strife. Under Edward VI., the Reformation in Edward VI., holding the York and Tudor Rose. From a portrait by Holbein. 290. Trend of England England entered on a new phase, marked by the adoption Protes^ of the " reformed " Protestant doctrines, under the influ- tantism ence of the young king's guardians. At first affairs were 264 CRISIS IN ki:m(;i<>n rNDKu kdwakd VI. 205 directed by a council presitK'd over by Edward's uncle, the Duke of Somerset, who used his position to supjKjrt the Refor- mation at home and abroad. Aided by Archbishop Craiimer, he quite transformed the church, causing the clergy to repu- diate distinctively Catholic doctrines, and abolishing many of the ancient practices which he held to be superstitious. To save Scotland to Protestantism, he again urged the marriage of Edward and Mary of Scots ; and being refused, he plunged the kingdom into war with Scotland, and later with France. As a result of these follies, the Scots betrothed ^Mary to the Dauphin of France, and the English were driven into revolts that led to Somerset's removal from ottice and his execution. His succes- sor, the Duke of Northumberland, also favored Protestantism. as being most favorable to his own aml)itious schemes. The vital distinction between the Catholic and Protestant faiths lay in their different answers to the question, '• \\'li;it things are essential to the salvation of the human soul '.' " ' „„, ^ '^ 291 Fun- The Roman Catholic doctrine is that the church, of damental which the Pope is the visible head, is the only author- *^^^^and itative guide as to what is true or false in religious doc- Protestant trine, the only earthly mediator between God and man, and therefore a necessary instrumentality for salvation. This claim rests upon the church's interpretation of Christ's words to Peter: "Thou art Peter, and upon this rof riliRions Hopnia shouM in Rciifral Ix- jt-ft until tin- piiinl is mori' iiiatun' : l»iit tliesiibsc(|Ucnt |xiliiical history of Kti^lanil <-an not Ix- intel- ligently niKlerstood nnlcss tlu- student iiniierstands elearly the nature <>f the relipions change brought about by the R«'formation, and exactly what was meant by certain expre.-sions, like " transiibstantiation," wliich ap|»car a^ain and again in the legislation of the next two centuries of course, the que.t- tinn of the truth of these doi^mas is wholly outside tin- limits of a course in English history. 266 THE TUDOR MONARCHY Supper (Matthew xxvi. 26-28). The Roman Church holds that the woi'ds " take, eat, this is my body," etc., imply a miracu- lous change of the substance of the bread and wine into the real body and blood of Christ, which takes place at every celebration of the mass. This doctrine, called " tran- substantiation," was combated by the Reformers, who claimed that Christ spoke figuratively, and that the bread and wine undergo no change of substance. In thus exercising the right to interpret the Scriptures for themselves, the Reformers were giving expression to the fun- damental ideas of Protestantism — that the historic church is not a necessary agent in man's salvation, and that it is the right of every man to adjust for himself his relations with his Maker. At first they failed to see this logical implication of their position, and for a long time the Church of England exerted all the powers of the ancient Roman Church in matters of doctrine and discipline over all English subjects. In 1549 Cranmer and certain associates prepared a ritual in English based on the ancient usages but adapted in its phrase- 292. Trans- ology and forms to the new beliefs. Three years later ^f^Si^^E^ an enlarged prayer book was issued, the use of 'which lish Church was obligatory ou all the clergy. Its framers had three objects in view : (1) to make the people familiar with the Scriptures by having a large part of the Bible read during divine service in the course of each year ; (2) to complete the separation from Rome by carrying on the whole service in the English instead of the Latin language ; (3) to rid the service of certain alleged superstitious and unhistorical legends and conceptions. As a further measure against superstition, the government ordered that images and stained glass windows depicting the lives and miracles of the saints should be de- stroyed ; and it completed the liberalizing of the church by permitting the clergy to marry. In 1553 the king and his council formally impressed upon the church the stamp of C'KISIS IN KKl.liilo.N INDKK MAliV TLDoi; •ji;, Protestantism by issuing forty-two '-Articles of Doctrine" fonuuliitecl by Craniner and approved l)y Convocation — later (undt-r Elizabeth) reduced to thirty-nine. Thus the Angliean Church in its general form was com- pletely established when Edward died (1553), after a reign of only six years. As soon as the king showed evidence 293. Plots of failing health, and it was seen that he would die un- p ^ t ^ married, Northumberland's ambition led him to scheme succession to retain power after Edward's death. To prevent a return to • Koman Catholicism, which was certain to happen if Edward's sister Mary succeeded him, N()rthumberland secured the mar- riage of his son Lord Guildford Dudley to Lady Jane Grey, great-granddaughter of Henry VIL, and induced Edward to make a will settling the succession upon this young lady. On Edward's death in July, 155.'i, Northumber- land caused Lady Jane Grey to be proclaimed queen, but his action created no enthusiasm, and he failed in an at- tempt to seize the person inscription [jane] cut i.v Ia)ri) (Jiild- of Mary Tudor. Marv ^^'\" D. ...-kv s Cell in thk Towkr -' • (»F London. fled to Norwich and rallied certain lords to lier support; and upon her advance toward London the reljellion collapsed. Although NorthundK'rland submitted at once, he was imprisoned and i>rouiptly lieheatled ; and later Lahort History, 3.j7-:}0t>, — History of the Enylish People, bk. vi. chs. i. ii. ; Montague. Eliinents of Coiislitutional History, 107-101) ; Powell and Tout, History <r>y Eiiylish Poi>ts, 2;")8-2H2 ; Clemens, The Princf ami the /'iiujicr ; Dc X'erc, }fiiry Tudor; Landor, Iinaijinary Courer- sations (Roger Ascham and Lady Jane (irey ; Prince.ss .Mary and l*rince.s8 Elizabeth) ; .Scolt, The Monastrry ; Teiiny.son, (Jueen Mary (a drama); Weyman, St«>ry ••'' f-'r-m,;.. <■/, „!■/._ Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works CHAPTER XTX. POLITICAL CRISIS UNDER ELIZABETH (1558-1603) The reign of Elizabeth marks a crisis in English history, when the religion of the state, its liberal government, and its 299. Eliza- place among the world powers all hung in the balance. "Vircin^ The young queen, encompassed by foes without and Queen" traitors within her rdalm, was compelled to deal with the most difficult political problems ; and the best proof of her great administra- tive ability is her suc- cessful reign lasting almost half a century. Elizabetli was a furious compound of masculine and feminine traits. Her skill at exercises like rid- ing and shooting, her rough temper and unruly S})eech, her grasp of finance and of statecraft, her sense of the greatness . of England's destiny, were distinctly mascu- line ; her love of finesse, Elizabeth. of gallant attentions, of In the state costume worn at the service of display, was as distinctly thanksgiving at Saint Paul's Cathedral after the defeat ol the Armada. feminine. Her wardrobe 272 rOLITlCAL CUISIS UNDER ELIZABETH -llo contained thousands of dresses and many jewels; her courtiers squandered fortunes to entertain her with masques and pageants. Eliz;il)eth dissembled with her counselors, with her politi- cal rivals and allies, almost with herself. She deliberately made capital of her youth and feminine charm to create among the young noblemen of her court an admiration and enthusiastic loyalty to herself, as the best safeguard for her throne. Her marriage with either a Catholic or a Protestant would have increased partisan strife both in England and on the Continent, so she early resolved to remain unwedded. '' I have long since made choice of a husband, the Kingdom of England," she said to her Tarliament. Nevertheless, she received many proposals of marriage from foreign suitors, and with these she used coquetry as a diplomatic weapon, to gain time or to delude her enemies. Back of this apparent vacillation was a strong, imperious will, which compelled her ministers, however able and inde- pendent in opinion, to submit to her control. She bidlied 300. Eliza- them, swore at them in council, or boxed their ears at » . ^ ' ' statesman- ]tublic functions, without restraint or shame. Fortu- ship nately she was as wise and steadfast in important matters as she was vain, capricious, exacting, and unreasonable in smaller things. She rarely lost sight of her larger aims, and often showed herself a statesman more dear-brained if not more far-sighted than her ablest ministers. Cecil, her Secretary of State, was eager to enlist England in defense of the Protestant cause tipon the Continent; but Elizabeth steadily refused to involve the country in war until she had made her own position secure and had strengthened the resources of the state. Thus, when the critical struggle with Spain could nolonger be avoided, she was strong enough to win a complete and decisive victory. Apparently circumstances, rather than conviction, shajfed Elizabeth's attitude toward religion. Since the Pope ^^} ^^^ Still denied the validity of Catherine's divorti-. and con- policy wai-kek's eno. hist. — 17 274 THE TUDOR MONARCHY Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. From a painting in Edinburgh. sequently her own legitimacy, she couhl not accept the Pope's supremacy without facing the danger that lie would award the throne to her cousin, Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland (see table, p. 263). She therefore induced Parliament to restore the suprem- acy of the monarch "as well in all spiritual or ecclesiastical things as temporal." To supplement this change, the revised prayer book of Edward VI. was again brought into use, and an Act of Uniformity was passed (1559) for- bidding any other form of public worship than the one therein pre- scribed (Appendix K) ; but as Elizabeth wished to retain as many of her people as possible within the state church, she did not at first strictly enforce this law. Among the clergymen now restored to their livings, were a group of men who, during Mary Tudor's reign, had fled to Hol- 302. The laud and to Switzerland, and had there become imbued Puritans with the austere doctrines of John Calvin. These men were determined to create a wider gap between the English and the Roman Church by " purifying " the service of what they claimed to be superstitious ceremonies (whence the name Puritans) ; among these were the wearing of a white surplice by officiating clergymen, the kneeling at the reception of the sacrament, and the keeping of fast and festival days. The zeal of these Puritans defeated Elizabeth's policy of broad toleration within the church, and compelled her to enforce more strictly the Act of Uniformity ; and as a result many Puritans, toward the end of her reign, abandoned the church and gathered secretly in so-called " conventicles " for religious roi.rruAL ciiisis imm;!; kijzakkiii 275 worship ill accordance with their own convictions, thus form- ing the first of many sects of "dissenters." Many of the returned refugees were adherents of the type of church organization worked out by Calvin under the name of Presbyterianism. This was essentially a democratic „ . ,. , , , 303 Pres- system, in which the control was vested in " presbyters," byterian a body of ministers and lay elders elected by the mem- radicals bers of the congregations. Such a system appealed to that portion of the English people who had departed furthest from Catholicism, but it was wholly unacceptable to Elizabeth and probably to a large majority of the people. For a time, there- fore, the Puritans were content to hold Calvin's religious doc- trines, while accepting the existing form of church government; but as early as 1572 there began a struggle between the Epis- copal and the Presbyterian type of church organization, each claiming to be based on the Scriptures and therefore binding on all Christians. Meanwhile Catholics upon the Continent set themselves the task of winning back England to the Koman Church before it should be too late, principally through the 304 Con- agency of the order of Jesuits. Seminaries for the ..^'^^^Ti'^^ / the Catho training of English Jesuits were founded at Douay, at lie party Klieims, and at Kouen, whence devoted missionaries were sent to England to labor secretly. The number of Catholics who refused to take the Oath of Supremacy and to attend the regular church services was alarmingly increased. Against these '• recusants " Elizabeth proceeded with even more vigor than against the I'uritaiis; and Parliament strengthened her hands by acts which made the presence of a Catholic mission- ary in England eriuivalent to treason, and prescribed the death ]ienalty for those who assisted in celebrating the mass. Meeting in Protestant conventicles was discouraged by jiiinishing absence frf)m churdi with heavy fines, sometimes amounting to two tliirds of the offender's income. From time 276 THE TUDOR MONARCHY to time Elizabeth appointed Commissioners to secure uniform- ity in religion, and in 1583 created a permanent Court of High Commission, to enforce ecclesiastical law, to root out heresies among the clergy, and to punish immoralities and neglect of church services among the laity. By these measures, the mass of the people were held in line until the " Church of England by law established" became so strong in organization and tradition that neither Catholics nor Calvinists were able per- manently to shake its foundations. Unable to make head in England, Elizabeth's enemies sought to deprive her of Ireland, where the Reformation had alienated 305. Rebel- many of the inhabitants of the Pale. In 1565 the lions in Ire- Q'Xeils revolted in Ulster, and four years later the land ' •' (1565-1579) Desmonds drew all of Munster into rebellion. The Span- iards and the Pope aided the rebels with money and men, and before the revolts were crushed (1579) all JNIunster was deso- lated, the Desmonds were almost annihilated, and their estates were distributed among Elizabeth's favorites, to be colonized with English settlers (map, p. 340). Probably the most perplexing problem of Elizabeth'^ reign grew out of her relationship to Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland 306. Eliza- (S-'^Ol)- In the year beth's quar- of Elizabeth's acces- rel with . ,, Mary of sion, Mary was mar- Scots ried to the Dauphin of France, who two years later ascended the throne as Erancis II. On thus becoming queen of France, Mary challenged Eliza- beth's title to the throne by assuming the arms and style of queen of England. By this time Presbyterianism had spread through Scotland under the celebrated preacher Autographs of Elizabeth axd Mary Queen of Scots. The R following each name is for Regina (queen). I'ol.l riCAI. CUISIS INDKK KI.IZ A MKTII .Juhii Kiiox, and Mary's iiiutliLT (Mary of Guise), -who was acting as regent, attempted to suppress it. The cause of Protestautisiu was taken up by certain disaffected noLles who signed a "Covenant" to defend "the whole Congregation of Christ" (lo57) ; a rebellion broke out, and Elizabeth revenged herself upon Mary by lending aid to the Scottish rebels. Tlienccfdrth tlie enmity of the two queens was never relaxed. M.VKV Stiakt's liKDR()o>r, Hoi.YuooD Palace, Edinhukgh. In ir»(JO Mary's husljand died, and she soon returned to Scot- land to find that the Presbyterian nobles (called the Lords of the Congregation) had induced the Scottish I'arlianient to 307 Down- make Presbyterianism the official religion of tlie state. ^ °,c*»^ •' " of Scots As >rary was an ardent Catholic, Scotland was soon torn (1568) by factional strife between the supporters of the queen and those of her half-brother '^^urray, an ambitious, domineering nobleman, who made use of the religious dissensions of the kingdom for his own ends. Mary, who was self-indulgent, passionate, and unscrupulous, soon sealed her own fate by a series of mad and criminal actions. Against tlie advice of her 278 THE TUDOR MONARCHY friends, she insisted on marrying her cousin Lord Darnley, a silly, harebrained youth, who speedily alienated her affections by aiding her enemies to murder her secretary, an Italian named Rizzio, in her very presence. Mary sought the protec- tion of the Earl of Both well, a man of great wealth and influence ; but his reputation and hers were soon absolutely ruined, first by the murder of Darnley, apparently through their agency, and later by their speedy marriage after Both- well had hastily secured a divorce from his own wife. From that moment Mary could boast of few friends in Eng- land, in Scotland, or even in France. Her husband was driven 308. Mary into exile by Murraj", and she herself was imprisoned and EnelanV^ forced to abdicate the throne (1567) in favor of her in- (1568-1587) fant son, now James VI. She soon escaped from confine- ment, however, and again rallied her adherents ; but she was once more defeated by Murray at Langside on the Clyde (1568), and forced to take refuge in England. Elizabeth was now in a difficult position. To leave her rival at liberty would be suicidal ; yet it was hard to find legal grounds for keeping her in captivity. She therefore decided to hold Mary under temporary restraint until a commission could investigate the circumstances of Darnley's death. Without waiting for the report of the commission (which declared her guilty of complicity in the murder), Mary from her prison plunged into intrigues against Elizabeth's throne and life, in which she was aided by Spain and France, and by many English Catholics. The first plot aimed to secure the marriage of Mary to the Duke of Norfolk, the leading Catho- lic peer in England, as a means of uniting the Catholics in England in her behalf and procuring an uprising in the north. This was crushed out, and the rebels were severely punished. Then the Pope was induced to publish a bull of deposition against Elizabeth, and a plan was made for an uprising of the English Catholics under cover of an invasion of England by the rnl.iriCAL ClilSlS INDKli KLI/.A ISK III L'7'.> Diikt* of Alva with Spanish troops tlieu engaged in (juflling a revolt in the Netherlands. This plan, however, Avas postponed for more than a decade, owing to Alva's inability to reduce the Netherlands to order. The Netherlands consisted of seventeen provinces, clustered at the mouth of the Rhine; they had formerly belonged to Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and had become 309. Spain Spanish dependencies through the marriage of his ^^^ *^® ^ Nether- grandson Philip with a Spanish princess and their lands consequent inheritance by Charles V. Their towns were very wealthy, Ghent being the greatest manufacturing center, Bruges the greatest commercial center, and Antwerp the greatest port, of northern Europe. These provinces were very jealous of their ancient liberties, which received scant attention from the absolutist raonarchs of Spain. In prose- cuting his quarrels with France, Philip II. quartered his garrisons in the Flemish towns on the border, and further drained the resources of the provinces by grinding taxation. In the northern provinces, of which Holland was the chief. Protestantism wa.s making rapid strides; and when Philip introduced the Inquisition to crush out this heresy, religious and political resentment combined to provoke resistance. In ir)f>7 the Duke of Alva was given ten thousand picked troops and sent to reduce the Netherlands to subjection ; but his measures were so harsli as to i)rovoke open rebellion. Philip was anxious for peace in the Netherlands so that he might be free to attack England, and Alva was dismissed (1573) J but the revolt spread and continued until 1570, when the Duke of Parma, a far wiser and bolder ruler lliau Alva, succeeded in reducing the southern provinces to s\il>inissioii. The seven nortlifiii pntvinces, however, formed the Union of Utrecht (1579), fiom which arose the Kepulilie of the 310 Eng- T'nited Netherlands, eomnioidv known bv the name (»f its .. ^^'1^^°'^ the Nether- leading state, Holland. The head of tin; new n'public lands 280 THE TUDOR MONARCHY SCALE OF MILES 10 20 30 40 SO 60 Republic of the United Netherlands, ^>is^ ■^..^"l-.l- The Netherlands, about 1650. •was William of Orange, but he was assassinated in 1584, and the sovereignty was offered to Spain's greatest enemy, Elizabeth of England. The queen refused to assume so great a responsi- bility, but agreed to assist the infant republic by furnishing four thousand men till the close of the war. By this means POLITICAL CRISIS I NDEK ELIZAIJKTII 281 sl»t> kept I'aniKi busy in tlie Netherlands, and this staved off invasion for three years more. Meanwhile Parliament, fear- ingj that the assassination of William would l)e followed by that of Elizabeth, passed an act (1585) punishing with death any one " assisting or being privy to any plot for the hurt, death, and destruction of the royal person." The need for such legislation was shown by the immediate dis- covery of a conspiracy, organized by a fanatical Catholic named Anthony Babington, for assassinating Elizabeth and 311. Fate making Mary queen. This conspiracy, early discovered °o?^^^ by the watchfulness of Secretary AValsingham, was al- (1587) lowed to ripen unchecked. When the treasonable plot was fully perfected and Clary's complicity was proved beyond shadow of doubt, the consj^irators were seized ; Mary was tried before a special commission composed of forty mem- bers of the Queen's Council and peers of the realm, and was condemned to death. Elizalieth shrank from ordering the execution of a queen, and with characteristic indirectness tried to get her ministers to act without her express au- thority ; but they refused to act illegally in so important a matter, and as Tarliament presse'^. Thk Spanish Abmada. From tapestry in tlic House of L,or(l8. Eii;;raveil by the Smitly of Antiquarians. them and the ocean crushing un(h'r their weiglit;'" and then they followed for one entire week, contenting themselves with cutting off stragglers from the lini', and taking advantage of the mishaps and mistakes of their enemies. " The English vessels — . . . light, swift, and easily handled — could Motb-u, sail rount, 1-:J2; Rait. Mary Qut-en of Scots; Payne, Voyages of Elizatiethan Seamen. See New England Mistorj- Teachers' As.socialion, Syllahus, 248-240, — Historical Sources, § 55. C. Kingsley, M'estirard Ho ; Scott. Kmilworth, — The Abbot ; Tennyson, The Revenge ; Yonge, Unknown to History. Sources Illustrative works CHAPTER XX. INTELLECTUAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND SOCIAL PROGRESS UNDER THE TUDORS With the restoration of order under the Tudors, the Renais- sance impulse toward intellectual culture reached England. 319. The Then, enriched by the wealth drawn from new industries revival of ^„ pillaged from Spain, Englishmen like the Earl of England Surrey, Thomas Earl of Sackville, and Sir Philip Sid- ney visited Prance and Italy to acquire the culture of the Blundkll's School, Tiverton, founded 1604. Built partly of timbers from the Armada, gathered on the Coruish coast. Continent. Others studied at Oxford with foreign-trained teachers like Grocyn and Colet, the first English teachers of Greek ; or at Cambridge with Erasmus, a Dutch scholar who had been attracted to England by the new enthusiasm for 288 PROGRESS L'NDKIi THE TLDORS 289 learning. In 1509-1512, Dean C'olet founded St. 1 'an r.s School for the instruction of one hundred and tifty-three children "of every nation, country, ;uid class." " .More gram mar-schools Qu^,gj j^ were founded in the latter years of Henry \'11I. than in ('reen,ch.vi. the three centuries before." Still more were founded under Edward VI. and Elizabeth. Many colleges, too, were founded at Oxford and Cambridge by Henry VIII., by Elizabeth, by Wolsey, by the bishops of Lincoln and Winchester. The curriculuius of the universities were broadened to meet the growing requirements of " the new learning." Hundreds of intelligent young men with delight sought the treasures .. of learning stored up within Greek, Koman, Hebrew, new leam- and Arabic books and manuscripts. Hundreds of others ^^ turned to the stories of adventure which enriched the litera- ture of the earlier Italian Renaissance, stories dealing with the heroic deeds of "Charlemagne and all his peerage," of the crusaders, of Trojan and Theban heroes. Others busied them- selves with the novel study of natural science ; and still others, through the study of the Bible in its original Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac, tested the claims of the Roman Church, now called in question by the jarring sects of the Reformation. The literature of the period shows three distinct tendencies: a love of romance, interest in the historic past, and, above all, sympathetic study of the various types of human- ity exhibited in everyday life. Among the romances mantic lit- should \io mentioned three jn-ose writings: Sidney's erature Arrmliu was a pastoral romance describing ideal country life as pictured in the imagination of a dweller at Elizabeth's court; John Lyly's EujJiues was a treatise on friendship, love, and education, as they inspired the enthusiastic youth of Tudor England, presented through the assumed letters of a young Athenian visiting England; Utopia, by Sir Thomas More, chancellor imder Henry VIII., was a story in which, in the form of a legend told by a companion of Americas Ves- walkkr's km;, iuht. — 18 290 THE TUDOR MONARCHY pucius, More describes his ideal state, and incidentally throws light upon the conditions of the various classes in England. Greater than these was the romantic poem Tlie Faerie Queene, written by Edmund Spenser to celebrate the glories and de- scribe the history of Elizabeth's reign. In the spirit of the mediaeval romances, Spenser, under the allegorical imagery of twelve knights who ride forth to perform feats of valor in the service of the " Faerie Queene," depicts the leading person- ages and events of that reign — Elizabeth (the Faerie Queene), Leicester, Raleigh, Mary Queen of Scots, Philip II., etc. The work of the historians of the Tudor and early Stuart periods marks the first important effort of Englishmen toward _. historical writing of a modern type. It includes the 322. His- ^ -^ ^ torical compilation of Holinshed's Chronides of England, Scot- literature ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ Ireland; the works of Stowe, whose book on legal records and obscure events makes him the favorite of anti- quarians; the narratives of explorers and navigators collected by Hakluyt, and Bacon's Life of Henry VII. The ambition of the period is illustrated by Raleigh's enterprising attempt to construct a History of the World from the Earliest Times. The Elizabethan romancers and historians all depict charac- ters more or less idealized, but the crowning glory of the age """^s *^^® development of the English drama, in which Elizabethan simple human nature is made interesting for its own ^^^^ sake. The Middle Ages had produced many miracle plays and mystery plays, but the drama proper is probably begun in the notable schoolboy comedy, Ralph Royster Doyster, written during the age of Henry VIII. by Nicholas Udall, and in the crude historical tragedy of Gorboduc, written in 15()2 by Sackville and Norton. Within the following twenty-five years, the drama enlisted the talents of Marlowe, Greene, Peele, Nash, — all endowed with extraordinary powers, — and it reached its culmination in the work of Shakespeare (15G4- 1616) and Ben Jonson (1574-1637). rUOGUESS INDKK IIIK ITDdUS l'!*! William Shakespeare, the greatest dramatist of modern times, produeed in whole or in part nune tlian forty dramas, in which he brings out in the highest ilegree the interest 324 Wil- in romantic, in historic, and in contemporary humanity. ^^^™ Shake- ' ' r J J spearo These three interests correspond roughly to the three (1564 1616» stages of his dramatic work. In his earlier years the romantic stories from mediieval European sources, which were then popu- lar, furnished the })lots for a series of light comedies of which the Merchant of Venice was the crowning work ; later he turned for dramatic subjects to English and Eoman history, to the lives of heroes like Henry V. and Julius Ca\sar; and, during a still later period, the deeper as})ects of human life furnisiied him the inspiration for a series of the most powerful tragedies known to literature — Macbeth, Kinfj Lear, Hamlet. All these works are marked by an elevation of thought and a kindred elevation of style which stimulate the im- agination and uplift the mind \Vii.liam Shakkspeark. and soul. ^'""' "'"^ l>:ii"ti'>R V P- Kriniwr. Perhaps the most striking thing in the Renaissance move- ment was the free use of mediseval or classical models to express new ideas. For example, the "masque," a dramatic 325 Imita- ])roduction enriched with nnisic, dancing, and architec- ciasskal tural and spectacular effects, was imported from Italy, models •where it had developed in the later mediipval period. In Eng- land it was improved, beautlHed with much classical ornament, and frequently made the vehicle of nmral teaching, as in the work of I'lt-n .Tonson and in Milton's early masfjue of Comus. The dramas of Shakespeare and his followers were constructed 292 THE TUDOR MONARCHY on the model of the Greek and Roman drama, with their rigid division into five acts and their frequent employment of a chorus to supplement the work of the actors. Lyric forms like the son- net, the ode, and the pas- toral were studied upon the Continent, and after- ward developed elaborate- ly by English poets. Blank verse, the foundation for the expression of all the noblest dramatic and epic poetry in English litera- ture, was brought from the Continent to England by Sir Thomas Wyatt, and the themes of nearly all the imaginative works of the period were borrowed from Continental sources. ■^/anehes i iue axennj- ^l^ oUcmaiionibus J^ortctinenUiu^' Swan Theater, Bankside, London. From a sketch made in 1596. Students of foreign languages catered to this love of learning by the zeal with which they attacked the task of translating 326. Trans- ^^^^ English any important works by foreign authors. lations Thus Ariosto's gigantic epic, Orlando Furioso, was ren- dered into English by Harrington, Tasso's Gerusalemme Lihe- rata by Fairfax, Homer's Iliad by Chapman, Virgil's ^I^neid by Surrey. Most important of all, in 1535 the Scriptures were " faithfully and truly translated out of Douche and Latyn into English " by ISIiles Coverdale. The influence of classical art on architecture was much more 327. Archi- tardy. In church architecture the Tudor period saw the doin^^t" culmination of the "perpendicular" type of Gothic arts architecture, with its flat ceilings relieved by " fan vault- PROGRESS UNDER THE TUDORS 293 iug," its depressed arches, its windows paneled by vertical mullions, and its characteristic chivalric ornaments — shields, battlements, the Tudor flower, etc. Henry VII.'s chapel, added to Westminster Abbey in 1502-ir)20, marks alike the limit of development of the perpendicular style and the end of the medi clival period of cathedral building. For a time, col- leges, schools, pal- aces, and homes were to absorb the attention of archi- tects. The wealthy were no longer con- tent to dwell in the huge barnlike or fortresslike struc- tures of the Middle Ages ; and for com- fort, beauty, and luxury, the classical type of structure was more suitable than the Gothic. Stately palaces and mansions combining the (Jneco- Roman column, arch, and ornamental forms, with the steep gable roofs and round towers of the Gothic period, arose all over England. Warmth was secured by covering the walls witli tapestry, arras work, or ])ainted cloths, and iron grates and chimneys replaced the smoky oi)en fireplaces. In the rich cloths, showy Gat k of i I . > C'AMllKll) . ' -i CoLLKOK, L'm\ KKSITV. Built l.VW. Tyj)0 (if Itali:in Koiuiissiince architecture. 294 THE TUDOR MONARCHY ruffs, laced doublets, and slashed hose worn by the nobles, and in the more refined household equipment of the common peo- ple, — where the feather bed replaced the straw pallet, where metal table furnishings replaced the wooden ware, — we see further evidences of wide general prosperity. This prosperity arose in part from the rapid growth of English manufactures under the Tudors, due to two causes : 328. (1) The commercial centers of Europe were at this Growth of ^^ flooded with the silver and gold brought by Spain manu- ® o j r factures from the new world. As the supply of money increased, its purchasing value fell ; that is, more silver was required to purchase a given weight of wool or other goods, or, to phrase it still differently, prices rose. The higher prices naturally stimulated production, and for a time manufactures flour- ished. .At first the rural districts complained loudly at the degradation of farms into sheep runs. A contemporary poet mourns because " Sheepe have eate up our meadows and our downs, Our corne, our wood, whole villiges and townes. Yea, they have eate up many wealthy men, ♦ Besides widowes, and orphan childeren ; " but it was only the less productive farms that were converted to wool growing, and the value of the others was soon increased by improved methods of farming, — skillfvd fertilization, rota- tion of crops, etc., — and by the added demand for food prod- ucts in the towns. Thus farmers shared in the prosperity of the manufacturers. (2) England profited by the distress of the Netherlands under Spanish rule. By the year 1566, thirty thousand Flem- ish weavers had migrated to England to escape Philip's tyranny. Elizabeth received them hospitably and established them in Sandwich, Norwich, and other eastern towns ; but she shrewdly imposed on them legal restrictions which com- riJitCUKSS INDKU TIIK ITlKiKS 2\\i') ])f\\od t'iu-li Flemish family \o receive one Kn,<;lisli npprentiee aiid teac'h him the ait of making and dyeing wooh'n eh)th and silk. Much of the cloth thus l)roduced had to be mar- keted on the Oonti- 329 nent, and this led to ^f^rwui a second economic Europe change, the growth of England's carrying trade liy sea. For this work England was especially fitted through her geo- gra])hical position, and through the adventurous spirit of her seamen, trained in the hard school of the herring fisheries and in the still harder experience of the wars with Spain on the high seas. Until the middle of Elizabeth's reign, the great Venetian fleet which carried on Italian trade with Flanders also supplied English wants, touching at Southampton, at Rye, or at Sandwich ; now, English merchants became their own purveyors. For exami)le, the ('ompany of Merchant Adven- turers (§§ 234, 275) sent its own fleet of fifty vessels twice a year to Flanders, exporting annually more than one hundred thousand [tieces of cloth. Nor were its operations confined to the trade with Flanders. Already, while three of its ships were searching for a northern rcjute to India in l")"),*?, one of them had ventured as far as Archangel, on the Arctic coast, and opened up to the English the profitable Russian fur trade; now tliis lr;idt' was developed, and tlirongli Kussia ('onnecti()n was made with the whale fisheries at Spitzbergen, and with the commerce of Persia and tlie far East. A Bkm.man of the 17th Century. From u br(ia ^^^^ very vain, and full of a belief first Stuart in the " divine right of kings " to exercise monarch supreme authority "as God's anointed" rulers. This doctrine was thus set forth in a law dictionary of the time : '^ He [the king] is Coweii, Thf. above the law by his absolute power: and Interpreter though for the better and equal course in making laws, he do admit the Three Estates unto Council, yet this is not of constraint, but of his own benig- nity, or by reason of the promise made upon oath at the time of his corona- tion. . . . Yet this oath notwith- standing, he may alter or suspend any particular law that seemeth hurtful to the public estate." With this con- viction James was resolved not to sub- mit in England to restraints such as had been imposed upon his mother and himself in Scotland, but rather to exercise to the full his authority over both church and state. This attitude forced Parliament to examine more strictly the 300 Heraldic De- vice OF James I. Tudor rose aud Scottish thistle. James I. in Hawking Costume. TIIK HOYAL rKEHOlJATlVE (1003-1040) 301 limits of tlie royal "prerogative" — the authority left in the hands of the king, to be used according to his own judgment for the good of the nation. Besides the ancient crown rights over forests, wardship, coinage, etc., it included royal pre- such matters as (1) the choice of ministers; (2) the rogative bestowal of peerages ; (3) the granting of charters to guilds, trading companies, and town and city governments ; (4) the regulation of trade by monopolies and duties; (5) the imprison- ment of special offenders against the state ; (6) the pardon of offenders, and the suspension of the law in particular cases ; (7) the levying of special taxes to meet extraordinary demands for money. It was an essential part of the theory of the pre- rogative that it be used with judgment, and for the good of the state. Its misuse was the cause of such constitutional reforms as those of Magna Charta and the Contirmatio Cartarum. The doctrine of the Stuarts (James and his son Charles I.) as to the prerogative included several errors. (1) They be- lieved that the king's rights were absolute and un- limited, and that he conceded certain limited powers to abuse of the Parliament — instead of seeing that the power of the P"^°5a ve nation was unlimited, and that it conceded certain lim- ited powers to the king. (2) They therefore stretched the prerogative to include powers which Parliament had often denied to the king. (3) They did this in the face of the most intense and widespreatl opposition. For example, they per- verted the right to regulate trade by levying duties into the right to raise an income from duties; they used special ta.xes for the same purpose; they used the right of imprisonment to prevent criticism of their own actions; and they extended the right of pardon from individuals to whole clas.ses, and thus wholly nullified parliamentary statiites. In the end they alienated l)oth Parliament and the nation at large, and forced the withdrawal of rights hitherto conceded to every monarch. The first event of James's reign foreshadowed a schism 302 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT within tlie Church of England. Immediately on his acces- sion he was confronted with a petition from eight hundred ^^^ twenty-five clergymen, urging the abolition of the religious use of the surplice, of the cross m baptism, and of the problem ^.j^^^^ -^^ marriage, and pleading for other Puritan reforms. A few months later a conference of clergymen was called at the royal palace at Hampton Court, to settle once for all the religious policy of the government. Unfortunately for the Puritans, their doctrines Avere regarded as the entering wedge of Presbyterianism, the democratic element of which was hate- ful alike to the officers of the established church and to the king. Under a Presbyterian system, he declared, "Jack and Tom and Will and Dick shall meet and at their pleasures cen- sure me and my Council and all our proceedings " ; and one of the bishops declared that the king spoke " by the instinct of the spirit of God." The only fruit of this conference was the authorization of a fresh translation of the Bible — the King James Version. By the king's refusal to sanction changes, the Puritans were forced into the position of a dissenting sect; and within the next six years hundreds of the clergy were expelled from their livings for " nonconformity " with the statutes. " I will make them conform," said James at Hamp- ton Court, " or I will harry them out of the land." Within a few months the life of the king was twice put in serious danger by conspiracies. At his accession. Sir Walter 338. Plots Paleigh and Cecil (son of Elizabeth's great secretary) agamst ^xe^e at odds over the foreign policy of the govern- James o j. ^ (1603-1604) ment — Raleigh clamoring for continued war with Spain, Cecil for peace. As James chose Cecil for his adviser, Raleigh gave his countenance to plots to seize the king's person and, possibly, to place Arabella Stuart on the throne; but Cecil discovered the plot, sent his rival to prison, and negotiated a favorable peace with Spain in 1604. The fear of foreign invasion removed, James wished to TIIK KnVAL I'KKUoii Al~l\" K (10(1.)- 1040) 30;j relax tlif laws aiLjainst English Catholics; l»ut he liked the revenue from tines levied on Catholic recusants (.^20 a month for each person convicted), an4) attacked the divine- first contest riglit theory bv asserting that its own privileu'es — such ^i^li Parlia- ■ ■ ' ment as control over disputed elections and exemption of its (1604 1614; 304 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT members from arrest — were matters of right and not of the king's grace. At a later session it questioned the right of the king to levy import duties, but was defeated by a decision of the courts in favor of the king. James's extrava- gance, however, forced him to apply to the House of Commons for a large grant of money, and the latter showed its inde- pendence by making the grant conditional on a redress of grievances, whereupon the king in anger dissolved the Par- liament. A second Parliament, called in 1614, proved equally stubborn, and was promptly dissolved without passing a sin- gle act — whence it received the name of the Addled Par- liament. After the death of Cecil, in 1612, James gave the govern- ment into the hands of certain personal favorites. The first 340. Rule of these, a former Scottish page named Robert Carr, of Bucking- ^^g^g loaded with titles and powers ; but he was soon (1616-1625) discarded in favor of George Villiers, a Lincolnshire gentleman who was made successively Earl, Marquis, and Duke of Buckingham. Although endowed with considerable talent, Buckingham was ruined by his too rapid rise to power. He became fabulously rich in a single year, largely through the sale of monopolies issued under the pretense of encouraging home manufactures and regulating commerce. His ability to secure titles, offices, and favors of every sort from the king easily won him an enormous following. At his bidding coun- try gentlemen were created barons, barons were raised to the rank of earls, lawyers were made judges, and judges were given sinecure offices. Among the men whom Buckingham thus patronized was Francis Bacon (1561-1626), the most remarkable English- 341. Fran- ^^^ of that generation. Able and ambitious, but un- cis Bacon scrupulous, Bacon first came to power by aiding in the prosecution of his own patron, Essex, for treason (§ 317). He became attorney-general in 1613, and with the aid of Bucking- THE KOYAL rUEKOGATIVE (1G01U1040) 305 liaiu rose to be privy councilor, Lord Keeper, Lord Chancellor, and a peer of the realm (^Lord \'erulani, 1G18 ; Viscount St. Albans, 1G21). Unfortunately for his reputation, he several times misused his otHcial powers as chancellor to please liuckingham. Bacon's greatness lay in science rather than in politics. He was the author of several philosophical and scientific works of great power, the most notable of which, the Xocum Organum, marks an epoch in the history of science. In this he first clearly pointed out and formulated the method of scientific investigation by induction from observed facts, and thus pointed the way to all the marvelous scientific dis- coveries of modern times. The profuse bestowal of titles and offices gave James and Buckingham complete control of the upper house and of the law courts, but it roused an equally strong opposition 342. Oppo- among the people at large. Consequently the Parliament 8itK)n to summoned after a seven years' interval in IGiM proved ingham almost as difficult to control as its predecessor. The Thirty Years' War between the Catholic and the Protestant states of Germany was now going on, and James's daughter I^lizabeth was married to Frederick, Elector of the Palatinate (a state of the Empire situated in the middle Khine valley), who was the Protestant candidate for the emperorship. Parliament voted a small sum of money to be spent in assisting Frederick, but the Commons seized this opportunity to make an attack upon Buckingham's traffic in monopolies. Bacon was impeached and removed from office on the charge of accepting bribes, and the monopolies were canceled by the king. No sooner had James yielded this point, than certain mem- bers began to discuss his relations with Spain; for James 343. Close had long been negotiating a marriage between liis son ° ^^elen Charles and the Spanish Infanta, and it was suspected (1621 -1625 1 that he had made untlue concessions to T'n'l.inirs .■iiicitnt wvi.kkk's knu. hist. — in 306 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT enemy. The king forbade Parliament to discuss this subject, and the Commons promptly voted that the state, the defense of the realm, the Church, the laws, and grievances were proper matters for them to debate. James, in a violent temper, went in person to the House and tore from the journal the leaf containing this resolution (1622). Much to Parliament's delight, the negotiations with Spain failed (1623), and Buckingham, in a fit of pique, turned to France, with which Spain was at war. A marriage was arranged between Charles and Henrietta Maria, daughter of Louis XIII. (1624), on condition that England should tolerate Catholicism and should join in a war against Spain. James died the next year (1625), and Charles became king both of England and of Scotland. In accordance with Buckingham's treaty, a struggle with Spain began in the first year of Charles's reign, v/hen a fleet 344 "F ^^^ dispatched to Cadiz to intercept the Spanish treasure eign policy fleet from the American mines. In spite of James's large income, the royal treasury was now so empty that war vessels could not be procured, and the fleet was made up of merchant vessels with seamen pressed into service. To secure the necessary equipment, Charles resorted to forced loans. The undertaking thus ill begun was worse managed ; and the fleet returned home without capturing either Cadiz or the treasure fleet (1625). Two years later, Louis XIII. of France, who was preparing to enter the Thirty Years' War as a foe of the Empire, attempted to make himself safe from attack at home by depriving the Charles I. From the portrait by Vau Dyck. of Charles I. TIIK IMYAL PKEROGATIVE (KJOS-IWO) 307 Huguenots of certain towns which they were hohling as guar- antees of freedom of worship. Buckingham, hoping to regain some prestige by aiding oppressed Protestants, assumed charge of an expedition to assist the Huguenots besieged in Rochelle. The expense of this expedition, also, was met by forced loans and the illegal levying of tonnage (tuunage) and poundage. The English fleet blockaded the principal fort of the besiegers, but at the last moment the French broke the blockade. Dis- ease thinned the ranks of the English soldiery, a final attempt to storm the place with the weakened forces resulted in failure, and Buckingham returned to England in disgrace. ^Meanwhile three successive Parliaments turned to account ]?uckingham's follies and the king's necessities. The first (162.')) demanded the right to control the expenditure . as well as the granting of money, and was dissolved by tion of the angry king. In the second (1G26) the Commons ^ig^*^1628) moved the impeachment of Buckingham; as a result, "Sir Dudley Diggs and Sir John Eliot were committed to „„ . , , , the Tower; and the King came to the Lords' House, Aftmioriah, and told them of it; and that he could clear Bucks ^^'^ [Buckingham] of every one of the matters whereof he was accused." The Commons persisting in the impeachment, Parliament was dissolved. A third, summoned after the failure of the Rochelle expedition, prepared a "Petition of Right" (1028), in which were set forth certain ancient rights of tlie English people which had fallen into abeyance under the Tudor .sovereigns. To safeguard the^c rights. Parliament demanded from the king an explicit lu-knowledgnifut that it was illegal (1) to levy benevolences in any form ; (2) to levy a direct tax without the consent of Parliament; (3) to bil- let soldit'rs upon the citizens; (4) to grant commissions to military officers to execute martial law in times of peace ; and (5) to imi)rison citizens without preferring definite charges. Charles needed money so much that, in i-.iii>i.]i r:ifi..n ..f a 308 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT vote of five "subsidies" (the amount of a subsidy was now fixed at £70,000), he gave his assent to the Petition of Right, and thus resigned the powers in dispute for himself and his successors forever. Parliament unwisely omitted to include in the list the arbitrary levying of tonnage and poundage, and when, later in the session, it remonstrated against this prac- tice also, it was prorogued. Buckingham, anxious to repair his damaged military reputa- tion, planned a fresh expedition for the relief of Rpchelle, but o-./. TN XI. on the eve of his 346. Death of Bucking- departure (August, ham (1628) -^g28) he was assas- sinated by a disappointed and revengeful officer of his previous expedition. Rochelle surrendered to Louis five days later, and Charles's foreign policy was thus shown to be hope- less. In January, 1629, Charles reassembled Par- liament, which renewed its attack upon tonnage and poundage with still more spirit than before. In March, Pym, Hamp- den, and Sir John Eliot 347. Pro- prepared a remonstrance against this abuse. The speaker, test against ^y ^i^q king's order, refused to read it to the House, and arbitrary . • , i i i t taxation attempted to adjourn the meeting, but was forcibly held (1629) down in the chair by Holies and Valentine. The door was locked, so that the king's officers outside could not enter with a notice of prorogation, nor the members disperse. Then, as the speaker and his clerk both refused to read the resolu- GeoRGE VlLLIERS, FiRST DUKE UF Buckingham. From the portrait liy Cornelius Jansen, at Hamilton Court. TIIK i;()VAL rUKKntiA'lIVE (l(ii»;;-l(]4u) i}(J9 tion, Sir John Eliot read it amid shouts of applause; and the Commons voted with enthusiasm that whoever sought to hrinjj about innovations in religion or introduce therein any unortho- dox influence, whoever advised the king to levy tunnage and poundage witliout a grant from the Commons, and whoever voluntarily paid tonnage and poundage, was an enemy to the kingdom and a traitor to the liberties of the English people. The dissolution of this third Parliament, eight days later, ended the first stage in the contest between crown and Tar- liament. Charles now determined to rule without Parliaments, a plan impossible unless he could raise money for court and military expenses outside of parliamentary grants ; for 348. Period this reason he made use of arbitrarv measures, enforced of absolu- ' tism by subservient judges and by the king's Court of the (1629-1640) Star Chamber. Even before the dissolution of Parliament, he caused the arrest of a merchant who refused to pay the tonnage and poundage tax ; three days after that dissolution, Sir John Eliot, Holies, and Valentine were arrested on the charge of riot and sedition. All were fined, and Eliot was sent to indefinite imprisonment in the Tower, where he died three and a half years later. For eleven years (1629-1G40) the king ruled without seeking the cooperation of Parlia- ment, levying tonnage and ])oundage on his .sole authority, and imprisoning without legal trial those who resisted his will. In all the.se measures Charles found a disastrous support in Ins two chief mini.sters — Wentworth, later Earl of Strafford, and Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury. Wentworth was 349 •jy^. a man of brilliant abilities, who held that the safety of annyof . ' Wentworth the kingdom lay in government through able and well- in Ireland meaning ministers like himself, rather than through U633-1640; Parliaments. He had therefore joined in the attacks upon Buckingham, but declined to go with Eliot and Vyxn in their 310 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT attempt to place Parliament above the king. After the passage of the Petition of Right, he accepted a peerage from the king and was made successively President of the North and Lord Deputy for Ireland (1633). Ireland was then in a state bordering upon revolt, due to the attempts of James and Charles to colonize the northern districts with English and Scottish settlers after an outbreak in 1610 (p. 340), Wentworth's farsighted brain and iron hand brought order out of chaos. He made the Irish Parliament less active, reformed the established church, repressed dissent, and promoted industry and trade ; but he ruled absolutely with- out regard for the law, and (as was believed) instigated the . king to defy and if necessary to coerce the English Parliament. " The safety of the state," he said, " is the highest law." The success of his system in Ireland, which he called " Thorough," brought him the title of Earl of Strafford and the position of chief adviser of the king after 1639. William Laud was the son of a cloth merchant; through the friendship of Buckingham, he rose in a few years from 350. Tyr- ^ ^o^^ position to the height of power as Archbishop anny of Qf Canterbury (1633). He was a lover of system, and Laud over . . . . the church laid stress upon details rather than broad principles. (1633-1640) jjg believed that regular attendance at church and scru- pulous performance of religious rites were the best means of religious training ; and that the study of doctrine and the habit of criticising the governing powers were both wrong and mis- chievous. He therefore set himself rigidly to enforce the forms of religion prescribed by law upon every citizen, although these represented the ideas of only a portion of the English people, thus imitating Wentworth's policy of " Thorough." (1) Although the strong conservative party in the church was suspicious of the least tendency toward Catholicism, Laud enforced the ritual in its most elaborate form upon all clergy- men. (2) Although Protestant dissenters were becoming TIIK KoVAL I'UEIUKiATlVK OtiOJ^-lthJO) 311 numerous ami luuie nidifal, he suspended uud deprived of their livings all clergymen who leaned toward Fresbyterianism. (.'<) He forbade Englishmen traveling abroad to attend Cal- vinistie services, lest they should bring seeds of heresy into England. (4) He sought to check the spread of dissent by prohibiting " gosi)el preaching,'' i.e. the discussion in the pulpit of disputed doctrines. (5) He gave color to the rumor that he was planning a return to Catholicism, by forbidding the marriage of the clergy, and by urging the common people to make confession regularly to their pastors. (6) He shocked the Puritans by issuing the so-called Book of Sports, which authorized- such amusements as archery and dancing for Sini- day afternoon. When a Puritan lawyer named Prynne, in . 1().'U, published an attack upon theater-going and criticised the queen for taking part in masques. Laud caused him to be tried by the Court of the Star Chamber, and he was condemned to be pilloried and imprisoned, to be dismissed from the bar, to be deprived of his university degree, and to have his ears cropped. To e.scape from such tyranny, thousands of Puritans emigrated to America (§ 354). It was the dream of both the Stuart monarchs to extend the English Church organization over Scotland, and in 1637 Laud induced Charles to order the Scottish clergymen to use 351. Laud's a prayer b»«)k very much like that used in England. Scotland This action immediately provoked riots in the churches; 'I637i in Edinburgh one hearer hurled a Pible and another a stool at the minister, under the impression that he was saying ma.ss. The Scottish nobles, fearing that Laud might try to recover the church lands which they had acquired at the time of the Reformation, renewed the Solemn League aiul Covenant (§ 30fi), binding themselves to " lalwr by all means lawful to recover tin- purity and lib«'rty of religion exactly as it was established ami providnl before the innovations.'' They soon gathered about them the gentry from the various counties and 312 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT boroughs, together with many of the clergy, and organized four permanent committees to protect their interests and vir- tually to control the government. HoLYROOD Palace, Edinburgh. > Begun by James IV. in anticipation of his marriage with Margaret Tudor. The principal royal residence of the Scottish monarchs. 