Ed/Psych. Lib. LB 1623 C74 STATE OF OREGON COURSE OF STUDY FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION This book : <; P r ,- THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES ERN BRANCn, 35ITY OF CALIFORNIA, LIBRARY, ..OS ANGELES, CALIF. THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL A MANUAL OF SUGGESTIONS AND STANDARDS FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN OREGON Prepared by H. R. DOUGLASS F. L. STETSON Department of Education, University of Oregon SOUTHERN BRANCH. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LIJBRARY, ^ AWFfiUSS, CALIF. Issued by J. A. CHURCHILL Superintendent of Public Instruction SALEM, OREGON-! STATE PRINTING DEPARTMENT 192 65244 Education Library u \5 FOREWORD Oregon now has and has had for several years a number of junior -high schools, each of which has had a somewhat different type of organization. The majority have been doing departmental work and should be classed as departmental schools, rather than as junior high schools. In order that Oregon might have some uniformity in its junior high school organization, this pamphlet has been prepared. <5 We urge all schools offering a junior high school department to study carefully the organization as out- lined herein and meet, in so far as possible, Oregon's definition for a junior high school. I trust that each high school principal and each teacher teaching in the junior high schools will become familiar with the history of the organization as given herein, and will know the organization as proposed for Oregon. Very respectfully, J. A. CHURCHILL, Superintendent of Public Instruction. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. Introductory The problem Purpose of the bulletin II. Aims and Peculiar Functions III. Organization Grades included The three-year school The six-year secondary school Departmentalization The teaching load The size of classes IV. The Teaching Staff Preparation Experience V. Housing and Equipment VI. The Program of Studies Underlying standards and principles Scope or content of program of studies Organization of program of studies Administration of the program of studies Typical programs Suggested program for Oregon Explanatory The course by subjects VII. Administration of the Program The daily schedule Division of the class period Admission Promotion Homogeneous grouping VIII. Methods of Instruction Purpose of teaching Directed learning Socialized methods Project teaching Library method Improving methods of study Visual instruction IX. Social Organization and Control Purpose Methods X. Tentative Standards for Oregon XI. Selected Bibliography I. INTRODUCTORY THE PROBLEM The development of secondary education in the United States has not been a consciously directed growth or process. Our present organization and facilities for secondary education, like Topsy, "just growed up," bor- rowing frequently from various European systems of education, guided largely by tradition, developing unevenly and without uniformity. The high school of the generation just passing was not a logically thought-out solution of the educational problems and needs of adolescents. In the absence of definite policies and of logical attempts to shape materials and methods to the consciously determined objectives of sec- ondary education, there have crept into secondary school practice much material and many methods which are now under fire. Complaints and criticisms by schoolman and layman, demands for reorganization, and varying efforts at reorganization have been made for a number of years and are increasing in geometric ratio. These tendencies heading toward reorganization center around a few well developed sources of dissatisfac- tion of recent origin or discovery. Because of these changed conditions, educational and social, there seems to be a well-defined need for re- adjustment of educational facilities and procedures to new situations and new problems, making use of the most recently developed information in education and related sciences. INCREASE IN HIGH SCHOOL ENROLLMENTS. Whatever may have been the merits of the high school as we have had it for the past half century or more with its traditional curricula, attended as it was only by the favored few who expected later to enter college young people relatively homogeneous as to ability and purpose it has become apparent that, unchanged, it does not meet new needs and conditions. A marvelous increase in high school enrollments has taken place. In 1920 four times as many boys and girls were attending high school as in 1890, but thirty years previous. Children from all strata of society, of all varieties of physical, mental and social inheritance are now coming on into high school. This development has meant a lowering of the level of ability of high school students. It has brought about the diversifying of interests of the high school population. Not only will a majority of these addi- tional high school students not attend college but those who do will tend to scatter in. the types of work taken at college due to the recent develop- ment in higher education of the many new vocational schools, e. g., of business, of agriculture, of dentistry, of journalism, of forestry, etc. Naturally those who do not complete high school or who do not attend college will vary widely in interests, vocational and otherwise, as well a& in ability. DEVELOPMENTS IN ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY. It was thought for a long time that the development of young people through the period of adolescence was not a gradual process but that very important changes took place within a few months at junctures that could be marked out COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS in terms of the age of the child. Experimental and statistical study have made this theory almost untenable.* Recent investigation justifies the following conclusions: 1. Physical and physiological transition is much more nearly gradual than formerly supposed. 2. Mental development and changes do not necessarily parallel physical and physiological development and changes. 3. There is a wide variation among boys and among girls and between boys and girls as to the chronological age when development of adolescence begins and when it is complete. 4. There is no particular school grade at which changes may be said to take place but the period at which change seems to be most rapid corresponds to grades seven, eight and nine. DEMAND FOR ECONOMY OF TIME. School men in this country have within recent years taken cognizance of the fact that young people in the United States begin their secondary and higher education several years later in life than in other countries. It was with this condition in mind that President Eliot of Harvard in the early eighties pointed out the need for the reorganization of secondary education and pushing down- ward certain features of secondary education into the years commonly occupied with elementary education. It may be said that the junior high school movement received its original impetus from this criticism. It has been urged by many that too much time has been spent on elementary school subjects for the results secured. A number of important bodies, including the well-known committees of the National Society for the Study of Education, have been at work upon the economy of time in the elementary school. There exists now a distinct and widespread demand for the beginning of secondary school studies and methods in the seventh and eighth years. ELIMINATION AND RETARDATION. The results of the studies made by Ayers, Blan, Cornman, and others a decade ago were startling. They disclosed the fact that boys and girls in the United States attend school almost universally up to the sixth grade and from that grade on the leakage is enormous, more than 60 per cent being lost by the close of the ninth year. Many attempts have been made to determine the causes of this elimination. It becomes evident that it is impossible to determine these causes with any degree of exactness. In most instances withdrawal is due to a complexity of causes, the relative force of each of which it was impossible to determine. However, it is commonly believed by those studying the situation that very prominent among these causes is the maladjustment of school organization, courses of study, teaching corps, and methods of teaching to the pupils of the upper grades of the ele- mentary school and the lower grades of the high school. Much promi- nence has been given to the sharp transition from elementary school organizations, government, studies, teachers, and methods of teaching to high school organization, government, studies, teachers, and methods of teaching. That this gap between elementary school and high school is unfortunate and demands attention is evidenced by the large percentage of elimination at the close of the eighth year and during the ninth year. * See Inglis, J. A. : "Principles of Secondary Education," Chapters I and II. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS For example, in Oregon, a most fortunate state in this respect, the elimination at this period for the past few years has been between 30 and 40 per cent.* Here lies a serious problem for secondary education. LACK OF GUIDANCE. A very recent development but a very important one is the increased responsibility generally conceded the secondary school in the matter of guidance educational, moral, and vocational. Much personal grief and social waste has resulted from the lack of any machinery for making available to young people the advice and experi- ence of older people in the important choice of educational programs and life occupations. Responsibility for these matters has been slowly shift- ing from home to school and, simultaneously with the recognition of the tremendous consequence of the lack of guidance, the school is importuned to arrange for this new burden and opportunity. QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION. One of the most vulnerable spots in the work of the upper elementary grades and the high school and one which the junior high school is calculated to remedy very materially is the quality of the instruction during these years. Whatever may be the causes for this situation, the criticism is general and urgent as may be witnessed by opinions expressed by laymen and educators widely, vigorously, and frequently. The possibility of the junior high school as a goal to be realized in the near future is due in large part to the lack of confidence of people generally in educational results obtained during the years involved. PURPOSE OF THE BULLETIN Because of general dissatisfaction with conditions in secondary educa- cation as it is now organized and administered, because of the publicity the movement has received, and because of closely related building problems for which the junior high school has seemed a likely solution, this type of school has grown apace. Junior high schools and so-called junior high schools have sprung up over the country in large numbers. Because of the unwillingness of superintendents, school boards, or com- munities to initiate the necessary changes or vote the necessary financial support in their school systems, the reorganization in a very large number of cases has been but partial. Ambitious superintendents have permitted these partial reorganizations to be styled "junior high schools." This lack of uniformity has produced a situation in which the term "junior high school" may mean almost anything. Oregon has been no exception in this respect. Beginning about 1916, there has been a nation-wide effort to stand- ardize the junior high school sufficiently to permit classification. While it is neither possible nor desirable to set up inflexible standards, it is essential to the interests of the junior high school movement and its ideals that the public and the rank and file of the teaching profession do not judge the movement, its aims, and its possibilities by institutions * Statistics of enrollments in Oregon high schools issued recently from the office of the state superintendent of public instruction show an enrollment in second year English of 5,940 as against 8,964 for first year English. As both years of English are required in all Oregon high schools, these figures indicate an elimination of approximately 33 per cent during or at the end of the ninth year. 8 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS which are not junior high schools, though they may embody one or several of its features. Whether or not the institution or the movement may be the desired solution of the problems of secondary education for which it is offered it is very desirable that it be judged only through adequate examples of it. With the desire to be of service to the educational interests of the state and with the above considerations in mind, the state department of education wishes to submit this bulletin, hoping to provide by it sug- gestions for those interested in the establishing of junior high schools and definite standards by which such may be recognized in the state of Oregon. It is evident that in so brief a space a complete development of the material presented can not be included. There will be found ap- pended, however, a brief, selected bibliography touching upon various phases of the subject. Most of this material is easily accessible and those contemplating organization of junior high schools should familiarize themselves with no small portion of it. It should be emphasized that the junior high school idea involves a wide range of problems and an adequate understanding of the movement, its spirit and theory, and its technique, requires considerable study. II. AIMS AND PECULIAR FUNCTIONS OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL There are several considerations that must be kept in mind in any attempt to make a statement of the aims of the junior high school. In the first place it may be said that it has its ultimate aim, the aims of education in general and of secondary education in particular. Perhaps no better statement of these is to be had than may be found in the report of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education,* ap- pointed by the National Education Association, as follows: "Consequently education in a democracy, both within and without the school, should develop in each individual the Knowledge, interests, ideals, habits, and powers whereby he will find his place and use that place to shape both himself and society toward ever nobler ends." "The commission, therefore, regards the following as the main objectives of education : 1. Health ; 2. Command of fundamental processes ; 3. Worthy home membership ; 4. Vocation ; 5. Citizenship ; 6. Worthy use of leisure ; 7. Ethical character." It is naturally the aim of the junior high school to contribute the maximum to these aims and objectives. However, it is evident from an examination of the literature dealing with the reorganization of sec- ondary education that there are special functions that a junior high school resulting from reorganization should perform. These have partic- ular reference to the underlying causes for reorganization. While there is yet lacking a definite agreement as to what these functions may be in detail, the best practice and most reliable literature indicate the following: 1. To provide gradual and more certain transition from elementary to secondary education. * "Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education," pp. 9, 10. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 2. To explore and discover the abilities, interests and capacities, individual and common, of young people of the ages affected. 3. To provide for the more complete adjustment of educational materials and methods to the capacities, interests and abilities, individual and common, of these young people. 