352. Scot- tish revolt against Episcopacy (1638) In November, 1638, one hundred and forty-four of the Scot- tish clergy and ninety-six representatives of the Scottish nobles and commons met the king's representative, the Marquis of Hamilton, at Glasgow. Hamilton became offended at the insubordinate attitude of the delegates, and attempted to dissolve the assembly ; but it refused to be dissolved, and proceeded to depose the entire body of Scottish bishops, to abolish all forms associated with Episco- pacy, and to make Presbyterianism again the official religion of the state. Nothing remained for Charles but to treat his subjects as rebels, and the Bishops' War followed. TIIK i;nVAI. rUEROGATlVE (IGO-VIG-JO) :;13 The Scottish leaders immediately raised an army, seized the kind's castles in Scotland, and advanced as far as Ber- wick. To secure funds for the war, Charles decided to 353 ueet- suramon rurliauient (April, 1040), but, as it proved ingofthe intractable, it was dissolved in less than a month. The Uament Scots, after fruitless negotiations, invaded England and 'Nov .1640) made themselves masters of the counties of Northumberland and Durham. The king was besieged with petitions for a Par- liament from his peers, his council, and the citizens of London. At last he yielded ; bribed the Scottish army to remain inactive in return for payment of -t* 40,000 a month ; and summoned a Parliament famous in histoiy as the Long Parliament, which was destined to deprive him of his throne and of his life. While the Stuart monarchs were struggling to limit the rights of Parliament, there was growing up in America a group of colonies in the government of which civil and religious 354 p^^^ liberty through representative government Wiis to be the tan emi- chief corner stone. The reign of Elizabeth had been ^ America marked by great prosperity, and at the time of James I.'s (1607-1640> accession capitalists were turning to colonizing and trading companies as possible fields for profitable investments. James- to^vn, the first permanent English settlement in America, was founded by settlers sent out by such a company. Plymouth, the first jiermanent northern colony, was founded with capital loaned by members of the same company (lOL'O). P)Ut the Plymouth settlers had been driven from England by the severity of the laws against nonconformists (1(»07), and it was the religious and political tyranny of the Stuarts which later pave the great impetus to colonization. During the first year that Charles ruled without a Parliament (§ 'MS), a thousand Puritans emigrated to Massachusetts liay. Before l\arliament was again summcmed, twenty-five thousand more had followed them to ^fassacl 111 setts, and several smaller colonies had been founded in New England. Meanwhile Maryland had furni.shed 314 STUARTS AND PAULIAMENT a refuge for both Catholic and Puritan nonconformists; and in all these colonies — even in loyalist Virginia — government by the people through their representatives was tirnily established. The first Stuart monarchs failed to realize that in England the government had for centuries derived its powers from the 355 Sum- consent of the governed. They therefore attempted to m&Tj exercise in defiance of the will of Parliament all the rights and privileges which the Tudor monarchs exercised with its tacit consent. But conditions were changed : neither foreign war nor internal treason now endangered the stability of the state; no extraordinary dangers now justified the levy- ing of benevolences or forced loans ; the extraordinary courts of the Star Chamber and of High Commission were employed to punish, not the enemies of the state, but the defenders of its liberties; those who controlled the Church of England represented only a minority of its members ; the king's min- isters were selected for their personal charm, their social gifts, or their pliant disposition ; the religious convictions of the dissenting factions became constantly more extreme and more sharply defined. It is no wonder, then, that every Parliament summoned by James and Charles was more determined than its prede- cessor to restrict the king's power to a minimum. On the other hand, it is not surprising that both these monarchs strove to retain powers which they knew had been freely exercised by Henry VIII. and his children ; but they failed to judge the strength of the popular feeling, although it might easily have been estimated from the boldness of parliamentary debaters and the steady emigration of Puritans to America. TOPICS Suggestive (1) Compare the doctrine quoted from Cowell's Interpreter in topics g 334 ^^j^j^ jj^g claims made by Richard II. (§ 214). (2) Were the pro- IIIK IJoVAI. I'KKUoc.A I IVK (ICO.-^-Kilii) 3ir> pos«'tl Puritan rtfnrins in the church service vital? (:'.) Wiiy was it essential for I'arliaineiil to safej;uard its members aj^ainst arrest at the will of the monarcii ? (4) Whence arose the king's theo- retical right to levy import dulies ? (5) Find examples where pre- vious kings exercised similar rights. (0) Show that this theory did not apply to the Stuart attempts to levy tonnage and poundage. (7) Point out the analogy* between Magna Charta and the Petition of Right. (8) Give instances where previous monarchs unwisely intrusted the government to favorites. (0) Did the end sought and obtained by Wentworth in Ireland justify the means em- ployed ? (10) AVhat in the ceremony of coronation .seems to favor the theory of the divine right of kings ? (11) What was impeach- ment ? the dis.solution of Parliament ? the proroguing of Parliament ? (12) The bearing of Henry VIII.'s will upon the succession to Search the crown after Elizabeth's death. (13) A discussion of Went- *°P'*=* worth's theory of government. (14) Prynne's case. (15) The journey of Prince Charles and Buckingham to Madrid, to win the Infanta. (IG) The history of the King James Version of the Bible. (17) Sir Walter Raleigh after 1003. (18) Milton's criti- ci.sm in Lyridas of the English Church as it existed under Laud. (10) Laud's private life and character. (20) Imprisonment of Sir John Eliot. (21) Did Charles try to avoid signing the I'etition of Right ? REFERENCES See maps, pp. 24G, 884, 385 ; Gardintr, School Atlas, map 28 ; Qeojraphj Poole, Ilislorirdl Atlas, maps xxvii. xxxi. ; Reich, yew Students' A/l'is, map 22. Bright, Ilistorij of Enrjlnnd, II. 581-<)44 ; Gardiner, Student's Secondary History, 4Hl-,-)2;» ; The Pitritan Revolution, ch. i. § ;{-ch. vi. § 3 ; authorities History of England, 1003-1043, \.-\X. ; Ransome, Advanced History, 48.V-o37 ; Green, Short History, 474-534 ; History of the Emjlish Peofde, bk, vii. chs. i.-vii. ; Montague, Elements of Con- stitutional History, 1 i;i-124 ; Powell and Tout, History of England, 551-505; Brewer, Student's Hume, ch. xxi. ; Lingard, History <>/ England, VI. chs. i.-v. ; Cordery and Phillpotts, King and Coinmon- tmj/^A,chs. i.-iv. ; Bayne, Chief Artors of the Puritan Revolution, chs. i.-iv. ; Ma-s.son, Life of Milton, I. ; Traill, Strafnrd; Goldwin Smith, Three English Stiiti'.- PARLIAMENT Sources Illustrative works History of British Colonial Policy, chs. ii. iii. ; Lawless, Ireland, xxx.-xxxiv. ; Morris, Ireland, 1494-1868, 122-136 ; Lang, History of Scotland, II. chs. xviii.-xxi., III. chs. i.-iii. ; Brown, History of Scotland, II. 240-321 ; Corbett, England in the Mediterranean, 1603-1713, chs. i.-x. ; Creighton, Historical Lectures and Addresses, 164-187 ; Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional History, 405-480 ; Traill, Social England, ch. xiii. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 181-194 ; Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 68-70 ; Kendall, Source-Book, ch. xi. ; Hill, Liberty Documents, ch. vi. ; Gardiner, Co7istitutional Documents of the Puritan Bevolution, pt. i. ; Prothero, Statutes and Constitutional Documents, 250-438 ; Gee and Hardy, Docu- ments of Church History, nos. Ixxxviii.-xcvii. ; Henderson, Side Lights, 33-84 ; Carlyle, Oliver CromwelV s Letters and Speeches, pt. i. ; Hart, American History told by Contemporaries, I. chs. iv. vi. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 250-252, — Historical Sources, § 56. Ainsworth, TJie S2)anish Match ; Bates and Coman, English History told by English Poets, 304-316 ; Browning, Strafford ; Frith, For Queen and King ; G. P. R. James, Arabella Stuart ; Mitford, Charles the First ; Scott, The Fortunes of Nigel. CHAPTER XXII. USURPATION OF TOWER BY THE LONG PARLIAMENT (1G40-1(;42) The members of the Long Parliament, both Lords and Commons, were agreed upon two things — that l*arliamt'iit shoukl assert its absolute control over taxation, and that 355. open- the king's evil advisers, Strafford and Laud, should be ^^S of the LongParlia- stripped of their power for harm. Parliament assembled ment Nov. Novembt-r 3, KUO, and eight days later the Commons ^' ^^'*^' impeached Strafford of high treason, on the ground that he had " endeavored to subvert the ancient and fundamental laws of the realm and to introduce an arbitrary and tyrannical form of government." To Strafford's defense that he had "com- mitted no treason against the king," Pym, the leader of the prosecution, made a significant reply. In attacking Eng- land, he said, Strafford had really attacked the king, since the king was merely a representative of the nation. This was a definition of treason not to be found in the law books ; fearing that the Lords would refuse to convict on that charge, the Commons dropped the impeachment and sul>- ^^^ ^^^^ stituted a bill of attainder, which rerpiired simjily that a of Strafford ,, 1 • ir 1 i^ 1 1 1 1 1 a-nd Laud vote to ** attaint" Ins life and property should l)e passed by both houses and signed by tlir king. The rommons pa.ssed the })ill readily, the Lords with reluctance; and Charles, al- though he had twice given his word that Strafford should "not suffer in person, honor, or fortune," weakly signed the bill to avoid a contest with rarlianirnt, remarking, a.s he did so, "The Earl of Strafford is a happier man than I am." ;jl7 318 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT Strafford was at once put to death, but Laud's fate was post- poned : he was impeached on the charge of " endeavoring to subvert the laws and the religion by those laws established," but was permitted to remain in the Tower without trial for two years, while Parliament carried on its political contest with the king. In February, 1641, a bill was passed authorizing the elec- tion of a new Parliament at least once in three years, even 358. Par- though the king should fail to summon one ; and three liamentary j^^Q^^^i^g later Charles agreed that the existing Parliament (1641) should not be dissolved without its own consent. Par- liament then began the correction of abuses. In July, 1641, it voted that the levying of ship money, and likewise the levy- ing of tonnage and poundage, were illegal. Later it voted for the abolition of the Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission. As the king assented to these measures, the political strain was now relieved, but the religious problem was becoming acute. The champions of the " Episcopal Church as by law established " were threatened by two dangers : on the one hand, the growing strength of the Presbyterians ; on the other, a return of Roman Catholicism under cover of the Laudian, or " high church," movement. The latter danger seemed the greater, since it had the support of the king ; and therefore, in June, 1641, the Commons passed a bill for abolishing "root and branch " all archbishops, bishops, deans, archdeacons, preb- endaries, and canons. Though rejected by the House of Lords, this bill is an evidence of the progress of Presby- terianism. In August, 1641, Charles visited Scotland, and by making con- - cessions and scattering favors secured from Argyle, the Charles's leader of the Scottish malcontents, a promise that they ^ ^ ^ ® would remain neutral in case of war in England. The king was determined to fight, rather than to make more con- rilK I,(»N(. I'AKI.IA.MKNT (1040-1042) 310 cessions to liis English ParlianuMit. '• 1 li()i)0 y<»ii will rt-iiu'iii- ber," In- wrote to Parliament on the eve of his departure to Scotland, ''that I have granted that the judges hereafter shall hold their places during good behavior. I have appointed the otKcers, not according to my right, but according to the old customs. I Imve established the property of the subject, as witness the free giving up, not the taking away, of the ship iiiont'v. I have established by act of Parliament the prop- erty of the subject in tonnage and poundage, which never was done in any of my predecessors' times. I have granted a law for a triennial Parliament, and have given way to an act for securing of moneys advanced for the dispensing of the armies. I have given free course of justice against delinquents. I have put the laws in execution against Papists. Nay, 1 have given way to everything that you have asked of me." It is undoubtedly true that Charles had submitted to more restrictions than any other recent king of England, and, if his submission had been genuine, he might have kept his * 360 Atti throne ; but he had broken his word so often, and had tude of been detected in so many intrigues to thwart the wishes ^^'^li^^ent of i'arliament, that no one would trust him. An army was sadly needed in Irrlantl. where the natives, freed from Went- worth's iron rule, were in open revolt ; yet Parliament dared not trust Charles with an army, lest he should leave the Irish nnchecked while he used his forces to coerce his English suV)jects. In October, 1(141, the nation was inflamed by the news that thirty thousand Scottish and English colonists had been mas- sacred during a revolt in Ireland, and the Commons had 351 the to face the (juestion whether the king should be trusted Grand • 1 t ■ 1 11 Renion- with an army to put down this rebellion. Afraid to trust strance him. yet fearing that the nation would condemn Parlia- 'Nov., 1641) ment for inaction. Vane, Pym, Ifampden. ami others induced the Commons to pass the Orand Ki-monstrance (Xovemlx'r 22, 320 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT MEIiCURW.S KUSTICUS countrys [complaint] ll^5i thejad Events 1641), which was a public indictment of Charles, and a declara- tion of the future policy of Parliament. It was a highly prejudiced statement of the king's behav- ior, but it shows accurately what impres- sion his acts made on the popular miud. Its two principal demands — that the king's ministers should be made respon- sible to Parliament, and that church mat- ters should be referred to an assembly of divines nominated by Parliament — were promptly rejected by Charles. London, a stronghold of Presbyterianism, at once be- came the scene of riot, and Parliament was surrounded by a mob shouting, '^No bishops ! No popish laws ! " At this juncture Charles determined to strike a blow with a weapon which he had o^o rni. secured during his visit in Scotland, 362. The =■ ' crisis (Jan., namely, proofs that his enemies in England had supported the Scots in the Bishops' War. He singled out for vengeance one peer. Lord Kimbolton, and five members of the Commons, Pym, Hamp- den, Haslerigg, Holies, and Strode ; and the attorney-general was sent to Parliament to accuse these men of treason, in that they had invited a foreign power to invade England, and had levied war upon the king. As Parliament failed to act promptly, Charles determined to make the arrests in person. On January 4, 1642, he went to the Parliament House with a force of about five hundred sol- diers, and, leaving them within call, he entered the House of Commons, took his place beside the speaker's chair, and an- nounced his purpose to arrest the five "traitors." To the suggestion that members of Parliament were privileged from 1642) Frontispiece of a Loyalist Pam phlet, published IN 1685. TllK L()N(i I'AKLIA.MENT (1G4U-It;42) 321 arrest, he replied with truth, '• Piirliameiitaiy privileges consti- tute no defense in eases of treason,"' and ordered Speaker Leu- thall to point out the tive members. With rare courage the speaker, at the risk of his own life, asserted the rights of Par- liament in the memorable words, "May it please your ^fajesty, I have neither eyes to see, nor tongue to speak in this place, but as this House is pleased to direct me " — a reply that was greeted with shouts of applause from all over the House. It becoming evident that the members were not present (they had taken refuge in the neighboring city of Loudon), the king with- drew discomfited. Six days later Charles left London, resolved to put his quarrel with Parliament to the test of arms. He sent the queen abroad to raise funds on the security of his „„„ „ ^ *' 363. Prep- crown jewels, and laid plans to secure a quantity of arms arations for and ammunition collected at the time of the Bishops' ^^^'I642i War, which were now stored at Hull. The Commons tried to take away his power for harm by demanding for Parliament control over the militia and especially over the appointment of officers. Charles, of course, refused to give up this funda- mental power, and Parliament passed the Ordinance of the Militia — the first bill to go into force witliout the king's assent. It authorized Parliament to call out the militia for its own defense, and to nominate the lords lieutenants of the counties — the local heads of the militia. In April Charles was refused adnussion to Hull, and a little later (June U), 1642) he began to issue "commissions of array," which author- ized his friends to raise troops for his supjiort. The tide now began to turn in favor of the king. The unconstitutional Ordinance of the Militia gave him the ad- vantage of seeming to stand by the ancient law, and 364. Condi- Parliament drove many of the friends of the establisheil ''?°* .* . ' J beginning church over to his side by punishing certain persons who of the war petitioned that Kpiscopal government be preserved. Thus a WALKElt's ENU. HIST. — 20 322 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT sharp division of parties was brought about : " Lovers of Ransome, Episcopacy and of the prayer-book saw their only chance History of q£ keeping these in the success of the king; men who 554 preferred any other form of worship or of church gov- ernment were equally forced to side with the government." Although the House of Lords had passed the Ordinance of the Militia under the pressure of the London mobs, yet a majority of the peers soon joined the king, feeling that the Commons were bent on overthrowing the old constitution. The landed gentry of the north and west did the same, while the citizens of the manufacturing districts in the south and east supported Parliament, having the technical advantage of controlling the seat and the machinery of government. The proceedings of the Long Pai-liament were revolutionary from first to last. It distorted the plain meaning of the statute 365. Sum- concerning treason in order to crush Strafford; it im- mary prisoned Laud for acts wholly within his authority ; it changed the system of dissolving and summoning Parliaments; it attempted to abolish Episcopacy in the state churclj; and, failing in this, it attempted to control religious matters with- out reference to king or Convocation. It demanded control of the militia and the appointment of county officers. It finally assumed the right to legislate independently, thus stripping the king of all authority. Some of these acts were as unconstitutional as any of Charles's, since all legislation required the joint action of king and Parliament ; but the constitution provided no solution for the problem that now confronted the English nation : " In case of a deadlock between king and Parliament, which should yield ? " Charles lost his throne because he failed to see that this was not a theoretical but a practical question, which admitted of but one answer. If somebody had to give way, it would be one man rather than five hundred. THE LUN(J TAKLIAMKNT (1G4U-Il)42) 323 TOPICS (I) Woultl Pyin'8 definition of ••ireasnn" l)e more valid in Suggestive modern England ? (2) Why were the Lords willing to pass a bill *°P"^8 of attainder aganist Strafford, when they would not convict him on impeachment ? (:}) Mow would the Koot and Branch Bill affect the strength of the reform party in the House of Lords ? (4) What reply could Parliament make to Charles's professions in § 350? (5) What plans already formed encouraged Charles to reject the Grand Remonstrance ? (6) Compare the alleged treason of Straf- ford with that of '-the five members." (7) Discuss Charles's procedure in the case of the five members. (8) Was it wise for Charles to leave London when he did ? (9) What geographical conditions made the possession of Hull important to each party ? (10) Earlier cases of assertion of authority by Parliament over the king. (II) Compare punishment by impeachment with punishment Search by attainder. (12) The part played by Charles's queen, Henrietta *°P"^3 Maria, in his contest with Parliament. (13) Compare an ordinary court with the Court of the Star Chamber, as regards the source of its authority, the character of the judges, and the fairness of proce- dure. (13) Some typical trials in the Star Chamber Court. (14) A study of the Roundheads and the Cavaliers in the Civil War. (15) Character of Pym. (10) Was Charles L truthful in his deal- ings with Parliament ? (17) Had the king power himself to arrest persons accused of treason ? (18) Contemporary accounts of the attempted arrest of the five members. REFERENCES Bright, History nf Fnf/land, II. ti44-<)50 ; Gardiner, Shidiut^s Secondary History. 521t-.-);{7, — 77ie Purit.in It/ Enijlnufl, lfj0.3-164~, IX. X. ; Ransome. Aih-nnad Ilis- tury, .')3ft-.'».V5 ; Green, Short History, ch. viii. § ti, — History of the Eiiolish People, bk. vii. ch. viii. ; .Montague, Elfmeuts of Coiistitu- tionnl History, 124-120; Powell and Tout, History of Em/land, 695-601; Brewer, Studf nt'a Hiinif, ch».xx.xx'i. ; Lingard, History of Enrfhind, VI. ch. vi. ; .Macaulay. History of Emjlnnd, ch. i. ; Corderj' and Phillpotts, Kimj nnd Common ir faith, oh. v. ; Lawless, Ireland, ch. xxxv. ; Lang. History of Scotland. III.(WJ-l(t2 ; Brown, History of Scotland. II. :!22-H2»i ; Taswell-Langmead, Constitu- tional Histonj, 481-o<>4. .See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 2o2-2o3. 324 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT Sources Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos, 195-206 ; Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 71, 72 ; Kendall, Source-Book, nos. 76-78 ; Gardiner, Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Bevolution, pt. ii. ; Gee and Hardy, Documents of Church History, nos. xcviii.-cvi. ; Lord Holies, Memoirs (1641-1642) ; Forster, Life of Sir John Eliot (letters and speeches) ; Carlyle, CromweWs Letters and Speeches, pt. i. ; Clarendon, History of the Behel- lion, bks. i.-v. Contest of First Stuarts and Parliament Parliament claims jurisdiction over elections to Parliament . . . 1604 Courts assert king's authority to regulate customs duties . . . 1608 Commons protests against increased customs duties 1610 James I. governs practically without a Parliament .... 1610-1621 Commons impeaches king's officers (Chancellor, Treasurer) . 1621, 1624 Parliament abolishes monopolies 1624 Commons refuses supplies 1625 King raises money by forced loans and illegal taxation . . 1625-1627 Commons impeaches the king's favorite ; leaders imprisoned . . 1626 Commons refuses to act while members are imprisoned .... 1626 Petition of Right ratified by the king 1628 King violates Petition of Right by forced loans 1628 Commons, protesting, is dissolved ; king rules without Parlia- ment . ia29-1640 Commons dictates its own duration ; abolishes Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission 1641 Commons passes Grand Remonstrance ; king attacks liberty of debate ; Commons takes control of militia and royal castles . . 1642 CHAPTER XXIII. THE GREAT REBELLIUX (1042-1G49) At the outbreak of the Civil Wiir, the wealthy and populous districts in the south and east of England were on the whole friendly to Parliament, and the rural districts of the , , , , , 366. Mill- north and west were loyal to the king. One body of tary situa- his forces was in Cornwall, another in York ; between these two regions lay a line of important towns, Northampton, tion (1642) I EdgehiU Battle M'l ■ ' • AND I'lKKMKV AT THK BATTLE OK KlXiHHILL, U'A'2. From a broadside puhlished after the Restoration. Coventry, Warwick, and Worcester, which had been seized and garrisoned with parliamentary troops by Essex, commander in chief of the |>arliamentary forces. On August 22, 1G42, the king practically declared war by raising the royal standard at Nottingliam. With the forces which quickly came in, lie moved westward to Shrewsbury, so as to raise the Catholic gentry of western Englaiul and to secure the important Severn valley. Then he undertook to capture London and West- minster, the commercial and political centers of the kingdom, 325 326 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT England in the Civil War. The names within the circle suggest the importance of Oxford as a strategic center. and pressed southeastward across mid-England, ignoring Essex and the parliamentary army at Worcester. In order to save London, Essex followed close upon the 367. Begin- king's heels, and forced his army to turn and fight the m-t' °^ ^°^ opening skirmish of the war on the slope of Edgehill (1642-1643) (October 23, 1642). Essex, however, was repulsed, and THE GKKAT KKBKI,M<>N ( l«)^-.»-H;41)) o2( Charles advanced to the outskirts of London ; but instead of attacking tl>e city, he remained inactive for a day (as if afraid of the forces which hastily rallied to the defense of London), and then retired unmolested to Oxford, thenceforth the center of his military operations. He thus gained the advantage of a central position from which to strike unex- pected blows in any direction, but lost all control of the sea and its opi)ortunities for quick transit, and for cooperation from without the kingdom. During the summer months of 1643, Charles's nephew, Prince Rupert, led a series of brilliant cavalry maneuvers from Ox- ford, and won minor victories for the king. The dashing " Cavaliers '' learned to scorn the ill -trained parliamentary armies filled with psalm-singing Puri- tans, whom, from the close-cropped hair, they nicknamed "Roundheads." At Shelton, at Hath, at Devizes, and at Bristol, parliamentary armies met disas- ters. John Hampden, worth more than many regiments, was mortally wounded in a skirmish with Rupert's cavalry at Chalgrove, near Oxford (June 18). At the end of twelve months, Parliament retained of imi)ortant points in the north only the fortress of Hull; in the west, A Cavalikk Dandy. only Gloucester. The sieges of those From a seventeenth ^ '^ rentury eUwiing. two ]»laces failed, however, and the star of Charles began to wane. Not only did his forces win no further important succes.ses, but the Scots were now enlisted on the side of Parliament, and the organization of an As.sociation of the Eastern Counties (Norft)lk, Suffolk. Es.sex, Cambridge, and Huntingdon), under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, gave stability and strength to the parliamentary cause 328 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT September 25, 1643, Pym induced Parliament to make an alliance with the Scots, so that after February, 1644, the 368 The conduct of the war was under the control of a Corn- Scottish mittee of Both Kingdoms. Parliament secured this alii- its fruit 'ATiice only by ratifying the Solemn League and Covenant, (1643) which was signed by the twenty-five peers who still re- mained at Westminster, and by two hundred and eighty-eight commoners. By this Covenant Parliament bound itself to "make religion as uniform as possible in England, Ireland, and Scotland, and to reform the Church according to the Word of God and the example of the best reformed churches. '^ All civil, military, and ecclesiastical officers in the kingdom were required to accept the Covenant; and the expulsion of some two thousand clergymen who refused to take the oath left the state church entirely in the hands of Presbyterians. The Scottish alliance and Pym's death, in December, 1643, mark a turning point in the history of the Long Parliament. 369 R' Henceforth the strife was to be between the victorious of the Inde- Presbyterians and the Independents, a body of religious radicals already numerous in the army. The Independ- ents believed that churches should be voluntary associations for divine worship, each independent of all control by the state, or by any authority outside of its own membership. Between this party and the triumphant Presbyterians a clash was cer- tain to arise, and hence the Scottish alliance tended to discord and weakness, rather than to strength. This was the more unfortunate because, of those prominent in Parliament — Essex, Kimbolton (now Earl of Manchester), Holies, Vane, Waller, and Cromwell, — no one was as yet strong enough to take Pym's place as leader. Early in 1644 the Scots advanced into England with 22,000 370. Battle men, threatening to entrap the royal forces under the Moor^aulv ^^^® o^ Newcastle between their own army and that of 2, 1644) Fairfax, the parliamentary general. Newcastle fell back Till-: (.i{i:at ukkkllion (Idj-j-kuh) 329 on York as a defensive eonter, and Prince Rupert hastened thither from Lancashire with 18,000 men, while Generals Man- chester and Cromwell moved to the support of Fairfax with a body of troops from the Eastern Association. The two forces met on the field of'^Iarston Moor, seven miles west of York (July 2, l(i44). In this decisive contest the royalist cavalry at first appeared to have the advantage, dispersing the Scots stationed on the parliamentary left wing ; and when the royal infantry charged and routed the right wing also, the battle seemed won for the king. Still the troops under Cromwell remained unbroken, amid all the confusion and apparent disaster ; at the decisive moment they attacked the flank of the victorious royal in- fantry, and threw it into utter disorder. " The Left Wing, which I commanded," wrote Cromwell, "being our own Cromicell, horse, . . . beat all the Prince's horse; God made them , ,, ' ' brother-in- Letter to his brother-in- as stubble to our swords." " We charged their regi- law ments of foot with our horse, and routed all we charged. . . . I believe, of twenty thousand the Prince hath not four thou- sand left. Give glory, all the glory, to God." On Rupert's withdrawal with the remnant of his army, the entire north, including the imjiortant cities of York and Newcastle, passed under the control of Parliament. This victory more than balanced the losses in the south, where Essex was penned between the army in Cornwall and that of the king, and lost most of his army at Lostwithiel in September, ir44. The battle of Marston Moor altered the balance of power in Parliament. Tlins far the Presbyterians had had the advantage, because they were the bond between the parliamentary 371 Weak- cause and the Scots ; but thev lacked the courage of their °®^^. °' '^® ' ' " parliamen- convictions. They shrank from personal violence to the tary army king, and clung to the fiction that his mistakes were due, not to his own unfitness to rule, but to evil advisers. Their hope was to prolong tlie war by inaction until the king should 330 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT come to his senses; they therefore dreaded being too success- ful, and their officers fought with little or no zeal in any con- test where the king was known to be present. For example, when Charles was returning to Oxford, after his successful campaign against Essex, he was intercepted by IManchester at Newbury; but jVIanchester threw away a possible victory by sheer negligence. The Independents therefore determined upon decisive action. In January, 1645, Laud was taken from the Tower and be- 372. Reor- headed. In April, at the instigation of Cromwell, Par- gamzation liament passed the " Self-denying Ordinance," by which of tne army ^ j o ^ j (1645) no member of either house could retain his military command — a painless method for ridding the army of many dilatory and inefficient officers. Essex, Manchester, and Wal- ler were thus disposed of ; but by a special vote Cromwell was reappointed and placed in command of the cavalry forces, with the title of lieutenant general, while Fairfax was made commander in chief. Cromwell proceeded at once to remodel the army, getting rid of weak commanders, and breaking up many of the regiments composed of penniless adventurers and riffraff, who followed the war as a profession and not as a " vocation from God." These troops he replaced with God- fearing men who were convinced of the necessity of ridding the kingdom of a " godless " king, court, and church. The Xew Model army, as it was termed, was now called upon to bear the burden of the entire war; for the Earl of 373 The Montrose created a diversion in Scotland in behalf of Battle of the king by harassing the Highlands and threatening the Ns-Scbv (June 14, Lowlands, and thus drew back the forces of the Scots for 1645) the defense of their o^ti territory. Charles moved north- ward from Oxford to take advantage of the opportunity thus afforded, and Cromwell and Fairfax hastened in pursuit, over- taking the king at Naseby, June 14, 1645. The New i\[odel was hardly seasoned yet, and the cavalry on its left wing was Tin: CltKAT UKMKM.ION (lf)42-104n) 831 routed and imrsued to a great distance by Rupert's invincible troopers. (>u the opposite Hank, Cromwell, witli an equally invincible body, routed the royal cavalry; but instead of pur- suing, as Kupert had done, he turned his troops against tlie king's infantry, who were successfully forcing the parliamen- tary center, (.'romwell's charge decided the day. The king's infantry surrendered, and Kupert, returning too late, was only able to guard the retreat of the king. The battle of Xaseby completed the ruin of Charles. In the first place, his sole important army was destroyed. Mont- rose's Highlanders retired to their mountain fastnesses, 374. Close and though lesser divisions of the king's troops held the °^ .*^.® ^^^^ ° '=' ^ civil war litdd for several months, no important successes were (1646i achieved. One by one, these bands were defeated and dispersed, and the isolated castles held by the royalists were besieged and captiired, the last to surrender being the castle of Raglan on the border of Wales (August, 104G). In the second place, tiie finding of Charles's private papers after the battle ulti- mately cost him his life ; for they contained letters showing that he had carried on negotiations with the purpose of bring- ing foreign troops against his English subjects, from Kranc^e, from Lorraine, and fniin Ireland ; and these were later used as grounds for his conviction and execution. The Civil War proper ended in June, 1645. Then followed a year of sparring for advantage between Charles, the Parlia- ment, and the armv, now filled with Independents. The 37&- king's constant hope was to jimvoke a quarrel between Charles and his two antagonists. V>y favoring Presbyterianism he e co s also hoped to conciliate the Scots, and to rouse their instiiuit of loyalty to the Stuarts. In May, 164(), therefore, he left O.\ford for Newark, wliere the Scots were encami)ed, and threw himself upon their generosity. They slirewdly conducted their ''hostage'' northward to Xewca.stle, where he would ho. safe from seizure by the troops of the New M»Mlel. 332 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT Negotiations with Parliament were at once begun, but led to nothing, for the king desired only to procrastinate. " All my endeavors," he wrote to the queen, " must be the delaying of my answer until there be considerable parties visibly formed." After six months the Scots became convinced that they would receive no subsidy from the English so long as they retained possession of Charles, and that Charles would give no satisfactory guarantee for the maintenance of Presbyterianism in Scotland. Therefore, on condition of the payment of the £400,000 due to them for the support of their army, they sur- rendered Charles to the representatives of Parliament (January 30, 1647). At iirst Charles was imprisoned at Holmby House, and was treated with great consideration, pending a decision as to his 376. Usur- fi^iture by Parliament and the army. The breach be- pation of tween parties for which Charles had hoped soon made control by the army itself apparent, but had an outcome directly opposite to (1647) }jjg -wishes. Parliament decided to disband the army, and then to negotiate freely for an adjustment of the relations of monarch and people. The army, however, refused, to be disbanded until the soldiers were paid, and until it received from Parliament some guarantee of toleration for Independent congregations. To rid itself of this unruly servant, Parlia- ment hastened to offer extremely liberal terms to the king. The indignant army saw that all its labors, its bloodshed, its sacrifice, would be in vain if the king were restored to power under such conditions. June 3, 1647, Cornet Joyce went with a squad of soldiers to Holmby House, and removed Charles from the control of Parliament to that of the army at Newmarket. A week later, a demand was made that the eleven Presbyterian leaders responsible for the recent proposals should be expelled from the House. London was still dis- tinctly Presbyterian in temper, and a mob gathered to impress upon the Presbyterians iu Parliament the necessity of remain- THE (JIJKAT KKBKLLION (1»!42-1049) 333 ing firm; so the iiniiy took forcible possession of London (October, 1(347). While the army and the I'arliament were discussing the terms to be otfered to the king, Charles saw that the two parties were likely to come to an agreement. He therefore „^„ ^ 377. The seized an opportunity to escape from Newmarket, and kings took refuge in Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight. perfidy He then issued fresh proposals, agreeing to accept Presbyte- rianism as the state religion, with moderate toleration for Cakisbrookk Castlk, Isle of Wight. Tower erected by Anthony Woodville, time of Edward IV. Gateway erected by Eliz.ibeth, irm. dissenters. Apparently peace was in sight, but Charles was really intriguing with the Scots, and soon secured their support by a secret agreement to maintain the Presbyterian religion exclusively in England for tliree years. This act of perfidy sliowed conclusively to ('romwell and the army that Charles absolutely would not keep his word, and that further negotiation with him would be utterly useless. SSi STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT The immediate result was a four months' war between Scotland and England. In April, 1648, the Duke of Hamilton 378. Final invaded England with a Scottish force, and Charles flat- s age of the ^q^q^ himself that his hour of triumph was near: but the COUuSSv (1648) parliamentary army grimly set itself to the task, first of crushing out this new enemy, and then of rendering Charles incapable of further breaches of faith to his subjects. The advance of the Scots led to royalist insurrections in Wales, in Kent, and in Essex. The last was the most serious, and Fairfax found himself obliged to settle down to a month's siege of Colchester. Meanwhile Cromwell stamped out the insurrection in Wales in July, and moved north to meet the forces of the Scots. Nine thousand troops of the New Model ranged themselves against the twenty four thousand of Hamil- ton's force near Preston, August 17, 1648. A three days' fight ended in the complete destruction of the Scottish army, and put an end to the war. During these few months, Parliament, freed from the imme- diate pressure of the Independents in the army, fell once more 379. The under the control of the Presbyterian party, anii now army in made fresh overtures to the king. Charles, who still complete control hoped to receive help from Ireland or from Holland, (Dec, 1648) gladly took up the negotiations in order to gain time, although he had no intention of keeping any agreement that he might make. But the army had already resolved to call "Charles Stuart, that man of blood, to account for the blood he had shed, and the mischief he had done to his utmost against the Lord's cause and people." The army leaders there- fore caused him to be seized at Carisbrooke Castle, and kept under their own control at Hurst Castle. The Commons resented this action, and (December 5) re- solved that " reconciliation shoidd be sought with the king." The army next day replied to this defiance by Pride's Purge, when Cromwell sent Colonel Pride with a body of soldiers to TflK GRF.AT RKRr.IJJoN (l(;4-_'-l(i4!l) 335 " purge '' the Commons of its objectionable element by expell- ing from the House one humlred and foity-tluef members of the com-iluitory party. Only about fifty-three menibers, all sympathizers with the army, were left in the House, and these the royalists straightway nicknamed the Rump Parliament. A VINDICATION KING C ^^\^£^' O R, ALoYAL Subjects Duty. MANIFESTED In Vindicating his Soveraigne from thofe Afpcrfions cafl: upon Him by ccrtaine pcrfons , in a fcandalous Libel, Entitulcd , The Ks^Jgs (Cabinet Opened* Andpublillicd (as they fay) by Authority of Parliament. IVherciimo is added^ A true Parallel betwixt tlie futfenncs of our Saviour and our Sovcraign,in divers parciculars^&c. Part of thk TiTi.K-i-AciK ok a Loyalist Pami'hi.kt. 1»)4«. Ten days later, the Rump passed a resolution that tiie king should b<' broufjht to justice; and as no legal agency existed for the prosecution or punishment of the king, it was 380 Aboli- voted (January 1, 1G49) to form a special " High Court ^^°° °' ^» u T • M • monarchy or Justice, an action m which the Lords refused to dan 1,1649, concur. Three days latt-r tlie Hump attempted to justify and legalize its action by declaring that "tlie peojile are under (Jod the source of all just power, and the Commons, being chosen 336 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT by the people, form the supreme power in England and have no need of king or House of Lords." Having thus removed the opposition of the upper house by abolishing it, the Rump, on its own authority, created a High 381. Trial Court of Justice, of one hundred and tliirty-five mem- and execu- bers. On January 20, the king was taken to his palace tion of Charles I. of Whitehall in London for trial. At the opening of (Jan., 1649) ^j^g court only sixty-seven of the judges were present, and the later meetings were even more poorly attended. Front of the Banqueting House, Whitehall Palace. Charles I. passed out through a second-story window to the scaffold. The king, " not only protesting against the illegality of this pretended Court, but also, that no earthly power can call me (who am your king) in question as a delinquent," refused to make any plea. " It is not my case alone," he said ; " it is the freedom and liberty of the people of England; . . . for if power without law may make laws, may alter the funda- mental laws of the kingdom, I do not know what subject he is in England that can be sure of his own life, or of anything he calls his own." After a week's deliberation, he was declared guilty of having " traitorously and maliciously levied war Till". (iicKAT Ki;i'.i:i,i,iiiN (](;}-_>--i(;4!») 33? against tlif [n-esent rarlianieiit . . . l»y wliicli luucli innocent bluoil of the free people of the nation hatli been spilt"; and was conilemned to be beheaded. The sentence was carried into etfeet three days later (January MO, 1(549). The Great Rebellion (1042-1648) covers two stages. During the first of these, Parliament, doniiuated by Presbyterians and aided by the Scots, strove to secure from the king guar- 332 sum- antees of good government that would justify it in °iary restoring him to power. During the second period, the army, dominated by Independents, tried to make bad government by the king impossible ; but it was for a long time battled by the lukewarm attitude of the Presbyterians and the Scots. At first the combatants fought simply for advantage of position, with blunted swords, as it were ; after the battle of ^Nlarston Moor, they were fighting to the death. Naturally, the party that had the atlvantage in numbers, wealth, command of the sea, concentration, and definiteness of purpose, proved victori- ous. Its victory created a dilemma: to kill the king was to violate all traditions and shock all sensibilities; to leave him alive was to e.\i>ose the government to a succession of intrigues and revolts. The former alternative was chosen, and Charles the tyrant became Charles the martyr. TOPICS (1) Why ilitl the towns favor rarliainont, and the rural tlistrirts Su^^estive favor the kiiit;? (2) Kxplain on a map the strateiiic value of ()x- °P'<^* ford. (3) Wiiat did the Scotch hii])e to gain by allyinj^ themselves with rarliament '.• (4) Wliat off.shoots of.the Knglish Independents exist in the United States ? (5) Did the kinfi commit trea.son ? (0) Discu&s the ol)jection.s to the treatment of Charles by the Scots. (7) Why did the Scots first suiTender Charles, and then go to war in his favor? (8) Was any action of Parliament re- counted in this chapter legal ? (ft) What powerx properly belong- ini;ti)tlu' niriiiarch did I'arliamtnt exercise between 1 (!•_'•') ami Ui4ft? (10) What ilo Charles's wurds in refusing to plead indicate ? WAi.KKie'-* KM.. iii>r. — lil 338 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT Search topics (11) A character sketch of Prince Rupert. (12) Macaulay's poein on the battle of Naseby. (lo) Organization or the Army of the New Model. (14) The story of Charles's trial and execution. (15) Some Cavalier songs. (16) The Ironsides. (17) Treatment of captured royalists. (18) Capture of the king's papers after Naseby. (19) Why did not Charles escape to France ? (20) Queen Henrietta Maria in the war. Geography Secondary- authorities Sources Illustrative works REFERENCES Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 27, 29, 30, 31, 33 ; Hughes, Geogra- phy in British History, ch. xii. ; Reich, New Students^ Atlas, maps 24-26. Bright, History of England, II. 659-687 ; Gardiner, Student's History, 537-560, — The Puritan Bevolution, ch, vii., — History of the Great Civil War, I.-IV. ; Ransome, Advanced History, 001-620 ; Green, Short History, ch. viii. §§7, 8, — History of the English People, bk. vii. chs. ix. x. ; Powell and Tout, History of England, 001-620 ; Brewer, StndenVs Hume, ch. xxii. ; Lingard, History of England, VI. chs. vii.-ix. ; Cordery and Phillpotts, King and Com- monwealth, chs. vi.-xi. ; Bayne, Chief Actors of the Puritan Bevo- lution, chs. ix. x. ; Macaulay, History of England, ch. i., — Essays (•'Milton"); Morris, Montrose; Lawless, Ireland, chs. xxxvi. xxxvii. ; Edwards, Wales, ch. xxiii. ; Lang, History of Scotland, III. 104-226 ; Brown, History of Scotland, II. 326-346 ; Taswell- Langmead, Constitutional History, 504-507 ; Traill, Socihl Eng- land, ch. xiv. 203-239. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 253-254. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 207-216 ; Colby, Selections from the Sources, no. 73 ; Kendall, Source-Book, nos. 79-83 ; Gardiner, Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Bevolu- tion, pt. iii..; Gee and Hardy, Documents of Church History, nos. cvii. cviii. ; Henderson, Side Lights, 85-89 ; Carlyle, CromwelVs Letters and Speeches, pts. ii. iii. ; Lord Holies, 3Iemoirs (1642- 1648) ; Boyle, Characters and Episodes of the Great Bebellion ; Clarendon, History of the Bebellion, bks. vi.-xvi. Bates and Coman, English History told by English Poets, 317- 335 ; Charles, The Draytons and the Davenants ; Church, With the King at Oxford ; Dumas, Twenty Years After; Lyall, To Bight the Wrong, — In Spite of All ; Macaulay, Songs of the Civil War ; Manning, Maiden and Married Life of Mary Powell ; Macdonald, St. George and St. Michael ; Paterson, CronmeWs Own ; Quiller- Couch, The Splendid Spur; Scott, The Legend of Montrose. ( IIAI'TKU XXIV. rUnMWKI.I. AND TIIK ( i ).\1.M( ».\ WKAL Til (KU'J-KiOO) Till-: hold iiuMj who dared to put the king to death and to al)oli.sh the House of Lords iuiinediately encountered grave dangers, both from tlie army ami from tlie king's 383 Resist- friends. Independency fostered the development of ancetothe groups of extremists, — Anabaptists, "Fifth Monarchy (1649; Men'' (followers of '"King Jesus"), and "Levellers,'" — who were determined to reconstruct English i)olitics on the model of the ancient Hebrew state described in the Old Testament, or upon tliat of some ideal state foretold in the visions of the Hebrew prophets. Certain fanatics early started a mutiny in tlie army, l)ut were promptly checked by Cromwell. Parliament had neglected Ireland while the war was raging in England, and it was now found that the royalists were wiq- ning nearly all the island to their cause. Thither Crom- 384 Crom- well hastened, angrv at the continuance of a ustdcss 7®", "^ ^'"®' land 'Aug - struggle. Drogheda, refusing to surrender, was takm Oct., 1649; by storm, and its garrison of two thousand were put to death. Cromwell defended his severity by declaring, "Truly, I believe this bitterne.ss will save much effusion of blood"; but a second massacre of the same kind took place at Wexford before the royalists of Ireland were convinced that the new government was too strong to be resisted. Even then, the Irish proved slow of subjugation, and imt until \Cu72, wiicn three out of four of their jjrovinces had l>een contiscatt'il, was r»'sistance wholly stamped out by Cromwrll's son-in-law, Irt'ton. Cam iore Pt. fenstown IRELAND SCALE OF MILES 60 80 Pale I I Scottish SettlementB Practical ExtenBion of the Pale | 1 Eiceptional Settlementa c Ptantatione under Elizabeth uatire basis 1 I'lantatione under tuzaoetQ f;:- 1 ,,^ ,y Plantationa under James I, P^ UnpIantedJ>i8trlct8 (1641) and Charles I. Longitude The Cromwellian^Seftlemont IncltudeaaH^the island except that colored the darker green 1 ; West 8 from Greenwich 340 CKOMWF.l.I, AND rilK C< )MM()NWF.AI.TH 041 In these eontiscateil provinces, Ireton carried out tlje so- callctl Cromuellian settlement of Ireland. Much of the land ■was given to the veterans of tlie war, much was .iriven to "inidertakers,"' who transported colonists thither from Eng- land and Scotland. Catholicism was sternly suppressed, and the Irish who refused to give np their religion wpr<' drivnn into the wilds of Connaught, there to start life anew. EdIXBDROH CaSTI.E. KIloM THK Ul-PKK LkVKL. After the execution of Charles I., the Scots proclaimed his eldest son, Prince Charles, king of Scotland, but he was not to be allowed to rule until he should take the Covenant ^sb Crom- and swear to protect the I'resbyterian religion. In June, well in 1050, Charles landed in Scotland and signed the Cove- ,juiy Dec , nant, much to the disturbance of the English Parliament. 1650> Fairfax declared that Scotland had a rigiit to choose its own king, but Cromwell urged that England mn.st ilefend herself from so dangerous a neighbor. Thinking action l>etter than argument, he hurried into Scotland and reached Edinburgh on .Tuly 28. The city was too strong to be taken by assault, and 342 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT the English army, being so short of supplies as to be in almost a starving condition, had to retire southward a month later. It reached Dunbar only to find its retreat into England barred by Scottish forces, but Cromwell took advantage of a tactical error of the Scottish commanders, and by a spirited charge destroyed the entire Scottish army (September 3, 1650). He was then free to renew the attack on Edinburgh, which was captured in December; but Charles was nevertheless crowned at Scone, January 1, 1(351. During the following summer Prince Charles invaded Eng- land by the route west of the Pennine Chain. He hoped to 386. Over- rally to his support the royalists of the western counties, throw of Q^^^^ perhaps produce a rising in his favor in Northum- Charles berland and York which should hold Cromwell in check (Sept., 1651) -vviiiie \iQ gained possession of London. Cromwell hurried southward, intercepted Charles's army near Worcester, and totally defeated it (September 3, 1651), just one year after the battle of Dunbar. Charles fled in the disguise of a servant to Bristol and thence to Brighton, where he obtained passage to France. At one time he escaped capture only by hiding in an oak tree, and oak branches became thereafter symbols of loy- alty to the Stuarts. Scotland was soon reduced to submis- sion by General Monk. During these military operations, the executive authority in 387 First England was vested in a Council of State, composed of govern- forty-one leading officers of the army and other officials. the Com- The legislature consisted simply of about fifty members monwealth ^f ^\-^q Rump Parliament. Their problem Avas to carry Loyalist Medal of Kiol, showixg the Royal Oak. ' God did presarve C[arolaiu] R[egem] from Woster." CKOMWKI.L AND TIIK COMMON WKAl.TIl 343 on a government based on- usuipatiou, and supported hy an army of enthusiasts and fanatics ; a government tlneateui-d l)y foes at home and abroad, and accepted witli rebu-laiicc by a large majority of rlie nat ion. The royalists published the Eikon Batiilike, a book pretending to be the late king's description of his sufferings during liis imprisonment; and foreign writers like Salmasius of Leyden bitterly denounced the English for murdering their king. Parliament employed the learned and high-minded John Milton to compose suitable replies to these works; and this led to his employment as foreign secretary through the whole of this period. Had there been many of his stamp among the Puritans, England would have been spared a tyranny ; but the members of the Rump were deter- mined to keep absolute control in their own hands, and unfor- tunately these hands proved to be neither clean nor skillful. During England's long period of civil strife, the Dutch, now free from Spain, were absorbing the carrying tiade between foreign countries and England. In 10,")! Parliament 388. War enacted a navigation act designed to restrict this trade „ ,!"'j - " Holland to English vessels, and this led to a long and fiercely (1652-I654i fought naval war l)etween England and Holland. Cromwell appealed to Engli.sh pride by reviving the old English claim to supremacy in the narrow seas; but Holland refused to salute her rival's flag. During 1G52 and 1C53 the English under Blake and Monk won five notable victories, and the Dutch under Van Tromp and De lluyter won but one. The Dutch therefore negotiated for peace in April, H')~}i, and accepted Ixith the navigation act and the claim of supremacy in the Channel. To meet the large expenses of the war, Par- liament confi.scated the estates of all royalists within the kingdom; but the rich royalists bribed the officials and kept their lands, while those less well-to-do lost all their property. Disgu.stod with the lack of honor in the Hump Parliament, Cromwell and a few other ])atriot3 started a movement to 344 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT secure a really representative Parliament. To forestall their action, the members of the Rump hastily framed a bill for 389. Expul- the election of a new Parliament in which they should sion of the ^^ j^^^^^ seats. April 20, IGo.S, as this measure was about Rump '- ' (1653) to be put to vote, Cromwell arose in the Commons and charged the members with injustice and selfishness; when the Oliver Cromwell. From a contemporary allegorical engraving by "William Faithorne. speech was interrupted he cried out, " Come, come, we have had enough of- this. I will put an end to this. It is not fit you should sit here any longer." At his signal a body of sol- diers cleared the house, while Cromwell took possession of *'that bauble" the speaker's mace, and locked the doors of cu«».m\vi:ll and tiik chmmonwhai/iii 345 the house. Tluis the last representative of tlie old constitu- tional authority was swept away ; for a second time, the army had overawed the legislature. Cromwell and the council of officers now created a so-called Parliament of one hundred and fifty members, nominated on the ground of their high moral character and their 390. Fail- enthusiasm for Puritan principles. This bodv was to ureofthe • . Common- serve as a legislature until the nation was in a fit temper wealth of mind to elect a more satisfactory Parliament! The mem- bers, who had little knowledge of affairs or practical political skill, were largely under the influence of a religious enthusiast named l*raise-God Barebone, whence the assembly received the name of Barebone's Parliament. Under the leadership of this fanatic, the new legislators set out to reform the govern- ment b}- abolishing certain departments and offices in which abuses had grown up; but they provided no other means of getting the work done. From such unpractical zeal the wiser members turned for relief once more to Cromwell's sane and sol)er common sense. So in December, 1053, they met early one morning and voted to resign the powers of Parliament into the hands of Cromwell. It was now determined to cast aside old traditions and create a new, written constitution, adapted to present condi- tions. The officers of the army therefore drew up an 392 Egtab- " Instrument of Government,"' by which England, Scot- lishmentof land, and Ireland were to be ruled :is one nation. Crom- torate well was-made executive head of the state, with the titk '^®*^ ^653* of "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England," and was given a Council of State of fifteen meml)ers. There was to be a Parliament of a single house, consisting of five hun- dred members roughly appf)rtioned according t<» population, autl limited by a property qualification. This Parliamrnt was to have control over supplies, taxation, and legislation ; but a fixed sum was appropriated for the ordinary expenses of the 346 STUAKl'S AND TARLIAMENT govern uie lit, so that Parliament could never paralyze the gov- ernment by withholding supplies, and the Protector and Council were empowered to make ordinances which were to be valid until Parliament rejected them. This was among the tirst written constitutions of modern times. As the first Parliament under the Instrument did not meet until September, 1654, Cromwell enjoyed absolute power as 392 Fail- I^ord Protector during a period of nine months. During ure of the ^i^ig period he brought the war with the Dutch to an end of Govern- npon favorable terms, and made some necessary reforms ; ^^^^ but the new Parliament proved no better and fared no better than its predecessors. With scrupulous regard for " the letter of the law," it raised the question whether the Instru- ment of Government (the document to which it owed its own existence) was legal ; and then, with amusing lack of logic, it proposed to enact another constitution on its own authority. At the earliest moment allowed by law, this Parliament, too, was dissolved by Cromwell, in January, 1655. While the Instrument of Government was thus proving a failure, a reaction in favor of a monarchy made itself felt throughout the country. Alarmed by a royalist outbreak ernmentby in Salisbury which had to be ^^ut down by military force, ^ai^'^fAu^" Cromwell turned to the army as the one means of gov- 1655-Oct., eminent which he could both trust and control. He organized the state on a military basis, and divided the entire territory into ten districts, with a major general in com- mand "of each. Since royalist conspiracies had led to this action, the major generals were authorized to secure funds for the support of their governments by laying a tax of ten per cent upon the incomes of all royalists. In districts that re- mained quiet the government relaxed its strictness, but meetings for political and religious discussion were sternly suppressed. Cromwell was far in advance of his time in his tolerant atti^ tude toward divergent religious beliefs. His plan was "to let CUnMWKLL AM) 1111. COMMON \Vi: A Ll'll oiT all this nation see that whatever pretensions to relijjfion wonhl continue quiet, peaceable, tliev should enjoy conscience and liberty to themselves ; " but they were " not to make re- ,, „ li',Mon a pretense for arms and blood." Even the Jews, Spetch, wiio had been excluded from England since 1290, were *"*"/''-^".^«-5fi allowed by Cromwell to settle in London, although in violation of the law. During the year that England remained under military con- trol, Cromwell made war upon Spain to assert his hostility to Roman Catholicism, and to dispute the power of Sjiain 394. Crom- in America. Admirals Fenn and Venables were sent ^® ^ °^' eign policy to the West Indies, where they captured the important U655 1658) island of Januiica (1655). Admiral Blake was sent against the pirates from Tunis and Algiers, who had taken advan- tage of England's troubles to raid her merchants' fleets in the Mediterranean. He burned the pirate fleet at Tunis, and forced the dey of Algiers to make terms with England. Then, on his return from Algiers, Blake fell in with the Spanish trea.sure fleet from America (April, 1657), and cai)tured vessels containing .4:1,00(),0(»0 worth of silver. The protector's energetic rule raised England in the respect of European nations to a pitch which she had never reached since the age of Elizabeth. Cromwell's friendship was much desired by ^lazarin, the chief minister of France, and as the price of an alliance Cromwell forced France to .secure tolera- tion for the persecuted Vaudois Protestants in the .Mpino valleys. France anM\Vi:i,L AM) rilK COMMONWKAL'III 840 nation whose destiiiit's lie Icid .sluiju'il. •• I iii;iy, I will, come to Thee for thy pet)|)le. Thou hast uwule me, thoiii^h Carhih, very unworthy, a mean iustruuit-nt to do tlieiu some '"'"""''' •* ' ' Let tern II ml good, and Thee seryiee. . . . Lmil, however Thou dost Speeches, dispose of me, continue and go ou to do good for them.'' Cromwell's AcTor.RArii. Portion of a letter written Sept. 11, 1()4.S, about pay for troops to relieve Hull, tlieii besieged by Manchester. On his deathbed, Cromwell nominated his son Richard to be Lord Protector of England. The few months of Richard's rule were marked by inefficiency and Aveakness wliich 39- ^^j made him a mere tool in the hands of schemers. The lapse of the army became restive at seeing the control jtass out of torate the hands of a great soldier into those of a weak civilian, (May, 1659) and its headers demanded that the appointment of army otti- cers shoidd be intrusted to the army itself. When Parliament rejected tliis proposal, the army first dissolved Parliament, and later reas.sembled the Rump, the members of whicli coidd, at least, be trusted not to question their own authority to act for the nation. Forty-two of these were then in London, and under tlie protection of the army they resumed their long- intcrrujded sessions (May 7, KliiO), with their original speaker, Lenthall, in the chair. Two weeks later, Richard Cromwell abdicated, and the Protectorate came to an end. Assuming to be, since the death of the king, th»> one repre- sentative body which had Ix'cn elected under constitutional authority, the Kump di-mauded of the army unquestioning 350 Stuarts and parliament obedience to its orders, declared all ordinances passed since its own dissolution to have been illegal, and in its zeal for con- 398. Rule stitutionality actually proceeded to collect a second time, ?.-r* \ J as arrears of taxes, all sums which had been paid to "Restored ' '- Rump" Cromwell's government. For the fifth and last time the disappointed army appealed to force and dispersed Parliament (October 13) ; but the army had no longer that unity which gives strength. A royalist insurrection was crushed only with some difficulty ; mutinies broke out at Portsmouth ; the army leaders were jealous and scheming for selfish ends ; and in December, 1659, the Rump was again restored to power. The time was now ripe for some strong, far-sighted leader to assume the direction of affairs, and this leader appeared in 399 End of ^^^® person of General Monk, commander in chief of the the Long forces in Scotland. Monk first summoned a Scottish Parliament i i • i (Mar. 16, assembly and procured a grant of money by which to 1660) insure the obedience of his soldiers. He then advanced into England, was joined by Fairfax, the representative of the party of order in England, and on February 3 entered London, where the citizens were clamoring for a "free Parlia^ment." When Monk decided to take up their cause, their joy was Diary of unbounded. -'In Cheapside there was a great many bon- S((miiel fires, and all the bells in all the churches as we went Pepys, ' 1059-1660 home were a-ringing . . . and all along burning, and roasting, and drinking for rumps; there being rumps tied upon sticks and carried up and down." On February 26, 1660, those Presbyterians who had been ex- cluded by Pride's Purge claimed their seats in Parliament, and as they outnumbered the forty-two members of the Rump now remaining, they were able to carry a vote to dissolve the exist- ing Parliament and elect a new "Convention Parliament" im- mediately. Thus the Long Parliament, assembled by Charles I. (November 3, 1640), came to an end by its own act (March 16, 1660). CUO.MWKLL AND TIIK C< >.MM<)N WKALIII 351 While the outcome of these events was still doubtful, the exiled Charles Stuart issued a conciliatory Declaration of Breda (^April 14, IGOO), in which, on condition that he 400. Resto- should be restored to the throne of his father, he offered ration of 11 1 111 ^c Stuart to grant a general pardon to those engageil in the late line May, rebellion, except such as Parliament should by vote 1660) exempt from pardon; he pledged that all property confiscated during the recent troubles should be secured to its present holders; and he guaranteed religious toleration to all persons who would refrain from disturbing the public peace. On the day that this declaration was received (>[ay 8) the Convention Parliament voted the restoration of government by king, Lords, and Commons, with Charles Stuart as sovereign. On May 'Jo, 16G0, Charles II. landed at Dover amid the greatest enthusiasm. "The shouting and joy expressed by all is past imagin- ing," says one of those active in the Restoration. On the Diary, 29th the army which had ruled England for a decade was -»'"y '^.ieeo reviewed and disbanded, and the Parliaments of England and Scotland set about readjusting the affairs of the two kingdoms. The period from^ 1G03 to IGGO, with its intense factional strife, was unfavorable to the production of a noble literature or a refined art. For a time, only the pettier passions found expression. The romantic impulse of the Eliza- ature bethan Age was not quite dead ; but it found expression ' ' only in affected sentiment such as the gory and hysterical tragedies of Webster, Massinger, and Ford ; or in light and unsubstantial flights of fancy in the gay and spirited lyrics of the Cavalier iKjets. Their leading note is that of Lovelace's plea on deserting Lucasta to go and fight for the king: — " I could not love thee, dear, so mucli Lovrlnce, Loved I not lionor more." To Lucasta This romantic spirit is seen also in the lyrics of Robert Herrick (1."»«>1-1(»74), who. devoted his talents partly to sing- ing the romance of rural life in his Jlesjyeride.t, and partly to 352 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT expressing one phase of the contemporary religious ferment in his Noble Xumbers. The religious exaltation found its most vivid expression in the works of the master poet John Milton (1608-1674), who -«^ , , ioined with it a new classical impulse. For thirty years 402. John •" f J J Milton of his life Milton tried his " prentice hand " on lyrics — (1608-167 ) xj>^[ii^fji-Q^ L>/ridas, etc. — which were Greek in spirit and in dress. During the eleven years of the Commonwealth, as foreign secretary of the government, he devoted all his powers to his Latin prose Defences of the English Peo- jyle for their treatment of Charles I. Aged and made blind by these labors, he used the leisure of the Res- toration period in compos- ing the great English epic, Paradise Lost. This poem, dealing with the creation and the fall of man, is one expression of the militant Christianity of the Puri- tans ; and at the same time its epic form, its chaste and noble diction, and its Avealth of mythological and historical ornament express the newer classical tendency of the century. In painting, the period is notable for the excellent work in portraiture done by Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1641), a Flemish 403. Paint- painter who was induced by the Earl of Arundel to take Van Dyck ^^P ^'^^ residence in England. He was knighted by the (1599-1641) king and was given a country residence and a pension; in return for which he painted the portraits of all the Stuarts, and of the most notable members of the court circle. John Miltox. From the paiiitiiia; by P. Kramer. CKO.MWKl.I- AM) rilK C( ).MM< "N WK ALTII 353 For eli'vi'u ytvirs after the cxeiMition of <'harles I., England -iifferi'tl from a never changing tyranny, in which C'roniwi'll's integrity and ability were pitted against the ignorance, ^q^ g^^^ greed of power, and ambition of lesser men. After Croni- mary well had stamped out the embers of the civil conflagration in the three kingdoms, there followed an experiment in govern- ment by oligarchies (^official, religious, or military), which proved more tyramucal than the Stuarts themselves; the Rump I'ar- liament was self-seeking, the liarebone's Parliament ignorant, the later Parliaments quarrelsome and unpractical. The sham democracy of the Commonwealth, therefore, had to give way to the disguised tyranny of the Protectorate. Since this rested upon the will of a single extraordinarily able statesman, unity of j)olicy and directness of action were possible; and the vic- tories over Spain and the ^fediterranean pirates made England once more respected abroad. This government, however, col- lajised with the death of its creator; and amid the dissensions of the democratic leaders, the monarchical sentiment of the nation again asserted itself. TOPICS (1) Di.scuss Cromwell's action at Drogheda and Wexford, trying Suggestive to make clear how such a man could sanction such an act. ^ ^^ (2) Show tlie necessity of Parliament's interference in Scotland. (3) What in the organization of the Highlanders made them ciiampion the king's cause? (4) What would be tiie merits and tiie defects of an army of Highlanders? (5) How did the rivalry nf the Dutch and the English in America .show it.self during this [xTiod ? (»!) Wliat written constitutions were drawn up in .Vnierica earlier than the Instniincnt of Government ? (7) Review tlie his- tory of the Long Tarliament. (8) Was Monk's action patriotic ? (9) Discuss the Declaration of Breda. (10) Compare the rule of Cromwell with that of Charles I. (11) Show why the rea-ssembled Hump was the only legal I'arliament of the period. (12) The aspirations of the Fifth Monarchy Men. (I."]) The story Search of Prince Charles's escape after the battle of Worcester. (14) Mil- ^ tim's jmblic .services during the Puritan rf-ijimp. (!•')) Macaulay's discussion of the character of the Puritans. (16) The effect of the 354 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT navigation act of 1651 on the American colonies. (17) Tlie career and fate of tlie Earl of Montrose. (18) Tlie great sea tights during the Dutch wars of the Commonwealth. (10) Cromwell's family life. (20) Charles II. in exile. Geography Secondary- authorities Sources Illustrative works REFERENCES See maps, pp. 280, 326, 340, 544, 545 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 27, 33 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, map xxxi. ; Reich, Xew Students^ Atlas, map 27. Bright, History of England, II. 688-721 ; Gardiner, Studenfs History, ch. xxxvi. 519-520, 546, — The Puritan Bevolution, chs. viii.-x. § 2, — Commonwealth and Protectorate, I. II., — CromicelVs Place in History ; Green, Short History, 464-467, 572-604, — History of the English People, bk. vii. chs. xi. xii. ; Montague, Elements of Constitutional- History, 131-134; Powell and Tout, History of En yl and, bk. vii. chs. iv. viii. ; Bayne, Chief Actors in the Puritan Pevohition, chs. viii. x. ; Cordery and Phill- potts, King and Commonioealth, chs. xii.-xvi. ; Harrison, Oliver Cronnoell; Firth, Oliver Cromwell; Mozley, Essays ("Crom- well"); Inderwick, Hie Interregnum; Masson, Life of Milton, V. bk. iii. ; Pattison. Life of Milton ; Brewer, Student's Hume, ch. xxiii. ; Lingard, History of England, VII. chs. i.-v. ; Macaulay, History of England, ch. i. ; Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional History, 507-510 ; Lang, History of Scotland, III. chs. viii. ix. ; Brown, History of Scotland, II. 34U-378 ; Lawless, Ireland, chs. xxxix. xl. ; Morris, History of Ireland, 137-162 ; McCarthy, Out- lines of Irish History, ch. v. ; Lyall, Bise of British Dominion in India, 13-20 ; Rawson, Twenty Famous Navcd Battles, ch. vi. ; Traill, Social England, ch. xiv. 239-334. See New England His- tory Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 254-255. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 217-221 ; Colby, Selections from the Sojirces, nos. 74-76 ; Kendall, Source-Bool', ch. xiii. ; Hill, Liberty Documents, ch. vii. ; Gee and Hardy, Ducu- ments of Church History, nos. 110-113; Gardiner, Documents of the Puritan Bevolution, pt. iv. ; Henderson, Side Lights, 02-124 ; Carlyle, CromweWs Letters and Speeches, pts. v.-x. ; Butler, Hu- dihras. Bates and Coman, English History told by English Poets, 336- 340; Charles, On Both Sides of the Sea ; Landor, Imaginary Con- versations (Cromwell, Milton, and others) ; Ring, John Milton and His Times ; Scott, Woodstock. rilArTKK XX\'. THE IMCSTOKKI) SITAHT MOXAKCIIV (1000-1*573) Thk Convention I'rtiliainent entered upon its task of recon- struction witli an excess of loyal ardor. It condemned to ^ death twenty mem- 405 The hers of the Higli Convention Parliament V ourt Ot Justice, al- (April Dec . though Charles de- l^^^' manded the lives of only seven ; and it went beyond his wishes in ordering that the king and the church should receive back all their lands which had been confiscated and sold during the period t»f the <'nMinion wealth. Feudalism had long since been outgrown as a system of government, and many of its practices had been abolished ; the Restoration was therefore deemed a favorable op- porttinity to legalize the change. All lanil tenures excepting freehold and copyhold were .ibolished, so that landowners generally were relieved of various burdensome requirements in the form of payments WAi.KKkN km;, hist. — 22 .%.j GKR.\T H.Vl.t, (Now I.IBK.\I{V) OF L.VM- HKTH I'AI.ACK. Destroyed !>>• a reiiiciilf ueiHTal, H(4S; re- huilt on original iikhIcI, 1('i-16ti:{. 356 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT and services to the crown. Parliament likewise abolished the crown rights over wardship, marriage, and purveyance (the right to seize provisions for royal use at nominal prices), by means of which, respectively, monarchs had been able (1) to educate the orphan children of Catholic parents in the tenets of the state church, (2) to extort money from heiresses by threatening to compel their marriage with the king's favorites, and (3) to put political pressure on the country gentry. To make good the revenues thus destroyed, Parliament voted to continue an excise tax which had been levied by the Long Parliament to pay the expenses of the Civil War ; and from the sum thus raised, together with the tonnage and poundage duties, the king was to receive £1,200,000 a year for life. As this sum was plainly insufficient for the needs of the king and the expenses of the government, Parliament could still put pressure on the king by refusing to make additional grants of money whenever the king should oppose its will. In December, 1660, the Convention Parliament was dis- solved, and in May, 1661, the first Restoration Parliament Ar^f. mT. was summoned. With the exception of about fifty Pres- 406. The ^ -^ loyalist byterians, this Parliament reflected only the Cavalier reac ion element in the nation, including many young men to whom the evils of the early Stuart period were apparently unknown. This Parliament gave Charles control over the army and navy, declared it illegal to make war upon the king under any circumstances, and restricted the right to petition the monarch ; it repudiated the Solemn League and Covenant, restored the bishops to their seats in the House of Lords, and required all members of Parliament to receive the communion according to the rites of the Anglican Church. Had Charles been strong and able as well as unscrupulous, 407. Char- these measures would have been fatal to English liberty. acter of Fortunately for the nation, he was indolent and pleasure- Charles II loving rather than ambitious, and desired above all THK KESTOKEl) 8TUA1M' .MoNAUfllV 357 things else to make liis new ])usitioii sure. He confirmed both Mai,Mi;i Cliartu and the I'etitiou of Kight, and was content to leave tlie direction of affairs to advisers who in general stood for the wislies of the nation. Monk, who had placed him on the throne, was made Duke of Albemarle ; and Edward Hyde, his most stanch adherent since the death of his father, was made Earl of Clarendon and Lord Chancellor. The mar- riage of Clarendon's daughter Anne to Charles's brother, the Duke of York, gave Clarendon additional importance at court. On the Continent Charles had seen absolute monarchs gov- erning through a prime minister; and although this term was not yet in use. Clarendon exercised many of the functions 408 Minis- of such an othcer. He and a few other councilors who ^^°end^n alone were consulted on all matters requiring secrecy (1660-1667) and dispatch, were known as the " Cabinet Council " (a term iirst applied to the advisers of Charles 1.), whence the modern term *• Cabinet '' (§ 635). Clarendon was a profound lawyer, who carried his legal training and his legal habits of mind into the work of the chancellorship. He was naturally a stickler for the technical rights of the king and a chamjiion of the royal i)rerogative ; l)ut he opjKJsed all attempts of the king to dispense with the .statutes in religious matters, and was deter- mined tliat public business >hould l)e kept entirely in the hands of memWrs of tlie .\nglican Church. At his insti- gation Parliament i)assed three important acts, aiming to break up the iiiHuence of Presbyterians in political lif«', and to destroy their influence in the church. ■ - -■ ' i^ West Front of St. P.\rL'8 C.\THKI)K\I,. l(i«il>. 358 STUARTS AND PAKLIAMENT (1) The Corporation Act (December, 1661) required mem- bers of municipal corporations to renounce the Solemn League 409. The and Covenant, to take the sacrament in accordance with Anglican ^j^^ ^.j^^^g q£ ^j^g Anglican Church, and to declare on oath tyranny (1661-1665) that they believed it illegal to take up arms against the king. (2) The Act of Uniformity (May, 1662) required all clergy- men to make use of the prayer book (now newly revised by Convocation so as to exclude from it all Presbyterian forms), and also to accept on oath all the doctrines contained therein. It required, furthermore, that all officers in the universities, and all schoolmasters and tutors, should be tested by an oath similar to that contained in the Corporation Act. Two thou- sand ministers, constituting one fifth of the entire English clerg}^, voluntarily left their livings rather than violate their con- sciences by accepting the provisions of the Act of Uniformity. (3) In 1664 Parliament added the Conventicle Act, which prohibited the assembling for independent religious service of more than four persons besides the family in whose home the services were held. , (4) The next year it passed the Five-mile Act, which forbade any minister to go within five miles of any city, corporate town, or parliamentary borough, or even within five miles of any parish in which he had preached since 1660, unless he had previously taken an oath declaring it illegal to take up arms against the king and pledging himself not to try to alter the government in church or state. These acts marked the high tide of Anglican tyranny in England, a tide which would soon have ebbed, had not the behavior of Charles II. and his successor kept alive the spirit of religious bigotry. As it was, they tended to create a strong body of Nonconformists, or persons who refused to conform to laws about religion, and thus seriously affected the influence of the established church. Tin: itKSToHK.n sriAirr monaijciiv 3r)9 Meanwhile the eontest for n;ival siipreinaey between the I)iiteh and the English was icsunu'il. llollaiul was held to 1m^ '' KnLrland's eternal enemy, both byintentand inclination, " ,,„ _. J } J ' 410. Bl- and Kni,'lish statesmen parodied C'ato's cry against ("ar- v airy with thage; — "Holland mnst be destroyed." IJesides Eng- land's long-standing claim that "the narrow seas" were inland waters under her own jurisdiction, commercial rivalry was the chief cause of enmity. Both powers were trying to monopolize the commerce in the far East, by forming treaties with native chiefs, and by planting tradiiig stations ; and quarrels which took place in those far-away regions often led to actual war- fare, since each nation felt bound to protect its own citizens. The most immediate causes of the war of 166.5 were the Dutch dislike of England's navigation acts, and disputes regarding territories in Africa and America. England claimed the en- tire territory from the St. Lawrence to Florida, in spite of the fact that the Dutch West India Company had maintained a settlement at the mouth of the Hudson for forty years. In 1604 Charles granted the territory held by the Dutch to his brother .Tanu's, Duke of York ; and James, as Lord High Admiral, ])romptly dispatched a fleet to seize the Dutch settle- ment at New Amsterdam. Another fleet seized all Dutch ves- sels on the African coast, and the Dutch responded by seizing all the English forts on the coast of Guinea. the next year (166')) war was formally declared by I"'ng]anil. Parliament, by a unanimous vote, jjrovided £*2,ijOO,0(K) foi- tin- war, and Charles's brother James, Duke of York and Lord 411 The High Admiral, sailed with one hundred and thirty-nine 0^^^^°°^ vessels to engage a Dutch fleet of about equal size. The (1665 1667i battle off Lowt'stoft was a brilliant victory for the English. In perfect line, like a body of well dif^^iplined cavalry, they swei)t down upon the Dutch, who retreated with the loss of an admiral, nineteen shi|»s. and seven thou.sand nuMi, while the English loss was hardlv one titth as great. 360 STUARTS AND PAllLIAMENT Naval fortune proved fickle. A terrible plague which swept over England during 1065-166(5 decimated the crews of the English vessels ; a Dutch fleet attacked the English vessels at the mouth of the Thames while they were unprepared for action; Denmark and the two German states of Brandenburg and Brunswick allied themselves with the Dutch; and France, though friendly to England, threatened to do the same. In these straits England fought desperately. In a four days' naval battle off the Downs (June, 1666), De Ruyter and Van Tromp, with one hundred vessels, crippled, but failed to de- stroy, a much smaller English fleet under Monk and Eupert. Two months later Monk defeated De Ruyter off the coast of Norfolk, and followed up this victory by the destruction of one hundred and fifty-one merchant vessels at the entrance to the Zuyder Zee, the very threshold of Holland. Both parties to the struggle were now practically exhausted, and the distress of England was increased by the terrible fire 412. End of London (1666), which destroyed thirteen thousand of the Dutch j^Q^^ggg within the city walls, and for the time being war (July, •' ' ^ 1667) paralyzed the efficiency of the government. The Dutch seized the opportunity to avenge the shame of the Zuyder V Zee. A fleet of sixty-one vessels under De Ruyter entered the mouth of the river Thames, ascended as far as Gravesend and Rochester, captured three men-of-war before the eyes of the English, and retired -=--=--''"^"-' .-.>-^f^S>^^" unmolested. The result The Royal Exchange, London. was a popular demand for As rebuilt after the fire of 1606. peace, too strong to be re- sisted ; and England hastened to negotiate a treaty at Breda in 1667, by which neither side gained marked advantage. All TIIK UKSroKKl) S'lTAKl' .M<»NA1{( IIV M')l conquests in ships and in tt-iritoi y were to he retained — a Itiovision wliii-h gave New York tu the English and Surinam (^l>utc'li (Juiana) to the Dutch; the navigation acts were so far relaxed that goods from Ilulhuid, Germany, or Flanders niight be brought to England in J)utch vessels ; a provision for a defensive alliance against all enemies was adopted; and the pride of England was salved by the agreement of the Dutch to salute English vessels in British waters, not as a symbol of subjection, but as a matter of international courtesy. The acquisition of the territory about the Hudson gave to England a continuous territory on the Atlantic coast of Amer- ica ; and a treaty with Spain in lOTO confirmed her title ^^^ ^^^ to the whole area as far south as Carolina. The Stuarts American liked a proprietary type of colony modeled after the palatine counties of Chester and Durham — of which Mary- laud (1032) was the earliest American example; and Charles II. had early (1003) granted to Clarendon, Albemarle, Ashley, and others the territory of Carolina, with palatine powers. After the conquest of New Amsterdam, the former New Netherland became the proprietory colony of New York, and the king soon created two others — New Jersey (1004) and IVnnsylvania (l(iSL'). Anwng the fruits of the Turitan religious ferment were the Quakers, a religious sect which went to the extreme in lios- tility to the ceremonial of the established church, and in chami>ionship of democratic principles. After twelve thou- sand Quakers had been imprisoned for nonconformity, many sought relief from the Anglican tyranny in the new colonies, under the ])rotection of the Quaker proprietor, William Tenn. In 1001 the Scottish Privy Council, by order of Charles II., had prrx'laimed the reestablishment of epi.scoitacy in Scot- 414 . , . , . , 1 ; o .i.- I Charles II. land. As a result of this order, three hundred Scottish and Scot. ministers were driven from their parishes. The Scottish land Parliament now passed laws for compulsory attendance upon 362 STUARTS AND PAKLIAMENT the services of the established church ; but many congrega- tions, especially in western Scotland, met in retired fields and glens for secret worship according to the Pi-esbyterian forms. Both Charles II. and James II. strove to suppress these field- meetings, or conventicles, and the Covenanters again and again broke out into armed rebellion. They were, of course, repeatedly beaten by the royal troops, but every defeat, and the severe penalties which were visited upon those taken prisoners, only served to alienate from the Stuarts the hearts of their Scottish subjects. By 1667, Clarendon became unacceptable both to the king and to Parliament, because he opposed religious toleration in 41 "i Th ^^^y^ form, was severe in his own morals, and advocated Cabal an unpopular foreign policy. He was accordingly mmis ry removed from office, impeached, and banished. Charles now looked for advice to a small group of members from his Privy Council. A similar group in the reign of James I. had been nicknamed the " Cabal " (an Arabic word meaning " secret ") ; and this term was applied with special point to Charles's coterie of five ministers — Clifford, Arlington, Buck- ingham, Ashley, and Lauderdale. These men had little in common, but each was personally agreeable to the king ; Buck- ingham was a man of brilliant intellect, who amused the king and shared in his vicious pleasures; Clifford was an ardent Catholic, and believed in absolute government; Ashley (a Pres- byterian) had great political shrewdness, and was a strong advocate of religious toleration. To Charles these favorites were an easy means of shifting responsibility from his own shoulders ; for when he had led them into proposals which failed to catch the favor of the nation, he sacrificed them to the popular clamor, and appointed new scapegoats in their place. The downfall of the conservative Clarendon was only one among many indications that England was about to enter THE KKSTOIJKI) M I A K 1' .M« >N.\ i;( H V 3«)3 Upon a new pliasi- of national life, in iiotli its inteinal and its foreign policy. In HHJl the young king Louis XIV. ..f France "became his own prime luinister," and entered ' 4 16. Change upon a long course of intrigue and aggression. He had in foreign two principal aims: to extend the boundaries of France ^°^^^^ to include the mouth of the lUnne by absorbing both the Span- ish and the Dutch Netherlands; and to restore the Catholic religion in the I'rotestant countries of western Europe. To Louis, champion of Catholicism and of absolutism, Charles now turned as to a kindred spirit. Each of these kings was au unscrupulous intriguer in polities, each was luxurious and vicious in his daily life, each was determined to rule his king- dom for his own personal advantage and jdeasure. The his- tory of the period beginning with the year U\i'u is a history of intrigues in which the several ministers in the Cabal plotted against one another, while the monarch intrigued with and betrayed each in succession — using their influence to secure money from Parliament when possible, but all the time pla}'- ing into the hands of France, and always relying on Louis XIV. for money and for moral and i)erhaps physical support. In 1GG7 Louis XIV. made his first attack upon the Spanish Netherlands, but was temjjorarily checked by the Dutch, who hastened to negotiate a defensive " Triple Alliance "' with 417. i:ngland and Sweden. The stand thus taken by England , Charles s •' '^ league with was due to the sagacity of Sir William Temple, who France perceived in France a far more threatening rival than Holland could ever be ; but the English statesman could not restrain the greed and treachery of the English king. In 1070 a secret treaty was negotiated at Dover, by the terms of which Charles was at once to abandon the Triple Alliance, to declare war against Holland, and to make a strong naval demonstration, while Lonis was to attack Holland on land, and was to con- clude with England a commercial tn-aty. At the first favor- able opportunity, Charles was to declare liis conversion to 364 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT Catholicism and to receive from France moral and, if neces- sary, military support in overthrowing the Anglican Church. In the meantime Charles received an immediate gift of £150,000 and the pledge of a subsidy of £225,000 a year as long as the Dutch war lasted. He was also ultimately to receive certain towns on the coast of Zealand. While Louis was engaged in bribing Sweden to desert the Triple Alliance, and in negotiating treaties with certain Ger- man states, Charles first tricked Parliament into a grant 418. First ' * Declaration of £800,000, on the ground that England required a of Indul- ^gg^ equal in strength to either the Dutch or the French gence ^ ° (March 15, fleet; and then prorogued it (to forestall opposition) lfi72i ' and issued a Declaration of Indulgence (March 15, 1672), the first step toAvard fulfilling the secret treaty of Dover. This Declaration suspended "the execution of all and all manner of penal laws in matters ecclesiastical against whatso- ever sort of nonconformists." Ashley, though eager to secure toleration for Presbyterians, was loath to grant favors to Cath- olics ; but the gift of the earldom of Shaftesbury led him to accept the king's policy. A declaration of war against the Dutch followed two days later ; but the English merchants, who found that their commercial interests suffered more from the war than from the competition of the Dutch, soon began to clamor for peace. Charles's position was especially weak because of his spend- thrift habits. A gambler, a libertine, a " prince of good fellows," he enriched his favorites, male and female, not only with 419. Fail- ^ ' > J ure of the dukedoms and marquisates, but also with fabulous gifts of Declaration jj^oney and jewels. Millions of pounds were squandered within a year after the proroguing of Parliament, and a new session had to be summoned early in 1673 for fresh supplies. Parliameut immediately entered upon a grand battle with the king over the recent Declaration of Indulgence, refusing to dis- cuss any other question until that should be settled. TIIK UKsroHKI) SITAKI' MDXAIU^IIV 3Go Till' ([Ufstioii whi'thor tlif kind's pitM-otjative of pardon coultl lie strt'tched so as to pcriiiit. him tr) uulliry an act of I'ailiaineut, was vital. railiament insistctl that in tliis ease the kin<,' was not really pardoning, bnt was licensing a crime before its commission. Parliament was ready to relieve Protestant dissenters, but Charles did not want this rt^form . unless like liberties could be granted Catholics, and therefore he withdrew his Declaration, rarlianicnt immediately passed a Test Act, which compelled all otticers under the crown to take the sacranu-nt according to the rites of the Church of England, and to renounce the doctrine of transubstantiation. This act forced the Catholic Clifford out of the position of Lord Treasurer, and the Duke of York out of his jiosition as Lord High Admiral. Shaftesbury became leader of the Opposition, and the Cabal was thus dissolved. Meanwhile, Louis XIV.'s invasion of Holland was stopped by the patriotic Xetherlanders, who in desperation cut the dikes and flooded the countrv. In order to be free to ^„^ „ 420. Peace fight Louis, they offered to make large concessions to Eng- with Hol- land ; and in February, 1074, Parliament forced the king ^ to agree to peace. The Dutch surrendered all posts which they had captured from England outside of Europe, agreed to arbitrate all disputes between their traders and the East India Company, pledged themselves to pay an indemnity of .■t*SO0,O0O, and agreed to salute the English flag throughout the narrow seas; while England made no concessions excejjt a general agreement not to aid any enemies of the Dutch. Parliament now demanded that the king shouhl disband tlie army; and Ciiarles — having obtained a promise of t'l,()0().()00 annually from Louis XIV., to make him independ»'nt of Par- liament — i)rorogued it for lifteen months (Novendier, 1C.7.')). "Then ciuni', those days, never to 1m^ recalled without 421 Soci- a blush, the days of servitude without loyalty, and sen- ^^^gtoraUon Ruality without love, of dwarfish talents and gigantic drama 366 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT vices. . . . The king cringed to his rival that he might Macmday trample on his people, sank into a viceroy of France, Esmy on _ and pocketed, with complacent infamy, her degrading ' ' insults, and her more degrading gold. The caresses of harlots, and the jests of buffoons, regulated the policy of the state. The government had just ability enough to deceive, and just religion enough to persecute." Such conditions as these were most unfavorable to the development of literature and art. The theater, tabooed under the Commonwealth, again became popular, but the dramas produced by Wycherly and his successors were trivial in /._^-, subject and incident, superficial in treatment, and immoral in plot and language. In the compara- tively clean Elizabethan drama, the female parts were acted by boys ; but now women were found to undertake even the most de- grading parts in these worthless plays. John Dryden (1631-1700) at first continued the tradition of the early Stuart dramatists in a series of less objectionable trage- dies ; but the Elizabethan inspira- tion was dead, and most of his dramatic work is as dull and as wicked as that of his contem- poraries. His lyric poetry, however, shows a mastery over technique, and a power of clear, concise, forceful expression which made him the leader of a new school of poetry. The most popular poem of the time was Butler's mock-epic p . Hudibras, which satirized in witty verse the bigoted tanism in Puritan crusade against sports and the blundering Puri- tan attempts at government without experience in state- craft. In contrast to all this triviality stands out one noble \ John Dryden. From the painting by P. Kriimer. literature Tin: Ki:si(ii;i;i) stiaim" monakciiv 3ti7 work wliicli },'ives expression to the liiirlicst as]iiratioiis of the Puritans — liunyan's PihiriiuH I'roi/n.ss (IGTo). This work, written by a Xonconforiuist preacher while imprisoned under the Conventicle Act, is an allegorical account of the religious experiences of man in his journey through this world, and it sets forth with wonderful vi-vidness his emotions while under conviction of sin, during temi»tation and dis- couragenuMit, and while passing through the River of Death from mortal to immortal life. Strangely enough, it is to Charles II. that England owes the incorporation of the Roy.al Society for the Promotion of Natural Knowledge (1(>62), which has ever since given re- 423. Foun- markable encouragement to scientitic investigation. The dationof ,- ' 1 , , ■ r tbe Royal society si)raug trom tlie weekly meetings of a grouji Society of "worthy persons inquisitive into natural jjliilosophy '" (.1662) (a subject in which the king was as deepl}' interestetl as it was possible for him to be in anything serious), and nuide a beginning of investigations in " I'hysick. Anatomy, Geom- etry, Astronomy, . . . Chymieks, Mechanicks," etc. Under Charles II., too, was established (lOToj the Royal Astronomi- cal Observatory at Greenwich (now part of London). The return of the Stuarts proved how impossible had been the i)olitical and religious schemes of the leaders of the Civil War. The restoration of the monarchy with generous 424 sum- powers, and the reestablishment of the Anglican Church ^"■J with such safeguards as the Corporation, Uniformity, and Conventicle acts, show clearlf the ])olitical and religious preferences of the majority of the nation. liy these acts, which drove the Presbyterians definitely into the ranks of the Nonconformist party, the quality of the clergy in the Clmrch of England was fixed at a low level for a long term of years, since many of the mo.st truthful, intellig.'iit. devoted, ami spiritual clergymen were disi)laced by less worthy per- 368 STUARTS AND I'ARLIAMENT sons, selected by the king and liis irreligious favorites. The literature of the period reflects its low moral tone. In political life, as the king grew more confident of himself, the faults of his father grew more noticeable in him ; but his financial dealings with Louis XIV. left him free from that absolute dependence on Parliament which proved fatal to Charles I. Many Englishmen to whom .these conditions were intolerable emigrated to America; the rest girded themselves anew for battle in defense of the ancient liberties of England. Meanwhile, the long duel with Holland was brought to an end. Under the strain of her century-long struggle against Spain and France, the little state was unable to hold her place as an aggressive leading colonial power; and henceforth she made common cause with England as a rival of Catholic and despotic France. Suggestive topics Search topics TOPICS (I) Prove that the so-called Convention Parliament was not entitled to the name of Parliament. (2) Why was this a good opportunity to abolish antiquated feudal conditions ? (o) What kind of tax would have been the most equitable substitute for the extinct feudal dues ? (4) Is an excise tax easy or difficult to col- lect ? (5) What did the king hope to gain by coupling the cause of toleration for Roman Catholics (which he favored) with tolera- tion for Nonconformists (whom he disliked) ? (6) Can you find any specific points of likeness between Holland and Carthage, in their relations to their rivals ? (7) Review and compare the differ- ent Acts of Uniformity ; (8) the Acts of Supremacy ; and (9) the Test Acts from the Reformation to 1900. (10) Why were Non- conformist ministers specially exiled from the cities, corporate towns, and boroughs ? (II) The great French minister, Mazarin. (12) Samuel Pepys's account of the Plague in London, and the Great Fire of 1GG6. (13) Louis XIV. and his schemes of conquest. (14) The career of William III. of Orange as the defender of Holland. (15) Capture of New Amsterdam. (1(3) Career of William Penn. (17) William III. of Orange and the brothers De Witt. (18) Life of John Bun- yan. (19) Present status of the Nonconformists, (20) Description of a sea fight with the Dutch. TIIK KKSlnin:!) srrAKT MnNAliniV 300 REFERENCES See maps. pp. 'J80, ;;s.">, 421 ; Kiiili. Xi ir Stiub ut.s^ Atlas, map 2" Creography Secondary- authorities Hrii;lit, llisdn-ij nf Enijlnnd, II. 722-74"> ; (Jaidint-r, Stiiihiit\'< Jlistitri/. cli.s. xxxvii. x.\xviii. U2:I, ()28-«)."i4, — The Purilan Ji'rc- liitii'H, ch. X. §§ ;J-»» ; Hansoine, Ailcditcid Hixturif, 6i;i-()31 ; Green, Short Uistnr;/. cli. ix. §§ !-:>, — Ilistorij of English Prople, bk. viii. chs. i. ii. ; Montague, Elfinents of Constitutional History, 13.')-141 ; Powell and Tont, History of Enrjland, G44-G')i» j Brewer, SludetWs Hume. ch. xxiv. ; Linganl, History of England, VII. chs. vi.-ix. ; Mi\caulay, History of England, ch. ii. ; Jenks, Parlia- mentary England, cii. i. ; Lawless, Ireland, ch. xli. ; Morris. Ire- land (141>4-18«8), 104-172 ; Lang, History of Scotland, 284-320 ; Brown. History of Scotland, 380-104 ; Bayne, Chi<-f Artors of the Puritan liirohition, chs. v. xi. ; .Viry, The English liistoration and Louis XIV.; Eggkston, The Transit of Civilization from England to America ; FLske. Beginnings of Xen: England ; Lyall, Risf of British Dominion in India, cli. ii. ; 'ra.swell-Langmead, Con.'^titutional History, 511-o27 ; Traill, Social England, ch. xv. ; Routledge, Chapters in tin- History of Popular Progress, cli. i. Adams and Stepliens, Select Documents, nos. 222-228 ; Colby, Sources Selections from the Sources, nos. 77-70; Kendall, Source-Boo/c, nos. !tO-0."> ; Henderson. Side Lights, 124-157 ; Gee and Hardy, Documents of Church History, nos. 115-120; Green. State Papers of Charles II. ; Figgis, Englisli History from Original Sources, pt. i. 1-54 ; Taylor, England unihr Charhs II. ; Samuel IVpys, Z>jari/ (1000-1000); Juhn Kvelyn, Diary and Corn-spondence (1000- 1073) ; Burnet, History of My Oicu Time. See also New Kngland History Teachers' As.sociation, Syllahus, 255-25<5, — Historical Sources, § 57. Bates and Coman, English History told hy English Poets, .341- 344; Defoe, Journal of the Plague of London; Dinden, .\nnus Mirahili.x ; Henty, When London Burned; Hugo, The Man Who lAtughs ; Manning, Cherry and Violet. Illustrative works THE STUART LINE Time scale, 20 years to one inch ^.45 JAMES I. Cp -'"s) Henry Prince of Wales d. 1612 : Fredericli Elector of the Palatinate CHARLES I. = Henrietta Maria Prince Rupert = Mary > Commonwealth 1658 1660 ; Oliver Cromwell [i Richard Cromwell ^Commouwealth Sophia = Ernest d. Maj, 1714 Elector of Hanover" y47- — CHARLES II. F James Duke of Monmouth Beheaded, 1085 Anne Hyde = (i) JAMES II. (2i= = Mary of Modena -WILLIAM lll. = MARY II. d. 1694 ANNE James The Pretender d.l7C0 Charles Edward The Young Pretender d.1788 Henry "Cardinal York"' d. 18U7 GEORGE I. tp. 481) 370 rTTAlTKK XXVT FALI, UK TIIK STIAIMS (1(;7;;-Hi«8) From 1G73 to 1G79 tlie Earl of Danby, the new Lord Treas- urer, followed Clarendon's policy of building up the royal power and the Anglican Cliiuch. To control successive Parlia- 425 nients he either bril)e(l the constituencies to elect subser- Charles s vient members, or bribed the members after election. ence on The money came from France, Holland, and Spain, all Louis XIV. eager to secure the support of England in thfir various conti- nental schemes. The honest members of Parliament proved almost as bad representatives as the dishonest ones, through their silly bickering at a time when united action was most needed. Wlienever Parliament threatened an injury to French interests, Louis XIV. induced Charles to dissolve or to pro- rogue it, furnishing meanwhile £1,000.000 a year to make him independent of money grants. In 1077-107S. lie paid Charles ■€1,000.000 to delay a meeting of Parliament for ten months, in order that he might be free to negotiate for peace with the Dutch on his own terms. To complete the tale of dishonesty, Charles summoned Parliament before the time agreed upon, and tlvat bo7'.> and a fifth in 1681; bt)th were dissolved in order tt) prevent the passjige 37-1 STUARTS AMD PARLIAMENT of the Exclusion Bill. At the session of the latter which met at Oxford, both parties appeared in arms, and civil war seemed 430 F n f i^iiiiiiGnt. Shaftesbury, however, overreached himself. Shaftesbury He published the most wild and obviously invented ' stories, alleging that tlie nation had been corrupted by French gold, and declaring that the tire of 1666 was due to the intrigues of Catholics; and he finally schemed to seize the king and compel him to accept the Exclusion Bill. Such overviolence defeated its own end. Charles, finding public sentiment inclining to his side, prosecuted Shaftesbury on the charge of manufacturing evidence against the royal family. The prosecution failed, but the j)opular belief in the Popish Plot was dying out ; the king, by abrogating the charters of many Whig towns and filling their corporations with his own nominees, insured the election of a Tory Parliament ; and Shaftesbury, recognizing his danger, fled to Holland, where he died a year later (January, 1683). The fight over the Exclusion Bill gave rise to the first party names in English history ; for as soon as Shaftesbury was 431. Party dismissed from oflice he secured petitions for a meeting Whie^and °^ Parliament, so that the Exclusion Bill might be Tory passed. The king's adherents promptly got up counter- petitions declaring their " abhorrence " of any attempt to interfere with the king's prerogative of assembling Parliament when he pleased. The former were at once nicknamed "Petitioners," and the latter '' Abhorrers " ; but these mild terms soon gave way to the more offensive nicknames of " Whig" and "Tory." "Whig" was a Scottish term, and as applied to the Petitioners meant that they were at heart rebels like the Scottish Covenanters ; " Tory " was an Irish expression for a brigand, and implied that the Abhorrers were Popish thieves. Thenceforward, for many years, the Whigs were distinguished by their willingness to resist and even to depose the king should necessity arise, and by their KALI, (>F TIIK SllAKlS (107:1-1 088) 37 defense of reliLrious toleration; the Tories stoml by the heredi- tary ri.>,dit of the kiii;^ to his i-rouii, ami the aiitliority of the Ki»isro}ial Chunh. After Shaftesbury's Higlit, James's enemies could up loni^'er proHt by the bugbear of the Popish Plot. Driven to despera- tion, they attempted still wilder schemes. In particular. 432 End of certain followers of Shaftesbury were detected in a i)lot Charles II. s '' ' reign to assassinate Charles as he passed by the '' Kye House"' (1682-1685) on a journey from Xewniarket to London. The nation at last A l-Kii>T l"\ii; 'i\ no. IH.VMI.- Fmrn a tract .-iititl.-il Go'l's Works is th>- H'«;7./'.s Woiuhr. Iti*;:. ffrew so indifferent to alarms that by the end of 1(583 it had largely recovered its normal tone. .Fames was restored to his office of Lord High Admiral, Danby was released from the Tower, and (Jates was punished for his sliare in the late consi)iracy. Tangier, in Morocco, which had ])assed to Eng- laml as the dowry of Charles's wife, was abandoned, and its garrison of seventeen hundrt'd huisi- ami seven thousand foot was brought to Kngland and maintained in the king's service in violation of tin- law, without a sinu'h" iirotest. On February (5, 376 STUARTS AND PARLIAMENT 1685, Charles died, having previously received ahsohition and the sacraments from a Catholic priest, and was succeeded by bis brother James. James II. was lifty-two years old at his accession in 1685. The bitter experiences of his youth had made him grow up 433. Acces- narrow-minded, limited in his outlook upon life, and sion of obstinate in temper. Although he proved to be a good (Feb.6,1685) administrator and business man when at the head of the navy, he lacked the wisdom and tact necessary for success as a monarch. He attached himself to the Tory party, choosing for his councilors the Earl of Rochester (the son of Charles's chancellor Hyde), Sydney Godolphin, and the Earl of Sunder- land, all men of unstable if not disreputable character. To bring in a Parliament submissive to the new monarch, they used wholesale bribery, with money received from Louis XIV. The fruit was seen when the new Parliament threw away its chief means of controlling the king, by granting to James a revenue of £2,000,000 a year for life. At this time the Duke of Monmouth was in Holland, busily engaged in preparing an expedition against James. , With 434. Mon- three vessels, bearing only eighty men, but containing a R°b^ir^ large supply of arms for the voluuteers expected to (June, 1685) rally to his support in England, he landed at Lyme in Dorsetshire, and issued a sensational proclamation against James. The local conditions favored his cause. A bad season had thrown many agricultural laborers out of employment, and these, together with others who dreaded a Catholic tyranny, flocked to his standard, till fifteen hundred recruits joined him in a single day, and success seemed certain. To strengthen the wavering, he declared that liis mother was the lawful wife of Charles II. at the time of his birth, and that he was therefore rightful king of England. Monmouth's one chance of success lay in proceeding boldly eastward, but his weak character and his military incapacity FALL OF rilF SIIAKTS (^ltl7;)-1688) :')" ( led him to waste time in aimless marches and countermaiclies. Consequently James's foires had time to assemble and face his ai-my on the field of 8edgemoor. Monmouth risked 435. Defeat a niglit attack ; blunders, bad generalshij), and treachery ^^^^^^^ j°°y in his ranks led to a disastrous defeat ; and Monmouth 6. 1685) was taken prisoner and was soon executed. Then Judge Francis Jeffreys was sent through the southwest counties as special commissioner to try all who had shared in the rebel- lion, and he eondueted what was known as the Bloody Assize. Three hundred persons were executed, eight hundred and forty-one were sent to lifelong punishment as slaves in the plantations of Virginia or the West Indies, and multitudes of others were whii)ped. fined, and otherwise persecuted. James now felt his throne secure, and at once prei)ar('d to raise the issue of the monarch's right to exercise the dispens- ing power in matters of religion. On the pretense that 435 Monmouth's rebellion proved that the militia was inefti- Jamess ' prepara- cient, he organized a small standing army ; the troops thus tions for raised were stationed at Hounslow Heath, near London, absolutism probably for the purpose of overawing that city ; Parliament was prorogued to avoid a conflict; and in a test case in a packed court, eleven out of twelve justices rendered a decision that the monarch had the right to dispense with the Test Act, as with any other statute, and that his prerogative in this re- spect could not legally be restrained by any act of Parliament. James now ventured to set up a Court of Ecclesiastical Com- mission, a body which (under the name of the Court of High Commission) the Long Parliament had abolished in 1041, 437. ,. , . James's with a provision that it should not hv, restored. With its violation of assistance li«' ench-avored to bring the universities, which ^a^ were the strongholds of the Anglican ChurHi, under the control of Catholic officials. He j»ut Uoman Catholics at the head of three Oxford colleges, and when all but two of the fellows of Magdalen College resigned their fellowships rather than conn- 378 STUARTS AND I'AULIAMENT tenance his illegal action, he tilled the vacancies with Catholics. In Ireland, the army, the judicial bench, and the privy coiTncil were put under the control of Catholics. In the larger cities and towns, the corporations were remodeled to make places for Catholic voters, although as a bribe to Nonconformists a few of their leaders were also appointed to places. In Scotland James dispensed by proclamation with all laws against Roman Cath- olics ; and finally he issued a Declaration of Indulgence (April 4, 1687) granting freedom of worship to all lloman Catholics and Protestant dissenters in England. These acts were all patiently endured, because the majority of the Tory party, hoping that James would be succeeded by 438. Second his Protestant daughter, adopted a policy of " passive Declaration ^i^edienee " : that is, thev ignored orders from the of Indul- ' 7 „ o gence(1688) king which required them to perform illegal acts, but they would not actively resist the monarch or try to restrain Mm by force. From this position they were driven to open revolt by James's own tyrannical folly. On April 22, 1688, he issued another Declaration of Indul- gence, and raised a definite issue with the advocates of passive resistance by an Order in Council requiring the clergy of all denominations to read this declaration from their pulpits on two successive Sundays. The most loyal were aghast at such folly. At a meeting of churchmen called at the palace of the Archbishop of York in London, it was decided that a petition signed by the archbishop and six representative bishops should be presented to the monarch, praying him not to compel them to break the law by reading the declaration, since the right of the monarch to exercise dispensing power had at various times been denied by Parliament. ^^^^61"^ the bishops presented themselves before him upon the with this petition, James was furious. He threaten- (Ma°^June ^"Slv declared that he would keep the petition, and 1688) ' Avould not forget who signed it. "No good clergyman," KALI- (»F Till-: sriAKI'S (lC,7;}-ir)88) oTU saiil he, *' ever yet questioned the dispensing powtM.' Hishop Ken, of Hath and Wells, boldly demanded that the bishops be granted -the same liberty of conscience granted to others." On James's refusal he replied, " We have two duties, one to God and one to your ^lajesty'*; and he with Ins fellows de- parted, saying " God's will be done." The bishops were now indicted before the Court of the King's Bench on the charge of '* publishing a false, malicious and seditious libel,"' and were sent to the Tower. At their trial (June 29, H» persuade him to assume control in Orange F^ngland. The temptation was great, for he neeiled the assist- ance t>f Knghiud to accomplish the ruling purpose of liis life, the ruin of Louis X 1 \'."s schemes of conquest. Furthermore, 380 STUARTS AND TAKLIAMENT the birth of a son to James on June 10, 1688, cut off the direct succession of the Princess Mary, wife of William, to the throne. Nevertheless, the cautious prince absolutely refused to move until he should receive an authentic list of adherents " either very numerous or very high in rank." On the very day of the acquittal of the bishops, a letter of invitation was sent to him, signed by the Duke of Devonshire, representing the old Whig party ; the Earl of Shrewsbury, a leader among the nobility; the Earl of Danby, representing the Tories hostile to the French alliance; Crompton, Bishop of London, representing the higher clergy ; Henry Sidney, representing a small group of Eadicals ; Lord Lumley, repre- senting those who had hitherto clung to James ; and Kussell, Lord High Admiral. William was assured that nineteen twentieths of all the nobles and gentry w'oiild rally to his support, and that nine tenths of the army and navy were ready to desert James. At this decisive moment Louis XIV. plunged into a war by invading the Palatinate (§ 342) and left William free to invade England. On October 10, 1688, William issued a proclamation at the Hague, declaring that James's proceedings were a peril to the 441. Theex- liberties of English subjects; that the alleged birth of a pulsion o g^^ ^^ James called for an investigation in defense of James II. * (Nov. .1688) Mary's rights; and that he intended to go to England with forces, not with any idea of conquest, but to promote the assemblage of a free and legal Parliament, to settle the questions in dispute. As soon as William landed at Tor Bay in Devonshire (Novem- ber 5, 1688), the royal troops began deserting to his standard, and the nobles of the west hastened to offer him their services. As he advanced eastward, his ranks increased daily. Finally, when Colonel Churchill, and even the Princess Anne, had gone over to the newcomer, James suddenly awoke to his own danger, began to dismiss Catholics from office; and opened FALL OV Tin: srL'AUrs (1i;t3-1G88) 381 negotiations with William. Eleven days later, in sndden IKUiic, he tied from London to the eoast, where he was seized by some overzealons ottieers and bronght baek to London; but he was soon permitted to escape, and took refuge with Louis XIV. James once safely out of the way, a committee consisting of the peers of the realm and the mayor and alder- ^^m^~/fJi^^^ :M~cZ£^ KiN<; William IIL's Aitooraph. Portion of a message to Parliament.! men of the city of London entered into negotiations with William ; and it was agi-eed that a Convention Parliament should be immediately summoned, to adjust the affairs of the kingdom. The dependence of f'harles ILon Louis XIV. created a wide- spread fear for the safety of the established religion in England: the Catholics num])ered less than three i)er 442 sum- cent of the ])oi)iilation, and the panic was groundless; mary but Gates and his fellows profited by it to gain money and 1 Translation : " [I pray] the gntnl I»ril to hle.ss your (ieliberations ami to inspire you witli what is neede ; Powtll and Tout, History of Enyluiid, (;r){»-()7t» ; Maoaulay, History of Enylamh chs. ii.