4. To create a more favorable educational environment for the devel- opment of social good will and effective social activity. IMPLICATIONS OF THE AIMS AND FUNCTIONS STATED ABOVE. Educational organization, materials of instruction, methods of instruc- tion and administration, material equipment, and instructional and super- visory personnel, all must be so chosen, organized, and administered in the junior high school as to contribute most heavily to its avowed aims and functions and to furnish the most satisfactory solutions to the problems out of which the demand for reorganization has arisen. The junior high school must function as a transition school. The courses of study must be so constructed as to provide for a gradual transition from elementary school studies to those of the secondary school. Methods of teaching, school organization, and school government must be such as will take the pupil as he comes from the sixth grade and gradually but completely acclimate him to conditions as he will find them in the senior high school. At the same time it is necessary to keep in mind the physical, intellectual, and emotional changes being undergone by the pupil. Ordinarily this means gradual introduction of depart- mentalization and of student participation in government, gradual in- crease of electives in the courses of study, the earlier and more gradual introduction of subjects hitherto taught as high school subjects, equip- ment and surroundings somewhat different from those of the elementary school, and contacts with teachers of the high school type and of both sexes. Exploration of aptitudes, capacities, and interests means first of all an enriched curriculum. It means the introduction of types of work not ordinarily found in the seventh and eighth grades of the elementary school prevocational work of a number of kinds, foreign language, and science. Most complete adjustment to these aptitudes, capacities, and interests necessitates not only an enriched curriculum but also the use of a plan for electives. It means organization so that progress may be made by gifted and slower pupils at rates commensurate with their abilities and interests. It means special progress classes and promotion by subject. It also means, without question, definite educational guidance. A junior high school properly conceived must take cognizance of the necessity for providing definite and effective means for developing in its pupils the spirit of social good will. It must train in effective social participation. Group projects of many types must be encouraged. Various forms of teams, athletic and intellectual, and various types of clubs for all sorts of helpful and harmless student activity must exist. Student participation in the management of the school as well as of student affairs should be permitted and directed. Methods of teaching must become more natural and social. 10 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS The successful performance of functions in the junior high school involves an adequate and suitable teaching and administrative staff, housing, and equipment. It involves specially adapted courses of study, methods of instruction, management, and government, and a new school spirit. It is hoped that a fairly definite development of these points appear in the following pages. III. ORGANIZATION GRADES INCLUDED THE THREE- YEAR SCHOOL. The most common organization of the junior high school has included grades seven, eight, and nine. However, a very considerable number of schools have organized with grades seven and eight, or six, seven, and eight, and various other combinations have been found. Of 743 junior high schools reported in the combined studies of Briggs, Davis, and Douglass, 327 or 54 per cent were of the 7-9 type, 281 or 37 per cent of the 7-8 type, with the remaining 19 per cent scattered over a variety of types. The form of organization in many of these cases where but grades 7-8 are included has been determined by local building situations or legal restrictions. In some cities where junior colleges have been established in connection with the senior high school, grades 7-10 inclusive have been included. However, general practice, where prohibitive conditions have not existed, has been to group together grades 7-9. For the purpose of securing homogeneity and to foster the function of safe and gradual transition by the reduction of the gap between grades eight and nine, this plan is to be preferred. That this view is held rather widely was shown in the study made by Briggs. Of 61 judges, 16 professors of education, 8 state superintendents of schools, 19 city superintendents, and 18 principals of junior high schools, 95.1 per cent approved com- bining grades 7-9, while but 19.7 per cent approved of combining merely grades 7 and 8. In this same study, 68.8 per cent favored the including of a "distinct educational unit" as an element in the definition of the junior high school. Approximately 86 per cent recommended a separation in organization from the elementary grades and almost as many urged a separation from the senior high school. THE Six- YEAR SECONDARY SCHOOL. It may be urged, however, that there are certain considerations of economy which make a combination junior-senior high school (grades 7-12 in two divisions of three years each) a very useful plan of organiza- tion for the smaller cities. The six-year plan is recommended for the consideration of all districts in Oregon other than those of the first class, where reorganization is planned. This plan of organization has been found satisfactory in a large number of school systems. Well-known examples are at Lewiston, Idaho; Evansville, Indiana; Rochester, Minne- sota; and the university high schools of the universities of Wisconsin and Oregon. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 11 The following arguments which for the smaller town have considerable force may be presented for the plan: . It permits of a common and more complete use of shops, laboratories, auditorium, library, and other rooms and equipment which are required for both schools and which would be idle a portion of the day when used by one school only. By the common use of such rooms and equipment not only can much duplication be avoided but it is likely that much better conveniences and facilities in these matters will be provided than could be provided by either of the, schools separately. b. The successful installation and operation of the junior high school demands a principal of much better training and natural ability than the smaller city is able to employ for a junior high school alone. It is suggested that by combining the administrative responsibility of the two schools in one adequately paid expert in high school administration, a much better type of leadership for both schools may be secured. c. The housing of the divisions of secondary education together operates to eliminate the break between the two divisions. It obviates the transfer by pupils at the end of the ninth year to a strange building, new teachers, and principal. rf. It is also possible under this plan to carry out a more complete depart- mentalization and to utilize heads of departments for both schools a distinct advantage in most instances to the junior high school. e. This plan is more likely to insure to the junior high school a quality of teaching equal to that in the senior high school since, to some extent at least, a common teaching staff is used. f. The plan is very well adapted to economizing time. It is much simpler and safer to spread a year saved over five years rather than over but three. That is, it is wiser to have students doing six years work in five than to have them doing three years work in two in either the junior or the senior high school. DEPARTMENTALIZATION One of the features most commonly, almost uniformly, incorporated in the organization of the junior high schools is the assignment of teachers by subjects. This, together with a separate housing unit, in many schools constitutes the "reorganization." That this is the case is unfortunate. These provisions are only two of many in a really reorganized school and it does not seem that they constitute the heart of the idea. In fact, there are some very plausible arguments against departmentalization. It is said that the personal relations between teacher and pupil are lost in departmental organization; that it creates difficulties and inflexibility in schedule making; that it is difficult for pupils to adjust to several teachers; that it tends to make teachers narrow specialists; that there is no assumed responsibility for such matters as penmanship, spelling, and matters of general control and discipline.* These are dangers that must be guarded against and the installation of departmentalization must be made with a view to preventing the miscarriage of the plan. It is especially desirable that departmentalization be introduced gradually, retaining somewhat of the personal relationship and sense of responsi- bility that characterizes the elementary school in the seventh grade by means of rollroom organization or special advisors and limited depart- mentalization. These features may, of course, be gradually removed as a transition measure. * The above and other arguments against departmentalization teaching, together with arguments for it, are given in Briggs, "The Junior High School," pp. 127-130. 12 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS In the University of Oregon high school, the "seventh grader" has two of his five daily classes with a teacher of arithmetic and geography, who is also advisor and rollroom teacher of this grade. This teacher is chosen with a view to placing with the grade a personality well adapted to the age of pupils found here, and one with experience in elementary school work of this grade. The room or grade solidarity is carefully encouraged during this year. In the eighth grade, a more complete depart- mentalization occurs, though the rollroom teacher and organization are retained. In the ninth year, complete departmentalization is under way, only the room organization being maintained. Thus, gradual transition in organization, spirit of discipline, teaching methods, and personal touch is effected. How this is done in the matter of the studies may be seen by an examination of the program of studies given elsewhere in this publication. The assignment of teachers to subjects should be done with care and judgment. Departmental assignments imply specialization. Teachers should be assigned to those subjects only in which they have specially prepared and in which their interests lie. No hard and fast rule may be laid down as to which subjects should be assigned to normal school graduates and which to college and university graduates. While it is likely that, in general, geography and arithmetic should be assigned to normal school graduates and that foreign languages, science, history, and social science should be assigned to college and university graduates, after all the matter must be settled in each individual case on the basis of special preparation and interest. THJE TEACHING LOAD A high quality of teaching can be expected only when a fair teaching load is assigned. What should constitute the teaching load in the junior high school? In the recent study of the junior high schools in Kansas, it was found that over 60 per cent of the academic teachers are teaching five periods of from forty to forty-five minutes each. It is very likely, however, that a larger number of schools are assigning six classes to each teacher than any other number. It is certain that accepted practice would not permit more. If there is to be professional teaching teaching on a higher level than mere lesson-hearing teachers must spend approxi- mately as much time in daily preparation as in teaching. A junior high school can be no stronger than the quality of the instruction given in it. SIZE OF CLASSES The North Central Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools recommends as a maximum twenty-five pupils to a class and sets up a standard for membership that th school have no recitation class enrolling more than thirty pupils. It is certain that a desirable quality of work can not be obtained more easily in the junior high school with large classes than in the four year high school. Because of the decreasing necessity for individual guidance, mass education becomes more prac- ticable with increase in age and maturity. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 13 IV. THE TEACHING STAFF No item is more essential to an effective junior high school than the selection of a suitable principal and staff of teachers. Briggs, Davis, Lewis, Bennett, Simonds, Gugle, and an overwhelming majority of college teachers of education and school superintendents who have given study to the junior high school movement, are positive in their statements regarding the necessity of placing in the junior high school a very high quality of teacher. It is on this score more than on any other that the junior high school has fallen short of its possibilities. In a large number of "junior high schools" the teaching force is made up very largely of elementary school teachers and, in some cases, is paid on the scale paid in the elementary school.* While the preparation of the junior high school teacher is an important consideration, it is even more necessary to secure the highest type of personality and natural ability that is available. With reference to managing ability and teaching craftsmanship, the junior high school teacher must be the peer of teachers anywhere in the school system. There is little doubt that this period in the life of children is a critical period, the stage of transition, the trying age, the years of grief to parent and to teacher. It is the period of most marked elimination from school, of truancy, of running away from home, of the beginning of juvenile crime ages twelve, thirteen, fourteen, and fifteen. An adequate teaching staff is the sine qua nan of a functioning junior high school. The values of all materials, organization, and equipment are dependent on the skill of the agent. We may approximate the junior high school idea with some one or two of the commonly accepted essentials lacking. There are objections to departmental teaching and to supervised study. In the smallest schools, promotion by subject is sometimes im- practical. But under no set of circumstances can one make a case for inferior teachers. In no school system where men and the better teachers are attracted to the senior high school can the junior high school be expected to realize its aims in the face of such competition. Teachers look with favor upon being assigned to higher grades and, even with equal salaries, it will require care to assure to the junior high school the expert teaching staff that is essential. If any differences in salaries are to be made, if some teachers must be paid lower salaries, discrimination should not be made against the corps of the junior high school. In districts where the most effective junior high schools are main- tained, the tendency is towards equal preparation and equal salaries for teachers in both high schools. PREPARATION There must be certain standards by which we decide what type of teacher or what qualifications or training are more desirable. The ideal preparation for the teacher in this new school is probably neither the usual normal school training nor the usual teachers' course in college. It has been said that better than either of the above types of preparation * This is not true at Los Angeles, St. Louis, Rochester, Cincinnati, Detroit, and of an increasing number of other cities where the junior high school is functioning effectively. 