-x. ; Brewer, StudiiWs //«mf, chs. xxiv.-xxvi. ; Lingard. History of Emjland, VH. ch. x., VIII.; Hale, The Foil of the Stiuirts ; Airy, The English Bestoni- tion and Loitis A'/ 1'.; Yonge, llie English liivolntion ; Jenks, P-454 ; Ta.swell-Languiead, (.'onstitntional History, y'J7-o42 ; Knutledge, Popular Progress, chs. ii. iii. ; (iodfrey. Social Life under the Stuarts; Taylor, England under Charles II. \ Traill, Shnftishury. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, noa. i'29-2:]4 ; Colby. Sources Selections from the Sources, nos. 80-82 ; Kendall, Source-Book, nos. '.K5-101 ; Hill, Lihirty Documents, ch. viii. and A pp. C ; Henderson. Side Lights, l."i8-r.>2 ; Figgis. English History from Original Sources, pt. i. ■■),^107. pt. ii. 1-58; Gee and Hardy, Docu- ments of Church History, nos. 121, 122 ; Evelyn, Diary (I(i73-1i'>. — Historical Sources, 174-17<> (for this and sub.seipient perielfast, and g^^^^^^ „^, ^.^^ ^^^.^^ with a force of 36,000 From a Dutch painting, 1691. WIT.T.IAM III. 389 men advanced to meet James's aiiiiy of 27,000. July 1, 1090, a dei-isive battle was fought on the south side of the livt-r Hoyne, near J )ioi,'heda. After a severe contest, in whicli Wil- liam was wonmleil, liis troops were vietorious. James tied to Dublin, and thent-e to France, where he passed the rest of his life at 8t. (iernuiin (^near Taris) as a pensioner of the- French court. Some months were spent by William in bringing various fortresses in Ireland to submission, and the last strong- hold yielded only on condition that as many of the Irish troops as chose might emigrate to France and take service with Louis XIV. About ten thousand men did so, and subse- quently won renown on various fields of battle. Soon after the fall of James, the Scottish Parliament declai-ed that lie had forfeiti-d his crown, and named William and ^Mary as their new sovereigns, on condition that they accepted 448. Pacifi- a Scottish Declaration of Rights confirming Presbyterian- Scotland ism as the state religion. Graham of Claverhouse, now il689 1692; Viscount Dundee, rallied the Scottish Highlanders to the defense of the Stuarts, but was killed at the battle of Killie- crankie, July 27, 1080. The clans, lacking a leader, dispersed to their homes, and most of them soon gave in their submis- sion to the new govennnent. Unfortunately William intrusted the conduct of aftairs to a harsh and cruel officer, Dalrym- ph' of Stair, who misused his powers by authorizing the slaughter of the entirt- clan Macdonald because it was slow in submitting. February Vi, 1002, thirty-eight members of this clan were murdered at their homes in the valley of (Jlencoe, and the rest were driven into the mountains to starve or freeze. William's fault in this matter appears to have been that he authorized extreme severity without first making sure that it was neces.sary. Louis XIV.'s attack upon the Palatinate (which gave Wil- liam his opportunity to invade Fngland) (juickly brought on a general Eurnpoan war. in wliiih Knglaml, Holland, the Em- 390 RISE OF PARTY GOVERNMENT peror, Sweden, Spain, and numerous smaller states, formed a Grand Alliance against France. Louis had built up a great 449 Naval "^'^J' hoping to destroy the supremacy of England and phase of the Holland on the seas; and on the day before the battle of War the Boyne (June 30, 1691) Admiral Tourville with 70 (1691-1692) ships fought the allied English and Dutch fleet of 56 ships off Beachy Head. The English were badly commanded, and, although the Dutch fought bravely, the French gained the day. Elated by this victory, Louis planned an invasion of Eng- land, to restore James II. to the throne, and prepared an army of 30,000 troops, to be convoyed by 50 ships of the line. In May, 1692, the French admiral Tourville attempted to secure control of the Channel by an attack upon the combined Eng- lish and Dutch fleet of 90 vessels cruising off La Hogue on the coast of France. The Dutch avoided the contest, but the English fought desperately to wipe out the disgrace of Beachy Head. The French fleet was routed, thirteen ships were driven ashore, and a few others escaped to the near-by harbor of Cherbourg, where they were burned b}- some daring English sailors. Meanwhile William was taking the surest method of fend- ing off the invasion of England, by keeping the troops of >i = n A *• Louis busv on the French frontiers. Although defeated 450. Conti- "^ ° _ nental at Steinkirk in August, 1692, and again at Neerwinden PaStinlte^ in July, 1693, he inflicted such losses upon Louis that War the latter became anxious to make peace. This anxiety ( lfiQ2— 1697^ was increased in 1695, when William captured Namur, the first defeat of France on land in fifty-two years. The war dragged on until 1697, by which time Fi-ance was absolutely exhausted, and therefore no longer to be dreaded ; the critical condition of the childless king of Spain made it likely that rivalry over his dominions might soon break up the Grand Alliance; and the peace of Eyswick (September, 1697) was there- W'll.I.IAM III. 391 fore ai,M-t'P(l upon. The terms between France and England iiielmled the restoration of all the conquests made in America, where the colonies of both powers luul carried on war on their own account; anil Louis further agreed to recognize William as legitimate monarch of England, and not to lend aid to Jacobite ' intrigues against him. In selecting his earliest ministers, William thought to strengthen his position by employing both Whigs and Tories; but he soon found that he could count on the 451 jhe support only of that ixirty which had raised him to the ^^^® °^ ^ ^ the Whig throne, and that whenever he was absent upon the Con- junto tinent the composite ministry fell into dissensions and <,1694> (piarrels. The death of Queen ^lary, in 1()94, left him still less to hope for from the Tories, since he had no longer any claim through his wife to be the successor of James II. He was therefore gratlually driven to rely upon a single strong Whig minister, and to surround him with colleagues from his own party. In 1(>04, under the advice of the Earl of Sunderland, Wil- liam began to replace his Tory ministers with Whigs, and thus gradually built up the so-called "Whig Junto," the precursor of the one-party ministries of the present day. In this minis- try the Duke of Shrewsbury was Secretary of State, and anumg the other members was Somers, who had drawn up the Decla- ration of Rights ; Russell, who had carried all the navy to Wil- liam's support ; and Montagu, rhancellor of the Exchequer, a man of markfd liiiancial altility. Monta'-Tu's fame rests upon his creation of the Rank of Eng- land (lO'.M). Roth Charles II. and James II. had relied uiton ^'oldsmiths for money loans and for checks to be u.sed in 452 The making payments of large sums. Now a group of capital- EiTe^and ists was granted a charter as the (Jovernor and Company (1694) of the Rank of England (ir»*)4), with special jirivileges, in * From Jartthux, tlic Ijiliii t'<|iiiv:il<-iit of .laiiK-s. w.vi.KKi!'* km;. iii*t. — 24 392 RISE OF PARTY GOVERNMENT return for a loan of £1,000,000 to the yovenuueiit. This and a previous sum borrowed from individuals iov that purpose formed the nucleus of a continuous national debt, which had some effect toward making the government stable. The use- fulness of the bank was further shown, in 1096, when the government undertook to recoin all the metallic money in the country, for the purpose of getting rid of the mutilated and depreciated coin then in circulation, and was obliged to borrow £1,200,000 for redeeming the old currency at its face value. One measure framed by the Whig ministry aimed to secure an expression of the will of the people at fairly frequent intervals. 453. Consti- The earlier Triennial Act of 1041 (§ 358) prevented tutional ^j^^ monarch from ruling without a Parliament, but did reforms (1694-1695) not prevent his prolonging the life of a single Parlia- ment indefinitely. For example, Charles II. retained the Cav- alier Parliament for seventeen years, although it ceased long before that time to express the will of the nation. A new Triennial Act (1694) provided that no Parliament shonld have longer duration than three years. In 1695 the House of Commons refused to renew the, Licens- ing Act, which since the Restoration had muzzled the press by forbidding the printing of legal, political, religious, and scien- tific works without a license from the government. Tlnis, almost unconsciously, England gained the freedom of the press, although it was still considered a violation of the special privi- leges of Parliament to publish the debates of that body. The later years of William's reign were a period of great anxiety. The moral tone of Parliament Avas very low, and bribery, direct or indirect, was freely used to secure sition to the pasfeage of important measures. The Jacobites, at ^^™ ■ home and abroad, worked unceasingly to undermine him and restore the Stuarts to the throne. The Dutch were jealous of his absorption in English affairs, and the English were jeal- ous of the Dutch advisers whom he kept near him and re- WlI.l.IAM III. o'Jo wanU'd with lands and lionors because he tonUl twist them. Indeed, he knew not what Englishman to trust; for the dis- covery of plot after plot showed that even those who, like Marlliorough, had intrigued to place him on the throne, were now in correspondence with James II. In 1606 the discovery of a i»lot to assassinate him led to some revival of loyalty, and most of the members of Parliament joined an association to carry nut the Act of Settlement on his death. Nevertheless they continued to oppose his measures, and thus to weaken his influence abroad. Amid these difficulties, William was called upon once more to protect Europe against the ambitions of Louis XI\'. Charles XL, king of Spain, was childless and infirm in 455. Dis- health ; his eldest sister was married to Louis XIV., and jjie^spanish although in the nuuriage contract she had renounced succession all rights to the succession for herself and her children, it was probable that on Charles's death Louis would claim the Spanish inheritance for some member of his family. In this case France would control not only (1) the Spanish peninsula, but also (!') the Spanish Netherlands, thus exposing Holland to attack; (3) ^lilan, Naples, and Sicily, thus threatening the Emperor's power in Italy; and (4) Spanish America, thus endangering England's colonial possessions. ''The king of Spain's Matthew health," wrote an English diplomat in 1698, "is the ^/'"'■(^"fr weathergla.ss upon which all our politicians look; as fax. Prime that ri.ses or falls we look pleasant or uneasy." Mimstcr The nearest legal ht'ir to the throne of Spain was thf l-'ni- ]»eror Lei'pold I., rulei- of .Vustria: but Fraiic*' woidd nut hear of his adding the Spanish domains to his already large pos- sessions. William claimed that the great Eur(»p«'an powers might in st'lf- xn ^ _: — oe z UJ P4 > X -^ >- — EC ^ Z "S Q UJ X s M tB l*=1 • >^(i:-' 3 = " CO 394 WIM.IA.M III. '■)%') lie therefore negotiattMl ;i Taititioii Tn-aty with Louis (1700) by wliifli F'raiM't' was to have tlic SiKUiish possessions in Italy, anil Austria to have thi- rest, witli a few exi;ei)tions. In November of tin* same yvdv, C"harl<-s II. died, leaving all his dominions by will to Philii) of Anjou, grandson of L(mis XIV. Louis immediately repudiated his treaties with William, and accepted the crown of Spain in behalf of his grandson. By this time the Tories were once morf in control of the English Parliament, and as they supported a peace i)olicy, Louis's action was not for the moment resented. Mean- 456. The while Parliament framed a new Act of Settlement, made settlement necessary by the death of Anne's only remaining child <1701i in July, 1700. Tt decreed that on Anne's death the crown should pass to Sophia, Electress of Hanover (granddaughter of James I.), and to her Protestant heirs in regular succession. Certain restraints placed upt)n the monarchy made this act a kind of supplementary bill of rights. (1) Monarchs were not to involve England in war on behalf of their Continental territories; (2) the right of pardon was taken away from them in cases of impeachment of a minister; (3) judges were to hold otiice for life, unless removed for misconduct on the initiative of Parliament ; (4) all persons who held any office or pension from the crown w^ere made ineligible for member- ship in the House of Commons. A few years later this last restriction was relaxed, so that oidy holders of newly created offices and pensions were ineligible ; and persons who accepted office while members of the House, thus forfeiting their seats, might be immediately rt't^lected if their constituents so desired. In 1701 Louis XIV. justified William's fears by seizing cer- tain iKirrier f(n-tresses on the southern boundary of the 45- j^^ Spanish X'etherlands, and bv refusing to recognize Aus- second . , , . . ' ... -, Grand AUi tria s claim to any portion ot Spanish territory. Sej)- ance Sept tember 7, 1701, .\ustria. HolUmd. and Kngland formed a 1701 > (rrand Alliance against France for the purpose of defending 396 KISE OF PARTY GOVERNMENT the Spanisli Xetherlands, securing for Leopold the Italian pos- sessions of Spain, and preventing the future iniion of the crowns of France and Spain. (Jn the day before this treaty was signed, James II. died, and Louis outraged the national pride of every Englishman by publicly recognizing his son, young James Stuart, as King James III. of England. In the height of the excite- ment William shrewdly dissolved Parliament, and in the new election se- cured a Whig majority to support his war policy; but on March 8, 1702, he died as the result of a fall from his horse, leav- ing to his sister-in-law Anne the task of sup- porting Europe against France, and defending her own throne against her brother James, whom the Whigs called " the Pre- tender." William III. of Orange was undoubtedly one of xeo «!. the world's great 458. Char- ® acter of statesmen. Born to William III. ^j^g hereditary stadtholdership of Holland, he was de- prived of that office through a democratic movement led by the brothers I)e Witt. From early youth he set himself with cold, grim determination to win back his birthright, showing in his hostility to the De Witts and to Louis XIY. tenacity of purpose, courage, and ceaseless activity. His grasp of affairs Statue of William III. From a bronze at Wimlsor Castle. WILLIAM in. 397 was extraorilinary. To him Eiiroite was a che.ssl)oard, on which kings, eoimts, duki's, ami elei-tors were made to move from square to s(iuare, guided hy liis unerring skill. In war, although not a great tactician or winner of battles, he was a great strategist. Campaigns, not battles, were his forte ; and his least brilliant operations almost always resulted in a net loss to the enemy. His cold, forbidding temper, his absori»tion in public affairs, his lack of the "milk of human kindness," made him extremely unpopular in England, where he was en- dured only as a defense against the greater evil of Stuart government, and in recognition of the great work he was carrying on upon the (,'ontinent. As the first man to formu- late clearly the theory of the '• balance of power," he greatly affected the subsequent history of Europe. Tlie (Jlorious Revolution of KISS made the monarch again the creature of Parliament (as at the beginning of the Lancas- trian, Tudor, and Stuart periods), and the long-standing 459 ^^^ quarrel over the limits of the royal prerogative was then niary ended by several acts strictly defining the monarch's powers on disputed points. The judiciary was made independent and the legislature responsible. Long stei)s were taken in the develoin ment of party government under responsible ministers acting as a Cabinet, or connnittee of the Privy Council. Broadly si>eaking, the dividing line Itetween the two parties was now permanently fixed on the basis of agriculture rs. manufactures, county r.s. town. To the landowning Tories, peace, fixity of customs, submission to hereditary rulers, and unity in religion .seemerl indispensable; to the enterprising city-bred Whigs, a vigorous foreign policry, juogress, govern- ment by the will of the ]»eople, and lilx^rty of wurship seeujed equally essential. .\s the Kev«ilution was essentially the ex- pression of the latter s]iirit, it tended as a wlioie tn make England's policy a Whig policy for many years. In especial, 398 RISE OF PARTY GOVERNMENT by giving to England William III. of Orange as her ruler, the Kevolution brought England into the midst of Continental entanglements, and ended her brief period of unnatural alli- ance with her ancient enemy, France. Thenceforth she be- came a power in European politics, especially because of her powerful navy. TOPICS Suggestive (1) State some specific acts of the Stuart monarchs Avhich led to topics particular provisions of the Bill of Rights. (2) How do the terms of the Mutiny Act reeuforce the provision in the Bill of Rights regarding a standing army ? (3) Compare the treatment of clan Macdonald by the Master of Stair with that of the garrison of Wex- ford- by Cromwell (see § 384). (4) In what ways may a national debt tend to the stability of a government ? (5) What light does the organization of the Bank of England throw on the financial conditions in England in 1694? (0) Is the membership of the British Parliament ever entirely renewed ? Compare its constitu- tion in this respect with that of the American Congress. (7) With the aid of the tables on pages 127 and 228, show that Parliament did not depart from ancient precedents in making William III. of Orange king of England. (8) Point out what events a;nd present condi- tions prompted the several provisions of the Acts of Settlement. (9) Was there any good reason why the debates in Pariiament should not be printed ? (10) Trace the blood relationship between James II. and Louis XIV. Search (11) The story of Glencoe. (12) Dutchmen who were made topics . pggj.g Qf England by William III. (13) Admiral Russell and the battle of La Hogue. (14) The Bank of England and the two United States Banks. (15) The Darien expeditions of 1698-1699. (16) Macaulay's estimate of William III. (17) Incidents of the war in America, 1689-1697. (18) Character of Queen Anne. (19) Contemporary opinions of William III. (20) A list of Eng- lish statutes expressing the liberty of the subject. Geography REFERENCES See maps, pp. 246, 280, 384. 38') ; (iardiner, S'tudent's Atlas, maps 35-38 ; Poole, IlistnrirnI Atlas, map xxviii. ; Reich, New Students'' Atlas, maps 28, 29. WILLIAM UL :l!»0 Brijilit. Ilisliin/ nf Etxjhtmh HI. 805-J<74 ; Gardiiitr, StmhiiVa Secondary imtnnj, clis. xlii. xliii. ; Hansom.', Ath-4- 1S6S, 174-1(H) ; McCartliy. Oi-24m ; Colby, Sources Selections from the Sources, nos. 8:3-85 ; Kendall, Source-Book, no. 1U2 ; Elill, Liherty Documents, chs. ix. x. ; llendei-son, Side Lifjhts, 192-214 ; Gee and Hardy, Documents of Church History, nos. 12;]. 124 ; Figgis. EmjUsh History from Orifjinal Sources, pt. ii. 0},} l,y Enylish Poets, -IX^'t- 351; Ilenty, The Ornnye and the dreen : Cmcketf. Lorhinvar ; Marshall. Kensinyton Palace; guiller-Coucb, The nine Pacilions; Weyman, Shreirislatry. lUustrativi works CHAPTER XXVIII. WHIGS VERSUS TORIES (1702-1715) Queen Anne, the younger daughter of .„« «, James II., was a 460 Char- acter of very dull, very ob- QueenAnne ^^^^^^^^^ ^^t very well-meaning person. By birth and education a Tory, and an ardent church worn an, she was never in sympathy with the measures of the Whig ministers whom she had to accept dur- ing a part of her reign, and absolutely refused to listen to their argu- ments for religious tol- eration. She made the mistake of letting per- sonal friendship influ- ence her official action, but fortunately the wis- dom of her advisers saved her from many grave errors. In her reign two forms of the prerogative applied for the last time : (1) the last veto by a monarch 400 Statue of Queen Annk, beforj St. Paul's Cathedral. England, France, Ireland, and Ameri at her feet. were of a WllKiS VERSrS TOUIKS (ITOi'-lTl'.) 401 hill accepted liy Iw'tli houses (1707); and (L') tlie last exercise of control over Parliament hy the creation of enough lords to change tlie party majority in the ujtper house (1711). With the two greatest movements (d' her reign, the War of the Spanish Succession and the revival of English letters, she had no special connection or sym])athy. Anne selected as contidential adviser her girlhood friend, S;nali -lenuiiigs, now married to John ("liurchill. Earl of Marlborough. The countess, a woman of brilliant in- 451. Anne's tellect but violent temper, was given highly i)aid posi- advisers tions at eourt, while her husband, the greatest general of the age, was made andnissador to Holland and commander in chief of the English army. For some years Marlborough was i>raetically ruler of England, through the influence of his wife over the queen, and through his own influeme over his son-in-law Godoli»hin, the Lord High Treasurer. Both Marlborough and (iodolphin Ijegau their career as Tories; but as their interests were Iwund uj) in the success of the Spanish Suecession War (a Whig war), they soon became the acknowledged leaders of the Whig party. .Vt .Vnne's accession, in .March. 17(>L'. the War of the Span- ish Succession had already begun, and the Karl of Marl- borough was in command of both the English and the 452 War Dutch arnnes in the Netherlands. The members of of the Span ish Suc- tlie (Jrand .Vlliance had a threefold task to pj'rforni in cession Europe: ( 1 ) in Spain, their object was to make Charles. '^'^^ ^' Archduke of Austria, king at Madrid; (2) in Italy, they sought to compter the Spanish |>rovinces of Naples, Sicily, and Milan; ('.i) on the Khine, tln'y had to recover the Sjtanish Netherlands, which had U'en seized by Louis, to defend Hol- land, and. if possible, to strike a series of blows at the heart of France, iising (lermany as a base of operations. Outside of Europe, the sea powers had tin- task of st-i/in,' I'rench and Spanish eoloni;d pos.sessions. 402 RISE OF PARTY GOVERNMENt Mai'lhovoiigli first sought to render the Dutch frontier safe from attack. A series of campaigns in 1702 and 3 703 put him 463. The in possession of five fortresses which commanded the '^^^^^n^^^ routes from France into Holland, and the proud and of 1702- 1704 gratified Anne made him Duke of Marlborough. In 1704 Louis formed an alliance with the Elector of Bavaria, intending to invade Austria. Marlborough shrewdly deter- mined to strike a blow before Louis was ready. Advancing N R T The Spanish Netherlands about 1700. up the Rhine valley into Bavaria, he united his forces with those of the German allies, and joined battle with the French near the village of Blenheim, where for the first time he re- vealed his consummate ability as a tactician and a general. The French were utterly routed, and the English nation by vote of Parliament bestowed upon Marlborough the old royal manor of Woodstock, upon which was erected at public expense the magnificent palace of Blenheim. wiiics vr.ijsrs tokiks (ito^-iti".) 403 5 *. i "i I:' T: liid 1 1 1 1 I .5 ) if* Ulknhk.im (.'Asi l.i;, W (.iodstock. Presented by tlie governuieiit to the Duke of Marlborough. Throughout the seventeenth century England had been steadily laying the foundations of a great colonial em])ir(\ with its necessary accompaniment, a great mercantile 464 The marine and a navy. Year by year she absorbed more Eng^ian^s ami more of tin- fisheries and the carrying trade of the sea power world, and planted continually new trading posts and colonit-s in remote lands. Madras, l>ond)ay, and Calcutta; Gandjia and St. Helena (map, p. iUo) ; thirteen colonies on the continent of North America; Barbados, the Leeward Islands, and the Windward Islands; Kupert's Land, on Hudson 15ay ; — tjiese form but a part of the long roll of acquisitions. Through the restrictions of the navigation acts the products of all these pos.sessions had to flow through English channels of triule ; this monoiioly had h-d to shipbuilding on a vast scale, and gave employment to thousands of nifrdiants, artisans, and sailors. Hence wht-n tin- Urvolution of I«;S.S piU tin* political powt-r into thf hands of the Whigs. England's colonial trade lu'came the controlling motive in their foreign policy. The War of the Spanish Siucvssion was important to England largely because it enabled her to seize commanding naval stations like 404 KISE OF I'AKTY GOVERNMENT Gibraltar (1704) and Minorca (1708), and valuable colonies like Xova Scotia (1711). The iirst-named stronghold was of vast importance to England's sea power, because it commanded the entrance to the Mediterranean, and because it was a base from which to attack Spain. The annexation of Nova Scotia ex- tended England's colonial empire at the expense of her chief rival. After 1704 the Continental war was eventful but barren of results. Prince Eugene of Savoy won most of Italy for .„^ „ the Emperor. Marlborough, in the Low Countries, won 465. Tory ^ * ' reaction repeated victories, — at Ramillies, Oudeuarde, Malpla- (1708-1709) q^^g^^ Tournay, Mons, — forcing his way doggedly toward the French capital. Louis sued repeatedly but lui successfully for peace, for the allies were bent on his ruin. Meanwhile in England the Tories were creating a sentiment against Marl- borough and the " AVhig war." It was said that he was getting rich out of army contracts, and that he was prolong- ing the war merely to win glory. The queen grew tired of being ruled and scolded by Sarah Jennings, and took to herself another favorite, Mrs. Masham. , The opportunity of the Tories came when the Whig party exposed itself to odium and ridicule by making a foolish at- tack upon Dr. Sacheverell, a High Church divine, who the Whigs preached certain sermons against resistance to monarchs. ^ ^ His impeachment, shortly before the elections of 1710, caused the return of a Tory majority to the lower house. Kobert Harley, the cousin of Mrs. Masham, was made chan- cellor, and Henry St. John, better known by his later title of Lord Bolingbroke, became foreign secretary. The next year, the new ministers caused Marlborough to be dismissed from all his offices on the charge of dishonesty and malfeasance in office ; and as there Avas still in the House of Lords a small majority that favored the war, Harley induced the queen to make a permanent Tory majority by creating twelve new peers. \viii<;s \ r.Ksi s nuMKs (iTdj-iTio) 40') The in'w iiiiiiislns were so anxious to oud the war that thvy l»ei,MU a (liscn'ilitahl** lu'ijotiatioii with Louis for a peacf diri'ctly hetwi't'ii Eiit,'laiul and France, witliout the ^^^^^ knowledge of the other allies. Uut all jiarties were now of the war 1 17 13i ready for i)eaee ; for by several unexi»eeted deaths Charles of Austria became ruler of all the Hapsburg domains. and prospective Emperor; so that to place him upfni the throne of Spain would be to destroy that very balance of power for which the war was waged. In the great treaty of Utrecht (March, 171.*->), Louis XIV. formally recognized the legitimacy of the rule of Queen Anne and of her Protestant successors as prescribed by law, '-on the faith, word, and honor of a king," and agreed to expel from France James's son (called by the legitimists "James the Third,'" and by the Whigs "the Pre- tender"), and to give him no further assistance. England agreed that Philip of Anjou should become king of Spain, on condition that he abjured all claims upon the French throne for himself and his heirs forever. Perhaps the most important clauses of the treaty related to the colonies. England kept Gibraltar, Minorca, and Nova Scotia, and was confirmed in possession of Newfoundland 468 Eng- and the vast fur-bearing territory draining into Hudson ^fj-om^the Pay (a region which till now had been in dispute be- war tween English and French traders). France retained the right to fish in the waters of Newfoundland and tt) land ujjon and occupy its western shf)res for the purpose of drying and curing these fish. England gained treaties of commerce with both France and Spain, and was granted the so-called Asioitfo, or monopoly of the business of furnishing slaves for the Span- ish mines and plantations in America. l'>y the terms of the contract P^ngland was to supply 4S(K) negroes yearly to the Spanish colonies for thirty years. During this war (K-curred the long-delayed union of Scot- land and Knghuul (to whieh Wales was already united) into 406 RISE OF PARTY GOVERNMENT the single kingdom of Great Britain. Since the accession of James I. (1003) there had been only a '• personal union," the 469 Union ^^^'^ states having the same monarch, l)ut each having of England a separate legislature and being ruled under its own con- land °° stitutional forms ; but in 1704 the Scottish Parliament (.May, 1707) passed an "Act of Security,"' looking to the designation of some monarch other than the sovereign of England, upon the death of Anne ; and thus they forced the English to draw up a scheme of union. Rather than have Scotland again wholly independent, the Eng- lish made most liberal concessions: they agreed that Scotland should share the burden of tax- ation only in proportion to her wealth (which Avas about one fortieth that of the rest pf the new kingdom) ; but that she should be entitled to one twelfth of the total number of representatives in the united Parliament. The Scottish peers were to elect sixteen of their number annually to represent them in the upper house, and forty-five seats were assigned to Scotland in the House of Commons — thirty for the shires and fifteen for the important towns. The established church of Scotland preserved its in- dependent constitution and organization. The local system of law and justice was retained, but the Euglish system of weights, measures, and coinage was extended over Scotland (1T07), which thenceforth was oflicially styled " North P>ritain." In 1714, the year after the treaty of Utrecht, Anne fell seriously ill. Bolingbroke was already planning for the resto- The Arms of Scotland. Before the union witli England in 1707 WHIGS VERSUS TORIES (1702-1715) 401 ration of the exiled Stuarts, and the Jacobites hastened to sninnion tlie Pretender to Eughmd ; but Anne's illness reaclu'd a critical stage in a single day. Her last official act was 470. Acces- the appointment of the Duke of Shrewsbury — a Tory, but _ ^^°^ °} not a Jacobite — as Lord High Treasurer. Immediately U714> upon her death (August 1, 1714) he caused the Privy Council and Parliament to take the oath of allegiance to Anne's heir, accord- ing to the Act of Settlement ; and issued a proclamation prohibiting the Pretender from landing in Great Britain. (Jeorge Louis, Elec- tor of Hanover, was at once pro- claimed king of Great Britain, which nuide any action of the Jacobites in favor of the Pretender technical treason. The conspira- tors were taken too much by sur- prise to resort to force ; so that although it took five days for the news to reach the new monarch in Hanover, and seven weeks for him to reach England, he found the country quite ready to accept him upon his arrival there. The new king, George L, was a man fifty-four years old, Ger- man born, Gernuiu in training, German in his phlegmatic character. He was experienced as a soldier and a ruler. 471 Effect but had no liberal education, coidd not speak a word chanee of of English, had no sympathy with English ideas or dynasty customs, and showed no desire to become in any sense an Englishman. His sole political programme was to place him- * Translation: Restore, therefore, him to whom it beloiifrs. walker's knt,. hist. — 25 Jacobitk Mkdal ok 1708. " Reddite i{;itur cujus est." ' 408 RISE OF PARTY GOVERNMENT self in the hands of those Whig statesmen who had procured his succession to the throne, and under their guidance to per- form the routine duties of a monarch. This state of affairs served to fix once and for all upon Eng- land the habit of " cabinet government " — that is, government by a body of ministers, all members of the same party, who (1) act in concert to bring about certain political ends ; (2) decide upon and draft all important legislation ; and (3) control the various executive departments of the government. Since George was unable to preside at the meetings of his council or even to understand the bills considered at those meetings, the ministers were obliged to look to one of their own number for leadership ; and before the end of his reign it had become an established principle that the Cabinet must act as a unit on every party question, under the direction of its " prime " minister. Immediately upon the accession of George I., the victorious Whigs attempted to punish the Tory leaders who had negoti- ated the treaty of Utrecht. Bolingbroke was obliged 472 Jaco- bite upris- to flee to the Continent, whence he plotted a Jacobite ing (1715) ^^pi-iging in behalf of the Pretender. The conspiracy was poorly planned and poorly executed. Premature uprisings in Scotland under the Earl of Mar, and in Northumberland under the Earl of Derwentwater, were easily crushed, so that when the Pretender landed in Scotland (September 22, 1715), no troops were available for the support of his cause ; and after six months of useless struggles to raise an army, he returned to Prance. The Whigs, confident in their strength, treated the rebels Avith great leniency, causing only twenty-five persons to be 473. Confir- executed for treason; but they immediately set to work mation of ^^ measures to strengthen still further their political Whig 1 '-' control power. One of these, the Septennial Bill (1716), changed the time limit of the existing and all subsequent Parliaments from three to seven years. Another, the Peerage Bill (1719), WHIGS VERSUS TORIES (1T()J-1715) 409 provided that the monarch should not add more than six to the one hundred and seventy-eight lords then existing — an act designed to keep the monarch from again changing the party majority in the upper house by creating new peers (§ 4()6); fortunately it failed to pass, because even the Whigs could not agree upon it. The strife of parties which followed the Revolution helped to develop prose literature. Everybody engaged in criticism of men, of measures, of manners, of morals ; but criticism, 474. Prose to be etfective, must be expressed in terse, pithy, forcefvd ^^of the language. Thus the political pamphlet, the periodical period essay, the lamjwon, all helped to transform Englisli writ- ings from the long, cumbrous, Latinized style used by ^lil- ton and his contemporaries to the more simple, direct, and homely style in use to- day. The chief agents in this reform were Defoe, Steele, Addi.son, and Swift. Defoe's Robinson Crusoe was one of the earliest stories of adven- ture told in simple language and dealing with reali.stic in- cidents. Steele and Addison, in ])eriodicals called the 7'«^ Ipr, the Spectator, etc., pul>- lislied more than a thousand brief essays marked by clear- ^'-'^ Steele's Guardian, No. 78. ness, ease, and charm of expression. Swift. wa.s the author of niimerous furccful pamphlets, as well as of several satires on the political and .social life of the time. The most notable of these is Gnlliirrs Traceh, in which human actions are made to seem ignoble when performed by dwarfs and giants. 1.1 I 1 Ki; I'.oX AT lil Tli'N S CoKKEK HorsE. 410 RISE OF PARTY GOVERNMENT The poetry of the period had the same qualities as the prose, and dealt with the same practical subjects. From a study of classical models a set of critical principles 475. Poetry ■,,.■,-, -^ 4. j ^ of the was evolved, and all verse writers were expected to con- period £q^.j^-j ^q ^j-^g standard thus set, in meter, rhyme, and dic- tion. Almost the only verse form used was the ten-syllabled rhymed couplet ; and, with its aid, neatness of expression was raised to a fine art under Alexander Pope (1688-1744), the acknowledged head of the new school. Pope's Rajie of the Lock is a satire on high society, his Essay on Man a philo- sophical treatise in rhyme, his Essay on Criticism a versified study of the rules of expression, his Dunciad an extended lampoon. From the labors of these men of genius — both poets and prose writers — the reign of Queen Anne has received its title of the "Augustan Age of English Literature." From her predecessor Anne inherited a war with France which lasted through most of her reign. The genius of Marl- 476 Sum- borough made this war a series of triumphs for England, mary and enabled her at its close to exchange conquered posts near France for more important outlying territories. The acquisition of Nova Scotia and the Hudson Bay country was a step toward the later acquisition of Canada; with Muhan, In- ^ p , , r t Awnce of Gibraltar came the control of the Mediterranean route the Sea ^^^ ^1^^ East; the Asiento was the opening wedge to Poiver upon ' ... History, freedom of trade with the Spanish colonies in America. ^^^ " Before that war England was one of the sea powers ; after it she was the sea power, without any second." This war was a Whig war, a Protestant war, waged against Louis XIV., the supporter of Catholicism and of Jacobitism. Therefore party strife ran high, and treasonable plots abounded. To prevent Scotland from returning to her old alliance with France, it was necessary to annex her on most favorable WllKiS VKRSUS TORIES (1702-171".) 411 terms. The principles of Prot- estantism, of independence from foreign control, of law and order, tinally prevailed in Great Britain. At the death of Anne, three changes came about: (1) The crown of Great Britain was trans- ferred to the Hanoverian line. (2) This change marked vir- tually the end of a century of strife between king and people, resulting in the vest- ing of the government of (heat Britain in the two liuuses of Parliament. (3) In order to keep the parliamen- tary government working, the Costume of a Bkau, 1710. From a couteiiiixjrary priut. hitherto unorganized Privy Council was transformed into a modern Cabinet under the direction of a Prime Minister. TOPICS (1) How many of Anne's predcces.sors made the mistake of beins Suggestive guided too much by favorites ? (2) W;is it fortunate that Anne's *°P'<^8 mo.st intimate frieml was the Duchess of Marlborough ? (3) Why do monarchs n<> lon^'er veto bills passed by Parliament ? (4) What is meant by the phrase "Spani.sh Hourbon monarchs" ? (.j) Why was it hard to arrantre for the union of Scotland with England ? (y his o[)position to the Peerage Bill he lost standiTig witli his party, but accident soon made him indispensable to the Wliigs. In 1711 the new South Sea Company undertook to get from the government a monopoly of British trade in the I'acitie. In 1719 it offered to pay off a large part of the outstanding 478 The debt of the British government, witli Soutli Sea stoc^k, "'subble thus taking the place of the Bank of p]ngland as the prin- (17l9j cipal creditor of the government. When the leading Whig ministers gave their support, people supposed the company would be necessarily j)rt»fital)le, and its stock rose to ten times its face vaUu; in a very short time. Then followed a panic; 413 414 STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE the shares fell from £1000 to £175 in a month ; and the indig- nant investors turned on the statesmen who had misled them. Walpole, whose wisdom in public finance led him to foresee this crisis, now came forward with measures for restoring public credit, was made prime minister, and remained the leader of the Whig party for more than twenty years. Walpole chose for himself the positions of Chancellor of the Exchequer and First Lord of the Treasury, thus keeping in his .-„ ^, , own hands the entire control of the finances of the coun- 479. Wal- pole's try. Under his rule the national debt was reduced by P^^^^y more than £8,000,000. When capital was abundant, he borrowed money at low rates of interest, and used it to pay off debts contracted when money was bringing a higher interest; whenever there was a surplus in the annu.al revenue, he put it aside at compound interest, as a " sinking fund " for the final payment of the debt. Walpole's political policy was to maintain peace until the nation should recover from the long strain of the War of the Spanish Succession, and until the Hanoverian king should be firmly seated. Finding that Spain was plotting to recover her lost territories, he concluded an alliance with France (now under a regency), Holland, and Austria, thus making peace inevitable. He expended immense sums in bribing the representatives of foreign powers, out of w^hat was known as the "Secret Service Fund." At home, too, he relied largely upon bribery to maintain his influence over the Commons, in spite of the fact that his Whig supporters controlled so many parliamentary boroughs that the Opposition party remained in a hopeless minority. George II., who succeeded George I. in 1727, was as thor- 480 Wal- ouglily German as his father in character and habits, pole's ca- l3^t was familiar with the English language, and took reer under . , . . . , i t t George II. more immeduite interest in the government. He was a (1727-1743) hot-tempered little man, a soldier by training, unculti- wiik; kkcjimks of walpolk and I'lrr 415 vated, but very conceited. Although he disliked Walpole, he was iuHucuced by his wise queen ((,'aroline of Anspach) to continue the great minister in power. In this period, however, Walpole steadily lost in popularity, for (^as his son said of him) '"he loved power so much that he could endure no rival." The abler Whigs were by degrees driven out of office through his domineering temper ; some of tliem helped to form a new Tory party muler ]-?olingV)roke, the old Jacobite leader, and Frederick, Prince of Wales, who amused himself by leading a parliamentary clique against his father. Others built up a Whig opposition party known as the •• Patriots." Walpole sneered at the term, and declared that he •cDuld make a Patriot by merely refusing an unreasonable re- quest,'' but the op- i)osition grew dailv, Walpole's Excisk nKvoiRiNo thk Laboreb, , , r TO PRODUCE RkVENCE. because people in ^ . , ,,„., * ' Caricature on a fan, 173'J. general did not nn- dcrstand either his financial or his ixditical poli(;y. As the »>r- 422 STRUGGLE FOR EMPHiE her side not only France but also Saxony and Russia. Great 488. Prepa- Britain, unwilling to see France enriched, and anxious to ration for pi-otect the Hanoverian possessions of George II., threw the Seven ^ "^ . Years' War in her lot witli Prussia, and thus the French and Indian War merged into the great Seven Years' War. The crisis of the war brought into prominence a new states- man of the first rank, William Pitt, who, as Secretary of State in the ministries nominally headed by Devonshire and 489. Policy -^ ; 1 ■ in of "William Newcastle, really directed the war. Pitt first set himself ^*" to work to change the conditions of Whig power. He gave up bribery, and appealed directly to the sentiment of nationality and loyalty in the English people, and thus he secured a Parliament more nearly representing the English people. He reorganized the army, replacing inefficient officers appointed through favor with others selected for merit alone. Perceiving that the colonial struggles were of vastly more im- portance than that on the Continent (where the greatest victo- ries led to no territorial changes of importance), Pitt engaged Frederick the Great of Prussia to defend Hanover for a sub- sidy of £670,000 a year, and threw all his energies into the con- quest of Canada and of India. In only one Continental battle, that of Minden (1759), did the British take any important part. Beginning with the year 1756, when war was formally de- clared, events in America at first proved favorable to France, for the French gained control of the lake routes into the 490 The Seven Hudson valley by capturing Fort Oswego and Fort Wil- Years'War, ^^^^^^ Henry. Soon the tide turned. In 1758 Generals WGstcni phase Amherst and Wolfe captured Louisburg, the Gibraltar of (1756-1762) ^^^.^^ America. Forts Duquesne, Niagara, and Ticon- deroga fell within a year; and in September, 1759, General Wolfe made the famous attack upon Quebec which resulted in its capture, and in the death of both commanders, Wolfe and ]\rontcalm. A year later IMontreal also surrendered, and all Canada passed into the possession of the British. Mea,n- WHIG KKGIMI-S (IF WW Ll'i iLF, AM) ITIT 423 '^:,^/'/A^^V'^i'^^^-I I B E T ^ _ It / • ^ v^-^.^-"<;- ^- wliili' thf ilestniction of a I'rt'iicli ticrt wliicli was jireparinj,' fur ail invasion of Kuglanil left the Uritisli five to use their Heets ill any ; by 428 STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE hereditary peers, who were supposed to be profoundly in- terested in the welfare of the country because of their great landed possessions ; and, in theory, the two bodies, after extended and free discussion, registered in their votes their best judgment on public issues. In fact, the borough members of the lower house represented a limited number of towns which had been made parliamen- tary boroughs at the discretion of various monarchs, often for purely political ends ; and the county members repre- sented only tlie local magnates, since the suffrage was based Bright, o\\ laudholding. " The government," said the lord justice History of ^^^ court, '' is made up of the landed interest : as for the England, ' ^ ' III. 1179 rabble who have nothing but personal property, what hold has the nation on them ? " The Whig peers were masters of a large majority of the parliamentary boroughs, so that the House of Commons represented not the people but tne House of Lords over again. Those places which were absolutely con- trolled by a single person were called his " pocket boroughs," and the defenders of the systeju pointed with pride to the large number of able public servants, like Pitt, Burke, and Fox, whose first entrance into Parliament was as representar tive of some, pocket borough. When George III. became king, the system of corruption gained new force. Great families like the Pelhams and the .«« ™,r Cavendishes could bribe ambitious politicians with nomi- 49?. The ^ confusion of nations to their pocket boroughs, or with money ; but parties ^|^g king could give them lucrative and honorable posts, pensions, and even peerages. More than half of the members of the lower house held such positions, and by the end of the Seven Years' War a new Tory party had sprung up, accepting the king as its political leader, and voting blindly at his dicta- tion. Against this government by "the king's friends," the Whigs could present only a divided opposition. One party, led by the Marquis of Eockingham, advocated a pure, upright, GEORCK III. AND IHK NKW AIJSHLUTISM 42y America patriotic government; a second group, under the Duke of Bed- ford, preferred the old policy of bribery ; a third, under George Grenville, took an independent attitude, and clamored for ei-onomy in government, a virtue which neither Whigs nor Tories could boast. A fourth group, centering about the Itrilliunt but now erratic I'itt, found its bond of union in jiersonal loyalty to their chief rather than in clearly defined principles. Two months after the treaty of Paris of 1763, Bute's un- popularity led to his resignation; and as Pitt and the king were hopelessly at odds, inferior men took up the task ^^ of government. In an effort to raise a revenue from taxation of the colonies, Grenville caused the passage of the Stamp Act (1705"), which raised in America a tempest of opposition. Rockingham carried a resolution asserting Parliament's right to tax (17(»Gj, and then secured the repeal of the Stamp Act, *' as a practical admission that the right in ques- tion should be exercised only in cases where the colonies did not object." Yet Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Cabinets of Chatham (Pitt) and Grafton, re- newed the attempt to tax the colo- nics in his import duties on glass, tea, etc. (1707). The new storm thus raised in America was so great that North, ^^^^ Revolu who succeeded Grafton in 1770, was forced to repeal most turn, I. 2: of the clauses of the Townshend Act; but the king and his spokesmen in Parliament felt that to give uj) taxing the colo- nies was simply yielding to rebellion, and North, against his own judgment, gratified the king by retaining a nominal tax " Bkitain's Statk Pilot foi'ndkkixo on taxa- TION RofK." From a caric-itiir." <>f I^tnl North, .Iiuie, 1779. Tri'velyati, The Aineri- 430 8TRUGGLE FOR EMPIRp: on tea. The attempts to enforce this duty in the face of determined opposition led at last to war. In this contest over taxation, the arguments of the home government were : (1) that the expeditious against Duquesne, 499. Two Niagara, Ticonderoga, and Quebec during the Seven aspects of Years' War were undertaken to secure territory for the the colonial *' question development of the colonies; (2) that an army of ten thousand men must now be maintained in America solely for the defense of the colonists ; (3) that it was only just that the colonists should contribute toward the support of this army ; (4) that it was for the home government to fix the share which the colonies should pay, and to levy it by direct taxation. The colonists replied that this group of arguments was a palpable misrepresentation of the actual facts. They declared : (1) that Great Britain defended her colonies simply because they were necessary to her commercial prosperity ; (2) that the expenses recently incurred represented virtually the necessary insurance on British commerce ; (3) that taxation without representation in Parliament was unconstitutional, and such representation was impracticable ; (4) that, in any case, Eng- land had only to ask the colonies for financial aid, and it would be voted through their representative assemblies. To this the home government replied that experience proved that it was impracticable to secure united action by the whole body of colonies, since each colony refused or neglected to contribute unless its own interests were in danger. Within Parliament there were many opinions. Grenville stood by the principle that Parliament possessed a complete right to tax whenever necessary. Three fourths of the liamentand Commons followed Grenville and the king in a blind t e CO onies (determination to maintain this principle at any cost. " In this season and on America," said the historian Gibbon, " the Archangel Gabriel would not be heard." Nevertheless, a few wiser men still strove to bring Parliament to reason. GKORGK III. AND Till: NKW ABSOLUTISM 431 Hurke urged that theory had no placo in the argument; that if the colonists sliould be driven to revolt against the mother country, it would cause a greater financial loss than in many such wars as that recently ended ; so that for practical reasons everything ought to be done to conciliate the embittered colo- nists. Pitt declared that Parliament would sooner or later be compelled to retract the hated laws, and argued that a sharp distinction should be drawn between taxation for revenue (which he opposed), and taxation for regulating trade in favor of British commerce (which he defended). Grafton and North also wished to recede from the position into which Townshend had led the minority, but the king was inflexi- ble. He controlled both the Cabinet and the Parliament; he insisted that the rebels must be forced to submit; and the result was war. The truth is, that either a forcible or a peaceful revolution in the relations of Great Britain and America was now inevitable, because the ancient theories about commerce and colonies 501. The no longer corresponded with the facts. These theories "^gp'^o^fhe held: (1) that all land acquired by settlement or by con- struggle quest belonged to the king; (2) that English citizens were allowed to settle in these lands and cultivate them, on the tacit condition that part of the profits should revert to the king; and (3) that the king was bound to prevent their commerce and manufacturing industries of all sorts from interfering with similar industries in England. Since many industries in England were carried on under monopolies created by the monarch, the home government made the mistake of restricting those indu.stries in the Ameri- can colonies: and it mad«* a still greater mistake in the long series of navigation acts, and in the restrictions on trade and markets eufdrct'd by tin- Pmard <»f Traile, which at that time had control of colonial affairs. Thus trade and manufactures in the colonies were already groaning under heavy burdens when 432 STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE the Towushend acts fused into a single issue the two ques- tions of trade restriction and of taxation. But time had al- ready determined the issue of the whole matter. Economic laws, more powerful than princes or parliaments, declare that three millions of people can not be compelled to trade in the dearest and most remote market, or to buy what they can more cheaply and easily manufacture. While Parliament was busily championing its right to levy taxes, and ignoring the question of expediency, riots in 502. Out- America, non-importation agreements, and the collec- breakofthe ^-^^^ q£ munitions of war were proving the seriousness War of the situation. Even Lord North decided (March, 1775) to abandon the attempt to tax, in the case of any colony that should voluntarily appropriate the money required for its own defense and government ; but the news of this bill arrived in the colonies too late, for blood had been shed at Lexington (April 19, 1775). As the War of the American Eevolution is usually treated as an important epoch in United States history, its details are here omitted; the aim being merely to make clear its significance as an episode in English history. During the progress of this war. Great Britain was much hampered by Continental complications, and particularly by 503 Euro- ^^^^ steady hostility of France. A year after the out- pean fac- break of the war, France, which had again built up her colonTal^* navy, began by secret loans to encourage the American struggle colonies, partly in revenge for her losses during the Seven Years' War, partly in the hope of destroying Great Britain's commercial monopoly in the West Indies. Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, urged the government to concede to the colonists all of their demands short of independence, and to withdraw all troops in America for use against France, the real foe of England ; Pvockingham, Burke, and Fox also pleaded the cause of the colonists, but in vain. geor'gk hi. and tiik ni:w absolutism 433 The defeat of the l^ritish uiuler (ieneral Hurgoyne at Saratoga in 1777 caused >«orth to hasten to pass a Concilia- tion Hill on the lines laid down by Chatham (February, 1778). He was again too late, for France at once formed an open alliance with the revolted colonies, on the single condition that they should never again acknowledge the supremacy of Great Britain (^February, 1778). In 1779 Spain also declared war against Great Britain with the idea of recovering Gibraltar, and in 1780 Russia organized a league of the northern states to maintain an armed neutrality. This was a plan for resist- ing Great Britain's attempt to exercise the right of searching neutral vessels for contraband of war. Holland carried her resistance so far that in 1780 Great Britain declared war upon her also. It was the danger from the fleets of these powerful enemies that kept Great Britain from throwing an overwhelming force into America, blockading her priiuii)al ports, and crush- ^^^ Naval ing the rebellion by mere force of numbers. " We have phase of the . 1 •^- 11 V, 1 Kevolution- now come to ... a truly maritime war, winch . . . natl ^^^ -^^j^j. not been seen since the days of De liuyter and Tourville. Muii.m.ln- Waged, from the extended character of the British Em- Se^a Power pire, in all the quarters of the globe at once, the atten- on History, tion of the student is called now to the East Indies, now to the West ; now to the shores of the United States, and thence to those of England ; from New York and Chesapeake Bay to Gibraltar and Minorca, to the Cape Verde Islands, the Cape of rjood Hope, and Ceylon." France had about eighty first-class vessels, Spain about sixty, Great Britain about a hundred and fifty ; but Great T.ritain had by far the greater number of remote and vulnerable possessions, eaeh of which required a squadron for its defense. The critical naval event of the war was the cfM>pi'rati0 a younger year as a barrister; yet he refused an office worth £;'>00ay, near the present town of Sydney, in 17X7. The internal history of England from 1700 to 1783 is the history of George Ill.'s struggle to destroy the ''government machine" which Walpole had created. To do this he 5^4 sum- (•ornii)ted Parliament and the jjarlianientary electors, mary debauched the public service, misused the public funds, and left men like Pitt and P.urke in obscurity while less far-sighted men like Cirenviile and Townshend steered the ship of state upon the rocks. These men first goaded the Americjui colonists into rebellion by unwise and unjust laws, and then, through ])ride and false ideas of disoi])line, drove them to declare tlieir inde- pendence. Incompetent government finally brought England where, for the first time in a hundred years. France could 440 STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE dispute with her the supremacy of the seas. In these dark times the hope of the nation lay in the fact that the people (as shown in the Wilkes episode and the Junius letters) were learning to criticise the government as if it were their servant and not their master. TOPICS Suggestive topics Search topics (1) Contrast the training of George III. for the kingship with that of his two predecessors. (2) What previous monarchs med- dled with the distribution of seats in Parliament for political ends? (3) The evils and the advantages (if any) of the pocket- borough system. (4) What was the effect of George III.'s methods on the quality of the public service ? (5) For whose benefit did Great Britain defend British territory in America against the French from 1758 to 1763 ? ^6) What had Spain to gain by making war against Great Britain ? (7) Why was the right of searching neutral vessels so vigorously maintained by Great Britain, and so stoutly opposed by Holland ? (8) How long had Great Britain been in possession of Florida when she ceded it to Spain in 1783 ? (9) When and how had France lost the right to fortify Dunkirk ? (10) Show how the liberty gained for the press in 1771 was an advance on that gained in 169-5. (11) Was Wilkes a martyr to a cause ? (12) Burke's description of colonial conditions in his speech on Conciliation with America. (13) North's bargain with » the East India Company regarding the importation of tea into the American colonies. (14) Could the colonies have gained their independence without the aid of France ? (15) The siege of Gibraltar. 1779-1782. (16) The Wilkes riots in London. (17) Dickens's account of the Gordon riots in Barnaby Budge. (18) Contemporary criticism of the navigation acts. (19) Warren Hastings in India. (20) Friend- ship of Charles James Fox for America. Geography Secondary authorities REFERENCES See maps, pp. 421, 545 ; Gardiner. School Atlas, maps 47, 48 ; Reich, Xev: Students' Atlas, maps 35, .39, 40. Bright, History of England, III. 1035-1144 ; Gardiner, StudenVs History, chs. xlviii.-l. ; Ransome, Advanced History, 804-853 ; Green. Short History, 764-798 ; Histoi-y of the English Beople. bk. ix. chs. i. ii. ; Montague, Elements of Constitutional History. 174-184; W. D. Green, William Pitt, Earl of Chatham; Powell GEORGK 111. AND TllK NKW A M.Si )LrilSM 4 41 and Tout, History nf England, lik. ix. ths. i. ii. ; Brewer, .S7m- dent's Hump, ch, xxxi. ; Mahtm, IlislDry of Entjlamh clis. xli.- xlix. Ixi.-lxix. ; MeCartliy, History <»/ the Four Geoyyes, flis. xlii.- lix. ; Lt'rky, Enylnml in the Eiyhteenth Century, chs. x.-xviii. ; Illness, Britain and Her Jiivals, bks. iv. v. ; Jenks, Parliamentary England -ch^. vii.-ix. ; Trevi'lyan. Tli^- American Bevolution, I. II., — Early HiKtory of Charles James Fox ; Ilassall, The lialanit- of Power, 1715-17S:>\ Macaulay, Essays (-'Earl of Clialliam." "Warren Hastings") ; Lyall, Rise oj British Dominion in India, cbs. ix.-xii., — Warren Hastings ; Kent, The English liadirals, ch. i. ; Lawless, Ireland, chs. xlviii.-li. ; Morris, History of Ireland, 1494-lSGS, ch. vii. ; Hart, Formation of the Union, chs. Hi. iv. ; Wright, Carirature History of the Georges, chs. viii.-xii. ; Taswell- Languiead, Constitutional History, 576-')84, 614-623, 0.31-6.30; Rawson, Twenty Famous Xaral Battles, ch. viii. ; Morley, Edmund Burke. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 259-260. • Adams ami Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 240-254 ; Colby. Sources Selections from the Sources, nos. l»7-0'.» ; Kendall. Source-Book. nos, 10:^IU7, 111, 111>-122; Hill, Liherly Documents, ehs. xi.-xiv. ; Henderson, Side Lights, •260-272 ; Wade. Letters of Junius \ Burke, Speeches, — Pamphlets; Smith, The IJ^reenville Papers; North, Correspondence tcith George III. ; Chatham, Correspondence. Bates and Conian, English History told l>y English Poets, 3(11- Illustrative ai5; Churchill, Richard Carvel; Cooper, The Pilot.— The Spy; ^*""''* Henty, Bonnie Prince Charlie; Scott, Guy Manueriny. wai.kf.k'-* kng. hi''t. — 27 CHAPTER XXXI. LIFE AND MANNERS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY The early Hanoverian period was a period of progress in almost all material lines. The steady growth of the population ,„ . . and the drafting of more and more laborers from the land 515. Agn- ° cultural to manufacturing caused a rise in the value of farm prod- con 1 ons yg^g^ a,nd this in turn led to improved methods of farm- ing. In previous centuries half the cultivated land was always lying fallow ; now the system of rotation of crops made most of this land productive every year. For this purpose turnips and other root crops were widely grown about the middle of the century, foreign grasses, such as clover, were imported, and methods of fertilization were improved. As the century ad- vanced, farming became so important that the richer land- owners bought up the smaller holdings until comparatively few "yeomen" were left. Finally, the needs of the large farms led to the introduction of labor-saving devices — such as machine drills for planting, and thrashing machines, run by horse power. Up to the eighteenth century British manufactures were re- stricted by dependence on hand labor, and by the high cost of 516. Intro- iron, which was mined by manual labor and smelted steam^°^ with charcoal "at great expense; but after 1740 new power methods in mining and manufacturing rapidly brought about great industrial changes. During this century the steam engine made its appearance as a factor in industry. A rude engine in which steam was employed to create a vacuum behind the piston, which was then pushed in by atmospheric pressure, was invented by Newcomen in 1705 and used for 442 l.IFH AM) MANNKHS IN i:ii;il IKKN 111 CKNTURY 443 ]inmping water from mines. The modern steam engine was due to the invention of Watt, who, between 1760 and 17H4, worked out the reciprocal steam engine in virtually its present form. Even so, machinery would have been but sparingly used had not the price of iron been brought down by the use of coke instead of charcoal for sinelting iron (1750) and by the inven- tion of improved processes of rolling iron by machinery (1784). Among the earliest mechanical inventions was that of improved machinery for knitting stockings, the chief industry in Nottingham (1758). ^More important still were new 517 power devices for spinning thread of flax and wool. Hitherto machinery all thread in England was made by the spinning wheel, and the husband wove into cloth at his loom the thread which his wife spun. The linen-thread industry on a large scale began at I'aisley in 1721', but the greatest benefactor to this industry w;i,s Hargreaves, who in 1764 invented a machine for laying the fibers of flax or wool or cotton in parallel directions ; and by a second invention (the " spinning jenny," 1772) made it possible for a single spinning wheel to produce several threads at once. Twelve years later Arkwright and Crompton devel- oped from Hargreaves's idea the modern " spinning mule," driven by water power. The next stej) forward was taken when Cartwright invented a power loom, 1785, by means of which the threads spun in Crorapton's machine could be made into cloth at a comparatively rapid rate. With the growth of manufactures came the need of Ix^tter means of transportation. Rough and muddy roads, where pack horses had to pick their way with care, and carts 5^3 Roads came to grief every few miles, were changed into fairly and canals smooth "turnpike" roads, or hard-surfaced tf)ll roads built by j)rivate capital, the fees from which were spent jiartly in im- proving the condition of the roadbed. Between 17«i()anil 1771. I'arliament passed four hundred and fifty-two a(;ts for the improvement of roads alone. In the coal fields, tramways for '•../"'\'>/"»^j,,^Southami)ton !■< ''^ ^Cr i^l. OF WIGHT L 7"^ H CHANNEL 444 MFK AND MANNKI^S IN KICIirKKNTII CKNTrin' 44') the wagons fiinvinj^ coal to tho ships t^ave the first suggestion of the nKKlerii railway; and in all tho nianufa<-tiMint: districts canals were constructed as a means of getting heavy gooils and niachiiuMV to and from the mills. B Skdan Chairs. 17.00. From the paiuting by W. F. Yeames. The daily life of Englishmen in this material age was not as a whole uplifting. In the country the landowners, from peer to yeoman, were given to coarse ami brutal jjleasures. 5^9 Rural Hunting and fishing by day, gambling and drinking by ^i^e night, were the chief employments of those who could afford them. The county squire, as a general thing, m-ver looked into a book, unless it were a book of law. Swearing and vul- garity sea.soned much of the conversation. Taste was "con- spicuous by its absence." The less frequented roads were wretched — (piagmires alternating with stretches of sand. Highwaymen haunted the main traveled roads. Communi- cation between different distri<;ts was theref(jr«' restricted, and "provincialism " in thought and manners wa,s the result. In the cities concentration of wealth and intelligence some- what nuidified these cf)nditions. The growing prosperity jgo Urban of the nut ion is shown by the fact that the govern- life 446 STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE ment, which in 1694 paid 8 per cent for its loans, found plenty of credit at 3 per cent in 1750. After Clive's exploits in India, officials of the East India Company returned to England fabulously rich (Clive himself received a present of £250,000 from one prince), bought their way into society, and, in the words of Chatham, "forced their Avay into Parliament by such a torrent of corruption as no hereditary fortune could resist." Although civic activity was low, and Ranelagh Gardens, 1742-lSOo. From an old priut. even London lacked paved streets, clean sidewalks, effective street lights, pure water, and adequate sewers, yet private houses were built with some pretense to luxury if not beauty. Theaters, pleasure gardens like Ranelagh and Vauxhall, bull baiting, cockfighting, and prize fights were the amusements of the well-to-do citizen. The condition of the lower classes was very Avretched. " The 521 Pov- habit of gin drinking — the master curse of English life, erty and to which most of the crime and an immense portion of the misery of the nation may be ascribed — ... became LIFK AM) MANNERS IX EIGHTEENTH CENTrKY 447 for the first time a national vice in the early Hanove- Lecky, Eng- rian period." Drunkenness led to poverty, and tlien to £inhiep„th robbery and murder. High license laws could not Century, J. be enforced, and low license laws failed to restrict the sale of liquors. Gangs of ruffians infested the streets at night, and the })revailing system of policing was wholly ineffective to keep order. Jack Sheppard, Jonathan Wild, and Dick Turpiu, all famous thieves, were the popular heroes of the lowest classes. So ignorant were the masses that when Parliament decreed that September 3, 1752, should be reckoned as September 14 in order to correct an error which had grown up in the calendar,* mobs gathered about the Parliament houses, clamoring, " Give us our eleven days I '' — for they believed that they had someho.v been robbed of eleven days' pay. When a malefactor fell into the clutches of the law, his fate was indescribably wretched. Confined in a filthy, unventilatod, and unwarmed cell, prevented from taking exercise or 522 pun- emploving his body and mind in any useful way, con- ishment of 1 .^ n J J ~ crime sorting at times with sick or demented companions m misery, he lost all hope and all desire for reformation. Moreover, the same treatment was meted out to prisoners for debt, although innocent of crime, and to the most hard- ened criminals. Hanging was the penalty for one hundred and- sixty different offenses, and more horrible punishments were inflictfd for such offen.ses as treason. Before the .\meri- can Rev(.luti(jn. numbers of criminals were transported to the American colonies, to be sold into forced labor for a term of years: but after that time prison hulks and ix-niteniianes were established, where convicts might be kept at work. 1 The Jiili.'iii ralfiidar, in use aftpr 4<) B.r., as.sumi- yoar ti> be some minutes ioiitr.r tliaii it r.ally is In l.'..s-2 Pope GrfK'or>- XIII. r.-i-titinl tli.- ten days' erri.r in ri'.k<>nini,' wliicli lia MANNKHS IN KIGHlKENrH CENTURY 449 ing from Lichfield to London at a time when the system of government patronage for authors had been abolished by Wal- pole, .Johnson was the first great author to make literature strictly self-supporting. Besides the Rambler and Idler he wrote poems, political pamphlets, essays, a romance, a tragedy; he compiled the first complete and authoritative dictionary of the English language; but he was still more celebrated for his brilliant conversation, when in the celebrated "Club" he dis- coursed on literature, manners, and morals. In this Club were Kurke, statesman ; Goldsmith, novelist and dramatist ; Gar- rick, the first great Shakespearean actor; Boswell, Johnson's biographer; iSheridan, dramatist and orator; and Sir Joshua Reynolds, the foremost painter of the age. Since the days of Van Dyck, no great artist had apj^eared in England. As the first president of the Royal Society of Painters (17<>8) Reynolds created a new school of paint- 525 Paint- ing and of art criticism, his work being marked by i°g dignity, variety, and richness of coloring. Both Reynolds and his contemporary Gainsborough (17l'7-1788) were especially noted for portraits. Of the two, Gainslx)rough was the more noted for delicacy and suggestive power. Hogarth (lGi>7- 17f>4) was an artist of very different staiu}), who devoted his wonderful powers of caricature to the criticism of contem- porary manners, the satirizing of follies, and the teaching of moral h'ssons. To his graphic drawings we owe our inti- , . ■^ ' ^ Lamb, mate knowledge of many phases of life in the cightci'iith Ofnius century. No other artist ever succeeded in cr()wding so "• "^"'^ many signifii-ant details into a single picture. '-Other pic- tures we look at. — his prints we read I " Italian opera, introduced into England after tlie Restoration, was the most faslijoiuible amusement during tht- latter part of the century. Handel, a (ierman naturaliz«'(l in England, 526 The tomjiosfd many operas. Al)out 17'J8, when (Jay had suge partly d<'>troyf(l the i)ublic tiuste for opera l)y writing his 460 STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRP: burlesque Beggar^s Opera (in which thieves and cutthroats were the chief characters), Handel turned to the production of oratorios. His Messiah, written in twenty-three days, has made his name immortal. By the middle of the century, the legitimate drama again became popular, under the impetus given by David Garrick (1717-1779). Hitherto tragic acting had been stilted and conventional, and comic acting was artificial and silly ; Garrick introduced a more realistic type of acting, which was made still more effective by attention to historic details in scenery and costume. Through him interest in Shakespeare's plays was revived, and the irablic taste was improved. The success of Goldsmith's romantic and mirthful comedies {She Stoops to Conquer, Tlie School for Scandal) is a proof of this improvement. Several renowned historical writers of this period, Hume, Gibbon, and Smith, are notable chiefly for their originality 527. His- and force of thought. David Hume (1711-1776) was a tory and c^Hc of the prevailing religious beliefs, and his Inquiry political '- o o 1 .• science into the Principles of Morals set forth a new explanation of morality, namely, that it is based upon the usefulness of actions instead of upon the laws of God. This doctrine was later elaborated by his friend Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) under the name of " utilitarian philosophy." Hume was also the founder of a new school of historical writing {History of England, 1762) distinguished by the attempt to explain as well as to recount the facts of history. Hume's whole work, how- ever, was tinged by his own personal beliefs. Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), author of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- pire, not only had Hume's critical and philosophical temper, but he also had a vivid imagination, a noble style, and a wide grasp of historical materials. Adam Smith (1723-1790), by his Inquiry into the Nature and the Causes of the Wealth of Nations, showed the weakness of the existing theories of politi- l.IFK AND MANNKHS IN KIGIITHKNTH CKN'nUV 4'>1 cal economy, and by his attacks on nionopulies and trade re- strictions hecanie the founder of the modern free trade tlieory. After tlie triumph of Anglicanism at the lu-vohition, tlie religious tone of the nation suffered a decline. Clergymen ot the lower grade gambled, drank, and swore ; those of 528. Wes tiner tiber often drifted into unbelief. Formalism took lL!ou*s t the place of piety, and religious services were lifeless, revival and called out few attendants. In 1738 John Wesley began his work of reviving and purifying the religious life of the masses. At first he retained his connection with the estab- lished church, but later organized an independent sect, the Wesleyans or ^lethodists. As the apostle of an ardent per- sonal Christianity he traversed England, Scotland, and Ireland, preaching on open commons and city squares more than forty thousand sermons to vast gatherings of factory workers, artisans, and day-laborers. With him were associated his brother Charles, a writer of hymns, and the eloquent George Whitetield, whose work was scarcely less important. One effect of this movement was to arouse the Church of England to a keener realization of its mission and its obligations. The prevailing note in English life dur- ing the eighteenth century was materialism. Agriculture and the manufacturing in- 529 dustries took great strides. Society, art, religion, education, amusements, were all "of the earth, earthy." This state of things was in some degree due to the reac- tion from the strenuous period of the great Revolution, in some degree to the condition of court and government under the German inonarchs. Nevertheless, Johnson's sturdy morality, Wesley's warm religious enthusi- Sum- mary 452 STRUGGLK FOR EMPIRE asm, Burke's serious political studies, Hogarth's castigation of vice, Fielding's breezy picture of human life, which he found superficial and faulty, but sound at the core, — all these gave promise of higher ideals and a finer national life in the days to come. TOPICS Suggestive topics Search topics (1) How did the development of manufactures raise the price of farm products? (2) What effect did the massing of the land into large instead of small farms have upon the independence of voters ? (3) In the United States, are small landholders relatively numerous or few ? (4) In what way would the growth of manu- factures in England react on her commerce ? (5) The origin of the word " nabob," and the meaning which it acquired after about 1770. (0) Describe the system of patronage for men of letters, as it existed early in the eighteenth century. (7) What conditions tended to destroy this system ? (8) Description of Watt's engine. (0) Vauxhall. (10) Johnson's letter to Chesterfield regarding patronage of men of letters. (11) A conversation at the Club. (12) Some anecdotes about Goldsmith. (13) An account of a fox hunt. (14) London street life. (15) The Fleet Prison in the eighteenth century. (16) Wliitefield in America. (17) Charles Wesley's hymns. (18) Gibbon's autobiography. (19) Character and service of James Boswell. (20) Career of a highwayman. Secondary authorities REFERENCES Bright, History of England, III. 00,3-964, 987, 1012-1017, 1150- 1151; Gardiner, Student's History, 720, 745-746, 813-818; Ran- some, Advanced History, 761-764, 850-853 ; Green, Short History, 735-741, 791-797 ; History of the English People, bk. ix. ch. iii. ; Gibbins, Industrial History, 108-170 ; Cheyney, Introduction to Industrial History, ch. vii. ; Powell and Tout, History of England, bk. ix. ch. iii. ; Mahon, History of England, chs. Ix. Ixx. ; Lecky, England in the Eighteenth Century, chs. iii.-vii. ix. ; Sydney, Eng- land and the English in the Eighteenth Century ; Stephen. English Thotight in the Eighteenth Century ; Wright, Caricature History of the Georges, chs. iii. vii. xiv. ; Ashton, Social Life in the Beign of Qrieen Anne ; Thackeray, The Four Georges, — English Htimor- ists of the Eighteenth Century ; Toynbee, The Industrial Bevolu- tion ; Taylor, The Factory System and Factory Acts, ch. i, ; Gower, IJKK AM) MA.NNKKS IN K H; IITKKNTII CKNTl'UV 4o3 Sir Joshua linjnolds; Macaulay, Essays ('-Life of Joliusoii," "(Hivt-r GoUlsmitli," " Mailaint- D'Arblay"); Traill, Suci'il Entj- Uiitil. ch. xviii. ; Siu'll, Weshy and Mt-tftodism. See New England History l\\uhers' Association, Syllabus, 261-263. Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 91, 100, 102; Kendall, Sources Source-Book, ch. xvii. ; Goldsmith. Citizen of the World ; Youn*:, A ToicH in Ireland, 177.6-1779 ; Johnson, Essays, passim ; Boswell, Life of Johnson. Besant and Rice, TTie Chaplain of the Fleet ; Charles, Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trecelyan ; Dickens, Bariuihy Rudye ; P^liot, Adam Bide ; Moore, The Jessamy Bride ; Frances D'Arblay, Evelina ; Ritchie, Miss Anyel; Scott, St. Bonan's Well; Tarkington, Mon- sieur Beaucaire. niufltrative works 454 CHAPTER XXXH. PERIOD OF THE NAPOLEONIC WARS (1789-1815) The natural development of British government and society was now interrupted by a revolutionary movement which began in France in 1789, by degiees involved every European _^^ state, and for twenty-two years absorbed all the energies French of Great Britain. Under the Bourbon monarchs, the ^^° ^ ^°^ power of France had steadily declined for more than a cen- tury : her wealth was drained away in disastrous wars, while trade and industry were crippled by monopolies and restrict- ive laws. By 1789 the annual expenses of the state were 4().0W.0(1() francs (.S8,000,0-1704), the war was c-ontined to a limited area ; but after the restoration of order under a new govern- ment, called the Directory, in 1795, the military genius and ambition of Napoleon Kona- l)arte led to more extended op- erations. Pitt's policy throughout the war was to subsidize the foreign (iermau princes that bore the brunt of the fighting in Europe, while he used Great Britain's naval power to destroy the com- mercial marine and the navy of Frani-e, and to seize her few re- maining colonies. At the same time, to ]jrevent the United States from getting the carrying trade between France and her colonies, he revived the Rule of 1750, which forbade neu- tral states to enjoy in time of war a trade which liad been closed to them in time of peace. The Directory early secured alliances with Spain and with Holland, and organized a large allied fleet to gain control of the ( 'hannel. Before this could be done, Great Britain seized ^^^ ^ Holland's colony at the Cape of (iood Hope (1795), thus naval oper securing ht-r route to the East ; and in February, 1797, Admirals Jervis and Nelson, with only 15 vessels, defeated the French and Spanish fleets of 27 vessels off Cape St. Vincent, and in October .Vdmiral Duncan defeated the Dutch in the battle of Camperdown. Thus tlie superiority on the sea fell to Great Britain from the very Hrst ; but France, nevertheless, ventured an attack upon British power in the East. In 1798 Napoleon. From a paintiug by Paul Dclaroche. 458 STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE a French fleet under General Napoleon Bonaparte sailed from Toulon with 36,000 soldiers. Avoiding the patrol which Nelson maintained in the middle Mediterranean, it secured a naval base by wresting Malta from the Knights of St. John, after a four days' siege, and then proceeded to Egypt. While Napoleon was conquering Egypt, as a base for operations against India, Nelson attacked and destroyed the 635. Battle French fleet at anchor in Aboukir Bay, at the mouth of the of the Nile j^-jg Q^ August 1, 1798. In this battle Nelson proved (Aug. 1, ' =^ ' '■ 1798; his genius as a naval strategist. Finding the vessels of the French fleet swinging at anchor near a shallow coast, he reasoned that there must be deep water at least a cable's length on all sides of them. He therefore sent several vessels into ac- tion on the land side of the French column, while he, with others, took po- sition on the seaward side. Thus each French vessel near the head of the line was attacked by two others, and the ships to leeward could not easily come to their assistance. These in their turn were attacked by fire from both sides, and of the entire French fleet only two vessels escaped destruction. This battle settled the destiny of the East, for Napoleon abandoned his scheme of conquest, left his army in Egypt, and returned to France, Later, Great Britain easily conquered Egypt, and also captured Malta, thus becoming supreme in the Mediterranean. In this war Great Britain again aroused antagonism by ex- ercising the "right of search" upon the high seas, in order to seize all goods bound from French colonies to France, and „ -rr.SrSa"''"' '■.?"^SC\^ TWO BRITISH SHIPS ^, -^trBl^' '•■• •■' 1 AGROUND N .■•■ ■"7 Shallow '"\ ^^-^% L>#AB0UKIR »ater ••..... >» % / CASTLE "^ V ABOUKIR b(a"Y Battle of the Nile. PERIOD OF TMi: NA1'< .J.KoNK • WARS (1789-1815) 459 (n capture provisions, wliich slie declared to ho contrabaml of war. In 1S01 tin" czar ol lius.sia leagiu'd with Triissia, Sweden, and Denmark to resist by force any search of vessels 536 The tivinj:: i^ neutral fla[alta, led to negotiations for peace, and the treaty of Amiens, signed in April, 1802, put an OOi • f 6&CC end to the vrar. Great Britain agreed to abandon the of Amiens attempt to restore the l^ourbon monarchy in France, *' to U802) drop the title of king of France from the official style of the Kiiglish monarch," and to restore various conquered French territories. She was also to restore the island of Malta to the Knights of St. John (to whom it formerly belonged), under the j)rotection of the czar of Russia. France agreed to refrain from aggressions upon other states. Neither party to this treaty of Amiens kept its word. The power of Napoleon, now First Consul of France, dei)ended upon his military jirestige. "France needs war," he said to 638 Second his council in 1 SOL'; , . . " I shall hn^k on each conclusion ''ar with France of i>eace as simply a sliort armistice." Contrary to his (1803 1814. agreement he anne.xed Piedmont and tlie island of Elba, reor- ganized the government of Switzerland by force, and closed these countries to English tra criticise his conduct. walkkk's e.no. hist. — 28 460 STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE 111 the light of these actions, Great Britain refused to give up jNIalta, since it was certain to be seized by Napoleon, and on May 10, 1803, she declared war upon France. Even before this declaration, the British seized two French merchant vessels, and Xapoleon, in retaliation, caused the arrest of about 12,000 English travelers and merchants in France. This second war lasted from 1803 to 1814. After the first year of the war Napoleon became emperor of the French, and deliberately set to work to extend his sway over more and more territory. The first important operation was the massing of 130,000 men at Boulogne, opposite the coast of England, for the purpose of invading and conquering the island (1804). Spain was Boulogne bullied into lending the assistance of her fleet; transports armamen ■^ere provided in large numbers, and in the arsenals and shipyards of Brest, Cadiz, and Toulon war ships were built to convoy them across the Channel. To meet this danger Pitt negotiated a coalition with Russia in April and with Austria in August. These gov- ernments were to at- tack Napoleon with enormous armies, of which Great Britain was to bear a large pcu'tion of the cost, while with her fleet she blockaded the ports of France and Spain. In January, 1805, Admiral Villeneuve escaped from the 540. Battle harbor of Toulon with one division of the allied fleet, of Trafal- ^yg^g ioined by a second at Cadiz, lured Nelson across gar (Jan., ■' •' ' 1805) the Atlantic to defend the West Indies, and hurried back " I SAY, Little Boney, why don't you COME OUT? " From a caricature of the Boulogne armament, August 2, 1803. I'KKlol) OF THE NAl'oLKoNIC WAliS (17S!»-l,sio) 4»51 to protect the crossing of the Boulogne aiiny. He fell in with a small Heet lunler Sir Robert C'aliler, suffered sonu^ damage, and stopiH'd at Vigo for repairs and supplies long enough for Ni'lsitii to return and gather a strong fleet. Villeneuve then retired to Cadiz, but on October 21 sailed out with a fleet of 33 ships of the line to meet Nelson with 27 vessels. The allied fleet was deployed iu a long single line of battle. Nelson divided his forces, and struck this line at two different places sinuiltaneously, thus pii'venting its united action, utilizing both sides of his ves- sels at once, and (as at the Nile) rendering the leeward division of the enemy's ships useless. Twenty of Villeneuve's ships were either sunk or captured, ami the French naval power was l>ermanently ruined. VoT this great victory of Trafalgar P'ngland paid a great price, for Nelson was mortally woutuled in the thick of the fight. He lived only lung Arrount o/ enough to h-aru that victory was assur«'d. *• Now 1 am .v,7.i');i''« satisfied," lit> said. "Thank (Jod, I have dunt' my duty." loin/n,,, On learning of \'illeiu'uve's first retirement to ( "adiz, Napoleon immediately used the Boulogne army for an attack on Austria. TuK Nklhun Mom mknt in Si. I'.mjl.-* C'.ATIIKDUAI.. 462 strugglp: for empire He eaptuiecl Ulm (October, 1805); and then overwhelmingly defeated the combined Russian and Austrian forces at Aus- = „, T> r X terlitz in Austria (December, 1805). The Russians re- 541. Defeat ^ ' ^ of Austria tired without making peace, and Austria submitted to an russia (iggi.a^(jing terms. Great Britain was thus left alone as an active antagonist of Napoleon. Pitt, harassed and almost in despair, died in January, 1806 ; and the succeeding ministry negotiated for peace without result, for Napoleon, elated by his success, was planning to attack Prussia. Victories at Jena and Auerstadt (October, 1806) opened his way to Berlin, and the mastery of Prussia thus gained enabled him to carry out a long-contemplated measure against England. Austerlitz had made Napoleon master of the Continent ; but Trafalgar had confined him to that Continent ; twenty miles of salt water put England beyond the reach of his armies. leon's com- Furthermore, the war on which she had expended such war aean t enormous sums was actually making her richer. The England war put a stop to manufacturing in various parts of Europe, and the want thus created was filled by English goods. To ruin this commercial and industrial prosperity was Napoleon's only hope of harming England. The dream of reducing Great Britain by the destruction of her commercial prosperity, long floating in his mind, now became tangible, and was formulated into the phrase that he " would conquer the sea by the land." Accordingly, in November, 1806, he issued the famous Ber- lin Decree, which declared the British Isles in a state of blockade, and forbade all trade with England throughout those parts of Europe over which Napoleon liad control — including France, the Netherlands, western Germany, Prussia, and Italy. As a result of a victory over the Russians, fol- lowed by the peace of Tilsit (1807), Russia was soon added to the list of states accepting Napoleon's " Continental System." In December, 1807, he issued a second decree from Milan, which ri:RI<)I) i»F TIIK NAPOI.r.OXir wars (1789-181o) 463 ordered tlie st-izure of any ship whieh had touelied at a British port. Great Britain retaliated with various Orders in Council, which declared all the ports of France and her allies to be in a state of blockade, but permitted neutral vessels to 543 Opera ply between such ports and those of Great Britain. The q^^°^^^^^^^ object of the British government was (1) to starve the System stiites of Europe into abandoning Napoleon, (2) to force Mahan, In- him to withdraw his decrees, and (3) to make war pay iea Power tor itself by diverting all commerce to her own ports. on the X' 1 ' i ^i I 1- 1 1 > ii A- 1 French Rev- •">o trade except throuyh hngland, was the formula ^/^j^-^^,^ jj under which her leaders expressed their purpose."' -oo Decrees and Orders in Council proved ecpially futile. Con- sumers of British and colonial goods on the Continent suffered, but Napoleon had no pity on them. On the other hand, neu- tral traders, whose business was wholly destroyed by the Orders in Council, were thrown into a hostility to Great Britain. The citizens of the United States, who had not forgotten the Revo- lutionary War, now found their profitable carrying trade cur- tailed by Napoleon's Decrees, which forbade them to trade with England, and by the British Orders in Council, which practically forbade them to trade with Europe. By .secret articles in the treaty of Tilsit, France and Russia agreed to impose the Continental System u|»on Denmark, Sweden, Portugal, and Austria. Great Britiiin soon 544 Re learned of this arrangement and also learned that suiting " trouble in Napoleon was planning to seize the Danish fleet as a Denmark nucleus of a French navy. Canning, Great Britain's *° P*"^ energetic Secretary for Foreign Affairs, therefore induced the ministry to seize the entire Danish fleet and hold it mitil the end of the war. In the same year Great Britain took jKjsses- sion of Heligoland, near the mouth of the Ell>e, as a i)ossible ba.se of operations against Napoleon's (Jerman allies, and as a depot for goods to l>e smuggled into (iermany ; and the island 464 STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE remained in her possession until 1890, when it was restored to Germany in return for concessions in South Africa. Napoleon tried to force the Continental System upon the Spanish penmsuhi, by seizing Portugal (1807) and making his brother Joseph king of Spain (1808). Great Brit- ain at once sent a force under Sir Arthur Wellesley to Portugal, and by large subsidies induced Austria to make one more struggle against Napoleon. Al- though Austria was totally defeated in the campaign ending at Wagram in July, 1809, Wellesley meanwhile gained a foothold in Por- tugal from which he was never dislodged. In his operation^ in the Spanish peninsula Wellesley displayed the finest generalship, ^^it^^ o^'^r fifty miles of fortifications ("the lines of Peninsular Torres Vedras ") he made Lisbon absolutely impregnable, campaign ^j^^^ securing a base of retreat and source of supplies by water. He then expelled the French from Portuguese terri- tory, and captured the frontier fortresses which commanded the approach into Spain. At this critical moment (1810) Russia refused any longer to maintain the Continental Sys- tem ; and while Napoleon was sacrificing an army of half a million men by an invasion of her territory (1812), Wellesley forced his way steadily into Spain. By winning the impor- tant battle of Salamanca (July, 1812), and then moving north- ward to Burgos, he threatened the enemy's connection with France, and forced him to evacuate Madrid. Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington. I'KKiMi) OF riii: N.\rni,i:(iNic waks (178(»-1815) 465 Pressini,' on, Wi-lU'slcy captun'il the line of fortresses be- tween tilt' Tyienees and the sea, and by January, 1814, was establislu'd u|)on French soil. By skillful maneuvers, which threatened to Duttlank the French armies, he forced them steadily northward, and captured Toulouse on April 1st. On the day before, the allied armies of Russia, I'russia, Austria, and Sweden entered Paris in triumph. Napoleon was forced to abdicate liis throne, and remain in semicaptivity on the islaml of Elba, while the brother of the executed kins; Louis X\'I. was i)laced on the tlirone of France as Louis XVI 1 1. All this time the difficulties of (Jreat lUitain were increased by the hostility of the United States, provoked by (1) tho various Orders in Council, (2) the exercise of the old 549 war obnoxious ri<'ht of search in carryintj out these Orders, ^'^^^ ^^^ United and (3) the seizure of seamen from American vessels on states the pretense that they were British citizens. War was de- '^^^^ ^^^^' dared by the United States in June, 1812. With the exception of indecisive operations on the ( "anadian border, the fighting was limited to naval duels upon the high seas, in which the supe- riority of American seamanship and marksmanship generally brought about the defeat of the liritish, to their great chagrin. In ISl.S, however, the American navy was ])ractically driven from the .seas, though American privateers harassed the (com- merce of (heat liritain. In ISM, the fight with Napoleon being ended, the ministry ]tlanii«d three invasions of the United States. A hasty raid ujion Wasiiington was .successful (August); but an inva.sion from the north by way of Lake Chamjdain was checked by Commander MacDonough (Septendx'r). An attack niton New Orleans (beginning in l)e(M'n)b»'r) was re])ulsi'd by ( H-m-ral Jackson. Tilt' pt-aee signeil at (Iln-nt in ISl I r.stnrfd all I'on- quests; and since the right of scarcii had ceased to be vit;il to Great liritain after the fall of Napoleon, the claim to exercise it was tacitlv withdrawn. 466 STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE In September, lcS14, a congress of European powers met at Vienna for the purpose of readjusting the political and terri- 547. The torial conditions of the Continent. Its sessions form an Congress of gp^^]^ [-^ ^]^g history of international relations. The four Vienna ^ '' (1814-1816) states which had borne the burden of destroying the spirit of the French Revolution (Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia) now assumed for themselves an authority supe- rior to that of all other states of Europe, and Bourbon France was allowed to join them. Thus arose the Pentarchy, or " Five Great Powers " (six with Italy after 1870), which ever since, when occasion arises, have assumed the right to shape the destinies of smaller states, elevating or deposing rulers, disposing of territory, permitting or forbidding war, and demanding the abrogation or revision of treaties. To avoid quarrels regarding precedence, it Avas agreed that in public documents the five states should be named in alphabetical order, but Great Britain and Austria were the leaders in the Congress of Vienna. Great Britain, despite her opportunity, demanded no large territories, and Avas content to retain Heligoland as a base for her Baltic trade rout§, Malta on the road to Egypt, and Cape Colony and Mauritius on the sea route to India. In March, 1815, Napoleon returned to France, and with the aid of his former soldiers was again made emperor (for " The 548. Water- Hundred Days "). The Great Powers at once arranged loo cam- Jqj, united action, and forces amounting to a million men paign (April ' '^ -June,1815) were focused upon Paris. A Prussian army under Bllicher advanced through Flanders from the northeast; a British, Dutch, and Hanoverian army under Wellesley, now Duke of Wellington, from the northwest. To prevent their union Napoleon struck Bllicher at Ligny (June 16) and drove him back. He then hastened to meet Wellington at Waterloo, near Brussels (June 17, 1815). From eleven in the morning until four in the afternoon he made repeated assaults upon the PKUIOl) OF Till-; NAl'OLKOMC WARS (^1789-1815) 467 Hritisli front ; but tlie Iron Duke had chosen his position with gi-eat skill, and held his •ground with bulldog tenacity, wait- ing for the Prussians to join him and turn the scale against Napoleon by sVieer num- bers. When the Prussians Hnally appeared on the French Hank, late in the afternoon, Napoleon was compelled to risk all in one final assault upon \\'ellington"s position. The latter met the ad- vancing squadrons with a murderous cannon fire, and then at tlie decisive moment attacked with all his force, main and reserve. The rout of the French was complete. Napoleon fled, and, unal)l<' to escape from the country, surren- dered to the commander of a British frigate at Rochefort. By agreement among the allies he w;us retained as prisoner iu the liritish colonv of St. Helena until his death in 1821. Movements le.\dinq to Waterloo. In 17SU the French nation undertook to reform its obsolete and extravagant government by creating a constitutional monarchy. In the process, the power fell into the hands 549 gum. of demagogues, and there followed a " Reign of Terror." mary Toward foreii,Mi powers France entered upon a republican propa- ganda, wliirii forced neighboring governments to attack France in self-defense. War brought into prominence Napoleon Bonaparte. — the greatest military genius and the most selfisii and unscrupulous tyrant of nu»dern times, — who m;ule him- 468 STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRP: self master of France, Italy, Spain, Holland, and western Germany, and for a time forced his will npon Austria, Prussia, and Sweden. In the long contest which ended in 1815, Great Britain furnished but few of the armies, but she paid a very large share of its cost. Her navies throttled the commerce of France, her money paid for the armies hurled against Napoleon by Austria and Prussia, and her general, Welling- ton — even before the iinal contest at Waterloo — did more than any other one man to sap Napoleon's military strength. In this great work she earned a comnmnding position as one of the Great Powers of modern Europe. Suggestive topics Search topics TOPICS (1) Review the wars between France and England under the Bourbon monarchs, and show their effect on France. (2) Show how the practice of creating monopolies tended to cripple trade and industry. (8) Compare the circumstances under which feudal rights and privileges were abolished in England and in France. (4) When was the Habeas Corpus Act passed ? Under what con- ditions may it rightly be suspended ? Do you think these condi- tions prevailed in England in 1700 ? (5) State exactly what warranted Great Britain in interfering with the affairs of. France. (6) Was Great Britain right in attacking Denmark in 1801? in 1807? (7) When and why did the king of England first assume the title of king of France ? (8) What king of England was actually crowned king of France ? (9) Show, with the aid of a map, how Napoleon hoped to close the ports of Europe to English trade. (10) Do you think his scheme for invading England was feasi- ble ? (11) Did the Napoleonic wars affect Russia's influence in Europe? (12) Show how the Penin.sular campaign affected Napoleon's operations against Austria and Russia. (13) The outbreak of the French Revolution. (14) An account of some campaign or battle which illustrates Napoleon's military genius (as Lodi, Austerlitz, Wagram). (15) Effect of the defense of Acre on Napoleon's designs against the East. (16) A compari- son of Napoleon's empire with Charlemagne's. (17) Victor Hugo's description of the battle of Waterloo in Les Miserahles. (18) Per- sonal traits of the Duke of Wellington. (19) English opinions about Napoleon. (20) Contraband trade during the Continental System. (21) A British war ship in 1800. (22) Career of Nelson. I'EKUH) OF THK N Al'< »I,i:< iNlC WAKS (17W-1815) 469 REFERENCES Secondary authorities See maps, pp. 421, 454, r>44 ; (Jardiiicr, School Alias, maps 4'.t, ")1, Greogrrapby '.',». 82-87 ; Ueich, Xcw Students' Atlus, maps 41-4(5. Mright, IIisto,-y of Enijland, III. 114.V11!)!), 121!t-134y; Gardi- ner, StuileiU^s History, chs. li.-liv. ; Kansome, Advanced Historij, 8.j4-'.»ll ; Green, Short History. 797-8:50, — History of the English People, bk. ix. clis. iv. v. ; Powell and Tout, History of England, t<;;;)_,K4((, 8ol-8<>8 ; McCarthy, History of the Four Georges, ch. Ixii. ; Morris, 7'he French li'i colution ; Hrewer, Student's Hume, chs. xx.xii. xxxiii. ; Lecky, History of Enghnid in the Eighteenth Cen- tury, chs. xjx.-xxii. ; Oman. England in the Nineteenth Century, chs. i.-iii. ; Routiedge. Popular Progress, chs. ix.-xi. ; C. K. Adams, Democracy and Monarchy in France ; Shand, The War in the Peninsula ; Creasy, Fifteen Decisive Battles, ch. xv. ; Raw- son, Twenty Famous Naral Battles, ix. xi. ; Southey, Life of Nel.-ion ; Mahan, Life of Xelson, I. II., — Influence of Sea Power on the French Bevtdution, I. II. ; Laughton, Nelson ; Russell, Nelson ; Hooper, Wellington ; W. O. Morris, Wellington, chs. iii.-ix. ; Goldwin Smithy Three English Statesmen (-'Pitt"); Rosebery. William Pitt the Younger. See New England History Teadurs' A.ssociation, Syllabus, 2<>0-201. Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 104, 105, 107 ; Kendall, Sources Sourer- Hook; ch. xix. ; Henderson, Side Lights, 272-2U7 ; Frances D'Arblay, Memoirs ; Langhton, Letters and Dispatches of Nelson. Bates and Cnman, English History told by English Poets, 3- :W5 ; liiackniore, Tlie Maid of Sker, — Springhaven ; Dickens, A Tale of Tiro ('itirs; lliii:!), Les Misiral'les \ Henty. By Conduct and Courage, — Held Fast for England ; Steveusou, i>t. Ives. Illustrative Works CHAPTER XXXIII. LOCAL CONDITIONS (1783-1820) The period between 1783 and 1793 witnessed speculation and reckless banking in England which led to many business _„ „. failures and a consequent panic. In 1793 (the year 550. Finan- ^ ^ t^ -T • x cial aspects when war broke out between France and Great Britain) of the war ^^^^^.^ ^j^^^^ ^ fourth of the country banks failed, and Pitt was compelled to lend to solvent merchants the credit of the The Bank of Enciland. government, in order to tide over the crisis. Although the government borrowed at the rate of £23,000,000 a year, the taxes were enormously increased, both in amount and in kind. Stamp duties, taxes on legacies and on succession, on incomes, on food stuffs, on windows, were added to the list. 470 LOCAL CONDITIONS (1783-1820) 471 As tlie war aJvauced, money became very scarce, because (1) much 'j,viiin ami material of -svar were purchaseil abroad, (!') subsidies to Austria and Prussia were paid in specie, (o) at the same time exports to Frauce, Spain, Italy, and Holland fell to an extremely low point. People began to hoard their money instead of depositing it in the banks, and on February 20, 1797, the Bank of England had only a two days' supply of gold. Specie payments of over one pound were stopped, and for twenty-two years bank notes formed the circulating medium. Commerce revived as the merchant ships of other nations were swept from the seas, but from 1810 to 1814 bank- ruptcies were numerous ; and the strain of the long war began to be more keenly felt. Between 1792 and 1815 the national debt leaped from A* 240,000,000 to £8()0,000,000. Meanwhile the lower classes were suffering from economic changes which they could not understand. Even when trade and manufactures were most flourishing, wages were ^^^ jjj^^^^^ kept low through the employment of women and children among the mi I ■ 1 masses in factories and even m mines. The working day was from fifteen to eighteen hours long, and hand spinners and weavers could find no employment. While food stuffs were dear, the wages of farm hands declined, for the landowners claimed that high taxes and rents consumed their profits. Though the demand for farm laborers was increasing, thousands threw themselves upon the parishes for support, as paupers. As successive harvests proved good or bad, wheat fluctuated violently from 70 to 180 shillings a quarter ($1.80 to $o.oO a bushel). Meat m(n-e titan doubled in price. In 1793 the king's carriage was detained in the streets of London by a mob clamoring for " liread, bread ! peace, peace ! " III 17'.>7 the crews at Spithead and at the Nore "struck" for higher wages, and the mutinies were with ditliculty put down. In 1811, the facU.ry hands, forty thousand strong, petitioned Parliament to save them from starving. In the same year, the 472 INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT hand weavers began the practice of machine breaking, taking the name "Luddites" from an idiot boy named Ludd, who several years before had destroyed some machinery in a fit of passion. Banding together in riotous mobs, the Luddites destroyed the machines almost as fast as they could be pro- cured by the manufacturers. The militia sympathized with the machine breakers. The revolt spread to the farm laborers, who attacked especially the thrashing machines ; and the riots ceased only after a younger generation had grown up, trained from childhood to work with machines. All this disturbance hindered instead of aiding the movement for political reform. Before the second war with France . . (1803), Pitt, Fox, Burke, and Grey proposed various 552. Politi- V /' ' ' ' J s. I cal condi- schemes for purifying Parliament and making it more tions representative, but while France was in turmoil ]*arlia- ment refused to try experiments. In 1807 a bill abolishing the slave trade was passed after years of agitation, but Grey's bill to remove Catholic disabilities failed. George TIL believed that to sign a bill giving political rights to Catholics would be to violate his coronation oath " to maintain the Protestant reli- gion as by law established " ; and since the discussion of the question provoked attacks of insanity, to which he was sub- ject, the agitation was stopped during Portland's and Perce- val's ministries (1807-1812). In the year 1810 the king became permanently insane, and his disreputable son (afterward King George IV.) was made regent, with restricted powers. During Lord Liverpool's ministry (1812-1827) the clamor for reform was continuous, especially after the restoration of 553. Ex- peace in 1815; but beyond making some concessions to cesses of the (jiggenters (1812) and admitting Catholics to all ranks reform ^ ■' ^ movement of the army and navy (1817), the Tories refused to give up their political and ecclesiastical monopoly. Citizens of Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, and other great towns held monster meetings to attack the outworn system which L(K"AI, ('nNl)rri<)XS (17H:i-18-JO) 473 left thein withdiil rcini'Sfiitatidii. Al nn<' iiicptiii^' in St. rater's FioKls, MaiK-hester, wlieie toity tlunisaiul peoiilc ot both sexes and all ages were gathered (181U), an attempt tu arrest the orator of the meeting resulted in a general riot in which seventy-five persons were killed, and one hundred injured, — an event long known as the " Peterloo " massacre. The immediate result of these agitations was the passage of ''the Six Acts" in 1819, for punishing (1) the holding of outdot)r meetings, (-) seditious publications by the press, (M) the circulation of libels, and (4) private military drill; and for securing (5) the speedy trial of rioters and (<5) the si'izure of arms in sixteen counties where riots had been most frequent. By this means order was gradually restored. Throughout the French wars, Ireland was a cause of endless worry. The extreme patriots — organized into the society (»f the United Irishmen — sought to make Ireland an g^^ Union independent repnblic; the lo^'al C'atholics refused to of Ireland pay tithes to the I'rotestant clergy; and even the hitherto Britain peaceable Protestants of Ulster demanded parliamentary U801; reforms and relief from English dictation in their government. In 17*.)8 the United Irishmen, under the leadership of Wolf Tone, actually invoked the aid of France for a general up- rising against England. The movement failed, and many of tlie leaders were execmted, but the danger was acute. As a .safeguard against further trouble, Pitt conceived the idea of merging the liritish and Irish legislatures into one. The Irish Parliament, consisting of the j)ro-British residents in Ireland, made little objection. The principal jjrotest came from the owners of borougljs (who were unwilling to lose their chance to sell seats and votes in the Irish Parliament), and Pitt silenced their opjjosition by binding the government to pay them i: 1,200,000 Tor tiitiuT) a .seat) for the losses su.stained. Py this means an .\ct of Union was ])assed in ISOO. by wliieh the two Parliaments were luiited: the Irisii peers were to 200 400 600 Y J J British Domalna INDIAN OC^An\ I Protertrf States LOCAL CONDITIONS (,17s:i-182n) 475 choose twenty-four of their nnmher to sit in the new House of Lords, and one hundred representatives of the Irish boroughs and counties were to sit in the new House of Commons. The cross of St. Patrick was added to that of St. Andrew and St. George on the royal flag, and the country was renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Unable to secure further reforms which Pitt had promised them, the Irish again rebelled in 1803, under the leadership of Robert Emmet. ^Mobs in Dublin and Ulster were dis- persed with difficulty; but Emmet's uprising was imperfectly organized, and the Irish failed to act promptly and unitedly. Emmet was executed, and the rebellion was stamped out so effectually that Ireland remained quiet, though discontented, for many years. In 1798 the government of India was intrusted to Richard Wellesley (later Marquis). Fiiuling that French officers were intriguing with native ijrinces and drilling their armies, ,,, ^ ° ^ * ® ' 555. Ex- Wellesley adopted the vigorous policy of deposing pansion in [irinces who seemed to be friendly to France, and sub- stituting others who favored England. Over other states he estal)lished " protectijrates " ; in other words he assumed the right to control their relations with other powers, but left the native rulers in control of the local government. The most notable event of Wellesley's Indian career was his conquest of the Mahratta states in the region between the l>ckkan and Deliii. Holkar and Scindia were the leading Mahratta chiefs, and in iMO.i an expedition was dispatched against them from the south. In this expeditit)n, resulting in victories at Assaye an radical changes, ami even to increase its power in Ireland and India; English industry and commerce showed their vitality by growing steadily amid an exhausting war; and English literature caught from these stirring times a new inspiration and a new glory. TOPICS (1") Just what is meant by the phrase "speculation and reckless Suggestive bankin;;"? (2) When and under what circumstances did the °P"^* United States <;o tlirougii a financial experience similar to that of (ireat Britain between 178.