14 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS would be the two year normal school course followed by two years of college work leading to a degree. Perhaps just as well would be a four year course in a normal school which has collegiate strength in its academic departments or a four year course in the university where there is a well-developed department of education. The junior high school teacher prepared in this type of institution should have had more work in education than is now ordinarily taken by those preparing to teach in high schools. It is questionable whether all teachers in any one school should be educated in either the normal school or the college. Much better would be the plan of having, in the schools teachers prepared in each type of institution. Neither undue emphasis upon subject matter with a cor- responding minimizing of the child factor nor the reverse condition is then likely to obtain. Other things being equal, teachers should be selected who have had special training in secondary education, adolescent psychology, and special method courses in junior high school subjects. It is imperative that only teachers of adequate academic and pro- fessional preparation be permitted to teach in junior high schools, but even more important is it that the junior high school teacher become a specialist in her work, keeping constantly abreast of the times, studying developments in subject matter and teaching methods. In no section of public education is change being undergone on so thoroughgoing a scale or so rapidly, and the end is not yet. At the present time there are at work a number of committees of national scope and importance making detailed study of materials and njethods of high school teaching and administration. In consequence, one of the considerations to be kept in mind in selecting the teaching corps of the junior high school is the inclination and ability to master and keep abreast of development in the subject matter and methodology of the field in which the teacher is to teach. EXPERIENCE As indicated previously, the junior high school is no place for the young graduate to secure experience. If one division of secondary education is to be a recruiting or training vestibule for the other, the senior high school should be so used. The junior high school staff should have a large percentage of teachers of several years of successful experience. Just as it is not desirable for all members of the staff to have been prepared at either the normal school or at the college or university, so it is not to be recommended that all should have elementary school experi- ence, or that all have high school experience. There should be some teachers having had experience in each division. It would be splendid if all junior high school teachers could have had experience in both. Normal school graduates, particularly those having had experience in the ele- mentary school, probably should teach largely the work of the seventh and eighth grades, while college graduates of high school experience should be assigned in general to eighth and ninth grade children. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 15 V. HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT It can hardly be said that proper housing and equipment take rank with the teaching force and curriculum adjustment as essentials of the junior high school, yet many attempts at junior high schools have fallen short because of the lack of sufficiently favorable material for the plan to function. Boards of education and superintendents have too often thought of housing and equipment with elementary school standards and needs in mind. The building and equipment of the junior high school should be little inferior, if any, to that of the senior high school. It has been the practice in American public schools to erect large and beautiful high schools for the minority who continue through them and to house the larger number of students in the upper grades most of whom are at an age of educa- tional crisis and many of whom are receiving the last they shall ever receive in the way of school training in buildings designed and equipped for elementary education. Socializing activities and exercises have been all but impossible for the want of an auditorium. Textbook teaching has been relied upon as a sole means of education because of the lack of means of visual education and the inadequacy of library facilities. Science instruction has been confined to reading material. Manual training and household arts have been taught under discouraging circumstances. These conditions can not continue to obtain if we are to have genuine junior high schools. The junior high school building should contain specially designed rooms for manual and household arts, as well as laboratory facilities for general science on a par with the equipment provided for science classes in the senior high school. A minimum equipment for the smallest school in this respect would be not less than $250 or $300 and should be several times that amount. There should be a well-chosen library of books selected with the view of being usable as sources of material in instruction in civics, history, science, literature, geography, and English. Accepted library standards would indicate that an adequate library equipment would involve not less than 500 volumes chosen with reference to the work of the school, for even the smaller schools. This number should increase with the enroll- ment of the school, always exceeding a ratio of five volumes per student enrolled. These should include at least one standard encyclopedia, several copies of complete and modern atlases, and several copies of unabridged dictionaries. The library should be catalogued according to a standard system by a competent trained librarian. At least some supervision of the library should be given by such a person and in the larger schools a full-time librarian will be found economical and should be employed. The library room should be of sufficient size and equipped with seats so that entire class sections may be brought in from time to time. It should be located so as to adjoin the study hall and between the study halls if two of them are maintained. It should not be necessary for pupils to leave the study hall to obtain references or other books needed. The library should be furnished with adequate shelving, reading tables, magazine racks, and card catalogue.* * For complete discussions for standards see Report cf the Committee on Library Organization and Equipment. 16 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS The building should be built especially for junior high school purposes, or, if an old building is to be used, it should be remodeled to suit its new uses. In the larger cities the junior high school should be separately housed. In smaller localities it should be housed with the senior schools or on adjacent sites for reasons discussed elsewhere in this publication. Housing the junior high school in a building used also as an elementary school is rarely successful and should be done only in case of absolute necessity. In milder climates much is to be said in favor of the one-story building with no stairways for girls to climb and with the decreased fire risk. There should be an auditorium with a stage for dramatic productions, assemblies, and similar exercises. The seating capacity should be some- what in excess of the enrollment of the school. It should also be equipped with projection machine, screen, and means for completely dark- ening the room. Either in connection with the auditorium, or preferably as a separate room, there should be a gymnasium of sufficient size for games of volley ball, basket ball, and indoor baseball. In general, there should be borne in mind in the matter of housing and equipment certain considerations mentioned in connection with the teaching force of the junior high school. At no other period is the situation more critical, or does the teacher need more favorable setting and equipment. Especial care should be taken to so house and equip the school that the largest possible number of pupils may be retained in school through this period and the instruction may be most effective and valu- able, especially for those who are receiving their last formal school education. VI. THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES The junior high school may best be regarded as an institution for meeting the characteristic individual and social needs of early adolescence. It is peculiarly a transition school and, as such, is charged with the special responsibility of introducing boys and girls to new and richer fields of subject matter, of helping them to find their special powers and capacities, and of directing them wisely into the differentiated curricula of the senior high school, or, upon occasion, of preparing them for imme- diate entrance into vocations. The success of a junior high school in meeting adequately the needs of its constituency depends directly upon the extent to which these needs are recognized and provided for in the total school organization and particularly in the organization and administration of the program of studies. UNDERLYING STANDARDS AND PRINCIPLES The following standards for program, curricula, and courses represent the consensus of opinion of recognized authorities who are dealing with the reorganization of secondary education from the standpoint of both theory and practice. A. SCOPE OR CONTENT OF PROGRAM OF STUDIES. The program of studies should contain, within reasonable limits : 1. A continuation of the fundamentals of knowledge and skill necessary for intelligent participation in everyday life. This includes especially the speech and. language arts and mathematics. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 17 2. A large body of knowledge, ideals, and attitudes which must be possessed by all in common as the basis of cooperative membership in a democratic society. This makes for a certain desirable likemindedness and prevents the danger of "curriculum castes." Here are included literature, social science, and elementary science. 3. New and enriched courses which will open up to the adolescent the great fields of human achievement as found in languages, literature, history, science and invention, and the fine and applied arts. In this way only is it possible to reveal the major lines of thought and action in which the pupil must later find a place, and to insure experiences which will influence later leisure time activities. 4. Adequate provision for health, interesting physical exercise, and personal and social hygiene. 5. Occupational studies and some prevocational experience or vocational con- tacts. In the larger centers, a certain amount of vocational training is also necessary for specific groups. No subject matter should be included in any course which does not contribute to the educational objectives already mentioned. B. ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM OF STUDIES. The program of studies should be organized to provide: 1. That every pupil shall take certain subject matter constants, including the fundamentals and the common integrating courses mentioned in A, 1 and 2, and the health work and some of the occupational work in A, 4 and 5. 2. That every pupil have some contacts, if only for exploratory and testing purposes, with the fine or applied arts and with vocations. The extent of the latter will naturally be determined by the. nature of the community and the resources of the school. In industrial communities, early leaving groups may be given considerable preparation for vocations. 3. That at least by the last year of the junior high school the pupils may be separated into broadly differentiated curriculum groups, on the basis of their ascertained interests, abilities, and probable futures. 4. That there is sufficient flexibility in the program of individual students to permit the adjustment of work to their capacities. The weaker students should be considered to have completed the junior high school curriculum upon meeting specified minimum requirements. 5. That the more capable students may carry heavier programs, as through the addition of a foreign language in the seventh grade or an extra subject- in the ninth, thus earning credits to apply in the senior high school. 6. That the content and organization of courses in the first and last years of the junior high school articulate closely enough with the work of the sixth and tenth grades respectively to make the transition from school to school an easy one. C. ADMINISTRATION OF THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES. Efficiency and economy in achieving the ends of the junior high school through the administration of the program demand: 1. Non-academic entrance requirements for over-age pupils of the sixth grade. While the great majority of pupils complete this grade satisfactorily, admission to the seventh grade should not be denied to retarded pupils who are misfits in the lower grade and who may profit by the work of the junior high school. 2. Flexible promotion, as far as consistent with the resources of the school. This may be achieved by subject instead of^rade promotion or by advancing pupils as rapidly as they show ability to perform the work of the higher class or grade. 3. An evaluation in terms of senior high school credits of such work of advanced nature as may be done in the junior high school. This includes foreign language, and additional ninth grade subjects particularly, but may also include beginning science or comjnercial work. 4. Grouping of students with reference to powers, as in sections of a subject, or with respect to sex in such subjects as vocational study, hygiene, or science. 5. Opportunity for study of individual students, and for conference and guidance by teachers assigned these responsibilities. 6. Realization and practice, by supervisors and teachers, of the principle that the work of the junior high school is not only to secure definite results in knowl- edge and skill on the part of the pupils, but also to reveal to them the scope and richness of human achievement, and at the same time to determine their latent powers and aptitudes, that later choices and determinations may be wisely made. 18 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS The planning and operating a junior high school program of studies which will meet the above standards gives rise to many problems. Obviously, due to the individual characteristics of their communities, all schools will not meet these standards to the same extent. Schools in the smaller towns and villages will be limited in the range of courses offered, and in the organization and administration of these courses. Schools in the larger cities may offer more elective courses, especially of the voca- tional sort, and will have better opportunities for effective classification and promotion systems. It is also true that a small school with single section classes and with little flexibility in the program but with a staff who are enthusiastic over the possibilities of the reorganization movement will render better service to adolescents than will a larger school in which every condition is propitious, but in which the spirit of the junior high school is lacking. TYPICAL PROGRAMS Various practices in program building are illustrated in the following typical programs: Table I. PROGRAM RECOMMENDED FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS OP OHIO.* Grades Seven Eight Nine Required for all English 5 5 5 15 Social studies . 5 4 3 12 Elementary science 3 5 5 Mathematics 5 4 3 9 Physical education 2 2 2 ) ln Hygiene 2 2 2 ; 10 Occupational studies 5 10 10 Latin, French or Spanish Manual arts . 5 5 5 5 5 5 Household arts 5 5 5 Drawing 2 3 3 Music 1 1 1 2 Commercial 5 5 Normal periods per week 30 30 30 53 The above program is planned to give each pupil normally thirty class periods of work weekly, or thirty units yearly for three years, making a total of ninety units. (Unit meaning one recitation period per week throughout the year.) Twenty-five units yearly is the minimum for approval by the state department. Of the normal total of ninety units, fifty-three are required of all students, preferably at the specified times. (See bold type). By years, the required units are twenty, eighteen, and fifteen respectively, thus allowing progressively for individual choice and differentiation. The remaining thirty-seven are to be taken in optional subjects as indicated or in further work in the required subjects. Optional work is to be offered by various schools in accordance with their respective resources. The larger schools of Ohio have built up very effective programs around the suggested core, especially in Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Columbus. It should be noted that this program meets practically all the above standards regarding the program of studies. The same general plan is in vogue in Indiana. * The Junior High School, Ohio State Department of Education. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 19 Table 2. PROGRAM OF STUDIES FOR INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS OF DETROIT, IN GO-MINUTE HOURS OF INSTRUCTION PER WEEK.* - Seventh grade Eighth grade Ninth grade B A Gen'l Technical Com'l Gen'l Technical Com'l Boys Girls Boys Girls Health 5 5 5 4 3 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Social Science Mathematics 4 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 "2 2 General Science .... Auditorium .' Art and Design 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 2 1 1 5 1 1 .... 2 1 Foreign Language Cooking (Girls) 2 2 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 1 5 1 2 2 Sewing (Girls) Household Sci. (Girls) Shops (Boys) 3 1 5 1 1 1 6 2 1 1 \ 1 Mech. Drawing (Boys) Bookkeeping Business Practice 5 Statistics Typewriting 1 t Totals .. 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 An examination of the Detroit program shows a slightly different application of the standards. A large amount of subject matter in the traditional subjects and in music and art is given to all students in common. In the seventh grade all work is prescribed, covering a wide range of experiences. In the eighth grade broadly differentiated curricula are begun, each consisting of prescribed work, with no electives other than in vocational subjects. In addition to the program outlined, three years of work in an industrial curriculum are offered during grades seven, eight, and nine under provision of the Smith-Hughes law. Guidance of pupils into curriculum groups in the eighth grade is based upon work done in the seventh grade and upon studies of individual students by the educational and vocational counselor. The distribution of the pupil's time between health, social sciences, exact sciences, language, vocational work, and fine arts is especially good. A wide range of voca- tional work is offered in the shop and home economics curriculum, as is desirable in a large industrial city. * The Intermediate School in Detroit, p. 13. t Totals corrected for inclusion in column of both boys' and girls' special work. 20 Tables. TYPICAL PROGRAM FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS OP MASSACHUSETTS.* Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9 English 5 5 5 Library f 1 f 1 fl Social studies 5 L 5 {, 5 i< Mathematics f 3 f3 ra Science 5 [2 5 1.2 5 [2 Foreign language (" or 3 1" or 4 f or 4 Practical arts 3 or 6 or 2 or 6 or 2 or 6 or & Fine arts 10 2 10 2 or 4 10 or 2 or 4 Physical training 2 2 2 25 25 25 This program assumes twenty-five class periods per week for each pupil, and in addition a weekly assembly ^period, a weekly period for organizations, and daily setting-up exercises. The plan provides for constants and for some exploratory work by the student. Curricula are not differentiated but there is a modification of the work in mathematics to meet the needs of different groups, and there is much opportunity for choice in foreign language, practical arts, and fine arts. The above and other representative junior high school programs, illustrating somewhat varying applications of the principles of program making, have many suggestions for such schools in Oregon. The Ohio and Massachusetts manuals will repay careful reading and the bulletin of the University of Oregon high school has many points of interest, especially for those who are planning for schools in the smaller communities. On the basis of the principles enumerated in this section, and with due consideration of the needs of the various communities of the state, the following program of studies is proposed as a standard for junior high schools in Oregon. No attempt is made to embody the more radical departures in program making, nor to break away suddenly from the usual subject matter of the grades in question. Direct reference is made, however, to the aims and functions of education during the junior high school period, and it is urged that they be duly emphasized in administer- ing the proposed program. * Junior High School Manual, Massachusetts Department of Education, p. 25. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 21 SUGGESTED PROGRAM OF STUDIES FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN OREGON Min. per week of teaching No. of periods per week Length 45 inin. Length 60 min. REQUIRED English 180 150 150 120 120 180 130 130 150 110 110 6 5 5 4 3 4 3 3 5 2% 2% 24 27 5 4 4 3 2 3 ~ 2 2 4 2 2 19 21 History Mathematics Geography .... Physical Training *Prevocational LIMITED ELECTIVES (Choose one) Art .... Music ELECTIVES French Music Art (Constants . fRequired . EIGHTH GRADE Min. per week of teaching No. of periods per week Length 45 min. Length 60 min. REQUIRED English 150 150 150 150 100 150 90 130 130 180 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 4 20 23 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 3 16 18 History Mathematics Elementary Science Physical training LIMITED ELECTIVES (Choose one) French Business English . ELECTIVES Music Art * Pre vocational tConstants . -. . tRequired NINTH GRADE Min. per week of teaching No. of periods per week Length 45 min. Length 60 min. REQUIRED English 150 150 100 150 150 150 150 150 110 110 180 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2V 2 i* 10 20 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 2 3 10 20 Biology Physical Training LIMITED ELECTIVES (Choose one) European History Civics . ELECTIVES (One or two).... French Latin Mathematics Music Art * Pre vocational ^Constants tReauired . * Shop work for boys, household arts for girls, t Exclusive of physical training. 22 EXPLANATION OF PROGRAM. The program suggested is by no means a final one. It is planned with present conditions in Oregon in mind and it should be regarded rather as tentative and as a beginning in the direction of desirable changes. It must be subjected to later modifications as needed in accordance with progressive developments in the reorganization of secondary education. It is presented as a workable plan for cities and villages of Oregon which are interested in promoting the junior high school. In its simplest form, it can be carried out in many communities. It can also be expanded for schools in the larger cities, in order to meet the needs of special pupil groups. Certain features of the program as outlined are noteworthy. Briefly stated, they are: A large amount of integrating education in the form of constants or required subjects each year; exploratory courses; limited and free electives; continuous instruction in certain valuable "cores"; varying amount of work for pupils of unequal abilities; and slight dif- ferentiation of curricula. These features will become apparent in the following explanation of the work for each grade: Grade Seven. The constants for this year are English, history, mathe- matics, geography, physical training, and prevocational work. These, with one limited elective, either art or music, form the minimum for any normal pupil. More capable pupils may add the other limited elective, or French, or both, thus providing to an extent for varying capacities and interests. The first five of the required subjects are self-explanatory. The prevocational work is included because of the knowledge and skill devel- oped and because every pupil should have some contacts with elementary form of occupational life. It serves as an exploratory or "try out" course for many pupils. Every school should provide work in art and music. Some training in appreciation of art and music is an essential in any plan of complete education. The courses are exploratory for many pupils. French should be elected by the stronger students, especially those who wish to earn credit to apply toward senior high school graduation. Grade Eight. English, history, mathematics, elementary science, and physical education are the constants for this grade. Each pupil must also take one other subject, either French continued, or an additional course in English, e. g., business English. Word study is suggested as a possible substitute for business English. All pupils not taking French in the seventh grade, or who were found by trial to be unfitted for foreign language study, should be held for the English requirement. French must be continued through this year if any high school credit is to be awarded. One high school unit is allowed for the two years of French. The electives for this year are art, music, and prevocational work. All pupils who showed ability in the "try out" courses in the preceding year should be encouraged to elect one or more of these courses in the eighth grade. Some schools may desire to offer additional electives, which will meet other needs of special groups, e. g., those who will likely leave school before high school graduation. Little differentiation is provided in the seventh and eighth grades, as these two years are particularly valuable for integrating and exploratory courses which all pupils should have. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 23 Grade Nine. Three constants are presented for this grade; namely, English, biology, and physical training. Each pupil will also select one subject in the social science field, choosing either history of Europe or economic and vocational civics, and will add one or more subjects from the list of free electives. Economic and vocational civics is offered as a very desirable course for those who do not anticipate completion of the senior high school. The electives suggested for this year are French (third year), Latin (beginning), mathematics,* prevocational work, art, and music. Others may be added according to the needs of the school, or the amount of work in the prevocational course or in art or music may be increased. No strictly vocational work is suggested for the ninth grade. Experi- ence has shown that the vocational value of "vocational" subjects below the tenth grade is not sufficient to warrant the giving of such courses. It may be desirable in some cases, of course, to make special provisions for mature but retarded pupils who obviously will soon leave the school. This excellent service, however, ordinarily can be provided only in the larger cities. At the end of the ninth grade, the normal pupil will have completed cycles of three years each in English, social sciences, and geography and natural science. He will have had two or three years in mathematics, and will have had some prevocational contacts, as well as some work in the field of aesthetics. The stronger pupils will have had additional work in French or in other elective subjects. Each pupil will have had oppor- tunities to become acquainted with various fields of subject matter and to determine somewhat his special interests and powers. Pupil groups will be but slightly differentiated, yet all should be in position to make intelligent elections among the various curricula of the senior high school. As indicated above, all junior high schools need not confine their offerings strictly to the suggested program. While the required subjects shoiAl be included as indicated, and the principle of limited electives shdtfld be observed, some schools will wish to extend the electives, or to rovide more definitely for special groups, and others may not find it e to offer all the indicated electives. The characteristics of the individual communities will obviously determine the extent of these variations. * If correlated mathematics is offered during the three years, this subject must be required in the ninth grade. 24 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS THE PROGRAM BY SUBJECTS ENGLISH English in the junior high school should be so taught as to result in increased accuracy, fluency, and effectiveness in writing and speaking, which includes correct grammatical form and spelling, increased vocab- ulary, and much practice in writing and speaking. It should above all instil the desire to speak and write correct and effective English. It should without fail serve to instil the desire to read stories and books which are harmless, inspiring, and informational. It should give an acquaintance with the best authors, English and American, past and present, particularly the latter, who have written material suitable for the junior high school age. SEVENTH GRADE. Grammar and composition (one-half) Text. Oral and Written English, Book II, Potter, Jeschke and Gillette. Ginn & Co. First semester, chapters I, II, III, and IV. Second semester, chapters V and VI. Literature (one-half) Class study of several short stories, one or two longer prose narra- tives or narrative poems, Lamb's Tales or one simple drama, and a number of short memory units, chiefly poems or selections. Outside reading for harmless enjoyment of short stories and books involving natural history, invention, biography, travel, light adven- ture, and newspapers. Individual differences in interests and abilities must be recognized here. EIGHTH GRADE. Grammar and composition (three- fifths) Text : Oral and Written English, Book II, Potter, Jeschke and Gillette. Ginn & Co. First semester, chapters VII, VIII, and IX. Second semester, chapters X and XII. Literature (two-fifths) Reading in class of such stories as Poe's detective tales and of patriotic material, including Kale's "The Man Without a Country," Andrew's "The Perfect Tribute," and "The Gettysburg Speech." As a part of such reading, memory work of a patriotic character is done, e. g., "Breathes There a Man," "Captain! My Captain!" and Stedman's "Abraham Lincoln." For more concentrated work, one of Scott's long narrative poems and one Shakespearian drama suited to junior interests, e. g., Midsummer Night's Dream, or Merchant of Venice, are used. Outside reading for harmless enjoyment should be given attention. NINTH GRADE. Grammar and composition (two-thirds) Text: Sentence and Th^me, Ward. Scott, Forrsman & Co. Selected material omitting portions less likely to function, e. g., abstract distinctions among verbals. Literature (one- third) Introduction to structure in connection with the short story, using any good selection of standard short stories, Julius Caesar, a Scott narrative poem, or the novel Ivanhoe. Continued outside reading for harmless enjoyment. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 25 HISTORY AND SOCIAL SCIENCE Teachers of history in the junior high school should keep in mind, in addition to the more obvious purposes of history the acquiring of information concerning and appreciation of the past the necessity of training pupils in methods of studying history, of developing desirable attitudes toward human welfare and the institutions of society, and the desirability of teaching history somewhat as a general social science, emphasizing correlations with and between present and past political, sociological and economic problems and situations. SEVENTH GRADE. United States History Text : History of the American People, Beard and Bagley. The Macmillan Company. Chapters 1 to 22 inclusive. EIGHTH GRADE. United States History First semester Text : History of the American People, completed. Civics Second semester Text: Community Civics, Hughes. Allyn & Bacon. (See State Course of Study for Elementary Grades.) Completed. NINTH GRADE. Two alternative years of work: A. History Text : History of Europe, Ancient and Mediaeval, Breasted and Robinson. Ginn & Co. Completed. B. Elementary Social Science Text : Economic Civics, Hughes. Allyn & Bacon. Completed. First semester. Vocational Civics, Giles. Macmillan Co. Completed. Second semester. Supplementary readings for vocational civics: Boys 1. Starting in Life, Fowler. 