> and 17!»;J ? (:?) Does the United States lay a tax on incomes ? (4) Should you think it just, and also wise, to levy a tax on windows? (5) Were power machines an injury f)r a blessing to the working classes ? (6) Point out the error in George Ill.'s interpretation of his coronation oath. (7) Was it just to expend the public money in buying off the Irish borough owners? (8) Compare the work in India of Clive, of Hastings, and of Wellesley. (0) Why was the slave trade prohibited ? (10) On an outline map, indicate Great Britain's possessions in 17'Jo and in 1H15. (11) ('renditions of labor in English factories at the beginning of Search the nineteenth century. (12) Life on a slave vessel, (l-'l) John ^°P^^^ Howard, Sir Samuel Romilly, and prison reform. (14) Thackeray's estimate of George III.'s character. (15) The career of Henry Grattan. (10) Show how the minor writers of the period (Crabbe, Mo.,ie, Jeffrey, Dc Quincey) reflected its spirit. (17) nenefit,s to Indiaof English rule. (18) The trial of Kobert Emmet. (IW) George Eliot's picture of the economic conditions in England during this jxriod in Silas Marner. (20) The mystery of the authorehip of Wuvtrlvy. REFERENCES See maps, pp. .W4. 38.'.. 474 ; Gardiner, SchnnJ Atlas, maps ;')(», Geography '>4 ; I'oole. Ilistorirnl Atl'i.t. maj) Ixxxiv. ; Heich. AV'" Stitdiiits' Alius, maps 36, :]»>, :!H. .".1. Bright, Histonj »f K»'jl.n>(orij. h:',1-835, 840-843, 855-850, 875-880, 887-8{>0 ; Kansc.me, Adnnircl History, 870-883, 8H<{-85nJ, 011-019; Green, ShuH Ilistorij. Hll- slH, 828-020; Montague. Elmunls of Conslitntinnitl History, 184- 103; Gibbins. Industrial History, 170-180; Cheyuey, Iiitroiluclion Secondary authorities 480 INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT Sources Illustrative works to Industrial History, ch. viii. ; Powell and Tout, HiMory of Eng- land, 840-851, 868-869, 98-1-1008 ; S. Walpole, History of Eng- land from 1815, I. chs. i.-v. ; McCarthy, History of the Four Georges, ch. Ixi., — Outlines of the History of Ireland, ch. viii. ; Lecky, England in the Eighteenth Century, chs. xxiii.-xxxii. ; Jenks, Parliamentary England, ch. x. ; Kent, The English Radi- cals, ch. ii. ; Routledge, Popular Progress, chs. xii.-xxi. ; Traill, Social England, chs. xix.xx. ; Lawless, //-e/aMfZ, chs.lii.-liv. ; Morris, Ireland, 1494-IS6S, ch. viii. ; Kent, The English Radicals, ch. ii. ; Seeley, Expansion of England, 294-316 ; Lyall, Bise of British Dominion in India, chs. xii.-xvi. ; Taylor, Tlie Factory System and the Factory Acts, chs. ii. iii. ; Toynbee, The Industrial Revolution ; W. O. Morris, Wellington, chs. i.-ii. ; Traill, Social England, chs. xix. XX. ; Webb, Histoi-y of Trade Unionism ; Macdonagh, Life of O'' Connell, chs. i.-vi. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 255-259 ; Colby, Selections from the Sotirces, nos. 106, 108, 113 ; Henderson', Side Lights, 297-;300 ; Sanders, Melbourne Papers ; Stapleton, Can- nijig^s Official Correspondence ; Baniford, Passages in the Life of an English Radical. Ainsworth, Castle Rackrent ; Henty, Through the Fray ; C. Kingsley, Yeast ; Marshall, In Four Reigns. THE HANOVKRIAX LINE Time scale, -W years to one Inch -GEORGE l.ri).-x7or (Sn.l Ek.-52: GEORGE II. (3rl Elector of Bibotct) 1760< Frederick - Priao of W»l« - William - Duke of CumberiMid- d. 17C6 -GEORGE III- (■mi riertoc: Klii« of lUnoTer. 1816) Frederick _I>uke of Y( of itaaaret) Edward "Bake 'W" VICTORIA^ AltH-rt " Ptlsce of aM»^ol»nw OotlMI fOWARO VII.— I rick l*r.v. ' ? W«>t EdvMirJ AH,.rt AllMTl Kr.-.l.rl.k H-riry W lUluiii Cieorgi- Edwunl 481 CHAPTER XXXIV. THE REMOVAL OF ABUSES (1820-1850) After peace was restored in 1815, the Tories remained in power with Lord Liverpool as prime minister; but the grow- ,^, ^ ,. • ins strength of the reform movement gradually divided 561. Politi- so & J calchanges them into two factions. In 1822 the liberal wing, headed (1820-1837) ^^ George Canning, Huskissou, and Peel, gained control of the party. Canning was a very able statesman, and an advo- cate of internal reforms, such as religious toleration and free- dom of trade. His death in 1827 brought the conservative wing again into power, but in the elections which followed the death of George IV., three years later, the Whigs secured a strong majority, and the seven years' reign of William IV. (1830-1837) was a period of radical reforms under th(^ leader- ship of Lord Grey, which the honest but simple-minded king vainly tried to check. The reforms of Canning, Huskisson, and Peel dealt with economic rather than political evils. England had for cen- 562. Relax- turies carried the theory of a protective tariff to extremes. ation of the rpj^^ navigation acts protected traders ; the " corn laws " protective '^ ^ ' tariff enriched the landowners ; and cloth duties aided the weavers. Now, as industries became diversified, rival interests clashed. The farmer wished to shut out competition in grain (called " corn " in England) and other food stuffs, but favored free inrportation of cloths. The silk spinner and the cloth manufacturer desired cheaper food ; but the former demanded the exclusion of spun silk, and the latter wanted everything freed from duties except foreign cloths. 482 TlIK KK.MitVAL < >F ABUSES (1820-1860) 483 The granting of trade })rivileges witli the United States after 18ir» w;is the hrst step tuward breaking down the protectionist strncture in EngUmd. In ISl'."! an act for " Keciproc-ity of l)uti(>s" was passed, to end a tariff war with Trussia, Tortngal, and the Xetherhinds; and Huskiss(Mrs Hill, lowering both import and export duties on wool and silk, followed (1824). The results were surprising. Although forty million pounds of wool were imported in a single year, the price of English wool was not lowered, because with open markets the demand for goods increased as fast as the supply of raw nuiterials. Meanwhile the question of religious e(piality was being powerfully agitated. In ISl'o Daniel O'Connell, the greatest of Irish patriots, organized a Catlitilicr Association, wliieli 563. Re soon became so powerful as to control practically all relirious elections in Ireland. The government dissolved the .\s- disabilities swiation as illegal, but another was immediately formed. In England the Whigs redoubled their attacks on the antiquated Test and Corporation acts. Finally, in 1828, the Tories consented to repr;il tln' clauses com- pelling ofHcials to com- mune with th«^ Church of England (thus ad- mitting dis.senters t<> office), but refused to alter the declaration against transubstanti- ation. In 182S O'Connell was eh'cted to rarliament, although it was clear that he would refusi; to take the oath. This event Statuk ok I).\nir[. o'Connkll, Dim. in. 484 INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT convinced Wellington and Peel that they must choose between Catholic emancipation and civil war; and in 1829 the Catholic Kelief Bill was passed, by which Catholics were made eligible for seats in Parliament and for all offices except those which, involved direct control over the church or the crown {e.g. that of regent). In 1831 a sweeping bill for equalizing representation was framed by Lord John Russell, leader of the House of Com- 564 Reform "^ons in Lord Grey's Whig ministry. This bill failed Bill of 1832 to pass in the lower house by a small majority, but the ministry, confident that the nation demanded this reform, decided to appeal to the country. In the excited election which followed, the party opposed to reform lost a hundred seats, and would have lost more had not the rotten boroughs been be3^ond the reach of argument. In the new House of Commons the bill was passed by a majority of 136, but failed by a majority of 41 in the House of Lords. This deliberate resistance to the will of the country provoked riots in differ- ent parts of the country ; vast meetings, numbering as high as 100,000 persons, assembled to protest; a revolution was threatened. The ministry offered the Lords a chance to yield gracefully by framing and passing a fresh bill by a majority of 162, but the Lords were obstinate. The prime minister, Earl Grey, now asked William IV. to create enough new peers to make a majority in favor of the bill ; but the monarch, reluctant to do so radical an act, appealed to . the Lords to respect the manifest wish of the nation, and by the advice and example of the Duke of Wellington enough of its op- ponents refrained from voting to assure the passage of the Eeform Bill in June, 1832. By the terms of this bill (1) the rotten boroughs were re- x-M * formed, 56 being each deprived of both its representa- do 5. £lI6CtfS of Kussell's fives, 32 others with a population under 4000 being each orm 1 d^eprived of one or more of its members, and thus 143 I'llK KEMnVAI. ol-' AlUSKS (182U-ls.->()) 485 seats in the House of Coiunions being left vacant and nnas- signed; (2) the gaps were refilled by adding Go new members in the larger counties, by giving two members each to liirming- ham, Manchester, Leeds, ShetUeld, and 18 other large towns, by giving one member each to 21 small towns hitherto unrepre- sented, and by increasing the representation of London ; (3) in the towns, every householder with premises of £10 yearly value received the right to vote; in the counties copyholders (nuvnorial tenants holding their land by ancient custom) and leaseholders were enfranchised. The tirst House of Commons elected on the new suffrage basis contained 4F ABUSES (1820-1850) 489 deemed injurious to the public weal) hampered their growth. In 1824-1825 these laws were repealed; and thereafter the growth of trades unions was very rapid, especially after the passage of the Reform Bill, and again at the time of the sec- ond Chartist agitation (§ o7.~>). This growth was aided by the steady development of the factory system, which massed many thousands of artisans pursuing the same trade in a single large town. At the same time, other forces were tending to stimulate England's manufacturing industries. From 1802 to 1820 Tel- ford and Macadam were introducing everywhere their 573 g^. improved method of road-making, to the great advantage roads, S t€ 3. HI ^03. ts of commerce. The first steam railway in England, run- and the ning from Stockton to Darlington, was built in 1825; telegraph five years later an important line was built from ^fanchester to Liverpool ; and in 18o7 came the first passage of ships (the • Sirius and the GrecU Weatem, from Bristol) across the Atlantic Ocean wholly by steam power — an event which was soon fol- lowed by the creation of a regular transatlantic steamship serv- ice. The needle telegraph, patented by Cooke and Wheatston in 1837, was put into general use through the agency of the Electric Telegraph Company in 1846. Thus the locomotive, the steam sliip, and the electric telegraph were the gifts of the first half of the century to the last half. During tlie early part of the century, Ireland drifted into a " Tithe ^Var *' against the hated church establishment, wliich was maintained on a large and wasteful scale, although 574.Eeform Protestants were numerous only in Ulster. There were "^ Ireland 160 Church of England parishes, maintained at a yearly tost of £117.0<">0, which contained not a single Protestant. In the year 18.32, 9000 crimes, of which 242 were murders, showed the general discontent existing among the people. Tithes absolutely could not be colliMted, for the collectors were mur- dered and the police driven off. 490 INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT The government resorted to severe repressive measures: political meetings were strictly prohibited ; persons charged with political crimes were taken to England for trial ; and the Habeas Corpus Act was again and again suspended. All these repressive measures were useless. So long as Irish Catholics were ruled wholly by Protestants, were forced to pay tithes to Protestant clergymen, and could obtain an education only by abjuring their faith, so long was disorder certain to continue. After a long time the English statesmen began to relax, in- stead of tightening, the bonds of Ireland. The first reform attempted was the reduction of the Irish church establish- ment in 1833, by lessening the number of the higher ecclesias- tics. After five years more of agitation, the Tithe War was partly settled by an act providing that government should pay to the clergy in Ireland the sum due them for tithes, and should collect its equivalent in the form of a land tax. Although Russell's Reform Bill enfranchised the middle classes, it left the poorer workingmen still at the mercy of what 575. Pro- they considered an aristocratic government. Shortly posed after the accession of Queen Victoria, a movement was " Chartist * reform started for the adoption of the so-called '' People's Char- ter" (1838), which included in its provisions six reforms: (1) equalization of parliamentary districts; (2) abolition of property qualifications for seats in Parliament ; (3) adoption of manhood suffrage ; (4) payment of salaries to members of the lower house; (5) voting by ballot; (6) annual elections to Parliament. Agitation was widespread about 1840, died out as prosperity increased, and was again revived in 1848, in sympathy with the revolutionary spirit .then rife in western Europe. Enormous mass meetings were called, and a plan was formed for presenting to Parliament a petition containing a million signatures. But the petition evoked little enthusiasm, the mass meetings ended in talk, and the entire movement collapsed before the end of the year. TIIK HKMnVAI, nK AHl'SES (1820-1850) 491 TliP working classes were more successful in their flight to sfcurc a cheaper food supply, for in this case tliey had tlie support of the wealthy nuuuifacturing and conmiercial 5^5 ^^ classes. Since the farming population increased only corn laws one twelfth as fast as the nmnufacturing population, it is clear that the price of food would continually rise, unless foreign An KNise. f(Mj(l stuffs were freel}^ imported; but ff)reign grain was artifi- cially excluded by sweej)ing ''corn laws'' passed near the close of the Napoleoni(r wars. Under these laws, no wheat was to 1m' iiiiportt^d so long as grain was selling uml'-r Sii vliilliiitrs a quarter. Against the Whigs, who refused to remedy these laws, an agitation began as early as 18.'i7. Some manufacturers organ- ized an Anti-C'orn-T.aw League, under the leadership of Richard Cobdeu (a successful calico printer and a student of econondc 492 INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT problems) and of John Bright (a manufacturer, of Quaker ancestry, a man of notably high character, and a line orator).^ Pamphlets were published, songs were composed, mass meet- ings were held. Every year the League secured the intro- duction of a bill in Parliament for the abolition of the Corn Laws, but it as regularly suffered defeat until Robert Peel be- came prime minister in 1844. Peel's policy was a compromise between free trade and protection. He believed, he said, in buying in the cheapest ,, market and selling in the dearest market, except in the bit . X 661 S compromise case of grain, sugar, and timber. He also believed in tariff direct instead of indirect taxation. Hence in 1842 he procured the reduction of revenue duties on many articles, and substituted a small income tax; in 1845 he removed. the duty from four hundred and thirty other articles, and increased the income tax ; and the same year he devised a scheme for a sliding duty on grain, which decreased as the price of grain increased. This measure relieved purchasers of food stuffs a little, but it caused great fluctuations in the price of grain ; for speculators artificially raised the price of British grain in order to decrease the amount of the duty. While affairs were in this unsettled condition, came the bad season of 1845. The wheat crop was ruined by heavy rains, 578. Total and in Ireland (whose soil in the best seasons suffers "^f^h^^ from poor drainage) not only the grain, but also the corn laws potatoes upon which the poorer classes relied for their sustenance, were utterly ruined. Starvation was frequent all over the island. The British government established relief works at a cost of £1,000,000 a month, but refused to " inter- fere with the regular course of trade in food stuffs." It thus drew laborers from the fields, and at the same time en- iThe government uuintentionally aided the free-trade propaganda by its adoption of the penny-post system (183!)), by means of which the publications of the League could be disseminated far and wide at small cost. TllK ini.MOVAL OF AI{L\SKS (1820-1850) 493 courageil speculators in foreign grains. But even if tlie corn laws had not put the price of food beyond the reach of the poverty-stricken sufferers, it would have been impossible to create a sufficiently rapid How of foreign grain into the British Isles to nuike good the shortage. At last the con- science of the British nation was awakened by the terrible suffering in Ireland ; Lord John Russell declared his conver- sion to free trade in grain; Peel did the same, and resigned his office, but was immediately reappointed, since the champi- ons of the corn laws could not secure a majority in the lower house; Wellington, as before in similar crises, withdrew his opposition ; and the corn laws were practically abolished in 184G. The method adopted was a rapid reduction of duties, in three successive years, to a tixed rate of one shilling a quarter. It was feared that so abrupt a change would ruin the farmers ; but the steady growth of manufactures caused such an in- C.\STI.E OK KOMS, KlI.LAKNEY, IkEI-A.NU. wai.kkk's kn<;. hist. — 30 494 INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT creased demand in the towns for milk, meat, straw, and other agricultural products as to make good the loss of profits on grain. In 1849 came the total repeal of the navigation acts, and Great Britain enjoyed free trade, except for certain duties for revenue only. The great famine of 1845-1846, which converted the British into a free-trade nation, caused untold suffering in Ireland. 579. Effect Parliament voted £10,000,000 for the relief of distress, ofthe'fam- ^^^^ ^|^jg ^^^^^ ^^^^ fa^i- ^^^y little. In the four years from ine year ' . n -r ■, ^ -, ^ on Ireland 1846 to 1850, the population of Ireland decreased more than two millions, by death or emigration. Suffering led to crime and pauperism. Bents could no longer be collected from the starving tenants, nor could other tenants be secured if these were evicted. Many Irish landlords, hard pressed for money, sold their estates to wealthy Englishmen and Scotch- men, and thus was intensified the most serious cause of trouble in Ireland, the " absentee landlordism " which was to form the problem of the following half century. The long-repressed forces of reform won many important victories between 1820 and 1850. The common people, massed 580 Sum- ^'^ factory towns, learned the power that dwells in num- mary bers and in unity, and the governing class grudgingly yielded in the face of threatened revolution. Boman Catholics secured political equality with Protestants. The rotten boroughs — ever present source of political corruption — were abolished, and coal and iron regions gained their due influence in Parliament. The remaining boroughs received a popular instead of an autocratic government. Against the opposition of the old landowning aristocracy, the navigation acts and the corn laws were repealed, so that the people might have food in plenty to eat, materials in plenty to manufacture, and customers in plenty to buy their goods. With the advent of democracy, the child, the slave, the pauper, even the criminal, Tin: i;i:mi'\.\i. "I aiu'sks (i82n-i8.'.o) 405 botjan to receive rational treatment and protection. Irelaml aldiie — misled and misunderstood — tailed to gain some measure of freedom during this period. TOPICS (\) lli)\v loiif aid the luT.soiial union of Great Britain and Suggestive ^ tODlCS Hanover continue ? (2) Do you think tiie connection was, on the whole, benelicial or harmful to Great Britain ? (3) Show why it was thouj;ht improper for a Catholic It) become regent of the king- dom. (4) What motives intiuenced the Lords to resist the Reform Bill of 1832 ? (5) Slate exactly what is meant by a •' ten-pound " householder. ((5) Review the successive st€ps by which the free- dom of the English press became complete. (7) Name all the con- ditions you can think of which tended to prevent justice being done to Ireland. (8) Show how each clause of the People's Charter would have strengthenetl the political power of the lower classes. (0) Mention all the clas.ses which the corn laws injured, and all which they benefited. (10) How was it po.ssible to pa.ss corn-law legislation through Parliament? (IP) The career of Daniel O'Connell. (12) The great liberal Search movement on the Continent in 1848 (" The Year of Revolutions' ). (13) Some Com Law lihijmrx. (14) Wellington's services to England as a pt)liiical leader after 1828. (\'t) Scenes in Ireland in 184«!. (10) The fir.st English railway. (17) A typical ''rotten borough." (18) Character of William IV. (19) The early life of Queen Victoria. (2U) The monster charter petition. REFERENCES See map, pp. 384, 38.j ; Poole, Ilislnriml J//rr.s\ maps xxiii. Geography x.xiv. xxviii. Bri"ht. I/istoni of Emjlnnd, III. P'lCJ-l.'JO, 1376-13!tA, 1401- Secondary 14ln, MlC-HCl, IV. 1-ii, 14-2*!, ;',l-4i2, 7H-141, lii4-17f<, 208-228; Gardiner, St,i,ln,rs History, 880-882, 884-887, 801-020. 022-043; Ransome, A ; Cheyney, InlroiUirtinn to Iiifhixtri'il Ilistonj, ch. ix. ; J. McCartliy, 'Hit- K/iorl, i,j liif„riit, — IliMonj of till- Four ar,,i;i,s, dis. Ixiii.-lxxxix.. — ///.sf-ir;/ <>/ Our Oirii Timis, chs. i. ii. iv. v. vii. ix. xii. xiii.-xv. xviii., — Oulliiir.'i of Ihi' Ili.ilonj of Irdaiiil, eh. viii. ; Powell and Tout. lliMoi'j >>/ topics authorities 496 INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT Sources Illustrative works England^ 871-912 ; Oman, England in the Nineteenth Century, chs. iv.-vi. ; S. Walpole, History of England since IS 15, chs. vii.-xiv. ; Kent, The English Badicals, ch. iii. ; Jenks, Parlia- mentary England, ch. xi. ; Brewer, Student's Hume, chs. xxxiv. XXXV. ; Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional History, 599-610, 623- 631 ; Molesworth, History of the Beform Bill ; Lawless, Ireland, chs. Iv.-lvii. ; Morris, Ireland, 1494-1868, 289-341 ; Edwards, Wales, ch. xxvi. ; Routledge, Popular Progress, ch. xxii. ; Duffy, Young Ireland; Hamilton, Daniel CConnell; Macdonagh, Life of O^Connell, chs. vii.-xxi. ; Morley, Life of Cobden, — Life of Gladstone, I. ; Thursfield, Peel ; Parker, Sir Bobert Peel ; W. O. Morris, Wellington, 318-375 ; Taylor, The Factory System and the Factory Acts, chs. iii. iv. ; Besant, Fifty Yeai's Ago ; Paul, His- tory of Modern England, I. chs. i. iii. vi. vii ; Goldwiu Smith, The United Kingdom, 11. chs. viii. ix. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 263-264. Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 260-266 ; Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 114-117 ; Kendall, Source-Book, nos. 108-109, 128-131, 134-138 ; Sir W. Scott, Journal, 1825-1832 ; Fitzpatrick, Correspondence of 0' Connell ; Harding and Peel, Sir Bobert Peel. Bates and Coman, English History told by English Poets, 385- 411 ; Edgeworth, The Absentee ; Dickens, Nicholas Nickleby, — ■ Oliver Twist ; Gaskell, Mary Barton ; Eliot, Feliz Holt, the Badi- cal ; Hughes, Tom Broivn's School Days ; Keary, Castle Daly ; Kingsley, Alton Locke ; Reade, Put Yourself in His Plate ; Trol- lope, Castle Bichmond. (IIAL'TKK XXXV. FOKEKiX AND COLONIAL INTERESTS (1820-1858) Aftkk the fall of Napoleon, the inonarchs of Russia, Austria, and Prussia in 1815 formed a " Holy Alliance,'* which claimed to be a league to make the Christian religion a standard 581. Eng- for the behavior of states. Its real object was stated in ^4^*^2017 a minor clause, by which the rulers agreed to " afford one Alliance another assistance in all cases." In other words, it was pro- posed to defend absolute monarchy against democratic move- ments. France soon joined this alliance, but Great Britain held aloof, Lord Castlereagh, the foreign secretary, declaring that the constitution of the United Kingdom prevented her from joining such a union. Furthermore, when in 1823 the Holy Alliance was planning to employ its forces for restoring to Spain her revolted colonies in Spanish America, Canning, who had succeeded Castlereagh, jjroposed to President Monroe that Great Britain and the United States should make a joint protest against this action ; and although Monroe preferred to make an indejjendent protest, the two powers acted in harmony in recognizing the independence of the Spanish colonies. liehind this action was a distrust of Russia which has ever since influenced the international policy of (Jreat Britain. In 1820 the Greeks began an agitation for throwing off ^^^ ^^^ the rule of Turkey, which halack Sea to the M«'diterranean ; and Russia now aided the Greek revolution, hoping thus to gain .some advantage which wouM bring her a step n»'arer Constantinople. 497 498 GREATER ENGLAND The Greeks appealed to England for aid, dreading lest a war between Russia and Turkey should prove their own de- struction ; and Canning, rather reluctantly, agreed to act with Russia and France in putting pressure upon Turkey, believing that Russia could be held in check more easily as an ally than as a foe. As the sultan remained obstinate, a fleet of British, French, and Russian war ships entered the Bay of aSTavarino in October, 1827, and after a four hours' fight entirely destroyed the Turkish fleet of twenty-eight ships of war. The Turks hastened to make peace on the basis of Greek independence; and the Pentarchy, frightened at the bugbear of republicanism, forced on the new state a monarch from among the German princes. Ten years later England was threatened with a revolt in her own colony of Canada, where the government was poorly adapted to local conditions. In 1791 the younger Pitt 583. Home ^ Rule in the had created separate governments for the lower bt. Canadas Lawrence valley, where the population was almost wdiolly French in blood and traditions, and for the district north of the Great Lakes, which w^as settled almost wholly by emigrants from England and Scotland, or by loyalists who removed from the United States after the treaty of 1783. This policy tended to perpetuate instead of to destroy race distinctions, 9 to be destined as a convict colony. Now many industrious and upright colonists from Irt-huul ;ind Scotland were emi- eratini? thither to utilize the rich •,'razin-,' lands, and the . „ , '' ticket-of-leave men'" (as the convicts were called) be- nization of came unwelcome. About 1SS~}, when there were 80,000 Australia Europeans in Australia, New South Wales began a fight against the system of transportation for convicts. She won a victory for herself, but convicts continued to be sent to Western Australia and Tasmania until the discovery of the rich gold fields (I80I), which doubled the population in two years, and made Australia an unfit place for convicts. In 18o7 a penal act was passed which practically abolished '*ti-ansportation." During the decade from 18r»()to I860 all the Australian colonies (New South Wales, founded 1778; Tas- mania, 18l'."»; Western Australia, 18L'0; South Australia, 1834; New Zealand, 1841 ; Victoria, 18r>l ; Queensland, 1859) began a new and vigorous life, most of them under self-governing constitutions. In 11)01 all except New Zealand were joined in the federal iniion called the Commonwealth of Australia. It was during this period that Great Britain first gained a foot- hold upon <'hinese territory. Opium was ]U'oduced in large quantities in India, and found a market in ("hinese ports. ,„^ „ . * ' ... 585. Begin- In 18.'?9 the rhinese government prohibited the inipor- nings in the tation of the dr\ig. to the great distress of the I'.riti.sh far East mercliants who were getting rich from the trattic. They con- tinued to import ojiium, and appealed to the home government to supp<»rt them; but they were infornifd that ''Her Ranxomp, Majesty's government can not interfere for the purpose yn.Tand of enabling British subjects to violate tin- laws of tlie 960 country with wliich they trade." Before this message reached ('hiuii. liif < hinese government had searched l»ritish v«*ss«'ls in Chinese ]>orts, ami hail confis- cated and destroyed opium valued at dtlOOd. In spite of its prevjous dictum, the ministry declared this action an insult 500 GREATER ENGLAND to the British government, and dispatched a fleet to Canton. After a one-sided war, China was forced to purchase peace by the cession of the island of Hongkong (which later became the greatest British stronghold in the far East), by throwing open five Chinese ports to British trade, and by paying an indemnity of £4,500,000 (1842). Meanwhile the specter of Russian aggression reappeared to terrify the British government. About 1832 Persia and 586. The Afghanistan (one of which commanded access to India Kabul fiasco by way of the Persian Gulf, and the other by way of the valley of the Indus) fell under the influence of Russia, and a few years later the czar undertook to protect the sultan of Turkey against his rebellious vassal the viceroy of Egypt. To fore- stall danger, Palmerston, the British foreign secretary, induced the Great Powers to guarantee the independence of Turkey (1841); and Lord Auckland, governor general of India, imposed upon Afghanistan a ruler favorable to Great Britain (1839). In 1842 the deposed ruler stirred up a revolt in Kabul, and forced the small British garrison to agree to evacuate the country ; but the natives attacked the soldiers on their march from Kabul to the frontier, and out of 4000 fighting men and 12,000 civilians, only one man escaped. In 1843 an avenging army invaded Afghanistan, destroyed the great bazaar of Kabul, rescued the women who had been left in the hands of the Afghans the previous year, and then withdrew from the country. This invading army passed through Sind without permission of the native chiefs, wdio believed that the fiasco in Afghan- 587. Con- istan proved the weakness of the Indian government, wansionln ^^^^ therefore at once plunged into war. The contest India was short, and the victories of Sir Charles Napier led to the annexation of Sind in 1843. The Punjab (the district including the middle course of the Indus and its tributaries) was occupied by a race of fierce warriors called the Sikhs, fuui:i(;n and colonial iMLiiESTs O'^-^^-iy^y) ^01 who had several times invacled llimUistan. In 1848 they ventured on a fresh invasion, but met with a erusiiing defeat, and the Punjab was added to the British dominions. The Sikhs became hiter among the most valiant of the warriors enrolled in the service of the East India Company. In South Africa, also, the problem of British control over alien races proved hard to solve. When Cape Colony was seized by the British a second time, in 1806, its Euro- ^^ pean population consisted of about 27,000 persons, mostly cuities in of Dutch descent, known as Boers, or "farmers." Their ^^^ ° °^^ business — stock farming — kept them scattered and ignorant; their distance from the seat of government in Europe made them impatient of control ; their struggle for existence against savages and wild beasts made them sturdy fighters ; and their practice of slaveholding made them cruel in their treatment of the natives. This last trait soon brought them into conflict Avith the Eng- lish missionaries in South Africa, and later with the colonial government. The quarrel was intensified in 1833-1834, when slavery was abolished in all l^>ritish colonies; for the Dutch lost 30,000 slaves, and received from the indemnity fund fas they claimed) less than half their actual value. During the same year a war witli tlie native race of Kaffirs led to the annexation of certain territories on the frontiers, in order to secure a better natural boundary against depredations. The British government believed that the whites had provoked the war, and therefore restored to the Kaffirs their territory, and thus further embittered the Dutch. The Dutch farmers now decided to seek new homes where they could be free from British control. During 18:i() and 1837 eight thousand Boers loaded their household goods upon 589. Boer ox-carts, " inspanned " their oxen, and "trekked " north- ^J^o^cape ward into unsettled districts (map, p. ">27) — one between Colony the Orange River and the Vaal River, the other between the 502 GREATER ENGLAND Vaal and the Limpopo. "They were practically independent, for the colonial government did not attempt to interfere with Bryee, Im- their internal affairs. But Britain still claimed that pressionsoS ^-^^ were, in strict intendment of law, British snbiects,^ South Af- J ^ rica, 128 and she gave no recognition to the government they set up." Between 1838 and 1842 a large body migrated into Natal ; but later, finding that Great Britain claimed sover- eignty over that territory, most of them returned to the interior. In 1852, when Cape Colony was involved in a war with the Kaffirs, the Boers north of the Vaal induced Great Britain to conclude the Sand River Convention, by which they secured their independence, on condition that slavery should not be tolerated in the Trans-Vaal, or country " across the Vaal." In 1854, by the Bloemfontein Convention, similar concessions were made to the Orange Free State, between the Orange and the Vaal River. Ever since her check in 1841, Russia had been strengthen- ing her armies and navies, especially in the Black Sea, for 590. Re- an attack upon Turkey. In 1852 she seemed to see her the'Eastern opportunity in a dispute over the Christian sanctuaries question at Jerusalem, which the sultan decided in favor of the Latin as against the Greek Church. The czar made this de- cision an excuse for demanding a recognition of his right to a protectorate over all Greek Christians in the Turkish Empire, - but betrayed his real purpose by telling the British minister that Turkey was "a sick man, a very sick man," and propos- ing to divide the spoils in case anything should happen to the invalid (January, 1853). Great Britain refused the bribe, but the czar felt strong enough to act alone. In July a Russian army invaded Wallachia, and in November a Russian fleet destroyed a Turkish squadron at Sinope. 1 At this time it was still a maxim of English common law that no person could strip himself of his nationality. 2 By an old treaty (1774) Turkey promised Russia " to jiroteet constantly the Christian religion and its churches." FouKUJN AM) Colonial lntekests (ih-jo-isoh) 503 Great I»ritain was in a ferment. The premier (another name for prime minister), Lord Aberdeen, was averse to war, and Mr. Gladstone held that the czar's claim was implied in the treaty of 1774; but the English merchants could not bear to think of Russia in possession of Constantinople, and (since mercantile interests were supreme in Parliament) Aberdeen was forced out of uttice and the warlike Palmerston became prime minister. To show why Russia should not be allowed to hold Con- stantinople wa.s easy. Her resources and population (the largest in Europe) were subject to the will of an auto- cratic and very ambitious ruler. With these resources tentous he could easily create upon the Black Sea an enormous Kussia fleet, for which that sea would constitute a vast inland harbor with the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles — at their narrowest point less than a mile wide — as its only outlet. The alarmists in England pictured the Russian fleet, when created, as steam- ing into the Mediterranean and cutting off communication with the East, while Russian forces were operating against India, Persia, and the far East, the chief sources of com- merce and wealth for centuries to come ; or as seizing Gibral- tar and ravaging the coast of Asia Minor, of Greece, Italy, and France, in case of a European war. If shattered by an overwhelming coalition of the other powers, said they, the fleet could easily retire into the Black Sea, and there reequip and refit in a refuge safe from any possibility of attack. Furthermore, it was clear that an ounce of prevention was worth a pound of cure ; for if the czar should once eff"ect a lodgment in Constantinople, it would be almost impossible to e.xpel him. Influenced by such arguments, Great Britain and France formed an alliance with Turkey in March. 18.")4. After some minor oj>erations, it was decided to attack the great Crimean Russian naval depot and arsenal at Sebastopol, near the ^^ southern end of the peninsula of the Crimea. An allied 504 GREATER ENGLAND F^Mf^ SEA OF B L A (^ 20 40 60 SO The Crimea. army landed twenty miles north of this fortress in September, 1853, and, advancing southward, began a siege which lasted nearly a year. In battles at Alma, Balaklava, Inkerman, and at Sebastopol itself, the allies won great glory ; but the campaign as a whole was grossly mis- managed. The British War Department had be- come inefficient during the long period of peace. The officers in command were weak, the soldiers, though brave, were badly disciplined, the commissary and hospital service was hopelessly disorganized. Cholera, cold, bad food, and lack of medicines took half the British army from the ranks. In Janua,ry, 1855, Sardinia came to the help of the allies with 15,000 men. In February the warlike Czar Nicholas died, and wlien Sebastopol fell six months later, his successor, Alex- ander III., decided to make peace and bide his time. By the treaty of Paris (1856) Russia abandoned her claim to a pro- tectorate, on the sultan's promise to guard the interests of Greek Christians in his dominions; Russia and Turkey re- turned their conquests ; Russia dismantled her fortresses and reduced her fleets on the Black Sea; the Dardanelles and the Danube River Avere thrown open to ships of all nations in times of peace ; and all the Great Powers engaged to respect the independence and territorial integrity of Turkey. Hardly was the Eastern question temporarily settled when ,„„ « 3- the Palmerston government was called upon to face a still 593. Condi- . tions in greater danger. The discerning had long seen that India, India(1857) ^-^^^ -^^ population of 180,000,000 people, could not be ruled indefinitely by the East India Company. In the first FOREIGN AND COLONIAL INTKKKSTS (1820-1858) 505 place, the company, bv its most beneficial measures — its intro- duction of modern inventions (e.g. railways aud the telegrapli), the protection of Christian missionaries, and its forcible aboli- tion of heathen rites like the "suttee" (widow-burning) had become very unpopular among the ignorant natives. Further- more, the activity of Russia on the northern frontier led to a belief that Great Britain as a world power was declining, and that Russia was destined to take her place. jNLeanwhile the East India Company's control depended upon the efficiency of its army, which was officered by Europeans, but was made up in very large proportion of natives of India, called Sepoys. The incompetency of the company is shown by the fact that, although it was known that the Sepoys had a superstition that the company's rule would end on the hundredth anniversary of the battle of Plassey, no proper steps were taken to forestall revolt. In the spring of 1857 broke out a series of small mutinies, caused by the adoption of a new type of rifle, in which greased cartridges were used ; for it was whispered that the new 594 The cartridges were an ingenious device of the British to Sepoy mu- o » tiny outrage native religious beliefs by using the fat of the (1867-1858) cow, sacred to the Hindu, and of the hog, unclean to the Mus- sulman. The revolts were general through the upper Ganges basin, the three centers being Delhi (where a descendant of the Grand \Mogid was set up as ruler), Cawnpur, and Luck- now. Everywhere, and especially at Cawni)ur, the mutineers committed unspeakable atrocities ui»()ii the British men, women, and children that fell into their hands. Fortunately for British rulr, the Sikhs of the Punjab, the various tril)es of the lower Ganges valley, aud the troops in tlu* Hekkau, all remained loyal. Fortunately, too, the l^ritish government had just dispatched troops for service in China, and, when these arrived at Cape Colony, the governor assumed the responsibility of directing them to India. 506 GREATER ENGLAND The Kashmere Gate, Delhi In May, 1857, General Nicholson with only 7,000 men marched from the Punjab into the heart of the revolted ■D district, and, after a siege of four months, stormed Delhi, t)95. US- suits of the a walled city defended by 100,000 soldiers trained to mu my warfare by the BritisJi. Meanwhile General Havelock advanced through lower Bengal to Cawnpur, and then passed on to Lncknow, which was still held by a small British garri- son after a siege of eighty-seven days. The capture of these three places checked the conflagration, and within the next twelve months the embers of revolt were entirely stamped out. As a result of these events, the charter of the East India Company was revoked, and India passed directly under the crown, a Secretary of State for India being added to the Brit- ish Cabinet. The actual task of government was intrusted to a council composed of men experienced in Indian affairs, and to a governor general appointed by the crown. l-OKKltiN AND COLONIAL INl'KliKSTS O820-l»:i8) TjUT As soon as the Sej)oy imitiny was sui)i)res,S('(l, Great lirit- ain turned her attention to renewed Chinese troul)les (§ r»srt). As in iS.Sy, the troulih' arose out of an aiJiiartMit insult to ^„^ ^ , ' ' ' 596. Second (ireat l>ritain by Chinese otticers, who forcibly arrested Chinese men on a vessel tiying the British tiag (1850). The men were pirates, and the flag was carried without legal right ; but nevertheless the British bombarded and captured Canton, and dictated terms of peace (1858). France joined in the war, on the ground of some preexisting claims against China; and by the treaty the Yangtze valley was thrown opiMi to British and French missionaries and traders, and diplomatic relations were established by China with both countries. China, it is needless to say, paid the expenses of the war. A year later the treaty had to be enforced by the invasion of China and the capture of Peking. Vktokia Citoss. Decoration for military ami naval servic*'. Mal in the Crimean \^'■.^^■. In this period the fruits of the Napoleonic wars appeared in Great Britain's foreign re- 597 lations, esjjecially tho.se with Kussia. Jealousy and sus- ]»icion of this i»ower led Brit- ish statesmen in ISL'T into a hollow alliance with her against 'I'urkcy, anil in 1854 into an ciiually hollow alliance with I'rance against Kussia. Greece was worth saving; Ijut Turkey — ] (reserved at such a cost of blood and treasure — was a heavy and an unprofitable burden. Else- where, too, Biritain shoulden'd new buiileiis witliout much regard to conse(piences. The oppres- Sum- mary 508 GREATER ENGLAND siou and robbery of China was indefensible, that of Afghan- istan botli indefensible and profitless. But iu the great de- pendencies of the empire — Canada, Cape Colony, Australia — the period was one of growth ; and in India even the great mutinies gave an opportunity for beneficial changes of admin- istration. Suggestive topics Search topics TOPICS (I) Show how Russian ambitions were stimulated during the Napoleonic period. (2) Explain why the Holy Alliance was so named. (3) What reason had the United States in this period to dread Russian aggression ? (4) What events in this period show that Great Britain profited by her experience with the thir- teen American colonies? (5) Do you know any colonies besides Australia to which Great Britain has ever transported criminals ? (6) Can you suggest some of the evils of a system of transportation for crime ? (7) Was the penalty inflicted on China in 1842 pro- portionate to the offense committed by her ? (8) With the aid of a map, show the importance of Afghanistan to India. (9) In the same way, show the importance of the Punjab. (10) Why did the possession of Natal seem especially desirable to the Boers after their " Great Trek " ? (II) Russian advances toward Constantinople under Peter the Great and Catherine the Great. (12) Lord Byron in the Greek Revolution. (13) Character of the Boer civilization in South Africa. (14) The work of Florence Nightingale. (15) Charge ot the Light Brigade at Balaklava. (16) The Declaration of Paris, issued after the treaty of Paris. (17) The defense of Lucknow. (18) Causes of the Canadian rebellion of 1837. (19) Convict life in Australia. (20) The capture of Peking in 1860. Geography Secondary authorities REFERENCES See maps, pp. 454, 474, .527, 545 ; Gardiner, Studenfs Atlas, maps 60, 61, 63, 66, 88 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, map Ixxxiv. ; Reich, New Students' Atlas, maps 36, 50-52. Bright, History of England, III. 1370-1376, 1395-1401, 1410- 1416, 1461-1472; IV. 6-14, 26-31, 53-76, 92-95, 141-153, 178-189, 192-208, 228-335 ; Gardiner, Student's History, 882-884, 912-916, 934-939, 943-955, 966-969 ; Ransome, Advanced History, 955-967, 981-997 (and see index) ; Green, Short History (epilogue ) ; Powell Konr.ICN AM) COLONIAL INTEUKSTS (1820-1858) 509 auil 'r..iit. ntstunj »j Kiii/him!, OOH-iHO. 1008-1018, 10-2:{-1040 (and see iiulex^ ; Brewer, StudeiU's Iluine, clis. xxxiv. xxxv. ; McCarthy, History «f Our Otrn Tiiiien, chs. iii. viii. xi. xvii. xxii. xxv.- xxviii. XXX. -XXXVI. ; Oman, Enijhind iu the Xincteeuth Cfutury. clis. iv. V. ; S. Walpole, History of Eiit/htnd Sincf JS1'>, elis. xv. 404-4:J5, xvi.-xxii. xxiv.-xxviii. ; Morley, Life of Ghuhtone, I. ; Lyall, Rise of British Dominion in Jmlia, xvii. ; llainley. 77«e War in the Crimea ; Sanders, Life of Viscount Palmcrston ; Fitohett, The Tale of the Great Mutiny; Malleson, The Indian Mutiny; Temple. Lorr permanent imitrovemcnts made during their tenancy — and re-leased to more desirable tenants. The Land Act of 1870 decreed that tenants who gave up their 514 GREATER ENGLAND holdings should be compensated for improvements, and pro- vided for government loans to responsible tenants, by which they might purchase on mortgage the farms they occupied. Up to the year 1870, there were no free elementary schools supported wholly by the state in England. One reason for 603 Public tl^^s w^^ ^^^^ ^^^® Anglicans and the dissenters could not education agree regarding the place of religion in formal education. In 1870 Gladstone carried through Parliament an Education Act framed by Mr. Forster. This act authorized the election of School Boards with authority (1) to levy a definite local tax for the support of education, (2) to spend this money in improving existing schools, (3) to build and maintain new schools, (4) to fix a fee for tuition, (5) to compel the attend- ance of pupils. It was stipulated that in "Board Schools" no religious catechism, or "definitely dogmatic formularies," should be taught ; that in schools which accepted state aid all religious instruction should be given before or after the regular session, and that attendance upon this instruction should be voluntary. The next year (1871), by the abolition of religious tests, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were for the first time opened to Roman Catholics and Protestant dissenters. Before these reforms could be thoroughly tested, Gladstone was displaced by Disraeli (1874), Avho soon found a field for 604 The his " jingo " tendencies in the Eastern question. In 1875 Russian- the Greek Christians in Bulgaria revolted against Turkish ^^j. misgovernment, a sympathetic revolt was kindled in (1877-1878) Servia and Montenegro, and the merciless deeds of the Turks in suppressing these movements horrified all Europe. Kussia at once made war on Turkey ; but when her armies had forced the passes of the Balkans and were within only a hun- dred miles of Constantinople (December, 1877), Disraeli (now Lord Beaconsfield) dispatched a British fleet to the Bosphorus. Russia hastened to negotiate the peace of San Stephano with UEFOKMS AM) KXl'ANSloN (lbo8-188fi) .1. Turkey, but as its terms seemed too favorable to tlie vntor, Great Britain protested. At a Congress held at Herlin (1S7H), those territories that had suffered most from Turkish misgov- ernment (Roumania, Ser- via, Bulgaria) were cre- ated into independent or semi-independent states, to serve as a barrier be- tween Russia and Con- stantinople. By a separate treaty (Jreat l>ritain guar- anteed the integrity of Turkey's Asiatic domains, receiving in return the island of Cyprus in the eastern Mediterranean. To the enormous crowd which welcomed the en- voys back to London, Bea- consfield said. '• I bring vou peace with honor.'' During the Turkish-Russian War, the Russians for the second time dispatched an agent to win over the ameer of Afghanistan. To increase the ])restige of Great Britain in India, ^^^^^^^l Disraeli induced Parliament to bestow upon the queen East Af- the title of Empress of India (1877), and the next year gbanistan British armies invaded Afghanistan and placed on the throne a ruler favorable to (heat Britain. The experience of 1841- 1842 was then repeated. Within a year (1878) a revolt took place, the new ameer was dej.osed. English residents were mur- dered, and an army was nearly destroy. -d. An avenging army under Lord Roberts inHicted several defeats upon the Afghans, and then the country was left to itself under a new ameer, who professed himself friendly to the British. TlRKEV AXn THE CoUXTKIKS KHKED FROM TlKKlSH RlLK. ISl.'-lSai. UKFOK.MS AM) KXI'ANSIKN (18J8-l««iJ) ,")17 During tlu^ Malulist ivvult in the Egyptian Sudan (§ 008), the Russians oeeuiiied Merv, a most important base for opera- tions against Afghanistan, and hiid claim to various territories also claimed by Afghanistan. Great Britain protested, and nuitters became strained almost to the point of war; but an agreement was finally reached for the appointment of a joint commission to mark out the frontiers of Afghanistan. This commission completed its work in 1895, aud the boundary thus defined was guaranteed by both countries. The first experiment in maintaining a free state in the Transvaal proved an absolute failure. The population was scattered and roving. " The government was powerless 606 War to control either its white citizens or its native subjects; ^^ the Xr3.IlSV£L&l it was incapable of enforcing its laws, of collecting its (1881) taxes, . . . the powerful Zulu king, Cetawayo, [was] R''i''<''t «f anxious to seize the first opportunity of attacking [the] (jimimis. country.'' At the request of many of its citizens. Great ^ioner, isra liritain reannexed the country in Ajjril, 1877, and all but one of the memlicrs of the late government took otiice under the new rulers. Paul Kruger and certain associates, however, soon became disaffected, and in December, 18S0, they proclaimed anew the inde[)endence of the Transvaal. In the short war which followed, the most important event was the battle of Majuba Hill (March, 18S1), where a British force was surprised and disastrously defeated by a bodv „ '■ - J . PrtHunhle to of Boers. Gladstone, with his usual eagerness to riglit the Pretoria alleged wrongs, hastened to make peace with the n-lx-ls '"'"''■"''"" l)y the Pretoria Convention, signed August 3, 1S81. I'.y this convention the Boers were granted "complete self-govern- ment, subje(;t to the suzerainty of Ilcr Majesty." In the T.ondon Convention, signed February 'J7, 1884, (Jreat Britain allowed the word ''suzerainty" to be dropped, and contented herself with an assertion of her right of veto over treaties with my state or nation otln-r than the Orange Free State. 518 GREATER ENGLAND MEDITERRA The interest of Great Britain in northern Africa dates from 1869, when a stock company organized by a Frenchman named „-- ^ Ferdinand de Lessens completed the Suez Canal ; for 607. The ^ ^ ' occupation good government in Egypt thus became a matter of inter- -^^yP national importance. This interest was greatly increased in 1875, when Beaconslield purchased from the bankrupt khedive of Egypt his entire holding of 17(3,602 shares, more than a third of the stock of the company. Thenceforth France and Great Britain practically controlled the pol- icy of the Egyptian govern- ment,' and especially its finances, which had become disordered through the ex- travagance of the khedive's court, and through a reckless system of internal improve- ment. In 1882 the Egyptian Min- ister of War, Arabi Pasha, headed a revolt to free the government from foreign in- terference. France refused to take decisive measures ; but a British fleet bombarded The Egyptian Sudan. Alexandria (July, 1882), a British army routed the rebel forces at Tel-el-Kebir (August, 1882), and order was restored. France, in chagrin at her rival's added prestige, protested against the continuance of a British army in Egypt, but Great Britain replied that " whenever security and tranquillity should be permanently restored," the British troops should be with- drawn. They are still in Egypt. Arabi's revolt furnished an opportunity to the tribes in the REFDRMS AM) KXTANSION (185S-1S80) ol9 basin of the upper Nile (the Egyptian Sudan), wiiere the Kg}'i>- tian government was struggling to open up the country to trade, and to destroy the traffic in slaves. In 1881, a „„„ , . ... 608 Lobs native chieftain posing as a Mahdi (an inspired messen- of the ger from God) staited a crusade against Egyptian rule " *° in the Sudan. Forty thousand fanatics rallied to his support, and all the Sudan except a few strongholds fell into his hands. Glad.stone persuaded Egypt to abandon the region, and General Charles George Gordon was sent up the Nile to withdraw her forces. ) Why was it diftioult to secure tlie disestablishment of the Irisli Cliurch ? (0) Was it just to confiscate the endowments of the Irish Church ? (7) Compare the school boards under the Forster Act of 1870 with those in your own state. (8) Cite the various instances that we have found where Great Britain balked Russia's ambitious schemes, (tt) What causes stimulated the exportation of food stuffs from America during this period ? (10) Some anecdotes of Disraeli in the House of Commons. Search (11) Gladstone's attitude towards tlie American Civil War. ^^opi^s (12) The cruise of the AJahmnn. (13) The defense of Plevna by the Turks in 1877. (14) The reign of Ismail, khedive of Egypt, 18) Pamell as a leader and statesman. REFERENCES See maps, pp. 474, 510, 518, 527 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps Geography 05, 06 ; Poole, Ilintoricdl Athts, map xc. ; Reich, New Students'' Atlas, maps 48-;jO. Hright, History of Eiujland, IV. .336-577 ; Gardiner, Student's Secondary Uistory, 055-<.t72 ; liansoiue, Advanced History, !»1)7-1031 ; Powell a"*'»°"*»e8 and Tout, History of Euijland, ni'.)-!t44, 1018-1011», 1040-1043; J. McCarthy, History of Our Own Times, 1SS7-1SS0, chs. xxxvii.- Ixvi., — lSSt^lsU7, ch.s. i.-x., — Outlines of Irish History, ix.-xi. ; Claytien, Enfjland under Braronsficld, lS7.3-lSiiO; J. II. .McCarthy, Kufjland undir (Gladstone, 1SS0-1SS4; Morley, Life of (tladstone, II. III.; Russell, Gladstone; Rryce, William Ewart Gladstone; Meynt'U. Binjamin Disraeli; Sichel, Disraeli; Cox, History of the Rpfirm Bills iif 1S6H-1SG7; Clayden, Emjland under Lord Beacons- field ; Lawless, Ireland, ch. Iviii. ; .Montgomery, History of L^ind Tenure in Ireland, pt. Hi. ; Morris, Inland. 1494-IS6S, .■Ul-:{54 ; Keltic, The Partition of Africa ; Sauflerson, Africa in thr .Vine- ti'onth Cintury ; Butler, Charles (reorye (iordun ; Forbes, The Afyhan War; Chirol, The Middle Eastern Question; Taylor, 522 GREATER ENGLAND Sources Illustrative works The Factory System and the Factory Acts, chs. iv.-vi. ; Smith, Life and Speeches of John Bright. See New England History Teachers' Association, Syllabus, 264-265. Adams and Stephens, Select Docnments, nos. 267-276 ; Ken- dall, Source-Book, nos. 132, 145-147. Forbes, Czar and Sultan ; Fothergill, Probation ; Kipling, Kim. List of Prime Ministers since the Reform Bill of 1832 Ministers Earl Grey .... Viscount Melbourne Sir Robert Peel . . Viscount Melbourne Sir Robert Peel . . Lord John Russell . Earl of Derby . . . Earl of Aberdeen Viscount Palmerston Earl of Derby . . . Viscount Palmerston Earl Russell . . . Date of Appointment Nov., 1830 July, 1834 Dec, 1834 April, 1835 August 1841 July, 1846 Feb., 1852 Dec, 1852 Feb., 1855 Feb., 1858 June, 1859 Oct., 1865 Ministers Earl of Derby . . . Benjamin Disraeli . W. E. Gladstone . . Benjamin Disraeli . W. E. Gladstone . . Marquis of Salisbury W. E. Gladstone . . Marquis of Salisbury W. E. Gladstone . . Earl of Rosebery Marquis of Salisbury Arthur J. Balfour . Date of Appointment July, 1866 Feb., Dec, Feb., April, June, Feb., 1868 1868 1874 1880 1885 1886 August, 1886 August, 1892 March, 1894 June, 1895 July, 1902 ('iiAiTi:!; XXX \i I. TlIK rMIKl) KlN(il)().M SINCK lS8r. Mi;, (tlakstonk's convtM-sion to Hoiiu' Ifule in ISSG caused a division of the Liberal party into two wings : one retained the name " Liberal" 611 Glad- , ,11 stone's first and accepted the Home Rule policy of Home Biii'1886) Kule ; the other, led by Josei)h Chamberlain, clung to the legislative union of Ireland and Great Uritain, and was therefore known as the Liberal- L'nit)nist party. The problem before Gladstone was compli- cated, and his Home Rule Bill of 18S(), framed under most difficult conditions, satisfied nobody. Its linancial and political clauses ])rovoked such Km,.,.,;,- ri, ,,.. Mm;.,; i. ,.i ,-mim:, kv. severe criticism that the bill was rt'jt'ctcd with the aid of ninety-three Lil)eral Unionist votes, and I^u-d Salisl)ury returned to jjowt-r (August, 1H8(5). This same year a bill was passed, granting to the crofters, or small tenants, in six Highland countie.s of Scotland similar rights of fixed tenure, fair rents, and compensation for im- 0-J.i 524 GREATER ENGLAND provements that had been granted to Ireland in 1870. In the latter country the Conservatives tried still more palliative measures in the Ashbourne Act, which granted further gov- ernment aid for the purchase of farms, the drainage of fens, and the extension of roads and railroads ; but they were at the same time compelled by continued local outrages and boycott- ing to pass thoroughgoing Crimes Acts. The most notable measure of Salisbury's second administra- tion was the Local Government Act of 1888, which completed „ ,. the transformation of England into a democracy. Up to 612. Sails- . . . bury s re- this time the administration of counties had been in the forms m hands of lord-lieutenants, sheriffs, justices of the peace, ernment and other appointive officers ; this act provided for each of the sixty administrative counties a " county council " of aldermen and councilors elected by the people. These councils have complete control over local government, including local rating and assessment, bridges, prisons, elections, care of roads, etc. London and its more important suburbs were created into a special county of this type, and the government of the metropolis — which, as the aggregate of many town and parish governments, had long been very complex — was much simpli- fied. In 1889, practically the same system was applied in Scotland, and in 1898 it was extended to Ireland. At the election of 1892 the Liberal party won support by pledging itself to the so-called Newcastle programme of re- ^ „ forms. These included, besides Home Rule for Ireland, 613. Defeat ' of Home (1) the disestablishment of the church in Wales ; (2) meas- Rule (1893) ^^^.^^ defending the interests of the laboring classes; (3) the abolition of plural voting ; and (4) universal manhood suffrage. On this platform Gladstone returned to power with a majority of forty votes. A new Home Rule Bill was carried through the House of Commons, but was rejected by a vote of 419 to 41 in the House of Lords. In the midst of the fight, Parnell became involved in a ])ublic scandal and criminal THE IMIKI) KINGDOM SINCE 1885 .VJ") prosecution. Gladstone and about fort}- of liis Irisli allies de- manded that he should resign the leadt-rship uf the Irish Home Kulers; the others refused to abandon their old comrade in arms. Although rarnell died very soon, the quarrel continued for some years, and the cause of Home Kule was thus made hopeless through the action of its friends. In the famous liering Sea controversy of 1802-1890, the United States claimed jurisdiction over a partly inclosed sea fifteen hundred miles long by seven hundred miles wide, 614. The because it wished to i)rotect from extermination the valu- „ Bering ' Sea contro- able herds of seals whii-h frec^uent those waters, but breed versy and feed wholly on the shores of Alaska and of the Pribilof Islands. The claim was technically invalid, fur international law gives a state authority over the open sea only for a dis- tance of three miles from the coast. Consequently, when the United States arrested and i)unished British subjects engaged in sealing outside that limit, great friction resulted. The arbitrators to whom the matter was referred (189.3) denied the right of the United States to control these waters; but on their recommendation Great llritain agreed to restrict the o])era- tions of her subjects in Bering Sea for the benefit of the sealing industry as a whole. In 1895 more friction resulted over Great Britain's quarrel with \'enezuela in regard to the boundary of British Guiana. The issue involved the possession of an important river 615 The vallev, and the control of the mouth of the Orinoco; and enezuela ' ' contro- the quarrel — a quarter of a century old — was intensified versy^ I895i by the recent discoveries of gold in the disputed territiuy, and by the repeated extension of tiie British claim. (Jreat P>ritain refused to sidnnit the matter to arbitration, and prep;ired to seize the disputed territory; but when Tresident Cleveland of the United States advi.sed Congress to determine the Pn-xident true boundarv and to "resist the apitronriation bv (Jreat '•'•'"'« » Britain of any lands"' which Indonged to \'enezuela *' by iisua w.vi.kku'h kn<.. IIIxT. — '.VI 526 GREATER ENGLAND every means in its power, as a willful aggression upon its rights and interests," she reconsidered her decision. The arbitrators gave to Great Britain most of the gold fields, but left Venezuela in control of the mouth of the Orinoco. The irritation over these incidents was short-lived ; and the friendly attitude of Great Britain toward the United States during her war with Spain (1898) and during the subsequent complications in the far East, brought the two English-speak- ing natio"ns more closely into sympathy than at any previous period of their history. In 1896, France commissioned Major Marchand with a few followers to penetrate into the upper Nile valley by way of the Kongo State, and take possession of the Sudan, the 616. France & > i and the assumption being that its abandonment by Egypt left Sudan ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ colonization. At the same time General Kitch- ener was advancing up the Xile with a large force to re- conquer the Sudan for the Eg^q^tian government. Eor two years he forced his way along the Nile and its bordering desert, building a railroad in his rear as he went, to maintain his con- nection with Cairo. At Omdurman (opposite Khartum) the Khalifa, who had succeeded the ]\Iahdi, made a desperate stand; but his forces were utterly routed. Kitchener entered Khartum at the very time when General Marchand arrived at Fashoda, four hundred miles farther south on the Nile. The incident led to an agreement between France and Great Britain, by which the unoccui)ied region west of the watershed of the Nile was conceded to lie in the French sphere of influence, and France gave up all claims on the Nile valley (1899). In the same year, the Khalifa was killed and the entire Egyptian Sudan was pacified. After the discovery of the Witwatersrand gold fields (1885) 617. Trou- the population of the Transvaal rapidly increased until Transvaal ^'^^ aliens outnumbered the original settlers six to one. (1885-1895) The Boers virtually refused citizenship to the new- THK rNrrr.i) kincdom since 1885 CAPE TOWN f. 0/ tfooj II^p, '••tSr-'' CRUAR r.. /I .V /) / .1 V C £ .1 A •CUIO >L(> f.1 100 500 3 Thk 15(ikr Rkpublics (l.s'.n.t). comers, and bunloned their iiulustries witli heavy taxes ami with state monopolies of mining supplies. Alter vainly de- manding new naturalization laws in order to gain reforms by the ballot, the aliens (called Uitlanders) in 1895 determined to obtain relief by force. They secreted a supply of arms in the mines at Johan- nesburg, the center of the mining dis- trict, and enlisted the aid of Cecil Rhodes, premier of Cape Col- ony and president of the South Africa Company, who agreed to send to them fifteen hundred of the company's mounted I)oliee under Captain Jameson. It had long been ]\[r. Khodes's ambition to unite all South Africa into a single federated state, and he hojjed that the revolt would bring the Transvaal again under British control. Jameson, in defiance of orders, invaded the Transvaal too early; his entire force was captured; Khodes's complicity was betrayed; the British government disavowed the ai'tion of its subjeets ; and the Uitlanders were in worse ease than before. In March, ISKO, more than twenty thousand I'll landers petitioned the I'.ritish government to secure for tlifm a re- dress of grievances, and the- Colonial Secretary, Josepli 618 Out- Chamberlain, entered into correspondence with President .^^ » °^ ' ' the Boer Kruger of the Transvaal. During the prolonged and fruit- war less negotiations that followed, both governments ma<»M SINCK l>s-» O.-Jl secured a lease of Tort Arthur tor ninety-iiiut' years and was to convert this port at once into an iniprej^nahU- military sta- tion with arsenals, dockyards, and naval and military stores, — all the powers interested in the fate of China were greatly disturbed. Great Britain hastened to lease from China the port of Weihaiwei " for so long a period as Russia shall remain in possession of Tort Arthur"; and at once began to P(»UT IlK WkIII AIWKI, ("HINA. convert it into a fortress and coaling station. P.ut this port was soon f(»und to be not worth fortifying, because (Jennany had secured a lease of the rest of the Shantung peninsula, thus isolating Weihaiwei and rendering it liable to attack by land In VMH) a bloody outbn-ak against fort'igut-rs was started in northern China by bodies of natives associated together puriKjrting to seek athletic training, and therefore nick- 623 Rub named " lioxers.'" Throughout the rural distriets, Chris- "^^u^f^^Yn tian missionaries and their converts were massacred, the Manchuria capital fell under the control of the raiders, the German min- 532 GREATER ENGLAND ister was slain, and the other foreign ministers and residents were besieged in the British legation, where they had taken refuge. As Russia was determined to interfere for the restora- tion of order, the other Great Powers, with Japan and the United States, had no choice but to cooperate with her. Peking was captured by the allied troops ; the Chinese govern- ment, which apparently had connived at the Boxer movement, was forced to make reparation for the outrages upon foreigners ; and order was restored. Meanwhile, under the pretext of guarding the Manchurian branch of the Siberian railway, Russia filled Manchuria with troops, ' and refused to with- draw them " until it should be safe to do so." Great Britain, although suspicious and resentful, was -unwilling to go to war on this ground alone; but she took pains to cultivate the friendship of Japan, Russia's bitterest enemy in the Orient. The result was a treaty of defensive alliance between Great Britain and Japan (February, 1902), to become operative if either country should be attacked by more than one power. Owing to a similar convention between Russia and France, Great Britain could take no part in the contest for Manchuria which broke out between Japan and Russia in 1904. It is possible for us only to touch upon the brilliant work of Englishmen in literature, in science, and in art during the reign of Victoria. Macaulay by his vivid imagination rian litera- made history as fascinating as a novel ; Dickens, Thack- ture, e c. eray, and George Eliot, by their keen and accurate por- traiture of human nature, made the novel as true and as real as history. Tennyson and Browning head a long list of poets, of matchless power and beauty. Carlyle, Ruskin, and Arnold by their critical essays and lectures gave new earnestness and a new uplift to English thought on social, religious, and sesthetic subjects. In science Darwin and Herbert Spencer gave to the world a wonderfully profound and complete theory of the history of the physical universe in their doctrine of Evolution ; TllK rMlKl) KlNtiDii.M SINCE 1885 533 Huxley and Tyiulall illuminatt'd many fields of science by their subtly devised experiments and their clear exposition, and Lord Kelvin added greatly to our knowledge of the ether phe- nomena — light, heat, electricity, and magnetism. In the field of art, l'.urne-Jones and Watts stand supreme, although Leighton, Millais, Tadcnia, and Whistler have all done brilliant work. On January 2'J, 11)<»1. occurred the death of Queen Victoria, after a reign of sixty-four years, the longest in English his- tory. Noble, up- 625. Acces- Mi sion of Ed- ^. ,wise, uu.l ^3,dvii l>atriotic in her (1901 1 jiublic functions, ;i devoted wife and mother, Queen Vic- toria commanded as deeji and true regard, if not as enthusiastic admiration, as her great predecessor (.)iiccn Klizalieth. \N'ith less authority in the governnu'ut, >-lie exerted a con- stant influence over her ministers in the direction of peaceful and good government. Her son, Edward VII., who succeeded her, entered \i]ton his duties with a maturity of character and an experience in pul)lic alTairs that augured well for his reign. Forster's Education .\ct of 1.S70 (§ (')03) provided chiefly for the creation of a prinuirv school system, but it left the 626 Educa- field of secondary educuticm to the endowed schools. ,1902) church schools, and private pay-schools, in VM)'J the Wynd- KiN.; Ki.wAitn VII. in I'.lOl. 534 GREATER ENGLAND ham Education Act was passed, by which the entire national school system was remodeled, government aid was extended to secondary schools, and the administration of schools in Scotland and England was unitied. The act was so framed as to bolster up the (Jhurch of England schools by money grants and by increased privileges, and therefore was bitterly attacked by dissenters who objected to the expenditure of public money in aid of sectarian instruction. In 1903 was passed what it was hoped would be the final measure of relief for Ireland, a Land Act framed after long „«- ., • ■.- and friendly consultation between representative land- 627. Irish -^ . ^ Land Bill lords and tenants. The bill — which merely extended ^^^^^' the priuciple of the Gladstone Land Act of 1870 (§ 602) and of several later land-purchase measures — aimed (1) by money loans to make the government instead of individuals the landlord until such time as the Irish tenant could gradually pay for his farm ; (2) to arrange in the interim for an equitable rent-scale, taking account of possible changes in land values and prices of products ; (3) to pay the landlords even gener- ously for their extinguished titles, thus putting the cost of righting past wrongs upon the whole British people. During the last years of the nineteenth century. Great Britain had to strain every nerve to defend her vast colonial 628 Sum- ^"'^ commercial interests. In South Africa, stationed on iJiary the southern trade route, the hostile Boers were subdued at a frightful cost of blood and treasure ; in Eg3^pt, guardian of the northern route, the Sudan was reconquered and the control of the whole Nile valley assured. In Persia and in Afghanis- tan, whence Russia threatens India, Great Britain has barely held her own. In the far East, the principal field for commer- cial enterprise during the twentieth century, the contest for supremacy is still unsettled. Russia's advantage in her mili- tary possession of Manchuria and her influence in northern TIIK I'MIKI) KIN(;i)(>M sINCK 1885 535 ChiiKi has been practically destroyed as a result of her war with Japan ; Great Hritain has a far stronger advantage in tlie fact that tlie interests of all other countries favor her demand for an " open door " to trade. At home, the happ}- solution of the land question promises to end the long strife with Ireland. TOPICS (1) Show wliy a scpaniU- rarliaiiient for Ireland was less feasible Suggestive in 1880 than before 1800. (2) Can you see any plausible arguments ^°v^'^^ in favor of "plural voting'* ? (3) On what facts couKl the United States bjise its claim that the seals in Bering Sea were the property of the United States? (4) How could a war of Great Britain against Venezuela endanger the intere.sts of the United States ? (;')) Did the '• right of .self-defense " apply to both sides of the Tran.svaal ijuestion ? ((>) Do you think Great Britain should have yielded to I'resident Kruger's ultimatum? (7) Trace on a map tlie route of a jjossible " Cape to Cairo" railway. (8) Why did not General Kitchener use the Nile for carrying his army to the Sudan ? (9) What especial interest has the United States in Ku.ssia's eastern policy ? (10) The Home Rule Bills of 1880 and 1802; their differen- ces, and their defect-s. (11) A character sketch of Gladstone. (VJ) The .Vlaska seal fisheries ; their peculiar conditions, and their commercial importance, (l.'l) An account of Jameson's railii. 018, .')-j7. ."i4"i : I'dole. Ilisturidil Alius, ma|>s Geography Ixxxix. XI'. ; Keich. Xnn .S7 ««/*/( ^s' Athis, maps :;7, o2. Bright, Ilistnrij nf Emjland. \' .; Uansome, Adrmirid Uislunj, Secondary 10:;i-1040; Powell and Tout, Ilistonj of Einjhind. 04;VW.S, authorities 1019-1021, 104:1-1040; McCarthy, I/isti>rij of f)nr Oirn Times, 1880-1807, chs. xi.-xxv. ; MorUy, IJfi- i>fi,'l>i,i>. III., — lirilish Politirnl Portmitti \ Oman, Eiif/ltind in Ih*; SinetceiUh (JriUury^ chs. ix. X. ; Taylor, Tln' Furionj Synltm N lo ( I VII.IZAIK >N After tracing the growth of tlie English people through fifteen centuries of progress, the student has still to consider the relation of all this to the greater civilization (jf which g^g ^..^^^ it forms a part. What institutions in England are Usk of the unique ? What institutions have furnished types on which other nations have modeled their own governments ? What in her legal systems, her social customs, her temper and spirit, has proved of value to the world ? What, in other words, has been her contribution to the world's civilization ? The rejiresentative system, England's first and foremost gift to the world, has been a practicable method of government " of the people by the people." Democracy in some form or other seems to be as old as the Aryan race; but John sentative Fiske has i)ointed out that the Roman Emi)ire was government doomed to fall apart because the liomans " liad no no- Beniumnffs tion of such a thing as political ijower delegated bv the o/yewEn<;- ^ * '■ . . land, 16 people to representatives who were to wield it away from home and out of sight of their constituents." Such a system of delegated powers of government was first thor- oughly worked out in the English village, the English hun- dred, and the English shire; and it constitutes to-day the chief strength of an empire more vast than Rome ever ruled. With the representative system is boimd up the i>rinciple of popular lil)erty. From the beginning tt) the end of g^^ p^^ English history, the student is confronted by the word eonal "freeman." During the Middle Ages, while France * ^ was building up a most jiowerful tyraimv. while (Jerniany 637 538 GREATER ENGLAND was the prey of overbearing princes, while Italy was cheated with the shadow but not the substance of democracy, the English people clung to their birthright of freedom. Whenever their liberties seemed to be in danger, some Magna Charta, some Petition of Right, some Instrument of Government, some Bill of Rights, reasserted their fundamental right to " life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." The right to be free from arbitrary arrest, the right of private property, the right of free speech, and especially of freely criticising the acts of the government, the right of peaceable assembly, the right of prompt and fair trial, freedom from military rule, equality before the law, — all these and many more of our present commonplaces were first definitely won by the Eng- lish people. It was England, too, that during the feudal period success- fully solved the problem of giving to each of the "estates" within the body politic (king, lords temporal, lords bicameral spiritual, commons) only its due share in representation. legislature rji|^g ^^^^^ result was the development of the modern bi- cameral legislature, a device which has been copied by prac- tically every European state except Russia and Turkey. This device has proved especially valuable in federated states, like the present German Empire, where the upper house guards the interests of the i)olitical bodies that make up the federa- tion, and the lower acts for the empire as a unit. It is like- wise applicable to states (like Italy, France, and Prussia) which wish to give extra weight in the government to the wealthy, the intelligent, and the politically experienced classes. In a hundred different governments, from Japan on the east to the United States on the west, it has been adopted as the best means for checking hasty legislation. The British House of Lords is composed of: (1) peers of Eng- „„ land by new creation or by hereditary right; (2) repre- of Lords sentative peers of Scotland, sitting for the term of ENGLAND'S CONTKlMlTIoN To CIVILI/A TIoN r>:]\) Parliament; (.">) representative peers of Ireland, sitting for life; (4) lords spiritual, that is, arelil)isliops and certain bishops of the ("hurcli of England. In iy(H) it numbered live hundred and ninety one members, an increase of one lunidred and ninety since the year 1830. Its powers are restricted by the fact that it may not originate or amend a money bill, and by the fact that it must ratify any bill on which the House of Commons insists (§ 564). Three members constitute a quo- rum for the transaction of business. The presiding officer is the Lord High Chancellor of the realm. Intkkior <»k thk Housk ok Commons, Uki.".. Tin' House nf ('(unmons contains si.\ hundred and seventy representatives of parliamentary boroughs and counties in Hugla!id, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. The county 534 House mendMMs, or knights of the shire, in theory represent ofCommouB the lantlholding inttMcst, while the borougli members repre- sent trade and other civic interests. Tliev are ejected in a general election and iiold otiice for seven years unh'ss Parlia- ment is previously dissolved. It is technically impossible for 540 GREATER ENGLAND Method of reserving Seats in the House, of Commons. a member to resign his seat ; but as appointment to a salaried office involves loss of membership in the house, the steward- ship of the Chiltern Hundreds — a sinecure office formerly con- cerned with the care of the crown forests on the Chiltern Hills — is now used as a loophole for per- sons wishing to vacate their seats. Single va- cancies are at once filled by " by-elections." The deliberations of the house are guided by the speaker, who is elected by agree- ment between the political parties, and generally is reelected from time to time regardless of political changes in successive elections. Since the Act of Settlement (1701) the monarch holds his crown by right of hereditary succession, on the sole condition „«. ,-■ that he must be a Protestant. His formerly vagVie sover- 635. Mon- -^ * arch and eign rights are now limited by the Bill of Rights (1689), counci 1^^^^ ^^^ theory he still exercises certain prerogatives : for example, he may raise individuals to the peerage ; may sum- mon, dissolve, and prorogue Parliament; gives or withholds his consent to acts of Parliament ; appoints to offices in church and state ; may pardon condemned criminals ; may make peace and wai". In actual practice the veto power is never exercised (since 1707), and all the other powers above mentioned are exercised under the advice of a committee of the privy coimcil called the Cabinet. The Privy Council is nominally a perma- nent bodj^ of advisers to the crown ; actually it is that part of the councilors who at the moment are ministers ; and it thus constitutes the legal macliinery for carrying into effect deci- KN(iF-AM)S ((IN rKlHT rioN To CIVII.I/A ri< »N .",41 sions of the ininistry — all royal orders, proclamations, etc., beiu'j; issued '' by the king in council." It retains some ancient judicial and administrative powers; and a few commissions wliich have charge of executive business — the lioard of Trade (1786), the Committee on Education (1839), the Local (rovernment Board (1871) — are technically sub-committees of the privy council. The Cabinet system — the fruit of England's greatest Revo- lution of 1()8*J — ^is a means by which the administrative and ex- ecutive departments uuiv work harmoniously. ^lost con- „„„ _ bob. Tne stitutional states in Europe now have cabinets practically Cabinet modeled on that of Great Britain. In the United States, system although the name is in use, the essential features of the Brit- ish system are lacking — the I'resident's Cabinet does not of necessity express the will of the lower house, and it does not frame the most important legislative measures ; but it should be noted that at the time when the United States became inde- pendent, the Cabinet system proi)er had temporarily broken down in Great Britain. At present the British Cabinet (or the Ministry, or the (Jovernment, as it is variously called) is the instrument for embodying the will of the nation in legislative bills, and carrying it out in pr:icli(u>. The history of a typical ('al)inet is substantially as follows: After an election has determined the ])olitical make-up of a new House of (\)mnions, the sovereign sends for tlie 637 Atypi- leader of that party whi(th has the majority of the mem- cal Cabinet bers and retpiests him to form a ministry. This prime minister, or premier, selects from members of his party a group of per- sons (mostly memlxMs of the House of Lords and the House of Commons) willing to work in harmony with him, and deter- mines what executive office each person can most satisfactorily till. Having thus prepared a list containing from sixteen to twenty salaried offices (including the secretaryships for Home Affairs, Foreign .Vtfairs. Colonial Affairs, War, India, and wai.kkh's knN IIMIU 11" )N \n CIV II.IZA ri< 'N ■>{■'> that in tho ci^htj'tMitli contiiiy all iiKiritimo states conceived "i' tlit'ir colonics as subject dependencies; but tin- n-volt of the American colonics taught Enjgland a lesson. Canada, Seeley, Australia, Caiie Colony, and most of the other large de- J'jJ^ o/kZ'. pendencies possess representative institutions as com- land. rtt. :m plete as those in England, and their liberty is limited only by the frequently exercised veto power of the crown. Even the smaller, or crown colonies are given as full right oi self- government as local conditions will allow. India, of course, is unique. Its oriental peoples can not yet be left to govern themselves like Euro[)eans, but even in India native rule under ancient customs is maintained as far as practicable, and the largest possible measure of freedom is 1,'ranted to the individual. Great Britain's system of world- empire — her successful rule over colonies ranging from India with its 280,000,000 of subjects to Fanning Island with its population of 30 — sets a standard for all other colonizing powers, and challenges the admiration of the world. To an imperial .system like Great Britain's, purity in govern- ment and trained .skill in administration are indispensable. We accordingly find that she compels all members of 641 Civil the Commons who accept office from the crown to offer ^° ^^^^'^ themselves to their constituents for reelecti(jn; she dis- ssrvice qualifies election officers, sheriffs, and government contractors from sitting in Parliament, and slie also makes bribery in elections a temporary or permanent disqualification. Her civil service lias ])e»'n since 1.S71 upon a competitive basis, the offices carefully graded, and i>romotion chiefiy by merit. Her diplomatic service is similarly oriraui/.ed. the higlier officials being uniformly exjierienced men, well j)aitl. and secure in their tenure. In the consular service, all candidates are tested by competitive examinatii»n ; those intended for service in the Ottoman dominions undergo a two-years' train- in" in oriental languau'e-^ :if 'nvernment expense l»'fore taking %^ EM P,v5E.^^gS3«i y N7 , , „ , t'^ C^ '^^T^.A-tli--'.;-r7_*'v..kul.l ' T- '-^^^-^-L -A C M I It X ^ c Olf*.'""'" P A ina ^PHILIPPINE <•«« > lii, 1». . ..• •.. \ I.onk-ilii,lr :tO 545 546 GREATER ENGLAND up their residence abroad, and those destined for the far East are trained as secretaries to the diplomats in the districts to which they will later be assigned. Great Britain's system of world-empire is closely connected with her supremacy on the sea, both military and commercial. 642. Eng- I^ was as hardy mariners that the Angles, Saxons, and lands navy Danes won their foothold in Britain. By the first of a long series of navigation acts, which forbade any one to "ship any merchandise . . . but only in ships of the king's V.Rich. II., Hegance," Richard II. (1382) began to build up Eng- st. 1. c. 3 land's carrying trade. The Elizabethan seamen drove Spain from the field, the fleets of the Stuarts crippled Holland, those of the early Hanoverians held France in check, and finally Napoleon's folly gave Great Britain an excuse for crushing out all possible rivals, and enabled her to monopolize for a time the maritime commerce of the world. At the begin- ning of the twentieth century the foreign trade of the United Kingdom amounted to nearly $4,000,000,000 a year, or fifty per cent more than that of her nearest rival, Germany. To defend this commerce, she has built up the greatest; navy in the world. She maintains a naval fighting force of 100,000 men, and an always increasing navy of more than 350 effective war vessels. Besides these defenses, she has a coutraet with the Cunard Steamship Couipany which permits her in return for an annual subsidy to convert its " ocean greyhounds " into armed cruisers in time of war. On the other hand, she finds it difficult with her relatively small population to keep the ranks of her army filled, and should a strong hostile force break through her cordon of warships and effect a. landing on British soil, she would possess no adequate means of defense. Great Britain stands before the world as a pioneer in 643. Eng- the experiment of absolute free trade. The Wealth of free-trade ^(tf'ons, published by Adam Smith in 1776, dealt the policy first effective blow to the time-honored political economy i:n(;i,.\ni)s coniijiiu'ikin 'io en ii.iza i i«>n IT TlIK r.KllKII I'uriSKR ArSTRALl.t- of «,'()vt'rniiipnt interfereiife witli trade; but owiii',' to the disturbances of the revohitionary i»eiio(l, it .i^'ot little hearing until the period of reform. The progress of Great l^ritaiu immediately after the entire abolition of protective duties (ISOO) was marvelous. As the century advanced, however, the manufacturers of the United States, protected from comitetition at home by a pro- tective tariff, began to undersell lUitish numufacturers in their own markets, while the cheapness of American food stulTs thn-atened to ruin British farmers. In 1*.»<)."., dosepli Chamber- lain (himstilf a manufacturer) began a cMMipaign to n-store the protective system in the form of "a preferential tariff for iiritish imports, to l)e granted simultaneously with the impo sition of a tax by the Tnited Kingdom on food supplies im- ported from countries other than tlie colonies. — the object of this mutual arrangement being to advance the prosperity of the colonies by bringing new covn-growing distriets in them 548 GREATER ENGLAND into cultivation, and at the same time making them better customers for British manufactures." Thus the tariff became again a living issue in British politics. Finally, Great Britain presents to the world an example of a constitutional state without a tangible constitution ; and 644 Enff- of a complete democracy under monarchical and aristo- land's cratic forms. This constitution is to be sought (1) in consti- certain great documents like Magna Charta and the Bill tution Qf Rights; (2) in innumerable statutes of .Parliament which deal with general and permanent features of the nation's life ; (3) in the immemorial traditions embedded in the com- mon law and custom of the realm. The difference between this constitution and a written constitution like that of the United States or France lies in its elasticity. Its foundations remain unchanged from age to age ; its superstructure may be altered at any moment by a simple act of Parliament — for every act of Parliament passed in proper form is valid, and supersedes all previous conflicting acts. In this manner Great Britain has been enabled to present to the world the spectacle of a nation making the most momentous political ^changes peaceably and deliberately, by force of public o})inion acting upon and through the constitutional agency of Parliament, which thus registers the will of the sovereign people. TOPICS Suggestive (1) Show how a bicameral lee^islature tends to cheek hasty legis- topics lation. (2) Why should archbishops and bishops be entitled to sit in the upper house of Parliament? (3) Why ought not the House of Lords to originate or amend a money bill ? (4) Trace the origin of the title of the presiding officer in the House of Lords. (5) Distinguish between the dissolution and the prorogation of Parliament. (6) What are the provisions which compel the use of the Chiltern Hundreds whenever a member of the lower house wishes to vacate his seat, and when were they adopted ? (7) Should you approve of having the Speaker of the House of Representa- tives in the United States hold office without regard to change of KXtJLAND'S roNTIUHL TinN To (T VI I.I/AI inN ll» political parties? (8) What is the reason for tlie stipulation that the kinjj of Great Britain must be a Protestant? (U) What is meant by the statt-nient in section (5.'>(i, tiiat in 1770 "the Cabinet system proper luul temporarily broken ilown in Ureal Hritain " ? (10) Are there any features of the British political system di'scribed in this chapter that you should like to see adopted in the United States ? (11) Ci>mpare the organization of the British Parliament with search that of the bicameral legislature in France, Germany, or the United top>c" States. (1"J) What provision has been made for the ultimate extinction of the representative Irish peerages? (13) Recent successful attempts of the House of Lords to defeat legislation which has passed the House of Commons. (14) Show how the Cabinet .system serves tVKI!I\<; LlMITKI> ri:itrr)I)S K. A. Freeman, William the Conqueror. Maomillan. §0.75. W. Stubbs, The Early Planlagenets. Longmans. 81.(M». Mrs. J. R. Green, H»nry II. Macmillan. §0.75. .1. Gairdner, Thr IIuusis of Lanrasdr and Y>irk. Longmans, §1.00. .M. Creighlon, The Age r,f Eliznhelh. Longmans. §1.00. S. U. (iardiner, Thi- Puritan Hevolution. Ltmgman.s. §1.00. II. I). Traill. n7////im ///. Macmillan. §0.75. .F. .M..rley. Tiohrrt W'alpnle. Macmillan. §0.75. \V. I). (Jreen, William I'itt. .Macmillan. §0.75. V. W. Oman. England in (he Ximteenth Century. Longmans. §1.25. i n APPENDIX A IV. Constitutional History F. C. Montague, Elements of English Constitntional History (chronological). Longmans. •'51.2"). Or, H. S. Feilden, A Short Constitutional History of England (topi- cal). Ginn. -^l.'iS. Edw. Jenks, Ontlines of English Local Government. Methuen. 2s. M. G. B. Adams and H. M. Stephens, Select Documents of English Constitutional History. Macmillan. $2.25. V. Industrial History H. de B. Gibbins, Industrial History of England. Scribners. §1.20. Or, E. P. Cheyney, Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England. Macmillan. §1.40. VI. Manual Acland and llansome, Handbook of English Political History. Rivington. $2.00. ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIALS I. Outline Maps American Book Company (Eclectic Map Blanks). N.Y. Atkinson, Mentzer, and Grover (Ivanboe Hist. Note Books). Chicago. D. C. Heath and Co. Boston. Eand and McNally. Chicago. The McKinley Publishing Co. Philadelphia. II. Illustrations The Perry Pictures. Boston. The Elson Prints. Boston. Harper's Black and White. N.Y. APPENDIX r, gkni:ral r.ii'.LiocKAriiv (Titles marked with an asterisk {') denote honks fs|ieeialiy desiral)le for a school lihrary, hesides those mentioned in the Brief List.) •Adams, Jiipresentntive liiilis/i Orntimis. 3 vols. N.V. Addison {ed. by Arnold), Sdtrtion» fmm the, "• Sinctnlnr."' Oxf. Airy, The Etujlish Uevolutimi and Lmii^ XIV. N.Y. American Historical Association (McLaughlin and others), liejinrt on the Stuilij iif IliMorij in Srhools. N.Y. Anfjlo-Saxnn Chronicle (see "Giles"). Arblay, Mndnme Frances (Burney) d\ Diary and Litters. 4 vols. N.V. Ashley, Introduction to English Economic History and Theory. 2 pts. Lond. • Bagehot, The Emjlish Constitution. N.V. • Barnard, A Compunion to EmjUsh Ilistonj in the Miy Em/lish Poets. N.Y. Bateson, Medi/ (he Commomrealth and Prnd-ctorate, 1G49-1(V'>6. 4 vols. N.Y. •Gardiner, Olivir CrotiimU. NY. • Gee and Hardy, Documi-nts lltitntnitivr of Englinh Church JIistor>i. N.Y. •Giles (editor), lieth's Eciicsinstical Hiatory, and The Aiujlo-Saxon Chroiiirl,-. X.Y. Gueist, Jli.siori/ of the English C'onsdlution. 2 vols. Loud. Gower, Sir Joshua Jfiiitinhls, his Lifr and Art. N.Y. Green, J. R.. Cunquist if Eufjlund. N.Y. Green, J. H.. History if the EmjUsh People. 4 vols. N.Y. Green, J. H.. Mnkinij of Eutjland. N.Y. Green, J. !{., tihort (ieoijraphij of the liritii^h Isles. N.Y. •Green. Mrs. J. K. (editor), Short History of the Emjlish People (illus- trated). 4 vol.s. N.Y. • Hale, Fall of the Stuart.f. N.Y. Hannnond, Charles James Fox. N.Y. » Harrison, F., Oliver Crornirell. N.Y. Ilauiihton, A Physieal, ludu.'itrial, and Historical Geography ef England and Wales. Lond. Henderson, Select Historical Docunients cf the Middle Ages. N.Y. • Henderson, Side Lights on English History. N.Y. • Hill, Liberty Documents. N.Y. Holies, Monoirs of Denzil, Lord Holies, 1641-164S. Lond. Hughes, Geography in British History. Lond. Hughes, T., Life of Alfred the Great. N.Y. Hume, I)., History of England {st^t "Brewer"). •Hume, M. A. S., Sir Walter Ralegh. N.Y. Hutton. Sir Tliomas More. Lond. Inderwick. The Interregnum. 1048-1000. Lond. Innes, Britain and her liirals, 17i;i-1780. Lond. • Inne.s, Cranmer and the Reformation in England. N.Y. Innes, A Short History of the BritLth in India. Lond. •Jenks. Evolution Macdonagh, Life of Daniel CConnell. N.Y. Mackinder, Britain and the British Seas. N.Y. Mackintosh, Scotland. N.Y. Mahan, Influence of Sea Bower vjMn the French Bevolution. 2 vols. Bost. * Mahan, Life of Nelson. 2 vols. Bost. Mahon, History (f England, 1701-1783. 9 vols, Lond. Makower, Constitutional History of the Church of England. Lond. May, Constitutional History of England. 3 vols. N.Y. * Medley, Student's Manual of English Constitutional History. N.Y. Melbourne, Lord Melbourne''s Fapers (edited by L. C. Sanders). N.Y. Merriman, Thomas Cromwell. N.Y. * Meynell, Benjamin Disraeli. N.Y. * Moran, Theory and Practice of the English Government. N.Y. Morley, Life of Bichard Cohden. Bost. *Morley, Life of William Etcart Gladstone. 3 vols. N.Y. * Morris, E. E., The Age of Anne. N.Y. CKNERAL BIRLIOCUAI'MV vii « Morris, E. E.. The Enrhj Ilanoverinns. X.V. Morris. J. E.. Thf Wilnh Wars <>/ EilinmJ I. Oxf. Morris, M., Mnutrose. Monis, W. (>'(\, Irtland, 14'J4-186S. Camb. • Morris. W. O't".. WdUnfjton. N.V. Mol\ey, llistonj of thi' United Xetlnrldtnh. 4 vols. N.Y. Mozley, JS'.s.sf/ys. 2 vols. New Eiiglanil History Teachers' Association (Foster and others), Ilistnnj Siflldbiis. Host. New England History Teachers' Association (Ilazen and others), li'i/,i,rl on Historical Soun-fs in Secondary Sclimtls. N.Y. Norgate, England under the Angevin Kimjs. 2 vols. N.Y. Norgate, John Lacklinid. N.Y. ♦Oman, Art of War in the Middle Af/es. N.Y. *Onian, Wuririrk, the Kintimnkir. N.V. • Parker. Sir n>,l,irt Pk-I. N.Y. •Parkinan, Fntnri- and Em/land in Xorlh America. vols. Bost. Paul, Ilistiirij (if Modirii Eiitd'ind. 5 voLs. N.Y. I'aiili, Sitiiun de Mnntfort. N.Y. • Payne, Ilistorij of European Colonies. N.Y. •Pearson, English Ilistnrij in the Fourteenth Century. N.V. Pearson, Ilistoriral Maps of England. Lond. Pearson, History of England during the Early and Middle Ages. 2 vols. Lond. Pei)ys. Diary and Correspondence. 4 vols. N.Y. • Ploetz. An Ejiitome of Ancient, Mediieval, and Modern History. Bost. Pollock and .Maitlaml, English Lair \,vfore Edirard I. 2 vols. Bost. Powell (general editor), English and Scottish History fnnn Contempo- rary Sources. (Two series of 11 and 4 vols, respectively, eilited by Powell, Barnard, Iluttim, Arclier, Jaiobs, Ashley, Tlioinp.son, Taylor, Smith, Uait, Terry.) N.Y. Protliero, Select Statutes and Other Constitutional Documents. O.xf. Rani.say, Lanca.tter and York: 2 vols. N.Y. Kani.say, Tlie Angevin Empire. N.Y. Hani.-viy, The Foundations of England. 2 vols. N.V. Uan.some, Rise of Coustituti', Pitt. N.Y. Roiitledge, Chapters in the History of Popular Progress in England. N.Y. vill APPENDIX B Russell, C, Nelson. N.Y. Russell, G., Gladstone. N.Y. Scarth, Boman Britain. Loud. * Seeley, Expansion of England. Bost. Seeley, Groioth of British Policy. 2 vols. N.Y. Sichel, Disraeli. N.Y. Smith, C. B., The Life and Speeches of John Bright. N.Y. Smith, G., Three English Statesmen. N.Y. Smith, G., The United Kingdom. 2 vols. N.Y. Snell, Wesley and Methodism. N.Y. Southey, Life of Nelson. N.Y. Stephen, History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century. * Stephen and Lee (editors), Dictionary of National Biography. 67 vols. Lend. Stephens and Hunt (editors). History of the English Church. 8 vols. N.Y. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England. 3, vols. N.Y. Stubbs (editor), Select Charters and Constitutional Documents. N.Y. Taucock, England during the American and European Wars. N.Y. * Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History. Bost. Taylor, IL, The English Constitution. 2 vols. * Taylor, W. C, The Factory System and the Factory Acts. N.Y. Temple, Sir William, Memoirs. (In his Works, Vols. II. III. Lond.) *Thursfleld, Peel. N.Y. Todd, Parliamentary Government in England. 2 vols. Lond. Torrens, History of Cabinets. Lond. *'Yo\\t, Edward L N.Y. » Toynbee, 7%e Industrial Bevolution. N.Y. ^Tvani (editor), Social England. vols. N.Y. * Traill, Strafford. N.Y. *Trevelyan, G. M., England in the Age of Wycliffe. N.Y. *Trevelyau, G. Q., The American Bevolution. 2 vols. N.Y. Trevelyan, G. 0., Early History of Charles James Fox. N.Y. Tuckey, Joaft o/^j-c. N.Y. * Wagner, Modern Political Orations. N.Y. Wakeuian and Hassall, Essays Litroductory to the Study of English Con- stitutional History. Lond. * Walpole, History of England from IS 15. vols. N.Y. *Warburton, Edivard IIL N.Y. Warner (editor), English History Blustrated from Original Sources. (5 vols., edited by Frazer, Corbett, Durham, Cunningham, Figgis.) Lond. Windle, Life in Early Britain. N.Y. Wright, Caricature History of the Georges. Lond. APPENDIX C rAKAI'Iir.ASK OF TllK COROXATIOX OATH OF WILLIAM L (l)Kc. 25, lOGG) (Quoted by Florence of Worcester) " To protect the holy churches of Goil and their governors, and to rule the wliole nation subject to [him] with justice and kingly providence : to make and maintain just laws, and straitly to forbid every sort of rapine, vi. deuce, and all unrighteous judgments." APPENDIX D EXCERPTS FROM THE 'm HAUTER OF LIBERTIES" OF HENRY L (1001 a.d.) (Fur the extended text, see Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, No. 7.) 1. ... I, from reganl to (iod. and from the love which 1 have towanl you, in the first place make the holy church of G.k! free, so that I will neither sell nor i>lace at rent, nor, when archbishoi). or bishop, tir abbot is - mains as his heir, I will give her in marriage according to the judgment of my barons, along with her land. . . . .'•). The common tax on money wbli-h used t.. be taken ihrougb the cities and counties, which was not taken in the tim.- of King F..l«ar.l, I now forbid alto- getluT henceforth to be taken X APPENDICES E, F 9. All murders moreover . . . wliich shall be done henceforth shall be punished justly according to the law of King Edward. 10. The forests, by the common agreement of my barons, I have retained in my own hand, as my father held them. . . . ******* 12. A tirni peace in my whole kingdom I establish and require to be kept from hencefi)>i. aii'l persiins of the realm are not ulli)We«l to leave the kiiijj;tloui without liieii >f the lord the kin^'. . . . • •••••• 7. No one who holds of the kini: in ehii-f, ami none of his demesne otlicers are to be exeonimunicated, nor the lands of any one of them to he put un.h-r an intertliet mdess tirst the lord the kinj;. if he be in the .•oinitry, or his justi- ciar if he he outside the kinj;dom, he applied to. in or.ler that he may do ri;;ht for him: and so that what shall appertain to the royal eourt he lon.luded there, and that what shall helonu to the ehurch court be sent to the s;»me to be treated there. 11. Arehbishops. bishops, and all persons of the realm who hol;hts an.l customs, and like all other barons, have to I..- present at the trials of the <-onrt of the lord the kin^' with the barons until it comes to a judgment of loss of lind», or death. i:'.. If any of the nobles of the realm forcibly prevent the arcbbishop or bishop or archdeacon from doint; justice in re-ard of hims -If or his propl.-, the lord the kinjr must brin^' them to justice. And if perchance any one should deforce the lord the kinj;, the archbishops an.l bishops and archdeacons must judge him, .so that he gives satisfaction to the lord the kiiif,'. ♦ •••••• Hi. Sons of villeins ou-hi not to be ordaiiie.l without the assent of the lord on whose land they an- kn.iwn to bav.- l.teu born. ATI'KNDIX (; EXCEIM'TS FROM TIIH MAGNA ClIAUTA OF KIXC .lOllX (JirxK 1"), IL'I")) (F.ir the ext.nde.1 text, s..- .\dams an.l Stephens, Select Docnmenlif, no. 2«.».) 1. In the first place we have grant.-d to Ooal justiciar iu what way the mer- chants of our land are treated who shall be then found in the country which is at war with us; and if ours are safe there, the tnhers shall bi? safe in our land. • •«♦••• (il. Since, moreover, for the sake of God, and for tho imiirovemcnt of our kingdom, and fiu- the better quieting of the hostility sprung up lately between us anil our barons, wo have made all these concessions; wishing thein to enjoy these iu a complete and tirni stability forever, we make and concede to them the security describeil below; that is to say, that they shall elect twenty-live barons of the kingdom, whom they will, who ought with all their power to observe, hold, and cause to be observed, the peace and liberties which we have concedetl to them, and by this our present charter confirmed to them; in this manner, that if we or our justiciar, or our baililTs, or any one of our servants shall have done wrong in any way toward any one, or shall have transgressed any of the articles of peace or security; and the wrong shall have been shown to four barons of the aforesaid twenty-live barons, let those four barons come to us or to our justiciar, if we are out of the kingiloin. laying before us the transgression, and let them ask that we cause that transgression to be corrected without delay. And if we shall not have corrected the tran.sgres.sioii or, if we shall be out of the kingdom, if our justiciar shall not have corrected it within a period of forty days, counting from the time in which it has been .shown to us or to our ju.sticiar, if we are out of the kingdom; the aforesaid four barons shall refer the matter to the remainder of the twenty-live barons, and let these twenty-live barons with the whide community of the country distress and injure us in every way they can; that is to say by the seizure of oui- castles, lands, possessions, and in such other w.-iys as they can until it .shall have been corrected according to their judgment, saving our persirn and that of our (|ueen anil those of our children; and when the correction has been made, let them devote themselves to us as they did before. . . . APPENDIX II rA'CKTMTS FROM TlIK COXFIIIMA TK ) CVirrAHUM (JF KDWAKl) I. 0--'^J (For the extendi'! text, .see Adams and .Stephens, Sflert Documenta, no. 4.S.) Edward, by the frace of God, king of Kn^iand, lord of Inland, and duke of Guyenne. to all tho.se tliai these present letters shall hear or see, (ireeting. 1. Know ye thai we to the honor of Goil, and of lioly (Church, and to the xiv APPENDICES H, I profit of our realm, have granted for us and our heirs, that the great Charter of Liberties, and the Charter of the Forest, which were made by common assent of all the realm, in the time of king Henry our father, shall be kept in every point without breach. . . . ******* 5. And for so much as divers people of our realm are in fear, that the aids and tasks which they have given to us beforetime towards our wars and other business, of their o-mi grant and good will, howsoever they were made, might turn to a bondage to them and their heirs, because they might be at another time found in the rolls, and so likewise the prises taken throughout tlie realm by our ministers in our name ; we have granted for us and our heirs, that we shall not draw such aids, tasks, nor prises into a custom, for any thing that hath been done heretofore, or that may be found by roll or in any other manner. 6. Moreover we have granted for us and our heirs as well to archbishops, bishops, abbots, priors, and other folk of holy Church, as also to earls, barons, and to all the commonalty of the laud, that for no business from henceforth we shall take of our realm such manner of aids, tasks, nor prises, but by the common assent of all the realm, and for the common profit thereof, saving the ancient aids and prises due and accustomed. And for so much as the more part of the commonalty of the realm find themselves sore grieved with the maletote of wools, that is to Avit, a toll of forty shillings for every sack of wool, and have made petition to us to release the same ; we at their requests have clearly released it, and have granted that we will not take such thing nor any other without their common assent and good will ; saving to us and our heirs the custom of wools, skins, and leather, granted before by the commonalty aforesaid. . . . APPENDIX I EXCERPTS EEOM THE SECOND STATUTE OF PRAEMUNIRE, OF RICHARD II. (1.393) (For the extended text, see Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, no. 9S.) Item, ivhereas the commons of the realm in this present parliament have showed to our redoubted lord the king, grievously complaining, that whereas the said our lord the king, and all his liege people, ought of right, aud of old time were wont to sue in the king's court, to recover their presentmeiits to churches.prehends, and other benefices of holy Church . . . ; and when judg- ment shall be given in the same court upon such a plea and suit, the arch- bishops, bishops, and other spiritual persons which have institution of such AI'I'KNDIX J XV hcnefiocs witliiii tlieir jiirisilii'tioii, be IjoiukI, ami liavc niiidc exfculioii of siu-li jikI^iiu-iiLs by tbt* kind's coiuinaiiilnifiits of all tin- tinit- afoiesaiil witliout iiiterriiptjon . . . but now of late divers proeesst'S be made by the boly father the in»pe and censures of exconitnuuication upon certain bishops of En;;land, because tliey have nuule execution of sucli coniniandnients, to tlie open dis- herison t>f tlie saiil crown, and destruction of the rej;alty of our said lord tlio king, his law, and all his realm, if remedy be not jirovided : and also it is said, and a common «-lainor is made, that the said father the pope hath ordained and i>urposeil to translate some prelates of the same realm, some out of the, realm, and some from one bishopric into another within the sanu' realm, with- out the king's assent anil knowledge . . . : — our said loni l/ie kiufi, bij the ansent d/ijresaUl, unit at the reijiivst of his suiil coininoiis, Imtli ordniiii-d and e';esses, ami other the freemen of the commonality of this realm: and by authority of Parliament holden in the live and twentieth year of the rei^n of King Edward the Third, it is declared and enacted, that fnmi thenceforth no person shall be compelled to make any loans to the Kin;; against liis will, because such loans were against reason and the franchise of the land ; and by other laws of this realm it is provided, that none should be charged by any charge or imposition, called a Benevolence, nor by such like charge: by which, the statutes before-mentioned, and other the good hiws and statutes of this realm, your subjects have inherited this freedom, that they should not be com- pelled to cimtribute to any tax, tallage, aid, or other like charge, not set by common consent in Parliament: Yet nevertheless, of late diverse commi.ssions directed to sundry Commis- sioners in several counties with instructions have issuef nnmey unto yleased, for the further comfort and safely of your peoj)le, to fleclare your royal will ami pleasure, that in the things aforesaid all your olhccrs and ministers shall serve you, accordin;; to the laws and statutes of this realm, as they tender the honour of your Majesty and the prosperity of this kin;;dcim. [On June ■_', the King replied to the Commons as follows:] '"The King willeth that right be done ai-cording to the laws and customs of the realm; and that the statutes be put in due execution, that his subjects may have no cause to complain of any wrong or oppressions, contrary to their just rights ami liberties, to the preservation whereof he holds himself as well obliged as of his pri;rogative." [The Commons having shown their strong dissatisfaction with this.mswer, the King in their presence tore the wonls from the {)elition, and ordered the usual formula of royal assent to be appended to it, iis follows: " Soit droit /(fit comiiie il est d^sird-"] APPENDIX M EXCKiiTTs FKO>r I'lri: iiAr.i:As roRPUS act of ciiAKLKs II. (k;:'.); (For the original text, see Hill, Liberty Documrnts, Appendix C.) .\n .\ct for the better .sfM-uring the Liberty of tlie Subject, and for Pn-ventlon of ImprisonnientH beyonri the Seas. M'/irrfU9 great delays have been use»<.» to them direcUil, . . . whereby many of the king's suhject.s liave been XX APPENDIX M and hereafter may be long detained in prison, in such cases where by law they are bailable, to their great charges and vexation : For the prevention whereof, and the more speedy relief of all persons imprisoned for any such criminal or supposed criminal matters, be it enacted by the King's most excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority thereof, that whensoever any person or per- sons shall bring any Habeas Corpus directed unto any sheriff or sheriffs, gaoler, minister, or other person whatsoever, for any person in his or their custody, and the said writ sliall be served upon the said officer, . . . the said officer . . . shall within three days after the service thereof as aforesaid . . . make return of such writ ; and bring or cause to be brought the body of the party so committed or restrained, unto or before the Lord Chancellor, or Lord Keeper of the great seal of England for the time being, or the judges or barons of the said court from whence the said writ shall issue . . . ; and shall then likewise certify the true causes of his detainer or imi^risonment. ******* And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, that if any officer or officers . . . shall neglect or refuse to make the returns aforesaid, or to bring the body or bodies of the prisoner or prisoners according to the com- mand of the said writ, within the respective times aforesaid, or upon demand made by the prisoner or person in his behalf shall refuse to deliver, or within the space of six hours after demand shall not deliver, to the person so demand- ing, a true copy of the warrant or warrants of commitment and detainer of such prisoner, which he and they are hereby required to deliver accordingly; all and every the head gaolers and keepers of such prisons, and such other person in whose custody the prisoner shall be detained, shall for the first offence, forfeit to the prisoner or party grieved the sum of one hundred pounds ; and for the second offence the sum of two hundred pounds, and shali and is hereby made incapable to hold or execute his said office. . . . And for the prevention of unjust vexation by reiterated commitments for the same offence, be it enacted by the authority aforesaid, that no person or persons which shall be delivered or set at large upon any Habeas Corpus shall at any time hereafter be again imprisoned or committed for the same offence by any person or persons whatsoever, other than by the legal order and process of such court wherein he or they shall be bound by recognizance to appear, or other court having jurisdiction of the cause. . . . ******* And for preventing illegal imprisonments in prisons beyond the seas, he it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, that no subject of this realm that now is, or hereafter shall be, an inhabitant or resident of this kingdom of England, dominion of Wales, or town of Bsrwick upon Tweed, shall or may be sent prisoner into Scotland, Ireland, Jersey, Guernsey, Tangier, or into parts, garrisons, islands or jjlaces beyond the seas, which are or at any time hereafter shall be within or without the dominions of his Majesty, his heirs or successors ; and that every such imprisonment is hereby enacted and adjudged to be illegal. . . . AITENDIX N xxi APPENDIX N EXCEIiTTS FROM THi: IJILL OF IlIGUTS (1G89) (For the cxteiuled text, see Adams aud Stephens, Select Documents, no. 2X}.) Wfipreas the I-ords Spiritnal and Temporal, anople of this realm, did, uikhi the thirteenth day of Fehruarj-, in the year of our Lord one th«ius;ind six hundred eighty-eight, present untn their Majesties, then ealle, jinlgeK, and tnhiisterx employed hi/ /liin. ilii/ enilenriiiir to nubrert and eJCtirpaU Uie ProttMlnnt religion, iiiul the lairn mid lihertie« of this kingilo)n : — I. By attumiitg itnd exerciMing a ptncer of dixpeuHing irith and sunpending of laits, and the execution of lairti, icithout consent of Parliament. 