2. How to Get and How to Keep a Job, Fowler. 3. Profitable Vocations for Boys, Weaver. 4. The Exceptional Employee, Marden. 5. Choosing a Career, Marden. 6. Occupations, Gowin & Wheatley. Girls 1. The Girl Who Earns Her Own Living, Richardson. 2. Profitable Vocations for Girls, Weaver. 3. Occupations for Girls, Laselle & Wiley. MATHEMATICS Two plans for mathematics in the junior high school may be followed. PLAN I CORRELATED MATHEMATICS. The most prominent tendencies in junior high school mathematics seem very clearly to be:* 1. To correlate and interrelate arithmetic, algebra, intuitive geometry, and the simplest phases of trigonometry and statistics. 2. To place the most difficult phases of arithmetic and those best adapted to maturity of mind and interest, e. g., taxes, insurance, banking, later in the course of study than heretofore. * See "Curricula and Method in Junior High School Mathematics," Schorling, Raleigh and Clark, J. R., The Mathematics Teacher, May, 1921. 26 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS 3. To introduce the formal mechanical phases of algebra as early as the seventh grade. 4. To emphasize the practical .application of mathematics to home, play, business, government, farm and industry. The following course is planned with the above considerations in mind : SEVENTH GRADE. Text : Junior High School Mathematics, Lindquist. Scribners. Book I. Completed. EIGHTH GRADE. Text : Junior High School Mathematics, Lindquist. Scribners. Book II. Completed. NINTH GRADE. Text : Junior High School Mathematics, Lindquist. Scribners. Book III. Completed. (27 weeks) Review of algebra. (9 weeks) PLAN II. The alternative plan is that outlined in the state elementary course of study in arithmetic for the seventh and eighth grades, and in algebra for the first year of high school. SEVENTH GRADE. Text : Essentials of Arithmetic, Hamilton. American Book Co. Chapters III and IV. EIGHTH GRADE. Text : Essentials of Arithmetic, Hamilton. American Book Co. Chapters V and VI. Omit pages 313-331 ; 384-393. NINTH GRADE. Text : General Mathematics, Schorling and Reeve. Ginn & Co. Minimum : Chapters 1 to 16 inclusive. Where Plan I is used, all three years of mathematics should be re- quired. Under Plan II only the first two years should be required of all students. GEOGRAPHY The year of geography should complete the two-year cycle begun in the sixth grade. It is recommended that the state course of study for elemen- tary schools for seventh-grade geography be followed, or approximated. Text: Advanced Geography, McMurry and Parkins. The Macmillan Co. First semester, complete Parts II, III, and IV, to eastern Europe. Second semester, complete text with review of geography of Oregon. SCIENCE The natural science of the junior high school should be organized and taught with reference to human problems, the solution of which involve the material of science. Data from the various sciences physics, geog- raphy, biology, bacteriology, astronomy, geology, chemistry should be available in books and from experimentation and should be introduced in this year. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 27 EIGHTH GRADE. Elementary Science Text : The Science of Everyday Life, Van Buskirk & Smith. Houghton Mifflin Company. First semester, Part I. Second semester, Part II. Valuable collateral references : Everyday Science, Snyder. American Book Co. Elementary General Science, Hodgdon. Hinds, Hayden and Eldridge. Introduction to the Study of Science, Smith & Jewett. The Mac- millan Company. Science of Home and Community, Trafton. The Macmillan Com- pany. NINTH GRADE. Biology Text : Civic Biology, Hunter. American Book Co. Completed as out- lined in Course of Study for High Schools of Oregon, p. 77. Collateral references : Civic Biology, Hodge and Dawson. Ginn & Co. Elementary Biology, Gruenberg. Ginn & Co. FRENCH SEVENTH GRADE. First semester Text : Mes Premiers pas en Francais. D. C. Heath Co. Twenty-five lessons, using modified direct methods, based on text and appendix. Present tenses of regular conjugations as avoir, etre, aller, venir, faire, vouloir, and pouvoir. Second semester Complete text. Dictation and composition. Indicative tenses of all regular verbs and about twenty-five most common irregular verbs. Verb notebook suggested. Supplementary reader : Capus, Pour charmer nos petits. D. C. Heath & Co. Outside readings from selected primers and stories. EIGHTH GRADE. Text: Chardenal's Complete French Course. Allyn & Bacon. 1920 edition. First semester Lessons 1-75. Grammar with verb review and study based on text. Composition and dictation. Full verb paradigms for regular and auxiliary verbs, and fifteen irregular verbs. Supplementary reader : Contes et Legendes, Guerber. American Book Co. Reading as basis for conversation. Selected outside reading. Second semester Complete Chardenal and read Contes et Legendes, Part 2, or His- toire de France, Lavisse. D. C. Heath Co. Additional work with verbs and outside reading, composition and dictation continued. NINTH GRADE. Through review of grammar, conversation, and composition. Selected readings such as: French Life, Allen & Schoell. Henry Holt. Histoire de la France, Lavisse. D. C. Heath. La France Nouvelle, Talbot. Benj. Sanborn. Bruno Le Tour de la France. Allyn & Bacon. Stories from Malot, Mairet, Lemaitre, Bement. 28 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS LATIN NINTH GRADE. First semester Text : Elementary Latin, Smith. Allyn & Bacon. Lessons 1-53 Minimum,. 1-47. Second semester Complete and review text. Supplementary reading from Reynold's Latin Reader. D. C. Heath Co. Outside reading for advanced pupils from selected list. PREVOCATIONAL SHOP WORK The shop work of the junior high school should, with possible excep- tions already noted (see Explanation of Program of Studies), be pre- dominantly prevocational in nature. It should seek to give the pupils considerable skill in the manipulation of tools and of materials, acquaint them with the nature and possibilities of various vocations, and, of greatest importance, give them opportunities to develop interests and explore their aptitudes or inaptitudes for various types of industrial work. The plan for prevocational work outlined in the State Course of Study for High Schools (pages 97-101) should be followed, with such modifica- tions as may be demanded by the smaller time-allotment for this work. The general or "composite" shop which is demanded for projects in pre- vocational work gives many more opportunities for exploration through practical experience than does the single type shop which is generally in vogue, and meets the varied needs of junior high school pupils much more satisfactorily. The equipment for the several types of work offered need not be elaborate, but should be adequate for simple projects, and should represent the significant processes in each occupation studied. SEVENTH GRADE. Since shop work is required in this grade only, the pupils should complete projects in four or more types of work selected from the state course and representative of the industrial interests of the community, spending from six to nine weeks on each type. Drawing, woodwork, printing, sheet metal work, electrical repair and installation, wood turning, painting, and machine shop are desirable types. In certain localities, work in elementary practical agriculture may well be included. Special efforts should be made during this grade to give the pupils as many practical experiences as possible, to arouse their interests in occupations, and to help them to find their special vocational abilities. EIGHTH AND NINTH GRADES. While shop work is elective in these grades, if the "sampling" of the preceding grade has been carefully handled, a large number of pupils should continue with shop projects. During these years, the pupils will become familiar with such additional types of work as may be offered, and should work for longer periods and more intensively upon their projects. Any students who manifest special aptitudes for certain types of work, or who will undoubtedly become wage earners on the completion of the junior high school, should be given opportunities for shop practice in- addition to the number of hours indicated above. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 29 HOUSEHOLD ARTS The work in household arts should be planned for two classes of girls. Courses in sewing or cooking should be begun not later than the seventh grade for the benefit of those girls who will not remain much longer in school and for the encouragement of those whose talents are obviously not in the direction of "book" subjects. It must also be so taught as to be usable as a foundation for further courses in home economics for those who continue into the senior high school. The first class of girls particularly should be encouraged to complete the three- year cycle in household arts in the junior high school. SEVENTH GRADE. Sewing. The work of the first year should be chiefly elementary sewing with opportunities for occasional projects in choice of food, cook- ing, and serving. The course mapped out for the first year in household arts as it appears in the Course of Study for High Schools of Oregon (pp. 118-119) may be easily modified and adapted for this year. EIGHTH GRADE. Food Preparation. Because of the large amount of dropping out through the seventh and ninth grades, some work in food preparation and purchasing should be given not later than the eighth grade. The purpose of this course should not be so much the development of skill in actual preparation of food as the teaching of the simpler principles underlying food selection and purchasing, and of menu-planning. Preservation of foods should >be taught. The economic and hygienic phases should be emphasized, at least, equally, with the technique of cooking. The latter can be left with less danger to home teaching and practice. Serving should also be taught. Suitable topics may be selected from the first- year course in household service outlined in the Course of Study for High Schools of Oregon (pp. 106-109). NINTH GRADE. Housewifery. The course outlined for housewifery in the Course of Study for High Schools of Oregon (p. 110) lends itself admirably to this year's work. Supplementary projects in cooking or sewing may also be provided. In schools organized on the junior high school plan, the elementary cycle in home economics given in the junior high school will be followed by a cycle of more intensive and advanced courses in the senior high school. ART AND MUSIC Until courses of study in art and music are worked out with special reference to the junior high school, the courses of study as outlined for these subjects in the Course of Study for the Elementary Grades of Oregon may be followed in the seventh and eighth grades. SEVENTH GRADE. As all pupils are expected to elect either art or music in the seventh grade, the work for this year should be planned largely for exploratory purposes, attempting to discover pupil abilities as well as to arouse 30 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS interest in the given field, although the technique of production and habits of enjoyment must not be omitted. In the art classes, as far as possible, projects should be undertaken in the main fields of art, repre- sentation, design, and applied art, with emphasis upon the latter, as in weaving, pottery, linoleum printing, commercial poster work, and the like. Much attention should be given to developing an appreciation of good art in pictures, sculpture, or wherever art may be found. Acquaintance with the masterpieces should be sought. In music, in addition to group singing or other types of musical production, considerable attention should be given to developing apprecia- tion of the best music. The reproducing machine becomes a very valuable aid in this work. It should be remembered that while some children may eventually become producers of art or music all should become consumers of good art and good music. Education for culture, education for leisure, educa- tion for citizenship depend materially upon the development of apprecia- tion of a common, integrating, and intrinsically valuable culture. EIGHTH AND NINTH GRADES. The art work should continue, in an advanced form, the representative projects of the seventh grade. More attention may be given to technique, and a wider range may be offered. The major part of the instruction in music in these grades, and even in the seventh grade also, may be carried on through the various musical organizations glee clubs, orches- tra, or band. All seventh-grade students who show interest or ability along the lines of art or music should be strongly encouraged to continue work in these fields through the eighth and ninth grades. PHYSICAL EDUCATION The work in physical education should be of at least two sorts. 1. A number of short periods of "loosening up" exercises scattered through the day to reduce fatigue of body and attention. These may be given during the class hour in the classroom either by the regular classroom teacher or by the instructor in physical education. 2. Formal gymnasium periods in which (a) pupils are examined for possible defects or tendencies toward defects, and in which prescribed corrective work is administered according to individual needs; (b) pupils having no such defects or tendencies may be given floor and other work calculated to make for health, carriage and poise, and to provide wholesome pleasure. Play of all rational types, including teams on a modest basis, should be provided for, encouraged, and directed. Group games and mass competition should be encouraged. Free medical and physical examination should be provided on a voluntary basis as a means of discovering eye, ear, nose, throat, teeth, skin, and other defects and diseases which may be more easily corrected or arrested at this time than later. Particular care should be taken to carefully safeguard the health of girls through this period. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 31 VII. ADMINISTRATION OF THE PROGRAM THE DAILY SCHEDULE The approximate number of minutes per week allotted for purposes of recitation and assignment or for activities other than quiet study is given above for each subject in each grade. Two plans for securing these apportionments are suggested and the minimum number of periods required weekly under each plan is indicated for each subject. The first plan is based upon a school day of eight periods of forty-five minutes gross time each. The second plan requires six daily periods of sixty minutes gross time each. Both plans contemplate the use of considerable class time for study, as explained below. The eight-period day has the advantage of greater flexibility in scheduling; the six-period day permits more attention to directed study. Under the first plan, the pupil carrying only the required work will have, exclusive of physical education, a minimum of twenty-seven class periods in the seventh grade, twenty-three or twenty-five in the eighth, and twenty in the ninth. As no preparation is required in physical training, prevocational work, art, or music, and in other subjects, part of the class period time is reserved for study, the normal pupil should find it necessary to do little home study, particularly in grades seven and eight. This plan presents no serious difficulties in scheduling, if the teaching staff is adequate for the needs of the school. Less desirable, although possible, is the use of a forty-minute period. The number of periods weekly for each subject will remain the same as under the forty-five minute period plan, except that periods for art and music should be increased sufficiently to insure the provision of the indicated' number of minutes weekly in these subjects through the year. More home study also becomes necessary. The use of class periods of less than forty minutes gross time is not desirable except in extreme cases, as a short period will almost invariably result in the usual stereo- typed "lesson learning" type of class exercise. The study hall also pre- sents a more serious problem when the number of periods is increased and the period length decreased. Using a six-period plan will increase the emphasis upon effective study, and will tend to reduce the size and number of study-hall groups. The required work, exclusive of physical education, will be about twenty- one hours in the seventh grade, eighteen in the eighth, and twenty in the ninth. The problems of scheduling the suggested program in a six- period day are somewhat more difficult than in the first plan, but by alternating classes which meet two or three times a w^ek, or by using split periods for art and music, the schedule can be made effective. Another possibility is that of meeting the physical training requirements largely or entirely by means of short exercise periods scattered through the day. Slight deviations from the hours indicated are permissible, providing the average minutes per week for class work indicated for each subject are secured. The hour period permits much more effective direction of study, as discussed below and is recommended for that reason. As under the first plan, little home study is necessary for pupils who carry only the required work in grades seven and eight. 32 ' COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS One or the other of the above plans for the daily schedule will meet the needs of the usual junior high school, and it is strongly urged that one be adopted. When the exigencies of the local situation demand, how- ever, modifications of the above may be permitted. The first considera- tion in determining the number and length of periods in such cases is to secure the average number of minutes of net time per week which must be provided for each subject in actual class discussion and assignment. The second is to insure as much time as possible for study in school under supervision, preferably that of the class teacher. DIVISION OF TIME DURING THE CLASS PERIOD Assuming that a class period of forty- five minutes or more is provided, the question arises as to the best distribution of time between study and other activities. It is probably not advisable to make any arbitrary division, religiously observed by all teachers, as the very nature of the learning process forbids. Vital problems do not always arise at a fixed point in each class period, nor do all class undertakings require the same time for completion. Flexibility in the use of the period is desirable. When w6"rk in history, geography, or science is organized in large units instead of piece- meal fashion, a whole period or even more may be profitably spent in reading, observation, collecting data or experimenting. On other occasions a period may be required for reporting on a group study, analyzing data, and drawing and testing conclusions. In either case the work would suffer from a rigid division of the period. On the other hand, many smaller units can be developed and completed within the limits of a period each. On the average, however, from a third to a half of total class time may be used in study, the teacher being the best judge as to the apportionment on a given day*. Obviously a teacher may revert to the "recitation" plan of using the period, monopolizing the time with oral quizzing, and depriving the pupils of the opportunity for constructive work. To prevent this occur- rence, to preserve the vital nature of instruction, and to help each teacher make such adjustment of time as will secure the maximum results in her subject becomes the special responsibility of the supervising principal. ADMISSION Admission to the junior high school will normally depend upon the completion by tke pupil of the work of the first six grades. Pupils who have met this requirement will usually constitute the chief part of the junior high school student body. On the other hand, in accordance with the special functions of the school, it will not be advisable to deny entrance to any student who is likely to profit by such admission. The Committee on the Reorganization of Secondary Education recommends that the junior high school "admit and provide suitable instruction for all pupils who are in any respect so mature that they would derive more benefit from the secondary school than from the elementary school."* This recommendation is being * Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, page 19. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 33 followed quite generally. Briggs found that 60 per cent of 250 junior high schools reporting had established other conditions for admission than the completion of grade six. These conditions took into account such factors as the maturity, the age, the size, or the individual needs of the pupil, or his probable abilities. The junior high schools of Massa- chusetts are urged to admit "practically all pupils who are thirteen years of age and have intelligence quotients of eighty or more"f and similar policies are in evidence throughout the country. In behalf of such irregular admissions it may be urged that the elimination of over-age pupils simplifies the problem of control and instruction in the lower grades ; that a mastery of all the work of the elementary school is not always necessary for success in the junior high school; that the physiologically mature pupils find a better social adjust- ment in the junior high school than in the grades below; that in the interests of the pupil and of the state and the community, work adapted to the special needs of retarded pupils who will very probably soon leave school should take precedence over continued drill in elementary school subjects, and that more interest, better work, and longer stay in school are secured by such admissions. Varying provisions may be made for pupils who are admitted on non- academic conditions, depending upon the facilities of the school. The simplest arrangement is to permit such pupils to carry less than the normal amount of work, in accordance with their abilities. It is fre- quently reported that pupils who were misfits in the lower grades, on promotion, soon demonstrated their ability to carry the regular work of the junior high school. Other possibilities are the provision of special subjects or classes, permitting the pupil to take a large amount of work in prevocational subjects, or arranging for special attention and coaching. PROMOTION The average pupil will complete the required work of one grade each year, and at the end of three years will advance to the senior high school. Certain variations from the customary grade promotion plan are neces- sary, however, in order to carry out the special purposes of the junior high school. These variations can best be explained in connection with the requirements of each grade. Seventh-grade pupils should do creditable work in English, history, geography, and arithmetic to earn full promotion. The prevocational work and the limited elective must be carried throughout the year, but since these are largely "try out" courses, the pupil will not be expected to repeat the work in case of poor achievement. The same holds true for French and for the elective work in art or music, except that a pupil may be permitted to drop an elective without penalty after a fair attempt has shown him to be unable to handle the work. Physical training is required throughout the three years, but without bearing upon promotion. In the eighth grade, subjects necessary for full promotion are English, history, mathematics, elementary science, and the limited elective, French or business English. The same conditions obtain regarding the free electives as in grade seven. t Junior High School Manual, Massachusetts Department of Education, page 12. 34 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS Completion of the ninth grade and promotion to the senior high school requires satisfactory work in English, biology, one social study and one elective, a total of four full-time subjects. The practice of advancing pupils by grades rather than by subjects has undoubtedly led to much unnecessary repetition of subjects and has materially increased the cost of instruction. An inflexible promotion system often causes loss of interest on the part of the retarded pupil, leading all too frequently to further failure and consequent elimination. It also prevents the more capable pupil from advancing 'as rapidly as his best interests demand, and thereby fails to secure his maximum efforts. While few pupils, if any, should complete the junior high school in less than three years, it is imperative that measures be taken to insure as nearly normal progress for every pupil as he is capable of making. This can be secured by a flexible promotion system which will not penalize any student too heavily for failure. Such a promotion system implies: 1. That a pupil, who has completed the work in a subject in one grade, shall be promoted to the next grade in that subject. 2. That when an overage pupil has secured from a subject all that he is capable of assimilating he shall be advanced to the next higher grade in that subject. 3. That a pupil shall be advanced from one grade to another in a given subject at any time during the year when such transfer seems to be demanded for the best interests of the individual. The need for flexible promotion is commonly admitted. Seventy-four per cent of Briggs' judges found subject promotion necessary and 93 per cent considered it either necessary or advisable for the junior high school. That it is not more commonly employed is due to the difficulties in programming which it occasions. The larger schools can obviously go much farther in making such adjustments than can the smaller schools, yet almost every school can make some provisions for promotion by subject. It is recommended also that promotion by subject should permit students who have been promoted to tenth-grade work in one or more subjects to transfer to the senior high school, where sections of ninth- grade subjects must be given. In systems where the six-year secondary school is in operation, the latter provision becomes unnecessary. HOMOGENEOUS GROUPING The program of studies and the general plan of instruction suggested in this bulletin afford many opportunities for adjusting work to meet the individual needs and capacities of pupils as fast as these are ascer- tained. The more easily administered plans deal with the amount of work and with the grouping of pupils. The amount of work accomplished by individual pupils may be varied in two ways. First, the more able pupils may carry more than the required number of hours, and second, the requirements within the class may be adapted to the power of the pupil. While the pupil will not shorten the time spent in the junior high school by carrying more than the required subjects in grades seven and eight, it should be the policy of the school to urge pupils to add electives enough to keep them fully occupied. The pupils should be led to feel that the electives are really FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 35 an ^opportunity for them to secure greater values from the school, and the idea of more rather than of less work should be promulgated. It is expected that a considerable portion of the more promising pupils, especially those who anticipate college entrance, will elect French. If this general plan is carried out, there will be quite a little variation in the amount of work undertaken by different pupils each year. The best students should carry nearly the maximum, while the poor students will carry only the required work, and others will range between. Adaptation of the work to the abilities of the pupils may be furthered by using a system of basic and supplementary assignments in many classes. This plan demands the mastery of the fundamentals by each student. In addition, each is encouraged to do as much supplementary work as he can, in the form of additional problems, readings, or investiga- tions. The success of the plan depends upon the teacher's skill in establishing the right pupil attitudes toward the work. The assembling of a large number of young people in the junior high school permits a more effective grouping of pupils on the basis of abilities than is possible in the smaller grade schools. The achievement records of pupils in the lower grades are usually available, and may be reinforced with the judgments of teachers and the results of standard educational and intelligence tests. On the basis of such data, very satis- factory classifications may be made, and homogeneous groups formed in various subjects. These groups will progress at varying rates, and will cover differing amounts of work, due precautions being taken that the fundamentals are secured by all. Another special provision which may be made is the segregating of sexes for instruction in other subjects than physical training and pre- vocational work. Experience shows that such separation of boys and girls may be effective in subjects involving emotional reactions, as art, music, or literature, and a number of schools have attempted segregation in science, mathematics, or even in all subjects. Some variations may be made in the programs of individual pupils in accordance with their special interests, although no sharp separation of curricula is planned even for the ninth grade. The limited electives and the free electives make it possible to emphasize certain interests of the pupil, as in art, music, prevocational work, language, and the like. Large junior high schools may extend these possibilities by adding approved electives. It is planned that the pupils will have sufficient contact with various fields of subject matter in the junior high school to enable them to make intelligent selections from the more sharply defined curricula of the senior high school. 36 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS VIII. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION Although good teaching should by no means be limited to the junior high school, it must be peculiarly characteristic of this organization. The successful carrying out of the functions of the junior high school depends largely upon the extent to which teachers can be led to employ methods of instruction and of control which are in harmony with the purposes of the institution and which are adapted to the particular needs and interests of boys and girls of early adolescence. The im- portance of skillful instruction is paramount. This point can hardly be over-emphasized. Teaching in the upper grades of the usual 8-4 plan is commonly unfavorably criticized because of the emphasis placed upon memory processes, as in drills and reviews in preparing pupils for examinations, and because of the accompanying failure to develop interest, initiative, and power in productive work. More specifically, it is charged that assignments of work are perfunctory and without motive, that the pupils' study is consequently purposeless and ineffective, often carried on un~der unfavorable conditions at home or school, and that too much of the class period is occupied by the teacher in quizzing on poorly-prepared lessons, rather than in real teaching. 