3. By committing and pro»ecuting diters worthy prelate*, for humbly petitioning to be excused from concurring to the mime aimumed poicer. 3. By ixgning and canning to he executed a cominiwion under the Great Seal for erecUng a court, called the Court of CominiKHionem for Eccleifi. By raining and keeping a ntanding army within thin Icimjdom in time of peace, without conxent of Parliament, and ijuartering soMier* contrary to law. »>. By cauoing tereral gotnl i>ul>}ectM, heing Protentantn, to he dixanned, at the same time when Papintx irere both armed and employed contrary to law. 7. By riolating the freedom of election of members to serve in Parliament. 8. By protecutioiut in the Court of King's Bench, for mtitterx ami causes cognisable only in Parliament; and by diverse other arbitrary and illegal courses. 0. And whereas of late years, partial, corrupt, and um/ualifled persons hare been retumeil and served on juries in trials, and particularly diverse Jurors in trials for high treason, trhich were not freeholders. 10. And ejrcessive bail hath been retjuired of persons committed in criminal caaes, to elude the benefit of the laws made for the liberty of the SHb)n-ts. It. And exceimive fines have been imjioseil. II. And Illegal and cruet punishments In/tlcted. IS. Anil several grunts and promises made of fines and forfeitures, brfors any conviction or judgment against the persons upon whom the satne were to be levied. All which are utterly and directly contrary to the known lairs and statutes, and freedom of this realm : — And irhereas the said late King James IF. having ahdicated the government, and the throne heing thereby varant, his Ilighmss tiie Prinee of Orange (whom it hath pleast><| Almighty (iod to make the glorious instrument of delivering this kingdom from |Mipery auil .'irhitrary power) did (hy the advice of the I^)rds Spiritual aud Temporal, ami diverse principal iiersons of the Commons) cause letters to he written to the Ixirds Spiritual and Temi>oral, XXll APPENDIX N being Protestants, and other letters to the several counties, cities, universi- ties, boroughs, and cinque ports, for the choosing of such persons to represeut them, as were of right to be sent to Parliament, to meet and sit at West- minster upon the two-and-tweutieth day of January, in this year one thousand six huudred eighty and eight, iu order to such an establishment, as that their religiou, laws and liberties might uot again be iu danger of being subverted ; upon which letters, elections have been accordingly made. And thereupon the said Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, pur- suant to their respective letters and elections, being now assembled in a full and free representation of this nation, taking into their most serious consid- eration the best means for attaining the ends aforesaid, do in the first place (as their ancestors in like case have usually done), /or the vindicating and asserting their ancient rights and liberties, declare: — 1. That the pretended power of suspending of laws, or the execution of laws, by regal authority, without consent of parliament, is illegal. 2. That the pretended power of dispensing with laws, or the execution of laws by regal authority, as it hath been assumed and exercised of late, is illegal. 3. That the commission for erecting the late Court of Commissioners for Ecclesiastical causes, and all other commissions and courts of like nature, are illegal Jind pernicious. 4. That levying money for or to the use of the Crown, by pretence of pi-e- rogative, without grant of parliament, for longer time or in other mauner than the same is or shall be granted, is illegal. 5. That it is the right of the subjects to petition the king, and all commit- ments and prosecutions for such petitioning are illegal. 6. That the raising or keeping a standing army within the kingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent of parliament, is against law. 7. That the subjects which are Protestants may have arms for their defence suitable to their conditions, and as alloM^ed by law. ' 8. That election of members of parliament ought to be free. 9. That the freedom of speech, and debates or proceedings in parliament, ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of parliament. 10. That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed; nor cruel and unusual piniishments inflicted. 11. That jurors ought to be duly impanelled and returned, and juroi'S which pass upon men in trials for high treason ought to be freeholders. 12. That all grants and promises of fines and forfeitures of particular persons before conviction, are illegal and void. 13. And that for redress of ail grievances, and for the amending, strength- ening, and preserving of the laws, parliaments ought to be held frequently. And they do claim, demand, and insist upon all and singular x>remises, as their undoubted rights and liberties; and that no declarations, judgments, doings or proceedings, to the prejudice of the people in any of the said pre- mises, ought in any wise to be drawn hereafter into consequence or example : — Noio in pursuance of the premises, the said Lords Spiritual and Temporal, anil Commons, in parliament assembled, for the ratifying, confirming, and establishing the said declaration and the articles, clauses, matters, and things HIM, •>!•• Ki(,iiTs xxiii therein contahifd bij the force <>/ it lair tnn'lf in thir /"nn Inj authority of piirliaineiit, (iD/irai/ that it may bi- ileclarcd and enacted, Tlisit all ami siii^ilar the rights and liberties Jisserted and claimed in the sn'ul declaratinii, arc the true, ancient, and indnhitable rights anil liberties of the (jeople of this kingdom, and so shall be esteenieil. allowed, adjuilged, tleeined, and taken to be; anr shall liold communion with, the See or Church of Rome, or sh.ill profess tlie Popish religion, or shall marry a Papist, shall be excluded, and be forever iiuapable to inherit, possess, or enjoy the Crown and government of this realm, and Ireland, and the dominions thereunto belonging, or any part of the same, or to have, use, or exercise any regal p«iwer. authority, t>r jurisdiction within tlie same: and in all and every such case or cases the i)eople of these realms shall be and are hereby absolved of their allegiaiu-e; and the said Crown and Government sh.all from time to time descend to, and be enjoyed by, such |ierson or persons, being Protestants, as should have inherited and enjoyed the same in case the saiii i>erson or persons so reconciled, Indding communion, or pro- fessing, or marrying as aforesaid, were naturally dead. INDEX Diacritic marks : a as in late ; a as in fat ; a as in far ; & as in last ; a as in fall ; €, ch as in cask, chasm ; f as in ice ; e as in me ; e as in met, herry ; e as in veil ; e as in term ; g as in gem ; g as in gro ; i as in ice ; i as in tin ; i as in police ; k, German ch ; n, the French nasal : 6 as in note ; 6 as in not ; 6 as in son ; 6 as in /o/- ; <_> as in do \ o as in wolf; g as in news ; fh as in the ; ii as in tune ; u as in nut ; h as in rude (= o) ; u as in full ; u= French u ; y as in my ; y as in ^ac/y. Single italic letters are silent. Abbeys founded, 71, 120. Abbots, 110, 118, 119, 198. Aberdeen', Lord, 503. Abhorrers, 374. A-bo!i-kir' Bay, battle of, 458. Absentee landlordism, 494. Absenteeism of churchmen, 203. Absolutism, of George III., 427. of Henry VIII., 258, 259. Act of An'nates, 255. Act of Indemnity, 419. Act of Security, 406. Act of Settlement, 893, 395, 540. Act of Sufiremacy, 255, xv. Act of Supremacy and Allegiance, 887. Act of Uniformity, 274, 358, xvi. Acts of Suppression, 257. Addison, Joseph, 409. Addled Parliament, 304. Advow'son, 111. Af-g/ian-is-tan', 500, 515, 517. Africa, 359, 403, 501, 502, 517-519. Agincourt (ii-zhiiN-koor' ), 222. Agrarian troubles, 231. Agric'ola, 28. Agriculture, 212, 294, 442. Aix-la-^ha-peUe', treaty of, 418. Alabama, 510. Al'aric, 33. Al'be-marle, Duke of, 857, 361. Albert, Prince, of Saxe-Co'burg-Go'tAa, 4S5, 486". Alexandria, bombardment of, 518. Alfred, King, 57, 6S-70. Al-gierg', pirates of, 347. Alienation fee, 103. AZn'wick Castle, 196. Alva, Duke of, 279. America, Colonial wars in, 391, 417, 418. discoveries in, 252. English colonies in, 313, 359, 361, 403, 410. See also United States. American Eevolution, 429-435. Am7ierst, General, 422. Amiens (ii-me-aN*), treaties of, 166, 459. Anabaptists; 339. An-der'i-da, 43. A n 'dred s- we« Id , 41 . Angles, invasions of, 12, 42. Anglican Church, Henry VIII. supreme head of, 255, 256. in Ireland, 489. in Scotland, 361, 362. strength of, 276. transformation of, 206, 267. tyranny of, 3.58. Wesley's religious revival, 451. See also Church. Ayiglo-Saxun hronicle, 36, 62, 69> 120. Anglo-Saxons, against Danes, 65-77. against Normans, 80-91. civilization of, 55. conquest of Britain, 43. conversion of, 45-47. homes of, 37. religion of, 38. Anjou (uN-zhoo'), 70, 128, 157. Anjoii, Count of, 121. Anne, Queen, 396, 400-407. as princess, 380, 386, 387, 395. An'selm, Archbishop, 116, 117, 119. Anson, Admiral, 416, 417. Anti-Corn-Law League, 491,492. Aqnitaine', 128, 189, 194. A-rii'M Pa-sha', 518. Ar'agon, Ferdinand of, 249. Arca'dia, 289. Areh-an'gel, 295. Archbishops, 110, 116, 157, Architecture, 148, 149, 248, 292, 293. Ar-gyle', F.ari of, 3 IS. A-ri-Os'to, 292. Aristocracy, growth of, 72, 180. Arkwright, Sir Kichard, 443. INDEX Arlington, Bennett, Earl of, 8(VJ. Aniiu'da. Spa(il.>li, i?i-..'>4. AriiH-U Noutrallty, iS.% 4>V>. Ann.H, io, 116, ly.', ISW, IIW, Wfi, SVi. Aruiy, Alfred'*, t>>, 69. Charles 11. 's, 866. Cruuiwill'.*, 8:UM«4. ll.iiry ll.'s, ia«', ISl. rill re-irjraiiizi-*, Vii. ArnuU, Matthew, :iVi. Arthur, bilr of Uichard I., 15C, 157. Arthur, Klnp. 4.S. Arthur, .'(on of Henry VII., 349, 254. Articles of Doctrine, 267. Arti-sts. 44y, :m. Ar'undel, Earl of, 195, Ashbourne Act, 524. A^^hley, Lord. 861, 862,364. A-siin'to, 41)5. As!*r, 62. .\s-san'dun, battle of, 72. A»-s»/yf', 475 .V*size of .\riiis, l:il. .\»sUe of Clarendon. 132. .\«.socUtion of the Eastern Counties, 327. As'trolabe, 245. A.*tronomical Observatory, Koyal, 307. Ath'el-ney, 6-*. Ath'el-stan. Kinp, 70. Attainder, bill of, -'U. Auckland, Lord, .VW. Au'er-stiM/t (ou'-), 402. Augustan Ape of Literature, 4(.l9, 410. Au'gustlne, Archbishop of Canterbury, 45. Aus'terllU. 462. Austin Friars, 152. Australia. 4.SS, 41»'^. 499, 543. Austria, alliance with Cin-al Britain, 395, 390, 414, 417, 4.'«6. 4fiO. NaiK.leon and. 461-164. line of I'entnrchv. 46. Bar'net, battle of, 237. Barons, defense of liberty by, l.'>6-107. duties and powers of, 90, 97. Edward I.'s strujrple with. 179. Edward ll.'s trouble> with, \<>. Henry I. and. 13o, 131. Henry 111..-, strupu-le with, 10.V167 Henry Vll. attacks power of, -i'lO. John's conllict with, l.'«9-162. retainers of, 2ol. tenants of, 102, 103. " Barrows," '20. Base tenure, 103. Bath, 42, 327. Battle of the Standard, 123. Bavaria. 402. 417. Ba-you;i#', 225. Beachy Head, battle of, 390. Bia'eonslield. Lord, «#«< Disraeli. Bfdu'fort, Cardinal Henry, •2'24, '225, 230. Beaufort. Marparet. 237. Beau-vui* (bo-), Bishop i)^ 224. Becket, Thomas a, 134, Vib. Beh'i-a'), 42, 4->. Bertha, wife of ElhelUrt. 4.'). Ber'irick on T»e.->9. Bible. Henry VII I. and. '257. tninslatlons of. 2i>4. '.Vi, 3o2. BUI of Ulphts, 8>.7, as'*, 510, 54S. xxL Bills, passage of, .'►12. Bl'.h"p>. courts. 112. el.-«tlon of. 110. 119, 2.-.<5. Investlturi- of, \\>, 119. seats In IIoum- of l-«>rtls, restored, SM^ s«H>sof. 10t>, II". Bishops' War. :U2. 320. Black m-atb. 191. ■-'"'. 2W. Black Holeof<:il,.iti». 424. Bl.iok PriiH-e, 1'.i:l. 194. Black Se.i, 497, :*<-i. :><«. Blake, Admiral, H4.S, 347. Blen'A«'lin. tattle of. Vri. Bl9l with, 'il'', "iTti. financi|iatii>n, 4>4. excluded from throne, :}>$. Georsre III. rrfus«-s |H)litical rights to, Gordon riots, 4-Sti. in Inland. ^41, 4;:<. in Mary's rvitrn. •-'CT-JTO. in Scolhind, "itJo. laws a^inst, 3as. Louis XIV. champion of. :{•►?. Mary, Quet-n oI*Srot>. aidwl t>y, 27^. Uoiiian CatholiciMU. -'41'. Thirty Years' War. .*>.'>. under .lames II.. ■i". 37">. t.'ava-liOr' Parliament, 373. Cavaliers, -Vl'. Cav'endish, Lonl Frederick, 519. Cawn-pijr', itib, '**6. Ca.xton. William. -.Ml. 24J. t.'Ov'il. Kobert ^Karl of Salisbnry>, 302, 3 Cecil. William (L..nl Hurlelgh), 273. Cel'es-tin*, Pojie. 44. Celibacy of clervy, 71, '.'OC. 811. Celtic Church. 44, 4.'>. 4"*-5<». C«lts, ll,21,3«;. •tV'orls, 3s. 74. Cer'dic, 41. Cet-a-wi'yo, M". t lialtTove. 327. i hiim'ber-Kiln. .I.>*ei.h. .'.2:^, M", 525, M7 Chancellor, lol. 17r.. W.i. Clianderna»,'ar (i-hun'der-nriL''er), 4-.'4. Channel I.^lands, 157. Cha|iinan, Georpe. 292. Chajiter and dean ofCatlH-dral, tlo. (,'har'lf-mai/nc, .M. .VJ. Charles I.. *»0-:«7. Charles II.. 851-;<76. and Scotland, 8«>1, 862. a.* i.rince. *tl. :U2. :«1. Charles V.. Km|.er..r. 2.'>3. 2C7, 2ft*. Charles IV., Klnir of Krance, 1*9. 190. Charles V.. KIntr of Kran.-e. im. Charles VI., Kine of Krance. 2'2ll. Charles Vlf.. Klni: of Kninr.-, 22:5, 2-24. Chnrl.-s II.. KInirof S|.aln. :«•:(. 394. Charlts (VI.) of .\ll^trla, 4"l. M*.\ 417. Charles .lamos I-:nnles. 2.'i.V2«)S>, 242. »,lu"r'l«'Ur)r, 390. Chester. 57 ; i-aptured, 48, 88. Chr'vl-ot mils. If.. Chich'ester, Bishop of, 166. Children, employment of, 471, 4S'3. Chil'tern Hundreds, 540. China, Boxer outbreak in, 531, ,^12. trade with, 529. wars with. 499, 54. Klizabeth's attitude toward, 273, 274, 276. feudiilized. 1119-112. Henry VIII. and. 255-25S. in Ireland. 4>9. 512. investiture, .lis. 119. .lames I.'s attitude towani. 302. .lauifs II.'s Declaration of Indulgence, 378. .John's struggle with. l.'17-l.VJ. Ijiud's tyranny over. 3lo. 311. Lollanls' movement in. 2.M-<•. Prayer Bot.k. 266. 26>, 274. i}.'»S. Quakers. 361. Keforniatlon. 247. 'JW. 2.'>6, 264, 267, 276. removal of relit'lous disabilities, 4«. Kcnals.iancr' liitluence on, 24s. Tithe and Commutation Act, 4^7. Tolenitlon Act. 3*7. transfi>rmation of Anglican, 266, 267. tyranny of Anglican, 35*. Wesley's religious revival, 451. WvcUrs Intluence on. 2iW 'iO.V Stf .//«« Pop'. < Itl-.v. C:itlioll<-.. Kpls- copacv. Prf>l'yti riaiilsm. Protc-tantlsm, etc. Church lands. 269, •■C<.\ rhui ' " ' ' (l>'"ke of Marllxirougli), lol-4o». Cln- :. 176. Cir.i,.. -i. 1 (.i.-.-. t.T). 42. riHt.r clan (shnn) monks, 120, 121. Cities, 143 146, 4s7. WAI.KKK km; .35 XXVIU INDEX Civil law, ofclmrch, 110, 111. Civil list, 3S7. Civil service, 512, 543. Civil War in England, 325-837. Civilization, Anslo-Saxon, 55. pre-Uomaii, in Britain, 22, 23. ClarcMioc, 23(), 237. CUir'cn-don, Constitutions of, 133-135, x. Clarendon, Earl of, 357, 361, 3G2. Classes, in Anplo-Saxon society, 50, 57. in Teutonic society, 38. Clau'di-us, Emperor, 27. Clu'verZ/owse, GraLam of, 3S9. Clement VII., Pope, 254, 255. Clergy, in Parliament, 181, 198. marriagre of, forbidden, 311. marriage of, permitted, 266. revolt against Act of Uniformity, 3.58. taxation of, 178, 179. Cler'i-cU Ld'i-cdn, 178. Clerks, 133. Cleveland, President, 525. Clitford. Sir Thomas, 862, 365. Climate, 18. Clive. Robert, 424, 446. Cloth manufacturing, 212, 443. Club, the, 449. Coats of arms, 208. Cobden, Richard, 49. Co'i-fi, 47. Coinage, English, 122, 290, 392. of Britons, 22, 28. under Romans, 81. Col'chester, 27, 334. Colc'ridge, Samuel, 476. Col'et, Dean, 288. Colleges, gee Education. Crd'man, Bishop, 49. Colonies, Dutch, 296, 859, 801. English, 296, 297, 813, 814, 359, 301, 403, 405, 416, 420, 429, 498 ; government of, 542, 543. See Africa, Australia, India. French, 420, 423, 424, 457. Spanish, 281, 861, 497. (lolumba. Saint, 45. Columbus, Christopher, 251. Co'mes Li'toris Saxon' ici, 88. Commerce, colonial, 408, 416, 429^32. development of, under Canute, 75 ; under Normans, 146, 147. fifteenth century, 241. fourteenth century, 212-214. growth of trade with Europe, 295. guilds influence, 149-151. Henry VII. encourages, 250, 251. Napoleon's commercial war against Eng- land, 462, 403. open door i)olicy, 529, 530. railroads, etc.,- stimulate, 489. P>ule of 1756, 457. Commerce, taxation of imports and exports, 177. trade privileges witli United States, 483. treaties of, 405. twentieth century, 546. under West Saxons, 71. with East, 296, 359, 423, .529, 530. Committee of Both Kingdoms, 328. ('ciuimon law, 60, 100. Common Pleas, Court of, 176. Commons, 180; nee House of Commons. Commonwealth, 342-345. Com 'pur-ga-tors, 00. Conciliation Bill, 4:^3. <\)iifinna'iio Caria'rtnn, 179, xiii. Con'nau(//(.t, 341. Conservatives, 486. (Conservators of the peace, 176, 210. Con'stan-tine, 32. Constantinople, Russia (ovets, 497, 503. Constan'tius (-shi-us), 33. Constitution, England's unwritten, f4s. Constitutions of Clarendon, 133-135, x. Consular service, 543. Continental System, Napoleon's, 462-404 Con-ven'ti-cle Act, 858. Conventicles, 274, 8.58, 362. Convention Parliaments, 850, 351, 355, 356 881, 886, 387. Convicts, 438, 4-39, 4SS, 498, 499. Convocation, 110, 198, 267. Cook, Captain .James, 438. Cooke, Sir William F., 489. Copenha'gen, 459. Copyhold, 355. , Corn Laws, 482, 491-493. Cornwall, 51, 88. Corn-wal'lis, Lord, 483, 4.34. C!orporation Act, 358, 483. C!()-run'na, 282. Cot-set'las, 105. Cots'wold Hills, 17. Cotte-har'die, 213. Council, Great, 110, 130, 181. Council, King's, nee King's Council. Council, Privy, 259, 361. 540. Council of State, 842, 345. Councils, county, 524. (N)unt of the Saxon Coast, 83. ("ounties, administration of, 524. in William I.'s reign, 100. Coin-t. of Chancery, 170. of Common Pleas, 176. of Ecclesiastical Commission, 377. of Exchequer, 118, 131, 175. 176. of High Commission, 270, 318, 877 of King's Bench, 181, 176, 379. of Star Chamber, 309, 3is. Courts, bishops', 112. circuit, 131, 170. INDKX XXIX Courts, eoolesla»tlo«I, 133. iimiiurlitl, li't. t ..Mtmnt, i". Sll. :WS .'Ml, S.V5. lov'i-iiaiilcrs, ill Sf.illiiiitl, •!", -W, :*fri. ( "v'l'hlrv, :v.',V « .-.v'lnlal.'. Mill's, --It-i. t niniiUT, Tliiiiiias, Arolibishoii. 2.V>, •Jt'kVJt « IV.V (oniM:- ), luittif <>r, iyo-19,1. t ri iiu- an War, !*si. .'"tH. triiues Acts. ,M'.t. .V.'4. C'rimiiml law, fxi, 71, HK», IH, !*», ITrt, 4- 4"N-^; *«•ui»ell, Thomas, i's"), 257. Crown land.*, I'i'J. 130; ««■ Doiiu'sne. Criisa«le.s, intliience on city life, 14">. 14'.». Kichanl I. joins, 130, 137. CuLa, 423, 424. Cul-16.ren, battle of, 419. Cu-nard' Steamship Company, 540. Cu'ri-a Ke'tfis, liil, 11-., 1:{1, 17.'); gee Kini Council. Currency, reforms in, 296. 297, 392. Customs and niatiners. xrc' Life. Cy'prus aclh. DalVvrnple of Stair, 3f9. Danbv, l-:url of. 371, 373, 375. 3S0. Oanr't'eld. 71, 101, Ioh, lU. 177. Danf 'Uiw. 7.'>. Danes, invasion and rule of, 6.V7". Dan'te. 3+"'. I)ar-32. Dau'phin, 22it. Dav'ltt. .Michael. .V20. />»• llitrtt'ico Comburen'do, 219. Dean anil chapter of cathiHlral, 110. Debt, national. 3ir.'. 414. 471. D.rlar.al..n of Indulgence, 301. 365, 87S Decl-Hrati.in of Kifht.s. *>6, 3S7. De-f.M-'. Daniel. 4<>U. 44^. Dr lirasv.^', Adndral. 4-3.}, 4.34. Dc'i-ra. 42. 4s. Del'Ai, 475,641.',, .'>(lC. De-me^n."'. .v.. inrt. Denmark, alllancu with r>utch, SCO. ari.i. • ■. i.f. 4W. coi V with, 250. II. . • De-orliani. Utile of, 42, 43. Der'by (dar*-), Fldwanl Stanley, Li>rd, 510, .MI. Derbv. Henrv, Karl of. I9.\ 196 De i:'«y"ter, Michael A.. :V4:t. :»'*<. Der' went water, Earl of. 4os. Desmonds, 2.'0. 27C. Despen'scr, Hugh, IS7. Det'ting-en, 417. De-vi'zej, 3'J7. D.vonshin", William Cavendish, Dukeof. 3>rt. I >i voiishire, William » avendisli. Duke of, 4-.'J. De Witt (vit'l. tornelius and .Ian, 396. Dickens, Charles, Mi. I >i):iL,'s, Sir Dudley, .307. l)ii>ce.ses, 109. Di-o-cle'tian (-shan), 31. Diplomatic service, 543. Dispensing power, king's right to, 375, 3T9. Dij-raf'll, Benjamin, ."ill-Sir). Dissenters, 27.">. Divine right theory, 300. :30:?. D.jnifj'day Book. 9<. Domln'ican Friars. 1.V2. Domremy (dos-nume"), 22:?. DoH-uy', 27.5. Do ver, treaty of, 363. .3(U. 372. Downs, battle of the, .360. Drake. Sir Francis. 2S1. 2*2, 2*5. Drama, 2".li>--2!»2. 366, 4.VI. Dress, 212, 21.3. 26li. 411. Droghe0. Dudley, Lonl <;uilford. 207. Dunbar', battles of. 174, 342. Duncan, Ailmiral, 4.'>7. Dunkirk, :H7, W>. Dunstan. Archbislmp. 70, 71. Du-quesne' (-kun'l. Fort, 422. Dur'/iam, 99, 313. Dutch, and William III.. 392. .393 cohinies of, 296, 3.V.». 361. In Cape Colony. .Vis. trade rebitlons with, .371, 4Sl. .s'rc iilmi Holland. Duti-h East India Company, 290. DuKli West India ComiMiny, 3.'i». //Mjr liritiiiiuiii'riiiii, 46. Efll'donuen, .3S. 6T. Earldoms. 122, 130. Earls, 71. East Anglla. 4", «<'•. >'•'. To, T5. Fji.»t In.lia Company. 296. 36.'., 424. 437, *{•<, V-i*Urn question. 497. 4''« .'nr.' .•-•! .M4. .'.15. E-b«'>r'a-cuni, 2'.*. Edgar. Kini;, .'>7. 71. Edgar the Ktheling. s2. '7, ** Mg^'hill. battle of. HiC. Ed'ln-burgh ( bi'ir-oi, foundwl. 47. captuml. 174. JMl. 312. 419. Ivlniund, King. 66. Edmund InmsMe, 72. XXX INDEX Education, Alfred fosters, 70. earl}' colleges and universities, 201, 2(12. in fourteenth century, 153, 154. new learning, 2S9. ■ reforms in, 514. state aid to, 4SS. Wyndham Education Act, 533, 534. Edward, king of Anglo-Saxons, 57, 70. Edward, the Confessor, 76, S0-S2. Edward I., 171-1S2. Edward II.. King, 1S5-1S8. as Prince of Wales, 172. Edward III., King, lSS-195, 208, 210. as prince, 166, 167. Edward IV., 23.5-23S. Edward V., 23S, 239. Edward VI., 258, 260, 264-267. Edward VII., 533. Edward of Lancaster, 232, 230, 237. Edwin, Earl, 85, 87, 88. Edwin. King, 47, 48. Egbert, King, 51, 56. Egfrith, King, 50. Egyjit. 458, 500, 518, 519. ZTi'kon Ba-sil'i-ke, 34;3. Elba, 459, 405. Eleanor of Aquitaine, 128. Eleanor of Provence, 163. Electric telegraph, 489. El'i-ot, George, 532. Eliot, Sir John, 307, 308, 309. Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 238. 249. Elizabeth, daughter of James I., 305, 370. Elizabeth, Queen, 258, 272-286. Eliz'abethan Age, 289-292. Emma of Normandy, 72, 76. Emmet, Robert, 475. Empson, Sir Richard, 250. England, defined, 13. English Church, fee Church. English nation, beginning of, 51. Enniskil'len, siege of, 388. Entailed estates, 177. E'orls, 38, 57, 71. E-pis'co-pa-cy, attempt to abolish, 321, 322. reestablishment of, in Scotland, 361. Scottish revolt against, 312. struggle with Presbyterianism, 275. Era§'mus, 288. Esse.v, 42, 47, 50, 70. Essex, commander in civil war, 325-830. Essex, Earl of, 285, 304. Estates, .58. 177. Eth-an-dune'. battle of, 68. Eth'elbert, King. 45, 60. Eth'elings, 56, 57. Eth'elred, the TTnready, 72. Eugene, Prince of Savoy, 404. Ev<'s'ham. 167. Evictions in Ireland, 519. E.x-cheq'uer, 101, 118, 1.31. Excise tax, 356, 415. Exclusion Bill, 378, 374. Exploration, voj'ages of, 251, 252, 438. Factory system, 489. Faerie Quehie, The, 290. Fairfox, Edward, 292. Fairfax, Gen. Thomas. 328-;330, 334, 341, 350. Fairs, 149, 375. Fal'kirk, battle of, 174. Farming, 212, 294, 442. Fa-shO'da, 526. Fawkes, Guy, 303. Fenian movement, 512. Fe'orm, 58. Ferdinand, King of Si)aiu, 247, 254. Feudalism, basis of system, 55. culmination of, 156-214. decadence of, 217-242. feudalized church, 109-112. feudalized state, 95-105. knighthood, 20S. manori.al system, 102-112. Norman, 95-154. Fiefs, 96. Fielding, Henry, 448. Fifth Monarchy Men, 339. Finances, Bank of England, 391, 392, 471. during war with France, 470, 471. feudal, 107, 108, 144. in Anglo-Saxon system, 58. in eighteenth century, 413, 414, 445, 446. in William I.'s reign. 108. manorial system, 107, 108. reforms in currency, 296, 297, 392. Firma burgi, 144, 178. Fisheries, 13. 241, 295, 403. Fitz-Peter, Geoftrey, 136. Fitz-Stephen, William, 153. Five-Mile Act, 358. Flam 'bard, Ranulf. 116. Flanders. 146, 147, 177, 189, 212, 241, 295. Flodden Field, battle of, 253. Florida, 424, 435. Folkmoot, 41, 57. FoNt-enoy' (-nwa'), battle of, 417. Ford, John, 851. Forest laws, 116. Forster, William Edward, 514, 533. Fox, Charles James, 432, 437, 438, 456, 472. France, alliance with Colonies, 432, 433. alliance ^nth England, 347. 414, 503. alhance with Scotland, 174. Charles II. 's league with, 363, 364. colonies of, 420, 423, 424, 457. development in, 245, 247. early government of, 76, 77. Edward I.'s war with, 179. Edward III. claims throne of, 189, 190. INDHX XX.Vl Frani-0, KdwanJ Vl.'-t war with, 265. French l{evuliition, 4ii— ir>7. Grand Alliance against, 3>>lt, 890, 395, 896. Henry YMI. anil, ^:«, 254, •-'•>«. nun.iri-.l Yl•ar^• War, ly.t-l'.U, *»i»-.'2.-). |>ollcy in l-^ryiit, M>. Keroliition In, -IVi-I.'m. Seven Years' War, 42iM'J5. ftru^'ifle with Burpunily, 23'*. war of Austrian !?iicce>:ii(in, 41T, 41?. war orS|>anish Succession, 401 -(U5. Kranchi.-e, 22(i, 4>5, 512. Ki-ancis I., klnfj of France, 25!}. Francis 11., kinj; of France, 270. Franci.«, Sir Philip, 4-50. Francis'cau friu^^, 152, 20'J. Frank pletljre, 170. Franks, 21, 52. Frederick, Klector of the Palatinate, 805. Frederick, Prince of Wales. 415. Frederick II., Kuiperor, Uii. Frederick the Great, kinj,' of Prussia, 417 420, 4-22. Freehold, :i5o. Freeholders, 105-lo7. Freeman. .'>t;, lit;, lOO, lOl. Free trade, 494, .'MC, .M7. French and Indian War, 420-422. Friars, 15J, 15;J, 2»r2, 203, 209. FyrU ifCrd), 69, 131. 0:VI. 21. 22. (lainsborouph. 449. Oanllner, ni.-.h..|i of Winchester, 263. Oilr'rick, David. 440, i:*\ Gas'co-ny, 76, 12'<, 1.57. OavVston. Piers, IS."). Ge-bnrs', \(Vt. Gentry, 113. r.i„rtroy PInntat'c net. 121, 156. Geo^Taphy ..f Knt'land, 16-19. Gcorjro I., 407-414. Ooorjfe II., 414 424. Geortrc III.. 424. 427-4.S9, 472. Georjre lY.. 472-4*2. Georjria. 416. Ginnany, 245, a*®. 89t); »fe Prussia, etc. G4-;lthV,8><. .v.. r>Aent, maDnfacturln^ center, 212, 279. peace of. 46.'. Gil.bon, K.Uaril, 450. Glbral'tar, d.f.i, f loi |o.-, i.'.i i:V. dllda^, 62. O/ot'to. W> Glad'ston*-. Willlnm Kanrt, .".li>-.'.l I. -MT. .vjo .'(23-52.5. on Eastern qucsll'm, 5ci3. Ghinvllle, 1)^1 Glehp, 109. Glen-coo', 889. Glon'd<.nr#r, Owen, 218. Ciloiicc's'tor, 42, 327. Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of, 22.3, 284, 230. <;ioucesler, Uichard, Duke of. •»:?<;. 2:<9. Gloucester, Kichanl. Karl of, 166, 167. (iloucester, Robert, Karl i>f, 12:{. Gloucester. Thomas, Duke of. 19.5. Go-dol'phin, Sydney. 376, 401. Godwin. Karl, 75. -nO, •'I. tiold. in .Vustralia. 4'.»'.l ; in Transvaal, 526. (loldsmith. tMiver, 449, 450. GoikI Parliament, 19.5, 19S. Gordon. General, 519. (lordon riots, 4;}6, +37. Government, .537-.'>4-< ; nee Parliament, Local Government, etc. Gow'er, John, 205. (tranon, Duke of, 429, 431. (Jrand Alliance ajrainst France, 3>9, 390, .395, 396, 401. Grand Kemonstrance, 319, 320. ifraves, Admiral, 434. Groat Kritain. 13. 4i».5, 406. r.reat riiarter. 160-162. 3.57, xi. Great Council. 6-.'. 100, 110, 130, 161. 164, 1*1. (ireat Powers, Five, 466, 467. (ireece, independence of, 497, 49>. Greene, Hobert. 21HI. Greenwich (prin'ij), -367. (irej:ory I., Pope, 4.5. tircfTory YII., Pofie, reforms of. 111, 119. Greffor,v XIII., Pope, 447. Gren'ville, Georpe, 429, 4.30, 4.^^ Grenville, Sir Kichanl, 255, 297. Grey, Karl. 4>4. Grey, Ijidy Kllzabeth ( W IvIlU). 235. Grey, Lady .lane, 267. Grey, I.orot, 44$. r.Hl .'nn*', 12S, 1.57, 189. Gi/iMs, 144. 149-151. Gunpowder, -.'02, 245. <',iin|.owder Plot, 303. Gnth'rnni. Kinp, 67, 6'^. II;i'lH-a» Corpus Act, 373, 456, xix. ILiMrian's Wall. 2*. Ilak'li|i/t. !:irhard. 2»0. llal'Id/JU Hill. I<^s. MninOi.m, M,r.;.|(* tnd Dukr of. 812, 881. II:i' 19, .320, .327. II:. k, 449. 430. Hji Hanover, HnuiH< of. 4>-at'lr I.<<«ffno. 212, 241. Hapsburtr, domains, 4U5. XXXll INDEX Har-di-ca-nute", King, 76. //iii-fleMi-', 2'20. Har'greavej, James, 443. Ilarley, IJobert, 404. Harold, Kin-?, 76, S1-S7. Harrington, Sir John, 292. Haslerigg (liu'z'l-rig), 320. Hasting-, Danish pirate, 6S. Hfistiiigs, hattle of, S6. Hastings, John, 172. Hastings, Lord, 23S, 240. Hastings, Warren, 437, 438. Hav'elocl^, General, 506. Hawldns, Sir John, 282. Heathrteld, battle of, 48. Hel'i-go-land, 463, 464, 466. Hen 'gist, 33. Henrietta Maria, Queen, 806. Henry, Archdeacon of Huntingdon, 120. Henry I., 117-122; charter of, 117, ix. Henry II. (Plantagenet), 124-136. Henry III., 162-167. Henry IV. (of Lancaster), 217-210, l!i."-lll7. Henry V., 219-223. Henry VI., 223-235, 237. Henry VII. (Tudor), 237, 239, 249-252, 259. Henry VIII., 252-260. Hep'tarehy, Sa.xon, 47. Heraldry, 208. Hereditary succession, 182, 540. Hor'e-foni, Earl of, 123. Her'e-ward, 88. Herrick, Robert, 351. Hide of land, 56. High Commission, Court of, 276. High Court of Justice, 335, 336, 355. Highlanders, 419, 420. HiI'debrand (Pope Gregory VII.), Ill, 119. Hin-du-stiin', 423. Ifhf(i'fi-a Anglo' rum, 120. Illaford (hla'vord), 39. Ho'garth, William, 449. Ho'Aen-stau-fen Emperors, 164. Hol'lng-hed, Kapha;!, 290. Hol'iiar, 475. Holland, alliance against Franco, 389-396, 456. alliance with England, 363, 364, 414, 417. alliance with Spain, 457. alliance with Sweden, 368, 364. independence of, 279. Louis XIV. invades, S6.'?-S65. war with England, 343, 346, 359-361, 433. H611«§. Denzil, 308, 309, 320. Ho^m'by House, 332. Holy Alliance, 497. Ho'lyrood Palace, 312, 277. Home Pvule for Ireland, 519, 520, 523-525. Hong'kong', 500. Hooper, Bishop, 269. Hotspur, Harry, 218, 219. House of Commons, composition of, 539, 540. effects of Keform Bill in, 484, 485. increased powers of, 225. membership in, 895, 549. under Edward II., 197. House of Lords, composition of, 538, 539, 181. dealings with Keform Bill, 484. new peers created, 404. Peerage Bill, 408, 409. Howard, Lord Charles, 282. Hudson Bay Country, 403. lIu'g«e-nots, 807. Hull, 321, 327. Hume, David, 450. Hundred Days, 466. Hundred Years' War, 1S9-194, 220-225. Hundreds, 58, 59, 100. Hurst Castle, 334. Hus-carls, 75. Ilus'kisson, William, 482, 483. Hiiss, 247. . Ilu.xley, Thomas, 5.33. Hyde, Edward, Lord of Clarendon, 357. Incidents of sovereignty, 108. Income tax, 492. Indei)endents, 328, 330, 331. India, British in, 423-i25, 475, 476, 500, 501. government of, 437, 438, 515, 543. mutiny in, 504-506. Industrial revolution, 211, 212, 442-445. Industries, colonial, 431, 487, 488. in early history, 13, 23, 31, 74, 75. in eighteenth century, 442, 443. in fifteenth century, 241. in Tudor period, 294. railroads and steamboats stimulate, 489. I'ne, 60. Innocent III., Pope, 157-159. Innocent IV., Pope, 104. Instrument of Government, 345, 346. International law, 213, 214. Inventors, 202, 442, 443. Investiture, 118, 119. Invincible Armada, 282-284. I-o'na, 45, 48. Ireland, aids Porkin Warbeck, 250. Catholic Association, 483. Christianit}' in, 44, 45. conquest of, 128, 129. Cromwell in, 339, 341. famine in, 492-494. Fenianism and disestablishment, 512, 513, Henry ^'III.'s policy in, 259. Home Kule question, .519, 520, 524, 525. Irish Land Acts. 518, 514, 524, 534. James II. and, 378, 388. local government in, 524. rebellions in, 196, 276, 235, 319, 475. INDKX XX Mil lreliinelf-pi>verniiu>iil of. 'J^O, -i'-^l- Tltho War in. -Is'J. 490. union Willi Crtat Urilain, 478. Wcntworth'.-* tyriinny in, Hln. William III. .-uIkIuis a>*, :js9. Irf 'tun, llcnrj, *iV, !M0. Iron, 442, 448. Iron age, "JO. Iron Duke, WiUcsley callwl, 4C". l>at>ellu of AN->;"j"-li'ni"' Vlaiii'), H>«. l>:il.ellu, tiuii-n of Spain. *J.">4. IsjibiUa, liuiin, wife of E«l«ar5. •lack Cain's rol.ellion, 'J;:!. .lai'obito Intrigues, 3yi-m, 4o7, 40S, 41?. Jnniui'ca, aoqulrwl, 347. James I. (VI. of Seotlaml), 27S, 80(V-:Vi6, 3S-^:;iMi. 3li(i. as Diikf ..I York. 357, 3Ml, 373, 37:.. ' James 111. (Pretender^, 39f., 40.1, 41)7, 40S. James IV., Kinjr of S.-otland, 249, -.'^H. James V., Kin;; of Scotland, 259. James VI., Kin;: of Sn.tland, 27s, JUHl-jOf,. Jii'me-son, I'aptain, .'>27. .lamestown, 313. Japan, treaty witli Oreal Britain, .Vi2. Jeanne d'Are l/.lian). 22;l-22r>. .letTrevs, Jiidu'i' Francis, 377. Je'na lya'l, 4tiJ. Jenkins. Captain, 416. Jenninifs. Sarali, 401, 4(M. Jer'vls (jfir'-). Admiral, iTil. Jenisidem. 13C, .V)2. Jesuits. 275. Jews In Knpland, 151. 177, :U7. eliv'iMe to rarliamcnt, 511. Joan' of Arc. 22:;-2-.'5. Jo-hrin'ncs liuru (yo ), .'>2T. John. Kinir. I.V,-|tV.'. as prince. 129. 13«. I«7. John of Gaunt. IHt-il'ti. 204. Johnson, I>r. Saiiiiul. 44h, 449. Jon.son. Ben. 29o. •.".H. Joseph, Kinp of Spain. 4W. .lovce. Cornet. 'Mi. .ludpes. 131, 895; ki-i- Courts. Julius II.. Po|H'. 2.'vl. JumLife* (7.hriniya/h'». Archbishop, »\. .Ifiii'iiis (-yus). *■'•>'•■ Jury, m, 17fi. Justices of the pence, 210. Jus-tlVI-ar (tlsh'IPr), 101, 104. Jfitz-s. 12,38, 3«. 41. K.\ b«|-, 500. Knllirs. :.. Killie^run'kie. battle of, 3*!». Kim'luM-leV, .Mepeof. .VJ^. Kim'bolton. Karl of Manchester. 320. 32Sv-330. Kinj;, powers of, .'>7, 100, 540; ««•«; I'rirok'a- tive, Parliament, etc. Kinp-maker, Warwick called, ■£i'l. King's Bench, Court of, 131, 176, 87y. King's Council, 101, ItW, 167,211 ; me Cjria. Kinsalr', 3s*'. Kitcli'ener, (ieneral, 526, 52S. Knighlliood,20H. Knight's fee, '.16. Knights llos'pi-tal-lers, 120. Knights of St. John. 459. Knights of the t;arter, 203. Knights Templars, 120, 20S. Knox, John. 277. Kru'ger (-Ker). Paul, 517, 527, 52S. La //6ffue', 390. Ijiborers. 106, 107, 209-212, 471,472. Ladysmith, siege of, 52S. La^rfeld, battle of, 417. Ijike poets, 476. Lancaster, Karl of, IS", 18S. Ijincaster, Mouse of, 22S, 217-'235. Land, tenure of. in Kngland, ^'^ 5ti. ».', i" ', 10.5. 122. 176. 177. 3.V). in Ireland. 494. 513, 514, .'•>34. in Scotland. 523. .524. I.;ind Acts, Irish, 513, .514, 524, 584. Ijinfranc. Archl.ishoi>, 112. Lant'land. William. 203. Langside, battle of, 27S. Ijmgton, Stephen. 1.5;*, 159, 162. Ijinguage. Kngli.sh, 61, 205. Las-g«e-doc'. 19-3. Ijit'imer. Bishop. 26*. -269. Ijitin church. 4.5. 4s-;«o ; see Church. Uud. Archbi.Hhop. 309 311. 31«. 3:W. Lau-di-r-dale'. .lohn. I»uke of, 862. Imw. international. 213, 214. Learning, the new. 2s9, 290. Le/ivs'ter. Karl of, 2''2. Leicester, Kdward of York nt, aJT. Lci(//''t"". KrtHlerick, 588. L. iiiVter. 129. Leiit'/.all. William, 821,849. U- orric. Ijirl. SI. UopoUl I., Kmperor. 3»8, 896. Less.'ps. Kenllnand de. 518. Levcll.-rs. Xi'J. Lew'es, battle of. li'^'>. IJIxnd rnh.nist parly, .V28. Liberals. .'»i8. Life. Crusades Inlluencc city life. I4h. 149. durinir Nnpolioiili- wars, 471, 472. in Norman p.-rLnl, 96. 97. 10:*-l"7. Mi- ll;! 1 r.'-i.M. •."o.v XXXIV INDEX Life, in 1100-1350, 141-154. in 1250-1400,201-214. social reforms, 4ST, 488. under House of Hanover, 442-447, 471, 472. under Lancaster and York, 240, 241. under Plantagenets, 141-154, 20C-20S, 213. under Romans, 31. under Saxon rule, 72-75. under Stuarts, 355, 356, 365, 366. under Tudors, 293. 294. Ligny (len-ye'), battle of, 466. Lilk,' 212. Lion of Justice, Henry J. called, 118. Literature, after Revolution, 409, 410. Augustan Age of, 409, 410. dawn of English, 61, 62. In eighteenth century, 448, 450, 476. in seventeenth century, 351, 352, 366, 367. new learning, 289, 290. Renaissance, 247. ■ Tudor period, 289-292. Victorian, 532, 533. Liverpool, Lord, 472, 4S2. Livery and maintenance, 231. Llewelyn (loo-el'lin). Prince of Wales, 171. Local Government Act, 524. Loire (Iwiir), 193. Lollards, 203, 219. Londin'i-um, 31. London, commercial center, 19. description of, about 1200, 145. Are in, 360. government of, 144, 145, x., 524. in Civil War, 320, 326, 327, 333. London Bridge, 249. London Convention, 517. Londonder'ry, siege of, 388. LoNgr-cbamp' (-sho.-*'), William, 136. Long Parliament, 313, 317-350. Lords, House of, see House of Lords. Lords Appellant, 195. Lords of the Congregation, 277. Lords Ordainers, 185. Lost-with'jel, battle of, 329. Louis (afterwards Louis VIIL of France), 162. Louis VII., King of France, 128. Louis IX., King of France, 165, 166. Louis XL, King of France, 247. Louis XIII., King of France, 306. Louis XIV., King of France, 363. Charles II. 's dependence on, 371. enmity of William III. of Orange, 372. Holland invaded, 363-365. James II. aided by, 3SS. Palatinate War, 380, 389-391. War of Spanish Succession, 394, 395, 401- 405. Louis XVI., King of France, 456. Louis XVIII., King of France, 465. Louisburg, 418, 422. Lovelace, Richard, 351. Low Countries, see Netherlands. Wnce' stott, battle off, 359. Luck'now, 505, 506. Luddites, 472. Ludlow Castle, 102. Lyl'v', John, 289. Mac-ad'am, John Loudon, 489. Macaula}% Thomas B., 532. Macdonald clan, 389. MacDon'oi/y/A, Commander, 465. Machinery, use of, 442, 443, 472. Madras', 423. Ma-fe-king', siege of, 528. Mag'da-len College, 377. M:ig'na-ehar'ta, 160-162, 357, 117, xi. Mag'num Con-cil'i-um, see Great Council. Mahdist revolt, 517. .Mah-rat'ta states, 423, 475. Maine, province in France, 128, 157. Ma-ju'ba Hill, 517. Malcota, King of Scotland, 88, 118. Mal'o-ry, Sir Thomas, 242. Mal-pla-quet' (-ka'), battle of, 404. Malta, 458-460, 466. Manchester, riot at. 473. Manchester, Earl of (Edward Montagu, Lord Kimbolton), .320, 328-330. Manchuria, 529-5:32. Manor, 74, 105, 102-112. Manorial system, 102-112. Manufactures, 212, 241, 294, 442, 443, 489, 493. Mar, Earl of, 408. March, Earl of, 188. , Mar-f haNd', Major, 526. Marches, 99. Margaret, daughter of Henry VII., 249. Margaret of Anjou, 225, 232-237. Margaret of England, 88, 118. Ma-ri'a The-rc'sa, 417, 420. Mariner's compass, 245. Maritime enterprise encouraged, 249. 250. Marlborough, Duke of (John Churchill), 379, 380, 393. 401-404. Mar'lowe, Christopher, 290. •Marshal, King's, 101. Marshiill, William, Earl of Pembroke. 163. Marston Moor, battle of, 329. Mary, Queen of Scots, 265, 274, 276-2>.l. Mary (Tudor), Queen, 254, 25S. 264, 267-270. Mary, wife of William III., 372, 380, 386, 387, 391. Mary of GwTje, 277. Maryland, 361. Ma'serfleld, battle of, 48. Mash'am, Mrs.. 404. Massachusetts Bay Colony, 313. Mas-sil'i-a. 22. Mas'singer, Philip, 351. INDIA XXXV MatiMa, daughter of Henry I.. I-.M-l'-M. MtttiUltt, wife of Ih'iiry I., IIS. Mau-ril"ius (rlsh'-). 4«k5. Ma-za-rin' (-rus'). Jules, 847. Meiri-ol (vhv). i4«i. Ms "li'iia (-au'-» ST-«lo'ni-u, Dukc of, -.'SJ. Mi-l'lxMini*, Visoiiunt, 4s'>. NUii.llcaiit friars, IW. Merchant Ahi-a>. 4'.', 4", 50, 51, To, ;:.. |ire«loniin:inee of, !**. Mer't.m, Walter ts. 4.M. Miehael An'gelo, '24S. Mil'an, 401. Milan Decree, 46'2, 4A4. Militia. «^>nlinance of llie, :«!, :«•_'. Mil-hii*'. Sir ,Iohn Kverett, 588. Milton, John. '.IM. .S4.S. 8.Vi. Mimlen, battle of, 4JJ. Minlnff, 2:?, 442. .Ministry, I'abinet, »<•<• Ciil.inct. Minor'ca, 4m. 4it.''.. 4:t4, *C.. Miquelon (nu-k'-lA.N'), 425. Misc of Amiens, IGfi. MtMlel I'arliuinent, 1*1. Moirul'. Great. 428, 424. Mo'na, Holv Man.l of. 28, 27. Monasteries, fil, 71. 11", 120, 121, I.-.2. sn|i|(resse7, 258. Money, 29fi, •21t7, .S92. Money prn"'*. "••• Monev power anil Parliainent. ISt, lv2. Monk, tien. (;eon:e, :«2, »48, 850, -357, 8.-MI. Monks, Mff Monasterlesi. Monmouth. Duke of. 873, 876, 877. Monro<-, Pre^iiUnt, 497. MoN». Uttle 7. 100. .More, Sir Thomas. 2, -<7. "«■'. Mortimer, K.lwln, Fjirl of M t, 1, ji: _M'. Mortimer, Hoifer, 1S7, 1»"'. Mi>untj.»y, I»nl. 2<.. Municipal l:ef..rm Act of Kl.'-. I"'., «-T Murray. .lames Stuart. Kjirl of, 277. 27*. Mu»lc,' in eighteenth ■■.•'.ll.r^ U'' 1."". Mutinies, In navy. 4T : Mutiny Act, 8-7. Mutiny, Indian, .VW, .V»V Na'mur, 890. Nup'ler, Sir Charles, .'h"). Naples, 401. Na-po'le-on, 4.'')7-4»>7. NaS«''by, battle of, :«0, 8;J1. .Nash, Thomas, 290. Natal', .'■>. Newmar'ket,:«2, 88.3. Newspapers, 44s. Ni-air'ara, 420, 422. Nicholas, C/jir, 504. Nleholson, 06. Nile, battle of the, l.'.S. Nim'wi; cen. treaty of, 371, .872. Nobility. 118. Non-conformists. 802, 813, 3.W, 873. Norfolk, Duke of, 27s. Nonuan archlleoture, 14S, 149. Norman kincs, 127. Normandy. 77. s.8, 121, 12S, l!i7. Normans. Britain Inviubxl by, 12, **-91. conquests of. siuOl. customs, 96, 97, 103-107, 141 TW, 149-l.M. 205. Inlluenco on commerce and social life, 146, 147. Innkruatrc. 205. Ia««, are Ki-udalisin. Nor«.-incn (|)annt, •»^9. I'iei» l/i<' Ploiriiinii. Vifioii of, 'iC:^. l»il;rrliuaBe of (irace, 2.V>. I'irat.s. tys, ."UT. ritt. Williain, (Chatbaiii). ■«-"-■ <-'^- oil l-..l..iiial .nustion. 4-jy, \M. Wi. Pitt, Williain. tho Yountfcr. 4;iT. 4;t-*. y'"'- _ ^lllrill^' Napoleonic wars, 4I>T. 4i".i), 4tV.', -JTo 4Trt. VlaKiio, SfH). l'lai.-«r.(S'i-nets, 127. l-2>-13s. 1M-19S. Plas'si y. battle of, 424. riaii'tiiis (shi-usl, Aiiliis, 2". I'limilitiis 2(«. P.K-kot iH.iouijhs, 42'*, 4:W. r«l-tiers' (pwu-tyi'i't, batllt- of, 104. Poi-tou' (l-wfi-t. 7C. 12^. l.')T. Polo. I'ni^liiial. 2i'^, 2tW, 270. Police .•t»'iii, dvatitl, 17(>. Poll tax'. 811. lif^, 211. Pon.li vlH-r'r.v. 42:5. 424. PoN-ttii.ii' (-tyC'), VJl, iy4. I'oor Law. 4-<7. Pope, acainst barons, lt)2. an.l Kli/Jiboth. 27:5. 274. 27s. an.i ll.nry Vlll.. 2.'4-2.')7. anil Mary. 2fi9. 27ii. i-ffort to control kiiiploiiis. U'A. Inv.stiturc, Us, 119. Iri^h atfairs, 276. 2<>. KIni; .lolin a vassal of. I.W. pope, .\U".xan(UT. 410. 44S. Popish Plot, 872, :«7S. I'ort .\rtliitr, .%S0, Ml. Portiiifiil. 2yC, 463. 404, 4S3. PoynlnK* Act, 2.')9, 4;<7. Pniirinntlc ^'anction, 417. Prayer book, 2CC, 2tW, 274, 35S. I'rciiiier. .'". in Knda.i.I, 3In. 32o. 32S-.384. in Scotlan.l, 27.V277, 311. 312. :?s<». Press, fre.-.loiii of, 3'.»2, W\ 436. Preston. iMittle of, H:«. Preten.ler {.lanus III.V 396. 40,',. 407. 40v Pr. t. tmIit. Yoiintr. 41•^. y . T .'ri 11 t'onretitlon. '"17. I'M t.l lot' Islamls. .V2:.. Pi i.l.-s I'urce, 3:t4. H.t:.. 3.'.o. Prtino minister, 4t»S .V.'J, .'>4I. IVinee of Wale.. 172. IVlnllni: pr. Priories. 120. Pri.son reform, 4S.H. Privy foiinril. 2.'*. 361. .'►10. Protective tnrilT. 4«2. I>:t. .'>17. I'rotectorate. lU.'-Uy. Protcsttttitisui. ill KnKlan.l,2M-266, 27o, 2" 274. Protestantism, In IloUanil, 279. in Irelan.l. 276, 473. 4V.t, 490. Thirty Years" War, :;o.'.. toleration for. :147. 3^7. Provisli>ns of MxfonI, H'^^. lOt'.. I'rovi.sors, Statute of, PJS. I'russia, In Napoleonic wars, 4.'.fi, l.V.t, 4t'.> in Seven Year.*" War. 420, 421. in War of Austrian Suceessi 417. one of Pentarehy, 466. tariff war with. 4SJ. traile with, 241. Prj-nH*'. William. 311. Pun-ji'ib'. tm. :*n. I'uritans. .loctrines of. 274, 27.'), 302. eminralioil to America. 311. 313. 314. Purvevance. 2:^1. *'>6. Pym. '.lohn, 3l>^, 309, 317-320, 82S. guakers, 361. tiuobec', 422. lijHrlan, castlo of, 3.31. Uailroads. 4S9. i:a'l*i(/A, Sir Walter, 297, 3t»2. i:„,„bler, 44S. l;a nii/-/ie«' (ye), battle of. 4o4. Kan'e-la(/A (.'aniens, 446. Ueciprocity of Duties, 4SJ. Ueeou'nitors, 132. 13:J. Keeu'.*ants. 27.'>. l:eev.-. .'>y, 1".''. lleform Hill <'f 1S:V2, 4M. Ueform ISiilof ls67. .'.12. Keformatlon. causes of. 247. first, -.'o;! -jn.'!. In Knulanil, 2M, 2.'Hi, 264-267. in Kurope, 2r>4. In Ireland, 276. Ileitrn of Terror, in France, 45T. U.llef fee. los. l;.•li^'ion. I>rui, 4>-.'io. of Teutons, 3s. Stf iiImo Church. l^.naiVsaxv", 247; In KnKlaml. 2-293. i;epr«"senlati.>n, 427. 42->. 430, 4M. Uepresicntttlive (•overniiient, M7. KoRtoratlon. :Vi.'>-:467. l:e. Uevlval, at'e of. in Knt.'lan. devolution. Kri-nch, 4.'«.*.-4.'>7. U.volutlon ..n6'^». 3>-», 3s|. INynoMs, Sir I '. i .. 149. i:Ae/in;, 2-.' :;. Kho«le», < • Ulchanl 1.,-* ; ■•• •- ^■' ' '■-'■> XXXVIU INDEX Richard II., 195-197, 211. Richard III. (of Gloucester), 238, 239. Richard, Duke of York, 230, 231, 232. Richard, son of Edward IV.. 23S, 239. Richard de Clare (Strongbow), 129. Richard of Cornwall, IW. Richardson, Samuel, 448. Ridley, Bishop, 26S, 2G9. Right of search, 416, 433, 458, 465. Rivers, Karl, 240. Riz'zi-o (ret'se-o), David, 27S. Roads, in eighteenth century, 443. Roman. 30. under West Saxons, 71. Ro-a-nokf' Island, 297. Robert, Earl of Shrewsbury, 115. Robert, of Normandy, 115,' 118, 121. Roberts, Lord, 515, 528. R6'bes-\ni'rre, Ma.ximilien, 457. Rofhe-f6rr,467. Ro-fheUe', 307, 808. Rochester, 66, 166. Roch 'ester. Earl of, 876. Rocking/tarn, Marquis of, 428, 429, 432, 434. Rodney, Admiral, 434. Roger of Salisburj', 118. Rolf, the Northman, 77. Rolls (in feudal system), 103. Roman Catholics, see Catholics. Romans, in Britain, 11, 25—34. Romantic literature, 289, 290. Roses, Wars of, 232-240. Rotten boroughs, 260, 485, 484. RoM-en' ^-a^■'), 275. Roumania, 515. Round Table, legends of, 43. Roundheads, 327. Royal fish, 108. Royal prerogative, 300-314, 357, 386, 400, 401. Royal Society for the Promotion of Natural Knowledge, 367. Royal Society of Painters, 449. Rule of 17.56," 457. Rump Parliament, .335, 336, 342-344, 849, 350. Runnj-mede. ICO. Rupert, Prince. 327, 329, 831, 360. Ruskin, John, 532. Russell, Lord High Admiral, 379, .380, .391. Russell, Lord .John, 484, 485, 493, 511. Russia, Afghanistan boundary fl.\ed, 517. alliance with France, 417. armed neutrality of, 4-33, 4.59. coalition with England, 460. concessions in Persia, 500, 528, 529. Continental System accepted by, 462. Crimean War, 503, .504. Eastern question, 497, 498, 502-504, 514. 515. fur trade with, 205. Greek Revolution aided by, 497, 498. Russia, Napoleon invades, 464. one of Pentarchy, 466. opportunity in Manchuria, 529-5.32. Siberian railway, .529. war with Japan, 532. Russian-Turkish War, 514, 515. Ryg'wick, treaty of, 390, 391. Sac and soc, 99. Sa-ghev'er-ell, Dr., 404. Saekville, Thomas, Earl of, 288, 290. St. Al'banj, battles of, 2.33, 235. St. Albans, Viscount, 805. St. Denis' (sax), 191. St. George, Ft., 423, 424. St. Ger-m.i/.N' (sas-zher-), 389. St. He-lG'na, 408, 467. St. John (sin'jon), Henry, see Bolingbroke. St. Paul's school, 289. St. Pierre (saff pj"fir), 425. Saladin, Sultan, 136. Salaman'ea, 464. Sal/j'bury, Earl of, 234, 235. Salisbury, Marquis of, 520,523, 524. Salisbury, school at, 153. Salisbury Law, 98. Salma'sius (-shi-us), 343. San Ste'pha-no, peace of, 514. Sand River Convention, 502. Sandwich, 294. San-ti-a'go, 282. San 'to Do-min'go, 282. Sardinia, 417, 504. Sa'rum, 41. Sa-vo-na-ro'la, Girolamo, 247. , Saxon Heptarchy, 47. Saxons, customs and laws, 12. invasions, 12, 21, 32, 83, 41. settlements, 42. See also Anglo-Saxons. Sea-fell', 16. Scandinavians, 20, 21, 65, 241 ; see Danes. Schoolmen, 240. Schools, after Reform Bill, 488. in fourteenth century, 153, 154. under Tudors, 289. See also Education. Science, 305, 367, 5-32, 533. Scin'di-a, 475. Seon^, 174. Scotland, alliance with England, 328-330. alliance with France, 174. and Charles I., 331-3.38. and Charles II., 361, 362. Catholics in, 37S. Cromwell's victories in, 834, 341, 342. crown offered to William and Mary, 389. David Bruce in, 193, 194. Edward I. con(|uers. 174, 175. Edward VI. 's war with, 265. INDKX XXXIX Scotland, England suxeraln over, IT'.'. priiwtli i>r kirit;il<>iii, 44, 77. Ilfiiry IV. liven u'.i ri>ii>iiiniries, '.'I-*. Il.nr'v VIII. s \v!ir with, -'.'-t. •-•.•«9. .IiuiiWto ii|iri>iii|k'.> ill, 40ji. 4l'N-f.»o. kiiiK* of. \'-i. land tcniiro in, Tf'2H. 524. L:uur» fuiliirf in. Mil. Im-al irovorniuiMil in, .VJ4. rr..-.bytorianisni in, r.C. 277, .S12, *59. ri-lHtion.« with Henry II., li^. n-lation.s with Kichard I., 130, 1:!7. relatiiins with Ste|iheii, 12-*i. revolt aijainst Kpisciiiiacy, 312. KolMrt Bruee master of, ISVHT. southern, Edwanl overloni of, 70. thirty years' i»eace with, 1>9. union with England, 405, 4i»6. .Sf'«' , 2+'*. Sontajre. 130, 1.31. 161. Sfalinc, 625. St'ba.s'topol, .V«, 504. Secret Service Knnd, 414. Se. Sedeeinoor, battle of, 377. See. bishop's. KUt. Selfnlenyln); Onlinance, 3.30. Sen 'lac, battle of, sti. Se'iMiy mutiny, 505, 500. Septennial Kill. 40S. Seven Years' War, 420-*'25. Se-ve'riis, 2S. Sey'niiiMr, .lane, 25S. Shaftesbury, .Vnthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of, 80.'.! 37:i-.'. :i'.'l. |ii7 Siberian railway, W.'. Sicily, IM. 401.' Sidney. Sir Philip. 2"»-, 2''.' SlkA.v 500. 501. .'i. Siin'nel, Ijunbl. Sluys (slois), boltloof. 191. Smith. .\dam. 4ai, 451, .'►40. Sunifrclini.'. 41.'i, 410. Social reforms, 4S7, 4SS ; nee Life. Soke men, lO-S. Solemn league and Covenant, 311. »>9., 856, a%s. Solemn Petition and .Vdvice, 84S. Som'erj, Lord, 391. Som'ersot. Edmund, Duke of, '2:11, '2.^'.. Somerset, Edward Seymour, Duke of, '2t'>5. Somerset, Henry, iMike of, '2;W. Sonp schools. 15;*. Sophia, Electress of Hanover, 395. SoH-dan', «ee Sudan. South .Vfrica I'ompany, .527. South Sea Bubble. 41.3, 414. Southey, Kolnrt. 470. Spain, ulliunce as;airist France. .390, 4.'i0. alliance with France, 417, 457. and the .Netherlands, 279. 2S0. 294. cessions from (ireat Britain. 43.5. ChurU-s l.'s war with, 300. culoniul trade disp\ite with, 410. colonics of, 'i«.l, 301, 497. commercial treaty with, 2.'i«l. Cromweir.s war with. :J47. dispute over succession. .39.3. 39.'>. Drake's attacks upon. 2'^1. 2^2. Florida ce4. Spanish .\rmada. ■2vj-2s4. Spanish Xellii rlands, 30:1, .Stt.'i. .396. 401. Spanish Succes-liin, .394 ; War of, 44)1-405. S/,ntiili>r. 409. 44s. S|iecnlation, 47n. S|«.t,r..r. MiTb.rt .'1.32. ; ■ ■ j:mi. 448. .''>tainloni iinili;p, battle of, S,5. Stamp Art. 4'W •I.e. 12S. I. - • iif, 3»9. .31'^. xl INDEX Statute of 1285, IT". Statute of Laborers, 210. Statute of Mortmain, IT". Statute of Pra'inuiii'rc, 198, xiv. Statute of I'rovisors, 198, 2U. Statute of Wales, ITl, 1T2. Statutes of AVestiiiinster, ITT. Steam eng'ine, 442, 443. Steamship lines, 489, 546. Steele, Sir Kichard, 409. Steelyard, 212. Stelnkirk, battle of, -390. Stephen, King, 121-124. Steward, 101. Stig-'and, Archbishop, 81. Stil'i-cho, 33. Stirling, 1T4, 185. Stonehenge, 21. Stour'bridge, foir, 149. SUme, John, 290. Stratford, Thomas Wentwortli,, Earl of, 309, 310, 31T, 318. Strath-clyde', 42, 43, TO. Strode, William, 320. Stuart, Arabella, 302. Stuart kings, 3T0. and Parliament, 300-381. fall of, 3T1-3S1. restoration of, 355-3GT. Studies, medifeval, 202. Subinfeudation, 90, ITT. Subsidy, 308. Sudiin', 518, 519, .52(1. Sue-to'ni-us (swi"-) Paull'nus. 2T. Su-ez' Canal, 51S. Suffo/k, Michael do la Pole, Karl of, 1'.I5. Suffo/k, William de la Pole, Karl of. 230, 231. Suffrage, 226, 485, 511, 512. Sun'derland, Kiirl of, 3T6, 3T9, 391. Su-ri-nam', 361. Surrey, Earl of, 288. Surrey, Sir Philip, 292. Sussex, 4T. Sut-tee', 505. Suzerain, 96. Sweden, alliance with, .363, 390. in Napoleonic wars, 459, 463. Sweyn, King, T2. Swift, Jonathan, 409. Ta'de-mii, Al'ma, 533. Tal'lages, 198. Tan-gier', 3T5. Tariff, 482, 483, 492, 494, 547. Tasmania, 438, 499. , Tatler, 409, 448. Taxation, arbitrary, 30T-309. Convention Parliament determines, 3ST. Danegeld, Tl, 101, 108, 134, ITT. during war with Fi-aiice, 4T0. Taxation, excise tax, 3,56, 415. in feudal system, 144. in fourteenth century, 198. in Ste])hen's reign, 122. income-tax, 492. land tax, under William I., 101. of American colonies, 429-432. of clergy, 1T8, 1T9. of imports and exports, ITT, 483, 492. of personal property, ITS. Peel's compromise tariff, 492. poll tax, 30, 198, 211. [irotective tariff relaxed, 482, 483. Roman, 30. Tithe and Commutation Act. 4ST. tonnage and poundage, 3(iT-3()9, 318, 356. under WiUiam II.. 116. Tea, tax on, 429, 4S0. Tel-el-Ke-bir , 518. Telegraph, 489. Telford, Thomas, 489. Temple, Sir William, 863. Tenants, mesne, 96. Tenants in chief, 96. Tennyson, Lord Alfred, .532. Tenure of land, aee Land. Test Act, 365, 8TT, 483. Teutonic invasion, 12, 21, S3, 36-52, 65. Tewkes'bury, battle of, 23T. Thackeray, William M., 5-32. Thames (temz), IT. Than'et, 36. Thgf/ns, 56, 5T, T2, T3. Thet>dore of Tarsus, 50. Thirty-nine Articles, 26T. Thirty Years' War, 305. ' Ticket-of-leave men, 499. Til'sit, treaty of, 462, 463. Tinehe-brai' (tuNsh-), b.attle of, 121. Tithe and Commutation Act, 4ST. Tithe War, 489, 490. Tithes, 109, 110. Toleration Act. 3sT. Tone, Wolf, 4T3. Tonnage and poundage, 30T-309, 318, 3.56. Tories, in power, 438, 482. in William III.'s reign, 391. new party, 428, 456. origin of name, 3T4, 3T5. principles of, 39T. Tories Tersus Whigs, 400-410. Tor'res (-rash) Ve'dras (-drash), 464. Tos'tig, Earl, 82, 85. Tow'lon, 460, Toi(-lo!(g«', 465. ToM-ra/ne', 128, 15T. Tournaments, 208. Tournay', battle of, 404. Towrs, 44. ToMr-villf", Admiral, 390. INDEX xli Tower of London, 90. Towns, lit iMiil ol iwc'lflh century, 146. .•l.;»rliT«l. H-5. U4. of ISriton.*, ■-»■.'. M:i|.lo. -IVi. iU. TohmV"'"' •^"•'- ^-*''' **-• Town^iuii.l, fliarl.s, 429, 431. Townsliii's. •"•■*, "'9. Tow 'ton. l.altU' of, 5S5. Trailc, "tr Coiiiiiierct'. Tm iuiioM>. 4n->. 4>9. Truf-al-car'. lujttle of. 461. Tran.si>ortation, 4+1, 44.\ 4^. Transii»»tantiatlon, -'iW. SiV., 4*3. Triin.-i va./l', Wi, rtlT. .V»6->V.'s. Treasurtr. 101. Trt-aiiiiry department, under William I., 101. Trial by" jury, 132. 1T6. Triennial Act, 39». Triiiii'itii iifcex'iiilag, .'>3. Trii.le Alliance. 363. Troyes (trwa i, treaty of, 223. Tudor rulers, •-'•«. -.M.VJUT. Tunis, pirates of. :i47. Turkey, 497, 49-<, r>< n*-'.) M . Kus.sian-Turl;i*li War, 514, 515. Tvler, Wat, 195, 211. Tyndall. .lohn, 533. Ty-rone", Earl of, 2S5. U'dall. Nicholas, 29o. ril'landers (nit'-), 52". I'lin (oolmK 462. Ulster, 276, 47.'-, Union of Kncland and Ireland, 47:?. Union of Kn>rlan. in twelfth century, 153. the new learnini; in, 2«i9. Ur'lKin II., l'o|«'. 119. U-ri eo'lil iltli. 31. U'ther I'endniir'on, 43. Utilitarian pliUosophy, 4.'iO, U'treo/it, In-aty <'f. 4»»5. Union of, 279. Valentine. WK 34i9. Van Dvck'. Anthony, XVJ. an Tromp, rornellus. 'Uii. 3i». ane. Sir Henry, 319, 32s. assal, 96. auilols (vo-dwfi') Protestant-s, :t47. aNX-liair, 446. n'ables. .Vtlininil, 'M'. enemhle IU-.|e, 44. e-ne-zue'la <-zwe) controversy, r>25, 526. ornon, Adndral, 416, 417. er-sailles (-sa'y), treaty of. i'M. r-u-lii'inl-nni. 43. 'sp:'i'>ian (-zlii-an>, 27. to power. Mil. ictoria, Queen. 4s.\ .'Jt?. lenna. Congress of, 466. i'tro. 2>2. ik'inss, 66, 70. ill. 74. illajre, at end of twelfth century. 14.'). il'lcins, dlsapiwaranee of, 211. discontent ainonjr. 21", 211. enfranchisement of, 141, 143. homes of, 106, 107. status of. 103. wat'es of, 2t>9, 210. TlU-neMV*'', Admiral, 460, 461. il'l/ers, Georpe, xef Buckin);ham. Inrll. 24^, 292. irjriiila, e.donization of, 314, 297. is'i-t'oths. invasion of Italy, :1«. 'iitiini iif I'leiK llie Ploinnan. 203. ladivos-iok" (vAs). .V29. or'ti-eern. 83, 62. otiniu' by ballot, 512. W:Vdy Hiirra, 519. Waife system. 209. 210. Wa'irriim (va'», buttle of, 464. Wnketleld, battle of, 23.'.. Wales. Anplo-Saxons and, 42, 43. ((iir:i> (Harold>"*. Henry VII. (Tudor) aid*"-! by, 2:19, 240, Henry VIII. "s policy In, 2.'«. Insurn-ctions of, 2I\ -'W. Wallace. William, 174. W:d laVhia, :.<»2. Wall.r. Sir William. 32><. 3:10. Walllinrfonl, treaty of, 124. Walls, lioman. In HHluIn, 2S, 29. W«l'|H.le. Sir IJoU-rt, 413-416. WBr-lntrAam, Sir Krnncl*, 2sl. Walter, H.itM.rt. 130. Wanvllke, 21. Wap'en-Ukes, .'iS. Warof ispj, 46.'.. W8r..f.lenkln--. Kar. IK.. H7 War of the .Xii-trl.iii Smre.slon. 417 \V ,r ..f 1 1..- l:,.., . ■.•::j-jio. xlii INDEX "War of the Spanish Succession, 401-405. Warbeck, Perkin, 250. AVar' M'ifk, Earl of, opposes Richard II., 195. "Warwick, Eichard Neville, Earl of (King Maker), 234-237. Washington, George, 433. Watch and ward, 176. Waterloo', 406, 467. Watling Street, 26, 80. Watt, James, 443. Watts, George Frederick, 533. Webster. John, 351. Wedinore, peace of, 68. Weights and measures, 71, 101, 406. AVe'i-hrti-we'i, 531. Well«g'ley, Sir .Vrthur (Duke of Wellington), militarj' career, 464-407, 475. political leader, 484, 493. Wellesley, Richard, 475. Wel'lington. Duke of, see Wellesley. Wells Cathednal, 105. Welsh, see Wales. Wentworth, Earl of Stratford, 309, 310, 317. Wer'gild, 60. Wes'ley, Charles and John, 451. Wessex, 41, 47, 50, 51, 70-72, 75. supremacy of, 51, 70. West Indies, British victories in, 423. French possessions in, 425. French victories in, 434. Jamaica captured in, 347. Nelson defends, 400. West Sa.vons, 41, 42 ; see Wessex. West Wales, 42, 43 ; see Wales. Westminster Abbey, 103. borough of, 145. statute of, 170. Wexford, massacre at, 839. Wheatston, Sir Charles, 489. Whig Junto, 391. Whigs, agitation against, 491. in control, 485. in William III.'s reign, 391. masters of parliamentary boroughs, 423. origin of name, 374, 375. principles of, .397. regimes of Walpole and Pitt, 413-425. versus Tories, 400^10. Whistler, James A. McNeill, 533. Whit'by, Synod of, 49, 61. Whitf'field, George, 451. Wilfrid of Lindisfarne, 48, 49. Wilkes, John, 4:35, 436. William I., attitude toward Church, 111, 112. introduces Jewish colony, 151. reforms of, 96-102, 146. reign of, 87-91. William II. (Ilufus), 115-117. William III., 372, 379, 380, 380-397. William IV., 4S2-4S5. William of Normandy, 82, S3. William of Valence, 103. Win 'Chester, Northmen attack, 66. Winchester, Bishop of, 122, 123. Win'waeds-field, 48. Wit'an, 49, 57, 72, 76. Wit'e-na-ge-mote, 57, 100, 101. Witwatersrand (vit-vii'ters-rant), 526. Wolfe, General, 422. Wol'sey, Thonuis, 255-257, 289. Women, cniployment of, 471. Wood vilU-s, 23.5, 230, 238, 289. Wool, growth of trade in, 198. in early commercial period, 13. trade with Flanders, 146, 147, 177,189, 212 AViucfs'ter, army in, 825 ; battle of, 342. AVoreester, Earl of. 218. Wordsworth, William, 476. Wy'att, Sir Thomas, 292. Wych'erley, William, 866. Wyc'lif, John, 195, 203-205, 247. Wjnd'/tam Education Act, 533, 534. Yang'tze valley, 507. York, Angles acquire, 42. * archbishopi-ic of, 47, 110. devastated by William I., 88. Harold at, 85. legislative center, 31. Northmen attack, 60. Norwegians capture. So. Parliament controls, 329. York, Edmund, Duke of, 196. York, House of, 229, 235-241. York, James, Duke of, see James II. Yorktown, 433, 4.34. Ypres (e'pr), 212. Z«y'der Zee, battle of, 360. 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