1. PURPOSES OF TEACHING In the junior high school, these weaknesses must be eliminated. The teacher must firmly believe that pupils can and should engage in their school work with purposes and enthusiasms approximating those in life outside the school. It is the teacher's first responsibility to develop such purposes and interests. This places the emphasis upon forward-looking, constructive teaching rather than on "lesson hearing." The next respon- sibility of the teacher is for the development of the power of effective work, either individual or cooperative, by the pupils, so that they may achieve the desired results in knowledge and skill most directly and economically, with increasing independence and self reliance. At the same time, new interests must be created, former interests broadened and developed, and desires aroused in the pupil for further study or achieve- ment. Finally, there must be a continual effort to discover the special powers and capacities of each individual pupil, to provide opportunities for the development and utilization of such abilities in connection with class work, and to capitalize them in guiding the pupil into further lines of profitable endeavor. 2. DIRECTED LEARNING It is very doubtful whether any one type of teaching can safely be recommended for all teachers and for all subjects. The special methods used will naturally vary with the experience and skill of the teacher, the age and advancement of the pupils, the nature of the subject taught, and the facilities at hand in way of library or laboratory equipment. Never- theless, there are certain fundamentals of good teaching set forth in modern psychological and educational discussions and demonstrated in the best teaching practice which must be observed in any effective method. The general plan for class procedure which best exemplifies these fundamentals and which promises to contribute most effectively to the FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 37 purposes of education during the junior high school period is that which provides for directed learning within the classroom. A brief account of the main features of this type of class procedure follows. Needless to state, those phases of work will not all be of equal importance each day, but they must form the basis for all class or individual progress. The plan for directing learning seeks the development of power by the pupil rather than the accumulation of knowledge, and intelligent purposeful study rather than much reciting of relatively meaningless material. The teacher who directs learning regards the class as a co- operative group with many interests, purposes, and experiences in common. Her task is to see that, either collectively or individually, the pupils engage in such activities and have such experiences as will produce the maximum development of their abilities and insure their control of the necessary elements of subject matter. a. Using the experiences and interests of the class as a point of departure, by skillful question or suggestion, she helps the class to locate and define points of common interest, the next step to be taken, as it were, in the progress of their work, whether it be a matter of acquiring information, solving a problem, carrying out an experiment, developing a skill, enjoying an experience, or producing some result of an objective sort. She further attempts to regulate the situation in such a fashion that each student will really make the class purpose, or an essential part of it, his own, instead of accepting it as an arbitrary assignment. The greatest demands upon the teacher's skill are made during this phase of learning, yet upon the genuineness of the needs, motives, or purposes which she establishes will depend the vitality of the ensuing procedures. 6. Next comes a consideration of the method by which the desired results are to be attained, and a definite placing of responsibilities. The teacher's part consists in suggesting and directing, seeing that the plan of work is satisfactory, that difficulties are anticipated, and that each pupil understands clearly what is to be done,, how it is to be done, and just what his own part is. The complete assignment should usually be restated by pupils or teacher, and there is much to recommend having .the pupils' record in small notebooks, kept for this purpose, all assign- ments for study outside of class. Following this plan, the teacher has abundant opportunities for shaping the pupils' habits of thought in locating problems and in deciding how to attack them, or, in other words, for developing the beginning of a scientific method. c. If the long class period is in use, as has been urged, the prepara- tion of the new work may be largely completed in class, under the im- mediate direction of the teacher. This is particularly desirable for the seventh-grade classes, which should have no home study further than may be required in general reading, collecting materials, or making ap- plications of principles already learned. In this, way, learning will be fostered under most propitious conditions, and effective study habits given considerable emphasis. In the eighth and ninth grades, some home study may be necessary, but even in these grades greater efficiency will be secured by having a considerable portion of the preparation completed under supervision. The requirement for home study should not exceed one hour daily for the eighth grade and one and one-half hours for the ninth. The technique of directing study is discussed under the caption, "Improving Methods of Study." 65244 38 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS d. The concluding phase of the unit of work is the reporting, dis- cussing, and judging the results of study. This may come at the end of the period, at the beginning of the next class meeting, or may even form an accompaniment of acts of study in which observation and experience furnish much of the data. In the usual textbook method, the "recitation" or oral testing has occupied the major part of the class period. As directed learning gives first place to intelligent study, it thereby reduces to a minimum the time taken for testing of individual pupils by the teacher. It is highly desirable that the pupils be given much responsi- bility in this final phase of the work. Data must be evaluated, evidence weighed, and conclusions drawn and tested. In case of acquisition of skills or habits or association forming, performances may be measured against objective standards. The point is that each pupil must become his own critic, or, in case of a cooperative undertaking in which an individual contributes a part, the worth of the contribution should be judged by the groups. When the pupils thus bring their work to a logical conclusion, oral or written testing by the teacher will be necessary only to spur on the less active students, to insure completeness in work, or to meet administrative requirements for grading. The thoughtful teacher will perceive the difference between the type of instruction here presented and the usual "recitation" and will note the significance of each step in relation to the general purposes and functions of the junior high school. In her own practice she should strive to set up class situations which will challenge the interest of the pupils, make them conscious of real needs to be met, questions to be answered, or problems to be solved. In this way only will the pupil come into his own as the chief factor in the learning process. The essentials of directed learning may be summed up as follows : a. Intelligent purposing of action by the pupils, on the basis of real needs or interests. b. Planning by the pupils of methods' of procedure, resulting in clear-cut, effective assignments. c. Preparation of work as far as possible during the class period, insuring satisfactory study habits, and needed individual attention. d. Forming conclusions and evaluating results largely by the pupils themselves. SOCIALIZED RECITATION The plan for directed learning presented above immediately suggests many possibilities for utilizing the various cooperative and social impulses of young people in the classroom. In fact, there is considerable evidence to show that cooperative work is more effective than strictly individual efforts. In almost any subject, the class may be organized on the co- operative plan, as with student chairmen, secretary, and program com- mittee. The students can and will accept much responsibility for planning the work, making assignments, and carrying on discussions, always under the general oversight of the teacher. A class exercise conducted by the pupils themselves in the form of a business meeting gives excellent training in sharing responsibilities and in exercising tact and judgment. When student initiative and cooperation are thus emphasized, the exercise is commonly known as a "socialized recitation." The implication regarding other class exercises carried by this term is significant. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 39 PROJECT TEACHING In the hands of the skillful teacher, the plan for directed learning leads definitely into project teaching. In fact, the distinction between the two methods is primarily a matter of degree rather than of kind. Discussions of project teaching by Kilpatrick, Charters, Hosic, Steven- son, and others lay much stress upon the importance of helping pupils to work at undertakings which are of real significance to them and which are the outgrowths of activities, curiosities, interests, and desires which are normal for the pupils in question. The undertakings are to originate and to be carried to completion under as nearly natural condi- tions as possible. The keynote is found in the purposing by the indi- vidual or by the group, and the regulation of later action in terms of this purpose. Whether school situations can be set up which will lead pupils into all desirable fields of subject matter, or to acquire all needed habits and skills, remains to be seen. Certainly, all will agree upon the desirability of more real, whole-hearted work by the pupils, and the teacher is con- tinually challenged to produce in her classes an approximation to the realities outside of school. Projects undertaken by junior high school pupils may be either indi- vidual or group affairs, and will vary widely in purpose and in time needed for completion. For the teacher the special technique is found in securing the proper initiation of projects and in so organizing and direct- ing activities that essential values are secured by each pupil. Many val- uable suggestions on project teaching may be found in recent literature. LIBRARY METHOD Just as natural sciences may be studied most effectively through much contact with nature itself, usually under the experimental conditions of the laboratory, so social sciences may frequently be pursued to advantage through the use of much more extensive reference and source material than is given in the usual textbook. A well-equipped library is an indispensable feature of the junior high school. The library should be so arranged as to accommodate an entire class engaged in reference work at one time, and classes should fre- quently visit the library in the course of their undertakings. Consider- able time may be spent profitably in collecting data on questions of historic, social, civic, or scientific importance, in consulting and com- paring authorities, and in arriving at conclusions. Incidentally, training may be given in library usage as well as in note taking, briefing, and evaluating data, and additional interest is given to the work. This plan is really an integral part of directing learning. Marked similarity will be noticed between the above methods. They are by no means mutually exclusive, although each has some special point of emphasis. A thorough knowledge and control of each by the junior high school teacher is strongly urged. IMPROVING METHODS OF STUDY The common complaint of the high schools and colleges that pupils come to them not knowing how to work, together with the results of 40 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS investigations into pupils' study habits, has led to a general recognition of the need for more attention to methods of study. Two obvious gains have resulted: first, the developing of a body of facts and principles regarding effective study; and, second, the administrative provision of longer periods so that pupils may work under the direct oversight of the teacher. Both of these gains must be included in the junior high school. The desirability of a period of from forty-five to sixty minutes has already been indicated. On the average, one-half the total class time will normally be spent in definite assignment and study. The achievement of the class during this work period will be determined primarily by the success of the teacher during the earlier part of the period in helping them to find and clearly define points of attack and to plan methods of procedure. Additional instruction and training should be given, however, in forming many elementary work habits such as vigorous attack, concen- tration, finishing the task on time, checking results, testing one's self, and the like, and in the handling of various kinds of reference materials, outlining, and keeping notes. Instruction sheets on how to study, to be pasted in notebooks and discussed from time to time, have frequently been valuable. While the class are studying under her direction, the teacher should give individual suggestions as necessary, always with the purpose of helping the pupil to work up to his capacity and to become independent and self reliant. For the work outside the regular class periods, the pupil should be encouraged to plan and observe a study program, and he should be instructed regarding the physical conditions for good mental work. The interest and assistance of the parents should be enlisted wherever possible in providing suitable conditions for home study and in developing regular study habits in the child. It is not unreasonable to demand that the pupil show a steady increase in efficiency in study as he progresses through the junior high school. To achieve this result, there is demanded a gradual transition in method through these years. In the seventh grade the teacher will naturally be a large factor in directing the activities of the class period, in anticipating difficulties, and in giving suggestions. As the pupil advances through the school, the teacher should throw him more and more upon his own resources, giving greater scope for self reliance, so that by the end of the junior high school course he will have developed confidence and power, enabling him to carry on much inde- pendent study in school or at home, thus preparing him for the require- ments of the senior high school. VISUAL INSTRUCTION Many phases of the pupils' environment, such as earth forms, plant and animal life, industrial and commercial processes, institutions, and the like, can be studied to best advantage through first-hand contact. Almost every community affords opportunities for objective study in connection with some school subjects, either by means of class excursions, or through visits and reports by small groups of students. That these opportunities are not better realized in American schools is to be regretted. The possi- bilities for enriching instruction, insuring live interest, correct impres- sions, and clear thinking are great indeed. The class visit to local points FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 41 of interest, under the direction of pupil leaders, affords a valuable social training, while the student who reports upon his individual visits or investigations has a real message and a receptive audience. In many instances, however, such study of real objects or processes can not be carried on directly and the pupils must secure their ideas from the printed page, the spoken work, or from visual' representation. The rapidly developing possibilities for visual instruction through slides, films, or projected material should be utilized by the teacher at this point. Slides and films are now available upon many subjects pertaining to geography, history, civics, sciences, vocational subjects, literature, and even foreign language.* Through the use of such materials in teaching, more vivid impressions are secured, more nearly correct ideas are formed, and retention is aided. Excellent opportunities for oral composition are found in describing the persons, events, scenes, or processes which are portrayed. The pupils' interest is increased by such instruction, frequently giving an added incentive to further study. Every school needs a machine for slides, films, and projection of pictures, maps, charts, and tables. Collections of visual materials for all subjects should be made by librarian, teachers, and pupils. These mate- rials, properly catalogued and placed at the disposal of the classes, become a very definite aid to effective instruction. * Information on available film and slide service may be secured from the Extension Division of the University of Oregon. 42 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS IX. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL 1. PURPOSE- The junior high school, dealing as it does with boys and girls at an age where social impulses are becoming powerful factors, has an excellent opportunity for training pupils for effective participation in later com- munity relations. Education is secured not only from class instruction but also from every phase of school activity. The whole organization of the school, and the methods of control should, therefore, be planned to insure the most effective training to the youthful participants, as well as to secure administrative efficiency. The junior high school must make the transition from the carefully controlled conditions of the elementary school to the greater freedom of the senior high school. It must develop a feeling of individual responsi- bility and increasing power of self-direction. The spirit of the school is expressed in direction rather than in domination of the pupils. 2. METHODS Three aspects of the socializing process in the junior high school need attention; namely, socialization through participation in the control and direction of the school community organization, through instructional or classroom processes, and through organized extra-curricular activities. The possibilities along these lines are suggested by the following account from a school in which such a program has been in effect for some years : * "1. In carrying on the general administration of the school, student cooperation (in government) is desired rather than a student 'self- government.' The attempt is made to develop the consciousness of both individual and group responsibility through having pupils face these responsibilities continuously, as members of the 'school community.' The school is organized on the rollroom basis, each room selecting a chairman and a monitor each semester. The chairmen are ex officio members of the school council, the president, vice-president, secretary and treasurer of the council being elected at regular school elections. The rollroom chairmen take charge of the rooms for parliamentary drills, elections, or special programs, and appoint rollroom committees. The council, under the direction of the social science instructor, handles matters of general school interest, apportions school funds to various enterprises, and takes charge of social affairs and other public enterprises. The president of the school community is chairman and manager of school assemblies, which consist in large part of programs given by the students, featuring debate, reading, music, dramatics, or other exercises growing out of the class work. Through taking part in the different phases of school organization, many students are given valuable training throughout the year, since they learn to plan, to direct, or to follow, and are continually impressed with the idea of their responsibilities to the school community. "2. The same idea of stimulating all students rather than a few especially capable ones to take an active part in group situations is also * University High School Bulletin, pages 9-11. FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS ; 43 emphasized in the classrooms. Classes are frequently organized for problem studies, plans made and assignments made largely by the pupils, who enter into the spirit of the work in a wholesome manner. In the English and history classes, debates or special programs are frequently arranged, or classes cooperate in working out lectures to accompany selected sets of slides, each pupil having certain assigned parts. Drama- tization in the English and foreign language classes and the appeal to special interests in other classes, as science, have resulted in some excel- lent work in oral English. The fact that the best work of this type is selected for repetition in general assembly stimulates the maximum of effort and creates a spirit of good-natured rivalry between the Various English and foreign language classes. On two mornings each week short periods are given to rollroom exercises concerned partly with current events but chiefly with matters of immediate school interest, the pupils taking the initiative in reporting and discussing events and tendencies that affect the school. "3. Other opportunities to further the socialization program are found in the non-academic activities of the school. A limited number of school parties are given during the year, the responsibilities for planning and directing the various features being given to appointed committees, who have done excellent work in making each affair a success. A large number of students are members of the glee club which renders special music at school assemblies and renders a school operetta some time during the year. All are encouraged to join some form of directed play activities, such as baseball or basketball teams, which are formed chiefly for intra- mural games. The Girls' Reserve and the Boy Scouts are well represented, the former organization being directed chiefly through the school." 44 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS X. TENTATIVE MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN ORGEON I. THE ORGANIZATION A. A separate unit of grades seven, eight, and nine, or B. A three-year division of a six-year high school, such division to com- prise grades seven, eight, and nine. C. Class periods not less than forty minutes each. D. Teachers assigned in general on the departmental plan. E. The enrollment of sections averaging not to exceed twenty-five and no section containing more than thirty pupils. F. The organization, administration, and supervision clearly indicating an effective plan for a gradual transition by pupils from elemen- tary school to high school methods; e. g., gradual introduction of departmental teaching, gradual removal of room teacher advisor- ship, etc. II. BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT A. An adequate and well-adapted building containing: 1. Auditorium seating not less than enrollment of school. 2. Gymnasium not less than thirty feet by fifty feet. 3. At least one science laboratory with running water and electricity. 4. At least one adequately furnished and equipped room for household art or science. 5. At least one shop adequately furnished and equipped for vocational or prevocational work. 6. Adequate housing and shelving for the library, either in the study hall or in an adjacent room. B. Equipment for effective teaching including: 1. Laboratory equipment intelligently selected and in such quantities that effective laboratory work in general science may be done. (The list for general science as set forth in the Official Directory issued by the State Department of Public Instruction should be the minimum equipment.) 2. An adequate library including : a. At least one recent standard encyclopedia International Brit- tanica, or Americana. b. One unabridged dictionary for every forty pupils enrolled, up to two hundred pupils. c. Adequate references for teaching the courses in (1) English, (2) history and civics, (3) science and geography. Not less than 150 well-selected volumes in each of the first two of the fore- going fields and 100 in the last, or less than one volume in each field for each pupil enrolled in classes in that field. 3. A standard projection lantern, with attachment for projecting from opaque materials ; a room and screen suitable for use of the same. III. TEACHING STAFF A. All teachers either graduates of accredited normal schools or teacher colleges or graduates of standard colleges or universities, and having taken courses in education to the extent of not less than fifteen semester hours or twenty-two term hours. (Until Septem- ber 1, 1925, this provision will not apply to teachers of more than five years' experience in grades six, seven, and eight, or in the high schools in this state.) FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 45 B. Not less than one-third nor more than two-thirds of teaching staff graduates of a four-year course. C. Not less than 25 per cent of the teaching staff composed of men. D. Junior high school teachers paid on the same salary schedule as teachers in the senior high school of the same preparation and experience; the average salaries paid teachers in the junior high school being within $150 of the average of the salaries paid in the senior high school, exclusive of principals. E. No teacher required to teach more than six classes daily. (Principals in schools of less than 200 pupils shall not teach more than 120 minutes daily, in schools from 200 to 500 pupils not more than sixty to ninety minutes daily. Principals of schools of more than 500 pupils should be free to give full time to supervision and administration. ) IV. INSTRUCTION A. Teaching methods showing definite and considerable effort to: 1. Direct and supervise the learning of pupils and to give training in good methods of study. 2. Make instruction concrete and real through illustration and application. 3. Determine the specific purposes for which the subject is taught and to adapt instruction to the securing of these purposes. 4. Provide for training in self direction in individual or group study by means of projects and study units. B. Some adequate means of homogeneous grouping to provide for indi- vidual differences of needs, interests, and abilities of pupils. V. PROGRAM OF STUDIES The program of studies outlined by the authority of the state superin- tendent ' of public instruction. Until further announcement, the program included in this manual to be accepted as a standard. VI. ADMISSIONS, PROMOTIONS, AND CREDITS A. Admission to the first year of the school of: 1. Any boy or girl who would be accepted in the seventh grades of standard Oregon graded schools. 2. Any b*oy or girl fourteen years of age or older, whether or not he or she has completed the sixth grade, who otherwise is eligible to attend the seventh grade and whose mental ability is not obviously below normal. B. Promotion by subject in all schools having in general more than one section of each class. C. A plan of crediting at par value for high school graduation all work taken in the ninth grade and of allowing one high school unit to those students who have passed in foreign language in the seventh and eighth grades. VII. SOCIALIZATION The operation, under favorable conditions, of a definite plan to provide desirable civic and social training ; e. g., through student participation in the organization and management of various phases of school life, including extra curricular activities. 46 COURSE OF STUDY AND STANDARDS XI. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY COMPREHENSIVE BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. Briggs, Thomas H. The Junior High School. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1920, 350 pp. X. Contains extensive bibliography. Davis, C. O. Principles and Plans for Reorganization of Secondary Education. 39 pp. Chapter IV in High School Education, Johnston, Chas. H. and others. Scribners, 1912, 551 pp. Detroit, Michigan, Board of Education. The Intermediate School in Detroit. The Detroit Educational Bulletin, December, 1921 (Bull. No. 6), 39 pp. Koos, Leonard V. The Junior High School. New York, Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920. Massachusetts Department of Education. Junior High School Manual. Bos- ton, 1921, No. 5. (Whole number 125.) 60 pp. Contains selected bibliography. North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. Proceedings of the Twenty-sixth Annual Meeting. C. O. Davis, Secretary, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 1921. pp. 75. Ohio Department of Education. The Junior High School, Manual of Require- ments and Suggestions. Columbus, Ohio. 1920, pp. 39. University of Oregon. University High School. Eugene, Oregon. University of Oregon Bulletin, May, 1921. (Vol. 18, No. 5, part 1, 32 pp.) SPECIAL REFERENCES ON TEACHERS AND INSTRUCTION. Bolenius, Emma J. The Teaching of Oral English. Philadelphia, J. B. Lip- pincott Company, 1914. Gosling, Thos. W. The Selection and Training of Teachers for Junior High Schools. Eighteenth Year Book of the National Society for the Study of Education, part 1, pp. 166-89. Hall-Quest, Alfred L. Supervised Study. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1916. Hosic, James F. Outline of the Problem-Project Method. The English Journal, 7:597-602. Kilpatrick, William H Project Method. The Use of the Purposeful Act in the Educative Process. New York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University. Teachers College Bulletin, 10th series, No. 3, 1918. MacGregor, Anne L. Supervised Study in English for Junior High Schools. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1921. Robbins, Charles L. The Socialized Recitation. Allyn and Bacon, 1920, pp. 100. Simpson, Mabel E. Supervised Study in American History. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1918, pp. 278. Stevenson, John A. The Project Method of Teaching. New York, The Mac- millan Company, 1921. U. S. Bureau of Education. Washington, D. C., Superintendent of Documents. The following bulletins : 1915, No. 23, The Teaching of Community Civics. 1916, No. 28, The Social Studies in Secondary Education. 1917, No. 2, Reorganization of English in the Secondary Schools. 1917, No. 49, Music in Secondary Schools. 1917, No. 50, Physical Education in Secondary Schools. 1917, No. 51, Moral Values in Secondary Education. 1918, No. 19, Vocational Guidance In Secondary Education. 1918, No. 35, Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education. 1920, No. 1, The Problem of Mathematics in Secondary Education. 1920, No. 26, Reorganization of Science in Secondary Schools. 1920, Secondary School Circular No. 6, Junior High School Mathematics. SPECIAL REFERENCES ON HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT. Douglass, Harl R. Housing the Junior High School. The American School Board Journal, January, 1921. Ittner, W. B. The Intermediate School. American School Board Journal, August, 1919. National Education Association and North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. Report of the Committee on Library Organization and Equipment. Chicago, American Library Association, 1920. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. . r _ 7 T RETURNED TO LIBRARY Form L9-17m-8,'55(B3339s4)444 THE LIBKAKV ^ DHIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS Lib) IB 1623 I - 005 592 937 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 000 997 678 8